[
  {
    "text": "B. Chandrasekaran K. Annadurai E. Somasundaram A T EXTBOOK O F AGRONOMY A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY B. Chandrasekaran K. Annadurai E. Somasundaram B.Sc., M.Sc. (Ag.), Ph.D. Director of Research Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore. B.Sc., M.Sc. (Ag.), Ph.D. Associate Professor of Agronomy Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute, Kumulur Tamil Nadu Agricultural University B.Sc., M.Sc. (Ag.), Ph.D. Associate Professor of Agronomy Agricultural Research Station Aliyarnagar, Tamil Nadu Copyright © 2010, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers All rights reserved. No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher. All inquiries should be emailed to rights@newagepublishers.com ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2859-9 PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110002 Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com Foreword Agronomy is a science that helps to feed the world. We can call the Agronomy as backbone of all agricultural sciences, because the management of soil and water, with a view to achieving the production potential of high yielding varieties, in green revolution, is exclusively an agronomic domain. It may not be appear as glamorous as nuclear science or atomic energy working miracles but like Ayurvedic medicines, it has the capacity to reach the poorer section of the society to bring out the desired results. Agronomists can be able to synthesise production practices from several fields of specialization. The problem of global food security remains unsolved. The increase in population means a growing demand for food in the world, whereas the essential factors in food production such as cultivated land and fresh water are decreasing continuously. Current trends on world agriculture shows that it",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "several fields of specialization. The problem of global food security remains unsolved. The increase in population means a growing demand for food in the world, whereas the essential factors in food production such as cultivated land and fresh water are decreasing continuously. Current trends on world agriculture shows that it is imperative to find a scientific and rational way to develop it, a way that can not only steadily increase the output but also ensure long term sustainable use of resources in the process of promoting agricultural development. At present, there are many comprehensive text books on Agronomy available but this is the book from which one can have at least overview of all aspects of Agronomy. It is clear that young students are suffering from cultural shocks to shift from their environment. Semester system of education of B.Sc.(Ag.), B.Sc.(Horti.), B.Sc.(Home Science), B.Sc.(Forestry) and B.Tech.(Ag. Engg), students are quite dynamic for which the students are to be helped for changeover. We can identify their difficulties for comprehensation of language, non-availability of textbooks for their semester system. There is a need to use simple language. The present book titled “A Text book of Agronomy” suite to the need of students. I am happy that the authors have made painful efforts to write this agronomy book. It covers a wide range of topics. In this connection, publication of the book “A Textbook of Agronomy” by Dr. B. Chandrasekaran, Dr. K. Annadurai and Dr. E. Somasundaram of TNAU, Coimbatore is quite appropriate and timely. I expect that both the students and teachers would benefit immensely from the book contents. In particular, I expect that this book containing 17 chapters covering comprehensively the content of all courses in Agronomy for undergraduate students of B.Sc. (Ag.), B.Tech (Agrl. Engg/FPE/EEE.), B.Sc.(Forestry), B.Sc.(Home Science) and B.Sc.(Horticulture) will",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "timely. I expect that both the students and teachers would benefit immensely from the book contents. In particular, I expect that this book containing 17 chapters covering comprehensively the content of all courses in Agronomy for undergraduate students of B.Sc. (Ag.), B.Tech (Agrl. Engg/FPE/EEE.), B.Sc.(Forestry), B.Sc.(Home Science) and B.Sc.(Horticulture) will be a valuable reference. The authors deserve commendation for their painful efforts and my congratulations to them. I am sure that the publication will prove to be a useful volume for students and teachers. C. RAMASAMY Former Vice-chancellor-TNAU Tamilnadu Agricultural University Coimbatore-641003 (INDIA) TAMILNADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY COIMBATORE 641 003, INDIA Dr.C.RAMASAMY, Ph.D. Vice-Chancellor Phone : 0422-431222 / 2431788 Res : 0422-2430887 Fax : 0422-2431672 Grams : Farmvar Email : vctnau@vsnl.com Preface “Everyone has inside of him or her, a piece of good news. The good news is, that you don’t know how great you can be!” — Dr. Abdul Kalam The challenges before the Agricultural Scientists of our country today are much more complex than even before. Food production has to be increased to 240 m.t. within the next five years. To achieve the massive target, very little scope and possibility exist in respect of horizontal expansion. Crop production and production technologies for the same are of utmost importance for successful and economic cultivation of field crops. Under these circumstances, important and relevant informations were collected and compiled in a book form titled “A Textbook of Agronomy”. This book is mainly intended for the agronomy courses of graduate students in the field of Agriculture, Horticulture, Home science, Forestry and Agricultural Engineering. It is clear that young students are suffering from cultural shocks to shift from their environment. Semester system of education of B.Sc.(Ag.), B.Sc.(Horti.), B.Sc.(Home Science), B.Sc.(Forestry) and B.Tech.(Ag. Engg.), students are quite dynamic for which the students are to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the field of Agriculture, Horticulture, Home science, Forestry and Agricultural Engineering. It is clear that young students are suffering from cultural shocks to shift from their environment. Semester system of education of B.Sc.(Ag.), B.Sc.(Horti.), B.Sc.(Home Science), B.Sc.(Forestry) and B.Tech.(Ag. Engg.), students are quite dynamic for which the students are to be helped for changeover. We can identify their difficulties for comprehensation of language, non-availability of textbooks for their semester system. There is a need to use simple language. The present book titled “A Text book of Agronomy” suite to the need of students. This book is written in simple understandable language dealing with various subject matters of agronomy. In general, the courses dealt to the graduate students are principles of agronomy, agricultural heritage of India, agricultural meteorology, principles of weed science, irrigation management, dry farming, agronomy of field crops and biofuel crops. This book has been prepared with a specific purpose of importing complete comprehensive information about agronomy and we hope that the students and readers will find this with much utility. We thank all the authors / publishers from which references were collected on various aspects of agronomical aspects. We are sure that this book will serve as valuable text cum reference book to the graduate students of agricultural universities. We profusely thank Dr. C. Ramasamy, Former Vice-Chancellor, TNAU for his encouragement and for providing Foreword. We thank Dr. SP. Palaniappan, Ph.D. (Illinois), FISA (Retd., Director and Dean (Agri.), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore) Natural Resource Consultant and Dr. S. Chelliah, Retd., Director of Research, TNAU, Coimbatore as a guiding force for our efforts. We thank profusely Dr. K. Alagusundaram, National Fellow (ICAR), Dr. P. Subbaian, Director (ABD) Coimbatore, Dr. S. Ramasamy, Professor (Agronomy), Dr. A. Velayutham, Professor (Agronomy), Dr. S. Sivasamy, Professor (Soil Science and Agricultural chemistry), Dr.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "S. Chelliah, Retd., Director of Research, TNAU, Coimbatore as a guiding force for our efforts. We thank profusely Dr. K. Alagusundaram, National Fellow (ICAR), Dr. P. Subbaian, Director (ABD) Coimbatore, Dr. S. Ramasamy, Professor (Agronomy), Dr. A. Velayutham, Professor (Agronomy), Dr. S. Sivasamy, Professor (Soil Science and Agricultural chemistry), Dr. N. Natarajan, Professor (Seed Science and Technology), Dr. C. Chinnusamy, Professor (Agronomy), Dr. Jeyanthi Chinnusamy, Professor (Agronomy), Dr. B.J. Pandian, Professor (Agronomy), Dr. M. Dakshinamoorthy, Professor (SS &AC), Dr. R. Jaganathan, Professor and Head (Agricultural Meteorology), Dr. A.Tajuddin, Professor and Head (FMP and Bioenergy), Kumulur, Dr. A. Arokiaraj, Professor of Agronomy (Retd.), Dr. P. Balasubramaniam Associate Professor (SS &AC), Kumulur, Dr. C.R. Chinnamuthu, Associate Professor (Agronomy). Dr. K. Sathiyamoorthi, Professor (Agronomy) and Dr. K. Rajamanickam, Professor and Head, CRS, Aliyasnagar and fellow scientists of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University for their critical comments and suggestions, encouragement and support. We thank Mrs. Kavitha and Mr. Ravikumar of AEC &RI, Kumulur for their sincere efforts in typing the manuscript. In spite of the best efforts, it is possible that some errors may have crept into the compilation. The readers are requested to kindly let us know the mistakes so that these could be taken care of in the further edition. Finally we thank our publishers for bringing out this book so efficiently and promptly. DR. B. CHANDRASEKARAN DR. K. ANNADURAI DR. E. SOMASUNDARAM viii PREFACE Contents Foreword v Preface vii 1. An Introduction to Agriculture and Agronomy 1 1.0 An Introduction to Agriculture 1 1.1 Scope of Agriculture in India 2 1.2 Branches of Agriculture 3 1.3 Development of Scientific Agriculture 4 1.3.1 History of Agriculture 5 1.3.2 Global Agriculture 6 1.4 Agriculture in National economy 12 1.5 Food Problem in India 15 1.6 An Introduction to Agronomy 18 1.6.1 Agronomist 19 1.7",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1 1.1 Scope of Agriculture in India 2 1.2 Branches of Agriculture 3 1.3 Development of Scientific Agriculture 4 1.3.1 History of Agriculture 5 1.3.2 Global Agriculture 6 1.4 Agriculture in National economy 12 1.5 Food Problem in India 15 1.6 An Introduction to Agronomy 18 1.6.1 Agronomist 19 1.7 Potential Productivity and Constraints in Crop Production 20 2. Agricultural Heritage of India 22 2.1 Pangaea, the Super-continent 23 2.1.1 Geography of India 27 2.1.2 Agriculture Heritage in India 29 2.2 Development of Human Culture 30 2.2.1 Genetic History of Modern Man 30 2.2.2 Development of Human Culture 31 2.3 Technological Civilization 34 2.4 Indus Civilization 41 2.4.1 Physical Data 41 2.4.2 River Migrations in Western India 43 2.4.3 Saraswati River Civilization 44 2.4.4 Status of Farmers in Southern India 54 2.4.5 Advice by Sages to Kings 56 2.4.6 Kautilya’s Arthasastra 56 2.5 Agriculture and Sangam Literature of Tamil 62 2.5.1 Sangam and its History 62 2.5.2 Tamil Literature—A Bird’s View 62 2.5.2 Agriculture 64 2.5.3 Astronomy 71 2.5.4 Prediction of Monsoon Rains 74 2.6 Almanac, Panchang and Krishi-Panchang 84 2.7 Methods of Rainfall Forecasts 87 2.8 Crops 88 2.9 Origin of Crop Plants 89 2.10 History of Rice 93 2.11 History of Wheat Cultivation 94 2.12 History of Sugarcane Cultivation 94 2.13 History of Cotton Cultivation 95 2.14 Crop Production in Ancient India 95 2.14.1 Seasons 96 2.15 Planting Time and Selection of Land for Different Crops (Kasyapa) 97 2.16 Land Preparation 97 2.17 Soil as a Basic Resource for Successful Crop Production (Kashyapa) 97 2.18 The Plough and Other Implements 98 2.19 Seed Collection and Preservation 99 2.20 Crop Diversity 99 2.21 Choice of Crops and Varieties 100 2.22 Rice Varieties–Other Aspects 100 2.23 Sequence of Cropping 100 2.24 Seed and Sowing 101 2.25 Weeds and Weeding 103",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for Successful Crop Production (Kashyapa) 97 2.18 The Plough and Other Implements 98 2.19 Seed Collection and Preservation 99 2.20 Crop Diversity 99 2.21 Choice of Crops and Varieties 100 2.22 Rice Varieties–Other Aspects 100 2.23 Sequence of Cropping 100 2.24 Seed and Sowing 101 2.25 Weeds and Weeding 103 2.26 Nutrient Management 103 2.27 Water Management 103 2.28 New Crops and Other Plants 104 2.29 Growth Promoters 104 2.30 Harvesting and Measuring Yields 105 2.31 Storage of Grains 105 2.32 Farming Systems 105 2.33 Soil Classification 107 2.34 Soil Types of India 108 2.35 Maintenance of Soil Productivity 110 2.36 Water Management 112 2.37 Plant Protection 119 2.38 Gardening in Ancient and Medieval Period 124 2.38.1 Arbori–Horticulture, Orchards, History and Diversity of Fruit Crops In India 126 2.38.2 Important Finds of Fruits from Archaeological Sites 129 2.38.3 The History of Gardening: A Timeline from Ancient Times to 1600 129 2.39 Vegetable Farming-Floriculture-Perfumes 130 X CONTENTS 2.39.1 Vegetable Farming 130 2.39.2 Floriculture in Ancient India 132 2.40 Perfumes 135 2.41 Medicinal Plants and Their Relevance Today 136 2.42 The Siddha System of Medicine 136 2.43 Role of Cattle and Other Domestic Animals 144 2.44 Description of Indian Civilization and Agriculture 153 2.44.1 Indus Valley Civilization 153 2.45 Our Journey in Agriculture 158 2.45.1 Vision for Agriculture in 2020 A.D. 163 3. Crops and Crop Production 168 3.1 Classification of Crops 168 3.1.1 Range of Cultivation 168 3.1.2 Place of Origin 168 3.1.3 Botanical/Taxonomical Classification 168 3.1.4 Commercial Classification 169 3.1.5 Economic/Agrarian/Agricultural Classification 169 3.1.6 Seasonal Classification 170 3.1.7 According to Ontogeny 170 3.1.8 According to Cultural Requirements of Crops 171 3.1.9 According to Important Uses 173 3.2 Crop adaptation and Distribution 174 3.2.1 Adaptation 174 3.2.2 Principles of Plant Distribution 174 3.2.3 Theories Governing Crop Adaptation and Distribution 175 3.2.4",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Economic/Agrarian/Agricultural Classification 169 3.1.6 Seasonal Classification 170 3.1.7 According to Ontogeny 170 3.1.8 According to Cultural Requirements of Crops 171 3.1.9 According to Important Uses 173 3.2 Crop adaptation and Distribution 174 3.2.1 Adaptation 174 3.2.2 Principles of Plant Distribution 174 3.2.3 Theories Governing Crop Adaptation and Distribution 175 3.2.4 Major Crops of Indian Sub-continent 175 3.2.5 Factors Governing Choice of Crop and Varieties 178 3.3 Intensive Cropping 179 3.3.1 Multiple Cropping 179 3.3.2 Intercropping 179 3.3.3 Multistoried Cropping 181 3.4 Crop Rotation 181 3.5 Cropping Patterns and Cropping Systems 182 3.6 Crop Production 185 3.6.1 Factors Affecting Crop Production 185 4. Agricultural Meteorology 200 4.1 Importance 200 4.2 Need and Scope 201 4.3 Climatology 202 4.4 Coordinates of India and Tamil Nadu 204 4.5 Atmosphere 204 4.6 Climate of India 208 CONTENTS xi 4.7 Clouds 210 4.8 Monsoon Rainfall Variability 213 4.9 Evaporation, Transpiration and Evapotranspiration 214 4.10 Hydrologic Cycle 216 4.11 Flood 217 4.12 Weather Aberrations 218 4.13 Agroclimatic Zones 220 4.14 Agroclimatic Normal 221 4.15 Weather Forecasting 223 4.16 Remote Sensing (RS) 228 4.17 Crop Weather Modeling 231 4.18 Climate Change and Variability 233 5. Soils 238 5.1 Soil Phases 238 5.1.1 Solid Phase 240 5.1.2 Liquid Phase 241 5.1.3 Gaseous Phase 241 5.2 Properties of Soil 241 5.2.1 Physical Properties of Soil 241 5.2.2 Soil/Irrigability Classification 250 5.2.3 Soil Water or Soil Moisture 253 5.3 Soil Classification 255 5.4 Major Soils of India 255 5.4.1 Alluvial Soils (Entisols, Inceptisols and Alfisols) 255 5.4.2 Black Soils (Entisols, Inceptisols, Vertisols) 256 5.4.3 Red Soils (Alfisols, Inceptisols, Ultisols) 256 5.4.4 Laterites and Lateritic Soils (Ultisols, Oxisols, Alfisols) 257 5.4.5 Desert Soils (Aridisols, Entisols) 257 5.4.6 Tarai Soils (Mollisols) 257 5.4.7 Saline and Sodic Soils (Aridisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols, Entisols, Vertisols) 257 5.4.8 Acid Soils 258 5.5 Major Soils of Southern",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Inceptisols, Vertisols) 256 5.4.3 Red Soils (Alfisols, Inceptisols, Ultisols) 256 5.4.4 Laterites and Lateritic Soils (Ultisols, Oxisols, Alfisols) 257 5.4.5 Desert Soils (Aridisols, Entisols) 257 5.4.6 Tarai Soils (Mollisols) 257 5.4.7 Saline and Sodic Soils (Aridisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols, Entisols, Vertisols) 257 5.4.8 Acid Soils 258 5.5 Major Soils of Southern India – Tamil Nadu 258 5.5.1 Black Soils or Vertisol 258 5.5.2 Laterite Soils 259 5.5.3 Alluvial Soils or Entisols 259 5.5.4 Peaty Soils 259 5.5.5 Problem Soils 259 5.5.6 Alfisols 259 5.5.7 Inceptisols 259 5.5.8 Ultisols 260 5.6 Problem Soils 260 5.6.1 Saline Soils 260 5.6.2 Alkali Soil (Sodic/Solonetz) 263 5.6.3 Saline-Alkali Soils 266 xii CONTENTS 5.7 Soil Productivity Constraints 267 5.7.1 Physical Constraints 267 5.7.2 Chemical Constraints 270 5.7.3 Soil Survey 276 6. Seasons and Systems of Farming 279 6.1 Seasons 279 6.1.1 Characteristics of Seasons 280 6.1.2 Crop-wise Seasons 280 6.1.3 Agronomic Concepts of the Growing Seasons 281 6.1.4 Effect of Season on Choice of Crops 282 6.2 Systems of Farming 283 7. Tillage 286 7.0 Definition 286 7.1 Characteristics of Good Tilth 286 7.2 Objectives 286 7.3 Types of Tilth 287 7.4 Types of Tillage 287 7.4.1 On Season Tillage 287 7.4.2 Off Season Tillage 288 7.4.3 Special Types 288 7.5 Factors Affecting (intensity and depth of) the Tillage Operations 289 7.6 Depth of Ploughing 289 7.7 Number of Ploughing 289 7.8 Time of Ploughing 290 7.9 Method of Ploughing 290 7.10 Modern Concepts of Tillage 290 7.10.1 Minimum Tillage 290 7.10.2 Zero Tillage/No Tillage/Chemical Tillage 291 7.10.3 Stubble Mulch Tillage or Stubble Mulch Farming 292 7.10.4 Conservation Tillage 292 7.11 Tillage Implements 292 7.11.1 Primary Tillage Implements 292 7.11.2 Secondary Tillage Implements 294 7.11.3 Inter Cultural Implements 296 7.11.4 Special Purpose Implements 297 8. Seeds and Sowing 300 8.1 Characteristics 300 8.2 Advantages of using",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "291 7.10.3 Stubble Mulch Tillage or Stubble Mulch Farming 292 7.10.4 Conservation Tillage 292 7.11 Tillage Implements 292 7.11.1 Primary Tillage Implements 292 7.11.2 Secondary Tillage Implements 294 7.11.3 Inter Cultural Implements 296 7.11.4 Special Purpose Implements 297 8. Seeds and Sowing 300 8.1 Characteristics 300 8.2 Advantages of using Good Quality Seeds 300 8.3 Seed Germination 301 8.4 Seed Rate 302 8.5 Seed Treatment 302 CONTENTS xiii 8.5.1 Methods of Seed Treatment 302 8.6 Sowing 302 8.6.1 Methods of Sowing 303 8.6.2 Factors Involved in Sowing Management 303 9. Plant Density and Crop Geometry 305 9.1 Importance 305 9.2 Factors Affecting Plant Density 305 9.3 Crop Geometry 306 9.4 After Cultivation 307 10. Weeds Science 308 10.1 Origin 308 10.2 Characteristics 308 10.3 Classification 311 10.3.1 Based on Morphology 311 10.3.2 Based on Life Span of Weeds 312 10.3.3 Based on Ecological Affinities 312 10.3.4 Based on Soil Type (Edaphic) 313 10.3.5 Based on Their Botanical Family 313 10.3.6 Based on Their Place of Occurrence 313 10.3.7 Based on Cotyledon Number 313 10.3.8 Based on Soil pH 313 10.3.9 Based on Origin 313 10.3.10 Based on Their Nature/on Specificity 313 10.3.11 Based on Nature of Stem 314 10.4 Weed Dissemination (dispersal of weeds) 315 10.5 Weed Ecology 315 10.6 Crop-Weed Interactions 318 10.7 Weed Control 322 10.8 Interaction of Herbicides with Moisture, Fertilizers, Bio-fertilizers, Insecticides and Fungicides 335 10.9 Integrated Weed Management (IWM) 337 10.10 Herbicide Mixtures 339 10.11 Herbicide Rotation 339 10.12 Herbicide Tolerance and Resistance 339 10.13 Herbicide Antidote 340 10.14 Safeners/Protectants 340 10.15 Adjuvants 340 10.16 Management of Herbicide Residues in Soil 341 11. Irrigation and Water Management 343 11.1 Importance of Water 343 11.2 Importance of Irrigation Management 344 xiv CONTENTS 11.2 Sources of Water 346 11.2.1 Surface Water 346 11.2.2 Sub Surface Water 347",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Herbicide Antidote 340 10.14 Safeners/Protectants 340 10.15 Adjuvants 340 10.16 Management of Herbicide Residues in Soil 341 11. Irrigation and Water Management 343 11.1 Importance of Water 343 11.2 Importance of Irrigation Management 344 xiv CONTENTS 11.2 Sources of Water 346 11.2.1 Surface Water 346 11.2.2 Sub Surface Water 347 11.3 History and Statistics 347 11.4 Crop Water Requirement 351 11.4.1 Evaporation 352 11.4.2 Transpiration 353 11.4.3 Evapotranspiration or Consumptive Use 353 11.4.4 Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) 353 11.5 Irrigation Requirement 358 11.6 Effective Rainfall 360 11.7 Methods of Irrigation 361 11.7.1 Factors Influencing Irrigation Methods 361 11.7.2 Classification of Irrigation Methods 362 11.8 Irrigation Systems 377 11.8.1 Gravity Irrigation 377 11.8.2 Tank Irrigation 377 11.8.3 Lift Irrigation 378 11.9 Measurement of Irrigation Water 378 11.9.1 Methods 378 11.10 Irrigation Scheduling 386 11.11 Irrigation Management 396 11.12 Estimation of Irrigation Efficiency 397 11.13 Irrigation Management Under Limited Water Supply 400 11.14 Water Management in Problem Soils 403 11.15 Management of Poor Quality Water for Irrigation 405 11.16 Drainage 407 11.17 Irrigation Management in Command Areas 411 11.18 Irrigation Management under Limited Water Supply 413 11.19 Water Relations of Soil 414 11.20 Movement of Water into Soils 414 11.20.1 Water Movement in Soil Profile 415 11.20.2 Water Movement in Unsaturated Condition 416 11.21 Water Vapour Movement 416 11.22 Soil Moisture Constants 417 11.22.1 Saturation 418 11.22.2 Field Capacity 418 11.22.3 Permanent Wilting Point 418 11.22.4 Available Soil Moisture 418 11.22.5 Moisture Equivalent 420 11.22.6 Hydraulic Conductivity 420 11.23 Estimation of Soil Moisture Constants 421 11.24 Moisture Extraction Pattern of Crops 422 11.25 Water Movement in Soil-Plant–Atmospheric System 423 11.26 Soil Moisture Estimation 426 CONTENTS xv 11.26.1 Estimation of Soil Moisture by Gravimetric Method 427 11.26.2 Resistance Block 428 11.27 Soil Moisture Stress 430 12. Nutrient Management 432 12.1 Classification of Essential Elements",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Constants 421 11.24 Moisture Extraction Pattern of Crops 422 11.25 Water Movement in Soil-Plant–Atmospheric System 423 11.26 Soil Moisture Estimation 426 CONTENTS xv 11.26.1 Estimation of Soil Moisture by Gravimetric Method 427 11.26.2 Resistance Block 428 11.27 Soil Moisture Stress 430 12. Nutrient Management 432 12.1 Classification of Essential Elements 433 12.1.1 Based on the Relative Quantity that is Normally Present in Plants 433 12.1.2 Based on Their Chemical Nature 433 12.1.3 Based on General Function 433 12.1.4 Based on the Mobility in Plants 433 12.2 Nutrients–Role, Deficiency, Method of Control and Toxicity 434 12.3 Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms 436 12.4 Organic Manures 437 12.4.1 Bulky Organic Manures 437 12.4.2 Concentrated Organic Manures 439 12.4.3 Green Manure and Green Leaf Manure 440 12.5 Fertilizers 443 12.5.1 Classification 443 12.6 Bio Fertilizers 446 12.7 Factors Affecting Manures and Fertilizers Use 448 12.8 Time of Application 449 12.8.1 Method of Application 449 12.9 Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) 450 13. Dry Land Agriculture 455 13.1 Introduction 455 13.2 Indian Agriculture-Scenario 457 13.3 Dry Farming in India 461 13.4 Aridity and Drought 469 13.5 Soil Moisture Constraints 474 13.5.1 Methods of Soil Moisture Conservation 475 13.6 Climatological Approach for Crop Planning 490 13.7 Soil Fertility Management under Dry Farming 495 13.8 Contingency Crop Planning for Different Aberrant Weather Situations 499 13.9 Resource Management for Sustainable Agriculture 501 13.10 Alternate Land Use System 504 13.11 Watershed Development 506 14. Harvesting and Post Harvest Technology 511 14.1 Harvesting 511 15. Agronomy of Field Crops and Biofuel Plants 520 15.1 Cereals–Major 520 xvi CONTENTS 15.2 Minor Cereals 552 15.3 Millets 557 15.4 Small/Minor Millets 570 15.5 Pulses 573 15.6 Oil Seed Crops 586 15.7 Oil Seeds–Minor 599 15.8 Sugar Crops 609 15.9 Narcotics 614 15.10 Fibre Crops–Major 618 15.11 Fibre Crops–Minor 624 15.12 Bio Fuel Plants 627 15.13",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "520 15.1 Cereals–Major 520 xvi CONTENTS 15.2 Minor Cereals 552 15.3 Millets 557 15.4 Small/Minor Millets 570 15.5 Pulses 573 15.6 Oil Seed Crops 586 15.7 Oil Seeds–Minor 599 15.8 Sugar Crops 609 15.9 Narcotics 614 15.10 Fibre Crops–Major 618 15.11 Fibre Crops–Minor 624 15.12 Bio Fuel Plants 627 15.13 Green Manures and Green Leaf Manures 632 15.14 Forage Crops and Grasses 650 15.14.1 Forage Crops 652 15.14.2 Pasture Management 662 15.14.3 Silage Making 665 16. Cropping System and Farming System 667 16.1 Cropping System 667 16.2 Efficient Cropping Zones 669 16.3 Major Cropping Systems 671 16.3 Types of Cropping Systems 674 16.3.1 Intercropping 675 16.3.2 Fallowing 679 16.4 Integrated Farming Systems 679 16.4.1 Present Research Thrust and Its Limitations 680 16.4.2 Definition 680 16.4.3 Development 681 16.4.4 Characteristics of an Improved Farming System 682 16.5 Models for Different Agro-Eco Systems 683 16.5.1 Integrated Farming System for Wet Land 683 16.5.2 Integrated Farming System for Irrigated Upland 687 16.5.3 Integrated Farming System for Dry Land 688 17. Sustainable Agriculture 690 17.1 Indian Agriculture Before the Green Revolution 691 17.2 The Green Revolution 691 17.2.1 Impact of Green Revolution on the Environment 692 17.3 Sustainable Agriculture 694 17.3.1 Role 695 17.3.2 Concepts and Basic Principles 696 17.3.3 Sustainability Through Farming Systems 699 17.4 Indices of Sustainability 712 17.4.1 Sustainability Coefficient (SC) 713 CONTENTS xvii 17.4.2 Crop Productivity as an Indicator of Sustainability 713 17.5 Input management for Sustainable Agricultural Systems 714 17.5.1 Optimizing Nutrient Availability 714 17.5.2 Micronutrient Deficiencies 715 17.5.3 Limiting Nutrient Losses 715 17.5.4 Use of Chemical Fertilizers 715 17.5.5 Nutrient Recycling 715 17.5.6 Use of Crop Residues 715 17.5.7 Biological Nitrogen Fixation 716 17.5.8 Use of Biofertilizers 717 17.5.9 Green Manuring 717 Annexures 718 Annexures-1 Units Related to Crop Production 718 Annexure-1A Conversion Factors between Important Primary and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Limiting Nutrient Losses 715 17.5.4 Use of Chemical Fertilizers 715 17.5.5 Nutrient Recycling 715 17.5.6 Use of Crop Residues 715 17.5.7 Biological Nitrogen Fixation 716 17.5.8 Use of Biofertilizers 717 17.5.9 Green Manuring 717 Annexures 718 Annexures-1 Units Related to Crop Production 718 Annexure-1A Conversion Factors between Important Primary and Secondary Agricultural Commodities 719 Annexure-2 List of Crops–Common and Botanical Names 721 Annexure-3 Efficient Cropping Systems for Different Agro-Climatic Zones of India 726 Annexure-4 List of Major Weeds in the World and India 728 Annexure-5 Most Common Weeds in Crop Fields of India 729 Annexure-6 Contribution of Agriculture to National Income 730 Annexure-7 National Institutions for Agricultural Research 731 Annexure-8 International Institutions for Agricultural Research 733 Annexure-9 Selected Indicators of Agriculture Development in India, Asia–Pacific Region and the World, 1994 and 2003 734 Annexure-10 India’s Position in World Agriculture in 2003 735 Appendix-11 Production and Productivity in Agriculture During Past 50 Years 737 Annexure-12 Tamil Nadu Basic Statistics 738 Annexure-13 Area, Production and Productivity of Principal Crops in Tamil Nadu (2004–05) 742 Annexure-14 Area Under Principal Crops by Districts (2004–05) in Tamil Nadu (in ha) 743 Annexure-15 Time Series Data Area of Important Crops in Tamil Nadu (’000 ha) 747 Annexure-16 Area and Production of Rice, Sorghum and Cumbu in Tamil Nadu-district wise (2004–2005) 748 Annexure-17 Area and Production of Maize and Ragi in Tamil Nadu-district wise (2004–05) 749 Annexure-18 Area of Bengal Gram, Red Gram and Green Gram in Tamil Nadu –district wise (2004–2005) in ha 750 Annexure-19 Area and Production of Sugarcane and Cotton in Tamil Nadu-district wise (2004–2005) 751 Annexure-20 Area and Production of Groundnut, Gingelly and Area of Castor in Tamil Nadu-district wise (2004–2005) 752 Annexure-21 Three Largest Producing States of Important Crops during 2005–06 753 xviii CONTENTS Annexure-22 Area, Production and Yield of Principal Crops",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Production of Sugarcane and Cotton in Tamil Nadu-district wise (2004–2005) 751 Annexure-20 Area and Production of Groundnut, Gingelly and Area of Castor in Tamil Nadu-district wise (2004–2005) 752 Annexure-21 Three Largest Producing States of Important Crops during 2005–06 753 xviii CONTENTS Annexure-22 Area, Production and Yield of Principal Crops in various Countries in 2003 755 Annexure-23 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Rice from 1950–51 to 2005–06 758 Annexure-24 Area, Production and Yield of Rice during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major rice Producing States 760 Annexure-25 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Wheat from 1950–51 to 2005–06 761 Annexure-26 Area, Production and Yield of Wheat during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Wheat Producing States 763 Annexure-27 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Jowar from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage coverage under irrigation 764 Annexure-28 Area, Production and Yield of Jowar during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in Major Jowar producing States along with coverage under Irrigation 766 Annexure-29 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Bajra from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with Percentage Coverage under Irrigation 767 Annexure-30 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Maize from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage coverage under irrigation 769 Annexure-31 Area, Production and Yield of Maize during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Maize Growing States 772 Annexure-32 All-India Area, Production and Yield of total Pulses from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage coverage under irrigation 773 Annexure-33 Area, Production and Yield of total Pulses during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major pulses growing states 775 Annexure-34 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Groundnut from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage coverage under Irrigation 775 Annexure-35 Area, Production and Yield of Groundnut during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Groundnut Producing States 777 Annexure-36 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Rapeseed and Mustard from 1950–51 to 2005–06",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Annexure-34 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Groundnut from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage coverage under Irrigation 775 Annexure-35 Area, Production and Yield of Groundnut during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Groundnut Producing States 777 Annexure-36 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Rapeseed and Mustard from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage coverage under Irrigation 778 Annexure-37 Area, Production and Yield of Rapeseed and Mustard during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major rapeseed and Mustard Producing States 780 Annexure-38 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Soyabean from 1970–71 to 2005–06 781 Annexure-39 Area, Production and Yield of Soyabean during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Soyabean Producing States 782 Annexure-40 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Sunflower from 1970–71 to 2005–06 783 Annexure-41 Area, Production and Yield of Sunflower during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Sunflower Producing States 784 Annexure-42 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Cotton from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage coverage under irrigation 785 Annexure-43 Area, Production and Yield of Cotton during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Cotton Producing States 787 Annexure-44 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Jute and Mesta from 1950–51 to 2005–06 788 CONTENTS xix Annexure-45 Area, Production and Yield of Jute and Mesta during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in respect of major jute and Mesta Producing States 790 Annexure-46 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Sugarcane from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage coverage under irrigation 791 Annexure-47 Area, Production and Yield of Sugarcane during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Sugarcane Producing States 793 Acronyms 795 Glossary 804 For Further Reading 821 Selected References 826 Index 829 xx CONTENTS Chapter 1 An Introduction to Agriculture and Agronomy Agriculture helps to meet the basic needs of human and their civilization by providing food, clothing, shelters, medicine and recreation. Hence, agriculture is the most important enterprise",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Acronyms 795 Glossary 804 For Further Reading 821 Selected References 826 Index 829 xx CONTENTS Chapter 1 An Introduction to Agriculture and Agronomy Agriculture helps to meet the basic needs of human and their civilization by providing food, clothing, shelters, medicine and recreation. Hence, agriculture is the most important enterprise in the world. It is a productive unit where the free gifts of nature namely land, light, air, temperature and rain water etc., are integrated into single primary unit indispensable for human beings. Secondary productive units namely animals including livestock, birds and insects, feed on these primary units and provide concentrated products such as meat, milk, wool, eggs, honey, silk and lac. Agriculture provides food, feed, fibre, fuel, furniture, raw materials and materials for and from factories; provides a free fare and fresh environment, abundant food for driving out famine; favours friendship by eliminating fights. Satisfactory agricultural production brings peace, prosperity, harmony, health and wealth to individuals of a nation by driving away distrust, discord and anarchy. It helps to elevate the community consisting of different castes and clauses, thus it leads to a better social, cultural, political and economical life. Agricultural development is multidirectional having galloping speed and rapid spread with respect to time and space. After green revolution, farmers started using improved cultural practices and agricultural inputs in intensive cropping systems with labourer intensive programmes to enhance the production potential per unit land, time and input. It provided suitable environment to all these improved genotypes to foster and manifest their yield potential in newer areas and seasons. Agriculture consists of growing plants and rearing animals in order to yield, produce and thus it helps to maintain a biological equilibrium in nature. 1.0 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE A. Terminology Agriculture is derived from Latin words Ager and Cultura. Ager",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "manifest their yield potential in newer areas and seasons. Agriculture consists of growing plants and rearing animals in order to yield, produce and thus it helps to maintain a biological equilibrium in nature. 1.0 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE A. Terminology Agriculture is derived from Latin words Ager and Cultura. Ager means land or field and Cultura means cultivation. Therefore the term agriculture means cultivation of land. i.e., the science and art of producing crops and livestock for economic purposes. It is also referred as the science of producing crops and livestock from the natural resources of the earth. The primary aim of agriculture is to cause the land to produce more abundantly, and at the same time, to protect it from deterioration and misuse. It is synonymous with farming–the production of food, fodder and other industrial materials. B. Definitions Agriculture is defined in the Agriculture Act 1947, as including ‘horticulture, fruit growing, seed growing, dairy farming and livestock breeding and keeping, the use of land as grazing land, meadow 2 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY land, osier land, market gardens and nursery grounds, and the use of land for woodlands where that use ancillary to the farming of land for Agricultural purposes”. It is also defined as ‘purposeful work through which elements in nature are harnessed to produce plants and animals to meet the human needs. It is a biological production process, which depends on the growth and development of selected plants and animals within the local environment. C. Agriculture as art, science and business of crop production Agriculture is defined as the art, the science and the business of producing crops and the livestock for economic purposes. As an art, it embraces knowledge of the way to perform the operations of the farm in a skillful manner. The skill is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "art, science and business of crop production Agriculture is defined as the art, the science and the business of producing crops and the livestock for economic purposes. As an art, it embraces knowledge of the way to perform the operations of the farm in a skillful manner. The skill is categorized as; Physical skill: It involves the ability and capacity to carry out the operation in an efficient way for e.g., handling of farm implements, animals etc., sowing of seeds, fertilizer and pesticides application etc. Mental skill: The farmer is able to take a decision based on experience, such as (i) time and method of ploughing, (ii) selection of crop and cropping system to suit soil and climate, (iii) adopting improved farm practices etc. As a science : It utilizes all modern technologies developed on scientific principles such as crop improvement/breeding, crop production, crop protection, economics etc., to maximize the yield and profit. For example, new crops and varieties developed by hybridization, transgenic crop varieties resistant to pests and diseases, hybrids in each crop, high fertilizer responsive varieties, water management, herbicides to control weeds, use of bio-control agents to combat pest and diseases etc. As the business : As long as agriculture is the way of life of the rural population, production is ultimately bound to consumption. But agriculture as a business aims at maximum net return through the management of land, labour, water and capital, employing the knowledge of various sciences for production of food, feed, fibre and fuel. In recent years, agriculture is commercialized to run as a business through mechanization. 1.1 SCOPE OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA In India, population pressure is increasing while area under cultivation is static (as shown in the land utilization statistics given below) or even shrinking, which demand intensification of cropping and allied",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "In recent years, agriculture is commercialized to run as a business through mechanization. 1.1 SCOPE OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA In India, population pressure is increasing while area under cultivation is static (as shown in the land utilization statistics given below) or even shrinking, which demand intensification of cropping and allied activities in two dimensions i.e., time and space dimension. India is endowed with tropical climate with abundant solar energy throughout the year, which favours growing crops round the year. There is a vast scope to increase irrigation potential by river projects and minor irrigation projects. In additional to the above, India is blessed with more labourer availability. Since agriculture is the primary sector, other sectors are dependent on agriculture. Total geographical area : 328.848 million ha. Total reporting area : 304.300 million ha. Area under cultivation : 143.000 million ha. Total cropped area : 179.750 million ha. Area sown more than once : 36.750 million ha. Area not available for cultivation : 161.300 million ha. Area under forest : 66.400 million ha. AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE AND AGRONOMY 3 In India, major allocation has been done in each five-year plan to agriculture. In 8th five-year plan, nearly 23% of the national budget allocation goes to agriculture and allied agro-based cottage industries run on small scales. More than 60% of the Indian population (60 millions/1.05 billion) depends or involved in agriculture and allied activities. Nearly 40% of the net national product is from agricultural sector. Approximately 35% employment is generated from agriculture, out of which 75% is found in rural areas either directly or indirectly. In India, food grain production increased almost four folds from about 50 million tones at independence to more than 220 million tones in 2005 through green revolution. Despite variation in the performance of individual crops and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "agriculture, out of which 75% is found in rural areas either directly or indirectly. In India, food grain production increased almost four folds from about 50 million tones at independence to more than 220 million tones in 2005 through green revolution. Despite variation in the performance of individual crops and regions, total food grain production maintained a growth of 2.7% per annum, which kept ahead of population growth at about 2.2% per annum. Through white revolution, milk production increased from 17 million tones at independence to 69 million tones (1997–98). Through blue revolution, fish production rose from 0.75 million tones to nearly 5.0 million tones during the last five decades. Through yellow revolution, oil seed production increased 5 times (from 5 million tones to 25 million tones) since independence. Similarly, the egg production increased from 2 billion at independence to 28 billion, sugarcane production from 57 million tones to 276 million tones, cotton production from 3 million bales to 14 million bales which shows our sign of progress. India is the largest producer of fruits in the world. India is the second largest producer of milk and vegetables. In future, agriculture development in India would be guided not only by the compulsion of improving food and nutritional security, but also by the concerns for environmental protection, sustainability and profitability. By following the General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT) and the liberalization process, globalization of markets would call for competitiveness and efficiency of agricultural production. Agriculture will face challenging situations on the ecological, global climate, economic equity, energy and employment fronts in the years to come. 1.2 BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE Agriculture has 3 main spheres viz., Geoponic (Cultivation in earth-soil), Aeroponic (cultivation in air) and Hydroponic (cultivation in water). Agriculture is the branch of science encompassing the applied aspects of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "on the ecological, global climate, economic equity, energy and employment fronts in the years to come. 1.2 BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE Agriculture has 3 main spheres viz., Geoponic (Cultivation in earth-soil), Aeroponic (cultivation in air) and Hydroponic (cultivation in water). Agriculture is the branch of science encompassing the applied aspects of basic sciences. The applied aspects of agricultural science consists of study of field crops and their management (Arviculture) including soil management. Crop production It deals with the production of various crops, which includes food crops, fodder crops, fibre crops, sugar, oil seeds, etc. It includes agronomy, soil science, entomology, pathology, microbiology, etc. The aim is to have better food production and how to control the diseases. Horticulture Branch of agriculture deals with the production of flowers, fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, spices, condiments (includes narcotic crops-opium, etc., which has medicinal value) and beverages. Agricultural Engineering It is an important component for crop production and horticulture particularly to provide tools and implements. It is aiming to produce modified tools to facilitate proper animal husbandry and crop production tools, implements and machinery in animal production. Forestry It deals with production of large scale cultivation of perennial trees for supplying wood, timber, rubber, etc. and also raw materials for industries. Animal Husbandry The animals being produced, maintained, etc. Maintenance of various types of livestock for direct energy (work energy). Husbandry is common for both crop and animals. The objective is to get maximum output by feeding, rearing, etc. The arrangement of crops is done to get 4 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY minimum requirement of light or air. This arrangement is called geometry. Husbandry is for direct and indirect energy. Fishery Science It is for marine fish and inland fishes including shrimps and prawns. Home Science Application and utilization of agricultural produces in a better",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to get 4 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY minimum requirement of light or air. This arrangement is called geometry. Husbandry is for direct and indirect energy. Fishery Science It is for marine fish and inland fishes including shrimps and prawns. Home Science Application and utilization of agricultural produces in a better manner. When utilization is enhanced production is also enhanced. e.g., a crop once in use in south was found that it had many uses now. On integration, all the seven branches, first three is grouped as for crop production group and next two for animal management and last two as allied agriculture branches. Broadly in practice, agriculture is grouped in four major categories as, A. Crop Improvement (i) Plant breeding and genetics (ii) Bio-technology B. Crop Management (i) Agronomy (ii) Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry (iii) Seed technology (iv) Agricultural Microbiology (v) Crop-Physiology (vi) Agricultural Engineering (vii) Environmental Sciences (viii) Agricultural Meteorology C. Crop Protection (i) Agricultural Entomology (ii) Plant Pathology (iii) Nematology D. Social Sciences (i) Agricultural Extension (ii) Agricultural Economics Allied disciplines (i) Agricultural Statistics (ii) English and Tamil (iii) Mathematics (iv) Bio-Chemistry etc. 1.3 DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE Early man depended on hunting, fishing and food gathering. To this day, some groups still pursue this simple way of life and others have continued as roving herdsmen. However, as various groups of men undertook deliberate cultivation of wild plants and domestication of wild animals, agriculture came into being. Cultivation of crops, notably grains such as wheat, rice, barley and millets, encouraged settlement of stable farm communities, some of which grew into a town or city in various parts of the world. Early agricultural implements-digging stick, hoe, scythe and plough-developed slowly over the centuries and each innovation caused profound changes in human life. From early times too, men created",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and millets, encouraged settlement of stable farm communities, some of which grew into a town or city in various parts of the world. Early agricultural implements-digging stick, hoe, scythe and plough-developed slowly over the centuries and each innovation caused profound changes in human life. From early times too, men created indigenous systems of irrigation especially in semi-arid areas and regions of periodic rainfall. Farming was intimately associated with landholding and therefore with political organization. Growth of large estates involved the use of slaves and bound or semi-free labourers. As the Middle Ages wanted increasing communications, the commercial revolution and the steady rise of cities in Western Europe tended to turn agriculture away from subsistence farming towards the growing of crops for sale AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE AND AGRONOMY 5 outside the community i.e., commercial agricultural revolution. Exploration and intercontinental trade as well as scientific investigations led to the development of agricultural knowledge of various crops and the exchange of mechanical devices such as the sugar mill and Eli Whitney’s cotton gin helped to support the system of large plantations based on a single crop. The industrial revolution, after the late 18th century, swelled the population of towns and cities and increasingly forced agriculture into greater integration with general economic and financial patterns. The era of mechanized agriculture began with the invention of such farm machines as the reaper, cultivator, thresher, combine harvesters and tractors, which continued to appear over; the years leading to a new type of large scale agriculture. Modern science has also revolutionized food processing. Breeding programmes have developed highly specialized animal, plant and poultry varieties thus increasing production efficiency greatly. All over the world, agricultural colleges and government agencies attempt to increase output by disseminating knowledge of improved agricultural practices through the release of new plant and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Modern science has also revolutionized food processing. Breeding programmes have developed highly specialized animal, plant and poultry varieties thus increasing production efficiency greatly. All over the world, agricultural colleges and government agencies attempt to increase output by disseminating knowledge of improved agricultural practices through the release of new plant and animal types and by continuous intensive research into basic and applied scientific principles relating to agricultural production and economics. 1.3.1 History of Agriculture Excavations, legends and remote sensing tests reveal that agriculture is 10,000 years old. Women by their intrinsic insight first observed that plants come up from seeds. Men concentrated on hunting and gathering (Paleolithic and Neolithic periods) during that time. Women were the pioneers for cultivating useful plants from the wild flora. They dug out edible roots and rhizomes and buried the small ones for subsequent harvests. They used animal meat as main food and their skin for clothing. The following Table 1.1 gives an idea about agriculture development scenario. Table 1.1. Agriculture Development Scenario Agricultural System Cultural stage Average World Per capita land or Time cereal population availability (ha) yield (t/ha) (millions) Hunting and Gathering Paleolithic – 7 – Shifting Agriculture Neolithic 1 35 40.00 (about 7,000 B.C.) Medieval Agriculture 500–1450 A.D. 1 900 01.50 Livestock farming 18th Century 2 1800 00.70 Fertilizer/Pesticide in 20th Century 4 4200 00.30 Agriculture A. Shifting Cultivation A primitive form of agriculture in which people working with the crudest of tools, cut down a part of the forest, burnt the underneath growth and started new garden sites. After few years, when these plots lost their fertility or became heavily infested with weeds or soil-borne pests, they shifted to a new site. This is also known as Assartage system (cultivating crops till the land is completely worn-out) contrary to the fallow system.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "growth and started new garden sites. After few years, when these plots lost their fertility or became heavily infested with weeds or soil-borne pests, they shifted to a new site. This is also known as Assartage system (cultivating crops till the land is completely worn-out) contrary to the fallow system. Fallow system means land is allowed for a resting period without any crop. In India, shifting cultivation existed in different states, with different names as jhum cultivation in Assam, podu in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa, kumari in Western Ghats, walra in south east Rajasthan, penda bewar in Madhya Pradesh and slash and burn in Bihar. 6 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY B. Subsidiary Farming Rudimentary system of settled farming, which includes cultivation, gathering and hunting. People in groups started settling down near a stream or river as permanent village sites and started cultivating in the same land more continuously, however the tools, crops and cropping methods were primitive. C. Subsistence Farming Advanced form of primitive agriculture i.e., agriculture is considered as a way of life based on the principle of “Grow it and eat it” instead of growing crops on a commercial basis. Hence, it is referred as raising the crops only for family needs. D. Mixed Farming It is the farming comprising of crop and animal components. Field crop-grass husbandry (same field was used both for cropping and later grazing) was common. It is a stage changing from food gathering to food growing. E. Advanced Farming Advanced farming practices includes selection of crops and varieties, seed selection, green manuring with legumes, crop rotation, use of animal and crop refuse as manures, irrigation, pasture management, rearing of milch animals, bullocks, sheep and goat for wool and meat, rearing of birds by stall feeding etc. F. Scientific Agriculture (19th Century) During 18th",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "selection of crops and varieties, seed selection, green manuring with legumes, crop rotation, use of animal and crop refuse as manures, irrigation, pasture management, rearing of milch animals, bullocks, sheep and goat for wool and meat, rearing of birds by stall feeding etc. F. Scientific Agriculture (19th Century) During 18th century, modern agriculture was started with crop sequence, organic recycling, introduction of exotic crops and animals, use of farm implements in agriculture etc. During 19th century, research and development (R&D) in fundamental and basic sciences were brought under applied aspects of agriculture. Agriculture took the shape of a teaching science. Laboratories, farms, research stations, research centres, institutes for research, teaching and extension (training and demonstration) were developed. Books, journals, popular and scientific articles, literatures were introduced. New media, and audio-visual aids were developed to disseminate new research findings and information to the rural masses. G. Present Day Agriculture (21st Century) Today agriculture is not merely production oriented but is becoming a business consisting of various enterprises like livestock (dairy), poultry, fishery, piggery, sericulture, apiary, plantation cropping etc. Now, a lot of developments on hydrological, mechanical, chemical, genetical and technological aspects of agriculture are in progress. Governments are apportioning a greater share of national budget for agricultural development. Small and marginal farmers are being supplied with agricultural inputs on subsidy. Policies for preserving, processing, pricing, marketing, distributing, consuming, exporting and importing are strengthening. Agro-based small scale industries and crafts are fast developing. Need based agricultural planning, programming and execution are in progress. 1.3.2 Global Agriculture Advancement of civilization is closely related to agriculture, which produces food to satisfy hunger. The present food production must double to maintain the status quo. However, nearly one billion people are living below poverty line and civilized society should ensure food for these people. Some allowance",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "progress. 1.3.2 Global Agriculture Advancement of civilization is closely related to agriculture, which produces food to satisfy hunger. The present food production must double to maintain the status quo. However, nearly one billion people are living below poverty line and civilized society should ensure food for these people. Some allowance should be made for increased consumption as a consequence of raising incomes in third would countries. Therefore, the increased food production should aim at trebling food production in the next century. AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE AND AGRONOMY 7 Year Development in agriculture 70 million years ago Trees evolved 40 million years ago Monkeys and apes evolved 10 million years ago Dogs were domesticated in Iraq 8700 B.C. Sheeps were domesticated in Iraq 7700 B.C. Goats were domesticated in Iraq 7500 B.C. Invention of polished stone implements, cultivation of crops like wheat and barley in middle east. 6000 B.C. Cattle and pigs where domesticated in middle east 4400 B.C. Maize was cultivated in Mexico 3500 B.C. Potato was grown in south America 3000 B.C. Bronze was used to make tools in middle east 2900 B.C. Plough was used in middle east 2700 B.C. Silk moth was domesticated in China 2300 B.C. Poultry, buffalo and elephant were domesticated in Indus valley. 2200 B.C. Rice cultivation started in India 1800 B.C. Ragi cultivation started in Karnataka (India) 1780 B.C. Kulthi (Dolichus biflorus) was cultivated in Karnataka 1725 B.C. Jowar (Sorghum) cultivation started in Rajasthan 1700 B.C. Horse husbandry started in Central Asia 1500 B.C. Pulses (Green and Black gram) were cultivated in Madhya Pradesh Cultivation of Barley and Sugarcane started in India. Irrigation from wells started. 1400 B.C. Iron was in use in Middle east 1000–1600 B.C. Iron ploughs were in use 15 century A.D. Cultivation of sweet orange, sour orange, wild brinjal,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "B.C. Pulses (Green and Black gram) were cultivated in Madhya Pradesh Cultivation of Barley and Sugarcane started in India. Irrigation from wells started. 1400 B.C. Iron was in use in Middle east 1000–1600 B.C. Iron ploughs were in use 15 century A.D. Cultivation of sweet orange, sour orange, wild brinjal, pomegranate was there 16 century A.D. Introduction of crops like potato, sweet potato, cassava, tomato, chillies, pumpkin, papaya, pineapple, guava, custard apple, groundnut, cashew nut, tobacco, American cotton, rubber was done into India by Portuguese. A. Land Resources For crop production the basic input is land. Planet earth is of 15.2 billion ha avails 3.8 ha per person (Canada 50, Australia 50, S. America 10, USSR 10, USA 4, France 1.2, India 0.8 and Japan 0.4). The continuing population increase will result in available cultivable land per capita world-wide from 0.3 ha in 1988 to 0.17 ha in 2050, with only 0.11 per capita in developing countries. The nutrient losses due to soil erosion of one of good top soil in kg are 4 N, 1 P2O5, 20 K2O and 2 CaO, besides organic matter. Only 10 to 11 per cent of cultivated area is reasonably free from all constraints for crop production. The FAO’s analysis of growth patterns in crop output in 93 developing countries shows that 63 per cent of the growth in production must come from higher yields and 15 per cent from higher cropping intensity. Only 22 per cent is expected from land reserve. Of the total 6444 m. ha of rainfed agricultural potential, only 30 per cent is suitable, 10 per cent marginal and 60 per cent unsuitable in different countries. The semiarid tropics (SAT) comprise of all or part of 50 countries in five continents of the world (Central America, SW Asia, Africa, South",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "total 6444 m. ha of rainfed agricultural potential, only 30 per cent is suitable, 10 per cent marginal and 60 per cent unsuitable in different countries. The semiarid tropics (SAT) comprise of all or part of 50 countries in five continents of the world (Central America, SW Asia, Africa, South America and South East Asia) is the home of 700 million people who are under perpetual threat drought and occasional famine. About 65 per cent of the arable land carries untapped potential cereals, pulses 8 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY and oilseeds, the biggest gains to the food ladder of the globe would be from improvement of agriculture. India has the largest SAT area (10%) of any of the developing countries. Environmental degradation is increasing at a pace that is impairing the productivity of land and undermining the welfare of rural people. Global assessment of soil degradation (GLASoD) defines soil degradation as a process that describes human induced phenomena, which lower the current and/or future capacity of the soil to support human life. The causes for degradation are: • Removal of vegetative cover through agricultural clearing, • Decrease in soil cover through removal of vegetation for fuel wood, fencing, etc. • Overgrazing by livestock leading to decrease in vegetative cover and trampling of the soil • Agricultural activities like cultivation in steep slopes, farming without anti-erosion measures in arid areas, improper irrigation and use of heavy machinery, and • Soil contamination with pollutants such as waste discharges and over use of agrochemicals. Modern farm technologies are more productive on good soils than on poor soils. Technology may sustain yields by making the effects of soil degradation temporarily. Yield increase through technology might have been greater if the soil has not been degraded. B. Water Resources Of the total volume of 1400",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "agrochemicals. Modern farm technologies are more productive on good soils than on poor soils. Technology may sustain yields by making the effects of soil degradation temporarily. Yield increase through technology might have been greater if the soil has not been degraded. B. Water Resources Of the total volume of 1400 million cubic km (M cu km) water, 97 per cent is sea water. Of the balance 3 per cent, 22 per cent is ground water and 77 per cent locked up glaciers and polar ice caps, leaving less than one per cent of fresh water to take part in hydrological cycle. Global water use doubled between 1940 and 1980 and is expected to double again by 2010 A.D. with two-thirds of the projected water use going to agriculture. Today one-third of the world’s crops come from its 280 M ha of irrigated land. After world war II, foreign aid helped carry irrigation even to arid corners of the world. As on 1990, about 270 M ha of area, contributing to 17 per cent of the total cropped area, was under irrigation in the world. Today, irrigated farming systems of the past are under serious threat of extinct due to salinity, poor drainage and weak management. Irrigated land damaged through salinisation fro the top five countries, as percentage of total area irrigated by 1985 are: India 36, China 17, USSR 18, USA 44 and Pakistan 25. Irrigated area per capita for India (1989) is 0.057 ha as against 0.049 ha for the world. In rainfed agriculture, the cropping intensity of world is 0.74. Under irrigation, the current intensity of 1.21 may increase to 1.29. To maintain a diet of 2000 Cal day-1 requires 300 m3 of water per day and 420 for a diet of 3500 Cal. Bringing one ha of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the world. In rainfed agriculture, the cropping intensity of world is 0.74. Under irrigation, the current intensity of 1.21 may increase to 1.29. To maintain a diet of 2000 Cal day-1 requires 300 m3 of water per day and 420 for a diet of 3500 Cal. Bringing one ha of new land under cultivation will produce 0.9 tonnes of cereal grain, one year supply of food for about five people at FAO minimum nutritional standard of 1600 Cal day-1. If the land is irrigated, the total production increases four folds to 3.5 tonnes ha-1. At this level, if future irrigated area of the world reaches 1.0 billion ha, enough food for 10 billion people at twice the FAO level. In spite of the fact that irrigation can provide food for ever increasing population, experience in the recent decades in expansion of irrigated area ran into several problems leading to land degradation. Year to year changes in world irrigated area reflect the sum of the addition of the new capacity and loss of established capacity due to aquifer depletion, lowered water tables, abandonment of waterlogged area and salted land, reservoir silting and diversion of irrigation water to non-agricultural use. The future food production from irrigated areas depends more on the gains in water use efficiency than on additional new supplies. C. Food Scenario Cereals area grown throughout the world to provide food for the human consumption and feed and AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE AND AGRONOMY 9 fodder for livestock. They are grown in 73.5 per cent of the world’s arable land and contribute 74.5 per cent of the global calorie production. Demand for food is growing with ever increasing world population. Compared with present production of about 1.9 billion tones, the demand for cereals is likely to go up to 2.4",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "grown in 73.5 per cent of the world’s arable land and contribute 74.5 per cent of the global calorie production. Demand for food is growing with ever increasing world population. Compared with present production of about 1.9 billion tones, the demand for cereals is likely to go up to 2.4 billions by the year 2000 A.D. While demand for wheat and rice may be increased in the next two decades by 31 and 53 per cent, respectively, the demand for coarse grains may double. Developed nations may meet their cereal demand by increasing production at 1.8 per cent per annum. However, most of the developing countries with growth rate of 2.5 per cent per annum in cereals production fall short of this requirement, which is increasing at the rate of 3.3 per cent per annum due to high population growth rate. The FAO estimates clearly indicate the increasing shortage of cereals in 90 developing countries. Increase in food all over world during the decades of 1972–92 was remarkable. Productivity and production in the technologically advanced agriculture of the developed countries rose to heights that would have been unbelievable half a century ago, mainly due to introduction of high yielding varieties (HYVs) responsive to inputs of fertilities and irrigation water, besides increase in area under cultivations. Developing countries presented a different picture. Only about a third of their population (excluding China) lived in countries with satisfactory performance in agricultural production. Elsewhere, output was raising more slowly than population. Africa in 1970s became the striking example of production inadequacy. There were many constraints limiting agricultural productivity, particularly that of small farmers in developing countries. • Land remained so unequally distributed that farms were too small and steadily became smaller as rural population grew. • Input supplies and services were insufficient and access",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "became the striking example of production inadequacy. There were many constraints limiting agricultural productivity, particularly that of small farmers in developing countries. • Land remained so unequally distributed that farms were too small and steadily became smaller as rural population grew. • Input supplies and services were insufficient and access to them most unequal, • Resources devoted to research, training and extension were very limited, and • Priority was given to industry, not agriculture, and food prices were shaded in the interest of urban consumers rather than of rural producers. The FAO aimed at doubling the agricultural production in the developing countries between 1980 and 2000. The hopeful outcome depends on achieving an ambitions transformation involving widespread modernization in technology, based primarily on massive increase in inputs to agriculture. Developed countries do not come directly into the exploration of the future as they continue to raise their farming. The strategy is: • Heavy investment in agricultural sector to make full use of the improved technology. • Increasing crop production sources through arable land growth, cropping intensity and crop productivity. • Expanding and conserving the land, based through land reforms directed at bringing underused land in to more intensive exploration and soil and water conservation to the dangers of land degradation, and • Intensifying land use in crop production through irrigation, fertilizers, improved cultivates, plant protection and mechanization. D. Towards 21st Century According to World Bank projections, the world population could reach a stationary level of just under 10 billion by around the end of 21 century, compared with 6.2 billions during 2000 A.D. Significance of these projections is faster growth in population than in food requirements. Almost all the population 10 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY increase (95%) takes place in the present day developing countries, which have low per capita",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "around the end of 21 century, compared with 6.2 billions during 2000 A.D. Significance of these projections is faster growth in population than in food requirements. Almost all the population 10 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY increase (95%) takes place in the present day developing countries, which have low per capita consumption levels. Simple lesson from projection is that world demand could increase by 50 per cent in the next 20 years, would more than double again in the first half of the next century. Doubling the world’s food and agricultural production between 2000 and 2055 A.D. sounds daunting. To meet satisfactorily the food and agricultural demands of about 10 billion people, taking in to account the non-agricultural use of the land and seas, will require at least indicative global source use planning. It is clear that sustained rapid increase in crop and livestock yields must be the main stay of future output growth. A continuation to the middle of the 21st century of the expansion of arable land for the next 20 years would mean that virtually all of the potential arable land would be cultivated. The backup of agricultural research and extension must be more oriented to the problem of developing country agriculture. The 21st century must inherit a food and agricultural system in the developing countries which is much more productive and equitable than it is now. By of continuously absorbing further innovations. The foundations for enormous increase in output needs in the first part of the 21st century must, therefore, be laid in what is left of this century. Attaining the targets proposed for this later period is a pre-requisite for improving the lives not only of those now living but also of further generations. 1.3.2.1 Development of scientific agriculture in world 1. Francis Bacon (1561–1624 A.D.)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "century must, therefore, be laid in what is left of this century. Attaining the targets proposed for this later period is a pre-requisite for improving the lives not only of those now living but also of further generations. 1.3.2.1 Development of scientific agriculture in world 1. Francis Bacon (1561–1624 A.D.) : Found the water as nutrient of plants 2. G.R. Glanber (1604–1668 A.D.) : Salt peter (KNO3) as nutrient and not water 3. Jethrotull (1674–1741 A.D.) : Fine soil particle as plant nutrient 4. Priestly (1730–1799 A.D.) : Discovered the oxygen 5. Francis Home (1775 A.D.) : Water, air, salts, fire and oil from the plant nutrients 6. Charles and Francis (1780 A.D.) : Isolated and characterized Indole -3Acetic Acid (IAA) 7. Thomas Jefferson (1793 A.D.) : Developed the mould board plough. 8. Theodore-de-Saussure : Found that plants absorb CO2 from air and release O2; soil supply N2 and ash to plants 9. Justus van Liebig (1804–1873 A.D.) : A German chemist developed the concept called “Liebig’s law of minimum”. It states as follows. “A deficiency or absence of the necessary constituent, all others being present, renders the soil barren for crops for which that nutrient is needed”–It is referred as “Barrle concept”. If the barrel has stones of different heights, the lowest one establishes the capacity of the Barrel. Nitrogen has the lowest share, establishes the maximum capacity of the barrel. Accordingly, the growth factor in lowest supply (whether climatic, edaphic, genetic or biotic) sets the capacity for yield. Similarly a soil deficient in nitrogen (N) can’t be made to produce well by adding more calcium (Ca) or potassium (K) where they are already abundant. 10. In 1875, Michigen State University was established to provide agriculture education on college level. 11. Gregor Johann Mendel (1866) discovered the laws of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Similarly a soil deficient in nitrogen (N) can’t be made to produce well by adding more calcium (Ca) or potassium (K) where they are already abundant. 10. In 1875, Michigen State University was established to provide agriculture education on college level. 11. Gregor Johann Mendel (1866) discovered the laws of heredity. 12. Charles Darwin (1876) published the results of experiments on cross and self-fertilization in plants. 13. Thomas Malthus (1898) Proposed “Malthusian Theory” that the human race would run or later run out of food for everyone in spite of the rapid advances being made in agriculture at that time, AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE AND AGRONOMY 11 because of limited land and yield potential of crops. 14. Neo Malthusians have proposed birth control as answer to the problem. 15. F.T. Blackman’s (1905) Theory of “Optima and Limiting Factors” states that, “when a process is conditioned as to its rapidity by a number of separate factors, the rate of the process is limited by the pace of the slowest factor.” 16. E.A. Mitsherlich (1909) proposed a theory of “Law of diminishing returns” states that, ‘The increase in any crop produce by a unit increment of a deficient factor is proportional to the decrement of that factor from the maximum and the response is curvilinear instead of linear’. Mitscherlich equation is dy/dx = C (A-Y) where, d – increment or change dy – amount of increase in yield dx – amount of increment of the growth factor x. A – Maximum possible yield Y – Yield obtained for the given quantity of factor ‘x’ and C – Proportionality constant that depends on the nature of the growth factor. 17. Wilcox (1929) proposed “Inverse Yield–Nitrogen law” states that, the growth and yielding ability of any crop plant is inversely proportional to the mean",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "yield Y – Yield obtained for the given quantity of factor ‘x’ and C – Proportionality constant that depends on the nature of the growth factor. 17. Wilcox (1929) proposed “Inverse Yield–Nitrogen law” states that, the growth and yielding ability of any crop plant is inversely proportional to the mean nitrogen content in the dry matter. 18. Macy (1936): Proposed a concept of “Critical Percentages of Plant Nutrients”. He suggested a relationship between the sufficiency of nutrients and plant response in terms of yield and nutrient concentration of plant tissues. Macy proposed critical percentages for each nutrient in each kind of plant. In the tissues minimum percentage range, an added increment of a nutrient increases the yield but not the nutrient percentage. In the poverty adjustment range, an added increment of a nutrient increases the nutrient percentage but not the yield. In the luxury consumption range, added increment of nutrient have little effect of yield. But increase the nutrient composition percentage. The point between poverty adjustment and luxury consumption was the “Critical percentage”. Macy suggested that Liebig’s law holds good in the tissue minimum percentage range because there is not enough of a nutrient to allow much plant growth. Liebig’s law holds good again in the luxury consumption range. Because there is a large supply of nutrient, some other nutrient becomes limiting and stops growth. Mitscherlich’s law of diminishing returns holds during the poverty adjustment range because the response curve is linear representing the diminishing yield to added increments. 19. Zimmerman and Hitchcock (1942) reported that 2,4-D could act as growth promoter at extremely low concentration. Now 2,4-D is used to overcome the problem of seediness in Poovan banana. 20. In 1945, herbicide 2,4,5-T was developed. 21. In 1954, Gibberlic acid structure was identified by Japanese. 22. In 1950’s Bennet",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Zimmerman and Hitchcock (1942) reported that 2,4-D could act as growth promoter at extremely low concentration. Now 2,4-D is used to overcome the problem of seediness in Poovan banana. 20. In 1945, herbicide 2,4,5-T was developed. 21. In 1954, Gibberlic acid structure was identified by Japanese. 22. In 1950’s Bennet and Clark identified ABA (Abscessic acid), which inhibits plant growth and controls shedding of plant parts. 12 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Table 1.2 History of Agriculture in India 1947 CTRI at Rajmundry (Tobacco)/Food Policy Committee 1949 CPRI at Patna 1956 CPRI shifted to Simla 1950 IARI established at New Delhi 1951 Fertilizer factory at Bihar 1952 IISR at Lucknow (sugarcane) 1955 NDRI at Karnal (Dairy) 1956 PIRRCOM Project for intensification of regional research on cotton, oil seeds and millets. (Central Cotton Research Institute–Regional Centre) 1959 CAZRI at Jodhpur (Rajasthan) (Arid zone) 1960 IADP (Intensive Agriculture District Programme) 1960 IRRI, Philippines 1962 IGFRI at Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh; G.B. Pant Nagar Agricultural University and Technology at Pant Nagar 1963 CTCRI, Trivandrum (Tuber crops)/National Seed Corporation (NSC) 1965 IAAP (Intensive Agriculture Area Programme) 1966 HYVP at Bangalore (Horticulture) 1969 CSSRI (Central Soil Salinity Research Institute) at Karnal (Haryana) 1970 CPCRI at Kasargod (Kerala) (Plantation crops)/Drought Prone 1971 TNAU (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University) at Coimbatore) and All India Co-ordinated Project for Dry land Agriculture 1972 ICRISAT at Patancheru, Hyderabad/National Commission on Agriculture 1974 Command Area Development 1976 IRDP (Integrated Rural Development Programme) 1977 T&V (Training and Visit System) 1979 NARP (National Agricultural Research Project) 1980 Wealth Tax on Agriculture was abolished 1982 NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development) 1985 NAEP (National Agricultural Extension Project) 1995 NRCB at Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu (Banana) 1998 NATP (National Agricultural Technology Project) 2006 NAIP (National Agricultural Innovation Project) The details on history of agriculture in India are",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1980 Wealth Tax on Agriculture was abolished 1982 NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development) 1985 NAEP (National Agricultural Extension Project) 1995 NRCB at Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu (Banana) 1998 NATP (National Agricultural Technology Project) 2006 NAIP (National Agricultural Innovation Project) The details on history of agriculture in India are in the subsequent Chapter 2. 1.4 AGRICULTURE IN NATIONAL ECONOMY Agriculture forms the backbone of the Indian economy and despite concerted industrialization in the last 40 years, agriculture still occupies a place of pride. Agriculture is contributing nearly 30 per cent of the national income, providing employment to about 70 per cent of the working population and accounting for a sizable share of the country’s foreign exchange earnings. It provides the food grains to feed the large population of 85 crores. It is also the supplier of raw material to many industries. Thus, AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE AND AGRONOMY 13 the very economic structure of the country rests upon agriculture. The present role of agriculture in the Indian economy is discussed below. A. Contribution to National Income The data supplied by the National Income Committee and the Central Statistical Organization clearly shows that agriculture contributed about 56 per cent of the national income in 1950–51 but contributed only 22 per cent of the national income in 2006–07. The perusal of data in Table 1.3 reveals that the share of agriculture in the national income was reckoned at about 56 per cent during 1950–51 and remained above 50 per cent during the following twenty years. However, the contribution of agriculture has declined in the last fifteen years due to rapid increase in the production of industrial goods and services. Table 1.3. Contribution of Agriculture to National Income Year Percentage contribution of agriculture–GDP 1950-51 56.1 1960-61 51.2 1970-71 50.6 1980-81 42.0 1984-85",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the following twenty years. However, the contribution of agriculture has declined in the last fifteen years due to rapid increase in the production of industrial goods and services. Table 1.3. Contribution of Agriculture to National Income Year Percentage contribution of agriculture–GDP 1950-51 56.1 1960-61 51.2 1970-71 50.6 1980-81 42.0 1984-85 36.9 1989-90 30.0 1999-2000 24.0 2000-01 22.3 2001-02 22.2 2002-03 20.2 2003-04 20.7 2004-05 NA 2005-06 NA 2006-07 22.0 A comparison between shares of agriculture in national income in India with that in other countries further emphasizes dominance of agriculture in the Indian economy. In 1983, agriculture contributed only two, three, four and five per cent of the national income in U.K., U.S.A., Canada and Australia respectively. It means the more developed a country, the smaller is the share of agriculture in the national income or output. Hence, the Indian economy cannot be considered as advanced. B. Contribution to Employment Agriculture, directly or indirectly, has continued to be the main source of livelihood for the majority of the population in India. The decennial censuses indicate that 70 per cent of the population is supported by agriculture. These censuses show that an overwhelming majority of workers have been engaged in cultivation. Dependence of working population on other fields of agriculture like livestock, fisheries, forest etc., is less. The distribution of agricultural labourer force and population is given in Table 1.4. On the basis of above figures, it can be concluded that: • The rate and pattern of investment in other economic sectors have not been such as to draw away surplus rural labourer and relieve the pressure of population on land. 14 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Table 1.4. Distribution of Agricultural Labourer Force as % of Total Work Force Year Cultivators Agricultural Livestock, fishery, Total agricultural labourers forestry, plantation etc., work",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sectors have not been such as to draw away surplus rural labourer and relieve the pressure of population on land. 14 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Table 1.4. Distribution of Agricultural Labourer Force as % of Total Work Force Year Cultivators Agricultural Livestock, fishery, Total agricultural labourers forestry, plantation etc., work force 1951 50.0 19.7 2.4 72.1 1961 52.8 16.7 2.3 71.8 1971 43.4 26.3 2.4 72.1 1981 43.9 24.8 2.9 71.6 1988-89 41.6 24.9 3.5 70.0 1991 2001 2006 Source: www.agricoop.nic.in • Since the growth of agricultural sector was very slow it failed to create enough opportunities for additional employment. It has resulted in widespread under-employment and arising backlog of unemployed. The proportion of working population engaged in agriculture in other countries is very small. It is only two and three per cent in the U.K. and the U.S.A., 6 per cent in Australia and 7 per cent in France. In backward and underdeveloped countries the proportion of working population engaged in agriculture is quite high. For instance, it is 42 per cent in Egypt, 52 per cent in Indonesia and 72 per cent in China. C. Contribution of Manpower to industry The agricultural labourer of rural sector has been the supplier of manpower to industry. The findings of the Commission on Labourer are indicative that the Indian factory operatives were nearly all migrants from the rural areas. This drift to urban areas continues. This is due to lack of opportunities for employment and income in rural areas on the one hand and lure of employment, higher income and urban facilities on the other. D. Contribution to Foreign Exchange Resources Agricultural products–primary produce and manufactured through agricultural raw material occupy an important place in the country’s export. According to an estimate, agricultural commodities like raw cotton and jute, unmanufactured tobacco,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "one hand and lure of employment, higher income and urban facilities on the other. D. Contribution to Foreign Exchange Resources Agricultural products–primary produce and manufactured through agricultural raw material occupy an important place in the country’s export. According to an estimate, agricultural commodities like raw cotton and jute, unmanufactured tobacco, oilseeds, spices, tea and coffee accounted for about 49 per cent of the total value of exports in 1988–89. This makes a sizable contribution to the foreign exchange resources of the country. E. Interdependence between Agriculture and Industry There is a close interdependence between agriculture and industry. This is to the supply of raw materials and inputs from agriculture to industry and vice-versa; secondly, the supply of wage goods to the industrial sector; thirdly, the supply of basic consumption goods to the agricultural population; and finally, the supply of materials for the building up of economic and social overheads in the agricultural sector. The interdependence between agriculture and industry is becoming stronger as the economy is developing. The application of science and technology in agriculture induces innovations in respect of AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE AND AGRONOMY 15 industrial products, which are used for agricultural production. Agricultural inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, diesel oil, electric motor, diesel engines, pump sets, agricultural tools and implements, tractors, power tillers etc., are supplied by the industry and oil, sugar, jute and cotton textiles and tobacco industries rely heavily on the agricultural sector. Even the processing industries, which are utilizing agricultural raw material, and developing fruit canning, milk products, meat products etc. F. Contribution to Capital Formation The pace of development is largely determined by the rate at which production assets increase. Before independence, the capital formation in Indian agriculture was of a low order. During this period, agriculture suffered from constant low yield technology, inequitable",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "canning, milk products, meat products etc. F. Contribution to Capital Formation The pace of development is largely determined by the rate at which production assets increase. Before independence, the capital formation in Indian agriculture was of a low order. During this period, agriculture suffered from constant low yield technology, inequitable land tenure system and exploitation of the rural masses. The capital formation includes land development, construction of houses etc. Since independence, much more investment both public and private has been made in agriculture. The creation of physical assets has generally taken the form of land development, construction of irrigation facilities, roads and communication, farm buildings, agricultural machinery and equipment, warehouses, cold storages, market yard etc. This capital formation is helping not only development of agriculture but also the entire economy. G. Contribution to Purchasing Power of People Agriculture provides purchasing power not only to those directly engaged in it but to others also who are in the industries and services. When farmers earn more they also spend more. In the process, they create new markets and new opportunities for hundreds of blacksmiths, carpenters, masons, weavers, potters, leather workers, utensil-makers, tailors, cotton ginners, oil pressers, transporters and countless others. Thus, there are many industries, the prosperity and employment of which are dependent upon the purchasing power of the agricultural population. Hence, it is concluded that besides purchasing food for non-agricultural workers and raw materials for consumer industries, it has created demands for a great many new industries, which, in turn, have provided high and well paid employment. This existing role of agriculture in the Indian economy points out the necessity for the development of Indian agriculture to the fullest extent possible as the prosperity of agriculture largely stands for the prosperity of the economy. The significance of agriculture lies in the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "provided high and well paid employment. This existing role of agriculture in the Indian economy points out the necessity for the development of Indian agriculture to the fullest extent possible as the prosperity of agriculture largely stands for the prosperity of the economy. The significance of agriculture lies in the fact that the development in agriculture is an essential condition for the development of the national economy. 1.5 FOOD PROBLEM IN INDIA A. Food Production Trends The trends in food grains output in recent years have exhibited some significant qualitative changes. On the other hand, there was significant effect of drought on the food grains production during the year 1987–88 and 2002–2003. Rice production fluctuated around 60 million tones for five years and then followed the rising trend from 1988–89. This was possible due to government’s efforts to increase the productivity of rice in the country in general and in the eastern parts of the country in particular. What production had been staggering around 45 million tones for five years before a quantum jump in 1988–89. But there was a fall in wheat production during 1989–90, which was attributed to shift of wheat area to oilseeds for getting better prices of the produce. The production of pulses has also been stagnant around 12–13 million tones except for a fall in the drought year i.e., 1987–88. The trends of coarse grains and kharif food grains are in the same line as of rice while rabi food grains followed the trend of wheat. Since the 16 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY contribution of rice in the total food grains production was the greatest, therefore, total food grains also followed the trend of rice production over the years. Table 1.5. Food Grain Production in India Year Food grain production (m.t.) 1950-51 50.82 1960-61 82.02",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "wheat. Since the 16 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY contribution of rice in the total food grains production was the greatest, therefore, total food grains also followed the trend of rice production over the years. Table 1.5. Food Grain Production in India Year Food grain production (m.t.) 1950-51 50.82 1960-61 82.02 1970-71 108.42 1980-81 129.59 1983-84 152.40 1984-84 145.50 1985-86 150.40 1986-87 143.40 1987-88 140.40 1988-89 169.90 1989-90 171.10 1990-91 176.39 1996-97 199.30 1997-98 192.43 1998-99 195.25 2000-01 196.80 2001-02 212.00 2002-03 173.70 2003-04 213.50 2004-05 213.50 2005-06 204.60 2006-07 209.30 B. Food Problem India’s food problem dates back prior to independence. In the beginning, India’s food problem was one of scarcity, shortage of rice after the separation of Myanmar (Burma) from India in 1937 and shortage of wheat, also after the partition of the country in 1947. Initially, the major concern of the Government was to increase the domestic supplies either through increased production or through imports or through both. In the second half of the 1950s and during the 1960s the major concern of the Government shifted to control of food grains prices. The Government of India entered into an agreement in 1956 with the USA known as PL 480 agreement for the import of rice and wheat. The Government found the PL 480 food imports a good tool to stabilize food prices in the country. In fact, PL 480 imports were the basis of our agricultural and industrial development. The Government set up the Food grains Policy Committee in 1966 to review the food problem afresh. The committee found India’s dependence on food imports was not likely to be easy in future. It took serious note of the fact that the food aid was used openly to influence the internal economic policies and foreign affairs policies of the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in 1966 to review the food problem afresh. The committee found India’s dependence on food imports was not likely to be easy in future. It took serious note of the fact that the food aid was used openly to influence the internal economic policies and foreign affairs policies of the Government. Between 1967–68 and 1989–90, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh had recorded annual growth rates of 5.4, 4.0 and 3.4 per cent, respectively in food grains production. These states are the backbone of our public distribution system. These states have AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE AND AGRONOMY 17 insulated the country from a food grains crisis. In the 1970s and particularly after 1974, there has been a growing surplus of stocks from the original target of 5.0 million tones; the Government had succeeded in accumulating over 30 million tones of buffer stock of food grains during the 1980s. Actually, it was the huge reserves of food grains which helped the Government to tide over successfully the three years of poor food grains production, culminating in the widespread drought of 1987–88. The food problem is not any more one of shortage or of high prices but how to enable the lower income groups to purchase the available food grains and how to make use of the huge food stocks to help accelerate the process of economic growth. The food for work programme has been designed since 1977–78 to provide work for the rural poor, the unemployed and the famine stricken people and at the same time create durable community assets. The Government is also implementing a scheme to provide food grains to the weaker sections, especially in the tribal areas at a price well below the already subsidized price in the public distribution system. There has been a general agreement that the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "at the same time create durable community assets. The Government is also implementing a scheme to provide food grains to the weaker sections, especially in the tribal areas at a price well below the already subsidized price in the public distribution system. There has been a general agreement that the food problem in India is mainly due to the increasing population (consequently increasing food demand), inadequate supply of food grains and some aspects of the Government’s policy on food. C. Measures to Solve the Food Problem India’s food problem is older than our independence but it is a pity that no permanent solution has been found all these years. The Government of India has taken various steps to solve the food problem, which are discussed ahead. D. Measures to Increase Production Technological changes : Among the measures to increase the production of food grains, the least controversial are technological changes. Intensive cultivation through use of improved varieties and the liberal use of irrigation and fertilizers is being vigorously extended in the country ushering in the green revolution. The latest step is to bring about a break through in rainfed and dry land agriculture. Organizational approach : The second approach to agricultural development is the organizational approach i.e., by adequate and efficient organization, which includes not only the governmental administrative system but the entire framework of official and semi-official institutions and agencies. It is opined that the efforts to increase agricultural production through technological changes have not been very successful mainly because of an inadequate and ineffective organization. Institutional changes the other way to increase agricultural production is through bringing institutional changes i.e., through land reforms. The present agrarian structure is such that there are no incentives for increased production. With tiny holdings, which are scattered all over the village, with",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "because of an inadequate and ineffective organization. Institutional changes the other way to increase agricultural production is through bringing institutional changes i.e., through land reforms. The present agrarian structure is such that there are no incentives for increased production. With tiny holdings, which are scattered all over the village, with a system of landholdings in which the tenant has no security of tenure, it is not wise to expect the tiller to put his best efforts to increase food production. The Government has been pursuing many land reform measures such as consolidation of holdings, ceiling on holdings, regulation of tenures and the formation of cooperative farms. Since there are many loopholes in the regulation of land reforms, there is urgent need to plug these loopholes through effective legislations on the part of the Government. Distributional changes : In the last few years, the Government has expanded the public distribution system (PDS) considerably. From over two million tones in 1956, the public distribution system has handled over 19 million tones in 1987–88. In 1991, steps were taken to revamp the PDS and its reach extended to 1700 blocks in far-flung and disadvantaged areas like economically backward, drought prone, desert and hilly areas. Allocation of rice, wheat, etc., under the PDS should be increased for the lean period. There is need of the hour to strengthen the public distribution system in the country. Stabilization of food grains prices : The main objective of the food policy in recent years has been to hold the food grains prices in check. The Government has been adopting such short-term measures 18 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY as the maintenance of stocks at high level, extension of internal procurement, stepping up of government purchase of food grains for release through fair price shops, measures to curb hoarding",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "hold the food grains prices in check. The Government has been adopting such short-term measures 18 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY as the maintenance of stocks at high level, extension of internal procurement, stepping up of government purchase of food grains for release through fair price shops, measures to curb hoarding and profiteering and fixation of maximum control prices. These measures did have some influence in keeping prices in check but past experience shows that price stability has not been fully achieved. The buffer stock operation by the Government is the key to the problem of stabilization not only of food prices but also of general price level in the country. The Government decided to build up a buffer stock of 5 m.t. of food grains by 1973–74 but the actual stock with the Government from 1979 onwards has been over 20 m.t. which is a good sign. It is opined that if it is managed with wisdom and flexibility, it would go a long way to protect both the farmer and the consumer against severe fluctuations in prices. The existence of large food stocks creates a feeling of complacency that the food shortage is a thing of the past. There is every possibility of the output becoming larger with the expansion of irrigation facilities, fertilizers availability, rural electrification, etc. But it should be very clearly understood that the highly fluctuating monsoon and the consequent ups and downs in food output can always spell danger. Naturally, efforts, should continue to keep the population in check to take full advantage of increase in agricultural production. 1.6 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRONOMY The word agronomy has been derived from the two Greek words, agros and nomos having the meaning of field and to manage, respectively. Literally, agronomy means the “art of managing field”. Technically,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the population in check to take full advantage of increase in agricultural production. 1.6 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRONOMY The word agronomy has been derived from the two Greek words, agros and nomos having the meaning of field and to manage, respectively. Literally, agronomy means the “art of managing field”. Technically, it means the “science and economics of crop production by management of farm land”. Definition : Agronomy is the art and underlying science in production and improvement of field crops with the efficient use of soil fertility, water, labourer and other factors related to crop production. Agronomy is the field of study and practice of ways and means of production of food, feed and fibre crops. Agronomy is defined as “a branch of agricultural science which deals with principles and practices of field crop production and management of soil for higher productivity. Importance : Among all the branches of agriculture, agronomy occupies a pivotal position and is regarded as the mother branch or primary branch. Like agriculture, agronomy is an integrated and applied aspect of different disciplines of pure sciences. Agronomy has three clear branches namely, (i) Crop Science, (ii) Soil Science, and (iii) Environmental Science that deals only with applied aspects. (i.e.,) Soil-Crop-Environmental relationship. Agronomy is a synthesis of several disciplines like crop science, which includes plant breeding, crop physiology and biochemistry etc., and soil science, which includes soil fertilizers, manures etc., and environmental science which includes meteorology and crop ecology. Basic Principles • Planning, programming and executing measures for maximum utilization of land, labourer, capital and other factors of production. • Choice of crop varieties adaptable to the particular agro-climate, land situation, soil fertility, season and method of cultivation and befitting to the cropping system; • Proper field management by tillage, preparing field channels and bunds for irrigation",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for maximum utilization of land, labourer, capital and other factors of production. • Choice of crop varieties adaptable to the particular agro-climate, land situation, soil fertility, season and method of cultivation and befitting to the cropping system; • Proper field management by tillage, preparing field channels and bunds for irrigation and drainage, checking soil erosion, leveling and adopting other suitable land improvement practices; • Adoption of multiple cropping and also mixed or intercropping to ensure harvest even under adverse environmental conditions; • Timely application of proper and balanced nutrients to the crop and improvement of soil fertility and productivity. Correction of ill-effects of soil reactions and conditions and increasing soil AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE AND AGRONOMY 19 organic matter through the application of green manure, farm yard manure, organic wastes, bio fertilizers and profitable recycling of organic wastes; • Choice of quality seed or seed material and maintenance of requisite plant density per unit area with healthy and uniform seedlings; • Proper water management with respect to crop, soil and environment through conservation and utilization of soil moisture as well as by utilizing water that is available in excess, and scheduling irrigation at critical stages of crop growth. • Adoption of adequate, need-based, timely and exacting plant protection measures against weeds, insect-pests, pathogens, as well as climatic hazards and correction of deficiencies and disorders; • Adoption of suitable and appropriate management practices including intercultural operations to get maximum benefit from inputs dearer and difficult to get, low-monetary and non-monetary inputs; • Adoption of suitable method and time of harvesting of crop to reduce field loss and to release land for succeeding crop(s) and efficient utilization of residual moisture, plant nutrients and other management practices; • Adoption of suitable post-harvest technologies. • Agronomy was recognized as a distinct branch of agricultural",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "• Adoption of suitable method and time of harvesting of crop to reduce field loss and to release land for succeeding crop(s) and efficient utilization of residual moisture, plant nutrients and other management practices; • Adoption of suitable post-harvest technologies. • Agronomy was recognized as a distinct branch of agricultural science only since about since about 1900. The American Society of Agronomy was organized in 1908. 1.6.1 Agronomist Agronomist: “Scientist who studies the principles and practices of crop production and soil management for production of food for human beings and feed for his animals”. Role of Agronomist • Generally agronomist studies the problems of crop production and develops better ways of producing food, feed and fibre. • Agronomist aims at obtaining maximum production at minimum cost e.g., developing efficient and economic field preparation method (i.e.) energy should be minimized (i.e.) what type of crop, in what season, etc. • Agronomist shoulder the responsibilities of all social, economic, cultural problems in addition to field problems for the effective functioning of the farm in general. • Agronomist exploits the knowledge developed by basic and allied, applied sciences for higher crop production. • Agronomist carries out research on scientific cultivation of crops taking into account the effect of factors like soil, climate, crop varieties and adjust production techniques suitably depending on the situation. • Since, the agronomist co-operates and co-ordinate with all the disciplines of agriculture, it is essential that an agronomist should have training in other disciplines of agriculture also. • To develop efficient method of cultivation (whether broadcasting, nursery and transplantation or dibbling, etc.) The method may vary according to the germination period and depending upon the crop establishment and what should be the optimum plant population. • He has to identify various types of nutrients required by crops, e.g., for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "develop efficient method of cultivation (whether broadcasting, nursery and transplantation or dibbling, etc.) The method may vary according to the germination period and depending upon the crop establishment and what should be the optimum plant population. • He has to identify various types of nutrients required by crops, e.g., for long duration rice (150-100–50 kg), for pulses N2, P and K. If the method of cultivation varies the nutrient content also varies. The time and method of applying nutrients must also be taken into account. Method refers to broadcast or to apply close to the root or through leaves (i.e.) foliage. 20 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Agronomist must select a better weed management practice. Either through mechanical or physical (by human work) or chemical (herbicides or weedicides, e.g.; 2–4-D or cultural (by having wide space it may increase weed growth by using inter space crops). Weeds are controlled integrated means. • Irrigation management: Whether to irrigate continuously or stop in between and how much water should be irrigated are calculated to find the water requirement. • Crop planning (i.e.,) developing crop sequence should be developed by agronomist (i.e.) what type of crop, cropping pattern, cropping sequence, etc. • Agronomists are also developing the method of harvesting, time for harvesting, etc. The harvest should be done in the appropriate time. • Decision-making in the farm management. What type of crop to be produced, how much crop, including marketing should be planned? Decision should be at appropriate time. 1.7 POTENTIAL PRODUCTIVITY AND CONSTRAINTS IN CROP PRODUCTION Potential Yield It is the maximum possible economic yield for a crop from a unit land area, when all the factors affecting the crop growth and yield are available without any constraints (or) this is the maximum possible yield that could be obtained under controlled",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "AND CONSTRAINTS IN CROP PRODUCTION Potential Yield It is the maximum possible economic yield for a crop from a unit land area, when all the factors affecting the crop growth and yield are available without any constraints (or) this is the maximum possible yield that could be obtained under controlled condition. Here, all the environmental factors are provided to the crop to express the full potential. Research yield The yield obtained in the research station under correct management and supervision by the scientist. Hence, all the technologies are being used by scientists to get maximum yield. Potential farmers yield The yield obtained by the progressive farmers under the guidance of scientists using new techniques. Average farmers yield Actual yield obtained by the farmer. Gap I The latest technologies developed by the scientists are not completely transformed to the extension agency. The extension agency should fill up the gap by advocating the farmers by acquiring themselves with these improved methods of cultivation. Gap II Here, there is no input constraints and only environmental constraints exist. Gap III Variation in management of field and crop. Only few farmers get higher yield. Gap can be filled up by improving the socio-economic condition of the farmers. 1. Potential yield 2. Research yield 3. Potential farmers yield 4. Average farmers yield 1 2 3 4 Gap I Gap II Gap III Research Extension Socio-economic gap constraints AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE AND AGRONOMY 21 Constraints in Crop Production I. Ecological II. Production III. Socio-economic 1. Weather 1. Variety 1. Cost and return 2. Pollution 2. Weed 2. Credit 3. Desertification 3. Pests and Diseases 3. Risk uncertainty 4. Soil health 4. Traditional attitude 5. Water (poor quality) 5. Knowledge 6. Farm machinery 6. Input availability 7. Post harvest technology 7. Institution 8. Market facilities 22 A",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1. Variety 1. Cost and return 2. Pollution 2. Weed 2. Credit 3. Desertification 3. Pests and Diseases 3. Risk uncertainty 4. Soil health 4. Traditional attitude 5. Water (poor quality) 5. Knowledge 6. Farm machinery 6. Input availability 7. Post harvest technology 7. Institution 8. Market facilities 22 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Chapter 2 Agricultural Heritage of India GEOLOGY Ancient History time scale is measured in terms of Before Christ (B.C.) or Before the Common Era (B.C.E.). The geology of Indian sub continent is as follows: I. Timeline of Mesozoic Era (~251 Ma to ~66 Ma) A. Triassic period ( ~251 Ma to ~204 Ma) This period was the earliest period of the Mesozoic era, or the corresponding system of rocks, marked by the first appearance of the dinosaurs. B. Jurassic period (~204 Ma to ~136 Ma) This period is the period of the Mesozoic era, between the Triassic and the Cretaceous or the corresponding system of rocks, marked by the presence of dinosaurs, and the first appearance of birds. C. Cretaceous period (~136 Ma to ~66 Ma) This period was marked by the presence of dinosaurs, marine and flying reptiles, ammonites, ferns, and gymnosperms and the appearance of angiosperms, mammals and birds. With the disintegration of the Gondwanaland towards the end of the Cretaceous, the continents acquired their present features, their shapes, the great mountain systems, the courses of the rivers, the great plains, and the climatic zones. The Cenozoic Era that followed the Mesozoic is continued up to the present. It began about 60 million years ago. II. Timeline of Cenozoic Era (~66 Ma to 10000 years) The Cenozoic Era is divided into two periods–the Tertiary and the Quaternary. The Tertiary is subdivided into five epochs. The name of each epoch ends with the suffix one (Greek,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to the present. It began about 60 million years ago. II. Timeline of Cenozoic Era (~66 Ma to 10000 years) The Cenozoic Era is divided into two periods–the Tertiary and the Quaternary. The Tertiary is subdivided into five epochs. The name of each epoch ends with the suffix one (Greek, recent) and refers to the progress of life. The Tertiary period has been studied in greater detail than any other period, partly because its flora and fauna bear close similarities to the living forms, but mainly because of economic Years Sub period Quaternary period Oligocene Epoch (little recent) 15 million years Paleocene period or Eocene Epoch (dawn recent) 15 million years Nummulitic period Paleocene Epoch (ancient recent) 10 million years Tertiary period Miocene Epoch (less recent) 12 million years Pliocene Epoch (more recent) 10 million years Pleistocene Epoch (most recent) 1 million years Recent Epoch 10,000 years AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 23 reasons, viz., search for petroleum, of which more than 50 per cent of the world production comes from the Tertiary rocks. 2.1 PANGAEA, THE SUPER-CONTINENT The Earth is a dynamic or constantly changing planet. The Earth’s crust is broken into many pieces, which are called plates. These plates are in constant motion causing earthquakes, mountain building, volcanism, the production of “new” crust and the destruction of “old” crust. There are three kinds of plate boundaries: 1. Convergent boundary Where two plates collide to form mountains or a subduction zone. 2. Divergent boundary Where two plates are moving in opposite directions as in a mid-ocean ridge. 3. Transform boundary Where two plates are sliding past each other as in the San Andreas fault of California. The Earth’s plates are in constant, but very, very slow motion. They move at only 1/2–4 inches (1.3–10 cm) per year!! This does not",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "opposite directions as in a mid-ocean ridge. 3. Transform boundary Where two plates are sliding past each other as in the San Andreas fault of California. The Earth’s plates are in constant, but very, very slow motion. They move at only 1/2–4 inches (1.3–10 cm) per year!! This does not seem like much, but over millions of years it adds up to great distances of movement. In 1912, Alfred Wagener introduced the ‘Continental Drift Theory’, which states that the continents have moved, and is still moving today. Scientists believe these plates have been moving for millions of years. In fact, 250 millions years ago the Earth’s seven continents were all grouped together into a super continent (one huge landmass) called ‘Pangea’. This huge super continent was surrounded by one gigantic ocean called Panthalassa. The position of the continents of Antarctica was far north of its current position; Australia sipped sideways and far west of its current position and the subcontinent of India was hundreds of miles from Asia. North American continent was located much farther south and east of its position today. North 24 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY America was in or near the tropics. Fossils of tropical plants and animals found in cold regions like North Dakota and Greenland. A. 180 million years ago About 180 million years ago the super continent Pangea began to break up in the Mesozoic Era. Scientists believe that Pangea broke apart for the same reason that the plates are moving today. The movement is caused by the convection currents that roll over in the upper zone of the mantle. This movement in the mantle causes the plates to move slowly across the surface of the Earth. Pangea broke up in four stages. In the first stage during the Triassic period about 200 million",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is caused by the convection currents that roll over in the upper zone of the mantle. This movement in the mantle causes the plates to move slowly across the surface of the Earth. Pangea broke up in four stages. In the first stage during the Triassic period about 200 million years ago, rifting occurred between Laurasia and Gondwanaland. Laurasia was made of the present day continents of North America (Greenland), Europe, Angara land comprising Russia, Siberia and China in the north. Gondwanaland was made of the present day continents of South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. Notice that at this time India was not connected to Asia. The huge ocean of Panthalassa remained but the Atlantic Ocean was going to be born soon with the splitting of North America from the Eurasian Plate. ‘The Triple Junction’ was formed because of a three-way split in the crust allowing massive lava flows in three directions and poured out lava over hundreds of square miles of Africa and South America. The rocks of the triple junction, which today is the west central portion of Africa and the east central portion of South America, are identical matches for age and mineral make up. In other words the rocks in these areas of the two continents were produced at the same time and in the same place. This tells us that South America and Africa were connected at one time. Today these two continents are separated by the Atlantic Ocean, which is over 2000 miles wide. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 25 B. 135 million years ago 26 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY In the Jurassic period about 135 million years ago, Laurasia was still moving, and as it moved it broke up into the continents of North America, Europe and Asia (Eurasian plate). In the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "miles wide. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 25 B. 135 million years ago 26 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY In the Jurassic period about 135 million years ago, Laurasia was still moving, and as it moved it broke up into the continents of North America, Europe and Asia (Eurasian plate). In the second stage, the Gondwana period continents separated from each other during the Jurassic and Cretaceous period. In the late Jurassic, South America separated from Africa. This created another narrow basin between these two continents. The eastern coast of North America separated from the Moroccan bulge of Africa. The breakup of the Gondwanaland opened up the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean. In stage three, the Atlantic extended north, and Eurasia rotated clockwise to close the eastern end of the Tethys Sea, the precursor to the Mediterranean. The Indian Subcontinent moved hundreds of miles in 135 million years at a great speed (4 inches per year). The Indian plate crashed into the Eurasian plate (Asia) with such speed and force that it created the tallest mountain range on Earth, the Himalayas. The Tethys was being squeezed out of existence in the east of the Alpines as India approached Asia. The Himalayas mountain-together with vast amounts of sediment eroded from them were so heavy that the Indian-Australian Plate just south of the range was forced downward, creating a zone of crystal subsidence, or geosynclines into Malagasy (Madagascar) and Australia. Indian coal resource is mainly in the Permian Gondwana sediments. Indian continent being a crystal neighbour of mineral-rich South Africa and West Australia is also rated high for its potential future for mineral prospects. Arabia started to separate from Africa as the Red Sea opened up. The red arrows indicate the direction of the continental movements. As a result of the earth movements, considerable",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "crystal neighbour of mineral-rich South Africa and West Australia is also rated high for its potential future for mineral prospects. Arabia started to separate from Africa as the Red Sea opened up. The red arrows indicate the direction of the continental movements. As a result of the earth movements, considerable parts of the marginal areas of the Gondwanaland broke off and sank into the oceans. Rifting occurred between Africa and Antarctica, with this rift extending northeastward to India. In the early Cenozoic, Antarctica and Australia separated. The final stage of the dismemberment of Pangea occurred in the early Cenozoic. The North Atlantic rift continued north until North America and Eurasia (Europe) separated. During this stage, Antarctica and Australia separated. The final separation of the continents occurred about 45 Ma. The fragmentation of Pangea took about 150 million years. 0° 30°S 60°S 0° 0° 30°S 30°S 60°S 60°S 60°S 30°S 0° AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 27 2.1.1 Geography of India The most outstanding fact about the physical geography of India is the natural division of the country with three distinct segments of totally dissimilar character: (i) the Himalayas, the great mountain system to the north, (ii) the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plain of northern India extending from Punjab to Assam, and (iii) the Peninsula of the Deccan to the south of the Vindhyas-a solid stable block of the earth’s crust, largely composed of some of the most ancient rocks, which the denudation of ages has carved into a number of mountain ranges, plateaus, valleys and plains. The land area of peninsular India has never been submerged under the sea. The western ghats form the western edge, and the eastern ghats the eastern edge of the plateau, which slopes towards the east whereas the Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic plain are comparatively young. Marine sediment",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "valleys and plains. The land area of peninsular India has never been submerged under the sea. The western ghats form the western edge, and the eastern ghats the eastern edge of the plateau, which slopes towards the east whereas the Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic plain are comparatively young. Marine sediment occurs at the roof of the Everest. The Cretaceous period began 110 million years ago and lasted for 50 million years. During the middle and the upper Cretaceous, the land areas especially in the Puducherry, Tiruchirappalli sector, are mainly littoral. The fauna of this sector is similar to that of Malagasy (Madagascar) and South Africa and to that of the southern flank of the Assam range. Along the Narmada Valley on the west coast are some marine fossil ferrous beds with fossils showing greater affinity with those of the Cretaceous of southern Arabia and Europe than with those of Assam and Tiruchirappalli regions. The dissimilarity indicates that there was still a sort of land barrier that separated the Bay of Bengal from the Arabian Sea. This land barrier has been called Lellluria, which included Peninsular India and Malagasy (Madagasgar). The middle and the upper Cretaceous were periods, where volcanic outbursts overwhelmed a vast area, comprising the present Gujarat, Maharastra and Madhya Pradesh. Several hundred thousand square kilometers were flooded by the outpourings of extremely mobile lava from fissures. The hills formed by the lava are in some places over 1,200 meters high and are known as the Deccan traps. The formation of the Deccan trap continued in the Tertiary Period. Deccan trap covers Sind, Kutch, Bihar, and the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh. The uplift of the Himalayan system of mountain ranges was due to movements of two solid continental masses on two sides of the Tethys ocean, directed towards",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "formation of the Deccan trap continued in the Tertiary Period. Deccan trap covers Sind, Kutch, Bihar, and the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh. The uplift of the Himalayan system of mountain ranges was due to movements of two solid continental masses on two sides of the Tethys ocean, directed towards one another. The Central Asian Cratonic areas Freshwater facies Mixed facies Marine facies 1,000 5,000 10,000 1 5 10 1 foot = 0.3048 metre Isopach form lines in foot 28 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY continental mass, Angaraland, slowly moved from the north to the south under pressure from the floor of the Arctic Ocean, and the northern edge of the Indian continental mass, the Gondwanaland, became down warped by the northward compressive force from the Indian Ocean. The Himalayan portion of the Tethys gradually shifted southward and became narrower, assuming its present trend in the early Eocene time. The presence of tongue like projections of the Gondwanaland: one in the Kashmir-Hazara region (the Punjab wedge) and the other in the northeastern extremity of Assam (the Assam wedge) has moulded the pattern of the Himalayan chain. The effects of these two wedges can be clearly seen in any relief map of India. It will be seen that the Himalayan chain occurs as a huge arc between Nanga Parbat in the west and Namcha Barwa in the east. The convexity of the arc points south towards the Indian peninsula. Below the Himalayas is the Siwalik Hills, extending from Jammu in the west to Assam in the east. The Siwalik hills are mainly river deposits of the middle Miocene to the lower Pleistocene Age, folded into arches (anticlines) and troughs (synclines). The fault planes steeply sloping into the hills have given rise to steep scarps facing the plains. Immediately adjacent to and on",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to Assam in the east. The Siwalik hills are mainly river deposits of the middle Miocene to the lower Pleistocene Age, folded into arches (anticlines) and troughs (synclines). The fault planes steeply sloping into the hills have given rise to steep scarps facing the plains. Immediately adjacent to and on the north of the Siwalik Hills lies the sub-Himalayan zone or lesser Himalayas, 65 to 80 kilometers wide and of an average altitude of about 3,000 metres. The rocks here are mostly non fossiliferous. Farther north is the central Himalayan zone of high ranges with snow-clad peaks. It consists mainly of metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. The Indo-Gangetic plains, which lie at the foot of the Himalayas from Hazara to Assam, mark the side of a deep basin of estimated depth of 1,050 to 6,000 metres, which resulted from the compression exerted on the peninsular margin against the advancing crystal waves from the north. The basin has been filled up with the river alluvium derived from the rising Himalayas as well as from the plateau on the south. Lemuria Civilization Lemuria was originally the name given to a vast hypothetical sunken continent or a land bridge or landmass stretching from Ceylon to Madagascar all the way to the central Pacific Ocean across the Indian Ocean and Indonesia. Ancient Lemuria-map of India in 30,000 B.C. is presented in following Figure. The lemurs derive their name from that of the Lemurs (or “Ancestors”). AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 29 Man descends from the apes. Hence, the name of Lemuria can be interpreted as “Land Ancestral” or “Land of the Ancestors”. The name “Lemuria” was actually invented by an English Zoologist, Phillip L. Schlater, back in the early days of Darwinism, in order to explain the fossilized remains of lemurs similar to those that live in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the name of Lemuria can be interpreted as “Land Ancestral” or “Land of the Ancestors”. The name “Lemuria” was actually invented by an English Zoologist, Phillip L. Schlater, back in the early days of Darwinism, in order to explain the fossilized remains of lemurs similar to those that live in Madagascar only today. The last surviving ‘Lemurs’ exist on Madagascar. This is why the ancient land tying India and Australia together that sank incrementally over time, is referred to as ‘Lemuria’. The Tamil bark writings in Southern India tell of the gigantic Southern part of India, which used to connect to Australia cataclysmically sinking incrementally over a long period of time. This was ancient Lemuria or Kumari Kandam. The first Tamil Sangam was believed to have occurred in the so-called lost continent known as Kumari Kandam. The great flood would have sunk Lemuria or Kumari Kandam before the Ramayana period (10,000 B.C.) since there the existence of an island, Sri Lanka, in the Indian Ocean during the Ramayana period was mentioned. 2.1.2 Agriculture Heritage in India Agriculture in India is not of recent origin, but has a long history dating back to Neolithic age of 7500–6500 B.C. It changed the life style of early man from nomadic hunter of wild berries and roots to cultivator of land. Agriculture is benefited from the wisdom and teachings of great saints. The wisdom gained and practices adopted have been passed down through generations. The traditional farmers have developed the nature friendly farming systems and practices such as mixed farming, mixed cropping, crop rotation etc. The great epics of ancient India convey the depth of knowledge possessed by the older generations of the farmers of India. The modern society has lost sight of the importance of the traditional knowledge, which had been subjected to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and practices such as mixed farming, mixed cropping, crop rotation etc. The great epics of ancient India convey the depth of knowledge possessed by the older generations of the farmers of India. The modern society has lost sight of the importance of the traditional knowledge, which had been subjected to a process of refinement through generations of experience. The ecological considerations shown by the traditional farmers in their farming activities are now a days is reflected in the resurgence of organic agriculture. The available ancient literature includes the four Vedas, nine Brahnanas, Aranyakas, Sutra literature, Susruta Samhita, Charaka Samhita, Upanishads, the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, eighteen Puranas, Buddhist and Jain literature, and texts such as Krishi-Parashara, Kautilya’s, Artha-sastra, Panini’s Ashtadhyahi, Sangam literature of Tamils, Manusmirit, Varahamihira’s Brhat Samhita, Amarkosha, Kashyapiya-Krishisukti and Surapala’s Vriskshayurveda. This literature was most likely to have been composed between 6000 B.C. and 1000 A.D. The information related to the biodiversity and agriculture (including animal husbandry) is available in these texts. Rig-Veda is the most ancient literary work of India. It believed that Gods were the foremost among agriculturists. According to ‘Amarakosha’, Aryans were agriculturists. Manu and Kautilya prescribed agriculture, cattle rearing and commerce as essential subjects, which the king must learn. According to Patanjali the economy of the country depended on agriculture and cattle-breeding. Plenty of information is available in ‘Puranas’, which reveals that ancient Indians had intimate knowledge on all agricultural operations. Some of the well known ancient classics of India are namely, Kautilya’s‘Arthashastra’; Panini’s ‘Astadhyayi’; Patanjali’s ‘Mahabhasya’; Varahamihira’s ‘Brahat Samhita’; Amarsimha’s ‘Amarkosha’ and Encyclopedic works of Manasollasa. These classics testify the knowledge and wisdom of the people of ancient period. Technical book dealing exclusively with agriculture was Sage Parashara’s ‘Krishiparashara’ in 1000 A.D. Other important texts are Agni Purana and Krishi Sukti attributed to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "‘Astadhyayi’; Patanjali’s ‘Mahabhasya’; Varahamihira’s ‘Brahat Samhita’; Amarsimha’s ‘Amarkosha’ and Encyclopedic works of Manasollasa. These classics testify the knowledge and wisdom of the people of ancient period. Technical book dealing exclusively with agriculture was Sage Parashara’s ‘Krishiparashara’ in 1000 A.D. Other important texts are Agni Purana and Krishi Sukti attributed to Kashyap (500 A.D.). Ancient Tamil and Kannada works contain lot of useful information on agriculture in ancient India. Agriculture in India made tremendous progress in the rearing of sheep and goats, cows and buffaloes, trees and shrubs, spices and condiments, food and non-food crops, fruits and vegetables and developed nature friendly farming practices. These practices had social and religious undertones and became the way of life for the people. Domestic rites and festivals often synchronized with the four main agricultural operations of ploughing, sowing, reaping and harvesting. In the 30 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Rig-Veda, there is reference to hundreds and thousands of cows; to horses yoked to chariots; to race courses where chariot races were held; to camels yoked to the chariots; to sheep and goats offered as sacrificial victims, and to the use of wool for clothing. The famous Cow Sukta (Rv. 6.28) indicates that the cow had already become the very basis of rural economy. In another Sukta, she is defined as the mother of the Vasus, the Rudras and the Adityas, as also the pivot of immortality. The Vedic Aryans appear to have large forests at their disposal for securing timber, and plants and herbs for medicinal purposes appear to have been reared by the physicians of the age, as appears in the Atharva Veda. The farmers’ vocation was held in high regard, though agriculture solely depended upon the favours of Parjanya, the god of rain. His thunders are described as food-bringing. The four Vedas mentioned",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "medicinal purposes appear to have been reared by the physicians of the age, as appears in the Atharva Veda. The farmers’ vocation was held in high regard, though agriculture solely depended upon the favours of Parjanya, the god of rain. His thunders are described as food-bringing. The four Vedas mentioned more than 75 plant species, Satapatha Bhrahamna mentions over 25 species, and Charkaa Samhita (C. 300 B.C.) an Ayurvedic (Indian medicine) treatise-mentions more than 320 plants. Susruta (C. 400 B.C.) records over 750 medicinal plant species. The oldest book, RigVeda (C. 4000 B.C.) mentions a large number of poisonous and non poisonous aquatic and terrestrial, and domestic and wild creatures and animals. Puranas mention about 500 species of plants. The science of arbori-horticulture had developed well and has been documented in Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda. Forests were very important in ancient times. From the age of Vedas, protection of forests was emphasized for ecological balance. Kautilya in his Artha sastra (321–296 B.C.) mentions that superintendent of forests had to collect forest produce through the forest guards. He provides a long list of trees, varieties, of bamboos, creepers, fibrous plants, drugs and poisons, skins of various animals, etc., that come under the purview of his officer. The preservation of wild animals was encouraged and hunting as a sport was regarded as detrimental to proper development of the character and personality of the ruler, according to Manu (Manusmriti, 2nd Century B.C.). Specifically, in the Puranas (300–750 A.D.) the names of Shalihotra on horses, and Palakapya on elephants have been found as experts in animal husbandry. For instance, Garudapurana is a text dealing with treatment of animal disorders while the classical work on the treatment of horses is Aswashastra. One chapter/part in Agnipurana deals with the treatment of livestock and another on treatment of trees.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Palakapya on elephants have been found as experts in animal husbandry. For instance, Garudapurana is a text dealing with treatment of animal disorders while the classical work on the treatment of horses is Aswashastra. One chapter/part in Agnipurana deals with the treatment of livestock and another on treatment of trees. 2.2 DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN CULTURE The traditional classification of human social evolution is into pre-history and recorded history. The latter follows the invention of writing and therefore written historical records. The large number of primitive stone tools found in the Soan Valley and South India suggests that the earliest races of human existence in India go back to the period between 400,000 and 200,000 B.C. He learnt to control fire, which helped him to improve his way of living. At the end of this age, the modern human being (Homo sapiens) first appeared around 36,000 B.C. 2.2.1 Genetic History of Modern Man During the early Paleolithic period, at least four species of genus Homo (man) inhabited earth: (i) Homo habilis Parts of skull, hands, legs and feet were discovered in 1960-64 by Louis S.B. Leakey in Tanzania, E. Africa. He was 4 feet tall and used crude tools (bones, limbs from trees, chunks of stone). Homo habilis is morphologically too primitive to be an ancestor of homo erectus. (ii) Homo erectus There were two groups viz., (i) Java man remains were discovered dating ca. 1.5 million–500,000 B.C. on the island of Java in 1891. They were 5 feet tall and used group hunting techniques and (ii) Peking man remains were found between 1926–30 who knew the use AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 31 of fire (around 500,000 B.C.) to cook food and kept warm; evidence of the first true hand-axe was also found. (iii) Homo ergaster is morphologically closer to Homo",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "used group hunting techniques and (ii) Peking man remains were found between 1926–30 who knew the use AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 31 of fire (around 500,000 B.C.) to cook food and kept warm; evidence of the first true hand-axe was also found. (iii) Homo ergaster is morphologically closer to Homo sapiens than H. erectus. (iv) Homo sapiens The modern man was 5′4″ tall with a receding chin and heavy eyebrow ridges. He cooked his food, but no houses yet but only semi-nomadic. Some nuclear DNA sequences (including Y-chromosome data) and mt DNA indicate that modern humans originated and migrated relatively recently from a subset of the African population, putting Africa as the home of modern humanity. A study of human Y-chromosome variation in a worldwide sample of over 1,000 men determined that Africans and non-Africans shared a common ancestor 59,000 years ago and that the non-African branch of humanity left Africa about 44,000 years ago. Other data shows that Africans and non-Africans split about 156,000 years ago. The true migration date is some time between these dates. There seems to be some correlation between these dates and the appearance of modern humans as a species. The last common ancestor of all non-African human Ychromosomes is estimated to be about 40,000 years (31,000–79,000) ago. Another study of the Ychromosome of Europeans used 22 markers in 1,007 men across Europe over 80 per cent of the European genes were traced to two migrations of Paleolithic ancestors around 40,000 and 22,000 years ago, respectively. Twenty percent of the European genes were from Neolithic farmers who entered the continent about 10,000 years ago. Early or primitive Homo sapiens were adaptable, leading to the adoption of diverse lifestyles based on locally available food resources. Early Europeans hunted reindeer as did the Eskimo. Hunters met migratory",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "respectively. Twenty percent of the European genes were from Neolithic farmers who entered the continent about 10,000 years ago. Early or primitive Homo sapiens were adaptable, leading to the adoption of diverse lifestyles based on locally available food resources. Early Europeans hunted reindeer as did the Eskimo. Hunters met migratory herds in autumn on their return from summer tundra pastures to winter forest shelters. This meat could be frozen and used throughout the winter. Modern Eskimos, Australian aborigines and primitive inhabitants of Glacial Europe use a type of spear-thrower, an early technological innovation. Early Europeans had to contend with lions, bears, bison, mammoths, woolly rhinoceros and wild ox. Wood for cave fires was collected from conifer forests. On the southern steppes there was less fuel, so bone served as fuel. Homo erectus remains in Sunderland (Java, Sumatra and Borneo), of between 600,000 and 900,000 years old, represent the earliest evidence of our prehuman ancestors in this region. The Australoid colonists of this area are represented today by the Aborigines of Australia, the Highlanders of New Guinea, the Negritos of Malaya and the Philippines. 2.2.2 Development of Human Culture 1. Stone age The Pre-history Stone age is broken down into three periods, according to the material used for making tools: (i) The Paleolithic Period or Old/Ancient stone age (2.5 million-12,000 B.C.) The age in human culture was characterized by the use of rough or chipped stone tools. Man was essentially a food gatherer and depended on nature for food. He learnt to control fire, which helped him to improve his way of living. At the end of this age, the modern human being (Homo sapiens) first appeared around 36,000 B.C. The Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age) is from 2.5 million-12,000 B.C. with earliest tool-making human beings and ends when people learned",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to control fire, which helped him to improve his way of living. At the end of this age, the modern human being (Homo sapiens) first appeared around 36,000 B.C. The Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age) is from 2.5 million-12,000 B.C. with earliest tool-making human beings and ends when people learned to produce higher quality tools around 12,000 B.C. and to farm around 8,000 B.C. The Old Stone Age is the ‘Age of foodgatherers’, while the New Stone Age (the New Stone Age or the Neolithic Age (12000 to 4000 B.C.)) is referred to as the ‘Age of food producers’. This puts the Bronze Age onwards as the ‘Age of civilization’, starting towards the end of the Neolithic Age. There are three major lifestyle groupings viz., (i) Hunter gatherer, (ii) Agriculture, and (iii) Technological civilization. Civilization requires, or may be defined by, settlement in definite territories, the building of 32 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY towns and cities, the evolution of defined systems of government and the development of trade and commerce. This social system has and does exist together with the first two. Hunter gatherers Over the period called the Middle Paleolithic (called the Middle Stone Age in Africa), 200,000 to 40,000 years ago, stone tools found are quite similar, representing a uniform technology world-wide. The oldest site of tool use comes from East Africa where pebble tools were in use 1.7 million years ago. Tool and fire are ancient “landmarks” on the path to humanity. There is evidence that fire was first used by Homo erectus at Ghoukoutien, China 300,000 to 400,000 years ago. Hunter-gatherers had a practical, but excellent knowledge of their natural environment, be it plants, animals or the physical conditions. In productive areas, Australian aborigines had up to 250 food plants from which to choose. Poorer areas",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "was first used by Homo erectus at Ghoukoutien, China 300,000 to 400,000 years ago. Hunter-gatherers had a practical, but excellent knowledge of their natural environment, be it plants, animals or the physical conditions. In productive areas, Australian aborigines had up to 250 food plants from which to choose. Poorer areas had about 50 food plants. Paleolithic (Stone) Age lasted up to 12,000 B.C. Primitive man used tools and implements of rough stone. Man was essentially a food gatherer and depended on nature for food. Ice Age (Upper Paleolithic 35,000 to 8,000 B.C.) During this period, a culture of mammoth hunters lived in Eastern Europe and Siberia. These hunting nomads had a diet mostly of meat as did the Eskimos until recently. All their requirements would have come from their prey which also included bison, horses, reindeer, birds, fish, arctic foxes and hares. Vegetable foods would have formed a minor supplement. They even built huts from carefully interlocked mammoth bones covered with skins. A typical Australian aborigine’s catch for the day may include snakes, lizards, anteaters, frogs and grubs, and a wallaby or two. Semang people of Malaysia rely on small creatures (fish, birds, rats, squirrels, lizards and sometimes wild pigs, tapirs and deer), wild plants (nuts, berries, fruit, leaves, shoots, and tubers) and honey collected from the forest. They use a poisoned dart propelled from a two-metre long bamboo blowpipe to kill some animals. Beginning of agriculture Demographic pressure probably led to the adoption of crop cultivation and animal husbandry, leading to modern civilization. As the population grew, there was an increased dependence upon plants. Next, consumer demand within a constrained space forced the adoption of some form of intensive agriculture. Other evidence for this trend is found in Peru where people domesticated camelids and guinea pigs 2,000 years before",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "leading to modern civilization. As the population grew, there was an increased dependence upon plants. Next, consumer demand within a constrained space forced the adoption of some form of intensive agriculture. Other evidence for this trend is found in Peru where people domesticated camelids and guinea pigs 2,000 years before crop cultivation. Agriculture would have been started with the end of the last Ice Age between 15,000 and 8,000 years ago. Before this, people living the hunter-gatherer lifestyle depended upon what was available. Historical evidences showed that agriculture started around 8,500 years ago from the Near East, reaching Britain around 6,000 years ago and Spain and Portugal by 5,000 years ago. American Indians of central Brazil, called, the Kayapo are a modern version of hunter gatherer people. With chickens, crops such as corn, sweet potatoes, sweet manioc and yams and a hunting lifestyle they represent a transition from a hunter-gathering lifestyle to an agricultural lifestyle. What they caught by hunting, be it a tortoise, deer, fish or a wild pig, they had to share and they discouraged selfishness. Women worked in groups to gather fruit, nuts and plants from the same forest where the men hunt. Ironically, on finding a high fruit tree, they cut it down with a metal axe to harvest the ripe fruit. Domestic crops and animals become more important as food than wild animals and plants. Agriculture is relatively new, only emerging between 12,000 and 8,000 years ago and has often caused environmental damage, but has led to the social changes that have allowed the formation of our modern civilization. The domestication of dogs and turkeys followed agriculture. People made tools such as bone reaping knives with flint cutting teeth (Refer Table 1.1 of Chapter 1). AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 33 (ii) Mesolithic period or Meso",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "led to the social changes that have allowed the formation of our modern civilization. The domestication of dogs and turkeys followed agriculture. People made tools such as bone reaping knives with flint cutting teeth (Refer Table 1.1 of Chapter 1). AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 33 (ii) Mesolithic period or Meso stone age (12,000 to 7,500 B.C.) The Mesolithic age began and continued up to 4000 B.C. in India. It is characterized by tiny store implements called microliths. During this time, sharp and pointed tools were used for killing fast-moving animals. The beginning of plant cultivation also appeared. The human beings learned to produce higher quality tools around 10,000 B.C. and to farm around 8,000 B.C. Semi-permanent agricultural settlements took place in Old World. The human culture characterized by cultures moving from a food-gathering society to a food-production society. Tools in this age often had “barbs” or hooks, or interchangeable. The beginning of plant cultivation also appeared. Chotanagpur plateau, central India and south of the river Krishna are some of the various Mesolithic sites. Table 2.1. The Type of Economy and CultureDuring the Mesolithic Period-Bronze Age Period Type of economy Type of culture 12000-8500 B.C. Hunter/gathering economy with more Nomadic culture. intense use of animals plantings. 8500-7600 B.C. Exploitation of cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, Village development at Jericho wheat, barley, peas, lentil, etc., cultivated. barter began burial of dead. 7600-6000 B.C. Domestication of sheep, goat, expansion Increase in settlement size. range of cultivated crops. More varied artifacts. 6000-5000 B.C. Increasing concentration on agriculture and Pottery making began, use of plough. harding as hunting diminished in importance. Cattle and pigs domesticated. 5000-3700 B.C. More productive agriculture and herding Development of copper culture, wider economy. range of pottery styles. Increased population. (iii) Neolithic or New Stone age (7500 B.C. to 6500 B.C.) The",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "on agriculture and Pottery making began, use of plough. harding as hunting diminished in importance. Cattle and pigs domesticated. 5000-3700 B.C. More productive agriculture and herding Development of copper culture, wider economy. range of pottery styles. Increased population. (iii) Neolithic or New Stone age (7500 B.C. to 6500 B.C.) The word ‘lithium’ comes from a Greek word, “lithos”, which means stone while ‘Neo’ means ‘new’. Human settlement in the Indian sub-continent is from 7500 to 4000 B.C. Man began to domesticate animals and cultivate plants, settling down in villages to form farming communities. Beginning or discovery of Agriculture takes place in Neolithic period. Agricultural Revolution has occurred in western Asia during the same period. Invention of polished stone implements has taken place. The age in human culture characterized by the use of arrows, polished stone tools used in farming, the creation of pottery, weaving cloth and making baskets. In Neolithic period, two major periods were covered viz. I. 8000-6000 B.C.Early agricultural settlement with domestic architecture and variety of crafts. • 8000-7000 B.C.First phase lacked pottery; people used mostly stone blades, a few ground-stone hand-axes; wheat, barley—staple crops; domesticated sheep and goats; agriculture supplemented by Hunting; mud-brick huts; simple burial rituals. • 7000-6000 B.C.Pottery appears during second phase; domestic cattle replace game animals, sheep, and goats; granaries appear (indicate crop surpluses); more elaborate burial rituals; human figurines modeled in clay. II. 5000-3000 B.C.5500 B.C., a major geologic event took place (earthquake, flood, or shift of tectonic plates)—original site almost completely buried in silt. Original culture persisted, but with alterations: increased use of pottery; granaries larger/more numerous; appearance of several new crafts—use of copper and ivory; size of settlement enlarged. The Chalcolithic period lasted from 4,000 to 2,500 years B.C. 34 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 2. Bronze age (4000 to 2000 B.C.)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in silt. Original culture persisted, but with alterations: increased use of pottery; granaries larger/more numerous; appearance of several new crafts—use of copper and ivory; size of settlement enlarged. The Chalcolithic period lasted from 4,000 to 2,500 years B.C. 34 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 2. Bronze age (4000 to 2000 B.C.) Chalcolithic culture prevailed in Bronze Age. The term Chalcolithic is applied to the communities using stone implements along with copper or bronze ones. Invention of plough, wheel and metallurgy has taken place. Earliest recorded date in Egyptian calendar was 4241 B.C. First year of Jewish calendar was 3760 B.C. First phonetic writing appears in 3500 B.C. Sumerians develop a city-state civilization during 3000 B.C. Copper used by Egyptians and Sumerians. The most ancient civilization on the Indian subcontinent, the sophisticated and extensive Indus Valley civilization, flourishes in what is today Pakistan. Bronze Age is the period of ancient human culture characterized by the use of bronze; that began between 4000 and 3000 B.C., and ended with the advent of the Iron Age. According to a variety of religious traditions, about 3800 B.C. was the tragic expulsion of “Adam and Eve” from the Garden of Eden sent to practice agriculture. 3. Iron age (1500 B.C. onwards) The Little Ice age (1450 A.D.–1870 A.D.): Beginning about 1450 A.D. is a marked return to colder conditions, often called. ‘The Little Ice Age’, a term used to describe an epoch of renewed glacial advance. Glaciers advanced in Europe, Asia and North America, whilst sea ice in the North Atlantic expanded with detrimental effects for the colonies of Greenland and Iceland. 2.3 TECHNOLOGICAL CIVILIZATION The development of a technological civilization is a matter of degree rather than a moment in time. Early Egyptian societies were technological, enabling complex engineering such as the pyramids. Technology has",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "ice in the North Atlantic expanded with detrimental effects for the colonies of Greenland and Iceland. 2.3 TECHNOLOGICAL CIVILIZATION The development of a technological civilization is a matter of degree rather than a moment in time. Early Egyptian societies were technological, enabling complex engineering such as the pyramids. Technology has been with humans from the first use of a stone as a tool, as it is with some chimpanzee groups today. With the introduction of agriculture, villages and cities became possible as people did not have to travel in search of food. (Civilization comes from the Latin word “civitas” meaning city.) This sedentary way of life formed the basis for modern civilization. Egypt and Mesopotamia had established irrigation systems by 5,000 years ago. In China, people developed the iron plough by 2,600 years ago, replacing wood and stone ploughs as a more effective tool. They had also developed the mould board plough by 2,100 years ago. Ancient people are responsible for the basic inventions such as the use of fire, the use of metals such as gold and copper, bows and arrows, the fish hook, spinning and weaving, agriculture, animal domestication, sail boats and ships, wells and irrigation, pottery, clothing, language, arithmetic, the alphabet and written communication in prehistoric times. The oldest evidence for the bow and arrow, at 20,000 years old, comes from North Africa. Other agricultural inventions such as seed drills have older origins, in use in Mesopotamia 5,500 years ago. People built the pyramid at Saqqara over 4,600 years ago. Architects designed complex architectural concepts such as domes, built in Ancient Cyprus 5,000 years ago. The discovery and use of ‘metals’ was an important aspect of our cultural evolution. Malleable metals allowed creations limited only by human imagination and so the invention of a far wider range",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "4,600 years ago. Architects designed complex architectural concepts such as domes, built in Ancient Cyprus 5,000 years ago. The discovery and use of ‘metals’ was an important aspect of our cultural evolution. Malleable metals allowed creations limited only by human imagination and so the invention of a far wider range of implements, tools and instruments than could be made with wood and bone. Copper was found in almost pure form in some areas and so was one of the first metals used around 10,000 years ago by the people living along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in what is now Iraq. Gold was in use by 5,500 years ago. Roman dentists were using gold as tooth fillings 2,000 years ago. Silver was in use 6,000 years ago. Egyptians produced iron, the most difficult metal to separate from its ore, 4,000 years ago. Assyrians had an advanced technology for iron smelting, even making steel from iron. Labourer saving devices was commonly used in ancient Greece. They used the wedge, the lever, the block with pulleys, the winch or windlass and the screw. Scientists such as Archimedes (2,300 years ago) were involved in these developments, but were not the inventors. The screw was used to move water in the Middle East and probably originated in ancient Egypt. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 35 Before A.D. 1,000, two important innovations became established in Europe, the rotation of crops and the horse-drawn and wheeled Saxon plough. Water wheels were in use in England for various purposes such as grinding corn or sawing wood in 1066 A.D. At the end of the middle ages and the beginning of the Renaissance the German, Johan Gutenberg invented printing with movable type. His Gutenberg Bible of 1455 was the first known printed book. In the medieval period, mechanical clock",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "purposes such as grinding corn or sawing wood in 1066 A.D. At the end of the middle ages and the beginning of the Renaissance the German, Johan Gutenberg invented printing with movable type. His Gutenberg Bible of 1455 was the first known printed book. In the medieval period, mechanical clock and the watch with balance wheel was invented during 1286. During the fifteenth century Europeans started exploring and discovering the rest of the world. Columbus reached the Americas in 1492. Bartholomew Diaz reached the Cape of Good Hope on Africa in 1494. Vasco De Gama sailed around the Cape to India in 1497. In 1543, the “De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium” of Copernicus established that the earth orbited around the sun. According to Marco Polo, the Chinese inventions include coal as fuel, the use of paper money, printing technology, firearms and the compass during 1271–1292 and none of which was in use in Europe. Our technological era began with the invention of the steam engine and automated regulator devices in the mid-eighteenth century. Water mills remained the main source of mechanical power in England throughout the Industrial Revolution and up to 1830. A wheat thresher was invented in Scotland during 1784. A horse-drawn combine harvester that reaped, separated the chaff and poured the grain into bags was in use in 1830’s. Paper was invented in China around A.D. 100. A practical typewriter was patented in 1868. Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician invented the first automatic calculator in 1642. George Boole, a mathematician developed this into Boolean Algebra and Boolean Logic. This formed the basis for computer logic and computer languages. Fabric weaving was automated in 1801 by J.M. Jacquard, using punched cards. Charles Babbage (1791–1871) tried to develop a mechanical computer, or “analytical engine” using punched cards in the 1830’s. In",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "mathematician developed this into Boolean Algebra and Boolean Logic. This formed the basis for computer logic and computer languages. Fabric weaving was automated in 1801 by J.M. Jacquard, using punched cards. Charles Babbage (1791–1871) tried to develop a mechanical computer, or “analytical engine” using punched cards in the 1830’s. In 1888, an American inventor, Herman Hollerith, developed a successful computer, using punched cards and electricity. This was the first step in automated data processing, generating tabulated results from payroll, census and other data. In 1911 he sold his company, the Tabulating Machine Company, which then became the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company. They formed IBM from this company in 1924. Indian History A Timeline (Ancient) 2700 B.C. Harappa Civilization 1000 B.C. Aryans expand into the Ganga valley 900 B.C. Mahabharata War 800 B.C. Aryans expand into Bengal; Beginning of the Epic Age: Mahabharata composed, first version of Ramayana 550 B.C. Composition of the Upanishads 544 B.C. Buddha’s Nirvana 327 B.C. Alexander’s Invasion 325 B.C. Alexander marches ahead 324 B.C. Chandragupta Maurya defeats Seleacus Nicator 322 B.C. Rise of the Mauryas; Chandragupta establishes first Indian Empire 298 B.C. Bindusara Coronated 272 B.C. Ashoka begins reign ; Exclusive Interview with Ashoka 180 B.C. Fall of the Mauryas ; Rise of the Sungas 145 B.C. Chola king conquers Ceylon 58 B.C. Epoch of the Krita-Malava-Vikram Era (Contd.) 36 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 30 B.C. Rise of the Satvahana Dynasty in the Deccan 40 A.D. Sakas in power in Indus Valley and Western India 50 A.D. The Kushans and Kanishkas 78 A.D. Saka Era begins 320 A.D. Chandragupta I establishes the Gupta dynasty 360 A.D. Samudragupta conquers the North and most of the Deccan 380 A.D. Chandragupta II comes to power; Golden Age of Gupta Literary Renaissance 405 A.D. Fa-hein begins his travels through the Gupta Empire",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Kushans and Kanishkas 78 A.D. Saka Era begins 320 A.D. Chandragupta I establishes the Gupta dynasty 360 A.D. Samudragupta conquers the North and most of the Deccan 380 A.D. Chandragupta II comes to power; Golden Age of Gupta Literary Renaissance 405 A.D. Fa-hein begins his travels through the Gupta Empire 415 A.D. Accession of Kumara Gupta I 467 A.D. Skanda Gupta assumes power 476 A.D. Birth of astronomer Aryabhatta 606 A.D. Accession of Harshavardhan Gupta 622 A.D. Era of the Hejira begins 711 A.D. Invasion of Sind by Muhammad Bin Qasim 985 A.D. The Chola Dynasty: Accession of Rajaraja, the Great 1001 A.D. Defeat of Jaipal by Sultan Mahumd Indian History A Timeline (Medieval) Year Particulars 1026 Mahmud Ghazni sacks Somnath Temple 1191 Prithviraj Chauhan routs Muhammad Ghori: the first battle of Tarain 1192 Qutbuddin establishes the Slave Dynasty 1221 Mongol invasion under Genghis Khan 1232 Foundation of the Qutub Minar 1288 Marco Polo visits India 1290 Jalaludin Firuz Khalji establishes the Khalji dynasty 1320 Ghiyasuddin Tughluk founds the Tughluk dynasty 1325 Accession of Muhammad-bin-Tughluk 1336 Foundation of Vijayanagar (Deccan) 1398 Timur invades India 1424 Rise of the Bahmani dynasty (Deccan) 1451 The Lodi dynasty established in Delhi 1489 Adil Shah dynasty at Bijapur 1490 Nizam Shahi dynasty at Ahmednagar 1498 First voyage of Vasco da gama 1510 Portuguese capture Goa 1518 Kutub Shahi dynasty at Golconda 1526 Establishment of the Mughul Dynasty; First Battle of Panipat: Babur defeats Lodis (Contd.) AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 37 1526−1530 Reign of Babur 1530 Humayun succeeds Babur 1538 Death of Guru Nanak 1539 Sher Shah Suri defeats Humayan and becomes Emperor of Delhi 1555 Humayun recovers the throne of Delhi 1556 Death of Humayun; Accession of Akbar; 1564 Akbar abolishes poll tax on Hindus 1565 Battle of Talikota: Muslim rulers in Deccan defeats",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1530 Humayun succeeds Babur 1538 Death of Guru Nanak 1539 Sher Shah Suri defeats Humayan and becomes Emperor of Delhi 1555 Humayun recovers the throne of Delhi 1556 Death of Humayun; Accession of Akbar; 1564 Akbar abolishes poll tax on Hindus 1565 Battle of Talikota: Muslim rulers in Deccan defeats and destroys Vijaynagar Empire 1568 Fall of Chittor 1571 Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri by Akbar 1572 Akbar annexes Gujarat 1573 Surat surrenders to Akbar 1575 Battle of Tukaroi 1576 Battle of Haldighati: Akbar defeats Rana Pratap; Subjugation of Bengal 1577 Akbar troops invade Khandesh 1580 Accession of Ibrahim Adil Shah II in Bengal; Rebellion in Bihar and Bengal 1581 Akbar’s march against Muhammad Hakim and reconciliation with him 1582 Divine Faith promulagated 1586 Annexation of Kashmir 1591 Mughul conquest of Sind 1592 Annexation of Orissa 1595 Siege of Ahmednagar; Annexation of Baluchistan 1597 Akbar completes his conquests 1600 Charter to the English East India Company 1602 Formation of the United East India Company of Netherlands 1605 Death of Akbar and Accession of Jahangir 1606 Rebellion of Khusrav; Execution of the Fifth Sikh Guru, Arjan 1607 Sher Afghan first, husband of Nur Jahan, killed 1608 Malik Ambar takes Ahmednagar 1609 The Dutch open a factory at Pulicat 1611 The English establish a factory at Masulipatnam 1612 The Mughul Governor of Bengal defeats the rebellious Afghans; Mughuls annex Kuch Hajo 1615 Submission of Mewar to the Mughuls; Arrival of Sir Thomas Roe in India 1616 The Dutch establish a factory at Surat 1620 Capture of Kangra Fort; Malik Ambar revolts in the Deccan 1622 Shah Abbas of Persia besieges and takes Qandahar 1623 Shah Jahan revolts against Jahangir (Contd.) 38 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1624 Suppression of Shah Jahan’s rebellion 1626 Rebellion of Mahabat Khan 1627 Death of Jahangir; Accession of Shah",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1620 Capture of Kangra Fort; Malik Ambar revolts in the Deccan 1622 Shah Abbas of Persia besieges and takes Qandahar 1623 Shah Jahan revolts against Jahangir (Contd.) 38 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1624 Suppression of Shah Jahan’s rebellion 1626 Rebellion of Mahabat Khan 1627 Death of Jahangir; Accession of Shah Jahan 1628 Shah Jahan proclaimed Emperor 1631 Death of Shah Jahan’s wife Mumtaz Mahal; The construction of Taj Mahal 1632 Mughul invasion of Bijapur; Grant of the “Golden Firman” of the English Company by the Sultan of Golkunda 1633 End of Ahmednagar Dynasty 1636 Aurangzeb appointed Viceroy of Deccan 1639 Foundation of Fort St. George at Madras by the English 1646 Shivaji captures Torna 1656 The Mughuls attack Hyderabad and Golkunda; Annexation of Javli by Shivaji 1657 Invasion of Bijapur by Aurangzeb; Aurangzeb captures Bidar and Kalyani 1658 Coronation of Aurangzeb 1659 Battles of Khajwah and Deorai 1661 Cession of Bombay to the English; Mughul capture of Cooch Bihar 1664 Shivaji sacks Surat and assumes royal title 1666 Death of Shah Jahan; Shivaji’s visit to Agra and escape 1674 Shivaji assumes the title of Chhatrapati 1678 Marwar occupied by the Mughuls 1680 Death of Shivaji; Rebellion of Prince Akbar 1686 English war with the Mughuls; Fall of Bijapur 1689 Execution of Sambhaji 1690 Peace between the Mughuls and the English 1691 Aurangzeb at the zenith of his power 1698 The new English company trading to the East Indies 1699 First Maratha raid on Malwa 1700 Death of Rajaram and regency of his widow Tara Bai 1702 Amalgamation of English and the London East India Companies 1707 Death of Aurangzeb; Battle of Jajau 1714 Husain Ali appointed Viceroy of the Deccan; The treaty of the Marathas with Husain Ali 1720 Accession of Baji Rao Peshwa at Poona 1739 Nadir Shah conquers",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of his widow Tara Bai 1702 Amalgamation of English and the London East India Companies 1707 Death of Aurangzeb; Battle of Jajau 1714 Husain Ali appointed Viceroy of the Deccan; The treaty of the Marathas with Husain Ali 1720 Accession of Baji Rao Peshwa at Poona 1739 Nadir Shah conquers Delhi; The Marathas capture Salsette and Bassein 1740 Accession of Balaji Rao Peshwa; The Marathas invade Arcot 1742 Marathas invade Bengal 1748 First Anglo-French war 1750 War of the Deccan and Carnatic Succession; Death of Nasir Jang 1751 Treaty of Alivadi with the Marathas 1756 Siraj-ud-daulah captures Calcutta AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 39 Indian history A Timeline (Modern) 1757 Battle of Plassey: The British defeat Siraj-ud-daulah 1760 Battle of Wandiwash: The British defeat the French 1761 Third battle of Panipat: Ahmed Shah Abdali defeats the Marathas; Accession of Madhava Rao Peshwa; Rise of Hyder Ali 1764 Battle of Buxar: The British defeat Mir Kasim 1765 The British get Diwani Rights in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa 1767–1769 First Mysore War: The British conclude a humiliating peace pact with Hyder Ali 1772 Death of Madhava Rao Peshwa; Warren Hastings appointed as Governor of Bengal 1773 The Regulating Act passed by the British Parliament 1774 Warren Hastings appointed as Governor-General 1775–1782 The First Anglo-Maratha war 1780–1784 Second Mysore War : The British defeat Hyder Ali 1784 Pitt’s India Act 1790–1792 Third Mysore War between the British and Tipu 1793 Permanent Settlement of Bengal 1794 Death of Mahadaji Sindhia 1799 Fourth Mysore War: The British defeat Tipu; Death of Tipu; Partition of Mysore 1802 Treaty of Bassein 1803–1805 The Second Anglo-Maratha war: The British defeat the Marathas at Assaye: Treaty of Amritsar 1814–1816 The Anglo-Gurkha war 1817–1818 The Pindari war 1817–1819 The last Anglo-Maratha war: Marathas finally crushed by the British 1824–1826 The First",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "British defeat Tipu; Death of Tipu; Partition of Mysore 1802 Treaty of Bassein 1803–1805 The Second Anglo-Maratha war: The British defeat the Marathas at Assaye: Treaty of Amritsar 1814–1816 The Anglo-Gurkha war 1817–1818 The Pindari war 1817–1819 The last Anglo-Maratha war: Marathas finally crushed by the British 1824–1826 The First Burmese war 1829 Prohibition of Sati 1829–1837 Suppression of Thuggee 1831 Raja of Mysore deposed and its administration taken over by East India Company 1833 Renewal of Company’s Charter; Abolition of company’s trading rights 1835 Education Resolution 1838 Tripartite treaty between Shah Shuja, Ranjit Singh and the British 1839–1842 First Afghan war 1843 Gwalior war 1845–1846 First Anglo-Sikh war 1848 Lord Dalhousie becomes the Governor-General 1848–1849 Second Anglo-Sikh war: (Rise of Sikh Power) British annex Punjab as Sikhs are defeated (Contd.) 40 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1852 Second Anglo-Burmese war 1853 Railway opened from Bombay to Thane; Telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra 1857 First War of Indian Independence: The Sepoy Mutiny 1858 British Crown takes over the Indian Government 1861 Indian Councils Act; Indian High Courts Act; Introduction of the Penal Code 1868 Punjab Tenancy Act; Railway opened from Ambala to Delhi 1874 The Bihar Famine 1877 Delhi Durbar: The Queen of England proclaimed Empress of India 1878 Vernacular Press Act 1881 Factory Act; Rendition of Mysore 1885 First meeting of the Indian National Congress; Bengal Tenancy Act 1891 Indian Factory Act 1892 Indian Councils Act to regulate Indian administration 1897 Plague in Bombay; Famine Commission 1899 Lord Curzon becomes Governor-General and Viceroy 1905 The First Partition of Bengal 1906 Formation of Muslim League; Congress declaration regarding Swaraj 1908 Newspaper Act 1911 Delhi Durbar; Partition of Bengal modified to create the Presidency of Bengal 1912 The Imperial capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi 1913 Educational Resolution of the Government",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "becomes Governor-General and Viceroy 1905 The First Partition of Bengal 1906 Formation of Muslim League; Congress declaration regarding Swaraj 1908 Newspaper Act 1911 Delhi Durbar; Partition of Bengal modified to create the Presidency of Bengal 1912 The Imperial capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi 1913 Educational Resolution of the Government of India 1915 Defence of India Act 1916 Home Rule League founded; Foundation of Women’s University at Poona 1919 Rowlatt Act evokes protests; Jalianwalla Bagh massacre; The MontagueChelmsford Reforms offer limited autonomy 1920 The Khilafat Movement started; Mahatma Gandhi leads the Congress; Non-co-operation Movement 1921 Moplah (Muslim) rebellion in Malabar; Census of India 1922 Civil Disobedience Movement; Chauri-Chaura violence leads to Gandhi suspending movement 1923 Swarajists in Indian Councils; Certification of Salt Tax; Hindu-Muslim riots 1925 Reforms Enquiry Committee Report 1926 Royal Commission on Agriculture; Factories Act 1927 Indian Navy Act; Simon Commission Appointed 1928 Simon Commission comes to India: Boycott by all parties; All Parties Conference 1929 Lord Irwin promises Dominion Status for India; Trade Union split; Jawaharlal Nehru hoists the National Flag at Lahore 1930 Civil Disobedience movement continues; Salt Satyagraha: Gandhiji’s Dandi March; First Round Table Conference 1931 Second Round Table Conference; Irwin-Gandhi Pact; Census of India (Contd.) AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 41 1932 Suppression of the Congress movement; Third Round Table Conference; The Communal Award; Poona Pact 1933 Publication of White Paper on Indian reforms 1934 Civil Disobedience Movement called off; Bihar Earthquake 1935 Government of India Act 1937 Inauguration of Provincial Autonomy; Congress ministries formed in a majority of Indian provinces 1939 Political deadlock in India as Congress ministries resign 1942 Cripps Mission to India; Congress adopts Quit India Resolution; Congress leaders arrested; Subhash Chandra Bose forms Indian National Army 1944 Gandhi-Jinnah Talks break down on Pakistan issue 1945 First trial of the Indian Army",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in a majority of Indian provinces 1939 Political deadlock in India as Congress ministries resign 1942 Cripps Mission to India; Congress adopts Quit India Resolution; Congress leaders arrested; Subhash Chandra Bose forms Indian National Army 1944 Gandhi-Jinnah Talks break down on Pakistan issue 1945 First trial of the Indian Army men opened 1946 Mutiny in Royal Indian Navy; Cabinet Mission’s plan announced; Muslim League decides to participate in the Interim Government; Interim Government formed; Constituent Assembly’s first meeting 3–6–1947 Announcement of Lord Mountbatten’s plan for partition of India 15–8–1947 Partition of India and Independence 2.4 INDUS CIVILIZATION The great civilizations of the ancient world are Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt; then come, in mixed order, ancient China, Greece, Central and South America, and the Indus Valley civilization, also called the Harappan civilization. Indian civilization, its ancientness and great cultural traditions go back to the dawn of ages. This civilization was thought to have been confined to the valley of the river Indus, hence the name given to it was Indus Valley civilization. This civilization was a highly developed urban one and two of its towns, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, represent the high watermark of the settlements. Subsequent archaeological excavations established that the contours of this civilization were not restricted to the Indus valley but spread to a wide area in northwestern and western India. Thus this civilization is now better known as the Harappan civilization. Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are now in Pakistan and the principal sites in India include Ropar in Punjab, Lothal in Gujarat and Kalibangan in Rajasthan. Recent research has shown Sutkagen Dor in Baluchistan next to Iran is the western most known Harappan site. The Indus Valley Civilization stretched across the whole of Sindh, Baluchistan, Punjab, Northern Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Gujarat. This civilization is one of the three great",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Lothal in Gujarat and Kalibangan in Rajasthan. Recent research has shown Sutkagen Dor in Baluchistan next to Iran is the western most known Harappan site. The Indus Valley Civilization stretched across the whole of Sindh, Baluchistan, Punjab, Northern Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Gujarat. This civilization is one of the three great early civilizations that arose in the late fourth and third millennia B.C. around the three large alluvial systems of the Tigris-Euphrates, Nile and Indus rivers. India laid stress on a deep culture without neglected material life. Indian can be pride comparing with Americans or Australians civilization which has taken two centuries old and material achievements. 2.4.1 Physical Data The Harappan civilization comprises of more than 1,500 settlements, most of them small villages or towns, with only a few large cities. Some of the “villages” covered more than twenty hectares; the cities, in comparison, often extended over some eighty hectares—Mohenjo-daro up to 250 hectares. The southern limit was between the Tapti and the Godavari rivers, while the northern limit was some 1,400 km away in Kashmir (at Manda)—though one site, Shortughai, is found still farther up, in 42 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Afghanistan; as of now, the easternmost settlement stands at Alamgirpur in Western Uttar Pradesh, and the western limits were the Arabian sea and the whole Makran coast, almost all the way to the present Pakistan-Iran border. Harappa is a site on the west bank of Ravi; Kalibangan is a site on the right bank of Sutlej; Amri is a site on the west bank of Indus (close to the Arabian sea); Banawali is located 15 km northwest of Fatehbad, near the Sarasvati river and about 120 km east of Kalibangan; Lothal and Rangpur are sites below the Rann of Kutch. NoteSome of the main sites of the Harappan civilization",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "site on the west bank of Indus (close to the Arabian sea); Banawali is located 15 km northwest of Fatehbad, near the Sarasvati river and about 120 km east of Kalibangan; Lothal and Rangpur are sites below the Rann of Kutch. NoteSome of the main sites of the Harappan civilization along the dry bed of the Sarasvati. Indus or ‘Sindhu’ civilization comprising the settlements, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, were found along the river, Ravi and its tributary and on the both sides of the Indo-Pakistan border along the dry bed of a huge river, Sarasvati in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley. The giant sites of Ganweriwala and Lakhmirwala are the known settlements of Kalibangan and Banawali. There are a number of sites in Gujarat, such as Lothal. Satellite photography and recently by radioisotope dating of the water still found under the river’s dry bed in the Rajasthan desert. Since the sites found along the Sarasvati far outnumber those in the Indus basin, some scholars have made the point that the Harappan civilization would be better named the ‘Indus-Sarasvati civilization’. The origins of the Indus-Sarasvati civilization are to be found on the subcontinent itself. It no doubt had extensive cultural and commercial contacts with other civilizations, but its identity was distinct. Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization flourished circa 3000 to 1700 B.C. on the river valleys of Indus and Sarasvati rivers. The drying-up of the Sarasvati AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 43 river led to migrations of people eastwards to the Ganga-Yamuna doab and southwards from the Rann of Kutch and Pravara (feeder into the Godavari river near Daimabad in Maharashtra) river valley, along the Arabian sea coast. The old Sarasvati river courses from the Sutlej, flowed through Northern Rajasthan, Bahawalpur and Sind found its way into the Arabian Sea via Rann of Kutch in the third to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Kutch and Pravara (feeder into the Godavari river near Daimabad in Maharashtra) river valley, along the Arabian sea coast. The old Sarasvati river courses from the Sutlej, flowed through Northern Rajasthan, Bahawalpur and Sind found its way into the Arabian Sea via Rann of Kutch in the third to second millennium B.C. Etymologically, Sarasvati means ‘abundance of lakes (saras)’. The synonym of Sarasvati (goddess of vak = speech or language) is brahmi which is the name given to the early scripts used in Asoka’s epigraphs of circa 300 B.C. Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, a U.S. archaeologist, who has worked on many Indus sites, dated 5000–2600 B.C. 2.4.2 River Migrations in Western India The dried-up bed of Sarasvati might have constituted the great road between Hastinapur and Dwaraka. Geographically, the Sarasvati basin can be traced to the currently known: ghaggar channels. Ghaggar might have been a stream that rose in the Siwaliks and that joined the Sarasvati. This network runs parallel to the Indus across Sind. The river flowed from the Himalayas to the Rann of Kutch. Geologically, the entire Sarasvati riverbed, and the arm of the Arabian sea (formerly spanning into saline Ranns of kutch) into which the river fell are on an earthquake belt; an earthquake could have upraised this entire river-sea-bed profile, drying up the river. This may explain the formation of the Thar desert on the left banks of the river in earlier earthquakes; also, perhaps of the Thar desert in Pakistan. Did some tracts of the Thar desert support cultivation in ancient times? Geological surveys do indicate subsoil water in some tracts. Even today, over 2 million people in Rajasthan live in these tracts! The Sanskrit name is maru-sthall. cf. Tamil maruta-nilam]. The Indus river has a very wide flood plain on either side of its",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Thar desert support cultivation in ancient times? Geological surveys do indicate subsoil water in some tracts. Even today, over 2 million people in Rajasthan live in these tracts! The Sanskrit name is maru-sthall. cf. Tamil maruta-nilam]. The Indus river has a very wide flood plain on either side of its course up to a maximum width of 100–120 km in the east and southeast. To have such a wide flood plain on only one side shows that the Indus river has preferentially migrated towards the north-west in the northern parts and towards the west in the central and southern parts. The study of remotely sensed data in the desert tract of Rajasthan shows that there are plenty of paleochannels with well sprung-up tentacles throughout the desert. On the northern edge of the Thar-Great Indian desert at the Ganganagar-Anupgarh plains a well-developed set of palaeochannels are clearly discernible in satellite photographs. The Saraswati river once flowed close to the Aravalli hill ranges and met the Arabian sea in the Rann of Kutch that it has migrated towards the west, the northwest and the north and has ultimately got lost in the Anupgarh plains. “...Remote sensing study of the Great Indian Desert reveals that the Saraswati river, which is believed to be lost in the desert, could be traced through these palaeochannels as a migratory river. Its initial course flowed close to the Aravalli ranges and successive six stages took west and northwesterly shifts till it coincides with the dry bed of Ghaggar river. The groundwater, archaeological and pedological data with selected ground truths also corroborates these findings. The migration of river Saraswati seems to be caused by tetonic disturbances in Hardwar-Delhi ridge zone, Luni-Surki lineament, Cambay Graben and Kutch fault facilitated by contrasting climatic variations. The stream piracy by Yamuna river",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Ghaggar river. The groundwater, archaeological and pedological data with selected ground truths also corroborates these findings. The migration of river Saraswati seems to be caused by tetonic disturbances in Hardwar-Delhi ridge zone, Luni-Surki lineament, Cambay Graben and Kutch fault facilitated by contrasting climatic variations. The stream piracy by Yamuna river at later stage is responsible for the ultimate loss of water and drying up of the Saraswati river...” Climate change The Indus Valley Culture seen in the context of post-glacial climatic and ecological studies in North-West India: suggests that “...the significant increase in rainfall at the beginning of the third millennium B.C., attested by palaeoecological evidence, played an important part in the sudden expansion of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures in north-west India, ultimately leading to the prosperity of the Indus culture... The present evidence would suggest that the onset of aridity in the region around 1800 B.C. probably resulted in the weakening of the Harappan culture in the arid and semi-arid parts of north-west India...” 44 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 2.4.3 Saraswati River Civilization After the discovery of the first archaeological site at Harappa in 1920, the civilization was referred to as Harappan culture. With the discovery of another major site at Mohenjo-daro in the same decade, it was re-christened as Indus civilization. Since 1950’s a number of new type sites have been located. In particular, the sites of Rupar, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira and Banawali. The characteristic feature of the location of these sites is that these are on the banks of or very close to the ‘lost’ sarasvati river. Hence, the civilization should be re-christened as Indus-Sarasvati civilization. Sarasvati river is extolled in the Rigvedas. Kalibangan and Lothal may not be as grandiose as the urban Harappa but are typical Indus/Sarasvati civilization sites. The lost Saraswati river course has established",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of or very close to the ‘lost’ sarasvati river. Hence, the civilization should be re-christened as Indus-Sarasvati civilization. Sarasvati river is extolled in the Rigvedas. Kalibangan and Lothal may not be as grandiose as the urban Harappa but are typical Indus/Sarasvati civilization sites. The lost Saraswati river course has established the existence of a river flowing down from the Siwalik ranges and also the changes in the courses of the Indus tributaries and the Yamuna rivers. As Yamuna and Sutlej captured the water sources, Sarasvati might have dried up, aided by the upraising of land caused by earthquakes. A part of the river exists as Ghaggar in Haryana; the rest of it has disappeared in the fringes of the maru-sthall or the thar desert. (a) The Cities Harappan cities displayed the most sophisticated town-planning. Geometrically designed, the towns had fortifications (for protection against both intruders and floods), several distinct quarters, assembly halls, and manufacturing units of various types ; some bigger cities had furnaces for the production of copper tools, weapons or ornaments ; public baths (probably often part of temples), private baths for most inhabitants, sewerage through underground drains built with precisely laid bricks, and an efficient water management with numerous reservoirs and wells show that the ordinary inhabitant was well taken care of. Mohenjo-daro, for instance, is thought to have had over 700 wells, some of them fifteen metres deep, built with special trapezoid bricks (to prevent collapse by the pressure of the surrounding soil). The Indian archaeologist, B.B. Lal, writes in a recent comprehensive study of this civilization: “Well-regulated streets [were] oriented almost invariably along with the cardinal directions, thus forming a gridiron pattern, even the widths of these streets were in a set ratio, i.e., if the narrowest lane was one unit in width, the other",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "B.B. Lal, writes in a recent comprehensive study of this civilization: “Well-regulated streets [were] oriented almost invariably along with the cardinal directions, thus forming a gridiron pattern, even the widths of these streets were in a set ratio, i.e., if the narrowest lane was one unit in width, the other streets were twice, thrice and so on. Such a town-planning was unknown in contemporary West Asia. (b) Agriculture, Technology and Trade in Harappa during 1600 B.C. In the Chalcolithic period, Harappans had reached a high state of culture. They wore cotton garments and used ivory combs and copper mirrors. The women wore ornaments of bronze and gold. They used implements such as sickles, saws, knife blades, spears, axes, arrowheads and daggers made of bronze and copper fish-hooks. Specialized occupation besides agriculture developed and these articles were produced by skilled craftsman such as coppersmiths, carpenters, jewelers, goldsmiths, stone cutters and potters. Trade with other countries especially with Mesopotamia flourished and some items such as metals timber and precious stones were imported. Harappans cultivated bread wheat, barley, sesame, pea, melon, date palm and Brassica spp. Gossypium arboreum was an important crop, the centre of its origin the Indus Valley. Harappan culture covered a very vast area in north India with very strong settlements at various sites in Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The rice cultivated in Harappa had long seeded grain and perhaps was the ancestor of the fragrant basmati rice. Wheat and jowar were the other food crops. (c) Neolithic (7500–6500 B.C.) and Chalcolithic (2295–1300 B.C.) The main crops under cultivation were jowar, bajra, and ragi (Eleusine coracana). Minor millets such as kangni (Setaria italica), kundon (Paspalum milliaceum) and sannuk (Echinochloa frumentacea) were also cultivated. Other crops were kulthi (Dolichos bifiorus), mung (Vigna radiata),",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the other food crops. (c) Neolithic (7500–6500 B.C.) and Chalcolithic (2295–1300 B.C.) The main crops under cultivation were jowar, bajra, and ragi (Eleusine coracana). Minor millets such as kangni (Setaria italica), kundon (Paspalum milliaceum) and sannuk (Echinochloa frumentacea) were also cultivated. Other crops were kulthi (Dolichos bifiorus), mung (Vigna radiata), mash (urd; black AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 45 gram; Vigna mungo), masur (Lens culinaris), linseed (Linum usitatissimum) and castor (Ricinus communis), Ber (Ziziphus nummularia) and amla (Emblica officinalis) were also grown. Wood of teak (Tectona grandis), Acacia sp., Albizia sp, and Ziziphus mauritiana were used for making agriculture implements and for timber. The wood of Zizphus mauritiana was used for marking moosal (mortar). The plant domestication, diffusion development in ancient India and borderlands was a gradual transition from full time hunting-foraging practices which took place in several geographical regions and chronological settings, viz., the north western sector, Baluchistan, Pakistan and its borderlands with Iran and Afghanistan during Neolithic period between 8000 and 5500 B.C. In the early Chalcholithic phase (4700–4300 B.C.) wheat, hulled and naked barley was cultivated. Fruits of jujube, prunus and cotton were added to the plant economy besides dates. Practice of high yielding hexaploid wheat (bread, club and dwarf) and barley (hulled and naked) also continued. Crop remains of wheat (emmer, bread, club and dwarf) and hulled barley from 3500 to 3200 B.C. along with apricots. During 3200–2500 B.C., barley (6 row hulled, 6 row naked, 6 row shot) lentil, chickpea, flax/linseed, jujube, grape, cotton and dates were grown. Besides rice, indigenous people of India had domesticated several species of minor millets, grain, legumes, oil seed crops fiber crops, fruits, vegetables and other economic plant species in the Indus–Saraswati Yamuna Ganga valleys. Farmers practiced barely and rice rotation at Atranjikhera (e.g., 2000–1500 B.C.) in association with grass",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "were grown. Besides rice, indigenous people of India had domesticated several species of minor millets, grain, legumes, oil seed crops fiber crops, fruits, vegetables and other economic plant species in the Indus–Saraswati Yamuna Ganga valleys. Farmers practiced barely and rice rotation at Atranjikhera (e.g., 2000–1500 B.C.) in association with grass pea and chickpea. Farmers cultivated rice, black gram and green gram in the rainy season and bread and lentil in winter. The people ate, besides cereals, vegetables and fruits, fish, fowl, mutton, beef and pork. Perhaps the most remarkable achievement was the cultivation of cotton. There was an extensive network of canals for irrigation. The Sumerians developed the plough about 2900 B.C. Possibly the Harappans learnt the use of the plough from the Sumerians. All primitive ploughs were made of wood, and wood is a perishable material. A terracotta model of a plough, 7 cm × 19.7 cm has been discovered from Mohenjo-daro. This toy plough is kept in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. There is a longish beam and the plough breast terminates in a rectangular manner. There is no indication that it had a handle (munna) for the ploughman to hold. The people of Kalibangan had domesticated cattle, and carried on agriculture. To the southeast of the pre-Harappan settlement a ploughed field was discovered. It showed a grid of furrows, with one set more closely spaced (about 30 cm apart) running east-west, and the other widely spaced (about 1.90 metres apart), running north south. This pattern bears a remarkable resemblance to ploughing as is now carried, where mustard and gram are grown in two sets of furrows in the same field. S.R. Rao in his monograph, Lothal and the Indus Civilization, has reproduced a photograph of a seal from Lothal, which he feels depicts a seed drill.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a remarkable resemblance to ploughing as is now carried, where mustard and gram are grown in two sets of furrows in the same field. S.R. Rao in his monograph, Lothal and the Indus Civilization, has reproduced a photograph of a seal from Lothal, which he feels depicts a seed drill. But its shape is rather unusual for a seed-drill. Ox-drawn sledges were still being used about 3000 B.C. at Dr to convey royal corpses to their final resting-place. But long before that date, the sledge had been transformed by an invention that revolutionized locomotion on land. The wheel was the crowning achievement of prehistoric carpentry; it is the pre-condition of modern machinery, and, applied to transport, it converted the sledge into a cart or wagon. Wheeled vehicles are represented in the Sumerian art as early as 3500 B.C., and in northern Syria perhaps even earlier. By 3000 B.C., carts, wagons, and even chariots were in general use in Elam, Mesopotamia and Syria. In the Indus Valley, wheeled carts were in use when the archaeological record begins about 2300 B.C. and at about the same date in Turkistan too. Children’s toys from Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal and Chandigarh include some wheeled carts, which indicate that they were in use in ordinary t-life. 46 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Bronze models of carts have also been found at Harappa. The people made extensive use of the wooden plough. Kalibangan even yielded a field ploughed with two perpendicular networks of furrows, in which higher crops (such as mustard) were grown in the spaced-out north-south furrows, thus casting shorter shadows, while shorter crops (such as gram) filled the contiguous east-west furrows. This is a technique still used today in the same region. There is also evidence of the domestication of cats, dogs, goats, sheep and perhaps,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(such as mustard) were grown in the spaced-out north-south furrows, thus casting shorter shadows, while shorter crops (such as gram) filled the contiguous east-west furrows. This is a technique still used today in the same region. There is also evidence of the domestication of cats, dogs, goats, sheep and perhaps, the elephant. Indus civilization society capable of town-planning, shipping, refined arts and crafts, writing, sustained trading, necessarily has to master a good deal of technology. Symbols of Indus religion and culture were incorporated into pottery, ornaments and everyday tools in a way that helped to unite people within the urban centers and link them with distant rural communities. The cotton textiles, ivory and copper were exported to Mesopotamia, and possibly China and Burma in exchange for silver and other commodities. Production of several metals such as copper, bronze, lead and tin was also undertaken. The Indus people did not know iron. The people were very artistic in the pottery, stone sculpture and seal making. The discovery of kilns to make bricks support the fact that burnt bricks were used extensively in domestic and public buildings. The people had commercial links with Afghanistan, Persia, Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Samaritans. Trade was in the form of ‘barter’. There was a cleverly organized system of weights and measures. (d) Government and social evolution The Harappan political organization as an empire, with Mohenjo-daro as the seat of the emperor and a number of “governors” in the regional capitals, others are in favour of regional states. Mohenjo-daro is thought to have sheltered at least 50,000 inhabitants. (e) The Aryan problem The relationship of the Indus-Saraswati civilization with the later Indian civilization remains a subject of debate. The ancient dwellers in India were Dravidians, and in fact, their culture had developed a highly sophisticated way of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "states. Mohenjo-daro is thought to have sheltered at least 50,000 inhabitants. (e) The Aryan problem The relationship of the Indus-Saraswati civilization with the later Indian civilization remains a subject of debate. The ancient dwellers in India were Dravidians, and in fact, their culture had developed a highly sophisticated way of life. The existence of the Brahui tribe in Baluchistan, to the west of the Indus, who speak a Dravidian language like South Indian Tamil, gives evidence that a migration of people or culture did occur. The language of Indus Valley civilization appears to be Dravidian akin to Old Tamil, presently spoken throughout the southern part of the Indian Peninsula. Maru is the Sanskrit name of the desert that lies between the Indus-Sarasvati river valleys of south Asia. It is also called ‘thar’ in India and ‘thal’ in Pakistan. The habitation ‘Maru’ land was once marsh, the Indus-Sarasvati river valley inundated area, which supported agriculture. Similarly the word ‘Maru’ as marsh-land, river valley is used as ‘marutam’ indicating the agricultural tracts in Tamil language. A study of the evolution of scripts in India indicates that the Dravidians, over the centuries, have made the key contributions to the development of language and literature in India. The theory of an Aryan invasion or even migration into India is as follows: 1. The Aryans migrated from their original home in Europe or Central Asia. The Harappan towns were destroyed by semi-barbarian Aryans rushing down on their horse chariots. The Aryans are said to have entered India through the Khyber Pass and invaded or perhaps more peacefully intermingled with the Indus Valley peoples at least since 1600 B.C., and perhaps earlier. The Aryans cross the River Sindhu and settled in a region called Saptsindu, or the land of seven rivers (now known as the Punjab,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "entered India through the Khyber Pass and invaded or perhaps more peacefully intermingled with the Indus Valley peoples at least since 1600 B.C., and perhaps earlier. The Aryans cross the River Sindhu and settled in a region called Saptsindu, or the land of seven rivers (now known as the Punjab, the land of five rivers). The Aryans were Indo-European warlike herders from Asian steppes. Bronze users and horse handlers, Aryans had a superior military and their cavalry warfare enabled them to spread their culture AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 47 from the Punjab across northern India, preparing the way for emergence of large empires. The Aryans had a complex cosmology and knowledge of astral sciences—astronomy considered central to Aryan statecraft. Aryans spoke the Sanskrit language (the basis of a majority of Indian languages today), had a polytheist religion (one basis of Hinduism) with a rich pantheon of deities, and a stratified class system: with Kshatriyas (warriors) to rule, and Brahmins (priests and teachers) at the top of the social hierarchy, supported by Vaisyas (farmers) and the Sudras (outcasts). Aryans had driven the inhabitants Dravidians of Saptsindu to South India. These ancient dwellers in India were Dravidians, and in fact, their culture had developed a highly sophisticated way of life. The existence of the Brahui tribe in Baluchistan, to the west of the Indus, who speak a Dravidian language like South Indian Tamil, gives evidence that a migration of people or culture did occur. Also the Harappa religion shows many similarities with those elements of Hinduism, which are especially popular in the present Dravidian culture. 2. Raymond and Bridget Allchin, archaeologists, now admit that the arrival of Indo-Aryans in Northwest India is “scarcely attested in the archaeological record, presumably because their material culture and life-style were already virtually indistinguishable from those of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "those elements of Hinduism, which are especially popular in the present Dravidian culture. 2. Raymond and Bridget Allchin, archaeologists, now admit that the arrival of Indo-Aryans in Northwest India is “scarcely attested in the archaeological record, presumably because their material culture and life-style were already virtually indistinguishable from those of the existing population.” 3. British anthropologist, Edmund Leach also termed the Aryan invasion theory as being born out of European racism. 4. Jim Shaffer, 1984 wrote: “Current archaeological data do not support the existence of an Indo-Aryan or European invasion into South Asia any time in the preor protohistoric periods. Instead, it is possible to document archaeologically a series of cultural changes reflecting indigenous cultural developments from prehistoric to historic periods.” 5. Kenoyer, whom I quoted earlier, concludes in his recent beautiful book : “Many scholars have tried to correct this absurd theory [of an Aryan invasion], by pointing out misinterpreted basic facts, inappropriate models and an uncritical reading of Vedic texts. However, until recently, these scientific and well-reasoned arguments were unsuccessful in rooting out the misinterpretations entrenched in the popular literature. [...] But there is no archaeological or biological evidence for invasions or mass migrations into the Indus Valley between the end of the Harappan Phase, about 1900 B.C. and the beginning of the Early Historic period around 600 B.C.” 6. Kenneth A.R. Kennedy, a U.S. expert who has extensively studied such skeletal remains, observes : “All prehistoric human remains recovered thus far from the Indian subcontinent are phenotypically identifiable as ancient South Asians. [...] In short, there is no evidence of demographic disruptions in the north-western sector of the subcontinent during and immediately after the decline of the Harappan culture”. 7. No invasion or migration caused or followed the collapse of the urban phase of the IndusSarasvati civilization",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "identifiable as ancient South Asians. [...] In short, there is no evidence of demographic disruptions in the north-western sector of the subcontinent during and immediately after the decline of the Harappan culture”. 7. No invasion or migration caused or followed the collapse of the urban phase of the IndusSarasvati civilization around 1900 B.C. The Harappans were just North-western Indians of the time and continued to live there even after the end of the urban phase (with some of them migrating towards the Ganga plains in search of greener pastures). 8. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, famous for his work on the Indian Constitution, as well as his campaign in support of the nation’s dalit community noticed the racial overtones underlying the theory and described the British espousal of the Aryan Invasion theory in the following words: “The theory of invasion is an invention. This invention is necessary because of a gratuitous assumption that the Indo-Germanic people are the purest of the modern representation of the original Aryan race. The theory is a perversion of scientific investigation. It is not 48 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY allowed to evolve out of facts. On the contrary, the theory is preconceived and facts are selected to prove it. It falls to the ground at every point.” The Aryans, or Vedic Civilization Pre-Vedic Period (Before 3100 B.C.) Vedic Period (1st Phase 3100 B.C.) Vedic Period (2nd Phase 2150 B.C.) Vedic Period (3rd Phase 2150 B.C.–1400 B.C.) Vedic Jyotish Period (1400 B.C.–1200 B.C.) The Aryans called themselves the “noble ones” or the “superior ones” to distinguish themselves from the people they conquered. Their name is derived from the Indo-European root word, “ar,” meaning “noble.” In Sanskrit, they were the “Aryas” (“Aryans”); but that root, “ar,” would also serve as the foundation of the name of the conquered Persian",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "“noble ones” or the “superior ones” to distinguish themselves from the people they conquered. Their name is derived from the Indo-European root word, “ar,” meaning “noble.” In Sanskrit, they were the “Aryas” (“Aryans”); but that root, “ar,” would also serve as the foundation of the name of the conquered Persian territories, “Iran.” This concept of nobility, in fact, seems to lie at the heart of Indo-European consciousness, for it appears in another country’s name, “Ireland,” or “Eire.” The Aryans were a tribal and nomadic peoples living in the steppe lands of EuroAsia. They were a tough people, fierce and war-like. Their culture was oriented around warfare. They were ruled over by a war-chief, or ‘raja’ (the Latin word “rex” (king) comes from the same root word, along with the English “regal”). They travel on horseback and rushed into battle in chariots. They began to migrate southwards in waves of steady conquest across the face of Persia and the lands of India in 2000 B.C. They swept over Persia with lightening speed, and spread across the northern river plains of India. They penetrated India from the north-west, settling first in the Indus valley and then along the Ganges floodplain. The Aryans, or Vedic civilization (Rigvedic Period 1700–1000 B.C.) were a new start in Indian culture. These tribes spread quickly over northern India and the Deccan. Rig Veda is believed to represent the Indo-European religion and have many characteristics in common with Persian religion since the two peoples are closely related in time. In this early period, their population was restricted to the Punjab in the northern reaches of the Indus River and the Yamuna River near the Ganges. They maintained the Aryan tribal structure, with a raja ruling over the tribal group in tandem with a council. Each jana seems to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "time. In this early period, their population was restricted to the Punjab in the northern reaches of the Indus River and the Yamuna River near the Ganges. They maintained the Aryan tribal structure, with a raja ruling over the tribal group in tandem with a council. Each jana seems to have had a chief priest; the religion was focused almost entirely on a series of sacrifices to the gods. The Rigvedic peoples originally had only two social classes: nobles and commoners. Eventually, they added a third: Dasas, or “darks.” These were the darker-skinned people they had conquered. The word ‘Varna’ is used in the Rig Veda never refers to the Brahmana or Kshatriya. By the end of the Rigvedic period, social class had settled into four rigid castes: the ‘caturvarnas’, ‘Varna’ or “four colours.” At the top of the caturvarnas were the priests, or ‘Brahmans’. Below the priests were the warriors or nobles (Kshatriya), the craftspeople and merchants (Vaishya), and the servants (Shudra), who made up the bulk of society. In the early centuries of ‘Later Vedic Period’ or ‘Brahmanic Period’ (1000–500 B.C.), the Aryans migrated across the Doab, which is a large plain, which separates the Yamuna river from the Ganges. The Later Vedic Period is the ‘Epic Age’; the great literary, heroic epics of Indian culture, the ‘Ramayana’ and the ‘Mahabharata’, though they were composed between 500 and 200 B.C., were probably originally formulated and told in the Later Vedic Period. The most ancient scared Aryan literature of Hinduism is called the Vedas. The Vedas consist of four collections called the Rig-Veda, the Sama-Veda, the Yajur-Veda, and the Atharva-Veda. Collectively, these are referred to as the Samhitas. The Rig-Veda mentioned ‘Indra’, the god of war and weather, ‘Agni’, the god of fire. The hierarchy of the gods was",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Hinduism is called the Vedas. The Vedas consist of four collections called the Rig-Veda, the Sama-Veda, the Yajur-Veda, and the Atharva-Veda. Collectively, these are referred to as the Samhitas. The Rig-Veda mentioned ‘Indra’, the god of war and weather, ‘Agni’, the god of fire. The hierarchy of the gods was from Indra and Varuna to the two current sects of Hinduism, which worship Vishnu and Shiva. The best of the Vedic Shlokas refer to a common life-spirit that links all living creatures, to human social-interconnectedness, to the notion of unity in AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 49 diversity and how different sections of society might have different prayers and different wishes. The Upanishads, the Sankhya, and the Nyaya-Vaisheshika schools, the numerous treatises on medicine, ethics, scientific method, logic and mathematics clearly developed on Indian soil as a result of Indian experiences and intellectual efforts. Siddhartha Gautama (c. 563 B.C.–483 B.C.) founded the religion, which is known as Buddhism. Western scholars frequently list Vardhamana Mahavira (c. 540 B.C.–468 B.C.), as the founder of Jainism. (Clockwise from top left:) A terracotta figurine from Harappa, in a yoga posture; seals depicting a Shiva-like deity, a unicorn, and a bull. In 331 B.C., Alexander the Great of Macedon began one of the greatest conquests in human history. After conquering Egypt, Persian Empire, Mesopotamians, Gandhara (Afghanistan), he came into contact with cultures to the east, such as Pakistan and India. The plain region of Gandhara lies directly west of the Indus River. When he tried to push on past Pakistan, his army grew tired, and he abandoned the eastward conquest in 327 B.C. Alexander had literally no effect on Indian history and he left as soon as he reached the Indus. Two important results arose because of Alexander’s conquests: first, from this point onwards Greek and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "push on past Pakistan, his army grew tired, and he abandoned the eastward conquest in 327 B.C. Alexander had literally no effect on Indian history and he left as soon as he reached the Indus. Two important results arose because of Alexander’s conquests: first, from this point onwards Greek and Indian culture would intermix. Secondly, the conquest of Alexander may have set the stage for the first great conqueror of Indian history, Chandragupta Maurya (reigned 321–297 B.C.), who, shortly after Alexander left, united all the kingdoms of northern India into a single 50 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY empire. While Chadragupta Maurya built his empire by the force of his arm, Kautilya, a shrewd and calculating Brahman, designed the government. Together they created the first unified state in Indian history. The Vedic period is a period of cultural mixing of Aryans and indigenous people. Vedic culture was native to the Indian subcontinent. Rig-Veda mentions a few symbols used in later Indian culture, such as the trishul or the swastika, the pipal tree or the endless-knot design, are found in the Indus-Saraswati cities. Kalibangan also shows a ploughed field and fire-altars. The Vedic period had weavers; the words siri and vayitri denote a female weaver. Gold was highly valued. Rigveda refers to niskagriva, which is a golden ornament on the neck and necklaces of gold reaching down to the chest. The Vedic people had used ships to cross oceans. The Sarasvati-Sindhu rivers supported the cultivation of wheat and barley. The ploughshare ploughing makes the food and feeds the people. Many Vedic people were herdsmen, pastoralists on Sarasvati, the mother of the Sindhu. The river flows copiously and fertilizing, bestowing abundance of food, and nourishing (the people) by their waters. Rig-Veda praised the hundreds of settlements along the Sarasvati river confirms again the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "makes the food and feeds the people. Many Vedic people were herdsmen, pastoralists on Sarasvati, the mother of the Sindhu. The river flows copiously and fertilizing, bestowing abundance of food, and nourishing (the people) by their waters. Rig-Veda praised the hundreds of settlements along the Sarasvati river confirms again the identification between Harappans and Vedic people. The Vedic homeland was the Saptasindhu, which is precisely the core of the Harappan territory. As for the Sangam tradition, it is equally silent about any northern origin of the Tamil people; its only reference is to a now submerged island to the south of India, Kumari Kandam, and initial findings at Poompuhar show that, without our having to accept this legend literally, we may indeed find a few submerged cities along Tamil Nadu’s coast; especially at Poompuhar and Kanyakumari, where fishermen have long reported submerged structures. Status of Agriculture 1. Vedic period (1600 B.C.–1000 B.C.) The early home of Aryans was in south Russia in the steppes between the Danube the Volga, and the Urals. There was another verse that the homeland of Aryans was Germany. The Aryans left this homeland during 1600 B.C., and dispersed east and west in large groups. Early Vedic Aryans were primarily pastoral and settled in Indus valley. They cut jungles, built their villages, grazed their cattle in jungles and planted barley in the land close to their habitation. Vedic Aryans were accustomed to cows, horses; buffalo was a new animal, which they called gouri, or govala, which appears to be an extension of the word gau (cow). Indus valley is the land of seven rivers was called ‘Saptasindhavah’. The seven rivers included the five rivers of the Punjab (meaning land of five rivers) viz., the Sutudri (Sutlej), the Vipas, (Beas), the Parushini (Ravi) and the Askini (Chenab)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "appears to be an extension of the word gau (cow). Indus valley is the land of seven rivers was called ‘Saptasindhavah’. The seven rivers included the five rivers of the Punjab (meaning land of five rivers) viz., the Sutudri (Sutlej), the Vipas, (Beas), the Parushini (Ravi) and the Askini (Chenab) and the remaining two includes the Indus and Saraswathi. Aryans began to move in search of water when the river Saraswati dried up. It was king Bhahirath whose efforts brought the Ganga into the plains of India and storage cultures in the Indo-Gangetic plains developed. The Aryans have been identified as nomads they always moved in search of pasturelands for their animals. Their culture has been based on met, camped and departed. This culture is superior to that of the people who were already living for millennia in India and had developed agriculture. Domesticated animals made strong settlements and created a class of artisans and craftsman. One of the strong arguments in the favour of Aryan invasion from the steppes in Russia is the introduction of horse in India by them. When during the Chalcolithic period, trade with Mesopotamia and other cultures was being carried out, the horse could have been brought to India while cotton cloth and other articles were exported. Even during the time of Chandragupta Mayurya, in the bazaars, horses brought by traders from the Middle East were on sale. 2. Rigveda Rigveda the oldest book that was complied around 3700 B.C. At the beginning of the cropping season, the ploughing was done with great fanfare associated with several rituals. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 51 There are several hymns address to Shuna, Sita and Shunshira. Sita has been referred to as the goddess of the early and also the share of the plough. Barley (yava), sesame and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cropping season, the ploughing was done with great fanfare associated with several rituals. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 51 There are several hymns address to Shuna, Sita and Shunshira. Sita has been referred to as the goddess of the early and also the share of the plough. Barley (yava), sesame and sugarcane were the main crops. As a husbandman repeatedly ploughs the early for barley; causing the barley to be sown in fields properly by the plough; and the cattle feed upon the barley. Harvesting proceeded with prayers. It was mostly done with a sickle by cutting the crops at the ground level or by cutting the ear heads only. (i) Environment (Rigveda) The sun destroys all non-visible poisonous creatures is a reference to nocturnal poisonous creature such as snakes and scorpions. The sun is the protector, the purifier and the source of prosperity. The water cycle is described as water going up form earth in the summer through evaporation, cloud formation and water coming down again in the from of rain. Loss of surface water in summer must have been easy to observe. There are six seasons in a year; namely Grishma (May–June), Varsha (July–August), Hemant (September–October), Sharad (November–December), Shishir (January–February) and Vasant (March–April). The beginning of the rainy season (obviously in Pakistan North–West India) is after 21 June when the sun starts ‘moving south’. There existed of dams on the seven rivers. Constructing dams on rivers must have meant cutting off water to Vedic people to irrigate lands and to provide water to people and animals after the rains the contribution of rivers to increasing the food production. (ii) Farming resources and practices (Rigveda) A farmer plows his fields repeatedly. Sun brought six seasons, which repeat in a sequence. Bullock cart and chariot were used for crossing Sutlej and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to provide water to people and animals after the rains the contribution of rivers to increasing the food production. (ii) Farming resources and practices (Rigveda) A farmer plows his fields repeatedly. Sun brought six seasons, which repeat in a sequence. Bullock cart and chariot were used for crossing Sutlej and Vyas rivers. Tie bullocks to the plow, join yokes, sow the seed, let the food produced be sufficient and let the sickle fall on the ripe crop. Sumps were constructed to provide drinking water for animals, leather ropes and irrigation from never-drying pits. Field operations to raise crops were well established. Using a plow to cultivate land and raise barley was already an “ancient practice” for the Vedic Aryans. Soils of different kinds and productive and non-productive fields were recognized. Soil preparation was done through repeated plowings. Classification of seasons into six different kinds as is followed even today was done. A bamboo stick of a specific size was used for measuring land. Soaking of soil profile with water was carried out to facilitate plowing and sowing operations. Well water was used for drinking purpose but irrigation from shallow wells was practiced. Reference to irrigation possibly from rivers was found. Bullock power was used for plowing and for pulling bullock carts and chariots to cross-rivers such as Sutlej and Vyas undoubtedly in the post rainy season. Labourers were available for work. Other farm operations included bird scaring, harvesting with sickle, threshing, winnowing with titau (suba), storing gains in storage bins and burning of trash/wastes. Barley was ratooned on residual moisture possibly for fodder after harvest of grain crop. Apart from barley, other cereals were consumed. Barley was roasted obviously to make saktu (sattu or flour from roasted barley grain). (iii) Forestry (Rigveda) Trees such as pippala (peepal), khadir, shisham palasa",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and burning of trash/wastes. Barley was ratooned on residual moisture possibly for fodder after harvest of grain crop. Apart from barley, other cereals were consumed. Barley was roasted obviously to make saktu (sattu or flour from roasted barley grain). (iii) Forestry (Rigveda) Trees such as pippala (peepal), khadir, shisham palasa shalmali and urvaruka are mentioned. Pippala is treated as sacred tree. Urvaruka fruits are edible. Khadir and shisham wood used for making chariots are used even today to make furniture. Several grasses are mentioned. Some of which are still used in religious ceremonies and in making rope, mats cottage roofs etc. (iv) Animal husbandry (Rigveda) A cow having a copious stream of milk yields, in the presence of their calf. Do not kill a cow who is mother of Rudras, daughter or Vasus, sister of Aditya, milk-bearing innocent and without any complex. Various animals referred in 52 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Rigveda include cows and horses, sheep and goats, donkey and camel. Two colours of cows are mentioned black and red. Cows with a long nose seem to have been preferred. Camels, donkeys and horses were used for riding and possibly for carrying loads. Stealing cows is referred in Rigveda considering the fact that cattle meant wealth. Cows belonging to enemies were looted. Chickpea was used as a horse feed because even today water-soaked chickpea is considered to be a good feed for horses. Cleaning of horses was obviously preferred. On management of cows, grazing in forests seems to have been common practice. Cows were permitted to graze in barley fields and cattle owners apparently knew the benefits of providing clean safe water from ponds. Dogs were used for managing herds of cows and for recovering stolen cows. Calling cows for milking with some grass in hand by the boys",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "been common practice. Cows were permitted to graze in barley fields and cattle owners apparently knew the benefits of providing clean safe water from ponds. Dogs were used for managing herds of cows and for recovering stolen cows. Calling cows for milking with some grass in hand by the boys obviously looked after cows while they grazed. Burning of dried cow dung is practiced as fuel for fire. Killing of cows was clearly discouraged not only because it played an important part in human subsistence, but also for the cow’s innocence. In the later Vedic period (1000–600 B.C.), agriculture implements were improved. Iron ploughshares were used. 3. End of the Indus civilization After 1750 B.C., the Mohenjo-daro and Harappan culture slowly declined and gradually faded out. The cause or causes of the end of the Indus civilization are not easy to determine. Some ascribe this to the decreasing fertility of the soil on account of the increasing salinity, caused by the expansion of the neighbouring desert. Others attribute it to some kind of depression in the land, which caused floods. At Mohenjo-daro groups of sprawling skeletons in this period suggests some sort of massacre or invasion. The destroyers of the Indus cities were members of the group of tribes whose priests composed the Rig Veda. The Indus Valley culture moved from west to east of Ganga-Jamuna-Doab region, with sites towards central and southern India flourishing after Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had declined. The Ramayan partly unfolded the tale of the Aryan advent into the south. Even though there are various theories for the downfall of this civilization, there is no clear picture as to how or why it came to an end. 4. Status of farmers in society Agriculture and Animal Husbandry began to be developed in India from pre-Vedic times.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "advent into the south. Even though there are various theories for the downfall of this civilization, there is no clear picture as to how or why it came to an end. 4. Status of farmers in society Agriculture and Animal Husbandry began to be developed in India from pre-Vedic times. In Rigveda, there was reference to hundreds and thousands of cows; to horses yoked to chariots; to racecourses where chariot races were held; to camels yoked to the chariots; to sheep and goat-offered as sacrificial victims, and to the use of wool for clothing. The famous Cow-Sukta indicates that the cow had already become the very basis of rural economy. In another Sukta, she is deified as the mother of the Vasus, the Rudras and the Adityas, as also the pivot of immortality. The Vedic Aryans appear to have large forests at their disposal for securing timber, and plants and herbs for medicinal purposes appear to have been reared by the physicians of the age, as appears in the Atharva Veda. The farmers’ vocation was held in high regards though agriculture solely depended upon the favours of Parjanya, the god of rain. His thunders are prescribed as food bringing. Tree planting and preservation was one of the fundamental articles of Hindu religion, for the Indian culture from its inception grew under the shades of trees where the Rishis dwelt. Different kinds of trees and their importance in life, for use as well as beauty, were studied with great care. In social rank, the farmers were considered next to Brahmans, and the entire village administration appears to have been in the hands of leading farmers who were known as “Kutumbin”, from which the word “Kunbi” is derived. Even in the medieval period under the Hindu rulers, ample evidence for testifying to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "social rank, the farmers were considered next to Brahmans, and the entire village administration appears to have been in the hands of leading farmers who were known as “Kutumbin”, from which the word “Kunbi” is derived. Even in the medieval period under the Hindu rulers, ample evidence for testifying to the expert skill in raising crops such as wheat, gram, pulses, barley, sugarcane, indigo, cotton, pepper and ginger, AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 53 and in the rearing of fruits like pineapple, oranges and mangoes. The farmers only paid 1/6th to 1/12th of their agricultural products to the State. 1. Arthasastra Uses the same epithet to describe the qualities of a good country. The advance made in irrigation may be imagined from the anecdote that when a teacher sent his pupil to stop a breach in the water-course of a certain field, the latter had to lie down to stop the flood and prevent vital injury to the crops. The position is confirmed by a parable the implication of which is that guards were employed at the vital spots of embankments, the rupture whereof would cause a great flood and damage. The King should be vigilant at danger-gates as at the dam of a large water-work. Arthasastra significantly recommends upland (sthala) and low land (kedara) to be entered separately in the field register of the gopa and enjoins a three-fold gradation of villages after the manner of Gautama and Manu upon the revenue officer (Samahartar; Sukraniti). This together with a similar reference in Sukraniti, indicates that differential rates for different classes of soils are intended. The Agnipurana again mentioned revenue rates for different kinds of paddy crops. Thus the land assessment varied according to the quality of land and the nature of the crop, the sadbhaga was only a traditional or",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "reference in Sukraniti, indicates that differential rates for different classes of soils are intended. The Agnipurana again mentioned revenue rates for different kinds of paddy crops. Thus the land assessment varied according to the quality of land and the nature of the crop, the sadbhaga was only a traditional or average rate, not the fixed or universal rate, in this respect resembling somewhat the ‘tithe’ in European fiscal terminology. A careful gradation of land, survey and measurement, calculation of out turn as well as expenses per unit of land was mentioned in Manu, the Arthasastra and the Sumaniti. The king’s share did not necessarily mean a fixed share. It was determined by consideration of fertility of the soil and by the needs of the State or of the cultivator. The system of measurement and survey and differentiation of soil according to productivity also indicates that land revenue assessment was not permanent but revised at intervals although a constant revision was not necessary. In Buddha’s time irrigation contrivances hardly excelled the old Vedic mechanisms; water was drawn by means of the lever, (tulam), the bullock-team. 2. Peasant’s under Mughal rule The Arabs were also innovators in agriculture. They had improved systems of irrigation. They wrote scientific treatises on farming. They excelled in horticulture, knowing how to graft and how to produce new varieties of fruits and flowers. Ibn Battuta (The Traveller of Islam): He traveled over the greater part of Asia, and visited India in the regime of Muhammad-bin-Tughlak. (i) Peasant economy Of the produce of land, a large share went to the State in the form of the land-tax and various perquisites. Of the remainder, a customary share was fixed for various classes of domestic and other labourers. The peasant and his family kept the rest for their own use.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "economy Of the produce of land, a large share went to the State in the form of the land-tax and various perquisites. Of the remainder, a customary share was fixed for various classes of domestic and other labourers. The peasant and his family kept the rest for their own use. A certain proportion went to the share of the priest and the temple. The carpenters, the smiths, the potters, the washerman, the scavengers, etc., were better off as they had to incur no expenditure, e.g., on feeding of livestock, and payment in cash and kind to agricultural labourers. (ii) Trade The official weights under the Sultans of Delhi were fixed at an average of 28.78 Ib (13.05 kg) to a mound. (iii) Land revenue cess and taxes The land-tax during Arab rulers was usually rated at twofifths of the produce of wheat and barley, if the fields were watered by public canals; three-tenths, if irrigated by wheels or other artificial means; and one-fourth, if altogether unirrigated. If arable land was left uncultivated, one-tenth of the probable produce has to be paid. Of dates, grapes and garden produce, one-third was taken, either in kind or money; and one-fifth (khums) of the yield of wines, fishing, pearls, and 54 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY generally of any product not derived from cultivation, was to be delivered in kind, or paid in value, even before the expenses had been defrayed. The Land-tax was the main source of revenue in Mughal India. The objects of Akbar’s revenue system were firstly to obtain a correct measurement of the land. Secondly, the amount of the produce of each bigha of the land was too ascertained and to fix the proportion of that amount that the cultivator should pay to the government. Thirdly, to settle an equivalent for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Akbar’s revenue system were firstly to obtain a correct measurement of the land. Secondly, the amount of the produce of each bigha of the land was too ascertained and to fix the proportion of that amount that the cultivator should pay to the government. Thirdly, to settle an equivalent for the proportion so fixed, in money. The Land-tax was the main source of revenue in Mughal India. Status of farmers, however, changed with the establishment of the Turkish rule. “If an Empire has to stay, farmers should be exploited”, said Allaudin Khilji, who used to collect half of the earnings of the farmers. Except during the short period under Akbar, who elaborated the land reforms outlined by Sher Shah, exploitation of the farmers became the rule. Naturally, the status of the farmers suffered and his skill came to be restricted to traditional methods. The flight of peasants from the land intensified during the reign of Aurangzeb. As the peasants number decreased, the income of the assignees, the jagirdars, was reduced. The jagirdars, to make good their loss, put increased pressure on the working peasants. Moreover, the practice developed of selling governments of provinces for immense sums in hard cash. Hence, it naturally became the principal object of the individual thus appointed Governor, to obtain repayment of the purchase-money, which he had borrowed at a ruinous rate of interest. This in turn resulted in more repression on the cultivators. 2.4.4 Status of Farmers in Southern India The Indian Council of Agricultural Research published a book entitled ‘Sons of the Soil’ in 1941 in which status of the farmers of the different States of India had been discussed. The southern states of India, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka (Mysore), Tamil Nadu (Madras) and Kerala are separated from the Indo-Gangetic alluvial area of North India",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Research published a book entitled ‘Sons of the Soil’ in 1941 in which status of the farmers of the different States of India had been discussed. The southern states of India, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka (Mysore), Tamil Nadu (Madras) and Kerala are separated from the Indo-Gangetic alluvial area of North India by the forest-covered, rocky and comparatively barren and dry forestland, of central India, now called Madhya Pradesh. People from the North, who have not traveled in south India, can have no idea of the beauty of the landscape, the fertility of the soil, and the rich cultural background of the population of South India. Here the ancient hindu cultural, which has largely disappeared from North India, lies preserved in its pristine beauty. The ancient mountain systems of the Western and Eastern Ghats represent the most ancient mountain system of the world, dating back to the beginning of life itself in the Archazoic period. It lacks the snow peaks and glaciers of the Himalayas. These blue purple hills, studded with rich plantations of tea, coffee and rubber. In the foot hills areca palms are cultivated. As proceed towards the seacoast, coconut plantations, paddy, plantains and sugarcane are being grown. The State of Kerala is known as the ‘Land of the Coconut Palm’ while Tamil Nadu can rightly be called the ‘Land of Palmyra Palm’. The Blue hills of the Eastern Ghats provide a heavenly contrast with emerald green of paddy fields, and in between them are rows and rows of Palmyra palms with dark trunks bearing clusters of palmate leaves. The women carried out most of agriculture operations like transplanting of paddy, weeding and hoeing, digging groundnut, or scraping grass, etc. As compared with North India, the villages in South India are comparatively much cleaner. The district of Coimbatore can claim",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "palms with dark trunks bearing clusters of palmate leaves. The women carried out most of agriculture operations like transplanting of paddy, weeding and hoeing, digging groundnut, or scraping grass, etc. As compared with North India, the villages in South India are comparatively much cleaner. The district of Coimbatore can claim to be one of the most progressive districts in India. The Agricultural College, with its longstanding tradition of good research, has made a contribution to the progressive agriculture of this area. However, the credit mainly goes to the farmers themselves, the Naidus and the Gounders, who are always ready to adopt some useful improvements. Agriculture in this district really represents the triumph of man over adverse circumstances and is hence all the more AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 55 praise-worthy. They dig tank—like wells, boring through the hard rock to provide irrigation to their fields the siphon system of irrigation with concrete towers for storage of water located in different parts of their of their farms interconnected with under ground cement pipes enables them to irrigate land at different levels. Line sowing is common and application of green manures, tank mud, and fertilizers is very popular. Give a Naidu a barren piece of land, and by careful soil management he will convert. Most of the well-to-do farmers are also industrialists who have set up small spinning mills. They not only invest the savings from industry in agriculture, but also apply techniques of industry in their farms, which are run on commercial lines. Even small farmers have adopted a diversified system of agriculture combining cultivation of plantains, sugarcane and cotton with paddy. Glyricidia and Sesbania are grown as hedge plants in many farms. All operations in the cultivation of paddy can be seen going on at the same time in the same",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "lines. Even small farmers have adopted a diversified system of agriculture combining cultivation of plantains, sugarcane and cotton with paddy. Glyricidia and Sesbania are grown as hedge plants in many farms. All operations in the cultivation of paddy can be seen going on at the same time in the same village. While in one field nursery is being raised, in another transplanting is being done, and in yet another harvesting is going on. This is on account of the tropical climate with more or less the same temperature all the year round. The land being usually wet, the roads are commonly used for’ drying paddy and millets. As one travels in the districts of Madurai and Ramanathapuram, one can see paddy drying on the road with a woman keeping a watch. The passing vehicles are usually careful not to trample over the drying grain. Leaving aside the huts of the landless labourers, which are thatched with Palmyra leaves, the houses of the landowners are pucca, roofed with red tiles, and usually white washed. Near the entrance of the village enormous images of horses are seen. These are the ride of the guardian deity of the village known as Ayanar. Near some of the villages are sometimes hundreds of baked clay images of horses; these are the offerings of the grateful villagers who have benefited from the grace of Ayanar who has saved the suffering bullock from disease, or a child from a serious malady. Scare-crows with ugly human races are also common in the fields. Apart from saving the crop row herds and jackals, they are also said to be efficacious against the evil eye of jealous neighbours. The most interesting festival in Tamil Nadu is the festival of Pongal, when the farmers wash their cattle and decorate the horns",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "also common in the fields. Apart from saving the crop row herds and jackals, they are also said to be efficacious against the evil eye of jealous neighbours. The most interesting festival in Tamil Nadu is the festival of Pongal, when the farmers wash their cattle and decorate the horns of their bullocks. A crowd of villagers dressed in their best cloths proceeding in groups to the village temples. A distinctive feature of the landscape of Karnataka is of with plantations of coconut and arecanut and numerous irrigation tanks. The evergreen forests of Western Ghats in Karnataka have bamboos and coffee gardens. While the people of Mohenjodaro print or carve their special breeds on their seals, the people of Karnataka built a gigantic memorial in honor of the Nandi bull, the ride of Shiva. In the famous temple of Halalebid, Krishna is shown playing the flute while a herd of Hallikars breed with elongated pointed horns surround Him spell bound by the music of the flute. Andhra Pradesh is one of the young States of India. The Kammas and Reddys are intelligent farmers who knew the use of fertilizers and line sowing long ago. Tobacco, chillies, turmeric and groundnut are being cultivated on scientific lines adopting all the improved methods, which the agricultural scientists are advocating. Their soil management is so good that by the application of green manures, organic manures and fertilizers. It is the Naidus and Reddies from Andhra area who migrated in ancient times to Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu, and wherever they settled, they raised the level of agriculture. One of their distinctive traits is sincerity and boldness with which they express their views. In fact, their frankness is really refreshing in this age of hypocrisy. The State of Kerala is unique in India in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "parts of Tamil Nadu, and wherever they settled, they raised the level of agriculture. One of their distinctive traits is sincerity and boldness with which they express their views. In fact, their frankness is really refreshing in this age of hypocrisy. The State of Kerala is unique in India in its landscape as well as crops. The homes of the people even in the towns are surrounded by a patch of land in which coconut palms are grown as well as vegetables for home consumption. The red soil of Kerala and its vast plantation of coconut palms give it a distinctive character. Beautiful temples and neatly built churches studded all over the countryside are a testimony of the culture of the people. Farmers of Punjab are really the best farmers in India and were responsible for developing the colonies in the canal-irrigated areas of West Punjab. 56 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 2.4.5 Advice by Sages to Kings Lands may be confiscated from those who do not cultivate them and given to others; or may be cultivated by village labourers and traders, let those owners who do not properly cultivate the land might pay less (to the government). If cultivators pay their taxes easily, they may be favourably supplied with grains, cattle, and money. The king shall bestow on cultivators only such favour and remission as well tend to swell the treasury, and shall avoid such as deplete it. He shall regard with fatherly kindness those who have passed the period of remission of taxes. He shall offer facilities for cattle breeding and commerce, construct roads for traffic both by land and water, and set up market towns. He shall also construct reservoirs (sétu) filled with water either perennial or drawn from some other source. Whoever stays away from any kind",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of remission of taxes. He shall offer facilities for cattle breeding and commerce, construct roads for traffic both by land and water, and set up market towns. He shall also construct reservoirs (sétu) filled with water either perennial or drawn from some other source. Whoever stays away from any kind of cooperative construction (sambhúya setubhandhát) shall send his servants and bullocks to carry on his work, shall have a share in the expenditure, but shall have no claim to the profit. The king shall exercise his right of ownership with regard to fishing in reservoirs or lakes, ferrying and trading in vegetables. He shall protect agriculture from the molestation of oppressive fines, free labourer, and taxes; herds of cattle from thieves, tigers, poisonous creatures and cattle-disease. He shall keep the herds of cattle from being destroyed by robbers. The king shall make provision for pasture grounds on uncultivable tracts. (i) Advice to the Sage Kashyapa to the king Kashyapa has repeatedly stressed the need for a genuine support to farm activities by the king or ruler concerned. In the modern context, this would mean support from the central and state governments. The ruler’s support is required in identifying land for agriculture, building water reservoirs, planting trees on the banks of water reservoirs, constructing canals and wells, water harvesting, making seed available, ensuring sustenance to people, giving donation of land and subsidies to weaker people, arranging markets, standardizing weights and measures, afforestation, locating mines producing metals such as iron, copper, and zinc (brass?) gold, and silver and collecting taxes. Kashyapa has thus strongly suggested a very major role for the ruler (governments today) in fully supporting various agricultural activities. He has emphasized that happiness all around can be felt only if there was food security. The king should appoint officers to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "zinc (brass?) gold, and silver and collecting taxes. Kashyapa has thus strongly suggested a very major role for the ruler (governments today) in fully supporting various agricultural activities. He has emphasized that happiness all around can be felt only if there was food security. The king should appoint officers to search and acquire the best land who know the way to scrutinize the (quality of the land). Land selection is based on scientific examination of the soil. It is stated to be the king’s duty to get the entire land examined by experts and identify land that is good for agriculture, is suitable for horticulture, should be of constructing permanent water reservoirs. The location could be villages, other parts of the country like towns or cities, mountains or the premises of forts and palaces. So long as good soil and supply of water were assured any location was considered good. Especially in the rainy season, keeping a vigil on hundreds of canals (or trenches), wells, and lakes will be beneficial. King should take care on prevention of diseases and alleviation of danger from fire, guarantees best welfare, all round nourishment, and protection for both the bipeds and the quadrupeds. 2.4.6 Kautilya’s Arthasastra I. Background on Arthasastra Kautilya’s Artha-Sastra (250 B.C.) is a detailed manual on statecraft and the science of classical times. Kautilya is also known as ‘Chanakya’ and Vishnu gupta. Arthashastra deals with the science of politics, economics and the art of government in its widest sense—the maintenance of law and order as an efficient administrative machinery. Artha, literally means ‘wealth’, is one of four supreme aims prescribed by Hindu tradition. In accordance with this, Kautilya’s Arthashastra maintains that the state or AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 57 government of a country has a vital role to play in maintaining",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "law and order as an efficient administrative machinery. Artha, literally means ‘wealth’, is one of four supreme aims prescribed by Hindu tradition. In accordance with this, Kautilya’s Arthashastra maintains that the state or AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 57 government of a country has a vital role to play in maintaining the material status of both the nation and its people. II. Features of Villages Villages consisting each of not less than a hundred families and of not more than five-hundred families of agricultural people of súdra caste, with boundaries extending as far as a krósa (2250 yds.) or two, and capable of protecting each other shall be formed. Boundaries shall be denoted by a river, a mountain, forests, bulbous plants, caves, artificial buildings, or by trees such as silk cotton tree, Acacia suma, and kshíravriksha (milky trees). There shall be set up a stháníya (a fortress of that name) in the centre of eight-hundred villages, a drónamukha in the centre of four-hundred villages, a khárvátika in the centre of two-hundred villages and sangrahana in the midst of a collection of ten villages. III. Agriculture The superintendent of agriculture should possess the knowledge of the science of agriculture. Seeds of grains, flowers, fruits, vegetables, bulbous roots, roots, fibre-producing plants, and cotton may be collected in time. Sow the seeds on lands ploughed often and satisfactorily. Ploughs (karshanayantra) and other necessary instruments or bullocks are made available with the assistance of blacksmiths, carpenters, borers (medaka), rope makers, as well as those who catch snakes, and similar persons. Any loss due to the above persons shall be punished with a fine equal to the loss. (i) Rainfall The quantity of rain that falls in the country of jángala is 16 dronas; half as much more in moist countries (anúpánám); as to the countries",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "catch snakes, and similar persons. Any loss due to the above persons shall be punished with a fine equal to the loss. (i) Rainfall The quantity of rain that falls in the country of jángala is 16 dronas; half as much more in moist countries (anúpánám); as to the countries which are fit for agriculture (désavápánam);— 13½ dronas in the country of asmakas; 23 dronas in avantí; and an immense quantity in western countries (aparántánám), the borders of the Himalayas, and the countries where water channels are made use of in agriculture. A forecast of such rainfall can be made by observing the position, motion, and pregnancy (garbhádána) of the Jupiter (Brihaspati), the rise and set and motion of the Venus, and the natural or unnatural aspect of the sun. From the sun, the sprouting of the seeds can be inferred; from (the position of) the Jupiter, the formation of grains (stambakarita) can be inferred; and from the movements of the Venus, rainfall can be inferred. When one-third of the requisite quantity of rain falls both during the commencement and closing months of the rainy season and two-thirds in the middle, then the rainfall is considered as very even. If rain falls three times free from wind and unmingled with sunshine, ploughing is possible. Hence sow the seeds depending on the rainfall. (ii) Seasons • Two months make one ritu (season) • Srávana and Proshthapada make the rainy season (Varshá) • Asvayuja and Kárthíka make the autumn (Sarad) • Márgasírsha and Phausha make the winter (Hemanta) • Mágha and Phalguna make the dewy season (Sisira) • Chaitra and Vaisákha make the spring (Vasanta) • Jyeshthámúlíya and Ashádha make the summer (Grishma) (iii) Division of land Lands on the banks of rivers, etc., are suitable for growing vallíphala (pumpkin, gourd and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Phausha make the winter (Hemanta) • Mágha and Phalguna make the dewy season (Sisira) • Chaitra and Vaisákha make the spring (Vasanta) • Jyeshthámúlíya and Ashádha make the summer (Grishma) (iii) Division of land Lands on the banks of rivers, etc., are suitable for growing vallíphala (pumpkin, gourd and the like); lands that are frequently over flown by water (paríváhánta) for long pepper, grapes, and sugarcane; the vicinity of wells for vegetables and roots; low grounds (hariníparyantáh) for green crops; and marginal furrows between any two rows of crops are suitable for the plantation of fragrant plants, medicinal herbs, cuscus roots and lac. Medicinal 58 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY herbs suited to grow in marshy grounds can also be grown in pots. A forest provided with only one entrance rendered inaccessible by the construction of ditches all round, with plantations of delicious fruit trees, bushes, bowers, and thorn less trees, with an expansive lake of water full of harmless animals, and with tigers (vyála), beasts of prey (márgáyuka), male and female elephants, young elephants, and bisons—all deprived of their claws and teeth—shall be formed for the king’s sports. On the extreme limit of the country or in any other suitable locality, another game-forest with game-beasts; open to all, shall also be made. In view of procuring all kinds of forest-produce described elsewhere, one or several forests shall be especially reserved. Manufactories to prepare commodities from forest produce shall also be set up. Wild tracts shall be separated from timber-forests. In the extreme limit of the country, elephant forests, separated from wild tracts, shall be formed. (iv) Seeds and sowing Sáli (a kind of rice), vríhi (rice), kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), tila (sesamum), common millet (panic seeds), and varagu (Phaseolus trilobus) are to be sown at the commencement (púrvávápah) of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "In the extreme limit of the country, elephant forests, separated from wild tracts, shall be formed. (iv) Seeds and sowing Sáli (a kind of rice), vríhi (rice), kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), tila (sesamum), common millet (panic seeds), and varagu (Phaseolus trilobus) are to be sown at the commencement (púrvávápah) of the rainy season. Black gram (Phaseolus mungo) and green gram (Phaseolus radiata) are to be sown in the middle of the season. Kusumbha (safflower), masúra (Ervum hirsutum), horse gram (Dolichos uniflorus), yava (barley), godhúma (wheat), kaláya (leguminous seeds), linseed, and mustard are to be sown last or seeds may be sown according to the changes of the season. (v) Choice of crops The farmer shall grow wet crops (kedára), winter crops (haimana), or summer crops (graishmika) according to the supply of workmen and water. Rice crop is the best to grow vegetables are of intermediate nature; and sugarcane is the worst and very difficult to grow as it require much care and expenditure. (vi) Seed treatment The seeds of grains are to be exposed to mist and heat for seven nights; the seeds of kosi are treated similarly for three nights; the setts of sugarcane are plastered at the cut end with the mixture of honey, clarified butter, the fat of hogs, and cow dung; the seeds of bulbous roots with honey and clarified butter; cotton seeds with cow-dung; and water pits at the root of trees are to be burnt and manured with the bones and dung of cows on proper occasions. The sprouts of seeds, when grown, are to be manured with a fresh haul of minute fishes and irrigated with the milk of snuhi (Euphorbia antiquorum). Where there is the smoke caused by burning the essence of cotton seeds and the slough of a snake, there snakes",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "on proper occasions. The sprouts of seeds, when grown, are to be manured with a fresh haul of minute fishes and irrigated with the milk of snuhi (Euphorbia antiquorum). Where there is the smoke caused by burning the essence of cotton seeds and the slough of a snake, there snakes will not stay. Always while sowing seeds, a handful of seeds bathed in water with a piece of gold shall be sown first and the following mantra recited: • “Prajápatye Kasyapáya déváya namah. • Sadá Sítá medhyatám déví bíjéshu cha • dhanéshu cha. Chandaváta hé.” “Salutation to God Prajápati Kasyapa. Agriculture may always flourish and the Goddess (may reside) in seeds and wealth. Channdavata he.” (vii) Harvest Grains and other crops shall be collected as often as they are harvested. No wise man shall leave anything in the fields, or even chaff. Crops, when reaped, shall be heaped up in high piles or in the form of turrets. The piles of crops shall not be kept close, nor shall their tops be small or low. The threshing floors of different fields shall be situated close to each other. (viii) Post harvest technology Clarified butter, oil, serum of flesh, and pith or sap (of plants, etc.)., are termed oils (sneha). Decoction (phánita), jaggary granulated sugar, and sugar-candy is termed kshára. The honey of the bee as well as the juice extracted from grapes are called madhu. Mixture made by combining any one of the substances, such as the juice of sugar-cane, jaggary AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 59 and honey, the juice of grapes, the essence of the fruits of jambu (Euginia jambolana) and of jaka tree—with the essence of meshasringa (a kind of plant) and long pepper, with or without the addition of the essence of chirbhita (a kind of gourd),",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "jaggary AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 59 and honey, the juice of grapes, the essence of the fruits of jambu (Euginia jambolana) and of jaka tree—with the essence of meshasringa (a kind of plant) and long pepper, with or without the addition of the essence of chirbhita (a kind of gourd), cucumber, sugar-cane, mango-fruit and the fruit of myrobalam, the mixture being prepared so as to last for a month, or six months, or a year, constitute the group of astringents (sukta-varga). The fruits of those trees which bear acid fruits, those of karamarda (Carissa carandas), those of vidalámalka (myrobalam), those of matulanga (citron tree), those of kola (small jujuba), those of badara (Flacourtia cataphracta), those of sauvíra (big jujuba), and those of parushaka (Grewia asiatica) and the like come under the group of acid fruits. Long pepper, black pepper, ginger, cumin seed, kiratatikta (Agathotes chirayta), white mustard, coriander, choraka (a plant), damanaka (Artemisia indica), maruvaka (Vangueria spinosa), sigru (Hyperanthera moringa), and the like together with their roots (kánda) come under the group of pungent substances (tiktavarga). Dried fish, bulbous roots (kándamúla), fruits and vegetables form the group of edibles (sakavarga). Raw flour and boiled and forced rice will be as much as one and a half of the original quantity of the grains. Barley gruel as well as its flour baked will be twice the original quantity. Kodo millet (Paspalam scrobiculatum), varaka (Phaseolus trilobus) and common millet (Panicum sp) will increase three times the original quantity when cooked. Vríhi (rice) will increase four times when cooked. Sáli (a kind of rice) will increase five times when cooked. Grains will increase twice the original quantity when moistened; and two and a half times when soaked to sprouting condition. Grains fried will increase by one-fifth the original quantity; leguminous seeds (kaláya), when",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "will increase four times when cooked. Sáli (a kind of rice) will increase five times when cooked. Grains will increase twice the original quantity when moistened; and two and a half times when soaked to sprouting condition. Grains fried will increase by one-fifth the original quantity; leguminous seeds (kaláya), when fried, will increase twice the original; likewise rice when fried. Oil extracted from atasi (linseed) will be one-sixth (of the quantity of the seed); that extracted from the seeds, nimba (Azadirachta indica) and Kapittha (Feronia elephantum) will be onefifth; and that extracted from tila (sesame), kusumba (safflower), madhúka (Bassia latifolia), and ingudi (Terminalia catappa) will be one-fourth. Five palas of kárpása (cotton) and of kshauma (flax) will yield one pala of threads. (ix) Storehouse Grains are heaped up on the floor; jaggary (kshára) is bound round in grass-rope (múta); oils are kept in earthenware or wooden vessels; and salt is heaped up on the surface of the ground. Of the store, thus, collected, half shall be kept in reserve to ward off the calamities of the people and only the other half shall be used. Old collection shall be replaced by new supply. (x) Agricultural workers Workmen in the fields shall always have water but no fire. Watchmen, slaves and labourers shall be paid a pana-and-a-quarter per mensem in proportion to the amount of work done by them. Artisans shall be provided with wages and provision in proportion to the amount of work done by them. (xi) Food requirements One prastha of rice, pure and unsplit, one-fourth prastha of súpa, and clarified butter or oil equal to one-fourth part of (súpa) will suffice to form one meal of an Arya. One-sixth prastha of súpa for a man; and half the above quantity of oil will form one meal for low",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "prastha of rice, pure and unsplit, one-fourth prastha of súpa, and clarified butter or oil equal to one-fourth part of (súpa) will suffice to form one meal of an Arya. One-sixth prastha of súpa for a man; and half the above quantity of oil will form one meal for low castes (avara). The same rations less by one-fourth the above quantities will form one meal for a woman; and half the above rations for children. Bran and flour (kánika) may be given to slaves, labourers, and cooks. The surplus of the above may be given to those who prepare cooked rice, and rice-cakes. For dressing twenty palas of flesh, half a kutumba of oil, one pala of salt, one pala of sugar (kshára), two dharanas of pungent substances (katuka, spices), and half a prastha of curd (will be necessary). For dressing greater quantities of flesh, the same ingredients can be proportionally increased. For cooking sákas (dried fish and vegetables), the 60 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY above substances are to be added one and a half times as much. For dressing dried fish, the above ingredients are to be added twice as much. Rice prepared in such a way that five dróna of sáli yield ten ádhakas of rice will be fit to be the food of young elephants; eleven ádhakas from five drónas for elephants of bad temper (vyála); ten ádhakas from the same quantity for elephants trained for riding; nine ádhakas from the same quantity for elephants used in war; eight ádhakas from the same for infantry; eleven ádhakas from the same for chiefs of the army; six ádhakas from the same for queens and princes and five ádhakas from the same quantity for kings. (xii) Taxation Fields that are left unsown (vápátiriktam, i.e., owing to the inadequacy of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "war; eight ádhakas from the same for infantry; eleven ádhakas from the same for chiefs of the army; six ádhakas from the same for queens and princes and five ádhakas from the same quantity for kings. (xii) Taxation Fields that are left unsown (vápátiriktam, i.e., owing to the inadequacy of hands) may be brought under cultivation by employing those who cultivate for half the share in the produce (ardhasítiká); or those who live by their own physical exertion may cultivate such fields for 1/4 or 1/5th of the produce grown; or they may pay (to the king) as much as they can without entailing any hardship upon themselves, with the exception of their own private lands that are difficult to cultivate. Those who cultivate irrigating by manual labourer shall pay 1/5th of the produce as water-rate; by carrying water on shoulders ¼th of the produce; by water-lifts, 1/3rd of the produce; and by raising water from rivers, lakes, tanks, and wells, 1/3rd or 1/4th of the produce. (xiii) Commodity trade The Superintendent of Commerce shall ascertain demand or absence of demand for, and rise or fall in the price of, various kinds of merchandise which may be the products either of land or of water and which may have been brought in either by land or by water path. He shall also ascertain the time suitable for their distribution, centralization, purchase, and sale. Sale proceeds of grains, grains purchased and the collection of interest in kind or grain debts are termed commerce. Profitable exchange of grains for grains is termed barter (parivarthana). Grains borrowed with promise to repay the same is termed ápamityaka. Pounding (rice, etc.), dividing (pulses, etc.), frying (corns and beans), manufacture of beverages (suktakarma), manufacture of flour by employing those persons who live upon such works, extracting",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "termed commerce. Profitable exchange of grains for grains is termed barter (parivarthana). Grains borrowed with promise to repay the same is termed ápamityaka. Pounding (rice, etc.), dividing (pulses, etc.), frying (corns and beans), manufacture of beverages (suktakarma), manufacture of flour by employing those persons who live upon such works, extracting oil by employing shepherds and oil-makers, and manufacture of sugar from the juice of sugar-cane are termed simhanika. The superintendent shall also personally supervise the increase or diminution sustained in grains when they are pounded (kshunna), or frayed (ghrishta), or reduced to flour (pishta), or fried (bhrashta), or dried after soaking in water. (xiv) Forest produce The Superintendent of Forest Produce shall collect timber and other products of forests by employing those who guard productive forests. He shall not only start productive works in forests, but also fix adequate fines and compensations to be levied from those who cause any damage to productive forests except in calamities. IV. Animal Husbandry A herd of 100 heads of asses and mules shall contain 5 male animals; that of goats and sheep ten; and a herd of ten heads of either cows or buffaloes shall contain four male animals. Herds are maintained for wages, a fixed amount of dairy produce, 1/10th of the dairy produce, etc. ‘Class of herds-cattle is classified as calves, steers, tameable ones, draught oxen, bulls that are to be trained to yoke, bulls kept for crossing cows, cattle that are fit only for the supply of flesh, buffaloes and draught buffaloes; female calves, female steer, heifer, pregnant cows, milch cattle, barren cattle—either cows or buffaloes. Cowherds shall apply remedies to calves or aged cows or cows suffering from diseases. Cows and cattle shall graze the herds in forests, which are severally allotted as pasture grounds for various. Cowherds AGRICULTURAL",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "draught buffaloes; female calves, female steer, heifer, pregnant cows, milch cattle, barren cattle—either cows or buffaloes. Cowherds shall apply remedies to calves or aged cows or cows suffering from diseases. Cows and cattle shall graze the herds in forests, which are severally allotted as pasture grounds for various. Cowherds AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 61 shall allow their cattle to enter into such rivers or lakes as are of equal depth. The cowherds may sell either fresh flesh or dried flesh. The cowherds shall milk the cows both the times (morning and evening) during the rainy, autumnal, and the first part of winter (hemanta) seasons and only once (i.e., only in the morning during the latter part of winter and the whole of the spring and summer seasons). The cowherd who milks a cow a second time during these seasons shall have his thumb cut off. If he allows the time of milking to lapse, he shall forfeit the profit thereof (i.e., the milk). The cowherds shall give buttermilk as drink to dogs and hogs, and reserve a little (buttermilk) in a bronze vessel to prepare their own dish: they may also make use of coagulated milk or cheese (kíláta) to render their oilcakes relishing (ghánapinyáka-kledartha). He who sells his cow (from among the herds) shall pay (to the king) ¼th rúpa (value of the cow). One drona of a cow’s milk will, when churned, yield one prastha of butter; the same quantity of a buffalo’s milk will yield 1/7th prastha more; and the same quantity of milk of goats and sheep will produce ½ prastha more. According to the protective strength of the cowherds the capacity of the cattle to go far and wide to graze, cowherds shall take their cattle either far or near. Once in six months, sheep",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "more; and the same quantity of milk of goats and sheep will produce ½ prastha more. According to the protective strength of the cowherds the capacity of the cattle to go far and wide to graze, cowherds shall take their cattle either far or near. Once in six months, sheep and other animals shall be shorn of their wool. (i) Rations for livestock For bullocks, one drona of green gram or one drona of barley cooked with other things, as prescribed for horses, is the requisite quantity of food, besides the special and additional provision of one tula of oilcakes or ten ádhakas of bran; twice the above quantity for buffaloes; Half an ádhaka or one ádhaka of grain together with bran for a goat, a ram and a boar; one prastha of cooked rice for dogs; Half a prastha for a hamsa (goose), a krauncha (heron) and a peacock. For bulls which are provided with nose-rings, and which equal horses in speed and in carrying loads, half a bhára of meadow grass (yavasa), twice the above quantity of ordinary grass (trina), one tulá (100 palas) of oil cakes, 10 ádhakas of bran, 5 palas of salt (mukhalavanam), one kudumba of oil for rubbing over the nose (nasya), 1 prastha of drink (pána), one tulá of flesh, 1 ádhaka of curis, 1 drona of barley or of cooked green gram, 1 drona of milk; or half an ádhaka of surá (liquor), 1 prastha of oil or ghi (sneha) 10 palas of sugar or jaggary, 1 pala of the fruit of sringibera (ginger) may be substituted for milk (pratipána). V. Remedies Against National Calamities The king shall always protect the afflicted among his people as a father his sons from eight kinds of calamities viz., fire, floods, pestilential diseases, famine, rats,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of sugar or jaggary, 1 pala of the fruit of sringibera (ginger) may be substituted for milk (pratipána). V. Remedies Against National Calamities The king shall always protect the afflicted among his people as a father his sons from eight kinds of calamities viz., fire, floods, pestilential diseases, famine, rats, tigers, serpents, and demons. (i) Fire King and superintendents of villages shall protect from fire on ordinary days, but also on full-moon days. (ii) Floods Villagers living on the banks of rivers shall be provided protection from floods during the rainy reason. They shall provide themselves with wooden planks, bamboos, and boats. On new and full-moon days shall rivers be worshipped. Experts in sacred magic and mysticism and persons learned in the Vedas, shall perform, incantations against rain. During drought shall Indra (sachínátha), the Ganges, mountains, and Mahákachchha be worshipped. (iii) Pestilences Protection against epidemics with auspicious and purificatory ceremonials, milking the cows on cremation or burial grounds, burning the trunk of a corpse, and spending nights in devotion to gods, worship of family-gods shall also be observed. (iv) Famines The king shall show favour to his people by providing them with seeds and provision during famine or the king with his subjects may emigrate to another kingdom with abundant harvest. He may cause his subjects to grow grains, vegetables, roots, and fruits wherever water is available. 62 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (v) Rats Cats and mongooses may be let loose to control rats. On new and full-moon days rats may be worshipped. (vi) Snakes Auspicious rites may perform from Atharvaveda. On new and full moon days, (snakes) may be worshipped. (vii) Tigers Catch tigers by entrapping them in nets. The juice of madana and kodrava plants may be thrown in tiger living places to destroy tigers. On new and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "may be worshipped. (vi) Snakes Auspicious rites may perform from Atharvaveda. On new and full moon days, (snakes) may be worshipped. (vii) Tigers Catch tigers by entrapping them in nets. The juice of madana and kodrava plants may be thrown in tiger living places to destroy tigers. On new and full moon days, mountains may be worshipped. (viii) Demons Ceremonials shall be performed with the rituals of the Atharvaveda to ward off the danger from demons. Such ascetics as are experts in magical arts, and being endowed with supernatural powers, can ward off providential visitations, shall, therefore, be honoured by the king and made to live in his kingdom. 2.5 AGRICULTURE AND SANGAM LITERATURE OF TAMIL 2.5.1 Sangam and its History ‘Sangam’ is a Sanskrit word which means as ‘association’. ‘Sangam poets’ is an association of poets. Tamil Sangam was a body of Tamil Scholars or poets, a literary academy, which was established by the Pandia Kings. Sangam was known as ‘Avaiyam’, Kudal or its variant ‘Kuttu’ before 700 A.D. In Purananuru, the expression of ‘Kudal’ was used. Kudal was also used to indicate the Madurai city. Thirunavukarasar (Appar) in his ‘Tewaram’ had used the word, ‘Sangam’ while Thiruzhanasambandar used the word ‘Togai’ means a collection. This showed that the institution was known as ‘Kudal’ or ‘Togai’ during Sangam period itself. Literature/poems is said to have been compared by the members of that body of poets. A system of literary censorship was exercised in Tamil language during early days of their literary history, which is known as ‘Avaiyam’ and not ‘Sangam’. There were three Tamil Sangam constituted one after another and were called • First Sangam or Thalai Sangam; • Middle Sangam or Idai Sangam and • Last Sangam or Kadai Sangam. These periods was comprised of about 1000 years",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "their literary history, which is known as ‘Avaiyam’ and not ‘Sangam’. There were three Tamil Sangam constituted one after another and were called • First Sangam or Thalai Sangam; • Middle Sangam or Idai Sangam and • Last Sangam or Kadai Sangam. These periods was comprised of about 1000 years from 500 B.C to 500 A.D. as the extreme limits. Dravida Sangam in Madurai around fourth and fifth century was not a Tamil Sangam. 2.5.2 Tamil Literature—A bird’s View The Sangam literature provides very valuable information on the social, economic and political life of the people living in deltaic Tamil Nadu. Sanga kaalam is considered to be the Golden Age of Tamil Literature. The Ancient Sangam Age around 1000 B.C to 200 B.C was considered as the era of Tholkappiar. Tholkappiam is the oldest Tamil book. ‘Tolkappiyar’ whose age is generally placed in the 5th century B.C. gives us a lot of information for tracing the heritage of the Tamils. The land was treated as five regions viz., mountains, forests, fields, coasts and deserts and the theme of love in five aspects viz., union, patience, sulking, wailing and separation. The poet dealing with a certain aspect of love restricted himself to a particular region, season, hour, flora and fauna. These literary conventions are explained in Tolkappiyam. The third Sangam period, the most notable is Tiruvalluvar’s Tirukkural or Kural, which deals with philosophy and wise maxims. It is the second great work with 1330 couplets (133 topics each having 10 couplets). It has been translated into English and several other languages. The Late Sangam Age around 200 B.C. to 200 A.D. is considered as an era of Thiruvalluvar. The third outstanding work in old Tamil is Silappathikaram around 200 A.D. as the era of Ilango. During the AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "It has been translated into English and several other languages. The Late Sangam Age around 200 B.C. to 200 A.D. is considered as an era of Thiruvalluvar. The third outstanding work in old Tamil is Silappathikaram around 200 A.D. as the era of Ilango. During the AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 63 middle Sangam, the Pandia kings had the capital in Thenmadurai on the shores of the Indian Ocean, which was later, destroyed by sea deluge. Then the capital and Sangam were shifted to Kapatapuram on the east coast. The sea too engulfed Kapatapuram. Then the capital and Sangam was shifted to the Madurai, an inland city. Thus the present Madurai on the bank of river Vaigai became the third capital and the seat of Third Sangam of poets. There were references in Silapathigaram and in Kalithogai. ‘The Dark Age or the Kalabhra Interoregnum period witnesses the growth of Buddhism and Jainism in the now shrinked Tamil country. The Kalabhra, of the Kannada soil, invasion during 250 A.D. alters the shape of Tamil literature and Tamil way of life. The post-Sangam period (200–600 A.D.) is notable for the composition of five great Tamil epics Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, Jivaka-cintamani, Valaiyapati and Kundalakesi. In 400 A.D., Ten Idylls (Pattuppattu) and the Eight Anthologies (Ettuttohai) are classified into Akam or esoteric dealing with love and Puram or exoteric dealing with war. The literature of the third Sangam period mainly comprises of poems, which are arranged in eight anthologies called Ettuttokoi and ten idylls called Pattuppattu. Ettuttokoi consists of Narrinai, Kuruntogai, Ainkurunuru, Padirruppattu, Paripadal, Kalittogai, Ahanuru and Purananuru. Pattuppattu consists of Tirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Cirupanarruppadai, Pattinappalai, Kurincippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanci, Malaipadukadam, Mullaippattu and Perumpanarruppadai. Bakthi or The Pallava Period The suppression of the alien Kalabhra clan by Pandiyan Kadumkon by the end of the 6th century had helped",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Ettuttokoi consists of Narrinai, Kuruntogai, Ainkurunuru, Padirruppattu, Paripadal, Kalittogai, Ahanuru and Purananuru. Pattuppattu consists of Tirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Cirupanarruppadai, Pattinappalai, Kurincippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanci, Malaipadukadam, Mullaippattu and Perumpanarruppadai. Bakthi or The Pallava Period The suppression of the alien Kalabhra clan by Pandiyan Kadumkon by the end of the 6th century had helped a revival of the ancient orthodox religions of the land. Besides these, the Jain authors have produced five minor works—Yasodhara-kaviyam, Chulamani, Perunkathai, Nagakumara-kaviyamand, Nilakesi. Besides these, the Jain authors have produced five minor works— Yasodhara-kaviyam, Chulamani, Perunkathai, Nagakumara-kaviyam and Nilakesi. The Chola period or the Epic period: Kamba Ramayana in the 9th century A.D. Kamban, belonged to this period. He was the greatest of the court poets of Kulottunga Chola III (1178–1218 A.D.). He adapted Valmiki’s Ramayana in Tamil in his Ramakatai or Kamba Ramayanam. Another noble off spring of this period is Periapuranam. (a) The age of Tamils ed Epic Between 600 and 900 A.D., the Tamil literature came under the influence of Saiva and Vaisnava saints called Nayanmars and Alvars respectively. The Saiva saints first compiled their hymns into the Devaram. The hymns of the Saiva saints were later collected into twelve anthologies called Tirumurais. The Periya Puranam or Tiruttondar Puranam, considered as the twelfth Tirumurai, was composed by Sekkizhar (12th century A.D.). The Vaishnavaite saint Nathamuni (824–924 A.D.) compiled the Vaishnava hymns into four books called Divya Prabandham or Nalayira Divya Prabandham. The other Alvar saints who contributed to the Tamil religious literature include Periyalivar, Poigaialvar, Bhutattalvar, Andal (the only woman saint among Alvars) and Nammalvar. Nammalvar’s Tiruvaymozhi, the third book of Divya Prabandham, is said to be a quintessence of the Upanishads. (b) Modern literature The modern period witnessed the impact of Islam and Christianity on Tamil literature. Mohammedians rule during the 13th and 14th century.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Andal (the only woman saint among Alvars) and Nammalvar. Nammalvar’s Tiruvaymozhi, the third book of Divya Prabandham, is said to be a quintessence of the Upanishads. (b) Modern literature The modern period witnessed the impact of Islam and Christianity on Tamil literature. Mohammedians rule during the 13th and 14th century. Umaruppulavar (1605–1703 A.D.) was the earliest among the Muslim Tamil poets. He composed the Sirappuranam, which is a verse narrative on the life of Prophet Muhammad. Another work dealing with the Islamic faith was Muhaidin Puranam (1845 A.D.) by Mohammad Ibrahim. Constanzio Beschi (1680–1747 A.D.), who adopted the pseudonym of ‘Viramamunivar’, wrote a classic Tembavani, on the life of Jesus Christ. Paramartta Gurukathai written by Viramamunivar in the 18th century affords the earliest specimen in novel writing in Tamil. Subramanya Bharati (1882–1921 A.D.) was one of the greatest of Tamil litterateurs of the modern times. He is renowned for his patriotic and devotional songs and intense prose writings on contemporary social affairs. His ‘Panchali Sabadam’ is an epic poem based on a single episode of the Mahabharata. 64 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 2.5.2 Agriculture Agriculture was the Principal occupation of Tamils. The Agriculturalists were called ‘ Ulavar’ and their women the ‘Ulattiyar’ (Tolporul, 20). The classes of people owning land and the class of people actually tilling the land were ‘Vellalas’ the farmer known as the superior ‘Vellalas’ and the latter known on inferior ‘Vellalas. Ulavar was also known as Valnar. Ulutunbar or Yerin. Purananuru calls Ulavar as Kalamar. The term Ulavar itself indicates the use of the plough and the term Vellalar denotes the propertiership of the soil. The cowherd community counted the cattle as wealth while among agriculturalists the number of plough was the standard of measurement of wealth. A poet in Karuntogai speaks of ‘Orerulavar’ a peasant",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "term Ulavar itself indicates the use of the plough and the term Vellalar denotes the propertiership of the soil. The cowherd community counted the cattle as wealth while among agriculturalists the number of plough was the standard of measurement of wealth. A poet in Karuntogai speaks of ‘Orerulavar’ a peasant with one ploughshare. Thiruvalluvar had highlighted the importance of Agriculture in PART-104, Thirukural. Agriculture is considered as an esteemed profession (Kural, Chap 104). Valluvar had described the desirable feature of a territory or country. A country should have good agriculturalists and learned and wealthy men. It must be free from hunger, disease, and enmity. A country should not be under the influence of famine. In whatever occupation others might be engaged they might engaged, they must all depend finally on the farmer (Kural, 1031), even the ascetics will become helpless if presents do not till the lands (Kural, 1036). Agriculture is not as dignified as other professions; on the other hand, the agriculturalists are positively the support of whole world (Kural, 1032). Agriculturalists alone lead a truly useful life, the rest being only parasites and sycophants (Kural, 1033). According to Thiruvalluvar an agriculturalist must: (i) plough the land; (ii) manure it; (iii) transplant the seedlings; (iv) ensure an unfailing supply of channel water and (v) protect the cultivated farm from the stray cattle (Kural, 1038). He warns the farmer against lethargy, he lids him be active and never despond (Kural, 1040). The farmer is to guard against absentee-landlordism (Kural, 1039). A. Farmers, the Founders of Civilization Thiruvalluvar had high lightened the agriculture profession in PART 104 as follows: Behind the plough in the whole world and is the prime of all professions (Kural 1031). Tillers of the soil are the axle-pin of the revolving world because they sustain all others",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "A. Farmers, the Founders of Civilization Thiruvalluvar had high lightened the agriculture profession in PART 104 as follows: Behind the plough in the whole world and is the prime of all professions (Kural 1031). Tillers of the soil are the axle-pin of the revolving world because they sustain all others who have the plough and take to other occupations (Kural, 1032). Farmers only live by right that till the soil and raise their own food, rest are parasites, who live upon them (Kural, 1033). The state of green fields, waving in fullness with sheaves of corn, will surely bring many countries around them under the influence (Kural, 1034). Trade increases the wealth and glory of a country; but its real strength and stamina are to be looked for among the cultivators of the land. The farmers, who eat only the fruits of their own toil, will never beg, nor will they deny alms to a mendicant at their door (Kural, 1035). If the tillers of the soil withdraw their labour, even those who have renounced the world will lose their serenity and concentration of sprit (Kural, 1036). If the tillers of the soil withdraw their labour, the householders support to the ascetics will naturally be affected and loose their concentration (Kural, 42). If the ploughed soil is left to dry to a fourth of its bulk, there will be plenteous crop, without even a handful of manure being put in (Kural, 1037). Valluvar considers the preparation of the soil as the first and foremost step while effective aeration and purposeful nitrogenisation are incidental to it. Manuring is more important than ploughing, then, after proper weeding; plant protection is more important than water management. (Kural 1038). If the husband-man does not pay personal attention to his land like the neglected wife",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the first and foremost step while effective aeration and purposeful nitrogenisation are incidental to it. Manuring is more important than ploughing, then, after proper weeding; plant protection is more important than water management. (Kural 1038). If the husband-man does not pay personal attention to his land like the neglected wife that field will turn it face away in loving anger. (Kural, 1039). The good earth will laugh derisively at those, who pleading poverty, sit idle and neglect their productive land. B. Climate Rain is respected as the axil for the world and basic need of the people (Nartrinai, 139). World cannot AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 65 exist in absence of the water (Natrinai 1: 6). Rain bearing clouds under shrouding darkness with lightning gives cool showers, the clouds that of a beating drum with short thick sticks and thunder again and again gives heavy rains (Kurunthogai 270). Thiruvalluvar had stressed the need and importance of rain not only for agriculture but also to the wealth and spiritual life of people in PART III of Thirukural. Valluvar praised the rain as follows: As the falling rain sustains the world, it must be deemed as the Amuta (the drink of immortal Gods) or the nectar of life (Kural, 11). From food come fourth begins, from rain food is produced. All food is produced because of rain, which itself is food again (Kural, 12). If rain fail, hunger will cause infinite misery to the world, even though it is surrounded by the wide oceans (Kural, 13). If there is diminution in the bounty of rain, the ploughmen will be forced into idleness (Kural, 14). Want of rain, spell ruin the prosperity, sufficiency of rain in farm, will lead to renewed prosperity. Even excess rain and cyclonic flood sometimes bring disaster (Kural, 15). If",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "oceans (Kural, 13). If there is diminution in the bounty of rain, the ploughmen will be forced into idleness (Kural, 14). Want of rain, spell ruin the prosperity, sufficiency of rain in farm, will lead to renewed prosperity. Even excess rain and cyclonic flood sometimes bring disaster (Kural, 15). If the clouds do not shed drops of rain, even blades of grass cannot shoot up (Kural, 16). If the clouds produced by the sea fail in their bounty, even the wealth of the seas will shrink (Kural, 17). The pearl formation would suffer due to the failure of rain in summer season. If rain failure occurs in OctoberNovember, coral conception would be affected. If rain fails, there will be neither festivals nor rituals for the Gods themselves (Kural, 18). If heavens will not give up of their bounty to give rain to this world, Alms to the needy and penance for the spiritual uplift cannot be sustained (Kural, 19). Even as life on earth cannot sustain without water, Virtue too depends ultimately on rain (Kural, 20). C. Seasons Seasons were broadly classified into Ilavenil–(Chitrai–Vaigasi); Mudhuvenil–(Aani-Adi); Karkalam– (Avani-Puratassi); Kuuthgirkalam–(Ipachi-Karthigai); Munpanikalam–(Marghali-Thai) and Pinpanikalam –(Masi-Panguni). Vengai flowers bloom with loosened petals and the fallen petals beautify the river bed’s black sand locks in the spring (Early summer) season (Kalithogai, 32). The agriculture of the delta fell into two divisions: a double crop and a single crop economy. The former consisted of growing a short crop of rice first, and a longer duration crop afterwards. The rice growing seasons of Tamil Nadu varies from region to region. The short crop in turn, consisted of two varieties-a four months variety called ‘Kar’ and a hundred days variety called ‘Kuruvai’. The former was confined to the first reaches of the delta. Where the seedlings could be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "afterwards. The rice growing seasons of Tamil Nadu varies from region to region. The short crop in turn, consisted of two varieties-a four months variety called ‘Kar’ and a hundred days variety called ‘Kuruvai’. The former was confined to the first reaches of the delta. Where the seedlings could be raised before the advent of the freshes and in reasonable anticipation of its certainty, and the latter was the more common variety. The second crop grown on double crop land was known as ‘Thaladi’, as distinguished from ‘Mudladi’ which was the first crop. The major crop economy, growing five months crop called ‘Samba’. The first crop season was from June to October. The second crop October to February. The single crop season was spread over from June to January. D. Landscapes Classification of Tamil Nadu in Tholkappiam Tamil Nadu is bounded by Thirupathi in the North and Cape Comorin (Kumari) on the south and seas in the east and west (Kakaipadiniyar). Landscapes in corresponding to a flower, time of day, and stage of love-relationship in Table 2.3. Tholkappiar further classified the land as Vanpulam (Kurinchi, mullai) and Menpulam (Marutham, Neithal). Since Mullai land is located by the side or next to Kurinchi land, it is known as ‘Puravu’. The cultivation of fruit trees and crops for cattle was undertaken in Mullai lands. Tholkappiar referred the Mullai land as ‘Kadurai Ulagam’ since the trees occur in predominant areas. It has grasslands on in larger areas. Growing sheep and weaving wool clothes was yet another profession. Tenai and paddy was cultivated in Kurinji. ‘Palai’ is really a non descript mixture or medley of Mullai and Kurinji tracts rather than a mere sandy tract (Silapathigaram). It must be remembered that there is no desert in Tamil 66 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Nadu. Marudam",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "was yet another profession. Tenai and paddy was cultivated in Kurinji. ‘Palai’ is really a non descript mixture or medley of Mullai and Kurinji tracts rather than a mere sandy tract (Silapathigaram). It must be remembered that there is no desert in Tamil 66 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Nadu. Marudam land is fit for agricultural operations. In Marutham, rice in the staple food. Cattle were their-favorite beasts; Vanji, Kandri and Marudam were Chief trees of the Marudam lands. In fact, the land Marudam was delivered its name from the tree Marudam. Their occupation was agriculture and the lotus was their sacred flower (Tor Porul, 18). There is no separate Palai land in Tamil Nadu. If rain fails, the Mullai and Kurinchi lands turns into Palai land (Silapathigaram). Thiruvalluvar mentions two chief characteristics of an ideal state/country viz., (i) talla vilaiyal: fertility of the land ensuring perennial supply of food to the population (Kural, 41), and (ii) Vallaran: Suitability of the terrain for purposes of defense against foreign attacks (Kural, 40). Table 2.2. Features of Landscapes in Ancient Tamil Nadu LandMullai Kurinji, Marudham, Vayal, Neithal, Palai scapes Punam Kalani, Palanam (AdaikaraiNattrinai) Land type Forest and Mountain, hilly Agricultural areas; Coastal areas, Barrenland pasture tract plains and valleys marine tract (desert and (shrubbery) sandy tract, vegetation sparse) Soil Red soil Red and black soils Alluvial Sandy soil, Salt affected with stones and saline soil soil pebbles Crop Tenai, varagu, Cotton, Rice var Kulanel, Sugarcane, Rice var. ——— ——— cotton Thoppinel, Thorainel Vennel; Mudandainel Flower Mullai (white Kurinchi (blooms once Marutam Water lily Paalai jasmine) every twelve years) Stage of Heroine expresses Union of lovers Lovers’ quarrels, Heroine Longest love patient waiting wife’s irritability expresses separation; over separation (husband accused grief over dangerous of visiting a separation journey by courtesan) the hero Season",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Mudandainel Flower Mullai (white Kurinchi (blooms once Marutam Water lily Paalai jasmine) every twelve years) Stage of Heroine expresses Union of lovers Lovers’ quarrels, Heroine Longest love patient waiting wife’s irritability expresses separation; over separation (husband accused grief over dangerous of visiting a separation journey by courtesan) the hero Season of Cloudy Cool and moist No specific season No specific Hot and dry year (Aug-Oct) (Nov-Dec) season (April-Sept) Time of Evening Midnight Shortly before Sunset Midday day sunrise Livestock/ Goats, cattle —— Buffaloes, penning Fish culture Sheep, goats Fish with goats or cattle God Vishnu, Mayan Murugan, Subramanian Indra, the rain god Varuna Durga, Korravai E. Agricultural Implements Buffaloes were used for ploughing with a wooden plough. Deep ploughing was considered superior to shallow ploughing. A labour saving tool called parambu was used for levelling paddy fields. Tools such as amiry, keilar, and yettam were used to lift water from wells, tanks, and rivers. Tools called thattai and kavan were used for scaring birds in millet fields. Traps were used to catch wild boars in millet fields. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 67 F. Land Preparation Thiruvalluvar gives a few ideas about agricultural operations. If an agriculturalist would allow the ploughed land to dry up so that one todi (one palam) of dust dries down to one kashi (1/4 palam) i.e., if it is reduced to one fourth (1/4) of the original quantity, there will be no need to put into the land even one handful of eru, i.e., manure (Kural, 1037). Ploughing was carried out many times instead of single time (Ahananuru, 26:24-25). Agriculture can be practiced easily when the cultivator has his own ploughs, Iniyavainarpathu, 3:3). Ploughing one time was referred as Orusal ulavu; twice as Irusal ulavu and many times as Chensal ulavu. Plough the land deeper than",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1037). Ploughing was carried out many times instead of single time (Ahananuru, 26:24-25). Agriculture can be practiced easily when the cultivator has his own ploughs, Iniyavainarpathu, 3:3). Ploughing one time was referred as Orusal ulavu; twice as Irusal ulavu and many times as Chensal ulavu. Plough the land deeper than wider. Cattle were used for ploughing. Cyperus weeds and crab cavities were destroyed during land preparation and levelled in wetlands (Perumpanattrupadai). Crops had been raised in beds and channels (Nanmanikaddigai, 16). G. Crops and Varieties Ancient Tamils cultivated paddy, black gram, horse gram, varagu, tenai, sesame, sugarcane, banana, coconut, palmgrab, bamboo grasses, jack fruit, tamarind and mango. Varagu was cultivated in Mullai lands (Purananuru, 120). Tenai and field bean (Mochai) were cultivated as mixed crop in Kurinchi lands (Kurunthogai, 72.240). Cotton and Tenai were cultivated as mixed crops (Kurunthogai, 72). Rice varieties such as Chennel, Vennel, Salinel, Mudandainel, Ivananel, Kulanel, Thoppinel, Pudunel, Varnel, Aviananel, Torainel were cultivated (Purananuru, Pattinapalai, Kurunthogai, 277). Mungil el or Mungil arisi obtained from bamboo. It was taken as food at the time of king Pari (Purananuru, 109). Red gram, Black gram was cultivated in Marutham lands (Aaga nanuru, 339: Natrinai 28, Purananuru, 297). Sugarcane was cultivated with check basin Method at the foot hills (Kurunthogai, 262). Sugarcane var. Kalik karumbu was cultivated in Thagadur region during the king Adiyaman period (Purananuru, 99). Banana was cultivated. Its terminal loft’s medicinal properties was mentioned in Kurunthogai, 308. Rice, sugarcane, coconut, plantains, areca palm, turmeric, mango, palmyra, sembu (Colocasia antiquolam) and ginger were grown in Cauvery river valley. A ‘Veli’ of land produced a round thousands kalams of paddy. Farmer enjoys on seeing the first freshes and hearing the sound of Cauvery flow and of the eddying water scouring the bunds (Silappadikaram). H. Seeds and Sowing Seed was",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(Colocasia antiquolam) and ginger were grown in Cauvery river valley. A ‘Veli’ of land produced a round thousands kalams of paddy. Farmer enjoys on seeing the first freshes and hearing the sound of Cauvery flow and of the eddying water scouring the bunds (Silappadikaram). H. Seeds and Sowing Seed was selected from those earheads that first matured. The selected seed was stored for sowing only and never used as food grain. It was believed that such a diversion would destroy the family. Sowing tenai seeds without ploughing was also practiced. Cyperus weeds were removed through feeding with pigs and then in such lands seeds were sown without ploughing (Purananuru, 168–6). Seeds were sown with adequate spacing (Narrinai). Seed germination happens with adequate moisture (Nanmanikadigai, 67). I. Cropping Systems Crop rotation was practiced by raising black gram (urd) after rice. They also practiced mixed cropping; e.g., foxtail millet with lablab or cotton. Ginger and turmeric were grown as intercrops in coconut and jack fruit plantations. Rice fallow cultivation with other crops such as pulses had been reported in ‘Ingurunuru’. Cultivation of sugarcane was reported in ‘Pathittrupattu’. Mixed cropping of cotton and tenai were also practiced. Pepper was grown as mixed crop in mango plantation (Inthinai, 8:1–2). J. Weed Management Weeds were removed from the fields (Madurai kanchi). Tools were used for weed control (Ahananuru). Weeds hamper the growth of crops (Nanmanikadigai). 68 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY K. Soil Fertility Thiruvalluvar stated that fertile land alone is entitled to be called territory (Nadu) which yield wealth unsought for (Kural, 739). The fertility of the land especially in Chola Kingdom finds proud mention in contemporary literature. Organic manures were applied in ploughed lands (Narrinai). Avur Mulankilar in a short poem addressed to Killivalavan says, “ The land is so fertile that a tiny",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(Nadu) which yield wealth unsought for (Kural, 739). The fertility of the land especially in Chola Kingdom finds proud mention in contemporary literature. Organic manures were applied in ploughed lands (Narrinai). Avur Mulankilar in a short poem addressed to Killivalavan says, “ The land is so fertile that a tiny piece there of, where a she-elephant might rest, can produce enough food to nourish seven bull elephants (Purananur, 40). The fertility of the land even in hilly areas like the Palakunrakottam (land between Tirupathi and Tiruvannamalai) was such that the sesame crop was so healthy and full grown that a handful could contain no more than seven grains of sesame (Malaipadu, 102 to 106). Even without ploughing, merely sowing deep in turned sod made mustard grown in great quantities (Malaipadu, 122 to 123). In a fairly fertile farm, a veli of land produced a full thousand kalams of paddy (Porunnar, 246 to 248). The silt carried by the flood water was a major source of fertilization, and the greater the volume of water, the greater the valuable silt deposit. Some of the more favourably situated fields were known as “Erikkattu” meaning tank reservoir. This was an ingenious system of “field insurance” against the risk of floods. L. Irrigation Management Water quality depends on land type (Nanmanikadigai, 80). Moisture stressed crops grow well on receipt of rains (Iniyavainarpathu15:2); construction of ponds for others use is essential (Iniyavainarpathu1, 23:1). (i) Art of well divining The Cankam art works speak of the art of well-divining practice of the Tamils to wells on the highways for the weary travellers (Naririnai, 240; Purananuru, 306). The didactic work Tirikatukam (14) refers to the virtuous act of digging ‘drinking water wells’ bounteously. Tivakaram and Kayatara Nikantu refer to those well-versed in well-divining as ‘ulliyar’ and calliyar’ respectively.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of well-divining practice of the Tamils to wells on the highways for the weary travellers (Naririnai, 240; Purananuru, 306). The didactic work Tirikatukam (14) refers to the virtuous act of digging ‘drinking water wells’ bounteously. Tivakaram and Kayatara Nikantu refer to those well-versed in well-divining as ‘ulliyar’ and calliyar’ respectively. Although ‘Kuval, Acumpu, Kupam, Kuli, Puval, Keni, Turavu are used synonymously to denote well, cankam classic speak of kuval only. Patirrupattu (51) and Ainkurunuru (203) revealed that the wells of those days, generally, were of shallow depth only. According to two manuscripts, rocky lands were classed as ‘Kurinchi’; the land with coarse sand, ‘Neytal’; the land abounding in scattered minor rocks, ‘Mullai’; muddy land, ‘Marutam’ and the unused tract ‘Palai’, of which the Neytal tract was supposed to have moisture. The depths of the water source in different lands differed from the surface land. In Kurinchi springs will be found at a depth of 33 cans, in Palai 30 cans, in Mullai 36 cans, in Neytal 35 cans and in Marutam 22 cans. The soil fit for the growth of banyan tree, tamarind, mango and so on might have water springs at different depths. The places where white rats, scorpion, the double-tongued lizard, toad and so on inhabit might have water sources. Another manuscript talks about the brownishness of Mullai water, whiteness of Palai water, Kurinchi’s blackish water, Marutam’s potable water and saltish water of Neytal. A well, which had disappeared due to human or natural calamities, can be traced on the basis of certain varieties of grass getting withered in winter and flourishing in summer season. In such places, there would be a swarm of flies and ants; also anthills appearing in places where certain grassy plants grow and such trees as ‘Vanci’ and ‘Nocci’ flourishing during the hot",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "on the basis of certain varieties of grass getting withered in winter and flourishing in summer season. In such places, there would be a swarm of flies and ants; also anthills appearing in places where certain grassy plants grow and such trees as ‘Vanci’ and ‘Nocci’ flourishing during the hot summer season, would be sure indications of the existence of wells-now disappeared in such places. (ii) Major irrigation system of ancient Tamil Nadu In Purananur (18), Kudapula Vianar says that a large irrigation system has relieved the peasants from dependence on the monsoon. The Pallavas, whose capital was in Tondaimandalam, constructed several irrigation tanks, and practically all of them are functioning to this day. The Cholas, besides constructing tanks, tamed AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 69 the Cauvery river, an achievement of which any monarch and his people may be proud. The Pandyan Country was divided between fringe irrigation alongside of the rivers and the utilization of tanks. The two major rivers of Tamil Nadu are the Cauvery and the Tamiraparani. The Vaigai has at no time been a source of great importance. The Cauvery river rises in the western ghats near Coorg and after a course of nearly 500 miles, enters the Bay of Bengal, draining an area of about 31,000 square miles in route. In the Cholamandala Satakam there is mention of the Kallanai or the Grand Anicut being constructed. Karikalan is said to have employed several thousands of Ceylonese for this purpose. According to the “Mahavamsa”, one hears of an aged woman complaining to Gajabahu that amongst the twelve thousand persons taken away by Karikalan for making the embankment of the Cauvery was her only son. According the Pattinathupalai, Karikalan was known as “Kaaverinaadan” due to his taming the violent river. His raising of the flood banks of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of an aged woman complaining to Gajabahu that amongst the twelve thousand persons taken away by Karikalan for making the embankment of the Cauvery was her only son. According the Pattinathupalai, Karikalan was known as “Kaaverinaadan” due to his taming the violent river. His raising of the flood banks of the Cauvery was mentioned in the Malepadu plates of Punayakumara, a Telegu Choda king of the seventh or eighth century. A list of some of the major irrigation works are furnished in Table 2.3. Table 2.3. Major Irrigation Works in Ancient Tamil Nadu Name of the work King to whom attributed Date Grand Anicut Karikalan Chola 1st Century Thirayan Eri Thirayan 6th Century Mahendra Tataka Mahendravarman I 7th Century Parameswar Tataka Parmaeswara Varman 7th Century Vairammega Tataka Vairamega Pallava 8th Century Marpidigu Eri Vairamega Pallava 8th Century Valian Eri Dandivarman 8th Century Kaveripakkam tank Nandivarman 8th Century Kilavan Ari Nedumaran Srivallabha 8th Century Maraneri Maran 8th Century Kudimallam Tank Tandikramavarman 8th Century Maruthadu Vijayanripatunga 9th Century Dharmapuri Tank Mahendra Pallava 9th Century Ukkal Tank Kampavarman 9th Century Chola Varuthi Parantaka I 10th Century Chodiumbakan Tank Parantaka I 10th Century Nangavaram Tank Arunjaya 10th Century Veeranam Eri Veeranarayana 10th Century Uyyakondan Channel Raja Raja I 10th Century Bahur Tank Raja Raja I 10th Century Periya Vaikal Raja Raja I 10th Century Chola Ganga Rajendra 10th Century Parakara Kallanai Jayadeven Srivallabha 11th Century 70 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY The anaicuts on the Tamiraparani are noticed separately. Seven anaicuts were constructed across the Tamiraparani. The exact dates when they were constructed are not known. The usual local legends have grown around each of them. That they are ancient, however is evident. They are in order namely, Kodaimelalagiyan, Nadiyunni, Kannadiyan, Ariyanayakapuram, Palavur, Suttamalli, and Marudur. (iii) Tank systems The Tamils constructed two types of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Tamiraparani. The exact dates when they were constructed are not known. The usual local legends have grown around each of them. That they are ancient, however is evident. They are in order namely, Kodaimelalagiyan, Nadiyunni, Kannadiyan, Ariyanayakapuram, Palavur, Suttamalli, and Marudur. (iii) Tank systems The Tamils constructed two types of tanks; large tanks, such as those referred to in the early part of this paper, and innumerable smaller ones scattered all over the undulating interior of the Tamil country. Both kinds of tanks were largely looked after by the people themselves. The inscriptions in some of the tanks make mention of this responsibility. “The primary care of the village assemblies was to get the silt removed (Every year before the rains set in) from the tanks under their control in time for them to secure the proper depth needed to store the full supply for the next year. Often special endowments were created or the penury of village authorities. In some instances a cess called ‘Eriayan’ was collected from the villages for this purpose. The Cauvery system is very ancient is evident from Sangam literature. The Grand Anicut, constructed by Karikalan in the first century is still in effective use. M. Plant Protection Fencing had been laid out around the fields to protect from the animals. Fencing was done with bamboo (Kurunthogai); Karuvel (Acacia sp.-in Ahananuru). N. Harvesting and Threshing Harvesting was carried out in night time with beating drums to protect from the wild animals (Kunthogai, 375;3; Madurai kanchi, 259-260); (Malaipattu, 471). Rice crop was harvested using a tool ‘Kuyam’ (Narrinai, 195: 5–6). Rice was threshed using cattle and elephants (Malaipadukadam, Perunaruttrupaadai). Garden land bean (Avarai) was cultivated in Tenai stubbles (Ingurunuru: 284:1-2); sowing of tenai and cotton in harvested tenai lands (Malaipadukadam, 122–123). A tool called ‘senyam’ was",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "259-260); (Malaipattu, 471). Rice crop was harvested using a tool ‘Kuyam’ (Narrinai, 195: 5–6). Rice was threshed using cattle and elephants (Malaipadukadam, Perunaruttrupaadai). Garden land bean (Avarai) was cultivated in Tenai stubbles (Ingurunuru: 284:1-2); sowing of tenai and cotton in harvested tenai lands (Malaipadukadam, 122–123). A tool called ‘senyam’ was used for harvesting rice. Threshing of rice was done by hand with the help of a buffalo (and in large holdings by elephants). Hand winnowing was done to remove chaff. One sixth of the produce was paid as tax to the king. Farm labourers were paid in kind. The land was immediately ploughed after harvest or water was allowed to stagnate to facilitate rooting of stubble. Operations requiring hard work such as ploughing were done by men while women attended to light work such as transplanting, weeding, bird scaring, harvesting and winnowing. In Kandapuranam, it is mentioned that Valli, the daughter of a king, was sent for bird scaring in millet fields where Lord Muruga (son of Lord Shiva) courted her and married. O. Marketing Products were exchanged by weight. In Madurai (the headquarters of Sangam poets), there was a food grains bazaar where 18 kinds of cereals, millets, and pulses were sold. Each shop had a banner hoisted high so that it cloud be seen from a distance indicating the grains sold. Customs duty was collected on imports and exports. Revenue from Agriculture: Tamil kings collected land tax, which was known as ‘irai’ or ‘karai’, tolls and custom duties. Revenue collection was known as ‘ulgu’ and ‘sungam’. The duties paid by the king (King’s share were known as ‘Kadamai’, ‘Paduvadu’ or ‘Padu’. ‘Vari’ was a generic term meaning income, i.e., revenue. Extra demands or forced fits were called ‘iravu’ ‘vari’ refers to tax, ‘Variam’ refers to the tax collecting",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Revenue collection was known as ‘ulgu’ and ‘sungam’. The duties paid by the king (King’s share were known as ‘Kadamai’, ‘Paduvadu’ or ‘Padu’. ‘Vari’ was a generic term meaning income, i.e., revenue. Extra demands or forced fits were called ‘iravu’ ‘vari’ refers to tax, ‘Variam’ refers to the tax collecting service and ‘Variyar referred to an officer collecting tax. One sixth (1/6) of AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 71 produce from land was paid as land revenue to the kings. King assigns tax-free lands to certain persons or institutions. Such lands were called ‘Puravu’ or ‘iraiyili nilam’. Revenue relief was given due to unexpected poor harvests because of failure of rains. The poet Iraiyanar Ahapporul mentioned a long period (twelve years) of failure in the Pandia kingdom. On such occasions of extreme famine, the farmer lived consuming the seeds normally intended for sowing. 2.5.3 Astronomy The path of the Sun being a fixed circle among the fixed stars is called ecliptic. The relative Sun moves along the ecliptic from West to East. To mark the movement of the sun, Moon and Planets, the ecliptic is divided into 27 equal parts called “Nakshatras” (fixed stars) and also 12 equal parts called ‘Rashis’ (Signs). The time taken by the Sun to complete one round along the ecliptic is a fixed period, called Sidereal Year. The Sidereal year, Calendar year or Julian Year is made up to 365.2568 days and the Tropical year made up to 365.2422 days. There was excess 0.0078-day i.e., 3 days in 400 years. The Sidereal day is shorter than the apparent Solar Time by 4 minutes. The earth goes round the sun in 24 hours, but with reference to a Star, it goes round the sun within 23 hours and 56 minutes. Julius Caesar introduced the concept of leap",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "days in 400 years. The Sidereal day is shorter than the apparent Solar Time by 4 minutes. The earth goes round the sun in 24 hours, but with reference to a Star, it goes round the sun within 23 hours and 56 minutes. Julius Caesar introduced the concept of leap year once in four years and was made equal to 365.25 days. Axis of rotation causes the appearance of the sun oscillating slowly north south wards and south-north wards. When the sun comes exactly above the equator twice a year one is called the beginning of Vasantha (spring) ruthu and the other, the beginning of Sharad (Autumn) ruthu. The Sun has another motionNorth to South and South to North. It crosses the East-West line twice a year. It goes 23½ to South-East and 23 ½ North-East (Similarly of Western Zenith). But, the period between the two crossing of each point (From South to North and from North to South) is not always constant and the Sun does not cross the ecliptic at the same point. This is called Precession. In other words, the Period from one Vernal Equinox to another Vernal Equinox may be called the Tropical Year. The duration of the ‘tropical year’ is accounted on the basis of the movement of the Earth around the Sun. In order to cover all the seasons, its duration per year is 365.2422 days. The tropical calendar was spread to the different parts of the world by Sage Vasishta and his brother sage Agastya. That is why we find Sun temples all over the world. Distance to be covered in the southernly direction is known as Dakshinaayana (summer solstice). Dakshina + Ayana it means the southern + latitudinal distance to be traversed. When the sun is in the north, it is called,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sage Agastya. That is why we find Sun temples all over the world. Distance to be covered in the southernly direction is known as Dakshinaayana (summer solstice). Dakshina + Ayana it means the southern + latitudinal distance to be traversed. When the sun is in the north, it is called, Dakshinaayana (summer solstice). Dakshinaayana (summer solstice) us of 6 months duration tropically and so too is Uttaraayana (winter solstice). When the rays change their directions and it will be found to do so either on June 21st or 22nd or December 21st or 22nd depending on whether it is Dakshiaayana (summer solstice) or Uttaraayana (winter solstice) respectively. Eqinoctical points are those on the orbits of the earth on which equal days and nights will appear and this happens twice a year on June 21st or 22nd or December 21st or 22nd. A. The Zodiac Zodiac is the division of the heavens into twelve astrology signs, each comprising exactly one-twelfth of the heavenly circle or 30º and totalling 360º. The Zodiac is a circle of space surrounding the Earth. It may be imagined as a belt in the heavens about 15 degrees wide in which the planets travel. It is the Sun’s apparent path that is called ecliptic. The zodiacal circle is divided into twelve parts, each part containing thirty degrees of space called the signs of the Zodiac. Thus a sign is one twelfth division of the zodiacal circle and is defined as containing 30 degrees of celestial longitude: 12 signs each measuring 30 degrees constitute the circle of the Zodiac or 360 degrees. In this circle the planets travel 72 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY each in its own orbit, one outlaying beyond the other. The twelve signs of the Zodiac are Aries (Mesha), Taurus (Vrishabh), Gemini (Mithuna), Cancer (Kataka),",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "signs each measuring 30 degrees constitute the circle of the Zodiac or 360 degrees. In this circle the planets travel 72 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY each in its own orbit, one outlaying beyond the other. The twelve signs of the Zodiac are Aries (Mesha), Taurus (Vrishabh), Gemini (Mithuna), Cancer (Kataka), Leo (Simha), Virgo (Kanya), Libra (Thula), Scorpio (Vrischika), Sagittarius (Dhanus), Capricorn (Makara), Aquarius (Kumbha) and Pisces (Meena). It is the twelve signs through which the planets travel or transit from west to east, going through one sign after another in their order from Aries to Pisces. Each sign possesses a specific influence. The planets also as they travel around the Zodiac exert an influence according to their separate nature and position in the Zodiac. Although according to modern Astrology there are twelve planets viz., Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Rahu, Kethu, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, Hindu Astrology recognizes only the first nine. Each sign of the Zodiac is owned by a planet that is termed as its ‘ruler’ of the sign. Sun and Moon rule one sign each viz., Leo and Cancer respectively. Mars rules Aries and Scorpio, Mercury rules Gemini and Virgo, Jupiter rules Sagittarius and Pisces, Venus rules Taurus and Libra and Saturn rules Capricorn and Aquarius. Sun is the king of the solar kingdom. He is also called the ‘Father of Stars”. Westerners call the Sun Apollo. The sun takes exactly one year to go round the ecliptic or zodiac. Quadruplicity: Each sign belongs to one of four groups of signs based on their elemental tendencies to be either fiery, earthy, airy, or watery in temperament. Elements Rasi/Zodiac/Signs Fire Aries, Leo, Sagittarius Earth Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn Air Gemini, Libra, Aquarius Water Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces Note: Capricorn is half-watery and half-earthy B. Seasons and Equinoxes Sun,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "one of four groups of signs based on their elemental tendencies to be either fiery, earthy, airy, or watery in temperament. Elements Rasi/Zodiac/Signs Fire Aries, Leo, Sagittarius Earth Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn Air Gemini, Libra, Aquarius Water Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces Note: Capricorn is half-watery and half-earthy B. Seasons and Equinoxes Sun, the latter’s rays fall equally only on two days in a year i.e., the day and nights are equal on two days a year when the Sun enters the Equator. These two days are March 21st and September 21st. One is called autumnal equinox and the other is called vernal equinox. In Sanskrit autumnal is known as the Seasons Parts Period Vansantha Rithu Madhu March 21st to April 21st Madhava April 21st to May 21st Greehma Ruthu Sukra May 21st to June 21st Suchi June 21st to July 21st Varsha Ruthu Nabhas July 21st to August 21st Nabhasya August 21st to September 21st Shard Ruthu Lisa September 21st to October 21st Urija October 21st to November 21st Hemantha Ruthu Sahas November 21st to December 21st Sahasya December 21st to January 21st Sisira Ruthu Tapas January 21st to February 21st Tapasya February 21st to March 21st AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 73 first day of Sarad Ruthu and the vernal equinox is known as first day of Vasantha Ruthu. These points are also known as equinoctial points or Vishu bindus. There are basically six seasons. Each of the above six seasons has been divided into two parts. The Moon which is a natural satellite of the Earth moves around the Earth once is about 28 days, i.e., it takes about 28 days to come to the some star, after going around the earth. This is called the Sidereal Movement of the Moon. There is another way of recognizing the movement of the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "natural satellite of the Earth moves around the Earth once is about 28 days, i.e., it takes about 28 days to come to the some star, after going around the earth. This is called the Sidereal Movement of the Moon. There is another way of recognizing the movement of the Moon around the Earth and that is with respect to the Sun. On Amavaya (New Moon) Day Poornima (Full Moon) Day, the Sun, the Moon, the Earth are on the same line longitudinally. From one Amavasya (New Moon) to another Amavasya (New Moon) it takes about 30 days. Each of these divisions (of 30) is called a Thithi (phase). This division of months is called Luni-solar Months. This is recognized in the Panchanga (Calendar) as Prathma (1st day), Dwithiya (2nd day) etc. Sukla prathama (1st day of Bright half) or Krishna Prathama etc. (1st day of Dark half) depending on the bright or dark fortnight. Sukala Paksham/Krishna Paksham S.No. Sukala paksham thithi S.No. Krishna paksham thithi 1 Prathama 1 Prathama 2 Dwithiya 2 Dwithiya 3 Thrityiya 3 Thrityiya 4 Chaturthi 4 Chaturthi 5 Panchami 5 Panchami 6 Sashti 6 Sashti 7 Sapthami 7 Sapthami 8 Ashtami 8 Ashtami 9 Navami 9 Navami 10 Dasami 10 Dasami 11 Ekaadasi 11 Ekaadasi 12 Dwaadasi 12 Dwaadasi 13 Thryodasi 13 Thryodasi 14 Chaturidasi 14 Chaturidasi 15 Poornima or full moon 15 Amavasya or new moon C. Planetary Movement There are five planets moving around the sun. They are Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. By the time mercury, goes round the sun, approximately 88 days. Would have elapsed (4 rounds a year); by the time Venus moves round the sun, it will be 224 days; for mars it is 686 days, for Jupiter 4332 days; and for Saturn 10,759 days. D. Ancient Systems",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Saturn. By the time mercury, goes round the sun, approximately 88 days. Would have elapsed (4 rounds a year); by the time Venus moves round the sun, it will be 224 days; for mars it is 686 days, for Jupiter 4332 days; and for Saturn 10,759 days. D. Ancient Systems of Time Our ancient calculated time is as follows : one day = 60 Naligais; 1 Naligai = 60 vikalas. Therefore a day = 60 × 60 × 60 × vikalas = 2,16,000. The Rig Veda contains 4,32,000 units of sounds therefore 1 vikala = 2 units of sound. 74 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY E. Ancient Hindu Calendar 1. SamavatsaraSamavatsara corresponds to a year. Vikrama Smavat starting from 57 B.C. and Shalivahana Saka starting from 79 A.D. were the two systems used in ancient India. The references in Krishi Parashara are to Saka. There is a cycle of sixty years called Jupiter cycle and all the sixty years have individual names and characteristics. Parashara’s reference to Saka year is currently 1920 (i.e.,1998 A.D.). In the Panchang or Almanac system in whole of India, rainfall forecasting/prediction based on ruling planet and minister planet is worked from a base year Salivahan Saka from 1920 (i.e.,1998 A.D.). Datye’s Marathi Panchang using the base year Salivahan Saka (Shaka) from 1919 or 1997 A.D. refers to adhaka as the measure of water in land area of 240 kroshas in width (768 km) and 400 kroshas (1280 km) in length. 2. Seasons Six seasons in Rigveda: Grishma (Jyestha-Aashadha or May-June), Varsha (SharavanaBharapada or July-August), Hemant (Margashirsha-Pausha or September-October), Sharad (Ashwin-Kartika or November-December), Shishir (Magha-Phalguna or January-February) and Vasanta (Chaitra-Vaishakha or March-April). 3. Months (Masa) of a year Pausha (January), Magha (February), Phalguna (March), Chaitra (April), Vaishakkha (May), Jeyshtha (June), Aashadha (July), Shravana (August), Bhadrapada (September), Ashwin",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Grishma (Jyestha-Aashadha or May-June), Varsha (SharavanaBharapada or July-August), Hemant (Margashirsha-Pausha or September-October), Sharad (Ashwin-Kartika or November-December), Shishir (Magha-Phalguna or January-February) and Vasanta (Chaitra-Vaishakha or March-April). 3. Months (Masa) of a year Pausha (January), Magha (February), Phalguna (March), Chaitra (April), Vaishakkha (May), Jeyshtha (June), Aashadha (July), Shravana (August), Bhadrapada (September), Ashwin (October), Kartika (November), Maragashirsha (December). 4. Paksha Each month is dived into two fortnights called Shukla Paksha corresponding to the bright fortnight and Krishna Paksha corresponding to the dark fortnight. 2.5.4 Prediction of Monsoon Rains The ancient/indigenous methods of weather forecast may be broadly classified into two categories: I. Observational Methods • Atmospheric changes • Bio-indicators • Chemical changes • Physical changes • Cloud forms and other sky features II. Theoretical Methods or Astrological Factors or Planetary Factors • Computation of planetary positions and conjunctions of plants and stars • Study of solar ingress and particulars dates of months • Study of Nakshatra Chakras • Study of Nadi Chakras • Dashatapa Siddhana 1. Parashara’s technique of ‘rain forecast’ is based on the positions of the Sun and the Moon. Sign of the sun Sign of moon Predicted annual rainfall Cancer Gemini, Aries, Taurus, or Pisces 100 adhakas Leo or Sagittarius Gemini, Aries 50 adhakas Virgo or Leo Gemini, Aries, Taurus or Pisces 80 adhakas Cancer, Aquarius, Scorpio, or Libra Gemini Aries, Taurus or Pisces 96 adhakas AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 75 Method for measurement of rainfall Varahimira defined one adhaka equivalent to 50 palas of water. Adhaka is a measure of rainwater quantity in a land expanse of 100 yojanas in length and 30 yojanas in depth. The following formula will help to understand this concept clearly. 1 yojana = 4 kroshas = 8 miles = 13 km. Hence ¼ yojana = 1 krosha = 3.2 km. If the rain",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of rainwater quantity in a land expanse of 100 yojanas in length and 30 yojanas in depth. The following formula will help to understand this concept clearly. 1 yojana = 4 kroshas = 8 miles = 13 km. Hence ¼ yojana = 1 krosha = 3.2 km. If the rain water wets a land area of approximately 100 yojanas (or 100 × 13 = 1300 km) in length and 30 yojanas (or 30 × 13 = 390 km) in width (depth is interpreted as width), then it qualifies for an earthly measure of one adhaka. For measurement of rainfall or rainwater the unit of rain-gauging was adhaka. An adhaka is the quantity of rainfall which fills to the brim of a vessel 20 inches in diameter and 8 inches deep. Four such adhaka constitute one drona. The method of measurement of rainfall is described by Varahamihira in PART 23 entitled “Pravarshan Adhyaya” (PART on rainfall) of his book. A circular vessel with a diameter equal to one (human) arm or the distance measured by the width of 20 (human) fingers and with a depth equal to the distance measured by the width of (human) fingers and with a depth equal to the distance measurement by the width of eight fingers should be accepted for measurement of rainfall. When this vessel is completely filled with rainwater, the rainfall should be equal to 50 palas or one adhaka this method has been explained by the seer Parashara. Parashara’s basic unit of measuring rainfall is adhaka. One drona = 4 adhakas = 6.4 cm. According to Parashara the basic unit of rainfall is adhaka. 1 adhaka = 17600 ÷ 7 = 2514 cubic finger = ¼ drona [eq 1] Volume of the vessel = πr2d = 3.14 × 102 × 8 = 314",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "rainfall is adhaka. One drona = 4 adhakas = 6.4 cm. According to Parashara the basic unit of rainfall is adhaka. 1 adhaka = 17600 ÷ 7 = 2514 cubic finger = ¼ drona [eq 1] Volume of the vessel = πr2d = 3.14 × 102 × 8 = 314 × 8 = 2512 cubic fingers [eq 2] Where π = 3.14, r = radius of the vessel = 10 fingers-width and d = depth of the vessel = 8 fingerswidth Three units used to measure rainfall in ancient India were Pala, adhaka and drona (50 palas = 1 adhaka = ¼ drona). These ancient units can be related to the modern ones using the relation 2514 cubic fingers of rainwater or 1 adhaka is equal in weight to 11 oz or 311.85 g. As 1 cc of water weighs 1 g, so 1 adhaka = 2514 cubic fingers = 311.85 cc [eq 3] In a modern rain-gauge with a 200 cm2 container, volume of 1 cm of rainwater collected is 200 cm × 1cm = 200 cc [eq 4] Based on equation 3, rainfall measured using the ancient method could be related to modern units as: 1 adhaka = 311.85 ÷ 200 = 1.6 cm [eq 5] [i.e., volume of rainwater ÷ area of container = amount of rainwater collected (see equation 4) From equations 1 and 5 1 drona = 4 adhaka = 6.4 cm [eq 6] 2. Parasara’s rainfall prediction Every year has (a particular planet as) a ruler, (another planet as) a minister, a particular cloud, and (depending on that) an amount of rainfall which one has to study to acquire the knowledge of rains. The method of finding out the ruler (planet) of the year: Multiply the number denoting the Saka year by three. Add",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a ruler, (another planet as) a minister, a particular cloud, and (depending on that) an amount of rainfall which one has to study to acquire the knowledge of rains. The method of finding out the ruler (planet) of the year: Multiply the number denoting the Saka year by three. Add two; divide the result by the number of sages (i.e., seven). The remainder is the number indicating the ruling planet of that Saka year. The planet, which is fifth 76 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY form the ruler planet, indicates the minister planet of that year. The minister plant of the year is Venus as it is the fifth from the Sun. 1920 × 3 = 5760 5760 + 2 = 5762 5762/7 = 823 + remainder 1 The Sun as the ruler of the year indicates average rainfall, the Moon heavy rains, Mars scanty rains, and Mercury goods rains. When Jupiter happens to be the king of the year the rainfall is satisfactory, Venus indicates excellent rainfall while Saturn as a king leaves the earth dry and dusty. Diseases of the eye, threat of fever, and all sorts of other calamities, scanty rainfall and continuous blowing of winds are the characteristics of a year ruled by the Sun. The year in which the Moon is the ruler is sure to enrich the earth with good harvest and bestow health on mankind. In the year ruled by Mars, damage is caused to the crops and diseases spread among people. The earth becomes benefit of crops. When Mercury happens to be the ruler, earth is free of diseases. Transportation is easy and there is plenty of harvest. The earth is blessed with all the varieties of crops. If Jupiter rules the year, Dharma prevails on earth, people enjoy peace of mind, There",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "becomes benefit of crops. When Mercury happens to be the ruler, earth is free of diseases. Transportation is easy and there is plenty of harvest. The earth is blessed with all the varieties of crops. If Jupiter rules the year, Dharma prevails on earth, people enjoy peace of mind, There is good rainfall. The whole earth enjoys prosperity. Venus the preceptor of demons, as a ruler of the year causes the kings to prosper without fail. Prosperity and plenty result. The earth is blessed with a variety of food grains. The year in which Saturn rules war, stormy rains and outburst of diseases are sure to occur. Rains rare scanty and winds are continuous. Table 2.4. Annual Rainfall and Crop Yields Depending on the Ruling Planets of the Year Name of the ruling planet of the year Estimated rainfall for the year Crop yield during the year Sun Average or scanty Poor crop yield* Moon Heavy Good harvest Mars Scanty Damage to crops Mercury Good Plenty of harvest Jupiter Satisfactory Good harvest* Venus Excellent Variety of food grains Saturn* Scanty Poor yield *Saturn—The earth is dry and dusty, continuous winds occur during this period. 3. A model for forecasting seasonal rainfall recorded in Brhat Samhita Varahamihira (600 A.D.) evolved or adapted a technique based on science. This technique lays down that after the occurrence of the full-moon day of the month of Jyestha (approximately coinciding with June of Gregorian calendar) the asterism or lunar mansion or naksatra of the day on which the first rainfall of that year rainy season is received should be noted. This asterism provided the basic for the forecast of seasonal rains. The predicted amount of the season’s total rainfall for each nakshatra or lunar mansion if it happens to be the nakshatra on the first",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "on which the first rainfall of that year rainy season is received should be noted. This asterism provided the basic for the forecast of seasonal rains. The predicted amount of the season’s total rainfall for each nakshatra or lunar mansion if it happens to be the nakshatra on the first rainfall of the season is listed (Table 2.6). The first rainfall of the season that occurred after the full-moon day of the month of Jyestha (approximately June) is taken into account for forecasting the seasonal rainfall, but the amount of rainfall recorded on that day has not been indicated. Modern meteorology defines a rainy day as a day on which a rainfall of 2.5 mm or more has been recorded. 4. The method of ascertaining the type of cloud of the year Add the types of fire (which is three) to the number denoting the Saka year. Divide the sum by the number of vedas (which is four). The remainder of the division indicates the type of cloud, viz., Aavarta, etc., according to their order. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 77 Table 2.5. Varahamihira’s Technique for Forecasting Seasonal Rains Zodiac sign Predicted total seasonal rainfall Lunar Mansion Sanskrit English In ancient In modern units (drones) units (cm) Hasta Kanya Virgo 16 102.4 Purvashadha Dhanu Sagittarius 16 102.4 Mrigashirsha Vrushabha Taurus 16 102.4 Chitra Kanya Virgo 16 102.4 Revati Meena Pisces 16 102.4 Dhantishtha Makara Capricorn 16 102.4 Shatabhisha Kumbha Aquarius 4 25.6 Jyeshtha Vrushchika Scorpio 4 25.6 Swati Tula Libra 4 25.6 Kritika Vrushabha Taurus 10 64.0 Shravana Makara Capricorn 14 89.6 Magha Simla Leo 14 89.6 Anuradha Vrushchika Scorpio 14 89.6 Bharani Mesha Aries 14 89.6 Mula Dhanu Sagittarius 14 89.6 Purvaphalguni Simla Leo 25 160.0 Punarvasa Mithun Gemini 20 128.0 Vishakha Vrushchika Scorpio 20 128.0 Uttarashadha Makara Capricorn 20",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "25.6 Kritika Vrushabha Taurus 10 64.0 Shravana Makara Capricorn 14 89.6 Magha Simla Leo 14 89.6 Anuradha Vrushchika Scorpio 14 89.6 Bharani Mesha Aries 14 89.6 Mula Dhanu Sagittarius 14 89.6 Purvaphalguni Simla Leo 25 160.0 Punarvasa Mithun Gemini 20 128.0 Vishakha Vrushchika Scorpio 20 128.0 Uttarashadha Makara Capricorn 20 128.0 Aaslesha Karka Cancer 13 83.2 Uttarabhadrapada Meena Pisces 25 160.0 Uttaraphalguni Kanya Virgo 25 160.0 Rohini Vrushabha Taurus 25 160.0 Purvabhadrapada Kumbha Aquarius 15 96.0 Pushya Karka Cancer 15 96.0 Ashwini Mesha Aries 12 76.8 Aradra Mithun Gemini 18 115.2 1. On the day of the first rainfall of the season. 2. I drona = 6.4cm. Let the Saka year is 1920. The 1920 + 3 = 1923; 1923/4 = 480 + remainder 3. Hence the type of cloud is the one listed at number 3. Pushkara cloud is stated at number 3 in the order. Therefore the cloud of the Saka year 1920 is Pushkara. Aavarta, Samvarta, Pushkara, and Drona are the four types of clouds, Aavarta being the first in order. Aavarta rains at some parts while Samvarta rains everywhere. Water is scanty in Pushkara cloud while drona makes the earth full of water. The rains from Aavarta cover some parts of the earth. The students of modern Indian science of meteorology will identify this type 78 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY of cloud, Aavarta, with the present day cumulonimbus, which gives thundershowers over a limited area. It is a result of the special feature of its build up in the sky with a base at about 2500–3000 ft (about 750–900 m) above ground and with a vertical ascent of 25,000–30,000 ft (about 7–9 km) above it base. The second type of cloud, samvarta, rains every where indicating that is a sheet type of cloud, an altostratus, which",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "up in the sky with a base at about 2500–3000 ft (about 750–900 m) above ground and with a vertical ascent of 25,000–30,000 ft (about 7–9 km) above it base. The second type of cloud, samvarta, rains every where indicating that is a sheet type of cloud, an altostratus, which is widely spread in the sky, at a height from 2.5 km to 6.0 km above sea level. The thickness of the sheet cloud can be considerable, rendering the Sun invisible during the period of its spread in the sky. The third type of cloud is Pushkara and the year with this type cloud is known for scanty rainfall. The name Pushkara or Pushkal shows that it is a cloud of short duration as its buildup is a temporary phenomenon or a disturbance in the normal atmosphere. The last type, Drona, makes the earth full of water according to the sage Prarasha. It is the stratocumulus cloud type, which is a sheetcloud at a height of approximately 2 km above ground. This type also gives steady, continuous rain. According to Varahamihira and other scholars the formation of clouds or pregnancy of clouds or Garbha Dharana takes place 195 days before fall or birth or delivery or ‘Garbha Prasava’. 5. The method of determining the amount of rainfall Experts have fixed adhaka (jalaadhaka) as the measure of water which is the quantity of water contained in an expanse of a hundred yojanas and the depth of thirty yojanas. When the Sun enters the sign of cancer while the moon is in Pisces, Aries, Taurus or Gemini, the rainfall is a hundred adhakas. If the sun passes through Leo and Sagittarius it is half of that (i.e., fifty adhakas). When the sun is in the Virgo or Leo rainfall is stated to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "enters the sign of cancer while the moon is in Pisces, Aries, Taurus or Gemini, the rainfall is a hundred adhakas. If the sun passes through Leo and Sagittarius it is half of that (i.e., fifty adhakas). When the sun is in the Virgo or Leo rainfall is stated to be eighty adhakas. When the Sun is in Cancer, Libra, Aquarius, the rainfall is said to be ninety-six adhakas. Farming should be planned after studying the quantity of rainwater. 6. Sudden rainfall If an expert on predictions of rainfall is approached with query regarding rains while he is taking a dip in water or has water in his hand or is the variety of water, sudden rains can be predicted. Ants emerging (from the ant hill) carrying their eggs and a sudden croaking of frogs are also indications of sudden rains. Cats, mongooses, snakes, other creatures which live in holes as well as grasshoppers moving around freely as in a state of intoxication are also sure signs of sudden rains. Children playing on the road and building bridges of mud, and peacocks dancing also indicates sudden rains without fail. People suffering from injury or vatadosha (human disorder similar to wind humor) complaining of body pain and snakes climbing on the treetops also bespeak of sudden rains. Water birds drying their wings in the hot sun and crickets chirping in the sky also signify sudden rains. 7. Indications of famine Mar’s transit through Dhruva (Uttaraphalguni, Uttarashadha and Uttarabhadrapada nakshadars), Vaishanava ( Shravana), Hasta, Mula, Shakra (the master of Jyeshtha), Kritika, and Magha indicates famine. The sun situated behind Mars evaporates even the ocean while in an opposite situation, he drenches mountains too. Obstruction to rain as soon as Venus reaches the middle of its path through Chitra. Mars passing through Leo",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Shravana), Hasta, Mula, Shakra (the master of Jyeshtha), Kritika, and Magha indicates famine. The sun situated behind Mars evaporates even the ocean while in an opposite situation, he drenches mountains too. Obstruction to rain as soon as Venus reaches the middle of its path through Chitra. Mars passing through Leo turns the earth into a fireplace, and accompanied by the Sun can evaporate even the ocean. 8. Kautilya’s Artha-Sastra (400 B.C.) Kautilya’s Artha-Sastra describes the technique for measuring rainfall for a location. A circular vessel with a diameter equal to the length of human arm (which is equal to the distance measured by the width of twenty fingers of a human hand) and a depth equal to the distance measured by the width of eight fingers (in modern unit, the diameter and the depth would approximately 38 cm and 13 cm respectively) was used to collect the rainwater. When this vessel was filled with rainwater collected open space, rainfall was measured to be 50 palas or one adhaka or ¼ drona. An adhaka of rainfall is equal to 1.6 cm rainfall in modern units of measurement and a drona is 6.4 cm. Kautilya gives the amounts of rainfall received in the rainy season over different regions of India (Table 2.7). AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 79 Table 2.6. Distribution of Rainfall during the Rainy Season in the 4th Century B.C. in India Ancient name of the region Modern name of the region Amount of rainfall in ancient and modern units (dronas) (cm) Ashmaka Marathwada 13 83.2 Aratta Western Maharastra 13½ 86.4 Avantika Ujjain city in Madhya Pradesh 23 147.2 Malwa Western Madhya Pradesh 23 147.2 Aparanta Konkan (coastal Maharashtra) Unlimited Unlimited Hilly areas in North Himachal Pradesh Unlimited Unlimited The beginning of the rainy season in north west India occur when",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(cm) Ashmaka Marathwada 13 83.2 Aratta Western Maharastra 13½ 86.4 Avantika Ujjain city in Madhya Pradesh 23 147.2 Malwa Western Madhya Pradesh 23 147.2 Aparanta Konkan (coastal Maharashtra) Unlimited Unlimited Hilly areas in North Himachal Pradesh Unlimited Unlimited The beginning of the rainy season in north west India occur when the sun starts moving south, i.e., after 21 June. The rainy season extended over four months of the Hindu calendar viz., Shravana (August), Bhadrapada (September), Ashwin (October) and Kartika (November). Kautilya predicted excellent crop production if one third of the total rainfall is received in the first and the last months and two third in the intervening two months during the four moths of rainy season. Continuous rains for seven days, 80 days showering drops and sixty days intermittent showers alternating with sunshine were considered even and beneficial. A. Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita on Weather Forecast In Brihat Samhita, Varahamihira devotes eight parts to the science of forecasting rain. Weather forecast can be made with considerable accuracy only on the basis of observing process taking place in the Sun, which in their turn, are correlated to certain planetary juxtapositions. Changes in the weather are associated with the Sun, the Moon and other planets under certain conditions of positions, either when they act alone or in combination. Varahamihira had dealt the sunspots and their effects on earth. Periods of very heavy rainfall (flooding) also coincide with sunspot maxima. The appearance of these spots would bring thunderbolts, earthquakes and such unusual phenomena boding calamity. Every 11 years or so there are great bursts of solar activity. During the maximum periods, there is an acceleration of the “earth’s heartbeats” causing a larger number of earthquakes. Sunspots also cause the eruption of violent winds releasing charged corpuscles, which cause terrestrial magnetic storms. Sun’s disc spot",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "calamity. Every 11 years or so there are great bursts of solar activity. During the maximum periods, there is an acceleration of the “earth’s heartbeats” causing a larger number of earthquakes. Sunspots also cause the eruption of violent winds releasing charged corpuscles, which cause terrestrial magnetic storms. Sun’s disc spot is in the form of wedge, there will be famine. The solar wind is more ‘gusty’ around the time of maximum solar activity. When the Sun is more active, producing flares and spots, the solar wind contains more high-speed streams. And these high-speed streams are very likely to affect the weather on the earth. Directs evidence linking sunspots and the weather comes from records of the occurrences of storms and lightning. The annual lightning incidence (which is a measure of the number of lightning flashes occurring in a given area each year) closely follows the mean sunspot index. B. Principles of Astro-meteorology The Hindu astrological method of predicting rainfall a scientific method spread over a period of at least six months observation stage by stage. There is a need to study the garbhadharan (impregnation) of the clouds towards the fag end of Dakshninayan (July 17 to January 13) on the particular day when the moon enters a particular constellation (or nakshatra) this should be done to predict rains during the Indian monsoon. Similarly, for winter rains the garbha dharan is to be observed in the Uttarayana period (January 14 to July 16). The following principles are being given for rainfall predictions: 80 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Principle No. 1: According to Varahamihira, the formation of clouds or pregnancy of clouds or ‘Garbha Dharana’ takes place 195 days before their fall or birth or delivery or ‘Garbha Prasava’. There are actually twenty seven nakshatras (constellations) for the purpose of astro-meteorology. Apart",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "predictions: 80 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Principle No. 1: According to Varahamihira, the formation of clouds or pregnancy of clouds or ‘Garbha Dharana’ takes place 195 days before their fall or birth or delivery or ‘Garbha Prasava’. There are actually twenty seven nakshatras (constellations) for the purpose of astro-meteorology. Apart from these, the twenty eighth nakshatra ‘abhijit’ is also allotted a space towards the end of Uttarashadha (No. 21). Sapta Nadi Chakra and its Relation with Rain Occurrence Seven nadis Nakshatra or asterism or constellation Effect on weather Chandanadi, Prachand, Krittika (3), Vishakha (16), Bright sunshine, No rainfall (Fierce) Anuradha (17), Bharani (2) Dahananadi or Vatanadi Rohini (4), Swati (15), Jyeshta (18), Sunshine and wind, Normal rainfall or Paman (windy) Ashivini (1) Vayunadi, Vanhinadi, Mrigashira (5), Chitra (14), Mula (19), Strong hot wind (Westerlies) Dahan (hot) Revati (27) Soumyanadi Ardra (6), Hasta (13), Poorvashadha (20), Normal rainfall (weather changes) Uttaraproshthapada (26) Neeranadi (good rain) Punarvasu (7), Uttarphalguni (12), Very good rainfall Uttarashadha (21), Poovaproshthapada (25) Jalanadi (better rain) Pushya (8), Poovaphalguni (11), Abhijit, Abundant rainfall Satabhisha (24) Amritanadi (best rain) Ashlesha (9), Magha (10), Sravana (22), Heavy to very heavy rainfall causing Dhanista (23) flood Planets And Nadi’s Impact on Rain During Winter Solstice (Dakshinayana) Planets Nadi Effects on weather Sun, Mars, Saturn Saumya Ordinary rain Jupiter, Venus, Mercury, Moon Saumya Good rain Jupiter, Venus, Mercury, Moon Vayu, Chada, Dhana Ordinary showers Sun, Mars, Saturn Vayu, Chada, Dhana No rain There are actually twenty seven nakshatras (constellations) for the purpose of astrometeorology. Apart from these, the twenty eighth nakshatra ‘abhijit’ is also allotted a space towards the end of Uttarashadha (no. 21). How Asterisms regulate weather Aswini, Krittika, Rohini, Purvabhadra, Uttarabhadra, Anuradha, Sravana, Punarvasu, Pushya are masculine; Bharani, Hasta, Chitta, Swati, Visakha, Pubba, Uttara, Aslesha, Makha, Jyeshta, Aridra, Dhanishta, Purvashadha",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of astrometeorology. Apart from these, the twenty eighth nakshatra ‘abhijit’ is also allotted a space towards the end of Uttarashadha (no. 21). How Asterisms regulate weather Aswini, Krittika, Rohini, Purvabhadra, Uttarabhadra, Anuradha, Sravana, Punarvasu, Pushya are masculine; Bharani, Hasta, Chitta, Swati, Visakha, Pubba, Uttara, Aslesha, Makha, Jyeshta, Aridra, Dhanishta, Purvashadha and Revati are feminine; Satabhisha, Mrigasira and Moola are neutral. When the Sun and the Moon are in neutral asterisms there will be winds; when they are in feminine asterisms there will be lightning and phosphorescence; and when the Sun occupies a feminine asterism, and the Moon a masculine asterism, or vice-versa there will be rains. Principle No. 2. When many planets are in one Rashi preferably in one nakshatra, it affects the weather. When many planets gather in one rashi with Mars and Sun joining them and Mars is with Rahu, there can be a terrible downpour even if it is not regular monsoon season. When there is AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 81 concentration of planets in one rashi. The weather begins to fluctuate and which moon joins them, there will be heavy downpour. Cancer, Pisces and Capricorn are full watery signs; Taurus, Leo and Aquarius are half watery signs; Aries, Libra and Scorpio are quarter watery signs while Gemini, Virgo and Sagittarius are not watery signs. Moon and Venus are full-blown watery planets. During Winter solstice (Dakshinayana) malefic planets (Saturn, Sun, and Mars) transiting through the Amrita, Jala and Neeranadis, would give rise to ordinary rains. If benefic planets transit the above constellations, there will be plenty of rain. Principle No. 3. Whatever may be the season, there must be weather–fluctuation when Moon joins Venus or when Moon is fifth or ninth from Venus in the rainy season it causes good rain unless there are factors preventing rains.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "planets transit the above constellations, there will be plenty of rain. Principle No. 3. Whatever may be the season, there must be weather–fluctuation when Moon joins Venus or when Moon is fifth or ninth from Venus in the rainy season it causes good rain unless there are factors preventing rains. Principle No 4. When Mars transits from one Rashi into another within two days there is a perceptible change in weather and in the rainy season there must be a good rainfall. Mars is the most powerful planet causing rainfall. Principle No. 5. Similarly when a major planet (such as Jupiter, Saturn, Rahu and Ketu into a fiery, earthy, watery or airy sign) changes a Rashi, it causes momentous events. In case of weather, it must cause a very noticeable change in weather. Principle No. 6. When planets retrograde and on the days they direct there is a change in temperature, humidity and what the meteorologists describe as “disturbance” causing rainfall, etc. C. Principles are Used to Predict the Dates/Occurrence of Rainfall In India • After the sun has entered Mrigshira nakshatra towards the end of May the south-west monsoon begins to strike Kerala coast. When sun enters Ardra (22-23rd June) every year monsoon advance towards northern India. • When sun reaches and crosses six degrees in Gemini, the monsoon arrives in North India (around June 22) and when sun reaches ten degrees in Virgo on September 26 the monsoon begins to withdraw in North India. • When the sun enters Hasta nakshatra, it causes rain in Bihar, which is known to an average Bihar farmer as Hathiya rain. But by that time monsoon withdraws from the rest of northern India. • When the sun enters Chitra, it continues to cause rain in Bihar particularly in north-east India. • When",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "enters Hasta nakshatra, it causes rain in Bihar, which is known to an average Bihar farmer as Hathiya rain. But by that time monsoon withdraws from the rest of northern India. • When the sun enters Chitra, it continues to cause rain in Bihar particularly in north-east India. • When the sun enters Swati. It causes some occasional rain otherwise the south-west monsoon withdraws totally, in Indian tradition there is reference to the bird called chatak which supposedly waits for the rain-drop of swati. • The moon, in certain positions, ‘nakshatras’ (constellations/star) joining, with other planets or when inspected by them can cause or hinder rain. Planets will be placed in the nakshatras given above (in the Sapta Nadi Chakra Table). • There will be rain when Mercury transits Cancer and join Venus in the north India after August 3. • The presence of Jupiter and Venus together in Rohini star shows torrential and untimely down pour of rains. • Mars and Rahu together inspected by Saturn causes lightening and cloud bursts. • Cyclones on the Andhra Pradesh coast are likely to occur close to periods of sunspot maxima when the planets Jupiter, Saturn, Rahu (Ketu) and Uranus form even loose aspects of Kendra (square) and Samagama (conjunction) between themselves. These indications are strengthened whenever either Virgo or the 12th from it are afflicted. (i) Rain gauging According to Varahamihira, rainfall should be collected in a vessel whose capacity is an adhaka. An adhaka has been defined as the quantity of rainfall, which falls to the 82 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY brim of a vessel 20 inches in diameter and eight inches deep. Four such adhakas constitute a drona. If conception of clouds is due to all the five conditions of wind, rain, lighting, thunder and clouds, says Varahamihira, then",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of rainfall, which falls to the 82 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY brim of a vessel 20 inches in diameter and eight inches deep. Four such adhakas constitute a drona. If conception of clouds is due to all the five conditions of wind, rain, lighting, thunder and clouds, says Varahamihira, then the quantity of subsequent rainfall will be one drona and this will fall over an area of 400 square miles. If the conception of clouds has been due to wind alone, the resultant rainfall will be three adhakas. If due to lightning, the rain will be nine adhakas. If due to thunder and other factors affecting rainfall, twelve adhakas. • If there is rain on the day on which the Moon asterism is either Hastha or Poorvasshadha or Mirgasira or Chittra or Revathi or Dhanistha, then on the corresponding days of the next lunar month, there will be 16 dronas of rainfall. • If there is rain on the day on which the Moon asterism is either Sravana or Makha or Anuradha or Bharani or Moola, then on the corresponding days of the next lunar month, there will be 14 dronas of rainfall. • If the Moon resides in either Satbhistha or Jyestha or Swathi, there would be 4 dronas of rainfall on the corresponding days of the rainy seasons. If in Krittika, 10 dronas; If in Poorvaphalguni, 25 dronas; If in Vishakha or Uttarashadha, 20 dronas; If in Ayslesha, 13 dronas; If in Uttarabhadrapada or Uttaraphalguni or Rohini, 25 dronas; If in Aswini, 13 dronas; If in Aridra, 18 dronas. • If the moon in above asterism suffer from malefic influence either aspect or conjunction, there will be neither rain nor prosperity in the land. If the benefic planets pass through above asterism or the moon in above asterism",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "dronas; If in Aswini, 13 dronas; If in Aridra, 18 dronas. • If the moon in above asterism suffer from malefic influence either aspect or conjunction, there will be neither rain nor prosperity in the land. If the benefic planets pass through above asterism or the moon in above asterism should remain unaffected by malefic, rainfall would be good. (ii) Hour of rainfall The very hour of the occurrence of rainfall can also be determined; for, says Varahamihira, clouds ‘conceiving’ during the day will be delivered at night and clouds ‘conceiving’ at night will be delivered during the day; clouds ‘conceiving’ in the twilight of the evening deliver during the morning twilight, and vice-versa. Again, if at the time of conception, clouds have appeared in the east, then at the time of birth, they will appear in the west; and so on with the other quarters. Similarly, if at the time of conception the wind has blown from the east, then at the time of rain, it will blow the opposite quarter. (iii) Rain in the immediate future While ancient meteorology can predict rain long in advance, is it no difficult thing to forecast rain in the immediate future. During the rainy season, immediate rainfall is indicated: If the sun at the time of rising is exceptionally bright and red, or If the taste of water is insipid, or the color of the sky or sunset rainbow is seen in the sky, or If salt begins to sweat, or If fish in tanks jump from water on the bank, or If metal vessels emit a fishy smell, or If ants, with their eggs, move from one place to another. (iv) Forecasting rainfall, floods and weather vagaries Of the several methods recommended by classical writers for forecasting rainfall, floods and weather",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fish in tanks jump from water on the bank, or If metal vessels emit a fishy smell, or If ants, with their eggs, move from one place to another. (iv) Forecasting rainfall, floods and weather vagaries Of the several methods recommended by classical writers for forecasting rainfall, floods and weather Vagaries, the most important ones are: (a) the lunar new year chart, (b) time of pregnancy of clouds, (c) entry of the Sun into the constellation of Aridra, (d) Sun’s entry into Capricorn, (e) Rohini, Swati, and Ashadha Yogas, and (f) mutual dispositions of planets at a given time. D. Effect of Planets on Weather Parameters The Sun in contact with Mercury gives windy spells. Similarly, Sun + Venus gives rain or snow; Sun + Mars gives warmer climate according to the season; Sun + Jupiter gives dry or drought; Sun + Saturn gives colder than normal in the season; Sun + Rahu gives local storms and Sun + Ketu gives very changeable climate within a short space of time. According to Garga and other sages, the clouds become pregnant from the day the Moon reaches the constellation of Poorvashadha in the bright half of the lunar month Mirgasira (about 3rd week of November each year). AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 83 While the Moon’s varying distance from the sun, i.e., lunar day or tithi is a potent factor in weather changes, there is overwhelming evidence that the major planets have a powerful influence over atmospheric eventualities. Many tropical storms have whirled to hurricane intensity on the three days centered at new Moon and full Moon. Heavy rain occurred most frequently about four days after full Moon and reached a secondary peak about four days after new Moon. In other words the greatest amount of rain fell when the Moon is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "whirled to hurricane intensity on the three days centered at new Moon and full Moon. Heavy rain occurred most frequently about four days after full Moon and reached a secondary peak about four days after new Moon. In other words the greatest amount of rain fell when the Moon is either 45 or 225 degrees from sun. A clear correlation persists between the movements of the Moon and variations in quantities of rainfall. When a planet enters Cancer it well influence the weather more in the northern hemisphere while the southern hemisphere is more influenced when planets enter the sign Capricorn. Mars and dry weather: Coming to the planet Mars, it raises the temperature, causing a dryness in the weather, especially when in Aries. Mars in conjunction with Jupiter exerts a disturbing effect on the weather, and storms of rain and thunder occur during the rainy season. Thunder, lightning and inundations are the outcome of Saturn-Mars influences. When Mercury and Venus pass the Sun, usually wet and windily weather occurs. The position of the Sun at times of new Moon and season-changes will give the observer a clue as to the type of weather likely during a specified period of time. When Mercury and the Sun are in conjunction during the winter a blizzard or a cold wave occurs. When Mercury and the Sun are in superior conjunction followed by Mercury’s conjunction with or opposition to Mars, and Rahu conjuncts Sun, a fast moving cold wave may be brought about. Temperatures may fall rapidly. Mercury and Saturn in mutual aspect may keep the area of rising temperatures limited. An aspect of Venus can bring moist warm air and a promise of moderate to heavy rain or even storms or tornadoes. Venus retrogression or direct motion does not singly affect weather",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Temperatures may fall rapidly. Mercury and Saturn in mutual aspect may keep the area of rising temperatures limited. An aspect of Venus can bring moist warm air and a promise of moderate to heavy rain or even storms or tornadoes. Venus retrogression or direct motion does not singly affect weather unless it is accompanied by other planets. A retrograde Jupiter is good for rains. A retrograde Saturn is not beneficial for rains. How the winds are influenced: Mercury generates acute, sharp and whipping winds; Venus generates sunny weather consistent with the season; Mars gives rise to energetic watery winds and abnormally hot summers, and Saturn’s action is frequently related to chronic cloudy skies and abnormal rainfall. Greatest numbers of fires observed at the time of the full Moon. When the planet Jupiter is in perihelion there is a great drought and likewise when in aphelion there is more dampness and cold weather than usual. The slower moving planets (especially Jupiter and Saturn) exert a telling influence, because of their slow speed and their great masses for a longer period of time. (i) Role of planets on occurrence of rain or flood or drought or famine • When sun is between Venus and Mercury there is a break in monsoon in the sense that for some days there is dry spell. • Sun being behind Mars in the rainy season, there will be poor rain or rain is delayed or will create dry spells. When the Sun was overtaking Mars, there will be heavy downpour of rains, causing flood in rivers. • Rain will not be timely when all quadrants being occupied by malefic. • Mars, affected by other malefic, will create dry spells till August. • If Jupiter and Mars are within 30 degrees (thirty degrees) of each other it",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "will be heavy downpour of rains, causing flood in rivers. • Rain will not be timely when all quadrants being occupied by malefic. • Mars, affected by other malefic, will create dry spells till August. • If Jupiter and Mars are within 30 degrees (thirty degrees) of each other it prevents rains. • If the Moon is in the 7th from Venus and within view of benefic planets, or be in the 5th, 7th or 9th house from Saturn there will be immediate rain. • When Venus is in constellations of Swathi, Vishakha and Anusha, unprececedent rainfall results in heavy floods. • Famine will break out for want of rains when Venus is in one of constellations from Jyestha to Sravana. • There will be drought condition when Venus sets in or retrogrades in Makha or Uttarashadha. 84 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Clouds become scattered and rainfall disturbed, when the sun, Mars and Venus transit the same sign. If Jupiter joins the above combinations, clouds will deliver rains in plenty. • When Jupiter retrogrades in Rohini, the year will have less rainfall. • Heavy rain results when Jupiter is in Pisces while Venus is in Cancer. • Droughts are noticed when Saturn is unaspected in Aries, Leo or Sagittarius. • When Mars and Saturn are in conjunction, rainfall will be very low. E. General Signs that Bring Rain • Soft, white, deep halo round the Moon or the Sun. • Dark colored sky, dark as the crow’s egg. • Sky overcast with huge, bright, dense clouds. • Needle-shaped clouds. • Blood-red clouds. • Rainbow in the morning or in the evening. • Low, rumbling roar of thunder. • Lightning. • The appearance of the mock-sun; and • Planets shine in full form and with soft light. F. Animal Behaviour",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Sky overcast with huge, bright, dense clouds. • Needle-shaped clouds. • Blood-red clouds. • Rainbow in the morning or in the evening. • Low, rumbling roar of thunder. • Lightning. • The appearance of the mock-sun; and • Planets shine in full form and with soft light. F. Animal Behaviour to make Medium Range Forecasts The plants, birds and animal behaviour are used to predict medium and short-range forecasts. • In the rainy season when the sky is cloudy try to take your pet dog outdoor. If the dog shows a disinclination, it is a sign of coming rain. • See if kites in flock are flying at a height of about 400 ft. It is an indication of rain or storm. • See if any spider has started weaving its web outdoors. It indicates the departure of the monsoon. • Those who are lucky to have some frogs alive and croaking can get the indication from their croaking. • The exultant cry of the peacock is an indication of cloud formation. • Early flowering of the gulmohur and amaltas was an indication of a good monsoon. • Rain bird; if the rain bird gives eggs at the ground level then there will be less rain however if the indication of more rains the local people assume that eggs of rain bird are laid on such a height that in case of more or less rains, the eggs will not be submerged in rainwater. Similarly if the narrow ends of all the four eggs of rain bird are downwards, and then it is the indication of good rainfall thought out the season. • When the adventitious roots of the banyan tree (Ficus bangalensis) start spouting (tillering), then the local people assume that the rains will appear within 2 to 4",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "all the four eggs of rain bird are downwards, and then it is the indication of good rainfall thought out the season. • When the adventitious roots of the banyan tree (Ficus bangalensis) start spouting (tillering), then the local people assume that the rains will appear within 2 to 4 days. • When the buds start spouting in castor and ber, then rains will appear within 10 to 15 days. • The rains will appear after 10–15 days of flowing in babul tree (Acacia nilotica). • As soon as the neem kernels ripen and start falling, it is expected that there will be rains after 10–15 days. 2.6 ALMANAC, PANCHANG AND KRISHI-PANCHANG According to the Encyclopedia Britannica (1969), An Almanac is a book or table containing a calendar of the days, weeks, and months of the year, a register of ecclesiastical festivals and saint’s days and a record of various astronomical phenomena, often with weather prognostications and seasonal suggestions AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 85 for the countrymen”. In India, the classical Hindu astrological almanac is known as ‘Panchang’. Panchang has been prepared for public use from Vedang Jyotish period 1400-1300 B.C. The word ‘Panchang’ has derived from the Sanskrit words viz., ‘panch’ and ‘ang’, which mean ‘five’ and body part/limb’ respectively. These parts are: (1) Tithi or lunar day; (2) Vara or week day; (3) Nakshatra or asterism or constellation; (4) Yoga or time during which the joint motion of the sun and the moon covers the space of a nakshatra and (5) Karana or half of a lunar day or half-tithi. (i) Tithi The fifteenth day of the bright half is called Purnima, Paurnima, or Paurnamasi. It is generally considered an auspicious day. The fifteenth day of the dark half is called Amavasya. It is called ‘Kuhu’ when the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "nakshatra and (5) Karana or half of a lunar day or half-tithi. (i) Tithi The fifteenth day of the bright half is called Purnima, Paurnima, or Paurnamasi. It is generally considered an auspicious day. The fifteenth day of the dark half is called Amavasya. It is called ‘Kuhu’ when the Moon is totally absent and ‘Sinivali’ when the moon is partially absent. It is generally considered an inauspicious day. The fourth, ninth, and the fourteenth days are called ‘Rikta’, i.e., empty days and are not recommended for commencing any new project. (ii) Vara There are seven days in a week named after the seven principal ‘planets’ (old concept) viz., Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn and they are believed generally to posses the characteristics of the respective planets. (iii) Nakshatra Nakshatra are constellations of stars. There are twenty seven (or twenty eight) nakshatras enumerated in a fixed order marking the Moon’s heavenly path. Each nakshatra is divided into four padas, or charanas, i.e., quarters. Nine consecutive padas fall in one rashi, i.e., the zodiacal sign. (iv) Rashi Rashis are the twelve zodiacal signs that mark the imaginary or the apparent path of the sun through space. e.g., Mesha (Aries) and Vrishaba (Taurus). The sun takes approximately one month to pass through one sign (and takes thirteen to fourteen days to pass through one nakshatra). A. Rain Forecasting in Indian Almanacs (Panchangs) According to the Encyclopedia Britannica (1969), “An almanac is a book or table containing a calendar of the days, weeks and months of the year, a register of ecclesiastical festivals and saint’s days and a record of various astronomical phenomena, often with weather prognostications and seasonal suggestions for the countrymen”. In India, the classical Hindu almanac is known as ‘Panchang’. It is a very important book published",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the days, weeks and months of the year, a register of ecclesiastical festivals and saint’s days and a record of various astronomical phenomena, often with weather prognostications and seasonal suggestions for the countrymen”. In India, the classical Hindu almanac is known as ‘Panchang’. It is a very important book published yearly, and is the basic book of the society giving calenderical information on daily basis and is extensively used by the people all over India. For astrologers, it is one of basic books for making astrological calculations, casting horoscopes, and for making predictions. For farmers, it is an astrological guide to start any farming activity. Hence, it is a fundamental book, which is referred to by a large section of the people in this country for various purposes. The word ‘Panchang’ has its roots in two Sanskrit words, viz., ‘panch’ and ‘ang’, which mean ‘five’ and ‘body part/limb’ respectively. These parts are: (1) Tithi or lunar day there are a total of thirty tithes in a lunar month, fifteen in each fortnight; (2) Vara or week day there are seven varas, namely, Ravivara (Sunday), Somavara (Monday), Mangalavara (Tuesday), Budhavara (Wednesday), Guruvara (Thursday), Shukravara (Friday), and Shanivara (Saturday); (3) Nakshatra or asterism or constellation there are a total of twenty seven nakshtras named according to the yogataras or identifying stars of each of the twenty seven equal parts of the ecliptic or solar path; (4) Yoga or time during which the joint motion of the Sun and the Moon covers the space of a nakshatra (there are twenty-seven yoga) and (5) Karana or half of a lunar day or half-tithi. (a) Krishi-Panchang Krishi-Panchang or Agro-almanac or Agro-panchang may be defined as “basic astro-agricultural guide book/calendar published annually, giving calenderical information on various aspects of agriculture and allied activities, basically suggesting region-wise,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "space of a nakshatra (there are twenty-seven yoga) and (5) Karana or half of a lunar day or half-tithi. (a) Krishi-Panchang Krishi-Panchang or Agro-almanac or Agro-panchang may be defined as “basic astro-agricultural guide book/calendar published annually, giving calenderical information on various aspects of agriculture and allied activities, basically suggesting region-wise, season-wise and crop-wise crop strategy based on astro-meteorological predictions, giving auspicious/inauspicious time for undertaking/avoiding various farm related operations, along with a list of performing religious rites, 86 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY festivals, observing fasts and some non-astrological guidance, primarily useful for the farming communities and person having interest in agricultural development”. (i) Making of Krishi-Panchang A Krishi-Panchang may be defined as “basic astro-agricultural guide book/calendar (that needs to be) published annually, giving calenderical information on various aspects of agricultural and allied activities, basically suggesting region-wise, season-wise, and crop-wise crop strategy based on astro-meteorological predictions, giving auspicious/inauspicious time for undertaking/avoiding various farm-related operations, along with a list for performing religious rites, festivals, observing fasts, and some non-astrological agricultural guidance, primarily useful for the farming communities and persons having interest in agricultural development”. (ii) Content and coverage proposed The Krishi-Panchang should be basically different from the present-day panchangs in its content and coverage, method and approach of writing, composition of editorial boards, publication, and circulation. The Krishi-Panchang, being meant for meeting agricultural purposes, majority of its contents should relate to agricultural information. In addition to this, basic information such as annual date calendar, list of holidays, auspicious days/moments of the coming year should be given for the benefit of farming communities. The contents of the proposed Krishi-Panchang can broadly be categorized in two major groups as follows: 1. Information, which changes every year • Annual date and Holiday calendar • Month-wise daily guide for the whole year • “Rashiphal”, i.e., month-wise forecasting",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "should be given for the benefit of farming communities. The contents of the proposed Krishi-Panchang can broadly be categorized in two major groups as follows: 1. Information, which changes every year • Annual date and Holiday calendar • Month-wise daily guide for the whole year • “Rashiphal”, i.e., month-wise forecasting of persons having different zodiac sings • Daily/monthly/annual weather forecasting for the particular year • Crop prospects of that year based on planetary positions • Season-wise crop strategy based on anticipated weather 2. Information, which remains same irrespective of any particular year • Theories relating to agricultural and meteorological forecasting • Auspicious moments for agricultural and allied activities • Some general agricultural guidance In ancient India, success in agricultural operations was determined from the position and movement of heavenly phenomena at the time of commencement of the particular practices. The beneficial or malefic influences were mostly valued at the time of ploughing and sowing. On the basis of position of planets, nakshatras, and other celestial bodies at any particular moment, and their influence on both materials as well as non-materials, living as well as non-living, Hindu astrologers (Jyotishis or Hyotishacharyas) have written several “Muthurta Granthas” (books on auspicious/inauspicious moments) for starting or doing or disregarding any activity (both agricultural as well as non-agricultural). For example: For finding out auspicious moments/days for ploughing of farmlands, astrologers consider the “Hala Chakra” or “Ploughing Cycle”. According to the cycle, the three nakshatras ahead of the nakshatra the sun leaves are inauspicious; three nakshatras ahead of those are auspicious; next three are inauspicious; next five are auspicious; next three are inauspicious; next five are auspicious; next three are inauspicious; and last three nakshatras are auspicious. This completes the cycle of 28 nakshatras (Ref: Muhurta Jyotish Vigyan; and Muhurta Chintaman). In addition to the above,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "ahead of those are auspicious; next three are inauspicious; next five are auspicious; next three are inauspicious; next five are auspicious; next three are inauspicious; and last three nakshatras are auspicious. This completes the cycle of 28 nakshatras (Ref: Muhurta Jyotish Vigyan; and Muhurta Chintaman). In addition to the above, the “Beejopti Chakra” or “Seed Cycle” should also be considered. According to the cycle, eight nakshatras from the nakshatra at the position of the sun are inauspicious; in successive order next three nakshatras AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 87 are auspicious; the next (one) nakshatra is inauspicious; next three nakshatras are auspicious; next (one nakshatra is inauspicious; next three nakshatras are auspicious: next one nakshatra is inauspicious; next three nakshatras are auspicious; and last four nakshatras are inauspicious (Ref.: Brihat Jyotish Sara; and Muhurta Jyotish Vigyana). Three ‘Uttaras’–(Uttarashadha, Uttaraphalguni, and Uttarabhadrapada), Hasta, Chitra, Swati, Mula, Dhanishtha. Rohini, Mrigashira, Pushya, Anuradha, Ashwini, and Magha are auspicious for crop transplanting and animal trade. Except Magha and Hasta, all other nakshatras are auspicious for irrigation (Ref.: Mururta Chintamani). (iii) Panchang-making The content and coverage of the proposed Krishi-Panchang indicate that only qualified astrologers cannot prepare the whole content on their own, rather an editorial board comprising of both qualified astrologers and crop specialists can do justice. While preparing the Panchang, the editorial board members should keep in mind the following important points: • The Krishi-Panchang is largely meant for the local farming communities, having very low educational status. Hence, it must be in the local colloquial language to facilitate reading and comprehension. • Care should be taken to make the Krishi-Panchang easily understandable and clear in its meaning. • It should be very comprehensive in its content and coverage with proven predictive information only. • It should not contain any astrological details or complexities,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "local colloquial language to facilitate reading and comprehension. • Care should be taken to make the Krishi-Panchang easily understandable and clear in its meaning. • It should be very comprehensive in its content and coverage with proven predictive information only. • It should not contain any astrological details or complexities, which would go beyond the understanding capability of our less educated farmers and agriculturists. • It should be attractive in colour, and presentation of information should be systematic according to seasons (Kharif, rabi, and summer) and crops. • It must be low-priced/nominal-priced, within the affordable range of small and marginal farmers. • More important is, it must be made available to the farmers and needy persons sufficiently in advance, i.e., at least 1–2 months before the start of the agriculture year (July-June). 2.7 METHODS OF RAINFALL FORECASTS Rainfall forecast is defined as “to tell before hand when, where and how it would rain”. For thousands of years India has been using astrology, study of clouds, examination of winds, observations of nature, animals, plants, birds for medium and short-range forecasts after the examination of the trends of rain astrologically for its overall long range forecasts. Short range forecasts are forecasting monsoon rainfall developments, a few hours to 48 hours or 72 hours ahead. Medium range forecasts are “preparation of scatter diagrams showing dispersal of rainfall classified as abnormal or normal or sub normal during the five-day period subsequent to the period to which the pressure height of a pair of selected stations refer”. Long range forecasts are issued twice in the year for the entire period of four months June to September and later for the second half of the monsoon season August and September. A. Artificial Rain-making Versus Yagna Artificial rain making is the technique of making the already existing",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "stations refer”. Long range forecasts are issued twice in the year for the entire period of four months June to September and later for the second half of the monsoon season August and September. A. Artificial Rain-making Versus Yagna Artificial rain making is the technique of making the already existing cloud cause rain. The ancient Indian Vedic yagna technique is also used to cause rain. In the ‘Yagna’, the ash gases released through 88 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY the burning of certain combinations of wood and other materials during the yagna could result in icenucleating hygroscopic particulate matter. In the yagna experiment, the ash from the ingredients were claimed to have similar properties as the common salt used in seeding. Scientists do not believe seeding can be done without the presence of cloud first in that lies their difference with the yagna experiments where it is claimed clouds are first formed and then seeded by nuclei in the ash. (In USA, Red-Indians do rain-making dances and bishops to sprinkle water on fields). Chemical cloud-seeding is a process for artificial rain-making destroying hail or making fog disappear. The cloud seeding is done with the spray of sodium chloride or silver iodide over the clouds through aero plane. Chemical cloud-seeding is of two-types-warm clouding and cold clouding. Warm clouding is done in tropical country while cold cloud-seeding is done in hills such as Kerala. For cloud seeding, there must be a good cloud with a thickness of at least one kilometer. The clouds contain hygroscopic nuclei (water-vapour attracting particles) but the smaller nuclei travel faster than bigger ones. If bigger nuclei are introduced in the cloud, they will absorb the smaller nuclei already present. The process of seeding is to “excite” the bigger nuclei already present and make them to grow at",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "clouds contain hygroscopic nuclei (water-vapour attracting particles) but the smaller nuclei travel faster than bigger ones. If bigger nuclei are introduced in the cloud, they will absorb the smaller nuclei already present. The process of seeding is to “excite” the bigger nuclei already present and make them to grow at a higher speed so that they drop down as droplets of rain. In warm seeding, which is a process of coagulation, the cloud is seeded by common salt (NaCl) along with soapstone powder to prevent coagulation. The common salt nucleic are bigger than big nuclei and are hygroscopic in nature so they start precipitation and increase the efficiency of precipitation in a cloud from the usual 10 percent to a much higher count. The increase is compared with control cloud and the growth can be observed through radar. In cold-seeding by a sublimating process, the cold cloud is already at a temperature below 0o C. Even in that state there are two nuclei, one in the ice state and the other in the water state at different pressures. The water nucleus, which is at higher pressure, goes over the ice nucleus. So here ice nucleus is introduced by seeding with silver iodide in a liquid state. 2.8 CROPS Indian agriculture is one of the oldest in the world and has millennia with involvement of farmers who have domesticated introduced and genetically enhanced a large number of species to harness maximum productivity. Farmers have preserved seeds along with associated knowledge over generations leading to conservation. Archaeological findings have revealed that rice was a domesticated crop grown along the banks of the Ganges in the sixth millennium B.C. Later, it extended to other areas. Several species of winter cereals viz., barley, oats and wheat and legumes such as Lentil and chickpea domesticated",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "generations leading to conservation. Archaeological findings have revealed that rice was a domesticated crop grown along the banks of the Ganges in the sixth millennium B.C. Later, it extended to other areas. Several species of winter cereals viz., barley, oats and wheat and legumes such as Lentil and chickpea domesticated in Southwest Asia, were grown in Northwest India before the sixth millennium B.C. Some other millets, such as sorghum, pearl millet and finger millet which were earlier domesticated in Africa, found their way to the Indian subcontinent more than 4000 years ago. In addition, smaller millets such as the species of Panicum, Setaria, Echinochloa, and Paspalum were domesticated in India since the Neolithic period. Archaeological research also revealed cultivation of several other crops 3000 to 6000 years ago. These include oil seeds such as sesame, linseed, safflower, mustards and castor; legumes such as mung bean, black gram, horse gram, pigeon pea, field pea, grass pea (khesari) and fenugreek; fibre crop such as cotton (Gossypium spp.) and fruits such as jujube, grape, date, jackfruit, mango, mulberry and black plum. Animals including livestock, sheep, goats, asses, dogs, pigs and horses were also domesticated. The primitive communities of the Neoliths period domesticated plants for food, legumes tubers fruits fibres and luxury crops. A classification of the crops cultivated in the early parts of human history has been given in Table 2.8. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 89 Table 2.7. Categories of Crops Cultivated during the Prehistoric Period Food crops Legumes Roots/Tubers Fruit Fibres Luxury Wheat Peas Turnips Nuts Flax Cocoa Barley Beans Carrots Apples Cotton Tea Rice Lentils Garlic Figs Hemp Opium Maize – Potatoes Oranges – Tobacco Millets – – Dates – – 2.9 ORIGIN OF CROP PLANTS Russian biogeographer Vavilov’s (1949) classification of origin and approximate dates for the most common domestic",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Wheat Peas Turnips Nuts Flax Cocoa Barley Beans Carrots Apples Cotton Tea Rice Lentils Garlic Figs Hemp Opium Maize – Potatoes Oranges – Tobacco Millets – – Dates – – 2.9 ORIGIN OF CROP PLANTS Russian biogeographer Vavilov’s (1949) classification of origin and approximate dates for the most common domestic plants (Table 2.9). Domestication of plants and animals or the origin of agriculture is quite recent in the annals of mankind. The more recent investigations show that agriculture began around 10000 years BP (before present) or 8000 B.C. during the Sumerian times in south-west Asia. Table 2.8. Classification of Plant Species and Origin Plants Species Region of origin Date in thousand years BP (BP = before present) Emmer wheat Near East (Southwest Asia) 9-10 Einkorn Wheat Near East (Southwest Asia) 9.5-8.5 Barley Near East (Southwest Asia) 9.5-8.5 Pea Near East (Southwest Asia) 9.5-8.5 Lentil Near East (Southwest Asia) 9.5-8.5 Vetch Near East (Southwest Asia) 9.5-8.5 Flax Near East (Southwest Asia) 9.5-8.5 Naked wheat Near East (Southwest Asia) 9.5-8.5 Rice Southeast Asia 7-5 Sugarcane Southeast Asia 7-5 Sorghum and mulberry North China Korea and Japan Soybean North China 7-5 Almond, walnut, melon Central Asia 6-5 Olive, fig, vine Mediterranean Europe 6-5 Sorghum and cotton Africa 6-5 Cucurbit Tropical America 9-8 Capsicum, maize (corn) Tropical America 8.5-7.5 Common bean, cotton, arrow-root, Tropical America 7.7 groundnut, tomato Lima bean Tropical America 7.7 90 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Indigenous Crops (Nene, 2002) Archaeological findings have revealed that rice (Oryza sativa L.,) was a domesticated crop grown along the banks of the Ganges in the sixth millennium B.C. Later, it extended to other areas. Several species of winter cereals (Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), oats (Avena sativa L.), and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and legumes-lentil (Lens culinaris M.) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum L,) domesticated in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "domesticated crop grown along the banks of the Ganges in the sixth millennium B.C. Later, it extended to other areas. Several species of winter cereals (Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), oats (Avena sativa L.), and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and legumes-lentil (Lens culinaris M.) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum L,) domesticated in South-west Asia, were grown in North-west India before the sixth millennium B.C. Some other millets, such as sorghum (Sorghum bicolour (L.) Moench.) pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. and finger millet (Eleusine coracana, (L.) Gaertn.) which were earlier domesticated in Africa, found their way to the Indian subcontinent more than 4000 years ago. In addition, smaller millets such as the species of Panicum, Setaria, Echinochloa, and Paspalum were domesticated in India since the Neolithic period. Archaeological research also revealed cultivation of several other crops 3000 to 6000 years ago. These include oil seeds such as sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), mustard (Brassica spp.) and castor (Ricinus communis L.); legumes such as mung bean (Vigna radiata L.), black gram (Vigna mungo L. Hepper), horse gram (Dolichos biflorus L.), pigeonpea (Cajanus Cajan (L). Millsp.), field pea (Pisum sativum L.), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.; khesari) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum L.), fibre crop such as cotton (Gossypium spp.) and fruits such as jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.) grape (Vitis vinifera L.), date (Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.), jackfruit, mango (Mangifera indica L.), mulberry (Morus alba L.) and black plum (Syzigium cuminii L. Skeels). Animals, including livestock, sheep, goats, asses, dogs, pigs and horses were also domesticated (Mehra, 1997). Early indigenous domesticates: Rice was identified from several sites dated earlier than 1500 B.C. from the Gangetic region. Vavilov (1928) listed 117 economic plants which were domesticated in the Indian center or origin/diversity of crop plants. B. Origin of Cultivated",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "asses, dogs, pigs and horses were also domesticated (Mehra, 1997). Early indigenous domesticates: Rice was identified from several sites dated earlier than 1500 B.C. from the Gangetic region. Vavilov (1928) listed 117 economic plants which were domesticated in the Indian center or origin/diversity of crop plants. B. Origin of Cultivated Plants 1. Indian Main Center includes Assam and Burma Cereals and Legumes 1. Rice, Oryza sativa 2. Chickpea or gram, Cicer arietinum 3. Pigeon pea, Cajanus indicus 4. Urd bean, Phaseolus mungo 5. Mung bean Phaseolus aureus 6. Rice bean Phaseolus calcaratus 7. Cowpea, Vigna sinensis Vegetables and Tubers 1. Eggplant, Solanum melogena 2. Cucumber, Cucumis sativus 3. Radish, Raphanus caudatus 4. Taro Colocasia antiquorum 5. Tamarind, Tamarindus Indica Fruits 1. Mango Mangifere indica 2. Orange Citrus sinensis 3. Tangerine, Citrus medica 4. Citron Citrus medica 5. Tamarind Tamarindus indica (Contd.) AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 91 Sugar, Oil and Fiber plants 1. Sugar cane, Saccharum officinarum 2. Coconut palm Cocos nucifera 3. Sesame Sesamum indicum 4. Safflower Carthamus tinctorius 5. Tree cotton Gossypium arboreum 6. Oriental cotton Gossypium arboreum 7. Jute, Corchorus capsularis 8. Crotalaria, Crotalaria juncea 9. Kenaf, Hibiscus cannabinus Spices, Stimulants, Dyes, and Miscellaneous 1. Hemp, Cannabis indica 2. Black pepper Piper nigrum 3. Gum arabic, Acacia arabica 4. Sandalwood, Santalulm album 5. Indigo, Indigofera tinctoria 6. Cinnamon tree, Cinnamomum zeylanticum 7. Croton, Croton tiglium 8. Bamboo, Bambusa tulda 2. Indo-Malayan Center includes Indo-china and the Indo-Malay Archipelago Cereals and legumes 1. Jobs tears, Coix lacryma 2. Velvet bean, Mucuna utilis Fruits 1. Pummelo, Citrus grandis 2. Banana Musa Cavendishii, M. Paradisiaca M. sapientum 3. Breadfruit, Artocarpus communis 4. Mangosteen, Garainia mangostana Oil, sugar, spice, and fiber plants 1. Candlenut, Aleurites moluccana 2. Coconut Palm Cocos nucifera 3. Clove, Caryophyllus aromaticus 4. Nutmeg, Myistica fragrans 5. Black pepper,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "bean, Mucuna utilis Fruits 1. Pummelo, Citrus grandis 2. Banana Musa Cavendishii, M. Paradisiaca M. sapientum 3. Breadfruit, Artocarpus communis 4. Mangosteen, Garainia mangostana Oil, sugar, spice, and fiber plants 1. Candlenut, Aleurites moluccana 2. Coconut Palm Cocos nucifera 3. Clove, Caryophyllus aromaticus 4. Nutmeg, Myistica fragrans 5. Black pepper, Piper nigrum 6. Manila hemp or abaca Musa textilis 3. Central Asiatic Center includes North-west India (Punjab, North-west Frontier Provinces and Kashmir) and Afghanistan Grains and legumes 1. Common wheat, Triticum vulgare 2. Clup wheat, Tricticum compactum 3. Shot wheat Triticum sphaerocoecum 4. Lentil, Lens esculenta 5. Horse bean, Vicia faba 92 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 6. Chickpea Cicer arietinum 7. Mung bean, Phaselous aureus 8. Mustard, Brassica junca 9. Flax Linum usitatissimum (One of the centers) 10. Sesame, Sesamum indicum Fiber plants 1. Hemp, Cannabis indica 2. Cotton, Gossypium herbaceum Vegetables 1. Onion, Alium cepa 2. Garlic, Allium sativum 3. Spinach, Spinacia oleracea 4. Carrot, Daucus carota Fruits 1. Pistacia, Pistacia very 2. Pere, Pyrus communtis. 3. Almond, Amygdalus communis 4. Grape, Vitis vinifera 5. Apple, Malus pumila C. Introduced or Exotic Crops Portuguese introduced new crops and fruit plants during the sixteenth century and enriched the agriculture of India. They were the greatest benefactors of India. Babar introduced the scented Persian rose. Similarly the botanical garden of Calcutta has performed a very useful function by introducing many important new plants. Following are some of the crops and plants, which were introduced by Portuguese from Brazil, Chile, Peru and Mexico. These crops and trees now form important components of the common cropping systems followed in the country. Crops introduced by Britishers Pseudo cereals Oats Grain legumes Pea Fiber crops Gossypium barbadense (cotton) Vegetables Leek, Asparagus sp., Beta vulgaris (beet root), Cauliflower, Brussels sprout, Knol-khol, Celery, Sweet pepper, Chicory, Squash,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Mexico. These crops and trees now form important components of the common cropping systems followed in the country. Crops introduced by Britishers Pseudo cereals Oats Grain legumes Pea Fiber crops Gossypium barbadense (cotton) Vegetables Leek, Asparagus sp., Beta vulgaris (beet root), Cauliflower, Brussels sprout, Knol-khol, Celery, Sweet pepper, Chicory, Squash, Daucas carota (carrot, orange type), Lettuce, Tomato, Sweet pea. Fruits Bilimbi, Carambola, Papaya, Rose apple, Strawberry, Mangosteen, Helianthus tuberosus(artichoke), Tapioca (cassava), Apple, Apricot, Cherry, Plum, Peach, Pear. Medicinal and aromatic Cinchona officinalis (quinine), Origanum vulgare (marjoram), Cinchona officinalis plants (quinine), Origanum vulgare (marjoram), Papaver somniferum (opium poppy), Pelargonium capitatium (Geranium), Salvia officinalis (sage), Thymus vulgaris (thyme), Vanilla aromatica (vanilla). Others Casuarina equisetifolia (Casuarina), Coffee, Eucalyptus globulus (Tasmanian blue gum), Grevillea robusta (silver oak), Hibiscus rosasinensis (shoe flower), Lantana odorata (Lantana), Magnolia grandiflora (Bull Bay), Myrtle, Horse bean, Parsnip, Avocado, Pine trees, Poinciana regia (Peacock flower), Mahogany, Cacao (cocoa). AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 93 Crops introduced from West and Central Asia by Mughals or Arabs Onion, Garlic, Turnip, Cabbage, Coriander, Sweet muskmelon, Carrot, (black & red type), Date palm, Pea, Clover and Grape. Crops introduced by Spaniards: Phaseolus vulgaris (French bean). Crops introduced from China: Soybean, Loquat, Walnut, Litchi. Crops introduced from Latin America: Rubber, Pineapple. Crops introduced from South-east Asia and Pacific islands: Sugar-palm, Breadfruit, Citrus decumanus (pomelo), Citrus paradisi (grapefruit), Durio zibethinus (durian) and Metroxylon sagus (sago). Some recent introductions Mentha arvensis (spearmint, USA) Acacia senegal (Australia), Acacia mangium (Australia) and Actinidia chinensis (Kiwifruit, New Zealand). Crops introduced by Portuguese: Groundnut, Tobacco, Potato and Agave. Tobacco was introduced during the reign of Emperor Akbar. It seems that they first introduced it into Goa and then into Bijapur. The potato (Solanum tuberosum), a native of highlands of Chile and Peru, was introduced into India by the Portuguese in the seventeenth",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Portuguese: Groundnut, Tobacco, Potato and Agave. Tobacco was introduced during the reign of Emperor Akbar. It seems that they first introduced it into Goa and then into Bijapur. The potato (Solanum tuberosum), a native of highlands of Chile and Peru, was introduced into India by the Portuguese in the seventeenth century. The first mention of potato in India occurs in Terry’s account of a banquet given by Asaf Khan to Sir Thomas Roe in A.D 1615 at Ajmer. Portuguese introduced agave (Agave Americana) or the century-plant, which has now become naturalized throughout India. Its panicles of white flowers are highly ornamental, and its sword-like leaves protect our gradients. 2.10 HISTORY OF RICE Rice was grown in China nearly 5000 years ago. Remains of rice were found in the Yung Shao excavations in China, dating as far back as 2600 B.C. According to one writer, Julien, it was reserved for the Emperor of China to sow seed of rice at a particular ceremony (established about 2800 B.C.) in the beginning of the cultivation season, and the sowing of the less important kinds of grain was relegated to the princes of his family. Archaeological excavation dated to 2300 B.C. at Lothal in Gujarat, a southward extension of the Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro culture indicated the rice cultivation. Do Condolle, affirms that rice had been a valued crop in India since Vedic times, though its cultivation in that sub continent might not be of the same antiquity as that of China. The archaeological rice sample from India was from carbonized grains excavated from Hastinapur, north to Delhi and from Atrajnjikera in Uttar Pradesh had revealed that rice was cultivated from 1500 to 700 B.C. One of the Indian names of rice dhanya, for instance, means the supporter and nursery of mankind. Dhanya means ‘sustainer",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sample from India was from carbonized grains excavated from Hastinapur, north to Delhi and from Atrajnjikera in Uttar Pradesh had revealed that rice was cultivated from 1500 to 700 B.C. One of the Indian names of rice dhanya, for instance, means the supporter and nursery of mankind. Dhanya means ‘sustainer of the human race’ which indicates its age-old importance. Various ceremonies in India include the use of dhanya and the kernel tandula since it is regarded as an emblem of wealth, fortune, and prosperity. Rice is a symbol of fertility and as such as originally used in China to pelt newly wed couples in order to bring them good luck and assure them of many children. The Sanskrit word Urihi which most writers accept as the most direct name for the grain in that language finds mention in Atharveda (1100 B.C.). It may be interesting to note that the name of rice kernel is ‘arisi’ in Tamil language and the Arabian name for it is alruzz, in the Spanish it is called arroz. What says that the Arabic word al-ruzz is not derived from the Tamil word (from which some people argue that the word rice is derived) but from the Greek word Aruza the name for rice. The famous Ayurvedic Doctor Susuta (1000 B.C.) mentions in his “materia medica” different groups of rice based on duration, water requirements and nutritional values, 94 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY recommended for particular ailments. The names of some of the ancient kings of India were derived from or associated with the word rice, thus about the sixth century B.C., the King of Nepal, father of Gautama Buddha, was known as Suddhodana, which means ‘pure rice’. The Sanskrit word for wild rice ‘neevara’ is also used in Telegu language for the wild rice, which",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "India were derived from or associated with the word rice, thus about the sixth century B.C., the King of Nepal, father of Gautama Buddha, was known as Suddhodana, which means ‘pure rice’. The Sanskrit word for wild rice ‘neevara’ is also used in Telegu language for the wild rice, which invades the fields and waterways. Rice spread eastward form India to China and then to Japan and westward into Iran, Iraq, Turkestan and Egypt. According to Green historians, Alexander the Great (about 300 B.C.) carried rice from India Europe and it went from there to Egypt and other countries in Africa. Large scale cultivation in Europe did not however begin till the close of the seventh century A.D. Because of the unsuitability of natural conditions available there. From India rice went to Persia, Arabia and Turkestan where its cultivation is still primitive, as they do not posses the right conditions for its culture. 2.11 HISTORY OF WHEAT CULTIVATION Although wheat was introduced long before the Christian era, it attained its importance only after it. It was the chief food of the ‘mlechcha’ (non-believes in God), “the barbarians”, perhaps the Greeks and the people living outside India, and received the name ‘mlechcha-Bhojana’ (food for the non-believers). It was for a long time known as ‘Yavana’a kind of barley. A Greek writer has also mentioned about wheat. Parasara, in Krishi-samgraha, speaks of wheat being a winter crop. 2.12 HISTORY OF SUGARCANE CULTIVATION Sugarcane was cultivated in India since prehistoric times and was an important crop there by the end of the fourth century B.C. The Rig Vedic Aryans had the cane, and possibly the family name Ikshaku, had connection with large plantation. Apparently the cane was mostly chewed only and sometimes pressed and the juice used as drink. The idea of drying",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "an important crop there by the end of the fourth century B.C. The Rig Vedic Aryans had the cane, and possibly the family name Ikshaku, had connection with large plantation. Apparently the cane was mostly chewed only and sometimes pressed and the juice used as drink. The idea of drying up the juice over fire came later, and the earliest known product was ‘gula’, or ‘guda’, a ball. In Bengal it is known as ‘bheri’ or ‘bheli’, from its form resembling a kettle-drum. There was no attempt at crystallization. In course of time the next stage came, when crystals were allowed to form, culminating in the production of ‘sitopala’, white crystals like rock crystals. A thoroughly scientific classification of the products of manufacture will be found in our medical works. It is also interesting to note that while only two varieties were known to Char aka, the number had increased to twelve by the time Susruta came. Among the latter’s twelve there was one called ‘tapasa’, evidently the wild ancestor of the modern forms. It is a remarkable fact that there is still a variety of cane known as ‘Uri akh’ in the north-west of Bengal which flowers. freely, and the cultivators use the seed for propagation, the adjective, ‘uri’ meaning wild, as in ‘Uridhan’. One of the twelve varieties of Susruta was ‘paundraka’, or ‘paundra’, the same as ‘paunda’ and ‘punri.’ of our cultivators, undoubtedly the best of the indigenous canes. The commentators of Amarakosha tell us that the variety is so named because it grew in the country called Punara, or Northern Bengal. It seems the country derived its name from this fact just as the name Gauda from ‘guda’. The people who cultivated the cane were known as Paundras. During the invasion of India (327 B.C.) Alexander’s",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "variety is so named because it grew in the country called Punara, or Northern Bengal. It seems the country derived its name from this fact just as the name Gauda from ‘guda’. The people who cultivated the cane were known as Paundras. During the invasion of India (327 B.C.) Alexander’s army found the local people obtaining ‘honey’ from reeds without the aid of bees. The methods of growing cane and making sugar diffused east to Indo-china and west to Arabian countries and Europe. Kautilya noticed that the cultivation of sugarcane involves trouble and expense. The difficulty was overcome by co-operation. The cultivators formed a ‘grantha’ or ‘knot’ or club among themselves both for the purpose of cultivation and manufacture of sugar. Co-operation was resorted to whenever the individual peasants were unable to meet the wants separately. It is known as ‘ganta’ in Bengali, and is not at all a new idea recently introduced. The share-produce system of cultivation so common in our country is a form of AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 95 co-operation. The name sugar is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Sarkara’, meaning gravel or sand. The earliest crude sugar made from the juice of the sugarcane was like sand. The original name was changed during its journey, to ‘Sukkar’ in Arabic, ‘Sakharon’ in Green, Sucre in French and finally to sugar in English. The next major event in the history of sugarcane was the importation of thick stemmed varieties of Saccharum officinarum from Thhiti to Jamaica in 1791 by Captain Bligh. 2.13 HISTORY OF COTTON CULTIVATION Gossypium herbaceum var. africanum may be regarded as a wild ancestor of the domesticated plants. The development of cotton textiles appears to have taken place, not in Africa, but in the Indus valley in what is now Pakistan. Trade routes were opened",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "by Captain Bligh. 2.13 HISTORY OF COTTON CULTIVATION Gossypium herbaceum var. africanum may be regarded as a wild ancestor of the domesticated plants. The development of cotton textiles appears to have taken place, not in Africa, but in the Indus valley in what is now Pakistan. Trade routes were opened between Africa and India at that time, and linted cotton may well have been introduced to India as a curiosity, used first as a trimming or for embroidery on linen and woollen fabrics. The earliest known cotton fabrics in the Old World belong to the Indus civilization, indicating that the development of cotton as major new raw material took place in Sind. Excavations in Mohen-jo-daro, Sind, Pakistan (Indus Valley) by Gulati and Turner (1928) revealed that occurrence of cotton in the form of strings and fragment of cloth covering the household articles, which archaeologists date to about 3000 B.C. The fragments discovered at Mohen-jo-daro were evidently made by competent craftsmen, and not by people experimenting clumsily with a new art, or with an unfamiliar raw material. In all hair characteristics that could be measured, the Mohen-jo-daro cotton was within the range of Indian cotton of the present day so it is certain that the major changes involved in the evolution of lint were complete at that time. The existence of cotton threads has also been mentioned in the Rig Veda the oldest scripture of the Hindus, written about 1500 B.C. and repeated references of cotton utilization have been recorded in the ‘The sacred institute of Manu’ and ‘Asvalayana’ (800 B.C.). From India, cotton was introduced eastward to China and Westward to Egypt around A.D. 600 but it was probably not cultivated there as a field crop for textile purposes until the thirteenth or fourteenth century. Arab traders introduced cotton cultivation",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the ‘The sacred institute of Manu’ and ‘Asvalayana’ (800 B.C.). From India, cotton was introduced eastward to China and Westward to Egypt around A.D. 600 but it was probably not cultivated there as a field crop for textile purposes until the thirteenth or fourteenth century. Arab traders introduced cotton cultivation to the rest of African continent. It was brought to southern Europe (Sicily and Spain) by the Arab conquerors in the ninth and tenth centuries A.D. The Greek and Roman civilizations depended largely on flax wool and silk. The inventions of the automatic power loom by Edmund Cartwright in 1785 in England and the cotton given by Eli Whitney in 1793 in America revolutionized the cotton industry. Throughout the nineteenth century, cotton production expanded steadily and now it is cultivated in all tropical, subtropical and warm temperature parts of the world. Wool, silk and flax were used for spinning and weaving long before cotton became important. Purseglove (1960, 1963) suggested that Gossypium herbaceum could have reached South America in Tertiary times via the Antarctic, retreating northward as glaciation advanced. Fryxell (1965) showed that cotton seeds can survive floating in sea water for at least a year with undiminished viability and can thus be distributed by ocean currents. Purseglove (1968) agree that the most likely explanations were that cottonseeds floated across the Atlantic from Africa to South America. 2.14 CROP PRODUCTION IN ANCIENT INDIA The most probably earlier cultivation of crops was started on the foothills of upland areas of easily worked soil and not in the valleys because development of agriculture in the valley implies water control which need more skill and relatively more advance stage of technological development. This hypothesis about the beginning of agriculture is the forested foothills was put forward by Sauer the American biographer. Sauer (1952),",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "worked soil and not in the valleys because development of agriculture in the valley implies water control which need more skill and relatively more advance stage of technological development. This hypothesis about the beginning of agriculture is the forested foothills was put forward by Sauer the American biographer. Sauer (1952), in his hypothesis about the origin and development of agriculture, propounded that: 96 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Agriculture did not originate in communities desperately in short supply of food, but among communities where there was sufficiency of food resulting into relative freedom from want and needed. • The hearths of domestication are to be sought in regions of marked diversity of Plants and animals. • The primitive agriculture did not origin in the large river valleys, subject to the lengthy foods and requiring protective dams, drainage or irrigation, but in moist hill lands. • The agriculture began in forested lands, which had soft soil easy to dig. • The pioneers of agriculture had previously required special skills but the hunters would be least inclined towards the domestication of plants. • The founders of agriculture were sedentary folks, because growing of crops requires constant attention and supervision and unless guarded properly, the crop will be lost. Raising of crops was an important vocation even in the pre-Vedic period and it put an end to nomadic life. Animal husbandry was dominant and crop raising was combined with livestock and trees. The economy of the country, according to Patanjali, depended upon agriculture and cattle breeding. Farmers of the Vedic period possessed a fair knowledge about soil fertility, selection of seeds, seasons of sowing and harvesting and other practices including manuring of fields. In ‘Arthashastra’ there is mention about the suitability of different lands for cultivation of crops. Farmers of the Vedic period",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and cattle breeding. Farmers of the Vedic period possessed a fair knowledge about soil fertility, selection of seeds, seasons of sowing and harvesting and other practices including manuring of fields. In ‘Arthashastra’ there is mention about the suitability of different lands for cultivation of crops. Farmers of the Vedic period knew the methods of improving soil fertility through rotation of crops. They planted deep rooting plants, which served as natural aerators. Sweet potato was used to loosen the soil for the next crop. The swelling roots of the crop acted like mild explosives. As an incentive to the farmer, sweet potato was included in the diet specified for fasts, which indirectly helped in creating consumer demand for the crop. Most common rotations were of three years, which included deep rooted, shallow rooted and legume plants. These were wheat-chick pea; sugarcane-green manure crop; wheat-fallow; pigeon pea, sorghum, etc. Mixed farming which included a combination of crops and livestock components was already in practice. Mixed cropping was the accepted system for raising crops. Legumes such as chickpea and other pulses were often grown in combination with wheat in order to augment the nitrogen availability for wheat. Some of the important crop mixtures were sorghum + pigeon pea + cowpea; black gram or green gram (Mung bean) + sorghum or bajra; wheat + chickpea; and wheat + linseed. In general, monocropping was not the accepted practice. 2.14.1 Seasons Six seasons mentioned in Rigveda are viz., Grishma (May-June), Varsha (July-August), Hemant (September-October), Sharad (November-December), Shishir (January-February) and Vasanta (MarchApril). The seasons in temperate climate are given below: Winter Spring Summer Autumn January April July October February May August November March June September December AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 97 2.15 PLANTING TIME AND SELECTION OF LAND FOR DIFFERENT CROPS (KASYAPA) The planting should be commenced",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Shishir (January-February) and Vasanta (MarchApril). The seasons in temperate climate are given below: Winter Spring Summer Autumn January April July October February May August November March June September December AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 97 2.15 PLANTING TIME AND SELECTION OF LAND FOR DIFFERENT CROPS (KASYAPA) The planting should be commenced with the beginning of the rainy season in several countries. Kashyapa has mentioned taking a crop even in summer if water was available. He divided arable lands into two major categories; viz., lands suitable for growing rice (paddy) and lands suitable for other crops. Basically low-lying lands, which could be irrigated easily, were meant for rice, whereas the uplands where water supply was limited were meant for the crops such as pulses. Rice fields were to be of higher fertility than fields under other crops and were to be bunded to retain water but the bunds had to gave openings to allow excess water to flow elsewhere. Rice soils were to be clayey and rice fields close to each other and to the threshing ground. Rice fields were always to have standing water. Kashyapa stated that fields for pulses, etc., were to be highlands and were considered of second quality. These crops needed less water. 2.16 LAND PREPARATION In Rigveda, farmers are stated to have resorted to repeated ploughings of land before sowing seeds. Clearly the purpose of such ploughings must have been to remove weeds, loosen the soil and pulverize it to the extent required. Excavations made at Kalibangan, Rajasthan (India) revealed a ploughed field (2450–2300 B.C.) that showed a grid of furrows, with North-South furrows 1.9 m apart and East-West furrows 30 cm apart. This pattern probably indicates the practice of mixed cropping. Practice of incorporating sesame as green manure before land preparation has already been mentioned in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Rajasthan (India) revealed a ploughed field (2450–2300 B.C.) that showed a grid of furrows, with North-South furrows 1.9 m apart and East-West furrows 30 cm apart. This pattern probably indicates the practice of mixed cropping. Practice of incorporating sesame as green manure before land preparation has already been mentioned in Varha Mihira’s Brhat Samhita. There is a reference to heavy and light ploughs in Vedic literature. These were probably used for deep or shallow ploughing as required. Sage Parasara had stated that Anila i.e., Swati, Uttarashadha, Uttarabhardrapada, Uttarpahalguni, Rohini, Mrigashirsha (Mriga), Mula, Punarvasu, Pushya, Shravana and Hasta are good stars for ploughing. Plowing on Monday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday results in good growth of crops. The second, third, fifth, seventh, tenth, eleventh, and thirteenth, day of the month are good for ploughing. Ploughing should be commenced on auspicious lagnas, such as Taurus (April 21), Pisces (February 20), Virgo (August 22), Gemini (May 21), Sagittarius (November 23) and Scorpio (October 23). Lagna is the moment of the Sun’s entrance into the respective regions. Furrows should be single or in groups of three to five. Single furrows lead to success, in threes to wealth, and those in five yield plenty of harvest. One plough gold in Hamanta (December-January), silver and copper in Vasanta (April-May) only crops in summer (June-July), but in rainy season (August-September) one can plough only poverty. 2.17 SOIL AS A BASIC RESOURCE FOR SUCCESSFUL CROP PRODUCTION (KASHYAPA) Kashyapa divided the agricultural land into two categories: shalibhu (=land fit for rice cultivation) and adhakadibhu (=land suitable for cultivation of pulses and other grains). A good quality land yields good results to everyone, confers good health on the entire family, and causes growth of money, cattle and grain. Thus the importance of a good soil can never be overemphasized. Kashyapa states",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "rice cultivation) and adhakadibhu (=land suitable for cultivation of pulses and other grains). A good quality land yields good results to everyone, confers good health on the entire family, and causes growth of money, cattle and grain. Thus the importance of a good soil can never be overemphasized. Kashyapa states that it is the responsibility of the king to appoint knowledgeable persons, regardless of their caste affiliation, to scrutinize the suitability of land for growing crops. Kashyapa points out that a good soil should be devoid of bones and stones, should be a plastic clay with reddish and black hue, full of essence (potency), and glossy with water, should not be too deep or shallow, should be conducive to speedy 98 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY seedlings emergence, should be easily absorb moisture and should be inhabited with beneficial living creatures (earthworms) and should have a substantial mass. Kashyapa states that the soil may posses Brahaminic qualities, qualities of Kshatriyas, as also those of Vaisyas and Sudra. Using traits normally associated with these castes, one could conjecture that a soil should be fertile and give stable yields; a soil should give yields by controlling enemies such as pests, a soil should give sometimes, bumper yields, and a soil should give good yield when looked after with close attention respectively. 2.18 THE PLOUGH AND OTHER IMPLEMENTS Parasara provides information on construction details of the plough–a version called the desi plough ‘wooden plough’ as well as reference to a few other implements such as an abadha (disc plough) phalika (leaf shaped iron piece to replace the normal iron blade for deep ploughing), Viddhaka (spike tooth harrow with 21 spikes), and madika (wooden plant for levelling the field were provided. The use of a disc 54 angulas in diameter (approx. 1 m) in place",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "as an abadha (disc plough) phalika (leaf shaped iron piece to replace the normal iron blade for deep ploughing), Viddhaka (spike tooth harrow with 21 spikes), and madika (wooden plant for levelling the field were provided. The use of a disc 54 angulas in diameter (approx. 1 m) in place of ploughshare for using on hard virgin soil is recommended. The dates for ploughing operation are suggested on 20, February; 21, April; 21, May; 22, August; 23, October and 23, November. A calendar for ploughing for taking the crops was only mentioned in Krishi–Parashara. Starting of ploughing Crops 20, February Sugarcane, black gram 21, April Rice (to be transplanted later) 21, May Rice (to be directly seeded) and other warm season crops such as cotton and sesame 23, October Late sown wheat and barley plus mustard 23, November Field vacated by rice for planting sugarcane and fodder crops. Kashyapa has specially indicated that use of strong wood for various purposes (e.g., making a tying post) such as tinduka (Diospyros melanoxylon), tinisha (Ougeinia oojeinensis) or a sarjaka (Vateria indica). Manure should be available and used for increasing the ‘potency’ of the land. Besides plow, spades, lancets, small horns, (for breaking soils crust) knife, sickles, ropes, etc., were mentioned. Ploughing was to begin with the visibility of rain-bearing clouds and plots were to be filled with water for puddling to prepare for planting paddy. Kashyapa refers to worship of plough as well as bullocks. Farm implements Ancient literature of the subcontinent did not miss out on farm implements. Vedas describe a simple bullock drawn wooden plough, both light and heavy with an iron bar attached as a plough share to open the soil. Krishi Parashara (c. 400 B.C.) (Sadhale, 1999) gives details of the design of the plough with Sanskrit names for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "not miss out on farm implements. Vedas describe a simple bullock drawn wooden plough, both light and heavy with an iron bar attached as a plough share to open the soil. Krishi Parashara (c. 400 B.C.) (Sadhale, 1999) gives details of the design of the plough with Sanskrit names for different parts. This basic design has hardly undergone any change over centuries. Even today the resource poor farmers use a similar bullock drawn plough. A bamboo stick of a specific size was used to measure land. Vedic literature and Krishi Parashara also mention disc plough seed drill, blade harrow (Bakhar), wooden spike, root horrow, plankers, axe, hoe, sickle, supa for winnowing, and a vessel to measure grain (udara). Pairs of bullocks used for ploughing in ancient days varied from one to eight. Plough was considered as the most sacred and essential implement in agricultural operations and was known by different names. The more commonly known desi plough was a multipurpose implement. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 99 2.19 SEED COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION Sage Parasara: All sorts of seeds should be procured in Magha (February) or Phalguna (March) and should then be dried well in the sun without putting those directly on the ground. To procure healthy seeds of panicles are located in the field, cut from the standing crop, and collected in a pouch. A mixture of different kinds of seeds causes great loss. Uniform seeds produce excellent results. The origin of plentiful yield is the seed. Kashyapa: A good quality of seed is stated to be the first step towards the success in farming. Seeds of several trees specified for plantation are also to be procured and preserved. Seeds of wheat, pulses, fruits, vegetables and condiments such as turmeric, cumin, black pepper, etc., also need to be preserved for cultivation",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of seed is stated to be the first step towards the success in farming. Seeds of several trees specified for plantation are also to be procured and preserved. Seeds of wheat, pulses, fruits, vegetables and condiments such as turmeric, cumin, black pepper, etc., also need to be preserved for cultivation in the proper season. Kashyapa describes the procedure of preserving the seeds and advises farmers to dry the seeds in the sun, store them in different kinds of vessels, and protect them from stormy rains and moisture as well as from rats, cats, and rabbits. 2.20 CROP DIVERSITY India had a large and wide diversity in cereals, millets, pulses, oil seeds, fibres, vegetables and fruits. The species and varietal diversity provided wide choices for selection according to soil type, climate and management practice. A variety of rice, which was ready for harvest in sixty days, was available in ancient India. Magadha grew another variety with large grains of extraordinary fragrance which was called rice of grandes. Manasollasa referred to eight varieties of rice distinguished by their colour, odor, size and period of growth. India had five wild species of rice from which there had been a regular trend of evolution from perennial to annual habit, from cross pollination to self-pollination and from lesser to greater fecundity. Wheat recovered from Mohen-jo-daro belonged to Triticum vulgare, T. compactum and T. sphaerococum. T. sphaerococum is a wheat of great antiquity (2300 B.C.) and was widely grown in north India. It has high resistance to drought. Barley was cultivated throughout the Harappans period. Aryans were accustomed to barley diet. They adopted wheat and barley in the Indus valley culture and generated new variability required for intensive cultivation. Millets such as sorghum, bajra and ragi were also important. They were primarily grown for grain but",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to drought. Barley was cultivated throughout the Harappans period. Aryans were accustomed to barley diet. They adopted wheat and barley in the Indus valley culture and generated new variability required for intensive cultivation. Millets such as sorghum, bajra and ragi were also important. They were primarily grown for grain but the straw was also regarded valuable as a cattle feed. About 25 species of sorghum were known to have been available. The use of ragi (Eleusine coracana) straw as a cattle feed was noticed in 1800 B.C. Pulses figured predominantly in crop rotations and crop mixtures in the early period. Being legumes they maintained and improved fertility of the soil. Lentil, black gram, green gram and Lathyrus (Khesari) are pulses of antiquity and were noticed in Narmada basin during 1657-1443 B.C. India is the original home of green gram. A wild variety of Vigna sublobata was found in Tarai forests. It was immune to yellow mosaic virus and was used in plant breeding. Black gram was widely accepted as a nutritious pulse crop in the ancient Indian culture since the Vedic period. It was used in socio religious ceremonies and even today its importance has not waned. Similarly lentil also enriched the traditional diet. In oil seeds, sesamum was the most important crop grown by Harappans in the Indus valley. The Brassica group covering brown mustard, yellow mustard and thoria is collectively known as Indian rape. The other important oil seeds comprised linseed and castor. Cotton cultivation was known to Harappans. Wild and weedy types of cotton have been recorded from Gujarat, Kathiawar and Deccan. They are perennial and known as tree cotton. Harappans also knew date palm, pomegranate, lemon, coconut and melon. Babar (before 16th century) mentioned in his memoirs the plants he saw in India. They were mango,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Harappans. Wild and weedy types of cotton have been recorded from Gujarat, Kathiawar and Deccan. They are perennial and known as tree cotton. Harappans also knew date palm, pomegranate, lemon, coconut and melon. Babar (before 16th century) mentioned in his memoirs the plants he saw in India. They were mango, plantain, tamarind, mahuwa, jamun, chironji, khirni, karonda, ber, anola and orange. It is obvious that the earlier people possessed a good knowledge of crops. The strategy for the selection of crops and the adoption of different 100 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY cropping and farming systems was decided on the basis of resources available with the individual and his immediate and long term needs. Through a continuous process of selection and elimination, promising plants or varieties were identified and their multiplication brought about by adopting diligent methods of seed collection, preservation and exchange within the social groups. 2.21 CHOICE OF CROPS AND VARIETIES Kashyapa listed rice and other cereals as the first, pulses and other grains as the second vegetables (including fruits) the third, and creepers and flowers etc., the fourth. Kashyapa considered three main varieties of rice, Shali, Kalama, and Shastika. Shali rice is said to have twenty six varieties depending on the quality of land in different regions. Kalama is slightly thick white, and with a surplus sap. Shastika is tasteless. Vrihi is considered to be oldest name for rice. Shukla vrihi (white rice) mentioned in Krishna Yajurveda (300 B.C.). In the same Veda Krishnanam vrihini (black rice), asunam vrihinam (fast growing, 60 day rice), mahavrihinam (large seeded rice) and naivaram (wild rice) have been mentioned. Atharvaveda, naivaram became nivara and in addition to black rice, red rice, and the 60-day rice were mentioned. A new name for rice appeared in the Atharvaveda; i.e., tandula (for dehusked rice). The",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "vrihinam (fast growing, 60 day rice), mahavrihinam (large seeded rice) and naivaram (wild rice) have been mentioned. Atharvaveda, naivaram became nivara and in addition to black rice, red rice, and the 60-day rice were mentioned. A new name for rice appeared in the Atharvaveda; i.e., tandula (for dehusked rice). The word vrihi for rice was used in Upanishads. Shali was used for those rices, which were planted at the beginning of the rainy season and harvested in winter; these were probably the 6 month varieties. Vrihi, Shali, Nivara, Shastika as well as a new word Kalama appeared in Susruta Samhita (400 B.C.) and Amarkosha of Amarsinha (200 A.D.). 2.22 RICE VARIETIES–OTHER ASPECTS Some of the other highlights under the topic collection and preservation of seed are: (i) it is the king’s government in today’s context (responsibility to ensure seed supply), (ii) seed must be properly dried in sun, (iii) giving a gift of seed is a superior act, (iv) different varieties of rice mature at different times taking 3 to 8 months, (v) farmers should respect traditional knowledge of the region and use it, (vi) Seeds of all kinds of other crops should be likewise collected, dried, and stored in pots, heaps, of husk or bowls and (vii) seeds must be protected from rabbits, rats, cats, and moisture. Taking care of good seeds religiously is conducive to the benefit of farmers (as has been) said by great sages. Basmati Rice: The word ‘basmati’ has its origin in the Sanskrit words ‘vaas’ means fragrance and ‘matup’ means possessing. Thus vaasmati should mean something possessing fragrance in northern India, ‘va’ is often pronounced as ‘ba’ and thus the word ‘basmati’ should have been used for a kind or rice having fragrance of scent. Golden rice: Kashyapa had claimed that Peetvarna vrihi (yellow",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "‘vaas’ means fragrance and ‘matup’ means possessing. Thus vaasmati should mean something possessing fragrance in northern India, ‘va’ is often pronounced as ‘ba’ and thus the word ‘basmati’ should have been used for a kind or rice having fragrance of scent. Golden rice: Kashyapa had claimed that Peetvarna vrihi (yellow rice) improved digestion or a sambaka variety called Hema (golden rice). 2.23 SEQUENCE OF CROPPING In the Yajurveda, distinct references to the rotation of crops are found. Crops were grown in the same field by rotation and the system of fallowing was also known (Rigveda). The Taittiriya Samhita distinctly mentions that in the course of a year, two crops were harvested from the same field. It also mentions different seasons for ripening of different crops and the proper times for harvesting them. In a descriptive passage of the Ramayana sali, godhuma and yava are seen waiting for harvest with the advent of winter. But wheat and barley are winter or rabi crops sown in October and gathered at the end of May. Kautilya gives directions for seasonable cultivation and harvesting. The Arthasastra evinces not only thorough acquaintance with these two harvests but even with a third. A king is instructed to march AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 101 against his enemy in Margasirsa (January) in order to destroy his rainy crops and autumnal handfuls, in Caitra (March) to destroy autumnal crops and vernal handfuls, and in Jyesthamula (June) to kill vernal crops and rainy season handfuls. Thus there were three crops-one sown in rainy season and garnered before Magha, another sown in autumn and garnered before Caitra and a third sown in spring and stored by Jyaistha (cf. Barley “ripened in summer being sown in winter, rice ripened in autumn being sown in the rains, while beans and sesamum ripened in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sown in rainy season and garnered before Magha, another sown in autumn and garnered before Caitra and a third sown in spring and stored by Jyaistha (cf. Barley “ripened in summer being sown in winter, rice ripened in autumn being sown in the rains, while beans and sesamum ripened in winter and the cool season”. Arthasastra catalogues the crops of different seasons. Paddy, kodruva, sesamum, panic, daraka and varaka are sown in the first season (purvavapah), mudga, masa and saivya are sown in the second season (madhyavapah), kusumbha, lentil, kuluttha, barley, wheat, kalaya, linseed and mustard are sown in the last season. The Artha sastra agree with kharif and rabi-crops respectively. The Milinda speaks as well of a third monsoon-(pavllssako) besides the regular rains of the later Summer and early winter. The three monsoons of course did not uniformly visit every part of the country each year; and whether a locality grew one or two or three crops depended on-rainfall, climatic conditions and character of the soil. In many places the food crops as well as edible fruits and vegetables grew spontaneously without tillage. To the Greek observers these phenomena seemed strange. The description of the forest scenery in the Epics (Ramayana; Mahabharata) and the Jatakas frequently go at length over the crops and fruits growing in wild areas without human labour. In Arthasastra, it is stated that raising of a second crop by, the cultivators was sometimes made compulsory as a last resource for taxation. After a careful observation of the meteorological charts, it suggests the quantity of rain required by a specific crop and the cultivator is instructed for the particular crop along the rain forests. Crop rotation in Rigveda: Continuous cropping was a practice, but pulses (legumes) and other crops were also sown. “The cultivators harvesting the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the meteorological charts, it suggests the quantity of rain required by a specific crop and the cultivator is instructed for the particular crop along the rain forests. Crop rotation in Rigveda: Continuous cropping was a practice, but pulses (legumes) and other crops were also sown. “The cultivators harvesting the crops in general, separately and in due order” has been interpreted to be giving an idea of crop-sequence or crop-rotation and line-sowing and avoiding overlapping during harvest. 2.24 SEED AND SOWING Ancient scholars showed awareness of the importance of good seed; i.e., selection of the apparently healthy seed from a ripening crop, preserving it safely in storage, with or without treatments and sowing the good seed again with or without some treatment. About 2000 years ago, Parashara recommended (i) proper drying of seed, (ii) freedom from the seeds of weeds, (iii) visual seed uniformity, (iv) storing seeds in strong bags, and (v) storing seed where white ants would not have access and at a location where seed would not come in contact with substrates that would allow moulds to grow such as cowshed wastes, damp spots, or left over foods. Sage Parasara had stated that Uttrashadha, Uttarashadha, Uttarabhardrapada, Uttarpahalguni, Mula, Jeyshtha, Anuratha, Magha, Rohini, Mrigashirsha (Mriga), Rohini, Hasta, and Revathi are the good nakshatras for sowing. Two days should be avoided for sowing, transplanting; Tuesday, which portends threat from rats and Saturday, which foretells threat from locusts and insects. Sowing should not be done on ‘empty’ days (such as the fourth, ninth, and the fourteenth day of the lunar fortnight of a month) especially if the moon is weak. Seeds of grains should be planted at a distance of hand (approximately 1½ ft =45 cm) when the sun is in Cancer. In Leo the distance should be half of it.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fourth, ninth, and the fourteenth day of the lunar fortnight of a month) especially if the moon is weak. Seeds of grains should be planted at a distance of hand (approximately 1½ ft =45 cm) when the sun is in Cancer. In Leo the distance should be half of it. In Virgo it should be four fingers, (3–4 inches =7.6 –10.2 cm). Butter milk makes the seeds sprout earlier than the normal time. Salt would kill the embryo. Kautilya in Artha Sastra indicated that decision to sow seeds of specific crops should be taken on the basis of known rainfall patterns. He recommended that rice be sown first and mung bean and black gram later. He also suggested some seed treatments. (e.g., cow dung, honey and ghee) to ensure good germination. Manu mentioned that a professional farmer (the Vysya) must be able to determine the quality of seed. The 102 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY most significant recommendation by Manu was severe punishment to a trader selling spurious seed. Kashyapa’s procedure of sowing involves ploughing, levelling, furrowing, or digging pits. The procedure is said to depend on the characteristics of land, availability of water, sunshine, and also on additional wisdom. Varahamihira recommended pelleting of seed with flours of rice, black gram and sesame and fumigating them with turmeric powder to ensure good germination. Surapala listed several botanicals such as seed treatment materials for shrubs and trees. Even today cow dung, suggested by Kautilya in the 4th century B.C., is used for treating cotton and some other seeds by a large number of farmers. Sowing of seed was considered a very important event. Prayers and rituals were associated with the sowing operation. Primitive bamboo drills were used for sowing seed. Adjusting the inter-plant and inter-row spacing was done on the basis of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "treating cotton and some other seeds by a large number of farmers. Sowing of seed was considered a very important event. Prayers and rituals were associated with the sowing operation. Primitive bamboo drills were used for sowing seed. Adjusting the inter-plant and inter-row spacing was done on the basis of sowing time; late sowing meant more seeds per unit urea. A wooden plank was run over sown fields to ensure uniform seed germination. The art of sowing rice in small areas; i.e., in nurseries and transplanting of the seedlings is not a recent practice. It was first perfected in the deltas of Godavari and Krishna rivers in 100 A.D. The general practice of sowing seeds, according to Varahamihira, involved soaking them in milk for ten days, taking out daily with hand, smearing with ghee, rolling many times in cow dung and fumigating with the flesh of deer or hog. Then the seeds were sown in a soil which was already treated with sesamum crushed together with flesh and hog’s marrow. They grew and bloomed when sprinkled with milk and water. Another method was to soak the seeds hundred times in a paste of Ankola (Alangium salvifolium Wang) fruiter in its oil or in a paste or oil of Slesmataka (Cordiarothii Roem and Schult) fruit and sow in a soil mixed with hail. The seeds would sprout instantly and bear fruits. Hard seeds like tamarind sprouted when sprinkled with a mixture of the flour of rice, black gram and sesamum and wheat particles together with stale meat, and fumigated with turmeric powder, repeatedly. For Slesmataka the shell of the seeds was removed, then soaked in water, mixed with the paste of Alangium fruits and dried in the shade seven times, mixed with buffalo dung and stored in the dry dung. The",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "wheat particles together with stale meat, and fumigated with turmeric powder, repeatedly. For Slesmataka the shell of the seeds was removed, then soaked in water, mixed with the paste of Alangium fruits and dried in the shade seven times, mixed with buffalo dung and stored in the dry dung. The seeds were then sown in a soil soaked with rain water. The bearing was good. Seeds were treated in a special manner to get special results. Cotton seed was treated with red lac juice in a special manner to get red tinged cotton. It was also treated with cow dung paste to facilitate sowing and control of seed borne diseases. The seedlings for transplanting at a distant place were smeared from root up to the stem with a mixture of ghee, Usira or Khas (Vetiveria zizanioides), sesamum, honey, Vidanga (Emblica ribes), milk and cow-dung. Sali paddy was grown by transplanting (Kalidas in Raghuvamsha). Incidentally, the technique of transplanting rice was widely practice in Krishna-Godavari deltas in 100 A.D. It was the most important agricultural operation during the Sangam age (A.D. 300–600). Varahamihira has recorded two methods of grafting. They are: (i) inserting the cutting of a plant into the root of another, cut off from its trunk, and (ii) inserting the cutting of a tree into the stem of another. The junction of the two in both the cases was covered with a coating of mud and cow dung. Grafting was advocated for jackfruit, ashoka, plantain, rose apple, lemon, pomegranate, grape, jasmine, etc. Further, he recommended February-March for grafting those plants which have not developed branching; December-January for those which have developed branching and August-September for those which have developed large branches. The grafted trees were to be watered both in the morning and evening every day in summer, on",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "grape, jasmine, etc. Further, he recommended February-March for grafting those plants which have not developed branching; December-January for those which have developed branching and August-September for those which have developed large branches. The grafted trees were to be watered both in the morning and evening every day in summer, on alternate days in the cold season and whenever the soil becomes dry in the rainy season. Kashyapa’s view on rice cultivation: Rice is divided by experts into three main varieties based on their taste and colour; shali, kalama and shastika. The golden rice sambaka vrihi (rice) var hema and peetavarna vrihi (yellow rice), which removes indigestion. Kalama of red colour, kalama of thick form, AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 103 kalama of long form, vrihi (rice) of sambaka variety called hema (golden). Kala vrihi (sweet and nourishing rice), sit vrihi (white rice) and peetavarna vrihi (yellow rice), which removes indigestion. Kashyapa’s procedure of rice cultivation starts with plowing, maintaining standing water, planting of seedlings, weeding, water management, crop protection, harvesting at the proper time, pounding on the threshing floor, cleaning and storing in the house. Kashyapa for the first time has recommended transplanting of rice in ancient literature. 2.25 WEEDS AND WEEDING The role of weeds in reducing crop yields was well understood by our ancestors. Parashara pointed out the need to weed rice fields; as many as four weedings were suggested. Weeding as an essential practice in raising crops is stated in the Sangam literature. Parashara recommends collection of crop seeds free of weed seeds. 2.26 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT Kashyapa emphasized that the Brahmins proficient in Vedas should sprinkle the fivefold cow-products (milk, curd, ghee [clarified butter], urine, and dung) or may be simply sprinkle with clean water over the land (for the purpose of purifying the atmosphere) either in the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "seeds free of weed seeds. 2.26 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT Kashyapa emphasized that the Brahmins proficient in Vedas should sprinkle the fivefold cow-products (milk, curd, ghee [clarified butter], urine, and dung) or may be simply sprinkle with clean water over the land (for the purpose of purifying the atmosphere) either in the morning or in the evening. This is known as ‘Panchakowia’. 2.27 WATER MANAGEMENT Sage Parasara: Construction of bunds to retain water in plots is recommended to rice. Bunding has not been recommended in low-level fields since there would be adequate moisture. Direct seeding of rice has been recommended for low-lying areas. Avoid flooding of rice once the panicles have come out, however the soil must remain moist. Kashyapa was supportive of irrigated crop production: Kashyapa focused his attention on irrigated agriculture. Construction of wells and device for lifting water had been described. Kashyapa has given details about where how water reservoirs should be constructed. He stressed construction of a reservoir near farmers’ fields, ensuring source of water for the reservoir, making strong causeways and thus taking steps to avoid flooding of inhabited areas, and regularly inspecting and repairing the reservoirs, especially during the rainy season. The last one is good reminder to present day, lazy, and indifferent staff of the government irrigation departments. Each farmer should have access to two reservoirs. Kashyapa’s recommendations on buildings and maintenance of reservoirs are technically sound. Kashyapa recommended planting of trees around water reservoirs obviously to protect and beautify them. He suggested picnic spots around reservoirs, a feature that is considered ‘modern’ in the 21st century. Construction of canals has been indicated in verses 111 through 143 of section I. Kashyapa has mentioned four sources of canal. (i) river, (ii) tank, which could have been filled by a river, (iii) large lake, and (iv)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "around reservoirs, a feature that is considered ‘modern’ in the 21st century. Construction of canals has been indicated in verses 111 through 143 of section I. Kashyapa has mentioned four sources of canal. (i) river, (ii) tank, which could have been filled by a river, (iii) large lake, and (iv) canals collecting water from mountain cascades. Kashyapa has stressed provision of a proper gradient for the canals and a network of these canals surrounding villages. He emphasized selection of soil with right structure and profile for making canals and avoiding saline soils. Protection of the canal system, like the protection of reservoirs was also stressed. Kashyapa recommended construction of wells, especially in areas where canal water was not available. Best time for digging wells was the post rainy season. He suggested study of indicators for the presence of sub soil water such as existence of trees and course, water 104 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY divining. He stressed laying strong foundation with bricks and building walls with bricks and mortar. Even provision of steps to enter a well was recommended. Kasyapa has mentioned the use of ghatiyantra (the socalled Persian wheel) with the help of bullocks, elephants, and humans. Harvesting of rain was stressed. A verse that says everything about water for farming is “it may be a canal, a well, a pool, or a lake, but find they must and acquire a guaranteed source of water.” 2.28 NEW CROPS AND OTHER PLANTS Portuguese introduced new crops and fruit plants during the sixteenth century and enriched the agriculture of India. They were the greatest benefactors of India. Babar introduced the scented Persian rose. Similarly the botanical garden of Calcutta has performed a very useful function by introducing many important new plants. Following are some of the crops and plants which were",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the sixteenth century and enriched the agriculture of India. They were the greatest benefactors of India. Babar introduced the scented Persian rose. Similarly the botanical garden of Calcutta has performed a very useful function by introducing many important new plants. Following are some of the crops and plants which were introduced by Portuguese from Brazil, Chile, Peru and Mexico. These crops and trees now form important components of the common cropping systems followed in the country. (a) Crops • Groundnut (Peanut) main source of edible oil in India. A native of Brazil. • Tobacco introduced by Portuguese during the reign of Emperor Akbar. • Potato widely accepted and grown in India as a favourite vegetable. It is a native of Chille and Peru. • Amaranth the colourful crop is grown along the whole length of Himalayas. It is a native of Brazil. • Chillies the ornament of Indian garden and soul of pickles. It is a native of Brazil and Peru. • Agave a century plant and has become acclimatized throughout India. • Allamanda (Allamanda cathartica L. Mant) a climber with beautiful flowers. It is a native of Brazil and South America. (b) Fruits • Cashew nut widely grown in India and a native of Brazil. • Guava common fruit crop of India. It grows wild in Brazil. • Custard apple widely grown as a forest crop. Introduced by Portuguese. • Sapota a gift from Portuguese. Delicious fruit and native of Mexico. • Pineapple extensively grown in eastern parts of India. It is indigenous to Brazil. Indian people evinced keen interest in the introduced crops and gave a fair trial under close observation. This resulted in the spread of the selected crops throughout India. 2.29 GROWTH PROMOTERS In respect of diseases, Varahamihira says the tree catches disease from cold weather,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "India. It is indigenous to Brazil. Indian people evinced keen interest in the introduced crops and gave a fair trial under close observation. This resulted in the spread of the selected crops throughout India. 2.29 GROWTH PROMOTERS In respect of diseases, Varahamihira says the tree catches disease from cold weather, strong winds and hot sun. In such cases a paste made of vidanga, ghee and silt must be applied to the affected parts. Water and milk should be sprinkled on such trees. When there is a premature fruit drop, the tree should be watered with milk that has been cooled after being boiled with horse gram, black gram, green gram, sesamum and barley. After this treatment, the trees will produce abundant flowers and fruits. A mixture of powdered dung of goats and sheep, sesamum powder, wheat articles, beef and water, kept for seven nights should be sprinkled for increasing flowers and fruits of trees, creepers and shrubs. In the Sangam age, the dung of cow and sheep and green leaves were used to increase the yield of crops. Krishi AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 105 Parashara has prescribed the method of preparing manure from cattle dung and dry leaves. Sesamum, cow dung, barley powder, fish and water when mixed in fixed proportions formed an effective manure. According to Varahamihira, sesamum is sown and ploughed back when it blooms in order to mix it with the soil. Cow dung, dung of buffaloes, goats and sheep, clarified butter, sesamum, honey, horse gram, black gram, green gram, barley, roots of certain plants, ashes, stale meat, beef and marrow of hog were used as manure. The Indus valley produced surplus food. All important cities had large storage facilities for stocking grains. The rulers at that time had the wisdom of maintaining buffer stocks. One of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "gram, green gram, barley, roots of certain plants, ashes, stale meat, beef and marrow of hog were used as manure. The Indus valley produced surplus food. All important cities had large storage facilities for stocking grains. The rulers at that time had the wisdom of maintaining buffer stocks. One of the granaries stored enough barley to provide wages for 400 days. Another granary had the capacity to pay in kind for 10,930 man days. Trade was by barter and payment to labourer was in kind. The artisans, carpenters and others received their wages in kind from the farmers. Agriculture without supervision was considered fruitless. The owner of the field was to look after the field himself. If he failed to supervise the agricultural operations, the belief was that the Goddess of prosperity would desert him and in her place adversity would enter his field. According to Arthashastra, if any farmer was found negligent in his duties of carrying on the agricultural operations in time, the King had the right to snatch away the land from him and hand it over to another man of the village. The foremost duty of the King was to protect agriculture and render assistance to the farmers. These directions show that the concept of management was known and practiced by everybody including the King. 2.30 HARVESTING AND MEASURING YIELDS Sage Parasara: Aardra, Kritika, Chitra, Pushya, Hasta, Swati, Uttarashadha, Uttarabhadrapada, Uttaraphalguni, Mula, and Shravana are the nakshatras recommended for the token harvest. Harvest should not be done on ‘empty’ days. The fourth, ninth, and the fourteenth days of the lunar fortnight are Rikta or empty days. Grains should be measured from left to right and not the other way. Adhaka is a wooden vessel used to measure gains roughly equivalent to 7 lb and 12 oz",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "done on ‘empty’ days. The fourth, ninth, and the fourteenth days of the lunar fortnight are Rikta or empty days. Grains should be measured from left to right and not the other way. Adhaka is a wooden vessel used to measure gains roughly equivalent to 7 lb and 12 oz (about 3.5 kg). It is equal to one fourth drona. Measuring the grains from the right leads to expenditure whereas from the left leads to happiness and enhancement of yield. Measurement of crop produce (Kashyapa): He should also make arrangements of prastha, kunja, drona, and small nadika for (proper) measurement of grains of cereals and adhaka (pigeonpea) etc., and other commodities. The first three are the measures of capacity, prastha = ¼ adhaka; drona = 4 adhakas, kunja–should have been kunchi = 1/32 adhaka, where one adhaka = 256 fistfuls = 32 kunchis, i.e., 32 handfuls, nadika is a measure of length = 2 hastas, where one hasta is the distance between the elbow and the tip of the middle finger and is approximately equal to 18 inches. Pala (a weight of gold = 4 karshas = 64 mashas = 640 grain of masha (black gram). 2.31 STORAGE OF GRAINS Sage Parasara: The auspicious Meena (Pisces) lagna (February) is the best for storing grains. Hasta, Sharavana, Dhanishtha, Shatabhishita, Pushya, Bharani, Uttarashadha, Uttarabharapada, Uttaraphalguni, Mula, and Magha are the auspicious nakshatras for storing grains. Monday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday should of course be avoided. 2.32 FARMING SYSTEMS The importance attached to food quantity in Anna Sukta shows that arable farming was given equal importance as stock farming. The praise of land, bullocks, seeds and peasants in various hymns clearly 106 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY indicates importance attached to arable farming, crop husbandry with different types of field grasses for food and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "food quantity in Anna Sukta shows that arable farming was given equal importance as stock farming. The praise of land, bullocks, seeds and peasants in various hymns clearly 106 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY indicates importance attached to arable farming, crop husbandry with different types of field grasses for food and fodder being considered for the dual purpose of man and animal. The traditional land use and occupational structures in Indian agriculture have invariably been site-specific based on available resources and sound ecology. In India for example people of Rajasthan developed nomadic and animals care based occupation because the land fragile and could not be used intensively. The people of Mizoram and Nagaland developed shifting cultivation as their system of survival because they had to live on slopes and this was the best way to sustain their soil fertility and productivity and conserve and use the bio-resources in sustainable manner. This highly organized agro-ecosystem called Jhum is based on empirical knowledge accumulated over centuries. It functions in harmony with environment and provides enough time for recovered of forest and soil fertility that is lost during cropping phase. It involves slashing of vegetation burning it before the on set of monsoon raising mixture of crops on temporarily enriched soil for a year or two leaving it fallow for a few needs fresh system like Zabo system a combination of forestry soil and water conservation, Alder system for soil health and Panikheti system of wet rice cultivation with judicious use of water have been developed. Shifting agriculture practiced in India has mixed cropping as a standard feature. It was once conceded primitive by scientists, however now it is being suggested as a means to increase world food production. During the cropping phase the farmers raise 8–35 crops species on a small plot of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "been developed. Shifting agriculture practiced in India has mixed cropping as a standard feature. It was once conceded primitive by scientists, however now it is being suggested as a means to increase world food production. During the cropping phase the farmers raise 8–35 crops species on a small plot of 2 to 2.5 ha with simultaneous sowing and sequential harvesting the crop mixture provides crop cover against loss of nutrients, optimisms resources facilitates recycling of biomass and nutrients and improves soil characteristics. Zabo farming system is practiced in Nagaland. ‘Zabo’ means impounding of water. The system is a combination of agriculture, forestry, livestock, fishery and soil and water conservation. The Zabo system comprises protected forest land on the top of the hill, well planned rainwater harvesting tank on the top of the hill and indigenous methods of nutrient management in hill region, cattle yard and terraced rice fields towards foothills. The Soils of the area are salty clay loam in texture with grayish brown colors and there are no means of irrigation. Animal manure is the major source of crop nutrition. The silt deposited in the tanks is dug out during off-season and added to the fields. This silt is very rich in nutrients as it contains lot of forest litter. Farmers also add leaves and succulent branches to the fields and leave for decomposition. This helps in building up soil fertility and maintenance of soil health. This indigenous farming system is good example of integrated use of land, water and nutrient. Shifting cultivation, which otherwise causes soil and nutrients loss, the Zabo method of cultivation is ecofriendly, takes care of natural resources and soil erosion is negligible. Shifting agriculture practiced in India, which has mixed cropping as a standard feature. It was once conceded primitive by scientists, however now",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and nutrient. Shifting cultivation, which otherwise causes soil and nutrients loss, the Zabo method of cultivation is ecofriendly, takes care of natural resources and soil erosion is negligible. Shifting agriculture practiced in India, which has mixed cropping as a standard feature. It was once conceded primitive by scientists, however now it is being suggested as a means to increase world food production. During the cropping phase the farmers raise 8–35 crops species on a small plot of 2 to 2.5 ha with simultaneous sowing and sequential harvesting the crop mixture provides crop cover against loss of nutrients, optimisms resources facilitates recycling of biomass and nutrients and improves soil characteristics. The people of Mizoram and Nagaland developed shifting cultivation as their system of survival because they had to live on slopes and this was the best way to sustain their soil fertility and productivity and conserve and use the bio-resources in sustainable manner. This highly organized agroecosystem called Jhum cultivation is based on empirical knowledge accumulated over centuries. It functions in harmony with environment and provides enough time for recovered of forest and soil fertility that is lost during cropping phase. It involves slashing of vegetation burning it before the on set of monsoon raising mixture of crops on temporarily enriched soil for a year or two leaving it fallow for a few needs fresh system like Zabo system a combination of forestry soil and water conservation. Farms yield gold if properly managed but lead to poverty if neglected. Only the capable (people are) to undertake farming for the welfare of people. An incapable farmer lands himself in poverty. An AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 107 agriculturalist who looks after the welfare of his cattle, visits his farms, daily has the knowledge of the seasons, is careful about the seeds, and is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "capable (people are) to undertake farming for the welfare of people. An incapable farmer lands himself in poverty. An AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 107 agriculturalist who looks after the welfare of his cattle, visits his farms, daily has the knowledge of the seasons, is careful about the seeds, and is industrious is rewarded with the harvest of all kinds and never perishes. Farms should be never left to the care of anyone other than oneself. Kashyapa has recommended cooperative farming too for the first time. He also advises the farmers to take up second cultivation every year. This is said to be particularly beneficial on a fertile land with sufficient water supply throughout the year. 2.33 SOIL CLASSIFICATION Physically, India may be divided more or less into three main regions viz., (1) the mountainous borders of Himalayas in the north and of the Vindhyas in the south with the linings of Ghats in the south-eastern and south-western coasts and the traverse range or Aravalli hills; (2) the Deccan plateau or table land; and (3) the plains or low-lands, a rich Indo-Gangetic alluvium over flown by the rivers–the Ganges, Jamuna and Brahmaputra. Although primordial mountains remained inaccessible for human settlement, the foothills have been increasingly brought under cultivation and settlement and the upland valleys striking the Himalayas include some or the most fertile of Indian lowland formations. The whole IndoGangetic alluvium consists of rich fertile soil and has contributed materially to the growth of civilization. (i) The Himalayas The Himalayas (Sanskrit: hima, ‘snow’ and alaya, ‘abode’), the loftiest mountain system in the world, form the northern limit of India. This great, geologically young mountain arc is about 1,550 miles (2,500 km) long, stretching from the peak of Nanga Parbat in Pakistan-held Jammu and Kashmir to the Namcha Barwa peak in the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "hima, ‘snow’ and alaya, ‘abode’), the loftiest mountain system in the world, form the northern limit of India. This great, geologically young mountain arc is about 1,550 miles (2,500 km) long, stretching from the peak of Nanga Parbat in Pakistan-held Jammu and Kashmir to the Namcha Barwa peak in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. Between these extremes the mountains fall across India, southern Tibet, Nepal, and Bhutan. The width of the system varies between 125 and 250 miles. (ii) The Indo-Gangetic Plain The second great structural component of India, the Indo-Gangetic Plain (also called the North Indian Plain), lies between the Himalayas and the Deccan. The plain occupies the Himalayan fore deep, formerly a seabed but now filled with river-borne alluvium to depths of up to 6,000 feet. The plain stretches from the Pakistani provinces of Sind and Punjab in the west, where it is watered by the Indus and its tributaries, eastward to the Brahmaputra valley in Assam. The Ganges basin (mainly in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar) forms the central and principal part of this plain. The eastern part is made up of the combined delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, which, though mainly in Bangladesh, also occupies a part of the adjacent Indian state of West Bengal. This deltaic area is characterized by annual flooding attributed to intense monsoon rainfall, an exceedingly gentle gradient, and an enormous discharge that the alluvium-choked rivers cannot contain within their channels. The Indus River basin, extending west from Delhi, forms the western part of the plain; the Indian portion is mainly in the states of Haryana and Punjab. The Great Indian, or Thar, Desert, forms an important southern extension of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It is mostly in India but also extends into Pakistan and is mainly an area of gently",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the western part of the plain; the Indian portion is mainly in the states of Haryana and Punjab. The Great Indian, or Thar, Desert, forms an important southern extension of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It is mostly in India but also extends into Pakistan and is mainly an area of gently undulating terrain, and within it are several areas dominated by shifting sand dunes and numerous isolated hills. (iii) The Deccan Plateau The remainder of India is designated, not altogether accurately, as either the Deccan Plateau or peninsular India. It is actually a topographically variegated region that extends well beyond the peninsula—that portion of the country lying between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal—and includes a substantial area to the north of the Vindhya range, which has popularly been regarded as the divide between Hindustan (northern India) and the Deccan (Sanskrit: daksina, “south”). 108 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Agriculturists in ancient India were quite conscious of the nature of soil and its relation to the production of a specific crop of economic importance. The vast knowledge acquired by experience has been handed over from generation to generation. 2.34 SOIL TYPES OF INDIA The investigations of Voelcker in 1893, and those of Leather in 1898, led to a classification if India soils into four major types and three minor types: (i) the Indo-Gangetic alluvium; (ii) the black cotton soils; (iii) the red soils lying on metamorphic rocks; and (iv) the lateritic soils. (i) Indo-Gengetic alluvium The Indo-Gangetic alluvium is by far the largest and most important of the soil groups of India. The soils of this group cover about 777,000 square kilometers. They are distributed mainly the Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal and parts of Assam and Orissa. They produce bumber crops of wheat and rice. Geologically the alluvium",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "far the largest and most important of the soil groups of India. The soils of this group cover about 777,000 square kilometers. They are distributed mainly the Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal and parts of Assam and Orissa. They produce bumber crops of wheat and rice. Geologically the alluvium is divided into: (i) Khadar, or new alluvium of sandy composition, generally light in colour, about 10,000 years old, and (ii) Bhangar, or the older alluvium of Pleistocene elate, of more clayey composition, generally of dark colour, and fun of pebbles or kankar. The soils differ in consistency from drift sand to loams, and from fine silts to stilts clays. A few pebble beds are also occasionally met with. The presence of impervious clays obstructs the drainage, and also promotes the accumulation of injurious salts of sodium arid magnesium, which make the soils sterile. The formation of hard pans at certain levels in the soil profile as a result of the binding of soil grains by the infiltrating silica or calcareous matter is often observed in these alluvial soils. A majority of the soils are loams or sandy loams, with a soil crust of varying depth. Soluble salts are present in considerable quantities. The alluvial soils of Tamil Nadu are transported soils, found mainly in the deltaic areas and on the coastal line, A section of the profile shows alternate layers of sand and silt. The composition of the strata varies with the nature of the silt brought by the rivers which, in turn, varies with the catchment areas and the tracts through which the streams flow. (ii) Black cotton soils The typical soil of the Deccan Trap is the regur or black cotton soil. It is common in Maharashtra, in the western parts of Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and ‘some",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "rivers which, in turn, varies with the catchment areas and the tracts through which the streams flow. (ii) Black cotton soils The typical soil of the Deccan Trap is the regur or black cotton soil. It is common in Maharashtra, in the western parts of Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and ‘some parts of Tamil Nadu, including the districts of Ramnad and Tirunelvely in the extreme south. It is comparable with the chernozems of Russia and with the prairie soil of the cotton-growing tracts of the United States of America, especially the black adobe of California. It is derived from two types of rocks: the Deccan and Rajmahal Trap, and the ferruginous gneisses and schists occurring in Tamil Nadu under semi-arid conditions. The former attains sometimes considerable depths, whereas the latter are generally shallow. The black soil areas have, generally, a high degree of fertility, though some mainly in the uplands are of low productivity. The soils on the slopes and the uplands are somewhat sandy, but those in the broken country between the hills and the plains are darker, deeper and richer, and are constantly enriched by deposits washed down from the hills. (iii) Red soils Red soils extend practically over the whole Archaean basement of Peninsular India, from Bundelkhand to the extreme south, covering 2,072,000 square km, embracing south Bengal, Orissa, parts of Madhya Pradesh eastern Andhra Pradesh Karnataka, and a major part of Tamil Nadu. These soils also occur in Santhal Parganas in Bihar, and in the Mirzapur, Jhansi and Hamirpur districts of Uttar Pradesh. They were produced as a result to meteoric weathering of AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 109 ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks. These soils started developing around the Mesozoic and Tertiary ages. The colour if these soils is generally red, grading sometimes into brown chocolate, yellow;",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Hamirpur districts of Uttar Pradesh. They were produced as a result to meteoric weathering of AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 109 ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks. These soils started developing around the Mesozoic and Tertiary ages. The colour if these soils is generally red, grading sometimes into brown chocolate, yellow; grey and even black. The redness is due more to a general diffusion than to a high proportion of iron content. The soils grade from the poor thin gravelly and light coloured varieties of the uplands to the much more fertile deep dark varieties of the plains and the valleys. They are generally; poor in nitrogen phosphorus and humus. Compared with regur, they are poor in lime, potash and iron oxide, and are also uniformly low in phosphorus. The clay fraction of the soils is rich in kaolinite. More than two-thirds of the cultivated area in Tamil Nadu is covered by red soils they are in-situ formations produced from the rock below under the influence of climatic conditions. The rocks are acidic, consisting of mica or red granites. The soils are shallow and open in texture. They have a low exchange capacity and are deficient in organic matter and plant nutrients. (iv) Laterites Laterite is a soil type peculiar to India and some other tropical countries, characterized by the intermittent occurrence of moist climate. In formation it varies from compact to vesicular rock composed essentially of a mixture of hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron with small quantities of manganese oxides, titanium, etc. It is produced by the atmospheric weathering of several types of rocks. Laterites occur in Madhya Pradesh, the coastal region of Orissa, south Maharashtra, Malabar and part of Assam. All lateritic soils are generally very poor in lime and magnesia and deficient in nitrogen. Occasionally, the P2O5",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "oxides, titanium, etc. It is produced by the atmospheric weathering of several types of rocks. Laterites occur in Madhya Pradesh, the coastal region of Orissa, south Maharashtra, Malabar and part of Assam. All lateritic soils are generally very poor in lime and magnesia and deficient in nitrogen. Occasionally, the P2O5 content may be high, but there is deficient of K2O. In Tamil Nadu, there are both high-level and low-level laterites which are formed from a variety of rock materials under certain climatic and weather conditions. The laterites at lower elevations grow rice whereas those at higher elevations grow tea, cinchona, rubber and coffee. The soils are rich in nutrients and contain 10 to 20 per cent organic matter. (v) Forest and hill soils The soil formation is governed mainly by the character of the deposition of organic matter derived from the forest growth. Broadly, two conditions of soil formation may be distinguished: (i) soils formed under acid condition, with acid humus and low base status, and (ii) soils formed under slightly acid or neutral condition with high base status, which is favourable to the formation of brown earths. Forest and Hill soils occur in Assam and in Uttar Pradesh, the Sub Himalayan tract comprises three distinct parts viz., bhabar area immediately below the hills, tarai and the plains. The tarai areas are characterized by extreme unhealthiness owing to excessive soil moisture and prolific growth of vegetation. The soils in Coorg has deep surface soil of great fertility, as it receives annually the decomposed products of the virgin forest. The areas towards the west are for the greater part reserved under forests and mountain areas. The land surface is full of pebbles, is easily drained, and has a laterite bed. (vi) Desert soils A large part of the arid region of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "annually the decomposed products of the virgin forest. The areas towards the west are for the greater part reserved under forests and mountain areas. The land surface is full of pebbles, is easily drained, and has a laterite bed. (vi) Desert soils A large part of the arid region of Rajasthan and the Punjab and Haryana, lying between the Sutlej and the Aravallis, is affected by desert conditions, which geologically are of recent origin. This part is covered under a mantle of blown sand, and is dominated by conditions, which inhibit soil growth. Some of the soils contain a high percentage of soluble salts and varying percentages of calcium carbonate, and possess high pH. They are, however, poor in organic matter. Reclamation is possible only if proper irrigation facilities are made available. (vii) Saline and alkaline soils These soils are extensively distributed throughout India in all the climatic zones. These soils occur in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. The injurious salts are confined to the top layers, being deposited there by the capillary transference of saline solutions from the lower strata. It has been estimated that nearly 850,000 hectares in Uttar Pradesh and over 200,000 hectares in the Punjab and Haryana have been affected by usar. 110 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Over 10,000 hectares are being affected every year in the Punjab and Haryana. Alkali soils are met with all over Maharashtra. 2.35 MAINTENANCE OF SOIL PRODUCTIVITY A. Manures Importance of manures in obtaining high crops yields was fully appreciated in ancient India. In KrishiParashara, it is stated that crops grown without manure will not give yield and a method of preparing manure from cow dung is described. Kautilya mentioned use of cow dung, animal bones, fishes, and milk as manure. Agnipurana recommends application of the excreta of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fully appreciated in ancient India. In KrishiParashara, it is stated that crops grown without manure will not give yield and a method of preparing manure from cow dung is described. Kautilya mentioned use of cow dung, animal bones, fishes, and milk as manure. Agnipurana recommends application of the excreta of sheep and goat and pulverized barely and sesame allowed to be soaked in meat and water for seven nights to increase flowering and fruiting of trees. In Varahamihira’s Brhat Samhita growing of sesame to flowering stage and then incorporating it as green manure is recommended. The Abhilasitarthacintamani mentions a few such fertilizers—(1) The soil underneath a tree struck by lightning is good for warding off trouble for trees from snowfall. (2) Fumigation of trees by burning turmeric, Vidanga, white mustard, flowers of the Arjuna tree, mixed with fish and the flesh Rohita (a kind of deer) will not only help the growth of flowers and fruits but will destroy all worms and insects as well as diseases. Surapala (c. 1000 A.D.) describes the ‘ancient’ practice of preparing liquid manure (kunapa) prepared by boiling a mixture of animal excreta, bone marrow, flesh, and dead fish in an iron pot and then adding to it sesame oil cake, honey, soaked black gram, and a little ghee (or clarified butter). No fixed quantities of materials were required to prepare ‘kunapa’. This liquid manure was mainly used in raising trees and shrubs. Traditional agriculture practiced in the Himalayas regions of the sub continent involves use of green leaf manure as the main fertilizer for the rice crop. Surapala and Sarangadhara recommended the use of kunapa for properly nourishing trees. The preparation of kunapa is described by Sarangadhara as follows: “One should boil the flesh, fat and marrow of deer, pig, fish, sheep, goat, and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "use of green leaf manure as the main fertilizer for the rice crop. Surapala and Sarangadhara recommended the use of kunapa for properly nourishing trees. The preparation of kunapa is described by Sarangadhara as follows: “One should boil the flesh, fat and marrow of deer, pig, fish, sheep, goat, and rhinoceros in water and when it is properly boiled one should put the mixture in an earthen pot and add into the compound milk, powders of sesame oil cake, masa (black gram) boiled in honey, the decoction of pulses, ghee, and hot water. There is no fixity as to the amount of any of these elements; when the said pot is put in a warm place for about a fortnight, the compound becomes what is called kunapa water which is very nutritious for plants in general”. Prior to Sarangadhara, Surapala had referred to kunapa and ingredients included excreta, bone marrow, flesh, brain, and blood of boar mixed with water and stored underground. Surapala also referred to “available” materials and these could be animal fat, marrow, and the flesh of fish, ram, goat, and other homed animals. Other materials were more or less the same as mentioned by Sarangadhara, except that quantities of ghee and honey indicated were small. It should not be difficult to standardize and prepare kunapa water concentrates on mass scale and make these available in jars to users. Here is an opportunity for an enterprise to help farmers, especially the orchardists. Firminger (1864) who was a “Chaplain of the Bengal Establishment” mentions beneficial use of “liquid manure”, prepared the way Kunapa was prepared, for vegetable cultivation. He has given no information about who first thought of liquid manure”. B. Green Leaf Manures Farmers relied extensively on crop residues legumes and neem for enriching the soil fertility. Ancient",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the Bengal Establishment” mentions beneficial use of “liquid manure”, prepared the way Kunapa was prepared, for vegetable cultivation. He has given no information about who first thought of liquid manure”. B. Green Leaf Manures Farmers relied extensively on crop residues legumes and neem for enriching the soil fertility. Ancient Tamil texts, widely quoted the use of Calotropis gigantea, Morinda tinctoria, Thespesia populnea, Jatropha gossypifoila and Adathoda sp., to be used as green leaf manure. Crop rotation and intercropping were practiced to restore soil fertility. Fauna such as ants, earthworms and frogs were used to improve AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 111 soil physical properties. Composting practices have also been documented in ancient literature on ideal farming practices. The farmers of Tamil Nadu manure the soil with farmyard manure (FYM), oil cakes, compost and green manures or green leaf manures is an age-old practice. C. Recycling Recycling of nutrients through pond excavation was achieved through tank silt or pond excavation in the foothill zones. The sediments from ponds coming from open spaces, field, etc., during the monsoon. The sewage slurry and dissolved minerals and nutrients in water coming from animal sheds and household washings are also diverted to the common village pond. All the flocculated clay and organic materials usually settle quickly to give clear water of the pond. Animals used to drink water from this pond. As soon as the ponds dry up in summer season, the farmers dig the pond base by lifting the soil and transport it to the fields. The surface layer of pond base usually removed is about 30 cm depth. This is a rich source of plant nutrients. The application of pond sludge to each field is done once in a span of 10–15 years. Tank silt increases clay content in light textured red soils,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the fields. The surface layer of pond base usually removed is about 30 cm depth. This is a rich source of plant nutrients. The application of pond sludge to each field is done once in a span of 10–15 years. Tank silt increases clay content in light textured red soils, which helps to increase soil moisture content and finally the crop yield. In Coimbatore and Trichy districts, farmers apply tank silt to crops like banana, turmeric and jasmine where as in Ramanathapuram farmers apply it to rice @ 25 t/ha. The excavation of pond basin and its application to field was abandoned with the introduction of chemical fertilizers. Farmers excavate ‘murrum’ a uppermost weathered basalt rock and apply to the fields. D. Compost The compost becomes ready to use in five to six months. This partially decomposed farmyard manure after spreading evenly in the field is worked into the soil by ploughing followed by planking. Crop straw Grain to straw ratio Rice 1:1:5 Pearl millet 1:2:0 Maize 1:1:5 Cotton 1:6:0 Wheat 1:1:5 Barley 1:1:5 Mustard 1:2:0 Pulses 1:1:0 Sugarcane 1:0:2 E. Penning Penning of sheep, goat, cattle and pig in the fallow fields is common. One or two fields by rotation are kept fallow to receive the animal dung and urine during summer as well as winter months. Large herds of sheep, goat and cattle are kept in the fallow fields. The farmers used to feel obliged and usually come with a request to cattle herd owners for the night stays at their farm land. The litters of sheep get well mixed with soil during the period of penning. Light cultivation before the onset of monsoon makes it more effective. Sheep feed on the existing farm residue and drops litter in the same field during resting period. The excreta of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "stays at their farm land. The litters of sheep get well mixed with soil during the period of penning. Light cultivation before the onset of monsoon makes it more effective. Sheep feed on the existing farm residue and drops litter in the same field during resting period. The excreta of sheep is acidic in reaction. On each piece of land, penning is continued for 2 to 4 days depending on the size of the flocks to gather or accumulate sufficient manure to improve the fertility status of the soil. 112 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY F. Rishi–Krishi Method of Vermiculture The Amrit pani consists of 250 g ghee from cow milk + 500 g honey + 200 litre water + 10 kg cow dung. Firstly, ghee is mixed with cow dung thoroughly followed by honey and then water is added to it. Farmers collect 25 kg soil from the base of banian tree which is sufficient for sprinkling well-prepared Amrit pani on an acre uniformly. Normal earthworm count in an acre gets double (87120) due to enhanced energy and congenial soil environment. If the weight of one worm is 20 g which eats about the same quantity of soil, in 100 days, one worm can excrete 1kg excreta. Then 87 thousand worms will excretes 87 t of excreta rich in mineral nutrients, organic carbon, microbial population, organic acids, growth hormones and growth promoting substances. G. Dead Animals Dead animals (pet or domestic) were buried under the fruit trees such as mango tree. The dead animal contains large amount of biomass, mineral matter in the form of structure and bones specifically nitrogen in protein, phosphorus in bones etc. H. Crop Rotation Crop rotation helps in efficient use of nutrients. Farmers usually change crop rotation in every three or four years to have",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "tree. The dead animal contains large amount of biomass, mineral matter in the form of structure and bones specifically nitrogen in protein, phosphorus in bones etc. H. Crop Rotation Crop rotation helps in efficient use of nutrients. Farmers usually change crop rotation in every three or four years to have a better growth and performance of the cropping system. Stubble mulching is common in the high rainfall areas. Mulching raised the organic matter and nutritional status of soil. 2.36 WATER MANAGEMENT Rain is essential for cultivation and the latter is essential for life, so one should first acquire carefully the knowledge about rainfall. Over a large part of the country rain has always been unequally and irregularly distributed and that is why Indian cultivators have sought to supplement the rainfall by digging wells and conserve it by tanks and storage reservoirs. A. Ancient Irrigation Archaeological investigations in Inamagaon in Maharastra, India (1300 B.C.), revealed a large mud embankment on a stone foundation for diverting floodwater from the Ghod river through a channel. Rigveda mentions irrigation of crops by river water through channels as well as irrigation from wells. In the Rigveda, the word “well” frequently occurs (videante) and is described as “unfailing and full of water”. Water was raised from the well by means of a wheel, a strap and water pails, and also perhaps by buckets tied by rope to one end of a long wooden pole, working about a fulcrum near the other end that carried a heavy weight. The same old crude method is still prevalent in some parts of Northern India. Another method largely employed is to raise water by a small canoe tied by four strings-two at each side and worked between two men standing on a wooden platform projecting over a shallow reservoir. The",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "weight. The same old crude method is still prevalent in some parts of Northern India. Another method largely employed is to raise water by a small canoe tied by four strings-two at each side and worked between two men standing on a wooden platform projecting over a shallow reservoir. The canoe is swung to and fro, and at each end of the swing, water rises and pours out into the main channel. Macdonell and Keith find clear references to artificial water channels used for irrigation as practiced in the times of the Rigveda and Atharvaveda. B. References in Epics, Arthasastra, Law-books and Jatakas Narada enunciates, “No grain is ever produced without water, but too much water tends to spoil the grain”. An inundation is injurious to crops and drainage has to be provided. Definite sources from which water can he had on earth are the canals, wells, lakes, reservoirs, etc. During the season of clouds rainfall is certain either accidentally or through the will power of the sages. The rain water ‘poured AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 113 down by clouds in rainy season should be stored by the king in ponds, reservoirs, etc., for the benefit of the people, and preserved by him with special care; for agriculture solely depends on water. Therefore, all the water that can be gathered in the (rainy) season should be well preserved both by the kings as well as other prominent persons–this is the injunction of the great sage Kasyapa. Arthasastra of Kautilyas refers to sluice gates of tanks and mentions that ‘persons letting out the water of tanks at any other place other than their sluice gate shall pay a fine of six panas’ and persons who obstruct the flow of water from the sluice gate of tanks shall also pay the same",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to sluice gates of tanks and mentions that ‘persons letting out the water of tanks at any other place other than their sluice gate shall pay a fine of six panas’ and persons who obstruct the flow of water from the sluice gate of tanks shall also pay the same fine. It is further stated that ‘the water of a lower tank, excavated later on, shall not irrigate the field already irrigated by a higher tank and the natural flow of water from a higher to a lower shall not be stopped, unless the lower tank has ceased to be useful for three consecutive years. Costs were levied on irrigated water regardless of the source. About the same time, 4th century B.C., the large Sudarshan lake was constructed in Gujarat and it was subsequently provided with conduits. In western India, the tradition of constructing tanks for irrigation continued throughout the ancient period. Buddhist literature (500–300 B.C.) provides evidence of building small tanks for irrigation (Randhawawa, 1980). Extensive tank irrigation systems were developed in Sri Lanka and southern India during the first two centuries of the Christian era. Availability of irrigation made it possible to extend cultivation of rice to large areas, and thus improve food security. Sri Lanka knowledge of tank irrigation technology was most advanced. They could build large tanks and control release of water by 3rd century B.C. (Brohier, 1934). It is most likely that the contemporary and subsequent kingdoms in southern India got the benefit of Sri Lanka expertise in building tanks. The philosophy about the efficient 12th century Sri Lankan king. He stated, “In such a country, let not even a small quantity of water obtained by rain, go to the sea, without benefiting man”. As many as 14 large irrigation tanks existed in the northern",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Lanka expertise in building tanks. The philosophy about the efficient 12th century Sri Lankan king. He stated, “In such a country, let not even a small quantity of water obtained by rain, go to the sea, without benefiting man”. As many as 14 large irrigation tanks existed in the northern half of Sri Lanka in the ancient times. Topography of the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka in India is ideally suited for the construction of tanks. A special feature of tanks in Telangana is their construction in series, by bunding the same valley at several points. Surplus water from one tank fed the tank at a lower elevation and so on. In Tamil Nadu, the Chola king Karikalan (c. 190 A.D.) and his successors constructed irrigation tanks off the river Cauvery through canals and several of these exist to this day. For the maintenance of tanks, a committee of villagers called eri-variyam was appointed. The committee ensured repairs and desilting of tanks and distribution of water. During Pallava times (200–900 A.D.) arrangements were made for their repair and maintenance of building dams, embankments, tanks and aquaducts in southern India. Ancient dynasties from Mauryans to Mughals evolved various systems for soil water management such as anaicuts, earthen dams, field bunds, check dams, canals, tanks, ponds, wells and reservoirs. Babur observed two methods of irrigation from wells were with the aid of a wooden Persian Wheel and a leather bucket drawn over a pulley in northern India prior to Arab invasions. C. Locating Water Table Keys to the Finding of Water Source Chakrapani in his ‘Visva Vallava’ has dealt in detail as how one can have an approximate idea regarding water below the surface of different kinds of lands, based on certain characteristics on the land. Generally water is found",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "invasions. C. Locating Water Table Keys to the Finding of Water Source Chakrapani in his ‘Visva Vallava’ has dealt in detail as how one can have an approximate idea regarding water below the surface of different kinds of lands, based on certain characteristics on the land. Generally water is found near or below a marshy place, at sea side, just by its shore, and in the desert, rocky and mountainous country far deep. From a mountain or from the root of a tree the underground artery (sometimes) goes below into a spring. At some places all the arteries are seen to terminate in caves. While digging if stone-like hard earth is reached and when struck it sounds like a thin slab of stone, then there is sure to be plenty of water beneath it. If in a place devoid of any water reservoir, there is found a rank growth of Vetasa (rattan), then there would be an artery of water two cubits below the surface 114 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY flowing towards the west. If rattan plant is seen growing in a place where there is no pool of water, then three cubits towards the west of that plant an artery of water would be found after digging seven cubits deep. If the tree Ficus oppositefolia is seen growing in a place devoid of a water reservoir of any sort, then three cubits towards its west there will be found an artery of water two and a half man-lengths below the surface of the earth. Where there stands an Udumbarika tree, there three cubits towards its west will be found a dark artery of water two and a half man lengths below the surface. If there is an ant-hill towards the north of an Arjuna tree, then three cubits towards",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the surface of the earth. Where there stands an Udumbarika tree, there three cubits towards its west will be found a dark artery of water two and a half man lengths below the surface. If there is an ant-hill towards the north of an Arjuna tree, then three cubits towards the west of the tree, water is sure to be found at the depth of three and a half man-lengths. If a Badari (jujube) tree stands to the west of an ant-hill, then two cubits towards the west springs of water would certainly be found at the depth of three man-lengths. If there be the plant Bhargi (Clerodendrum siphonantus), Danti (Croton polyandrum) or Malika (double jasmine), then there is water towards its south at the depth of three man-lengths. D. Locating Water in Arid Areas Agriculture in India mainly depended on rainfall since ancient times. People knew that much of the rain water percolates through the soil and flows under ground through aquifers. Observations about ground water and its exploration have been made by Saraswata Muni who was well versed with botany and zoology and Manava Muni who was a geologist. According to their observations, the presence of an ant hill or that of a serpent den was regarded as an indication of the underground water. A number of trees like Banyan, Gular, Palas (Butea monosperma), Bilwa (Semicarpus anacardium) has water at a particular depth in a particular direction. Manava Muni surmises presence of water by colour of the soil or of rocks and stones. He has given a list of the plants or trees, which indicates presence of water. Varahamihira was the greatest astronomer of the 6th century A.D. who had made certain observations on water exploration. According to him water in the ground is available in an arid",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "or of rocks and stones. He has given a list of the plants or trees, which indicates presence of water. Varahamihira was the greatest astronomer of the 6th century A.D. who had made certain observations on water exploration. According to him water in the ground is available in an arid place near Vetasa plant (Calamus rotalg); gular tree (Ficus glomerata), where current of sweet water many be found; in place where bilwa and gular trees are found growing together; if there is an ant-hill to the north of arjuna (Terminalia arjzma) tree; if there is a coconut tree with ant hill; if nirgundi tree (Vitex negzmdo) is found with an ant hill; if ant hill is inhabited by a serpent and is near to the north side of Mahuwa tree (Madhuka indica); near the milky trees having long branches; at spots where trees, shrubs and creepers are fresh and fine and leaves are unborn and near grasses of specific types. Digging of wells was not very common and people depended more on the monsoons and river water. Shallow wells were dug through human labour and water was lifted through indigenous devices which operated on man and animal power. These wells were dug after careful selection of site and after ascertaining availability of ground water through water diviners. Ancient teachers have enumerated many methods of divining water in arid regions. If there is seen hot vapour (rising from the earth) then there would be found a stream of water at the depth of two manlengths and underground vegetation. The two-man-deep water would turn pale-white and disappear. There are signs approved by (the astrologer) Sanmuni by which now it is possible to divine whether there is adequate supply of water underground or whether the water is sweet. For the facility of people",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "depth of two manlengths and underground vegetation. The two-man-deep water would turn pale-white and disappear. There are signs approved by (the astrologer) Sanmuni by which now it is possible to divine whether there is adequate supply of water underground or whether the water is sweet. For the facility of people living in desert places there generally exists underground a rich stream of water as big as the trunk of an elephant. If to the north of a Karira shrub there is an ant-hill then there would be found sweet water towards the south at the depth of ten man-lengths, and at the depth of one man-length there would be yellow frogs. And if on the west of a Rohita tree then water would be found at a distance of three cubits and twelve man-lengths below the surface, and towards the west there would be a profuse stream of salt water. If there is an ant-hill of white colour then close to it towards the west there would be a water-vein at the depth of five man-lengths, and towards the west stones and yellow clay at the depth of one manlength. If there is an ant-hill to the east of which stands a Pilu tree, then at a distance of one man-length AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 115 to the south there would be water at the depth of seven man-lengths. At the depth of first man-length there would be found a snake with black and white spots and plenty of salt (water) at the depth of three man-lengths. If an ant-hill stands to the east of Indradru (Terminalia arjuna), then just at one cubit to the west there would be found water at the depth of twenty man-lengths and an iguana only at the depth of one man-length. If there be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(water) at the depth of three man-lengths. If an ant-hill stands to the east of Indradru (Terminalia arjuna), then just at one cubit to the west there would be found water at the depth of twenty man-lengths and an iguana only at the depth of one man-length. If there be a group of five ant-hills at one place the middle one being white in colour then there would be water under a depth of fifty five man-lengths. If there be Kusa grass growing over an ant-hill or there be pale-white adurva then twenty one man-lengths below it would be found water. E. Locating Water in Marshy Lands In a marshy country there are green herbs and the land is wet and full of mosquitoes. There is Andropogon muricatus. There is plenty of sweet water underground at the depth of one man-length. Where there are succulent herbs such as Ipomoea turpethum; creepers (garuda), Jyotismati (Cardiospermum helicacabum), Cyperus, there water is found very near (the surface). Towards the south of a grove of thick trees and creepers there is plenty of water at the depth of four cubits. In a valley the land is low, covered with green turf, sandy, resonant and rich in water. F. Locating Water in Mountainous Country Sarasvata and Varaha described clear formulae with respect to the mountainous country. Where there is a cluster of the Bodhi tree, Udumbarika, Palasa and Nyagrodha, at one place, water would be found three man-lengths below them even in arid and marshy lands. The place where the trees have glossy and thick foliage and shrubs and creepers have milky juice has sweet water very near (the surface) and is inhabited by sweet-voiced birds. In a place where there grow Kharjuri, Jambu, Sata-patra, Nipa, Sinduvara, Vata, Naktamala, Andumbari, Kakaranva and Vibhitaka, there water",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "lands. The place where the trees have glossy and thick foliage and shrubs and creepers have milky juice has sweet water very near (the surface) and is inhabited by sweet-voiced birds. In a place where there grow Kharjuri, Jambu, Sata-patra, Nipa, Sinduvara, Vata, Naktamala, Andumbari, Kakaranva and Vibhitaka, there water would be found at a depth of three man-lengths. Water is said to exist underground in a place where flowering trees and plants like Jati, Kusthaka, Campaka, etc., and fruit-bearing trees like the pomegranate, lime (Citrus acida) and citron are found to grow. Where on a hilly place the Tala tree, the coconut, tree, Kancanara, Vetasa or any other trees are found to grow, sweet water is found there in plenty. What has been previously described as a Nirjahara (water-fall or cascade) is found in a mountainous country issuing from the crevices between the rocks or from the roots of the trees. In a wet mountainous country a stream with a copious flow of water is generally found to flow from under the vegetation. Sometimes such a stream is also found to exist underground at holy places with shrines. Near the rocks that glisten like a copper vessel facing the east (i.e., sun), or like glass and Vaidurya (eat’s eye) or are bright like the pearls, or grey like the Patasa, or brown in colour, there is plenty of water. Where the dark blue soil or the black soil is found in conjunction with gravel, or where there is white coloured soil and sand or where there is yellowish soil, there exists sweet water. In brown soil the water is acrid in taste and in polish soil (of smooth surface) it is salt. G. Construction of Reservoirs After the location of underground water, Chakrapani describes in his book “Visva Vallabha”",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "coloured soil and sand or where there is yellowish soil, there exists sweet water. In brown soil the water is acrid in taste and in polish soil (of smooth surface) it is salt. G. Construction of Reservoirs After the location of underground water, Chakrapani describes in his book “Visva Vallabha” the construction of reservoirs in the following paragraphs: “When water has been located, reservoirs of various shapes and sizes should be constructed outside the villages, their sites and measurements being determined by the availability of space. An artificial reservoir may be of six shapes, viz., circular, quadrangular (i.e., square), triangular, polygonal, oblong and semi-circular (half-moon-shaped). Its 116 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY capacity may be ascertained after it is dug. The best reservoir should measure one thousand poles (or 4000 cubits) in length, medium-sized would be half of it and the smallest one quarter. The size of other reservoirs is determined by the availability of space. A big reservoir, in which there will always remain a large store of water, can be constructed at a lesser cost by constructing a dam between two hills, or in a mountain valley or on a spacious place at the top of a hill. If there be a wide and high table land on all sides with great influx of water and a narrow outlet for the exit of water, then a big reservoir can be made by constructing a dam there. A wise person should provide a descent of steps from the top of the dam to the bottom of the reservoir and for making the dam strong he should have it plastered with lime cement both on the inner as well as outer face. A land low from all sides when full of water turns into a pond and becomes a natural reservoir.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the dam to the bottom of the reservoir and for making the dam strong he should have it plastered with lime cement both on the inner as well as outer face. A land low from all sides when full of water turns into a pond and becomes a natural reservoir. There can be no prescribed measurements for it. In the middle of the lakes and on their banks, there are pleasure houses of the kings. For the purpose of pleasure-trip or frolicking in water a boat should be kept there or an approach to the pleasure-house be made by means of a bridge (or causeway). A tank with three peaks (? angles) and one opening is called Nanda, that with Bhadra, the one with nine peaks and three openings is Jaya and that with twelve peaks and four openings is called Vijaya .If at the bottom of the well there is found to be sand, a foundation pedestal made of hard wood should be placed below in a manner that it does not block its springs of water. A Kunda (pit) is of four kinds, viz., Bhadra, Subhadra, Parigha and Nanda. The first is four-sided, the second is Bhadra, the third Subhadra and in the middle the fourth connected with Peatibhadra. They (i.e., the Kundas) should measure one hundred and eight cubits on each side with four openings, one in each direction, and a half in one corner provided with a quadrangular courtyard and ventilators inside. A very deep natural pool which has come into existence of itself may be of various shapes. Its embankments may be paved as they are with stone and lime mortar. H. Changing Water Quality Chakrapani in his book “Visva Vallabha” describes the methods to change water quality. If the powder of Khadira is poured",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "pool which has come into existence of itself may be of various shapes. Its embankments may be paved as they are with stone and lime mortar. H. Changing Water Quality Chakrapani in his book “Visva Vallabha” describes the methods to change water quality. If the powder of Khadira is poured into a well whose water is saline or acrid in taste, the water would be turned sweet. The turbid and pungent smelling water of pools etc. would turn sweet and pellucid if the powder as well as the juice of Kakubha, Musta, Usira, fruits of Dhatri and Kanaka and of Rodhra (Symplocos racemosa) and Rajasana is poured into them. The juice of Abhaya (Terminalia chebula) and the powder of Pathya Terminalia citrina), Kustha, Cardamom and Kataka fruit (Strychnos potatorum) along with the essence of Khadira and the fruit of wood-apple, if thrown in the turbid water or the salt water of well, they would at once turn the water (clear) and sweet. I. Ancient Irrigation Systems Devices for irrigation water lifting range from age-old indigenous water lifts to highly efficient pumps. Pumps operated by electric motors or engines have come into prominence in all large-scale lift irrigation schemes. There are several types of indigenous water lifts are in use in India. They may be manually operated or animal-operated. Based on the optimum range in the height of lift, they may be grouped under devices for low lift, medium lift and high lift. Low Head Water Lifts: The swing basket, don, Archemedian screw, and water wheel are suitable when the depth to water surface does not exceed 1.2 m. Medium Head Water Lifts: Medium head lifts are suitable when the height of lift is within the range of 1.2-10 m. The Persian wheel, chain pump, leather bucket lift with self emptying",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Archemedian screw, and water wheel are suitable when the depth to water surface does not exceed 1.2 m. Medium Head Water Lifts: Medium head lifts are suitable when the height of lift is within the range of 1.2-10 m. The Persian wheel, chain pump, leather bucket lift with self emptying bucket, circular two-bucket lift and the counterpoise-bucket lift fall in this category. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 117 High Head Water Lifts: Rope-and-bucket lift. The only indigenous water lift suitable for deep wells is the rope-and-bucket lift (Charasa) operated by bullocks. J. Rain Water Harvesting Techniques The most common practices followed by the farmers to conserve the soil moisture are summer tillage, field boundary bund with vegetative cover, use of farm yard manure and intercultural operation with hand/bullock drawn equipments. Farmers have followed the surface water harvesting rainwater harvesting techniques such as local percolation tank, farm pond, Tanka, Nada, Nadi, Talai, Talba, Khadin, Sar, Sagar and Samand. The water-harvesting methods differ from region depending upon rainfall, topography and soil type. Tanka is constructed on farm in courtyard fort, etc. The shape of the Tanka is generally kept circular; however square Tankas are also constructed in buildings, forts and palatial buildings etc., for harvesting roof water, 2 m diameter and 3 m deep Tanka (capacity 10000 liter) is common. The Tanka is made on sloping land to arrest run off water in the farm however in house the construction is made on an elevated place to avoid entry of water into it. Talai is about 2–3 m deep, the soil scooped out from the Talai is spread around to make catchments area keeping its slope in mind special attention is paid for selection of locations such that there is adequate flow of rainwater into the Talai. Care is also taken so that",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Talai is about 2–3 m deep, the soil scooped out from the Talai is spread around to make catchments area keeping its slope in mind special attention is paid for selection of locations such that there is adequate flow of rainwater into the Talai. Care is also taken so that loose soil does not flow along with water stream into the Talai. In contrast to the Tanka, the Talai is kept open from the top. A pucca masonry ram entrance is also provided on one side of the Talai to facilitate distribution of water using camel, donkey, bullock cart, etc. The stored water is generally used for animals. Nada is a common method of conserving rainwater in villages. Low-lying area in between hillocks the catchments area of the Nada is 5 to 10 ha. The Nada is constructed on rangeland, barren land, pasture land and agricultural field. It provides short-term storage of rainwater and mainly used for animals. Nadi Compared to Nada high embankment is provided around the Nadi. Depth of Nadi is kept up to 6–8 m. Catchments area of 10 to 150 ha is common for a Nadi. However area as high as 200 ha is found in certain specific cases. Nadi is generally constructed on sloppy area so that excess runoff water flows out without causing any damage to the embankment. Adequate cleanliness is maintained in the watershed to maintain purity or stored water. Bath is prohibited inside the Nadi. In the Nadi, water is available for whole of the year as a result it is shelter home for many wild animals and birds. Talab Talab is relatively shallow and spread over to more area compared to Nadi Runoff from hillocks is channels to a low-lying area in the vicinity and adequately bunded to form a Talab.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "whole of the year as a result it is shelter home for many wild animals and birds. Talab Talab is relatively shallow and spread over to more area compared to Nadi Runoff from hillocks is channels to a low-lying area in the vicinity and adequately bunded to form a Talab. It is generally constructed on rangeland. Khadin Khadin is the ancient indigenous rainwater harvesting method mainly found in jaisalmer district. Accumulation of runoff water in between hillocks is known as khadin. Khadin means cultivation of crops in about 60–70 ha area. The khandi water is generally used for crop cultivation under preserved moisture conditions and animals consumption. 7. Sar, Sagar and Samand: In certain district of Thar Dessert sar, sagar and samand are used to harvest rainwater for irrigation purposes. 118 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY K. History of Salinization in India – A Lesson for the Future Thought the dug wells and constructed canals to supply water for crop production (2000-6000 B.C.), no record of the rise of salinity irrigated tracts is documented with the development of canal irrigation from the era of sultan Feroz Shah Tughlak (1351–88) to the fall of Mughal Empire (1857) the salty patches in the soil said to have developed due to canal irrigation. Disappeared when the canals went into disuse. Irrigation is a mixed blessing water-logging and salinity closely follow. In the past all such lands that used to be unfit for agriculture were called as ushtra in Sanskrit meaning sterile or barren also called usar. Usar lands were adversely affected with arid climate or scarcity of water. Lands adversely affected with excess of salts, neutral (NaCl) or alkali (NaHCO3, Na2CO3) were also called as reh by geologists in mid-nineteenth century to characterize the appearance of salt efflorescence on the surface of lands. In",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "called usar. Usar lands were adversely affected with arid climate or scarcity of water. Lands adversely affected with excess of salts, neutral (NaCl) or alkali (NaHCO3, Na2CO3) were also called as reh by geologists in mid-nineteenth century to characterize the appearance of salt efflorescence on the surface of lands. In the chalcolithic period (c. 1300 B.C.) irrigated farming which was developed in hilly uplands shifted to lower river valleys. Floodwaters were stored in reservoirs for irrigation in the valleys and canals were dug. Hence chalcolithic period is also called the era of irrigated farming. Archaelolgists have found a canal constructed dating back to the pre-harappan period (3000 B.C.) at Kunal (Hisar, Haryana). Which was linked to the Saraswathi River about 5000 years ago. During the Vedic period (3700–2000 B.C.) the peasants dug wells and constructed canals to supply water to the crops. There is reference to irrigation by canals taken from the rivers there is also reference to soil erosion by rivers. The Aryans being in Northern India had experience on ushara land, ‘Alkali soil’. The Chola King Karikalan (190 A.D.) and his successors constructed Vennara and Arasil canals, which take off from Cauveri river by means of channels drawn from dams, called anaicuts or dike. L. Canal Irrigation in India The development of canal irrigation began in the 14th century at the initiative of Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlak (1351–88), a pioneer in canal irrigation in the medieval times. During hid period five canals were dug among these the most important was the Western Jamuna Canal. The salty patches in the soil, which developed under canal irrigation disappeared when the canal went into disuse after the fall of Mughal Empire in 1817. Blane was appointed by the Government of India to restore the WJC, which took 3 years due to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "important was the Western Jamuna Canal. The salty patches in the soil, which developed under canal irrigation disappeared when the canal went into disuse after the fall of Mughal Empire in 1817. Blane was appointed by the Government of India to restore the WJC, which took 3 years due to paucity of funds. Alignment of the old Munghal canal consisting of natural channels and depressions was adhered, which resulted in the formation of large swamps and extensive water logging. The Eastern Jamuna Canal (EJC) was taking off from the river on its eastern bank near Naushera in Uttar Pradesh, which was designed by Ali Mardan khan in the days of Shah Jahan. It was abandoned soon after construction due to the declining power of Mughals, but re-opened in January 1830. The Ganga canal belongs to the last years of the East India Company’s rule. Cautley, in 1839, a military engineer, proposed to adopt a direct line from Hardwar to Roorkee. The canal was opened in April 1854 and irrigated large areas of Uttar Pradesh and the Pre-partition Punjab. Other canals constructed for protection against famine, viz., Sirhind Canal (Punjab) 1873–82, Lower Ganga Canal and the Betwa Canal (North-West Provinces), 1881-93. Mutha Canal and Khadakwasa Dam (Bombay Presidency), 1869–79 and the Nira River Canals (Bombay Presidency) 1877–94. M. Advancement in Irrigation Potential during 20th Century When the benefits of canal irrigation in British India became apparent, interest arose for such projects in some princely states. The pioneer was the Mysore state that planed a Kannabadi Dam, later named the Krishna Raja Sagar Dam (after the ruler of Mysore, Krishna Raja Wadeyar II), constructed under confluence of three rivers, viz., the Kaveri, Hemavathi, and the Kakshmanatirtha. Two canals, namely, the north bank high-level canal (Visvesvaraya Canal) and the north bank low-level canal,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "that planed a Kannabadi Dam, later named the Krishna Raja Sagar Dam (after the ruler of Mysore, Krishna Raja Wadeyar II), constructed under confluence of three rivers, viz., the Kaveri, Hemavathi, and the Kakshmanatirtha. Two canals, namely, the north bank high-level canal (Visvesvaraya Canal) and the north bank low-level canal, took off from the reservoir. The Nizamsagar Project was another irrigation project executed by Government of AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 119 Hyderabad (1924-1931). The project comprised of a dam across the river Manjira, a tributary of Godavari river. The Gang canal (1922–27), which takes off from the Sutlej River at the Ferozpore barrage on its left bank, was to irrigate land in the princely state of Bikaner. It was built with the initiative of Maharaja Ganga Singh (1880–1943) of Bikaner. The Sarda Canal Project in the United Provinces of Agra and Ouch was started in 1915 during the Viceroyalty of Lord Hardinge, and was completed in 1926. Government of India through Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) launched the All India Co-ordinated Scheme for studies on soil salinity and water management at different locations in 1968. It set up Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI) at Karnal and Water Technology Centre at New Delhi in 1969. A part from these, another co-originated scheme on use of saline water in agriculture came in operation in 1972 at 5 centers in the state of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. 2.37 PLANT PROTECTION Plant protection began when man attempted to understand ailments affecting crops. Crop plants are affected through ‘abiotic’ and ‘biotic’ disorders. Insects came on the agriculture scene more than 250 million years ago well before the human beings who appeared only about one million years age. The association of man with insects was well known to Indians who",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "understand ailments affecting crops. Crop plants are affected through ‘abiotic’ and ‘biotic’ disorders. Insects came on the agriculture scene more than 250 million years ago well before the human beings who appeared only about one million years age. The association of man with insects was well known to Indians who knew production of silk and lac in the days before 3870 B.C. The documents available on man’s efforts to protect crops are found in the Rigveda (c. 3700 B.C.), Krishi-Parashara (c. 100 B.C.), Sangam literature of Tamil (200 BC–100 A.D.), Agni-Purana (c. 400 A.D.) Varaha Mihiria’s Brhat-Samhita (c. 500 A.D.) Kashyapiyakrishisukti (c. 800-900 A.D.) Suprapala’s Vrikshayurveda (c. 1000 B.C.) Someshwera Deva’s Manasollasa (c. 1100 A.D.), Sarangadhara’s Upavanavinoda (c. 1300 A.D.), Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri (c.1600 A.D.) Dara, Shikoh’s Nuskha Dar Fanni–Falahat (c. 1650 A.D.) Jati Jaichand’s diary (1689–1714 A.D.) an anonymous Rajasthani manuscript (1877 A.D.) and Watt’s Dictionary of Economic Products of India (1889–1893 A.D.). Since the agriculture has a very long history of more than 10000 years its gradual development can be discussed briefly in the following periods for greater clarity: (i) The Ancient Period 10,000 B.C. to beginning of anno Domini (A.D.): (ii) The Medieval period beginning of A.D. to 18th Century A.D. and (iii) The Modern period –19th Century A.D. to date. A. The Ancient Period One of the major events in human history is the transition from hunting, gathering to agriculture. Susruta Samhita (400 B.C.) emphasized the importance of protecting seeds from white ants and Kautilya (321–296 B.C.) was the first to suggest use of seed dressers for producing healthy plant stands. There is reference to algae and mushrooms in Rigveda only as saprophytes. In the Buddhist document Kallavagga (C. 100 B.C.) “mildew of paddy” and blight of sugarcane” is mentioned. In Krishi-Parashara (Sadhale, 1999) we find that the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the first to suggest use of seed dressers for producing healthy plant stands. There is reference to algae and mushrooms in Rigveda only as saprophytes. In the Buddhist document Kallavagga (C. 100 B.C.) “mildew of paddy” and blight of sugarcane” is mentioned. In Krishi-Parashara (Sadhale, 1999) we find that the plant protection in ancient days was not covered in depth, except for prayers to God Indra and other supernaturals. However there were several reference to the crop losses caused by insect pests. For example in the verse 126 it is stated “Commencing plowing on the 14th day of the month in any agriculture season was not shown as auspicious and met with several loss through insect pests”. Also emphasized were the auspicious “lagnas” for initiating agriculture in a particular season such as Turus (21st April) based on the movement of the sun’s entrance into the respective zodiac signs. B. Use of Organic Materials The oldest documents on the use of organic materials to control crop disorders is probably the Kautilya’s 120 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Arthasastra (c. 300 B.C.) (Shamasastry, 1961), cut ends of sugarcane setts meant for planting were plastered with a mixture of honey ghee, the fat of hogs and cow dung. Varahamihira (Bhat, 1981) suggested use of milk ghee and cow dung for dressing seeds and smoking them by burning animals flesh or turmeric before sowing. He also suggested sprinkling seeds with a mixture of flowers of cereals legumes and sesame as well as stable minced meat. Literature in agriculture during with knowledge on seeds storage crop protection and use of botanical pesticides Neem leaves were commonly used to contain the storage insects and seed infection during storage. There is also a mention about the use of seed treatment with coal ash before storage to prevent insect",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Literature in agriculture during with knowledge on seeds storage crop protection and use of botanical pesticides Neem leaves were commonly used to contain the storage insects and seed infection during storage. There is also a mention about the use of seed treatment with coal ash before storage to prevent insect damage during storage. Pigeonpea seeds were before storage (Sun drying of seeds to reduce moisture content) was a common practice during Ancient Period for the management of insect pests (Jeyarajan, 1999). C. The Medieval Period The earliest specific reference to insects pests is found in Krishi-Parashara. Rice pest, the gandhi bug (Leptocorisa varicornis F.) has been mentioned. Another word, pandarundi (White ear head) possibly implied rice stem borer (Trporyza incetulas walker) (Sadhale, 1999). Jahangir, the Mughal Emperor in India (1605–1627) in his memories described a disorder of marigold that could be ascribed today to species of Alternaria botrytis, or Sclerotia. The occurrence of melon fruit fly Dacus sp. during 1620 A.D. and the non-availability of control measures during that time were discussed (Nene, 1998). Jati Jaichand’s diary (1658–1714) mentions possibly botrytis gray mould of chickpea and ear blight (Curvularia penniseti) of pearl millet (Javalia et al., 2001). D. Practices Using Inorganic and Organic Materials It was Someshwara Deva (c. 1126 A.D.), a Chaluyka king, who suggested treatment of seed with ash, besides other materials to ensure good germination (Shamasastry, 1926): Use of ash however was suggested as far back as 120 B.C. by Varro a Roman encylopedist (Orlob, 1973), and was known to Tamils (Jeyarajan 1999). Dara Shikoh (Razia Akbar, 2000) mentioned the use of common salt solution for soaking fig cuttings prior to planting. Apparently salt was used to disinfect cuttings. Unfortunately concentration of salt solution was not mentioned. Nuskha Dar Fanni-Falahat (Razia Akbar, 2000) has many recommendations to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "was known to Tamils (Jeyarajan 1999). Dara Shikoh (Razia Akbar, 2000) mentioned the use of common salt solution for soaking fig cuttings prior to planting. Apparently salt was used to disinfect cuttings. Unfortunately concentration of salt solution was not mentioned. Nuskha Dar Fanni-Falahat (Razia Akbar, 2000) has many recommendations to project plant species from insects, fruit-drop, fruit cracking heat, and cold. These are: • Use of dung garlic, and pine oil should protect the cuttings from damage by some insects and pathogens. Burning of garlic was recommended for “expelling caterpillars” by the Roman author Palladius (Orlob, 1973). • Resin application to roots has been recommended for preventing cracking of pomegranate is found in ancient literature. • Application of excreta of sheep, pig and donkey and human urine can at best keep the apple tree well nourished which in turn perhaps keeps insect and diseases damage animals. • A practice that is still followed to protect melons from excessive heat or cold has been mentioned. Covering melon fruits earthen pots is a practice that small farmers can follow today. E. Fumigation Diseases of cucurbits were controlled through smoking by burning the bones of cow and dog mixed the excreta of cat (Sadhale, 1996). For the control of insect pests several ancient recommendations available are given in Table 15 (Saxena and Choudhary 1996). AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 121 Table 2.9. Some Important Products used in Pest Management during Ancient and Medieval Periods in India Root of vasika (Justicia adhaatoda) Varahamihira (505–587 A.D.) Soothing effect, insecticidal, antifungal antibacterial anthelmintic Branches and leaves of atimuktaka Varahamihira (505–587 A.D.) Leaf juice insecticidal: bark contains (Hiptage banghalensis) glucoside (hiptagin and tannis) Mustard Surpala (1000 A.D.) Insect antixenosis and antibiosis (Sinabis alba=Brassica alba) acaricidal: nematicidal and antifungal Bidanga (Vidanga Embelia ribes) Surpala (1000 A.D.) Anthelmintic: antibacterial: Someshwara",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Soothing effect, insecticidal, antifungal antibacterial anthelmintic Branches and leaves of atimuktaka Varahamihira (505–587 A.D.) Leaf juice insecticidal: bark contains (Hiptage banghalensis) glucoside (hiptagin and tannis) Mustard Surpala (1000 A.D.) Insect antixenosis and antibiosis (Sinabis alba=Brassica alba) acaricidal: nematicidal and antifungal Bidanga (Vidanga Embelia ribes) Surpala (1000 A.D.) Anthelmintic: antibacterial: Someshwara Deva (1126 A.D.) Ash Someshwara Deva (1126 A.D.) Desiccated insects eggs on seed: speeds up germination by softening seed coat through mild alkalinity; provides micronutrients Sesame (Sesamum indicum) Surapala (1000 A.D.) Allelopathic to rice insect repellent insecticidal Mahua (Madhuca spp.) Surapala (1000 AD) Insecticidal oil; piscicidal antibacterial Kusta (costus) (Saussurea lappa) Surapala (1000 A.D.) Insecticidal (repellents anti-feedant); antiseptic Bhillata (Bhallataka) Surapala (1000 A.D.) Insecticidal; antiseptic termite(Semecarpus anarcardium) repellent mildew and moth-proofing of cloth anthelmintic; antibacterial • Insects infesting trees could be removed by smoking a mixture of white mustard, black pepper, asafoetida, vidanga (Embelia ribes), vaca (Zingiber zerumber), and water mixed with beef horn of buffalo flesh or pigeonpea and the powder of bhillata (Semecarpus anacardium) • Sprinkling water mixed oil cake could control insects infesting creepers. • Dusting cow dung ash and brick-dust could destroy leaf-eating insects. Table 2.10. Information contained in Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda, related to Kinds of Internal Disorders observed in Trees and Symptoms Attributes and Remedies Suggested Symptoms Caused elaborated Possible causes Vata Trunk slender and crooket, kots Arid land on account of excessive Underground mechanical barrier: on trunk or leaves; hard fruits supply of dry and pungent leaf insects, root infecting fungi (less juice and sweet) gradual substances or nematodes viruses saline/ defoliation flower and fruits alkaline soils Pita Leaf yellowing, premature drop/ Occurrence at the end of summer Viral disease salinity in irrigation strong decay of flowers and fruits if trees are excessively watered water. Predisposal to blossom with bitter, sour salty and sore blight",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "gradual substances or nematodes viruses saline/ defoliation flower and fruits alkaline soils Pita Leaf yellowing, premature drop/ Occurrence at the end of summer Viral disease salinity in irrigation strong decay of flowers and fruits if trees are excessively watered water. Predisposal to blossom with bitter, sour salty and sore blight and fruit decays due to substances fungal/bacterial infections Kafa Fruit bearing delayed and fruits Appears in water and spring if Fungal gummosis/rot: nutrient are tasteless and ripen prematurely trees are excessively watered and deficiencies or toxicities: oozing without wounds spring if trees are excessively excessive watering watered with sweet, oily sour or cold substances Reproduced from Sadhale (1996) and interpretation of causes in the context of present-day knowledge 122 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Trees were watered with cold water for days to remove insects from the roots and branches. • A wound caused by insects was healed if sprinkled with milk after being anointer with mixture of vidanga, sesame, cow’s urine, ghee (clarified butter), and mustard. Honey, mustard and licorice too possess antimicrobial properties cow dung which is unusually mixed with urine has antiseptic properties. In addition cow dung can promote biological control. Milk could act as good sticker and may also promote biotical control of pathogens. In the 17th century, document of Dara Shikoh (Raizia Akbar, 2000) use of cow dung for smearing the cuttings of fig before planting is mentioned Garlic finds a mention especially for insects control (Razia Akbar, 2000) In a 19th century document from Rajasthan (Javlia 1999), some interesting practices mentioned are: (1) use of foliar and soil applications of oil (sesame) to trees from frost and termites: (2) Sprinkling of curd (91) mixed with asadoetida (112 g) on trees to prevent powdery mildew; and (3) use of Asafoetida exbelia ribes mixed with curd",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Rajasthan (Javlia 1999), some interesting practices mentioned are: (1) use of foliar and soil applications of oil (sesame) to trees from frost and termites: (2) Sprinkling of curd (91) mixed with asadoetida (112 g) on trees to prevent powdery mildew; and (3) use of Asafoetida exbelia ribes mixed with curd every 10 days to protect canker (or anthracnose of orange). Use of cow dung for dressing seeds, pasting cut ends of vegetative propagating units such as sugarcane setts, dressing wounds sprinkling diluted suspension on plants and applying to soil has been indicated since the time of Kautilya (c. 300 B.C.). Indian farmers continue to use cow dung in various ways but the agriculture scientists have ignored use for purpose other than use as manure. F. The Modern Period G. Watt whose six volumes of “A dictionary of economic products of India” (published from 1889–1893), which include description of disorders of crops covering a period since 1820. Watt (1889–1893) mentions several fungal disease such as (i) ergots of barley oats, pearl millet and horse gram (?), (ii) smut and rust (Puccinia sp) of wheat (iii) leaf rot of coconut (Pellicularia koleroga), (iv) rust of barberry (v) rust (vi) rust (white rust) of mustard (vii) late blight of potato (viii) powdery and downy mildews of grape vine (ix) root blight of tea (x) bunt of wheat, (xi) smut and rusts of barely and maize, (xii) false smut of paddy, (xiii) blight of cotton (xiv) Cercospora leafspot of cotton in Madras (Chennai) (xv) powdery mildew of indigo (xvi) rust and smut of pearl millet in western united provinces (Uttar Pradesh) (xvii) mildew (Cercospora sp) of black gram (xviii) fingoid disease of betel vine in Bengal (xix) whip smut of sugarcane and (xx) rust and smut of sorghum. Dipping seed in salt solution was",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "powdery mildew of indigo (xvi) rust and smut of pearl millet in western united provinces (Uttar Pradesh) (xvii) mildew (Cercospora sp) of black gram (xviii) fingoid disease of betel vine in Bengal (xix) whip smut of sugarcane and (xx) rust and smut of sorghum. Dipping seed in salt solution was a practice in 19th century (Gupta and Raje, 1896). Ozanne was the first to use copper sulfate to control sorghum smut by dipping in solution (85 g copper soleplate in 1150 ml water) the use of Bordeaux mixture (copper sulphate and lime) developed in France in 1882 was first documented in India by Butler in 1906. Sulfur was also used in 1906–1907 in India (Bhagwagar and Patel, 1999). G. Pesticides Mustard paste or suspension is known to posses antifungal, acaricidal, nematicidal, and insecticidal properties. The sprouting mustard seeds around the packed betel leaves would release a volatile antifungal gas. H. Increased use of Animal Wastes for Manure Kunapa, the liquid manure, is better for plants than the composts from plant residues. There is always a danger of passing on dormant pathogens to fields with plant-based composts. There should be no such danger with application of kunapa water. Also the animal wastes are likely to provide micro flora that might give better biocontrol of plant pests and disease than plant-based composts, and also attract predators of plant pests. From the volumes of the dictionary of the economic products of India by Watt (1889–1893), the available information on the practices followed in the 19th century India are: AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 123 (i) application of cattle manure to pigeon pea to reduce frost damage; (ii) application of Calotropis gigantea for two years (seasons) to reclaim soils with salts efflorescing; (iii) sanitation, Le., removal of all dead organic matter from the betel leaf",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the 19th century India are: AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 123 (i) application of cattle manure to pigeon pea to reduce frost damage; (ii) application of Calotropis gigantea for two years (seasons) to reclaim soils with salts efflorescing; (iii) sanitation, Le., removal of all dead organic matter from the betel leaf sheds to prevent spread of diseases; and (iv) reduction in betel vine disease (gandi = collar rot) by soil application of onion juice mixed with cow dung. I. Relevance to Present Day Sustainable Agriculture The present day concept of integrated pest management (IPM) is mainly oriented towards the eco-friendly approaches considering the human and animals health and other profits. The use of botanicals and other safer chemicals. In fact this is not now and there was ample evidence that our ancestors had knowledge and experience and lived under healthier environments than the present situation. Though Indian agriculture in the modern age is making large strides of progress it is necessary to consider the treasure of ancient knowledge particularly the development and use of safer pesticides for the development of mankind. J. Harvesting, Threshing and Storage In Riveda, harvesting of barely with sickles was mentioned. Harvesting was done both by cutting down the crop at ground level and by cutting off the earheads. Threshing was done on the threshing floor and winnowing with a supa. Cleaned grain was stored in storage bins and a trash burned. In Krishi-Parashara, making of a levelled threshing pit and installation of a threshing pillar called medhi were mentioned. The wood for the pillar was obtained from a tree that produces milky sap, obviously to get wood that is not too hard lest the grain in broken. The pillar was treated with neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) leaves and mustard. Parashara mentions adhaka, a wooden vessel",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "medhi were mentioned. The wood for the pillar was obtained from a tree that produces milky sap, obviously to get wood that is not too hard lest the grain in broken. The pillar was treated with neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) leaves and mustard. Parashara mentions adhaka, a wooden vessel with a capacity of about 3.5 kg (paddy rice). The grain was stored at a place safe from termites, rats, and other pests. Kautilya’s Arthasastra states, “Grain and other crops shall be collected as often as they are harvested crops. When reaped, shall be heaped in high piles or in the form of turrets. The crops piles shall not be kept close. The threshing floors of different fields shall be in close proximity. Workmen in the fields shall always have water the stalks by beating them on the ground or by making the bullocks tread on them. Cleared paddy was collected, measured and stored in proper places. Sickles and swords were used for harvesting millet heads. For threshing, buffaloes were made to tread or men used to thresh the ears with their feed. Black gram was threshed with sicks. Women considerably contributed to threshing and cleaning. A common vessel for measuring grain was referred to as ambanam. K. Post Harvest Storage Pest Management A majority of farmers were found to do threshing of maize and paddy manually. To prevent food grains from insect infestation, use of neem leaves, ash, salt, camphor, etc., either singly or in combination was common. For storage of seed, use of kerosene + ash, and onion was popular. Some of the respondents were mixing neem paste, kerosene, or sheep or goat faces with mud for use as plaster of the storage structure. Use of indigenous practices for controlling the rats like live-traps keeping dogs and cats,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "storage of seed, use of kerosene + ash, and onion was popular. Some of the respondents were mixing neem paste, kerosene, or sheep or goat faces with mud for use as plaster of the storage structure. Use of indigenous practices for controlling the rats like live-traps keeping dogs and cats, filling the burrows with ash, pieces of glass, bunch of hair and then plastering them was common in the tribal as well as non-tribal areas. Indigenous practices used by the respondent in storage of produce are: (i) Cow dung cake + neem leaves, (ii) Neem + mud (for plastering), (iii) Mud + kerosene (for plastering), (iv) Mud + faces of goat/sheep (for plastering), (v) Neem + ash, (vi) Ash + mercury + Ash, (vii) Husk, (viii) Ash + salt (rice), (ix) Neem + ash + campher, (x) Neem + husk, (xi) onion for seed, etc. 124 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 2.38 GARDENING IN ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PERIOD Gardens were an indispensable feature in house and town planning in ancient times. Excavations at Harappa have indicated that people were familiar with date palm, pomegranate, lemon, melon, and possibly coconut. Rigveda mentions several trees such as papal (Ficus religiosa L.), Khadir (Acacia catechu wild), Shisham (Dalbergia sisoo Roxb.), Shimbalam (Bombax malabaricum DC) and palasa (Butea frondosa Roxb.). The Aryans of Vedic times were quite understandably lovers of nature. The name they gave to flowers, sumansa, “that which pleases the mind”, reveals their aesthetic sensibilities. It is these sensibilities which were reflected in their gardens and a very refined art of gardening. In Artha Sastra, more than 30 tree species are mentioned as those found in forests and edible fruit trees are mentioned without qualification. Emperor Ashoka (274–237 B.C.) encouraged arbori-horticulture. Commonly grown fruit trees were plantain, mango, jackfruit and grapes. The Sangam",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "their gardens and a very refined art of gardening. In Artha Sastra, more than 30 tree species are mentioned as those found in forests and edible fruit trees are mentioned without qualification. Emperor Ashoka (274–237 B.C.) encouraged arbori-horticulture. Commonly grown fruit trees were plantain, mango, jackfruit and grapes. The Sangam literature refers to jackfruit, coconut, date palm, arecanut, plantain, and tamarind. Agrnipurna mentions many trees; it has a separate PART on horticulture which formed the base of treatises that followed. Varahimihira wrote a PART on “treatment of trees’ in his Brhat–Samhita. One of the highlights of Varahimihira writing is specific reference on grafting to be done on trees such as jack fruit, plantain, jambu (Black plum) Kapittaha (Limnoia acidissima L.) lemon and pomegranate. A method of grafting described was what is known today as the ‘wedge grafting”. Gardens continued to be an equally important part of the urban landscape in subsequent periods. In Vatsayana’s Kamasutra (300–400 A.D.), “Vrakshayur veda” is mentioned as one of 64 kalas or arts recognized in ancient India. It included the construction and maintenance of gardens and parks for health, recreation and enjoyment. In Jain canonical texts too, among the important parts of a city mentioned are pleasure gardens (arama), gardens (ujjana) and tanks (vapi). Gardens continued to be viewed as a source of joy and happiness throughout the ancient period. As the very first verse of the ancient text Vrkshayurveda puts it: “He is indeed a monarch if his house has extensive gardens, spacious gardens containing large pools of water with lovely lotus blossoms over which humming bees fly . . . That may be regarded as the consummation of all happiness . . . (giving) intense pleasure to the mind.” The ancient texts have their share of information on the subject. The pleasure grounds",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "containing large pools of water with lovely lotus blossoms over which humming bees fly . . . That may be regarded as the consummation of all happiness . . . (giving) intense pleasure to the mind.” The ancient texts have their share of information on the subject. The pleasure grounds surrounding Indraprastha are described in the Mahabharata. The Buddhist text Lalitavistara mentions 500 gardens around Kapilavastu, which were laid out for Prince Siddhartha. The divine Nandanakanan is the god of gardening in Indra’s paradise. The ancient Indian kings built pleasure gardens of immense beauty for themselves. Megasthenes admiring the palace of Chandragupta wrote, “In the Indian royal palace . . . in the parks tame peacocks are kept and pheasants which are domesticated, there are shady groves and pasture grounds planted with trees, . . . while some trees are native to the soil, others are brought from other parts and with their beauty enhance the charm of the landscape.” The early Buddhist period saw the transition from royal to public gardens at many places. The Venuvana and Ambavana in the vicinity of Rajagaha, the Mahavana near Vaishali, the Nigrodharama near Kapilavastu and the Jetavana in the outskirts of Sravasti were all royal gardens of early Buddhist times which later were opened to public and converted into permanent retreats for the monks of different orders. Subsequently many monastries had their own gardens attached to monastic complexes. Horticulture was well developed in the ancient times referred to in the Jaina canonical literature. Various types of gardens are mentioned in the canons. Examples are Ujjana (garden), Nijjana (the kings private garden), Arama (garden with canopies as resting places), Sahasramravana (mango grove with a thousand mango trees), Agrodyana (home garden in front of the buildings), Ashokavana (garden with ashoka trees), Gunashila Udyana (ornamental",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "literature. Various types of gardens are mentioned in the canons. Examples are Ujjana (garden), Nijjana (the kings private garden), Arama (garden with canopies as resting places), Sahasramravana (mango grove with a thousand mango trees), Agrodyana (home garden in front of the buildings), Ashokavana (garden with ashoka trees), Gunashila Udyana (ornamental garden) and Jeernodyana. These gardens had trees, bushes, AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 125 shrubs and creepers of various kinds some flowering and others fruit types. Aramas canopies covered with dense creepers that protected the gardens from sun rays and provided cool comfort to the dwellers therein. This is how the Chinese pilgrim Hsieun Tsang who arrived at the monastic University of Nalanda in 630 A.D. saw it: “The temple arose into the mists and the shrine halls stood high above the clouds . . . streams of blue water wound through the parks; green lotus flowers sparkled among the blossoms of sandal trees and a mango grove spread outside the enclosure.” As regards gardens attached to a private dwelling, obviously of the rich and opulent, we have a description in Vatasayan’s Kamasutra. It states: “attached to every house there should be a vrksavatika or puspavatika, a garden where flowering plants and fruit trees can grow, as well as vegetables. A well or tank, large or small, should be excavated in the middle.” The garden was to be in charge of the mistress of the house and she was to procure seeds of common kitchen vegetables and medicinal herbs every day. The garden was also to be designed with bowers and vine groves with raised platforms for rest and recreation. A swing was to be fitted on a spot well guarded from the sun by a canopy of foliage. She was to ensure that it was laid out with beds of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "The garden was also to be designed with bowers and vine groves with raised platforms for rest and recreation. A swing was to be fitted on a spot well guarded from the sun by a canopy of foliage. She was to ensure that it was laid out with beds of plants that yield an abundance of flowers, with an emphasis on those with sweet perfume, like the mallika and the navamalika, as well as those “that delight the eye like the japa with its crimson glory or the kurantaka with its unfading yellow splendour. There should also be rows of shrubs yielding fragrant leaves or roots, like balaka and usirs”. As in all hot climates an expanse of water was an almost essential feature of the ancient garden. Gardens consist of the artificial lakes and pools as well as the steps leading down to them for bathing. Kalidas mentions a palace garden called samudragrha, which was a summer house, built in a cool place surrounded on all four sides by fountains. A further refinement, for cooling the air in the hot season, was the water machine, variyantra which, from Kalidasa’s description seems to have been a sort of revolving spray, rather like the one used to water lawns. The garden’s irrigation was taken care of by means of narrow drains (kulya) full of running water with water fountains as their source. Water wheels incessantly threw jets of water to flood the flower beds and the circular ditch (alavala) at the base of the trees. As noted earlier, along with the private gardens of the rich there were in due course public gardens (nagarupvana) as well. When situated outside the town they were termed bahirupvana. These were the favourite resorts of the townspeople for udyanyatras or picnics. The Kamasutra mentions how",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "base of the trees. As noted earlier, along with the private gardens of the rich there were in due course public gardens (nagarupvana) as well. When situated outside the town they were termed bahirupvana. These were the favourite resorts of the townspeople for udyanyatras or picnics. The Kamasutra mentions how a party of well dressed nagarakas would go out of the town to these gardens early in the morning mounted on horses accompanied by ganikas and followed by servants to spend the day. With gardens and parks emerging as an important backdrop to the social life in ancient India, horticulture (udyanavyapara) developed as a discipline and scientific knowledge was applied to the art of arbori-horticulture. In the post Vedic literature there is evidence to show that botany developed as an independent science known as Vrkshayurveda on which were based the science of medicine (as embodied in the Caraka and Susruta samhitas), the science of agriculture (as embodied in the Krsi Prasara) and the science of horticulture (as illustrated in the Upavanavinoda). While there are no treatises so far discovered on the subject of ancient horticulture as such, there is a small part, the Upavanavinoda as a branch of Vrksayurveda, in Sarngadhara’s encyclopedic work, the Sarangadhara Paddhati of the 13th Century, which is a compilation of relevant material from earlier classical sources. A. Management in Gardens Management and maintenance practices for parks and gardens too came to be formulated. In Kautilya’s time there was a separate department entrusted with the care of gardens and forests. The cultivation of 126 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY parks for public health and recreation was one of the duties of the forest officers. The aramas or gardens were kept in order by a number of junior officers known as aramikas. They were under a superintendent aramaprekshaka",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of gardens and forests. The cultivation of 126 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY parks for public health and recreation was one of the duties of the forest officers. The aramas or gardens were kept in order by a number of junior officers known as aramikas. They were under a superintendent aramaprekshaka who supervised their work. There were settlements of park keepers known as aramika gama. Special classes of skilled artisans were patronized by the State. Vatsayana’s Kamasutra mentions well trained experts, the aramadhipatis and a special class of skilled artists, gardeners and weavers, malakars and malinis. Gardens at times contained not only flowering plants but also fruit trees which used to bring considerable income to the exchequer. Gardening in ancient India through design forms and mechanisms and by combining scientific and artistic principles thus ensured an integration of nature with everyday life in urban areas. 2.38.1 Arbori–horticulture, Orchards, History and Diversity of Fruit Crops in India A. Tree culture (Vrksayurveda) The water reservoirs which have no shade on their banks are not pleasing. Hence gardens should be laid in the precincts of reservoirs of water. Soft soil is good for all kinds of trees. First, one should sow sesamum in that soil and when they grow and put forth flowers, they should be uprooted. This is the first process in preparing the land. The astrologers have declared the constellations such as Dhruva, Mrdu, Mula, Visakha, Brhaspati, Sravana, Aswini and Hasta to be auspicious for the planting of trees. The soap-nut tree, Asoka, Pumnaga, Sirisa, Pdyangu, are the auspicious trees and should be planted first in the gardens or the houses. The bread-fruit tree, Asoka, the plantain, the rose-apple, Lakuca, the pomegranate, the vine, Pativata, the citron and Atimuktaka-these are the trees that grow from scion plastered with mud. They should be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Asoka, Pumnaga, Sirisa, Pdyangu, are the auspicious trees and should be planted first in the gardens or the houses. The bread-fruit tree, Asoka, the plantain, the rose-apple, Lakuca, the pomegranate, the vine, Pativata, the citron and Atimuktaka-these are the trees that grow from scion plastered with mud. They should be carefully planted by taking their stem or by digging them up from the roots. Plants that have not put forth branches should be transplanted in the winter; those that have put forth branches, in the beginning of winter (i.e., the dewy season); and those that have developed trunks, at the advent of the rainy season according to their respective quarters. Transplanting of the trees is done after plastering the root and branch with ghee, usira, sesamum, honey, vidanga, milk and cow dung. The rose apple, Vetasa, Vanira, Kadamba, Udumbara) Atjuna, the citron, the vine, Lakuca, the pomegranate, Vanjula, Natka-rnala, Tilakll, Panasa, Timira and Amrataka are the sixteen trees that grow in the wet or marshy soil. A pit one cubit wide and twice as much deep should be dug and filled with water. When it becomes dry it should be heated with fire and then plastered with honey and ghee mixed with ashes. It should then be filled with ground Masas, sesamum and barley mixed with soil. Then pouring the broth of the flesh of fish over the filling, it should be beaten down till it becomes hard and compact. If the seed is sown into it four fingers deep and is nurtured with fish-broth and gravy, it grows into a surprising creeper with glistening leaves and soon spreads over the entire bower. Seeds that are soaked in milk for ten days, kept in two hast as of ghee, fumigated with the fumes of the flesh of a hog and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and is nurtured with fish-broth and gravy, it grows into a surprising creeper with glistening leaves and soon spreads over the entire bower. Seeds that are soaked in milk for ten days, kept in two hast as of ghee, fumigated with the fumes of the flesh of a hog and deer, and mixed with the fats of fish and hog, grow bearing flowers simultaneously, when sown in a prepared and cleaned soil and nourished with water mixed with milk. Cessation of bearing fruit (i.e., sterility) is cured by Kulattha, Masa, Mudga, sesamum and barley. Along with this, nurturing with boiled and cooled down milk is conducive to the increase of fruit and flower. Two adhakas of the dung of sheep and goats, one adhaka of sesamum, one prastha of meal, a drona of water and beef equal in weight-all these (mixed together and) kept for a week (lit. 7 nights) should be administered as nurture to trees, creepers, thickets and plants for making them bear flower and fruit for all times. Diseases like the searing of leaves, all rest of the growth of leaves, drying up of the branches and excessive exudation of the sap afflict the trees owing to exposure to cold wind and the sun. Their remedy, according to scientific works, lies first in clearing them (of the diseased part) and then plastering them with the paste AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 127 of Vidanga and ghee and nurturing them with water mixed with milk. Buddhism adopted the cult of tree worship from the older religions, which prevailed in the country (Sixth century B.C.). Gautam Buddha was born under ‘ASHOKA’ (Saraca indica), attained enlightenment under ‘PIPAL’ (Ficus religiosa), preached his new gospel in mango (Mangifera indica) groves and under the shady ‘Banyan’ (Ficus benghalensis) and died in the ‘SAL’",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of tree worship from the older religions, which prevailed in the country (Sixth century B.C.). Gautam Buddha was born under ‘ASHOKA’ (Saraca indica), attained enlightenment under ‘PIPAL’ (Ficus religiosa), preached his new gospel in mango (Mangifera indica) groves and under the shady ‘Banyan’ (Ficus benghalensis) and died in the ‘SAL’ (Shorea robusta) grove. Most important trees of ecological value were identified with the name of saints who were revered and worshipped in the society during that period. Name Botanical name Name of saint Pipal Ficus religiosa Sakya muni Banyan Ficus benghalensis Kashyapa Gular Ficus glomerata Kanaka muni Siris Albizzia lebbeck Krakuchhanda Sal Shorea robusta Vishwa bahu Ashoka Saraca indica Vipaswi Buddha attained perfect wisdom under the PIPAL tree; hence it is called the “tree of knowledge”. People during the period of Buddha were involved in tree planting and in every village ‘Banyan’ and ‘Pipal’ trees were planted. Never before or after has religion been so much associated with the tree culture and tree planting. During 237 B.C., emperor Ashoka actively promoted tree planting on large scale. For the first time in the Indian history, a monarch has encouraged tree culture and adopted it as a state policy. He encouraged planting of trees in the gardens, along road and in the form of avenues. Mughal emperor Jahangir (1616–1674) was the greatest builder of gardens in India. The famous gardens of Kashmir, Shalimar, Anantnag and Verinage owe their existence to him. In ancient India messages were given through religion to establish sound traditions based on the realization that partnership between the women and nature ensured sustenance. Women were therefore actively associated with tree culture and in many places trees like Pipal, Banyan, Gular, Siris, Sal, Ashoka, Aonla, Neem and Shami (Prosopis cineraria) were worshipped. The leaves of Mango and Neem were considered",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "traditions based on the realization that partnership between the women and nature ensured sustenance. Women were therefore actively associated with tree culture and in many places trees like Pipal, Banyan, Gular, Siris, Sal, Ashoka, Aonla, Neem and Shami (Prosopis cineraria) were worshipped. The leaves of Mango and Neem were considered auspicious and leaves and flowers of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) and Marigold were used for worship. Tulsi’ was the symbol of cosmos. All these traditions are practiced in India even today. The ancient Indian civilization was primarily dependent upon and intimately related with forests and flora in Sanskrit scriptures (like Vrikshayurveda, Upavana vinoda, Brhat Samhita, etc.) the science of plant life has been described and three indigenous fruits viz., mango banana and jackfruit are extensively mentioned. Archaeobotanical indigence record wild date, jumbos, banana, jujube, apricot, breadfruit, etc. There is a rich heritage of mango varieties in India. Mango fruit had attracted the fancy of Moghul rulers especially there are choice varieties like Alphonso, Dashehari, Mulgoa, etc. In citrus natural interspecific and intervarietal hybrids occur extensively in rootstock material which have been found to carry tolerance to viruses and root diseases. Indigenous citrus germ plasm provides a good source of parents for rootstock breeding programs. In temperate fruit wild species of Prunus, Pyrus and Malus have been recorded in Himalayas and these carry resistance to root rot and collar and cold hardiness. A Sanskrit treatise “Sarangathara Padhati” an anthology compiled by Sarangadhara–a courtier of king Hammira, contains Padhati” an anthology compiled treating arbori-horticulture (translated by 128 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Majumder 1935). In Brhat Samhita (ca 500 A.D.) there are reference on the methods of propagation like cuttings, grafting and about plants suitable for different methods of propagating propagation of jackfruit, jamun and fact Sadhale (1996) draws a close parallel and resemblance",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "arbori-horticulture (translated by 128 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Majumder 1935). In Brhat Samhita (ca 500 A.D.) there are reference on the methods of propagation like cuttings, grafting and about plants suitable for different methods of propagating propagation of jackfruit, jamun and fact Sadhale (1996) draws a close parallel and resemblance among “Vrikshayuveda” of Surapala (ca 1000 A.D.) “Upavana Vinoda” of Sarangadhara and Varaha Mihira’s “Brhatsamhita” in respect of science of plant life. The Brahma Vaivata Purana (around 800 A.D.) lists some good fruits which include indigenous ones like mango (amra), banana (kadali) jackfruit (panasa), bael (sriphala) and introduced but ancient ones like pomegranate (dadima) date (khajura) and grape (draksa) (Sensarma, 1989) (Table 17). Four fruits, viz., mango, banana, bael and jackfruit are considered as ancient and sacred fruits extensively used in pujas, religious festivals and ceremonial occasions. Table 2.11. Fruits mentioned in the Puranas Dadima (Pomegranate) (E) Vayu, Mastsya, Brahmavaivarta Brahma, Kurma Khajura (Wild Date) (E) Vayu, Mastsya, Brahmavaivarta Brahma, Kurma Jambu (Jamun) (I) Vayu, Kurma Amra (Mango) (I) Vayu, Brahmavaivarta, Brahma, Agni, Mastsya, Kurma Panasa (Jack fruit) (I) Brahmavaivarta, Vayu, Brahma, Mastsya, Kurma Kadali (Banana) (I) Vayu, Mastsya, Brahmaviarta, Brahma, Agni Narikela (Coconut) (I) Brahmavaivarta, Agni, Brahma Sriphala (Vilva/Bael) (I) Brahmavaivarta, Vamana, Kurma I = indigenous ; E = exotic Source: Sensarma, 1989. The Indian sub-continent is a center of domestication and diversity of wide array of plant materials and Vavilov (1949) designated this center as Tropical South Asian Center. Zevan and De wet (1982) assigned this as “Hindustani Center” as an important region of diversity of crop plants. The Moghuls Spaniards, Portuguese and the British introduced new fruit crops such as apple, pear, peach, apricot, grape, almond, date palm, cashew nut, litchiu, strawberry, blue berry and pine apple. Fruits plants introductions into India occurred during the ancient times",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Center” as an important region of diversity of crop plants. The Moghuls Spaniards, Portuguese and the British introduced new fruit crops such as apple, pear, peach, apricot, grape, almond, date palm, cashew nut, litchiu, strawberry, blue berry and pine apple. Fruits plants introductions into India occurred during the ancient times through traders, invaders, travellers etc. Thus grape is reported to have been introduced in tropical India during 620 B.C. (Olma, 1976) and subsequently by invaders from Afghanistan and Persia in 1300 A.D. Pomegranate, sapota and loquat reached India so early that their exact period of introduction is difficult to trace. Hiuen Tsiang, the Chinese pilgrim, mentioned the presence of pomegranate in 629 A.D. stated that loquat was not present. He also saw grapes, pear, peach, plum, apricot and Diospyros sp. Custard apple was perhaps introduced into India even before Portuguese brought the other species of Annona. Pineapple reached India as early as 1548. Both pineapple and custard apple are recorded in Ain-i-Akbari. Fruits like guava and papaya introduced in the sixteenth century and litchi in seventeenth century naturalized so much that these appear to be native in India. Most of the present day commercial cultivars of these fruits are selections from the variability generated by the introduced types. After 1870, European and American settlers and Missionaries carried out introductions of pome, stone and nut fruits. During this period, Captain Lee in Kullu valley, Coutts in Shimla and Stokes in Kotgarh made valuable introductions in Himachal Pradesh (Singh 1669). A Frenchman, Pychard introduced many varieties in Kashmir between 1910 and 1920. Consequently, several varieties of different temperate fruits namely apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, walnut and almond fully adapted AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 129 and established in India temperate regions. The prominent cultivars among these were red Delicious, Golden Delicious. Cox’s",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Pychard introduced many varieties in Kashmir between 1910 and 1920. Consequently, several varieties of different temperate fruits namely apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, walnut and almond fully adapted AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 129 and established in India temperate regions. The prominent cultivars among these were red Delicious, Golden Delicious. Cox’s Orange Pippin, Red Gold, Richared, Starkings Delicious, Granny Smith and Yellow Newton of apple besides Ambri introduced from Central Asia. William’s Bartlett, Conference, Winter Nelis, Keiffer, Fertility and Beurre Hardy of pear; Stark Lambert, Biggarreau Noir Gross, Redford Prolific and Early rivers. Crawford’s Early and C.O Smith of Peach, Santa Rosa, Beauty, Green Gage, Mariposa, Maynard and Grand Duke of Plum; New Castle, Royal Moorpark, St. Ambroise and Turkey of Apricot and Thin Shelled. Not Pareil and California Paper Shelled of almond. 2.38.2 Important Finds of Fruits from Archaeological Sites Fruits Wild date, tamarind, Indian jujube, Indian jambos, vine, apricot, Indian cherry, emblica myrobalan, wild banana, wild canarium, wild breadful Indian almond (Kajale, 1991, 1996). A. Mango A pre-eminent tropical fruit–has been described as the “choicest fruit of hindustan” by Moghuls History records the fact that mangoes have been cultivated in India nearly 4 to 5 thousand years ago. It has been closely associated with Indian way of life since time immemorial and has a universal appeal to all sections of the society. Hindus considered mango tree as the symbol of “Prajapati Lord of Creation. Mango tree is believed to be useful in scaring away evil spirits (Malla, 2000). The nutritive value of mango has been mentioned in Kurma Purana. Brahadaranyaka Upanishad (1000 B.C.) and a little later Shatapatha Brahmana mention the mango tree. Lord Buddha (563–483 B.C.) was accustomed to resting under the shade of mango tree. In Jataka literature of Buddhists reference to mango has been noted. Similarly",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "nutritive value of mango has been mentioned in Kurma Purana. Brahadaranyaka Upanishad (1000 B.C.) and a little later Shatapatha Brahmana mention the mango tree. Lord Buddha (563–483 B.C.) was accustomed to resting under the shade of mango tree. In Jataka literature of Buddhists reference to mango has been noted. Similarly in Jain literature written after Lord Mahaveera (540–468 B.C.) mango trees are called Sahasramravana”. Mango fruit has attracted Babar the founder of Moghul Empire in Indian. He dot established “Lakh Bagh” near Darbhanga in Bihar and description of mango in “Ain-i-Akbari” is very detailed His son Jahangir, a Naturalist was an admirer of mango fruits. Mango orchard became a prerogative of Nawabs during Moghul period especially in Uttar Pradesh and Bengal and grafting was permitted only in royal gardens. Europeans especially Portuguese French and British traders and travelers took a fancy for mango fruits. Early foreign travelers Hieuntsang (632–645 A.D.) Ibn Hankul (902–968 A.D.) Ibn Batuta (1325–1349 A.D.) and Ludo bici Verthena (1503–1508 A.D.) all praised the mango fruits as they made mention of it their travelogues. Grafting method of vegetative propagation become a common practice by then, mango varieties Alfonso, Pairi safeda, Fuzlee, Langra, Mulgoa, Banganpalli etc., have become popular. Mango originated in northeastern India along with the adjoining region of Myanmar. B. Date (Phoenix sp.) A mention has been made of wild date in Ramayana as growing in panchaavati and it is also seen in the potters of Mohen-jo-daro. C. Fig (Ficus sp.) Bruhadaranyaka Upanishad has recorded this tree, indicating its antiquity. Besides it has been recorded in Ramayana and Mahabharata. 2.38.3 The History of Gardening: A Timeline from Ancient times to 1600 35,000 BCE (BCE = Before the Common Era or Christian-Roman Era) Homo sapiens at the end of the period had knowledge of many plants derived",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "tree, indicating its antiquity. Besides it has been recorded in Ramayana and Mahabharata. 2.38.3 The History of Gardening: A Timeline from Ancient times to 1600 35,000 BCE (BCE = Before the Common Era or Christian-Roman Era) Homo sapiens at the end of the period had knowledge of many plants derived from food gathering techniques. Different kinds of fruits, nuts, and roots were only gathered, not cultivated. 130 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 4000 BCE Indus Valley agriculture is very extensive: wheat, peas, sesame seed, barley, dates, and mangoes. 3500 BCE Cotton growing and cotton textiles quite advanced in India, and remained so until the 13th century. 3000 BCE Farming in Ancient India: Most of the crop gown in the ancient times in the Indus Valley is likened to monsoon type crops such as cotton, sugarcane, rice wheat, barley, sesame, bananas, apples and dates. 200 BCE King Dutthagamini in India has a large artwork of the Sacred Fig Tree (Buddha’s tree) made of precious materials and placed in the Great Gold Dust Dagoba park and gardens. Cultivation and trade of coconuts between East Africa and India. 460 A.D. Egg plants were cultivated in China and India. Portuguese introduced the grafting technique into Indian horticulture about A.D. 1550. Crops Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is indigenous to Brazil. The Portuguese introduced it into India in the middle of the sixteen century. In A.D 1578, Acosta mentioned that this fruit was grown profusely in western India. Cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale) is a native of Brazil. Its red fruit the so-called apple, is acrid and to it is appended the nut like a bud. It is certainly a Portuguese introduction into India. Its earliest mention is by Acosta (A.D 1578), who found it in gardens in the city of Santa Cruz in the kingdom of Cochin. Chillies",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "red fruit the so-called apple, is acrid and to it is appended the nut like a bud. It is certainly a Portuguese introduction into India. Its earliest mention is by Acosta (A.D 1578), who found it in gardens in the city of Santa Cruz in the kingdom of Cochin. Chillies (Capsicum annum) is a native of Brazil and Peru which has been introduced in the sixteen century as the ornament of Indian garden and soul of pickles. • Portuguese introduced the Allamanda cathartica is a climber with beautiful yellow flowers. It was introduced into India from Brazil. • Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus) was introduced by the Portuguese into Malabar from Brazil. • Guava is also a Portuguese introduction into India, possibly from Brazil. • Sharifa (Annona squamosa) or custard-apple was introduced by the Portuguese into India in the sixteenth century. It grows wild in the Deccan Plateau, custard-apple is the bullock’s-heart (Annona cherimola), a delicious fruit which grows in Karnataka and Bengal. • Chiku (Manilkara kauki; Syn. Achrus zapota) is a native of Mexico and its cultivation is spreading in India. Chiku is also a gift of the Portuguese to India. • To India, Brazil gave two most beautiful ornamental plants, viz., Jacaranda mimosifolia, with violet-blue flowers, and solanum macranthum, the brinjal-tree with purple and white flowers. • Portuguese introduced Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus) into Malabar from Brazil. 2.39 VEGETABLE FARMING-FLORICULTURE-PERFUMES 2.39.1 Vegetable Farming Kashyapa’s Krishi-Sukta (800-900 A.D.) listed rice and other cereals as the first, pulses and other grains as the second, vegetables (including fruits) the third, and creepers and flowers etc., the fourth. Seeds of wheat, pulses, fruits, vegetables and condiments such as turmeric, cumin, black pepper, etc., also need AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 131 to be preserved for cultivation in the proper season. Kashyapa has advised four types of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "second, vegetables (including fruits) the third, and creepers and flowers etc., the fourth. Seeds of wheat, pulses, fruits, vegetables and condiments such as turmeric, cumin, black pepper, etc., also need AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 131 to be preserved for cultivation in the proper season. Kashyapa has advised four types of cultivation viz., (i) rice, (ii) pulses, (iii) vegetables and (iv) creepers and flowers. The farmers should cultivate delicious vegetables like Jatika, Rasijatika, Valkika, Vana-vallika, Patolika, egg-plants, Savaka, pumpkin-gourd, Kalata, Kustumburu, Surana, Sakuta, and turmeric and ginger-both cultivated and wild-as well as various other luscious plants for the sake of cooking. In the writer’s opinion these are the principal vegetables. In some countries the varieties of vegetables are different depending on their species, shape, taste and colour. The cultivators should grow vine, Indian spikenard, cardamom, etc., in their respective regions of cultivation. A Wiseman should grow indigenous vegetables on low as well as high land according to the season and country after learning the method of cultivation. Of the cultivable commodities the varieties of paddy occupy the first place, the pulses the second, and the vegetables the third. In the fourth place come ghee, milk, curds, etc. These four kinds of products comprise the entire foodstuff. This stuff promotes the happiness of all the gods and is the means of sustenance of the whole humankind. This gives nourishment, health and long-life and was created by Brahma at the beginning of creation all over the earth. In the spring, the summer and at some places in the dewy season the cultivation of vegetables is sure to bring rich reward. The seeds of the egg-plant, Valli, Jatika, pepper, Savaka etc., dried in the sun should be sown in ploughed field for the sake of sprouting. The seeds of the egg-plant, etc., dried in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "at some places in the dewy season the cultivation of vegetables is sure to bring rich reward. The seeds of the egg-plant, Valli, Jatika, pepper, Savaka etc., dried in the sun should be sown in ploughed field for the sake of sprouting. The seeds of the egg-plant, etc., dried in the sun, should be sown in the soil dressed with cow-dung, etc., for sprouting. They should be regularly watered and then covered with the straw-shed. In three days the sprouts appear in the depressions where the seeds were sown. After twenty days when the sprouts have taken firm roots, the wise cultivator should transplant them in a properly ploughed field. Watering the roots at that very time promotes the life of the plants. The cultivation of vegetables is good in low land in the summer and not in the rainy season. It is successful in other seasons also. In the same manner the bulbs of Sakuta, Surana and turmeric should also be implanted in hollow depressions or in a bed of hot soil and they will thrive. In this way, the cultivation of creeping plants is manifold. Pumpkin-gourds, wild pumpkins, cardamom, spikenard and agavalli (Piper Betel) may also be grown on high land. Of patolika, egg-plant, Saka (leafy vegetables), and Savaka, the unripe young fruit is tasteful and is therefore, highly commended. He should cultivate, nourish and protect the various sakas (pot herbs), which are fit for eating, sucking and chewing. The cultivators should after making depressions etc., in their various fields, cultivate seasonably in spring, summer, rains, autumn, dewy season and winter pot-herbs and other vegetables whose leaves, rind, flowers or bulbous roots are (edible and) delicious, nourishing and health-giving, and reap the rich fruit of their labourers. They should grow, seasonably and according to usage, instructions of former",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "various fields, cultivate seasonably in spring, summer, rains, autumn, dewy season and winter pot-herbs and other vegetables whose leaves, rind, flowers or bulbous roots are (edible and) delicious, nourishing and health-giving, and reap the rich fruit of their labourers. They should grow, seasonably and according to usage, instructions of former sages and the nature of the soil, cardamom, cloves, ginger, arecanut, betel plant, sugarcane, plantain trees and other life-promoting and beneficial herbs like the long-pepper in their field-beds or on high land (i.e., wet or dry land) as the case may be. The Brahmanas, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas, Sudras, men of mixed castes, hunters and soldiers (vim) should all grow to their best efforts (coriander, surana, valli, pumpkin-gourd, and Patolika) in their own land of whatever sort it may be. Experienced cultivators carry out all the processes needed for the infixing of the seeds, weeding of the ill-growth and protection of the plants till the time of inflorescence, under their own supervision according to the traditional usage. Of these vegetables, leaves, flowers, fruit, unripe fruit or bulbous roots are taken for use either at the beginning of efflorescence, or in the middle or end of it, as the case may be. The king should also introduce balances with a beam and scales made of bronze or brass for the weighing of vegetables. Whatever help in the cultivation of food grains and vegetables, etc., and in the procurement of oils, cloth, etc., is recommended by former sages in their treatises that the king should render for the 132 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY happiness of his subjects in every village and every house as well as for his own welfare. He should promote agriculture by regulating cultivation, sowing, etc., according to time and season, and cold and hot places. Betel stimulates love, reveals-physical charm,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "should render for the 132 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY happiness of his subjects in every village and every house as well as for his own welfare. He should promote agriculture by regulating cultivation, sowing, etc., according to time and season, and cold and hot places. Betel stimulates love, reveals-physical charm, enhances personal magnetism (i.e., makes one attractive), gives good smell to the mouth, strengthens the body, and dispels diseases arising from the vitiation of phlegm. It also bestows many other advantages. Betel leaves are used with a moderate dose of lime imparts red-colour (or love); an extra quantity of betel-nut spoils colour (or passion); excessive lime produces bad smell in the mouth; while an extra quantity of betel-leaf, pleasant smell. At night it is beneficial to have an over-dose of betel-leaf white by day, of areca-nut, to change this order is a mere farce of betel-chewing. When betel-leaf is made fragrant by means of kakkola (Luffa echinata), areca nut the fruit of Levali (Cicca acida) and Jatiphala (Myristica fragrans), it makes one happy with the joy of amorous odour. Quest for spices (A.D. 1498–1580): Europeans had to pay extortionate prices for species, particularly pepper, which not only made their food tasty, but was also used as a preservative for meat. Pepper was also used in wine and pastry. 2.39.2 Floriculture in Ancient India The divine character of the trees has been depicted in a number of seals, sealing potteries, potsherds and some rock paintings as archeological evidence of the Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa period (3500–1750 B.C.). A few trees such as pipal or asvatta (Ficus reliegiosa), neem (Azadirachta indica), katha or khadira (Acacia catechu) and jhand or sami (Prosopis cineraria) were held sacred by the ancient people of the Indus Valley. There are vivid descriptions of trees in the Rigveda (3700–2000",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Harappa period (3500–1750 B.C.). A few trees such as pipal or asvatta (Ficus reliegiosa), neem (Azadirachta indica), katha or khadira (Acacia catechu) and jhand or sami (Prosopis cineraria) were held sacred by the ancient people of the Indus Valley. There are vivid descriptions of trees in the Rigveda (3700–2000 B.C.). Methods of plant multiplication by seed and vegetative means were prevalent and find mention in the Vedas, Arthasasthra and Brhat Samhita. Plants were also featured in personal adornment and beautification of the home. Girls wore flower to Champaka (Michelia champaca) and jasmine in their hair and those of Siris (Albizzia labbek) in their ears. They made garlands of many kinds of flowers and painted their foreheads and cheeks with sandal paste obtained from Santalam album. Poet Kalidasa has made frequent references to these in his writings. In his Ritusamhara, Kalidasa gave charming descriptions of indigenous beautiful trees of India with flowers in different months. According to Vatsyana all big houses and palaces of kings had to pleasure garden–vrksavatika and pushpavatika. Among the trees, one of the most beautiful was the red flowered Saraca indica popularly known as Asoka. It was said that Sita was confined by Ravana in a grove of asoka trees. Another favourite tree of those days was Kadama (Anthocephalus cadamba) and its flower appears in golden balls. It was closely associated with the life of Lord Sri Krishna. Of the climbers, Madhavilata (Hiptage madhablata) received frequent mention in Kalidasa’s play (5th century) and among sweet scented shrubs the mask-mallow (Hibiscus abelmoschus) and the garland flower (Hedichium coronarium). Description of flowers and gardens and the garland flower (Hedichium corononarium). Description of flowers and gardens had been presented in ancient Sanskrit classics like Rig Veda (3000–2000 B.C.), Ramayana (1200–1000 B.C.) and Mahabharata (500 B.C.). Other Sanskrit books of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "shrubs the mask-mallow (Hibiscus abelmoschus) and the garland flower (Hedichium coronarium). Description of flowers and gardens and the garland flower (Hedichium corononarium). Description of flowers and gardens had been presented in ancient Sanskrit classics like Rig Veda (3000–2000 B.C.), Ramayana (1200–1000 B.C.) and Mahabharata (500 B.C.). Other Sanskrit books of early days written by Shudraka (100 B.C.), (Asvaghosha (100 A.D.) and Sarnghara (1283–1301 A.D.) also mentioned about flowers and gardens. Among the flowers the sacred lotus (Nelumbo mucifera) was the most important and numerous references to it occur in Sanskrit literature. In the days of Mohen-jo-daro, lotus blossoms were wreathed over the head of Sun-God. After rise of the Mauryas in the 4th to 5th century B.C., there has been vast secular literature and texts both vedic and post-vedic like vedas Brahamanas, Aranyakas Upanishads sutras smritis Mahakavyas puranas Buddhists texts (Jataka) and jain literature (Sutras) the sagas of the Upanishads have described AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 133 the Cosmic Tree rooted in the Brahman the ultimate whose branches are space, wind, and earth the cosmic tree is the world mother the goddess of nature which have been a part of flock cult in Hindu mythology. Kalpavarska is mentioned in Ramayana, Mahabharata, Jatakas, Divyavadana and the jain sutras. In Brahamancial religion, vata (Ficus benghalensis) was identified with identified with Shiva asvatha (Ficus religiosa) with Vishnu) lotus with Surya (Sun) and nine leaves of nine trees (navatatrika) with nine different aspects of Durga. The art of gardening and kinds of gardens were described by Sarangdhara (1300 A.D.) and Vatsyayana (300–400 A.D.) respectively. Vatsyayana (A.D. 300–400) has also rendered interesting accounts of four kinds of gardens namely pramadodyam udyan vrishavatika and nandanvana. The science of plant life. (Vrikshayurveda) on arbori-horticulture and usefulness of trees and gardens were well-known in ancient India. In the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "described by Sarangdhara (1300 A.D.) and Vatsyayana (300–400 A.D.) respectively. Vatsyayana (A.D. 300–400) has also rendered interesting accounts of four kinds of gardens namely pramadodyam udyan vrishavatika and nandanvana. The science of plant life. (Vrikshayurveda) on arbori-horticulture and usefulness of trees and gardens were well-known in ancient India. In the Ramayana mention is made of Ashokavana or Panchavati, in which sita was held captive Ashoka tress (Saraca asoca) were prodominant in this garden. In the Panchavati, five trees were planted. Asvattha (Ficus benghalensis) on the west amla (Emblica officinalis) on the south and the Ashoka (Saraca asoca) on the south-east. A description of the layout of gardens and parks and artificial lakes in the city of Indraprastha is given in the Sabha-Parva of the Mahabharata. The association of Lord Krishna with the Kadamba tree (Anthocephalus indicus) is well known. During the Buddhist period gardens were laid out around the monasteries and stupas and there were beautiful gardens in Nalanada the Taxila. It is said that Lord Buddha was born under the papal tree in a garden. The planting of roadside avenue trees (margeshuvriksha) was an important contribution of the king Asoka (233 B.C.). He was the first king in Indian History who encouraged Arboriculture and adopted it as a state policy. Mathura sculptures of Kashan period-depicted Kadamaba tree (Anthocephalus cadamba), Champaka (Michelia champaca), Mesua ferra and lxora abrorea. The Hindus were so fond of ornamental plants that some of them were actually worshipped. Besides Asoka (Saraca indica), Padma (Nelumbo nucifera) and tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), the pipal (Ficus religiosa) and banyan were given a very high place. The tree and Buddha Gaya under which Lord Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment, was a pipal, its branches were taken far and wide and planted to be given rise to new trees. The life of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), the pipal (Ficus religiosa) and banyan were given a very high place. The tree and Buddha Gaya under which Lord Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment, was a pipal, its branches were taken far and wide and planted to be given rise to new trees. The life of Lord Buddha (56 B.C.) was intimately associated with numerous trees. The art of gardening was spread to neighbouring east from India with preaching of Lord Buddha. The trees which were associated with Lord Buddha are Sal (Shorea robusta), Asoka (Saraca indica) and plaksha (Butea monosperma). Concept of identifying trees with gods and goddesses and threats and punishments against the destruction of useful trees helped to save the trees and flora which is a remarkable contribution of our ancient people. In Ramayana stated “I have not cut down any fig tree in the month of Vaisakha why then does the calamity befall me”. Felling of trees as an offence has been mentioned in several old texts like Kautilya’s Arthasastra, Agni purana, Varsha Purana Mastsya Purana and Buddhist and Jain literature. During the Mughal period (16th and 17th centuries A.D.) and the British period (18th and 19th centuries) several ornamental plants were introduced into India. Indian native flora has made significant contributions to the gardens of the world and also to the improvement of a few flowers like orchids and Rhododendrons. A. Mughal Period The Moughals in India introduced the concept of developing a garden in an enclosed space during 16th and 17th centuries. Babur mentioned in the Baburinama some indigenous ornamental trees like hibiscus (Hibiscus rosasinensis), oleander (Nerium indicum), Keora (Pandanus odoratissimum) and white jasmine. He is credited with the introduction of scented Persian rose in India. Babur (1483–1530), the Mughal emperor had established gardens in Persia and India. Akbar the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "17th centuries. Babur mentioned in the Baburinama some indigenous ornamental trees like hibiscus (Hibiscus rosasinensis), oleander (Nerium indicum), Keora (Pandanus odoratissimum) and white jasmine. He is credited with the introduction of scented Persian rose in India. Babur (1483–1530), the Mughal emperor had established gardens in Persia and India. Akbar the Great (1556–1605), the Mughal 134 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY emperor of India was the garden lover. Abu-i-Fazi provided a list of 21 fragrant flowering plants along with flower colour and season of flowering in Ain-i-Akbari. He also gave another list of 29 plants with flowers notable for their beauty. From the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, it appears that Jahangir was familiar with nearly all important fragrant plants of India like Michelia champaca, Pendanus odoratissimum, Mimusops elengi, and Jasminum officinale. Mughal gardens were developed in Agra, Delhi, Pinjore (near Simla), Srinagar, Kashmir and a few places during the 16th and 17th centuries A.D. The most important Mughal gardens are the Taj Mahal Garden Agra (1654 A.D.); Shalimar and Nishat Gardens, Srinagar, Pinjore Gardens, Pinjore and the Garden at Hamayun’s tomb, Delhi the rose was introduced into out country via the port of Bussorah by Babur in around 1526. Jehangir and Nurjehan were ardent lovers of the rose and encouraged rose growing in gardens. Apart from planting garden. Jahangir popularized char-chenars i.e., planting four chenars at the corners of a square, so that there may always be shade at the centre. The most important plants the famous Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar were the majestic China tree (Platans orientails), the Cyprus (Cupresus sempervirens) and the weeping willow (Salix babylonica) and flowers like rose narcissus daffodil, iris, lilies tulip and carnation. The Arabs terraced the slops with vineyards. The Arabs specialized in the culture of data-palm. According to Swindle, the data-palm produces more well mineralized, highly flavored",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "tree (Platans orientails), the Cyprus (Cupresus sempervirens) and the weeping willow (Salix babylonica) and flowers like rose narcissus daffodil, iris, lilies tulip and carnation. The Arabs terraced the slops with vineyards. The Arabs specialized in the culture of data-palm. According to Swindle, the data-palm produces more well mineralized, highly flavored and nutritious human food per acre than any other temperate zone crop. While it has its feet in running water, its head is in the fires of heaven. Information on agriculture and horticulture especially gardening of Arabs could be obtained from the book ‘Abu Zakariya’ written by Yahya bin Muhammad. Abu Zakriya says that all garden doorways should be farmed by clipped evergreens, that cypresses should be used to line paths and grouped to mark the junctions of paths. He objected to the mixing of evergreen with deciduous trees. Plants named in his text include lemon and orange trees, pines and most of our common deciduous trees, cypresses, oleander, myrtle and rose as the only flowering shrubs, violets, lavender, balm, mint, thyme, marjoram, iris, mallow, box and bay laurel. He lays much stress on aromatics, as, indeed, did all the Islamic gardeners. His climbing plants are vines, jasmines and ivy. The mahua (Madhuca indica) tree bears fruit twice a year and from its kernels they make oil, which they use for lamps. Betel vines Ibn Battuta also saw betel vines in Kerala. He states, Betel-trees are grown like vines on cane trellises or else trained up coco-palms. They have no fruit and are grown only for their leaves. The Indians have a high opinion of betel, and if a man visits a friend and the latter gives him five leaves of it, you would think he had given him the would, especially if he is a prince or notable. A",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fruit and are grown only for their leaves. The Indians have a high opinion of betel, and if a man visits a friend and the latter gives him five leaves of it, you would think he had given him the would, especially if he is a prince or notable. A gift of betel is a far greater honour than a gift of gold and silver. B. European Period Missionary priests, Englishmen, Portuguese, Amateur and professional gardeners from Europe, Asia and Africa, introduced a large number of plants into Indian gardens. Portuguese introduced Agave americana and Allamanda cathartica, which have now been naturalized throughout India. Several botanical gardens were established during 18th and 19th centuries in various parts of India, where indigenous and exotic plants were introduced and maintained. Roxburgh, the father of Indian Botany, was the first Botanist to adopt the Linnaean system of binomial nomenclature in relation to the plants of India. His pioneering work, Flora indica, Plantae coromendelianae and his portfolio of paintings of 2,382 plants mainly the work of Indian artists formed the basis of Hooker’s ‘Flora of British India’. Portuguese control the spice trade in the Indian Ocean during 1497 A.D. The term ‘herbal’ was put in use in 1516 as per the Oxford English Dictionary. Robert Fortune (1852) sent tea plants from China to Indian Himalayas. Cinchona trees (for quinine) sent from Kew NBG to India in 1861. One of the important missionaries who introduced a number of exotic plants was Dr. Firminger, an Englishman AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 135 who wrote a book on gardening giving descriptions of various species of flowers in 1863. The book entitled “Firminger’s manual of Gardening in India is an authoritative reference book on ornamental flowering plants even today. With the establishment of Government Botanic Gardens by the British",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 135 who wrote a book on gardening giving descriptions of various species of flowers in 1863. The book entitled “Firminger’s manual of Gardening in India is an authoritative reference book on ornamental flowering plants even today. With the establishment of Government Botanic Gardens by the British rulers during 18th and 19th centuries such as Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore (1760); the Government Botanic Garden, Saharanpur (1779); the Indian Botanic Garden, Sipbur Calcutta (1783); the Lloyd Botanic Garden, Darjeeling (1878) and the Government Botanic Garden, Ooty (1884), numerous economic plants as well as ornamentals were introduced in these gardens. Among the noteworthy introductions of that period are the mahogany (Swietenia mahogany) from Jamaica in 1795 and the Giant Amazon lily, Victoria regia from Sipbur gardens. Joseph Hooker brings 65,000 species of plants from India to Kew NBG in 1851. Grevillea robusta and Araucaria excelsa in 1857 and Amherstia nobilis in 1859 were introduced in the Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore. In the Government Botanic Garden, Saharanpur, Canna glauca, Jatrophia multifida and few other plants were introduced in 1817. Bougainvillea spectabilis was introduced by the Agni-Horticultural Society, Calcutta in 1858 from South Africa. The Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore introduced flower seeds from the Royal Botanical Garden Kew (England) in 1864. 2.40 PERFUMES India has a perfumery tradition that dates back to over 5,000 years to Indus Valley civilization. In the excavations of Harappa and Mohanjodaro, a ‘water distillation still’ and ‘receiver’ have been recorded whose shape resemble to the ‘deg’ and ‘bhabka’ currently used by ‘attarss’ (traditional perfumers) of Kannauj in India. There was competition in the preparation of aromatic essence. The roots, flowers and leaves were used in perfumery. The Sanskrit Encyclopedia ‘Manasollasa’ composed by Someshwara in A.D. 1127 deals with the blending of perfumes, which were used in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and ‘bhabka’ currently used by ‘attarss’ (traditional perfumers) of Kannauj in India. There was competition in the preparation of aromatic essence. The roots, flowers and leaves were used in perfumery. The Sanskrit Encyclopedia ‘Manasollasa’ composed by Someshwara in A.D. 1127 deals with the blending of perfumes, which were used in royal baths and for the rituals and worship. The Ain-i-Akbar (17th century) provides a list of twenty one fragrant flowering plants along with season and colours. A. Preparation of Perfumes (Brhat Samhita) The word ‘yukti’ means combination and composition. Perfumes and scents are manufactured for the benefit of royal personages and inmates of harems. All these things show that the level of scientific and industrial enterprise was pretty high in ancient India. In fact civilization grows if people desire increases for a happier livings, which in turn finds new avenues of getting luxury goods. B. Hair Colouration Cook the grains of Kodrava (Paspalum scrobiculatum) in sour gruel or vinegar in an iron dust and make a fine paste. After washing the hair with sour gruel (or vinegar) apply this paste to the head. Then, covering the head with green (juicy) leaves, remind for six hours. Thereafter remove the paste from the head and apply a paste of myrobalan (Emblica officinalis). Cover it again with green leaves and retain it for another six hours. On being washed, the hair will become black. C. Royal Head-bath A scented water fix for the washing of kings’ head is prepared with equal quantities of woody cassia, coctus (Saussurea lappa), Renuka (Piper aurantiacum), Nalika (Hibiscus cannabinus), Sprkka (Bryonopsis laciniosa) Rasa or Bola (Commiphora myrrha), Tagara (Valeriana wallichii), Valaka (Aprorosa lindieyana), Nagake-sara (Mesua ferrea) and Patra (Laurus cassia). Betel stimulates love, 136 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY gives good smell to the mouth, improves digestion and dispels",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "woody cassia, coctus (Saussurea lappa), Renuka (Piper aurantiacum), Nalika (Hibiscus cannabinus), Sprkka (Bryonopsis laciniosa) Rasa or Bola (Commiphora myrrha), Tagara (Valeriana wallichii), Valaka (Aprorosa lindieyana), Nagake-sara (Mesua ferrea) and Patra (Laurus cassia). Betel stimulates love, 136 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY gives good smell to the mouth, improves digestion and dispels diseases arising from vitiation of phlegm. Betel leaves used with moderate dose of lime imparts red colour (or love); extra quantity of betel nut spoils colour or passion; excessive lime produces bad smell in the mouth; while an extra quantity of betel-leaf produce pleasant smell. At night, it is beneficial to have an over dose of betel leaf, while by day, of arecanut. To change this order is a mere farce of betel chewing. D. Perfume from Roses Here is an account in Jahangir’s own words about the famous rose scent, Jahangiri: “This itr (i.e., Jahangiri itrso called otto of roses) is a discovery which was made during my reign through the efforts of the mother of Nur-Jahan Begam. When she was making rose water a scum formed on the surface of the dishes into which hot rose water was poured from the jugs. The scum was collected. It is of such strength in perfume that if one drop be rubbed on the palm of the hand it scents a whole assembly and it appears as if many red rosebuds had bloomed at once. There is no scent of equal excellence to it. It restores hearts that have gone and brings back withered souls. In reward for that invention I presented a string of pearls to the inventories. Salima Sulthan Begam (may the lights of God be on her tomb) was present, and she gave this oil the name of “its-i-Jahangiri”. 2.41 MEDICINAL PLANTS AND THEIR RELEVANCE TODAY The World",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "brings back withered souls. In reward for that invention I presented a string of pearls to the inventories. Salima Sulthan Begam (may the lights of God be on her tomb) was present, and she gave this oil the name of “its-i-Jahangiri”. 2.41 MEDICINAL PLANTS AND THEIR RELEVANCE TODAY The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 80% of the population of developing countries still relies on traditional medicines, mostly plant drugs, for their primary health care needs. Also, modern pharmacopoeia contains at least 25% drugs derived from plants. Many other are synthetic analogues built on prototype compounds isolated from plants. Demand for medicinal plant is increasing in both developing and developed countries due to growing recognition of natural products, being nontoxic, having no side-effects, easily available at affordable prices. There has been resurgence in the consumption and demand for medicinal plants. These plants are finding use as pharmaceuticals, neutraceuticals, cosmetics and food supplements. According to an all India ethno-biological survey carried out by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, there are over 8000 species of plants being used for medicine in India. 2.42 THE SIDDHA SYSTEM OF MEDICINE The Siddha system of medicine owes its origin to the Dravidian culture, which is of the Pre-vedic period. An examination of the ancient literature would reveal that the vedic Aryans owed allegiance to the cult of Shiva and the worship of the phallus (linga), which was later on absorbed by, and incorporated into the Vedic culture. The Shiva Cult is associated with its medical counterpart, the Siddha system of medicine, which is mainly therapeutic. Mercury, sulphur, iron, copper, gold, bitumen, white, yellow and red arsenic and other materials as well as vegetable poisons are extensively used in the pharmacopocia of the Siddha tradition. The Siddha system of medicine is prevalent",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "associated with its medical counterpart, the Siddha system of medicine, which is mainly therapeutic. Mercury, sulphur, iron, copper, gold, bitumen, white, yellow and red arsenic and other materials as well as vegetable poisons are extensively used in the pharmacopocia of the Siddha tradition. The Siddha system of medicine is prevalent in the Southern States of India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Singapore, where the Dravidian civilization was document. In the North of India, the Siddhar-Kalpa system (Siddha means one who has attained immortality and Kalpa means panacea) is known as Tantric Science. Siddha Science considers nature and man as essentially one. One who knows the anatomy of nature and its five elements knows well the anatomy of men. Nature is the foremost physician. The Tamils who are inhabiting the Southern peninsula of the sub-continent of India have an impressive and venerable past, as ancient as that of perhaps the Egyptians. They undertook a systematic study of nature and its elements and from what they were able to grasp, they had developed a highly systematized medicine, which is now known as Siddha system. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 137 It is well founded on the basic principles of nature and its elements offer a careful and thorough study of the human system. A. Origin of Siddha Medicine Siddha system is one of the oldest systems of medicine in India. The term ‘Siddha’ means achievement and the ‘Siddhars’ were saintly figures who achieved results in medicine through the practice of Yoga. Eighteen ‘Siddhars’ seem to have contributed towards the development of this medical system. Siddha system’s literature is in Tamil and it is practiced in Tamil speaking parts of India. The system is also called Agasthiyar system in the name of its famous exponent sage Agasthya. A number of medical works of this system",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to have contributed towards the development of this medical system. Siddha system’s literature is in Tamil and it is practiced in Tamil speaking parts of India. The system is also called Agasthiyar system in the name of its famous exponent sage Agasthya. A number of medical works of this system are ascribed to him but it may be difficult at this time to say the exact number that can be credited to him. This system of medicine developed within the Dravidian culture, which is of the pre-vedic period. The Siddha system is largely therapeutic in nature. B. The Siddhars The ancient Tamils in their quest for knowledge for longevity developed two ways by which man can achieve mastery over nature. One is the Yogic way and the other is through medicines. The persons who dedicated themselves to this task were themselves great yogis known as Siddhars. Hence the system of medicine propounded by them came to be known as Siddhars system of Medicine. This system can be traced to the prevedic period. Siddhar, a Tamil word that is derived from its root ‘chit’ means perfection in life or heavenly bliss. It generally refers to eight kinds of supernatural powers attainable to man. Siddhars are the persons who had attained such miraculous powers attainable to man. The persons who had attained such miraculous powers in life are known as Siddhars. They are men born with great talents who lived thousands of years ago in Tamil country, who by their devotion and search for truth, achieved perfection in their life time. C. Ancient Siddha Medical Works The earliest mention the use of medicinal plants is to be found in Thirumular Thirumantiram-Ennayiram, Tholkappiam and the ancient Tamil works of Sangarm Literature, which are believed to have been written thousands of years before the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "search for truth, achieved perfection in their life time. C. Ancient Siddha Medical Works The earliest mention the use of medicinal plants is to be found in Thirumular Thirumantiram-Ennayiram, Tholkappiam and the ancient Tamil works of Sangarm Literature, which are believed to have been written thousands of years before the Christian era. There are now more than 500 works in Tamil dealing with various subjects such as science of life, nature of universe, astronomical data, cosmic dance, atomic theory, space travel, alchemy, ‘Kaya Kalpa’ medicine, etc. D. The Neem Tree The Neem tree was regarded as sacred in Mohen-jo-daro Civilization. In the annals of the ancient Siddha System of Medicine, the first medicinal plant mentioned as well as found a place, in ancient Tamil literature is Margosa or Neem. This has been used by Tamils from time immemorial as a deterrent for smallpox and other infectious diseases and also considered to possess powers to ward off evil spirits. Perhaps they were aware of the germicidal action and the medicinal properties of the Margosa, Tirumular, the great siddha is said to have been in deep penance for several thousands of years before the Christian Era in eternal bliss under a sacred pipal tree. E. Basis of the Siddha System According to Siddha medical science the universe consists of 5 elements. Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Ether which correspond to the five senses of the human body. Man consumes water and food, breathes the air and then maintains the heat in the body. He is alive because of the life force given by ether. The earth is the first element, which gives fine shape to the body, including bones, tissues, muscles, skin, hair etc. Water is the second element representing blood, secretions of the glands, vital fluid etc. Fire 138 A TEXTBOOK",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "body. He is alive because of the life force given by ether. The earth is the first element, which gives fine shape to the body, including bones, tissues, muscles, skin, hair etc. Water is the second element representing blood, secretions of the glands, vital fluid etc. Fire 138 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY the third element that gives emotion, vigour and vitality to the body. It also helps digestion, circulation and stimulation besides respiration and the nervous system. Above all other is the characteristic of man’s mental and spiritual faculties. A suitable proportion of these five elements in combination with each other, produces a healthy person. These elements are divided into two halves, namely physical and subtle. And this subtle part is further sub-divided into two equal parts of which one is retained as such and the other part is again subdivided into four equal parts. This is what is known in Siddha system of Medicine as the theory of Panchikarnam (Fivefold combination). It is fact the functioning of the five elements in the human body. The ideal of the unification of energy and matter and the synthesis of the various phenomena of sound, light, heat, etc., which modern science has been endeavouring to establish were achieved by the ancient Siddhas, when modern equipments was not available for research. Siddhas also held that he who knows the secret doctrine of the five elements, could change a baser metal into gold. And Siddhas alchemy is based on this theory. Kalpa Treatment Ancient Siddha devoted time in finding out suitable remedies rather than describing the causes of a disease in detail. The scope of ‘Kaya Kalpa’ treatment is two-fold; one is to cure degenerative diseases and the other is to prolong the life span. Kalpa serves as an anti-degenerative elixir—that can cure cancer",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Siddha devoted time in finding out suitable remedies rather than describing the causes of a disease in detail. The scope of ‘Kaya Kalpa’ treatment is two-fold; one is to cure degenerative diseases and the other is to prolong the life span. Kalpa serves as an anti-degenerative elixir—that can cure cancer and heart diseases is itself rejuvenation. F. Culture and History of Siddha Medicine The original home allotted to mankind by the Creator was in the temperate and fertile region of the East and pointedly in India. It is from here that the human race began its culture and career. India may, therefore, be safely stated as that the first country from which human culture and civilization originated and spread. According to Indian history prior to Aryans migration, the Dravidian was the first inhabitant of India of whom the Tamilians were the most prominent. The Tamilians were not only the earliest civilized but also those who may more considerable progress in civilization than any other early people. The languages of India were divided into two great classes, the northern with Sanskrit as the pre-pondering element and the southern with Dravidian language as independent bases. The science of medicine is of fundamental importance to man’s well being be and his survival and so it must have originated with man and developed as civilization. It is, therefore, rather pointless to try to determine the exact point of time to which the beginning of these systems could be traced. They are eternal; they began with man and may end with him. The Siddha was flouriest in south and Ayurveda prevalent in the north. Instead of giving the name of any of individual as the founder of these systems our ancestors attributed their origin to the creator. According to the tradition it was Shiva who",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "with man and may end with him. The Siddha was flouriest in south and Ayurveda prevalent in the north. Instead of giving the name of any of individual as the founder of these systems our ancestors attributed their origin to the creator. According to the tradition it was Shiva who unfolded the knowledge of Siddha system of medicine to his concert Parvati who handed it down to Nandi Deva and he the Siddhars. The Siddhars were great scientists in ancient times. According to tradition, the origin of Siddha system of medicine is attributed to the great Siddha Agastiyar. Some of his works are still standard books of medicine and surgery in daily use among the Siddha Medical practitioners. The science of medicine is of fundamental importance to man’s well being and his survival, and so it must have originated with man and developed as civilization advanced. It is therefore rather pointless to try to determine the exact point of time when any system of medicine was evolved and codified. A system of medicine is not a discovery but a gradual evolution during successive periods of history. It owes its progress to great men, who have not only enriched the science, but also society and civilization as a whole. There are two ancient systems of medicine in India, the Siddha that flourished in the South and the Ayurveda prevalent in the North. Instead of giving the name of any one individual as the founder of either system, our ancients wisely attributed their origin to the Creator. According to tradition, it was Shiva who unfolded the knowledge of Siddha system of medicine to his consort, Parvati, who handed AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 139 it down to Nandideva and he, to Siddhars. Therefore, it is called ‘Saiva Sampradayam’ (tradition of Shive), or ‘Siddha",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "their origin to the Creator. According to tradition, it was Shiva who unfolded the knowledge of Siddha system of medicine to his consort, Parvati, who handed AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 139 it down to Nandideva and he, to Siddhars. Therefore, it is called ‘Saiva Sampradayam’ (tradition of Shive), or ‘Siddha Sampradayam’. In the case of Ayurveda it was Brahma, the Creator of the Universe, who taught the science to Prajapati, he to Aswini Devatas and they, in their turn, to Atreya etc. So this tradition is called the Brahma or Arsha Sampradaya (the tradition of Rishis). The inference to be drawn from these traditions is that, there is no exact point of time to which the beginning of these systems could be traced. They are eternal, without a beginning or end; they began with man. The Tamils have a distinct civilization, which is not disputed by historians. The recorded history of the Tamils is thousands of years old. Apart from the literature of the first, the middle and the last Sangam periods, which bears ample testimony to the extent of Tamil civilization and its eminence, mention is made even in contemporary Sanskrit literature about Cholas, Pandiyas and Cheras and their kingdoms. A civilized society must naturally have had a system of medicine, which catered to the health needs of its people. This was the Siddha system. The term ‘Siddhi’ means ‘achievement’ and the Siddhars were men who achieved certain results in medicine, as well as in yoga or tapas. The results in medicine were achieved by the Siddhars through their mental powers, they bequeathed to their ‘Chilas’ or pupils, who preserved and propagated the science. Eighteen Siddhars seem to have existed. They should have lived at different periods and bequeathed their experiences in medicine and yoga to posterity. The names",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "results in medicine were achieved by the Siddhars through their mental powers, they bequeathed to their ‘Chilas’ or pupils, who preserved and propagated the science. Eighteen Siddhars seem to have existed. They should have lived at different periods and bequeathed their experiences in medicine and yoga to posterity. The names of these eighteen Siddhas differ from one source to another. It is not necessary to dogmatise which of these enumerations is correct. Some of the Siddhas, for example, Kapila and Kakabujanda have written treatises both in Tamil and in Sanskrit. It is possible that the originals were written in Tamil and that they were translated into Sanskrit later. The following is the list of eighteen Siddhas according to one recession: 1. Nandi 2. Agasthiyar 3. Thirumular 4. Punnakkeesar 5. Pulasthiyar 6. Poonaikannar 7. Idaikadar 8. Bogar 9. Pulikai Isar 10. Karuvurar 11. Konkanavar 12. Kalangi 13. Sattainathar 14. Azhuganni 15. Agappai 16. Pambatti 17. Theraiyar and 18. Kudhambai. The names like Bogar, Idaikadar and Theraiyar are of recent origin and these Siddhars lived probably in the middle ages. There are also authors of Siddha treatises like Sattaimuni, Yugimuni, Macha Muni, Kakabusundar etc., whose works are available in parts at the present day and are being used. G. Important Tamil Books in Siddha Medicine Siddha Vaidya Thirattu, Therayar Maha Karisal, Brahma Muni Karukkadia 300, Bhogar 700, Pulippani 500, Agasthiyar Paripuranam 400, Therayar Yamagam, Agasthiyar Chenduram 300, Agasthiyar 500, Athmarakshmrutham, Agasthi Pin 80, Agasthiyar Rathna, Hurukkam, Therayar Karisal 300 , Veeramamuni Nasa Kandam, Agasthiyar 600, Agasthiyar Kanma Soothiram, 18 Siddhar’s Chillari Kovai, Yogi Vatha Kaviyam, Therayar Tharu, Agasthiyar Vaidya Kaviyam 1500, Bala Vagadam, Chimittu Rathna (Rathna) Churukkam, Nagamuni 200, Agasthiyar Chillari Kovai, Chikicha Rathna Deepam, Agasthiyar Nayana Vidhi, Yugi Karisal 151, Agasthiyar Vallathi 600, Therayar Thaila Varkam, Siddha Formulary of India (Part",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Kandam, Agasthiyar 600, Agasthiyar Kanma Soothiram, 18 Siddhar’s Chillari Kovai, Yogi Vatha Kaviyam, Therayar Tharu, Agasthiyar Vaidya Kaviyam 1500, Bala Vagadam, Chimittu Rathna (Rathna) Churukkam, Nagamuni 200, Agasthiyar Chillari Kovai, Chikicha Rathna Deepam, Agasthiyar Nayana Vidhi, Yugi Karisal 151, Agasthiyar Vallathi 600, Therayar Thaila Varkam, Siddha Formulary of India (Part I). The Rigveda (5000 years B.C.) mentioned 67 medicinal plants, Yajurveda 81 and Atharvaveda (4500-25000 B.C), 290 species. Later the Charak Samhita (700 B.C.) and Sushrut Samhita (200 years B.C) have described properties and uses of 1100 and 1270 plants respectively, in compounding of drugs and these are still used in classical formulations in the Ayurvedic system of medicine. H. Timeline of Indian Medicine 1000 B.C. – Atharva Veda. 600 B.C. – Codification of medical knowledge into Ayurveda. 400 B.C. – Caraka Samhita by Caraka. 140 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 400 B.C. – Susruta Samhita by Susruta. 700 A.D. – Ashtanga Samgraha by Vagbhata. 700 A.D. – Ashtanga Hridya Samhita by Vaghbata. 800 A.D. – Rasaratnakara by Nagarjuna. 900 A.D. – Rug Vinishchaya by Madhakara 1000 A.D. – Siddha Yoga by Vrinda. 1000 A.D. – Nava Nitaka by Navanita. 1300 A.D. – Sharangadhar Samhiti by Sharangadhar. 1550 A.D. – Bhavaprakasha by Bhava Misra. 1563 A.D. – Garcia da Orta‘s Coloquios dos simples e Drogas e cousas medicineis da India (A.D 1563) includes description of many Indian medicinal plants. 1591 A.D. – Christophoras Acosta‘s Aromaticum et medicametorum in Orientali Indian nascentium liber and Historia Natural R moral de las Indias scuilla (Barcelona, A.D. 1591) are important works on medicinal plants of India. I. Distribution of Medicinal Plants in Tamil Nadu Analysis of habits of medicinal plants indicates that they are distributed across various habitats. One third are trees and an equal portion shrub and the remaining one-third herbs, grasses and climbers.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(Barcelona, A.D. 1591) are important works on medicinal plants of India. I. Distribution of Medicinal Plants in Tamil Nadu Analysis of habits of medicinal plants indicates that they are distributed across various habitats. One third are trees and an equal portion shrub and the remaining one-third herbs, grasses and climbers. A very small proportion of the medicinal plants are lower plants like lichens, ferns, algae, etc. Majority of the medicinal plant are higher flowering plants. The State of Tamil Nadu is endowed with a very rich flora. Due to the various physiographic features and physiognomic factors, different types of vegetation exist in the state: 1. Coastal vegetation, 2. Island vegetation and 3. Vegetation of hills and mountains comprising of: 1. Dry deciduous forests 2. Moist deciduous forests 3. Semi-evergreen forests 4. Wet evergreen forests 5. Sholas (Southern montane wet temperate forests) The altitude varies from sea level to 2637 m including the well known mountain ranges—the Nilgiri, the Anamalais and the Cardamom hills which harbours different types of ecological niches, ecosystem and innumerable medicinal plants. A few ethnic tribes like the Irular, Kaanikkara, Karumpar, Palliyan, Paniyar, Sholagar, Thodar and others dwell in these ecosystems and still depend on naturally occurring or cultivated from the state. Out of this, it is found that 1474 are medicinal plants. A total number are found to be used in Siddha system of medicine, which is commonly practiced throughout the state. Tampcol has two medicinal farms, one in Chennai city at Arumbakkam and at Valavandinadu, Kolli hills, Namakkal district. In Chennai farm six varieties of medicinal plants are cultivated in five acres to meet the fresh herb requirements for the production of herbal hair tonic, other medicated oils and also supplied to pharmacy at Arignar Anna Govt. Hospital for Indian medicine and Homoeopathy, Chennai. Another",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Kolli hills, Namakkal district. In Chennai farm six varieties of medicinal plants are cultivated in five acres to meet the fresh herb requirements for the production of herbal hair tonic, other medicated oils and also supplied to pharmacy at Arignar Anna Govt. Hospital for Indian medicine and Homoeopathy, Chennai. Another 150 varieties of medicinal plants are maintained in the parks as reference material. The farm is also visited by the students of all systems of Indian Medicine. Leading practitioners of Indian AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 141 Medicine also make use of this farm as their reference for medicinal plants. This farm is very popular and has contributed for herbal awareness in Chennai City. The farm participates in the exhibitions conducted by Educational Institutions, Trade fairs and seminars/conferences in the city. The public is also encouraged to buy the medicinal plants at low prices to enhance the importance and awareness of herbal medicines. The Kolli Hills medicinal farm is situated in Valavandinadu at the altitude of 3600 ft. The land is undulating with rocky slopes. Out of 105 acres year-marked, the corporation has developed 55 acres and cultivating a dozen species of medicinal plants on large scale and another 50 varieties which includes trees, climbers, perennials are cultivated on bunds, hedges, fence line etc., as per suitability of the species. Further, the farm has a large nursery in which seedlings/saplings/cuttings/graftings are raised for own cultivation and to supply to the government institutions concerned and also to progressive farmers in the state and outside. J. Raw Drugs Trading The corporation is handling 400 varieties of raw drugs of plant, metal/mineral, animal and marine origin for the production of its own products and to supply to four government pharmacies of ISM in the state and also for the outside sales. The corporation is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and outside. J. Raw Drugs Trading The corporation is handling 400 varieties of raw drugs of plant, metal/mineral, animal and marine origin for the production of its own products and to supply to four government pharmacies of ISM in the state and also for the outside sales. The corporation is experienced in the All India raw drug trade and can source raw drugs for domestic and overseas markets. K. Tampcol Products Tamil Nadu Medicinal Plant Farms and Herbal Medicine Corporation Ltd. (TAMPCOL) was established in 1983 by the Government of Tamil Nadu at Chennai. The corporation has been manufacturing 50 medicines of Siddha, Ayurveda and Unani systems and supplying to all the ISM wings in PHC’s/ Dispensaries/Hospitals and Taluk/District hospitals in the state of Tamil Nadu apart from supplying to TNEB dispensaries and CGHS dispensaries in Chennai city. The products are also sold in the open market through dealers and Tampcol’s outlets in Chennai and Palayamkottai. The particulars of medicinal plants cultivated in Tamil Nadu are presented in Tables 18, 19 and 20. Table 2.12. Medicinal Plants under Cultivation in Tamil Nadu Sl.No. Botanical name Tamil name Trade name 1. Piper longum Thippili Long pepper 2. Alpinia speciosa Sittrathai Galangal 3. Centella asiatica Vallarai Gotucola 4. Bacoppa monnieri Neer birammi Birammi 5. Phyllanthus amarus Keelanelli Phyllanthus 6. Eclipta alba Vellai karisalai Brhingraj 7. Phylla nodiflora Poduthalai – 8. Wedelia calandulaecae Manjal karisalai – 9. Ocimum sanctum Thulasi Thulasi 10. Ocimum kilimanjariacum Karunthulasi Krishna Thulasi 11. Ruta graveolens Aruvatha Burke-Sadaf 12. Desmodium gangeticum Orilai Desmodium 13. Uraria picta Moovilai Uraria 14. Pogostemman patchouli Patchilai Pogostemman 142 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 15. Acorus calamus Vasambu Sweet flag 16. Adathoda zeylanica Adathoda Adathoda 17. Vettiveria zynoides Vettiver Vettiver 18. Gymnema sylvestre Siru kurunjan – 19. Decalepis hamiltonii Malai nannari Decalepis 20. Melina arborea",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Desmodium gangeticum Orilai Desmodium 13. Uraria picta Moovilai Uraria 14. Pogostemman patchouli Patchilai Pogostemman 142 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 15. Acorus calamus Vasambu Sweet flag 16. Adathoda zeylanica Adathoda Adathoda 17. Vettiveria zynoides Vettiver Vettiver 18. Gymnema sylvestre Siru kurunjan – 19. Decalepis hamiltonii Malai nannari Decalepis 20. Melina arborea Perungkumil Kumbi 21. Embilica officinalis Nellikkai Amla 22. Aegle marmelos Vilvam Bel 23. Saraca asoka Asokam Asok 24. Terminalia arjuna Marutham Arjuna 25. Syzigiyam Jambolanum Naval Jambolanum 26. Croton tiglium Nervalam Jamal got 27. Michalia Champaka Senbagam Champak 28. Syzigium aromaticum Elavangam Cloves 29. Piper nigrum Milagu Black pepper 30. Cinnamum tamala Elavanga pattai Cinnamum 31. Myristica fragrance Jathikkai Nutmeg 32. Steriospermum suaveolens Pathiri Pata 33. Cichorium intybus Kasini Kasini 34. Andrographis paniculata Nilavembu Kalameg 35. Tinospora cardifolia Seenthil Guduchi 36. Asparagus recimosus Thanneervittan kilangu Asparagus 37. Psoralea corilifolia Karbogalarisi Babchi Table 2.13. Agrotech of Medicinal plants S.No. Botanical name Trade name Type and duration of crop 1. Centella asiatica Vallarai Perennial Crop 3 Months 2. Eclipta alba Vellai karisalai Seasonal Crop 3 Months 3. Wedelia calandulaceae Manjal karisalai Perennial Crop 3 Months 4. Ruta graveolense Aruvatha Annual Crop 1 Year 5. Alpinia speciosa Sittrathai Annual Crop 1 Year 6. Andrograpis paniculata Nilavembu Seasonal Crop 6 Months 7. Phyllanthus amarus Keelanelli Seasonal Crop 3 Months 8. Moranta arundunaecae Arrow root Seasonal Crop 1 Year 9. Cichorium intybus Kasini Seasonal Crop 5 to 6 Months 10. Solanum nigrum Manathakkalai Seasonal Crop 5 to 6 Months 11. Psorelia corilifolia Karbogalarisi Seasonal Corp 5 to 6 Months 12. Adathoda zeylanica Adathoda Perennial Crop 3 Months 13. Ocimum sanctum Thulasi Seasonal Crop 6 Months 14. Gymnima sylvastre Sirukurinjan Perennial Crop 1 Year 15. Bacoppa monnieri Neer Birammi Perennial Crop 3 Months AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 143 Table 2.14. Plants Cultivated and Exported from Tamil",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "5 to 6 Months 12. Adathoda zeylanica Adathoda Perennial Crop 3 Months 13. Ocimum sanctum Thulasi Seasonal Crop 6 Months 14. Gymnima sylvastre Sirukurinjan Perennial Crop 1 Year 15. Bacoppa monnieri Neer Birammi Perennial Crop 3 Months AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 143 Table 2.14. Plants Cultivated and Exported from Tamil Nadu S.No. Botanical name Trade name Area of cultivation in Tamil Nadu 1. Gymnima sylvestre Gymima Dindugal, Kolli Hills, Tuticorin. 2. Centella asiatica Gotucola Salem, Erode, Hosur. 3. Cichorium intibus Kasini Ooty, Hosur, Kolli Hills 4. Eclipta alba Bhringraj Trichy, Salem, Madurai 5. Coleus forskholi Forskholi root Thiruvannamalai, Salem, Madurai. 6. Gloriosa superba Gloriosa Salem, Krishnagiri, Moolanoor, Ottanchathiram, Sivakasi. 7. Cassia angusitefolia Senna Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, Virudhunagar. 8. Indigofera tinctoria Indigo Viluppuram, Tindivanam, Vandavasi, Thiruvannamalai, Thiruvallur. 9. Ocimum sanctum Thulasi Salem, Hosur 10. Ruta graveolense Burk-e-sathaf Hosur, Ooty, Kolli Hills. 11. Decalepis hamiltonii Decalipis Kolli Hills. 12. Phyllanthus amarus Phyllanthus Thiruvallur, Salem, Hosur, Madurai. L. Medical Education in Ancient India Medicinal knowledge gained over trial and error over the thousands of years in India and neighbouring regions has been systematized thousands of years ago in a system of medicine called Ayurveda. Ayurveda is a Sanskrit word, derived from two roots: ayur, which means life, and Veda, knowledge. Knowledge arranged systematically with logic becomes science. During the due course of time, Ayurveda became the science of life. It has its root in ancient Vedic literature and encompasses our entire life, the body, mind and spirit. In ancient India, Medical education was available in the larger cities such as Taxila, Kasi (Varanasi) and Nalanda. Taxila situated about 20 miles west of Rawalpindi (now in Pakistan) was the most important seat of learning in ancient India dating from the sixth century B.C. It attracted students from all corners of India viz., from Rajagriha, Mithila,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the larger cities such as Taxila, Kasi (Varanasi) and Nalanda. Taxila situated about 20 miles west of Rawalpindi (now in Pakistan) was the most important seat of learning in ancient India dating from the sixth century B.C. It attracted students from all corners of India viz., from Rajagriha, Mithila, Kashi, Ujjain, Kuru, Koshala, etc. Its fame had spread far and wide in foreign countries; students from there were said to come here to learn. Nalanda was another center of learning, which flourished from the fifth to twelfth century A.D. The plant wealth of forest was utilized through ‘Ayurveda’ for the welfare of human beings. The most important trees extensively used in medicinal preparations were Neem (Azadirachta indica), Anola (Phyllanthus officinalis), Harra (Terlllinalia chebula), Behda (Termlinalia bellirica), and Bael (Aegle marmelos). The city of Ayodhya was inhabited by a good number of vaidyas or physicians. Proficient and skilled surgeons known as ‘salyakrt’ (v. 28.6) existed at the time of Ramayana. Physicians accompanied royal well developed and surgeons were in special demand. Surgeons of the structure of the human body as can be inferred from the many anatomical terms used in the epic. M. Siddha Education There are two Government Siddha medical colleges with a total admission capacity of 150 students at the Under Graduate level. One at Palayamkottai with admission capacity of 100 and the other at Chennai with an admission capacity of 50. In addition to the above another 3 private Siddha medical colleges are also there in Tamil Nadu with an admission capacity of 30 students each. Admissions are purely on the basis of Common Entrance Test conducted by the Govt. of Tamil Nadu after 10+2. These 144 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY colleges are affiliated to Dr. MGR Medical University, Chennai. Both the Government colleges are having the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Nadu with an admission capacity of 30 students each. Admissions are purely on the basis of Common Entrance Test conducted by the Govt. of Tamil Nadu after 10+2. These 144 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY colleges are affiliated to Dr. MGR Medical University, Chennai. Both the Government colleges are having the facilities for post-graduate education with total admission capacity of 80 (Palayamkottai : 60 and Chennai : 20). The Government has constituted the Tamil Nadu Medicinal Plants Board to address the issues connected with conservation and sustainable use of Medicinal Plants, cultivation of Medicinal Plants and export of such products. An international organization, called ICMAP (International Council for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants) was initiated and located in Paris, France. The Government of Tamil Nadu has established the National Institute of Siddha at Tambaram, Chennai. This institute has teaching facility in 6 Siddha subjects as mentioned below: – Siddha Maruthuvam Pothu (General Medicine) – Gunapadam (Pharmacology) – Sirappu Maruthuvam (Special Medicine) – Pillaippini Maruthvam (Paediatrics) – Noi nadal (Pathology) – Nanju nool (Toxicology) The Central council of Indian Medicine regulates the education of Siddha system in the country. Within the council, there is a separate education committee for this system. The education committee is charged to deal with all matters pertaining to Siddha education including the development of a detailed curriculum and syllabus both at under-graduate levels. 2.43 ROLE OF CATTLE AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS A. Domestication of Animals The raising of animals is as old as civilization itself, for, our common domestic animals were domesticated before the beginning of written history. Paleolithic man hunted animals for food and raiment; his successor, the Neolithic man, tamed and confined them. It was in the Neolithic or New Stone age that men first practiced agriculture, which included the raising of domestic animals. Carbon-14 testing",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "domestic animals were domesticated before the beginning of written history. Paleolithic man hunted animals for food and raiment; his successor, the Neolithic man, tamed and confined them. It was in the Neolithic or New Stone age that men first practiced agriculture, which included the raising of domestic animals. Carbon-14 testing of animal and plant remains showed the domestication of sheep at 9000 B.C. in northern Iraq; cattle in the 6th millennium B.C. in northeastern Iran; goats at 8000 B.C. in central Iran; pigs at 8000 B.C. in Thailand or asses, at 7000 B.C. in Jarmo, Iraq; and horses at 4350 B.C. in Ukraine. The domestication of sheep and goat took place in the pre-agricultural phase when nomadic man with the help of dog brought them under his control. Small ruminants like sheep and goat constituted the important dietary source of the early man. This was probably the first step towards secured food production in his adventurous life. The early man had the wisdom to distinguish between sheep and goat and their varying ecological requirements. The sheep is essentially a grass eater preferring protection of open woods. The goat is a browser preferring foliage of shrubs and trees and is content with sparse forest. To the early man, sheep and goat provided milk, meat and clothing. Sheep scored over the goat in respect of wool and quality of meat while goat provided more milk. Animals like horses, elephants, camels, sheep, goats, bullocks, cows and buffaloes played vital role in the development of human civilization from early time. The large ruminants like cows and buffaloes were wild animals of the forest and they used to invade the fields of river valley civilization as crop robbers. The early men judged the utility of these animals for power (energy), food (milk and meat), manure",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of human civilization from early time. The large ruminants like cows and buffaloes were wild animals of the forest and they used to invade the fields of river valley civilization as crop robbers. The early men judged the utility of these animals for power (energy), food (milk and meat), manure (dung and urine) and hide (shoes and shields). These crop robbers were, therefore, captured and domesticated to meet the day-to-day needs of life. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 145 B. Life Span of Animals The life span of some animals mentioned by Shalihotra is given below: Elephant 120 years Horses 32 years Cows 24 years Asses and camels 25 years Dogs 16 years Jackals 25 years Bees 14 days C. Livestock in Agriculture “When Prajapati created cattle, he made them over to the Vaisya; and if a Vaisya is willing to keep them, it must not be kept by any other caste.” (Manu Samhita). Vaisyas were primarily agriculturists, formed a wealthy and respectable section of the community and produced fine breeds of cattle. Agriculture, cattle rearing, trade and commerce constituted the four fold vartha or pursuits suitable for making fortune. Cattle rearing have been noted in the Epics as important and universal an occupation as farming in Ramayana and Mahabharata. The famous cow “Kamdhenu” (meaning producing according to desire) of Bashistha existed in Mahabharata. In the Mahabharata is given that lion, tiger, boar, buffalo, elephant, bear, and ape are the seven wild animals (aranyah); and cow, goat, sheep, horse, mule and ass are seen domestic animals. Of the former group, boar, buffalo and elephant are reared. The kings themselves, the Ksatriyas, owned and reared the cattle and cattle-wealth was the mainstay of their house-hold finances. The outstanding examples are the emperor of Kosala (Ramayana) or of the prince of Kasi (Jataka).",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "ass are seen domestic animals. Of the former group, boar, buffalo and elephant are reared. The kings themselves, the Ksatriyas, owned and reared the cattle and cattle-wealth was the mainstay of their house-hold finances. The outstanding examples are the emperor of Kosala (Ramayana) or of the prince of Kasi (Jataka). The kings maintained buffaloes, camels, asses, mules, swine and dogs for a variety of purpose (Arthasastra) besides horses, elephants, cows, sheep, and goats. In the Dhumakari Jatakti, the high bred Brahmin is a goat keeper. The setthis or merchants mentioned in Jataka were also keeper of cattle. The art of weaving gradually developed and is considered as a further adaptation of basket making from bamboo, which was a natural resource of the forest. The fibre used was the wool of sheep, which was woven into carpets and fabrics for garments. The Rigveda mentions about the fine quality of wool of sheep and the domestication of the animal by the ‘Gandhars’ in the north-east of India. The Vedic Aryans were primarily pastorals and grazed their cattle in the forests. The Kings were required to make ample provision for pastures by setting apart suitable land at the time of forming villages. The Arthashastra mentions about the breeding policy for animals. It has also defined the duties of graziers. The graziers were asked to attach bells to the necks of their cattle so as to scare away snakes and tigers. The sound of the bell helped the graziers in locating the whereabouts of the herd. Cow was the principal wealth and symbol of Aryans and most of the wars were fought for acquiring cows. The cows were milked three times a day and castration of bull was practiced. Zebu bull was the symbol of Gupta dynasty (240 B.C.). The coins during the Gupta",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the herd. Cow was the principal wealth and symbol of Aryans and most of the wars were fought for acquiring cows. The cows were milked three times a day and castration of bull was practiced. Zebu bull was the symbol of Gupta dynasty (240 B.C.). The coins during the Gupta period bore the image of ‘Nandi bull’, which is a humped Zebu. Improvement of Zebu cattle was the most important step taken by man in the development of agriculture. The preference of Zebu for dry land and its aversion for water indicate its origin in the dry mountainous environment. Similarly buffalo played an important role in the economy of ancient India. In the Mauryan age, the buffalo became a recognized dairy animal. The female buffalo gave plenty of milk and male was ideal for transport and for ploughing in the muddy rice-fields. One of the centres of domestication of buffalo in India was the Indus valley. In India, buffalo is valued on 146 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY account of its higher milk yield and higher fat content in milk, which is suitable for the preparation of Ghee (butter-oil). Ghee is one of the important components of diet and widely used in religious functions also. During the Mughal rule, large parts of the country were pastoral and rearing of sheep was a flourishing occupation of many people. Emperor Akbar (1555–1605) promoted the wool industry particularly related to the manufacture of ‘Shawls’ and carpets. Shawls made from ‘TUS’ were famous for lightness, warmth and softness. D. Breeding of Cattle In the Agnipurana we find the king enjoined to preserve the breed of cattle in the country. There were certain restrictions on castrating bulls. Emperor Asoka issued an order that a bull, a goat or a ram must not be castrated on the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "warmth and softness. D. Breeding of Cattle In the Agnipurana we find the king enjoined to preserve the breed of cattle in the country. There were certain restrictions on castrating bulls. Emperor Asoka issued an order that a bull, a goat or a ram must not be castrated on the 8th, 10th, 15th and 13th day of each fortnight, neither on the Punarvasu day, on a festival day and in every fourth month of the year. A herd of 100 head of asses and mares shall contain five stallions, that of goats and sheep ten rams, and those of cows, buffaloes and camels shall contain four breeding males each. E. Sacredness of Animals The cow is the foremost of all quadrupeds as surely as the Brahmana is among the four castes. The deification of bull is considered as the animal of Siva. The Siva with his bull is represented in the coins of the Kusanas and Scytho-Sassanian kings and in a coin of Sasanka, king of Gauda. But it is for the first time and as late as in a coin of the Huna Mihiragula that a bull-emblem of Siva is seen with the legend. ‘Jayatu vrsah’ on the reverse. Touching a cow with feet is in (Ramayana and Mahabharata) is to be read with the crimes indicated for cruelty to cows. Cows have been mentioned as a symbolical representation of the Earth rays of sun or the Goddess of speech. In the Matsya Purana, the earth is represented as taking the form of a cow. At the root of the (cow’s) horn sits Brahma, in its middle sits Kesava (Lord Visnu) and at the end sits Siva–thus, the triad of gods resides there permanently. At the tip of the (cow’s) horn are all the holy places as well as",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "taking the form of a cow. At the root of the (cow’s) horn sits Brahma, in its middle sits Kesava (Lord Visnu) and at the end sits Siva–thus, the triad of gods resides there permanently. At the tip of the (cow’s) horn are all the holy places as well as personages and all the gods reside in her body. Thus cow is the very embodiment of all the gods. At the top of her forehead resides the goddess (Parvati), in her nostrils the god Kartikeya, and in her ears the two Naga (serpent) chief Kambala and Asvatara. In the eye of that divine Surabhi (cow) and the sun and the moon, in the teeth the eight Vasus and in her tongue sits the god Varuna. The Sarasvati resides in her lowing, Yama and Yaksa (Kubera) on her temples, the risis (sages) in her pores and the water of the Ganges in her urine. The Yamuna along with other goddesses resides in her dung. Twenty-eight crores of gods dwell in down. F. Dairying in Ancient India In the Indian mythology, the cow has been termed as the “mother” and the whole body of the cow has been described as the permanent abode of various Gods and Goddess. Cow is the mother of Rudras, daughter of Vasus, sister of Aditi’s sons, and is “Ambrosia” in the form of ghee. Lord Krishna used to call his cows by name (a method of identification of animals). In Garg Samhita (Golok Khand) three titles, which used to be conferred upon persons possessing cowherds namely, (i) Brakh Bhanu–the person who reared 10 lakh (one million) cows, (ii) Nand-the person who reared 9 lakh cows and (iii) Upnand–the person who reared 5 lakh cows. Regarding the milk processing and its conversion into different products, sufficient evidence is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "used to be conferred upon persons possessing cowherds namely, (i) Brakh Bhanu–the person who reared 10 lakh (one million) cows, (ii) Nand-the person who reared 9 lakh cows and (iii) Upnand–the person who reared 5 lakh cows. Regarding the milk processing and its conversion into different products, sufficient evidence is available in the Mahabharata regarding items such as curd, butter and ghee, and these were prepared in every household. The traditional technology of milk heating (simmering), i.e., slows heating for a longer time on the fire of dried cow dung cakes is prevalent even today. The Westerners could know the importance of heating milk much later and the process of pasteurization came into being only after AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 147 1862 A.D. During the rainy season, autumn, and the dewy season they should milk the cattle both the times (morning and evening); and during the winter, spring and summer, only once (i.e., in the morning). He who milks the cattle a second time during these seasons shall be punished by having his thumb cut off. If he allows the milking-time to lapse, he shall forfeit his remuneration for that time. A ‘drona’ of a cow’s milk will yield one ‘prastha’ of ghee; the same quantity of buffalo’s milk will yield one-fifth more; and that goats and sheep will yield two-fifths more. G. Rearing and Care of Cows (Brhat Parasara Samhita) The householder should milk the cows in the morning as well as in the evening. They do not, as a rule, make increase in their yield of milk if the milking man is changed. The cow is the very congregation of all the gods, for in her head sits the god Brahma, on her shoulders Siva, on her back Vishnu, tin her feet the Vedas and whatever other gods",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a rule, make increase in their yield of milk if the milking man is changed. The cow is the very congregation of all the gods, for in her head sits the god Brahma, on her shoulders Siva, on her back Vishnu, tin her feet the Vedas and whatever other gods are left, they occupy every hair on her body. The Lord Hari (Vishnu) is pleased with devotional attentions paid to her. A cow should not be milked without her calf, nor when she is pregnant. One who milks her prior to ten days after her delivery, goes to hell. H. Therapeutic Aspects in Dairy Human milk has been considered as remedy for ‘7-fold doshas’. The milk of black complexioned women is considered for the treatment of eye diseases whereas the milk of fair complexioned women is used for the treatment of 3 doshas. The cow milk in general is strength giving. Milk of white cows cures “Vaat” (rheumatic and cardiac complaints) and the milk of black cows cure kafa (lung infections). The milk of black teats possess highest medicinal value which no other kind of milk approach. Like this, there are many mentions of medicinal value of cow milk in Rigveda and Atharvaveda. In ancient medical treatise Charak Samhita, ten characteristic of cow milk, i.e., tasty, cooling, soft, oily, thick, mild, viscous, bulky, and resistant to external effects and has pleasant flavour have been described. Not only this, the morning cow milk (pratardoha) midday cow milk (saganv) and evening cow milk (samandoha) possess different characteristics and properties. This type of analysis has been mentioned in an old treatise ‘Bhava Prakash’ as under: Before-noon milk is appetizing, digestive and improving semen quality, at-noon milk gives strength and destroys cough and liver ailments and increases hunger. In childhood it stimulates growth and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "milk (samandoha) possess different characteristics and properties. This type of analysis has been mentioned in an old treatise ‘Bhava Prakash’ as under: Before-noon milk is appetizing, digestive and improving semen quality, at-noon milk gives strength and destroys cough and liver ailments and increases hunger. In childhood it stimulates growth and in old age prevents wasting, and increasing sperms by daily consumption in night the milk cures many diseases. Hence, milk can be consumed at any time. In ‘Susruta Samhita’ the properties of cow milk and dahi (curd) have been described as flavored, tasty, digestive, strength giving, restorative, pure and pleasant, and anti-rheumatic. Given with equal proportion of honey, butter, peepal, dry ginger, black pepper, Vacha and rock salt (sendha namak) together and mixed them with same quantity of cow curd, removes the ill effects of snake poison. The malai (thin accumulate on milk surface after heating) of milk has been known to possess immense capability of completely eradicating of ailments associated with the imbalances of Vaat (rheumatic) and pitta (liver disorder) in addition to providing vigour and strength. Ancient literature states that there is a nerve in the spine of a cow termed as suryaketu which when exposed to sun synthesizes gold, imparting anti-poisonous properties to the milk. This is cow ghee is supreme in characteristics. It cures all the three doshas (imbalance of humours) and inactivates toxins and improves eyesight. I. Animal Management During post-Vedic era medicines occupied an honorable position and Samhitas by Charaka and shusruta were followed from about 700 B.C. At that time there was development of materia medica. The only source of use of indigenous drugs in veterinary medicine is Agni Purana, which reveals the real picture 148 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY of practice of veterinary medicines during the Gupta dynasty (300-500 A.D.). The ancient",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "from about 700 B.C. At that time there was development of materia medica. The only source of use of indigenous drugs in veterinary medicine is Agni Purana, which reveals the real picture 148 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY of practice of veterinary medicines during the Gupta dynasty (300-500 A.D.). The ancient system of Indian medicine is termed Ayurveda (Gavyayurveda fir cattle, Hastyayurveda for elephants, and Ashvayurveda for equines). Shalihotra lectured on the subject of horse and its treatment, the “Ashvayurveda”or “Turangama shatra”. Garuda Purana also describes the treatment of horses. King Nala had a surname ‘Ashvavit, i.e., versed in the science of horses. Nakula and Sahadeva, the twin sons of Madri, were taught by Drona the art of training, management and treatment of horses and cattle respectively. In the Mahabharata, Virata Parva, third PART, when the Pandavas entered into services of King Virata, Nakula declared himself well versed in the science of management and treatment of horses, and Sahadeva referred to his scientific knowledge about the cows. To Nakula is ascribed the work called Ashvachikitsa or “Treatment of diseases of the horse” which is still in existence. This book is also called “Shalihotra”. In the Mahabharata, Virata Parva (PART III) Sahadeva, the fifth Pandava, has described himself as well versed in the science of management and treatment of cows. He also mentions that he knows such type of cows and bulls whose urine when smelled by a barren woman, the conception occurs (Mahabharata, Virat III.12). Perhaps the cow urine contains some type of hormone, which needs to be investigated. Nakula Samhita is considered the first treatise dealing with treatment of animals with herbal preparations and was compiled during the Mahabharata period. During the early medieval period drugs of vegetables and animals origin and minerals have been used for treatments. Jayadeva also",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "type of hormone, which needs to be investigated. Nakula Samhita is considered the first treatise dealing with treatment of animals with herbal preparations and was compiled during the Mahabharata period. During the early medieval period drugs of vegetables and animals origin and minerals have been used for treatments. Jayadeva also wrote on the treatment of horses and he is quoted by Jayadatta. Shalihotra, father of veterinary science in India, flourished in Shalatur, a town near Kandhar or old Gandhara. According to an incomplete manuscript of Shalihotra (India Office Library, London), he is described as the father of Susruta. Hastyayurveda or Gahayurveda is also an important branch of veterinary medicine. The source of the science is Palakapya’s Hastyayurveda which is now available (Published in Anandashran Sanskrit Series, Poona, 1894). Susruta Samhita. Thus it may be assumed that this work also belongs to 1000 B.C. Kautilya, the prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya (325–260 B.C.) in his Artha-sastra refers to the duties of military surgeons to treat and protect the infantry horses and elephants from diseases, epidemics, and food problems. The camel and the dog are conspicuous in royal stables and kennels (the mention of dogs in royal house-hold is frequent in the Ramayana). The ducks are not seen in domestic animals. Cow, buffalo, goat and sheep were reared for dairy as well as for meat supply and skin. Swine and fowl were meant entirely for consumption. The ox alone drew the plough. The bull, mule, ass and camel were used for draught (on rare occasions also horse and elephant (Arthasastra). The dog assisted herdsmen to reconnoitre grazing forests (Arthasastra) or guarded royal apartments or served as hunting accomplices to the king or nomadic huntsmen (Dasabrahmana Jataka). The horse and elephant were employed according to their varied nature for draught riding and war.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(on rare occasions also horse and elephant (Arthasastra). The dog assisted herdsmen to reconnoitre grazing forests (Arthasastra) or guarded royal apartments or served as hunting accomplices to the king or nomadic huntsmen (Dasabrahmana Jataka). The horse and elephant were employed according to their varied nature for draught riding and war. Animals used for draught purposes were generally castrated and sometimes their horns were cut off (Mahabharat). The beasts, wild and domestic yielded a large variety of animal produce viz., skin, claw, horn, hoof, plume, tusk, wool, etc. Every villager also used to keep a few animals for draught purposes or for doing or to meet the supply to his own household. The village maintained common on pay or on a share of produce, shepherds, who were entrusted with the work of taking the animals to the pasture ground in the morning and bring them back in the evening (Anguttaranikaya; Rigveda). The Arthasastra rule requires of Herdsmen is the knowledge to treat cow diseases and ford them safely. The Arthasastra wants the best herd to be entrusted for a fixed wage for otherwise they may be spoiled by over milking. Herds of the next grade are surrendered for a fixed amount of dairy produce, viz., 8 varakas of ghee per year, which the owner will receive. Black, red or black and red bulls are, commended for yoking to the plough. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 149 Therefore at the commencement of tilling the land one should take care to select bulls of this kind and smear the sides of the mouths with butter or ghee. J. Animal Feed The breeds were fed on barley and corn, and in the Agnipurana, a calf marvellously thriving on a food consisting of masa (Phaseolus radiatus), sesame, wheat, clarified butter, the cream of milk and salt.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "this kind and smear the sides of the mouths with butter or ghee. J. Animal Feed The breeds were fed on barley and corn, and in the Agnipurana, a calf marvellously thriving on a food consisting of masa (Phaseolus radiatus), sesame, wheat, clarified butter, the cream of milk and salt. For bulls which are provided with nose strings and equal horses in speed and in carrying loads, half a bhara of meadow grass, twice the above quantity of ordinary grass, one tula (100 palas) of oil cakes, 10 adhakas of bran, 5 palas of salt, one kudumba of oil for rubbing over the nose, one prastha of drink, one tula of pulp of fruits, one adhaka, of curd, one drona of barley or cooked masa, one drona of milk or half an adhaka of sura (liquor), one prastha of oil or ghee (clarified butter), 10 palas of sugar, and one pala of the fruit of srngavera which may be substituted for milk. The same commodities less by one quarter each will form the diet for mules, cows and asses and twice the quality for buffaloes and camels. All cattle should be fed with fodder and water to their satisfaction. For draught oxen and cows yielding milk, the feed shall be provided in proportion to the duration of time the oxen are put to work and the quantity of milk, which the cows yield. K. Protection of Cattle Cattle must be protected from brutes and thieves. Instances of taking flesh except on ceremonial functions are available in ancient literature. Taking of animal food is strictly forbidden in ancient laws under the threat of expiable sin and eternal perdition unless taken in conformity with the law, i.e., Vedic rites and sacrifices. Fines are enjoined for neglecting nasal perforation in proper time for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "on ceremonial functions are available in ancient literature. Taking of animal food is strictly forbidden in ancient laws under the threat of expiable sin and eternal perdition unless taken in conformity with the law, i.e., Vedic rites and sacrifices. Fines are enjoined for neglecting nasal perforation in proper time for stringing draught beasts to the yoke. Milking of cattle is allowed twice a day during the rains and the autumns, but in the dry winter and summer seasons only once on pain of the cowherd losing his thumb. Once in six months sheep and other animals shall be shorn of their wool. Stud bulls, bulls let out in the name of village deity (gramadevavrsah) and cows within ten days of calving are exempt from penalization for trespass. Ropes and whips only are to be used in case of stray cattle and any injury to them incurs the penalty for assault. Livestock is protected along with other properties of a householder by laws of torts. “For causing pain with sticks, etc., to minor quadrupeds, one or two panas shall be levied; and for causing bleeding to the same, the fine shall be doubled. In the case of large quadrupeds not only double the above fines, but also an adequate compensation shall be levied. A person who himself kills or steals the cattle or instigates another to do so, should be punished with death. L. Indigenous Knowledge for Management of Livestock Diseases In ancient India people had sufficient knowledge of the diseases of farm animals and the methods of curing them. Vishnudharmottara Mahapurana (500–700 A.D.) contains information on the medical practices of treating the diseased animals. Dipping the food of animals in its urine for the control of food and mouth disease. Dipping the tail in hot water or by applying powdered",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of farm animals and the methods of curing them. Vishnudharmottara Mahapurana (500–700 A.D.) contains information on the medical practices of treating the diseased animals. Dipping the food of animals in its urine for the control of food and mouth disease. Dipping the tail in hot water or by applying powdered camphor for overcoming tail neurosis feeding ground neem leaves for internal parasites. Feeding sprouted whole wheat for 10–15 days continuously for anoestrus, etc. 1. Mastitis Mastitis is caused by injury of the udder and by subsequent invasion by pathogens. The udder is inflamed and becomes hard. Sometimes a tumor is formed in the teats and during milking the animal feels severe pain and does not allow milking. For curing this disease the livestock owners follow mainly three practices. They either apply a mixture of ghee, sugar, and curd on the inflamed portion or sometimes milk froth around the teat. Both these practices according to scientists are effective as the ingredients used to act as soothing agents and soothe 150 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY the hard teat with cracks. Another practice is to give hot bath to the affected animal. This helps in reducing inflammation, pain, and swelling, and also increases blood circulation. 2. Foot-and-mouth disease Foot-and-mouth is an acute infectious disease caused by a virus and occurs in animals at any time round the year. The common symptoms of this disease are high fever, sluggishness, smacking of the lips, abrupt reduction of milk yield, and abortions. For treating this disease the livestock owners follow many practices. They wash the affected portion with fitkari (alum). Alum acts as an antiseptic; it checks secondary infection by inhibiting pathogens. It is an astringent and also helpful in coagulation of blood. Sometimes the foot of animal is dipped in its urine as the latter",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the livestock owners follow many practices. They wash the affected portion with fitkari (alum). Alum acts as an antiseptic; it checks secondary infection by inhibiting pathogens. It is an astringent and also helpful in coagulation of blood. Sometimes the foot of animal is dipped in its urine as the latter has germicidal property. Also, application of ground custard apple leaves or sprinkling camphor powder on affected area is practiced. Both act as a fly-repellent, and are anti-inflammatory and give soothing effect. Sometimes the livestock owners warm garlic pieces in hot mustard oil and after the oil cools, apply it on the affected area. Scientists opined that due to pungent smell it acts as a fly-repellent. It also acts as an antiseptic and disinfectant. Another practice is to wash the affected area with hot water, as it has cauterization property, which is helpful in checking bleeding. 3. Tail neurosis Tail neurosis is treated by dipping the tail of the animal in hot mustard oil or by applying powdered camphor on the affected area. Both these practices are scientifically correct as camphor acts as a fly-repellent whereas hot mustard oil is antiseptic, fly-repellent, irritant, and also helpful in fast healing. 4. Pneumonia The traditional treatment followed by villagers for curing pneumonia is to drench local liquor 3–4 times a day and apply mustard oil on the chest of the affected animal. The disease symptoms are shivering and rise in body temperature. Both these practices provide warmth to the body and are helpful in eliminating cold from the body. Also, the animal is made to inhale turpentine or eucalyptus oil. Inhalation of the oil is effective in easing respiration. 5. Anoestrus Anoestrus is a reproductive disorder where the animal does not have regular heat cycle, Le., either it does not come in heat",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in eliminating cold from the body. Also, the animal is made to inhale turpentine or eucalyptus oil. Inhalation of the oil is effective in easing respiration. 5. Anoestrus Anoestrus is a reproductive disorder where the animal does not have regular heat cycle, Le., either it does not come in heat or remains continuously in heat thus prolonging calving interval. It may be due to hormonal imbalance or improper feeding or persistent corpus luteum or presence of cyst in ovary thus hindering proper ovulation and heat cycle. For curing this disease, livestock owners follow mainly two practices, which are scientifically correct, i.e., the animal is fed with a mixture of methi (Trigonellafoenum graceum), gur (Gaggery), and bajra (Pearl millet). These substances act as stimulants and help in stimulating estrogen hormone. Also, sprouted whole wheat is fed for 10–15 days continuously. The sprouts are rich in vitamins and minerals and thus help in increasing fertility. 6. Retained placenta The indigenous practice followed by villagers is to drop the placenta by hand with the help of experienced people. According to scientists if the placenta does not fall within 48 hours it must be dropped by hand. Another practice is to feed the animal its own milk. Animal milk is rich in calcium, vitamins etc. It helps in maintaining uterine tone, which is helpful in retention of placenta. Some villagers use ten mango (Mangifera indica), leaves, two pieces each of jaiphal (Myristica fragrans) and kaiphal (Myrica magi). All these materials are ground and made into paste and then heated gently. The nearby area of vagina and thigh of the affected animal is then massaged with the warm paste. The placenta is expelled from the uterus within one hour of application. According to scientists, mango leaves have laxative and antihemorrhagic properties. Both the properties are",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "into paste and then heated gently. The nearby area of vagina and thigh of the affected animal is then massaged with the warm paste. The placenta is expelled from the uterus within one hour of application. According to scientists, mango leaves have laxative and antihemorrhagic properties. Both the properties are essential for the removal of placenta. Kaiphal acts as antiseptic and farmers use it for the removal of placenta where presence of infective organisms is always expected. Jaiphal works as febrifuge and narcotic. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 151 7. Diarrhea Frequent expulsion of profuse loose watery bowel content is termed as diarrhea. This condition always involves abnormality in stomach and intestine. Farmers reported that they feed the mixture of mustard oil, water, and edible soda. Scientists considered the practice correct as sodium bicarbonate balances pH of the body and water helps to check the fluid loss. 8. Indigestion The traditional treatment followed by villagers for curing this disease is to feed the mixture of dhania (Coriandrum sativum) and jeera (Cuminum cyminum). These are carminatives and help in easy digestion of food. Also, the animal is fed with overnight soaked mixture of yellow mustard oil cake, jaggary, and salt after thorough cooking. Scientists reported that yellow mustard oil cake is rich in calcium and phosphorus, which helps in secreting digestive juices and increasing enzymatic activity. Salt improves the secretion of digestive juices and jaggary provides energy. Black salt, jeera, adrak (ginger; Zingiber officinale) and garlic paste is given to the animal. These substances increase the appetite by increasing motility of intestine and help in rapid digestion. Black salt is a mild laxative. 9. Tympany The traditional practice followed by farmers for treating tympany is to feed turmeric powder in curd; ajwain (Trachyspemum ammi), and salt in water; mixture of ajwain, heeng",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "These substances increase the appetite by increasing motility of intestine and help in rapid digestion. Black salt is a mild laxative. 9. Tympany The traditional practice followed by farmers for treating tympany is to feed turmeric powder in curd; ajwain (Trachyspemum ammi), and salt in water; mixture of ajwain, heeng (asafoetida), garlic salt, methi, and turmeric; and garlic and ginger paste with common salt and mustard oil. Scientists opined that all these substances are carminative and antiflatulent, help in improving appetite, and do not cause constipation. Another practice followed is to make the animal to run fast as it helps in expulsion of gases. 10. Hemorrhagic septicemia Hemorrhagic septicemia is an infectious disease, usually acute in nature caused by bacteria (Pasteurella multocaeda) and affects mostly cattle and buffaloes. The informants mentioned that they give hot ash massage to the affected animal. The scientists reported that this practice is helpful in reducing inflammation and swelling. Sometimes a sharp cut on a swollen portion is also given, which decreases blood supply, reduces swelling, and facilitates respiration. The livestock owners practice different techniques, which have been inherited over generations, and developed by indigenous trial and error methods. Most of the livestock owners in rural areas had a tendency to treat their livestock through traditional knowledge of medicinal properties of herbal products available locally (Table 2.16). Table 2.15. Indigenous Animals Management practices (pregnancy and delivery) followed in parts of Rajasthan and their Scientific Validity Area/Sub area Indigenous practice Heat identification in animals Through mucous discharge from vagina from bellowing, eating less food, frequent urination, mounting on another cow, raising its tail, swelling inlets etc. Breeding Prefer first or second day of head for getting animal crossed. Get the animals crossed with available (desi) bull of the village. Way of recognizing that By observing sings",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "discharge from vagina from bellowing, eating less food, frequent urination, mounting on another cow, raising its tail, swelling inlets etc. Breeding Prefer first or second day of head for getting animal crossed. Get the animals crossed with available (desi) bull of the village. Way of recognizing that By observing sings of animals i.e., does not come in next heat, dull animals has conceived temperature stops jumping, kicks by legs, milk production decreases etc. Care of pregnant animals Allow pregnant animals to go out for grazing. Dry the animals 2-3 months before parturition. Feeding during pregnancy Concentrate is fed to pregnant animals, which includes several grasses, barley water, moong and moth, chui guar, churi wheat and methi dalia. (Contd.) 152 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Area/Sub area Indigenous practice Area/Sup Area Indigenous practice. Symptoms before actual Pelvic hip bones look depressed skin near the tail regions looks relaxed parturition enlarged teats full with milk uneasiness and frequent sitting and standing. Facilitating delivery Give mixture of jaggary ajwain methi dried and crushed ginger and waste of oilseeds. Care during parturition Clean the place of calving. Give comfort to pregnant animals by spreading something underneath i.e., dry grasses, jute bags etc. House pregnant animals in separate place or room. Expulsion of placenta Give “hot” food as jaggary sugarcane leaves/bamboo leaves/rice bran, animal’s own milk etc. Postnatal care Mixture of dried and crushed ginger ajwain, cumin seeds, jaggary and oil is prepared and given up to 15 days. Mixture of green gram dhal and turmeric in water is given. M. Use of Animals Flesh as Human Food The usefulness of cattle in India for power, food and manure was fully realized with the development of agriculture. The earlier practice of animal sacrifice was given up under the influence of Buddhism and bullocks became the companion",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in water is given. M. Use of Animals Flesh as Human Food The usefulness of cattle in India for power, food and manure was fully realized with the development of agriculture. The earlier practice of animal sacrifice was given up under the influence of Buddhism and bullocks became the companion of man in the conquest of virgin lands. Indian farmers regard cattle as members of their own social group and treat them with reverence on different occasions during the year. The virtues of ahimsa and abstention from meat-diet are followed by exceptions made in favour of sacrifice and hunting for the royal race in the Mababharata. Buddha himself allows fish and flesh to his disciples. Strabo’s remark on Megasthenes authority that the Brahmanas “eat flesh but not that of animals employed in labour”, whatever truth it may contain, reflects at any rate a sound economic sense which in some quarter regulated animal diet. Animals are to be slaughtered for flesh only in the abattoir (parisunam) on pain of fine. The varieties of animal flesh were also disposed of from separate stalls in the market place and different sets of stockists and butchers throve on them; e.g., the cattle-butcher, sheep-butcher, pig-sticker, fowler, deer-stalker, etc. In its rules on cow slaughter, the Arthasastra wants the immunity of only calves, milch cows and stud bulls. In the Satapatha Brahmana, Yajnavalkya is fond of tender beef. According to Panini ‘goghna’ means a ‘guest’ because a cow is killed for him. Apastamba permits the slaughter of a cow at the reception of a guest, at the worship of the manes and at nuptial celebrations (Grhyasutra; Manu). In Bhavabhuti’s Uttararamacarita a heifer is stated to be slain by Valmiki in honour of Vasistha’s visit to his asrama. According to the Dasabrahmana Jataka, Slaughter of ox for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of a cow at the reception of a guest, at the worship of the manes and at nuptial celebrations (Grhyasutra; Manu). In Bhavabhuti’s Uttararamacarita a heifer is stated to be slain by Valmiki in honour of Vasistha’s visit to his asrama. According to the Dasabrahmana Jataka, Slaughter of ox for flesh was very common and there were special slaughter-houses for beef. Even cows did not necessarily find exemption. In a Vinaya list of unpalatable and inedible food to which the people fell only in famine, occur, elephant, horse, dog and snake. Fowl, swine and cow never come in the list of animals and birds forbidden even for the Brahmana’s table. Beef and ham are classed among nonedibles. High-crested cocks born of Vrtra’s blood (sikhandah) occur as non-eatable to the twice-born and the initiated in the Mahabharata. Cocks and pigs occur in an exhaustive list of animals prohibited for the Snataka Brahmana in Gaut. XXIII. 5 and Manu. In the Ramayana cow-killing and milking a cow just delivered are sins. N. Use of Cow Dung as Plant Food If one wishes the prosperity of his cattle, one should not even by mistake allow the cow dung to be removed on Sundays, Tuesdays and Saturdays. Barring the above three days one may give away the AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 153 cow-dung to anybody. The removal of cow dung on Tuesdays and Saturdays is detrimental to cattle. A successful cultivator should worship the heap of cow dung in the month of Magha, ‘and on an auspicious day he should turn up the manure with spades. Reducing the manure, which is drying in the heat of the sun, into, the powder, should deposit it in pits, in each field in the month of Phalguna. Then at the time of sowing, he should dress the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "on an auspicious day he should turn up the manure with spades. Reducing the manure, which is drying in the heat of the sun, into, the powder, should deposit it in pits, in each field in the month of Phalguna. Then at the time of sowing, he should dress the field with manure or without manuring the crop neither thrives nor yields fruit. 2.44 DESCRIPTION OF INDIAN CIVILIZATION AND AGRICULTURE 2.44.1 Indus Valley Civilization Allchins, relying on Lambrick, who, according to them, had personal knowledge of Sind, describe as follows how crops were grown in the riverain tract of the Indus. “The principal food grains, that is wheat and barley, would have been grown as spring (rabi) crops: that is to say, sown at the end of the inundation upon land which had been submerged by spill from the river or one of its natural flood channels, and reaped in March or April. In modern practice such land is neither ploughed nor manured, nor does it require additional water. Lambrick remarks that ‘the whole operation involves an absolute minimum of skill, labour and aid of implements. Other crops, including cotton and sesamum, would be sown as autumnal (kharif) that means they would be sown at the beginning of the inundation and harvested’ at its close, in autumn. For this fields surrounded by earth embankments would be required, most probably along the banks of natural flood channels. Although this method is more precarious than the former, both exploit the natural fertility of the alluvium, and the annual inundation. Both systems are still in use. According to my experience of cultivation in the riverain areas of the Punjab, when the land has appropriate moisture, land is ploughed, seed is sown and the soil is smoothened with a plank. The practice followed by",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the alluvium, and the annual inundation. Both systems are still in use. According to my experience of cultivation in the riverain areas of the Punjab, when the land has appropriate moisture, land is ploughed, seed is sown and the soil is smoothened with a plank. The practice followed by the Harappans could not have been different. For the proper sowing of crops, soil has to be stirred and seed has to be covered. Alexander and his successors and Megasthenes set the stage in the history of Greek presence in India and the ‘Indica of Megasthenes’ analyzes the Greek account of India. Seleucus was the ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya. The book covers the history of the Greek kingdoms and northern India and the development of the Indian Ocean trade. Sandwiched between these two historical sections lies the core of the book: two massively detailed PARTs surveying Greek knowledge of India. The first deals with the physical geography of India, its hydrology and meteorology, and the second with the natural history of the subcontinent including its biology and geology and their military, commercial, and even medical implications. Megasthenes states that Maurya officers were concerned with the measurement and supervision of alluvial deposit for revenue purpose. The Greek writers highly praised the fertility of Indian soil and favourable climate condition and inner-system while describing the principal agricultural products of the land. Since there is double rainfall in the course of each year, one in the winter season, when the sowing of wheat takes place as in other countries, and the second at the time of the summer solstice which is the proper season for sowing rice and ‘bosporum’, as well as sesamum and millets-the inhabitants of India almost always gather in two harvests annually (Diodorus, II. 36). The Greek writers also affirm",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "takes place as in other countries, and the second at the time of the summer solstice which is the proper season for sowing rice and ‘bosporum’, as well as sesamum and millets-the inhabitants of India almost always gather in two harvests annually (Diodorus, II. 36). The Greek writers also affirm that India has a double rainfall and the Indians generally gather two harvests-Megasthenes witnesses-the sowing of wheat in early, winter rains and of rice, ‘bosporum’, sesamum and millets in the summer solstice (Diodorus, II, 36). Megasthenes adds further to the winter crops, viz., “wheat, barley, pulse and other esculent fruits unknown to us”. 1. The Chinese pilgrim Hsieun Tsang who arrived at the monastic University of Nalanda in 154 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 630 A.D. mentioned the gardening as: “The temple arose into the mists and the shrine halls stood high above the clouds . . . streams of blue water wound through the parks; green lotus flowers sparkled among the blossoms of sandal trees and a mango grove spread outside the enclosure.” What the Arab gardeners regarded as correct rules for planting, and some off the garden plants which they favored, says Hyams, can be gathered from an authoritative twelfth-century work on agriculture and horticulture written by Yahya bin Muhammad (Abu Zakariya). Abu Zakariya says that all garden doorways should be farmed by clipped evergreens, that cypresses should be used to line paths and grouped to mark the junctions of paths. He observed an object to the mixing of evergreen with deciduous trees. He observed loss of water through evaporation. Plants named in his text include lemon and orange trees, pines and most of our common deciduous trees, cypresses, oleander, myrtle and rose as the only flowering shrubs, violets, lavender, balm, mint, thyme, marjoram, iris, mallow, box and bay",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "evergreen with deciduous trees. He observed loss of water through evaporation. Plants named in his text include lemon and orange trees, pines and most of our common deciduous trees, cypresses, oleander, myrtle and rose as the only flowering shrubs, violets, lavender, balm, mint, thyme, marjoram, iris, mallow, box and bay laurel. He lays much stress on aromatics, as, indeed, did all the Islamic gardeners. His climbing plants are vines, jasmines and ivy. 2. Babur-NAMA An Autobiography and a Book on Natural History: Babur-nama reflects the character and interests of the author, Zehir-ud-din Muhammad Babur. Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India, is regarded as one of the most romantic and interesting personally ties of Asian history. 3. Alberuni (Abu Raihan Muhammed bin Ahmed), a Central Asian scholar, with keen perception, came to northern India early in the eleventh century, and made a remarkable observation on the structure and formation of the Indo-Gangetic alluvium. “If you have seen the soil of India with your own eyes and meditate on its nature,” wrote Alberuni, ‘if you consider the rounded stones found in the earth, however deeply you dig, stones that are of smaller size at greater distance from the mountains, and where the streams flow more slowly, stones that appear pulverized in the shape of sand where the streams begin to stagnate near their mouths and near the sea, if you consider all this, you could scarcely help thinking that India has once been a sea which by degrees has been filled up by the alluvium of the streams.’ Protection of cultivators Sher Shah had genuine concern for the peasantry and safety of their crops. Abbas Khan states, One of the regulations Sher Shah made, was this: That his victorious standards should cause no injury to the cultivations of the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "been filled up by the alluvium of the streams.’ Protection of cultivators Sher Shah had genuine concern for the peasantry and safety of their crops. Abbas Khan states, One of the regulations Sher Shah made, was this: That his victorious standards should cause no injury to the cultivations of the people; and when he marched he personally examined into the state of the cultivation, and stationed horsemen round it to prevent people from trespassing on anyone’s field. I have heard from Khan-i-Azam Muzaffar Khan, who said he often accompanied Sher Shah, that he used to look out right and left, and (which God forbid) if he saw any man injuring a field, he would cut his ears with his neck, would have him to be paraded through the camp. And if farm the narrowness of the road any cultivations was unavoidably destroyed and give compensation in money to the cultivations. If he enters an enemy’s country, he did not enslave or plunder the peasantry of that country nor destroy their cultivation. ‘For, said he, the cultivators are blameless, they submit to those in power; and if I oppress them they will abandon their villages, and the country will be ruined and deserted, and it will be a long time before it again becomes prosperous. As regards the peasantry and their condition, there is reliable evidence in the observations of the European travellers who travelled in India in the seventeenth century. Peter Mundy tells us that the peasants near Agra were treated ‘as Turks treat Christians’, ‘taking from them all they can get by their labour, leaving them nothing but their bad, mud-walled, ill-thatched houses and a few cattle to till the ground, besides other miseries.’ Pelsaert, who was in Agra during the rule of Jahangir, observed: ‘The land would give",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "treated ‘as Turks treat Christians’, ‘taking from them all they can get by their labour, leaving them nothing but their bad, mud-walled, ill-thatched houses and a few cattle to till the ground, besides other miseries.’ Pelsaert, who was in Agra during the rule of Jahangir, observed: ‘The land would give a AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 155 plentiful, or even an extraordinary, yield if the peasants were not so cruelly and pitilessly oppressed; for villages which, owing to some small shortage of produce, are unable to pay the full amount of the revenue-farm, are made prize, so to speak, by their masters or governors, and wives and children sold on the pretext of a charge of rebellion. Some peasants abscond to escape their tyranny, and take refuge with rajas who are in rebellion, and consequently the fields lie empty and unsown, and grow into wildernesses. Such oppression is exceedingly prevalent in this country.’ Bernier, commenting on the state of the northern part of the country, its agriculture and peasantry, states: ‘Of the vast tracts of country constituting the empire of Hindustan, many are little more than sand, or barren mountains, badly cultivated, and thinly peopled; and even a considerable portion of the good land remains untilled from want of labourers, many of whom perish in consequence of the bad treatment they experience from the Governors. These poor people, when incapable of discharging the demands of their rapacious lords, are not only often deprived of the means of subsistence, but are benefit of their children, who are carried away as slaves. Thus it happens that many of the peasantry, driven to despair by so execrable a tyranny, abandon the country and seek a more tolerable mode of existence, either in the towns or camps, as bearers of burdens, carriers of water, or",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of their children, who are carried away as slaves. Thus it happens that many of the peasantry, driven to despair by so execrable a tyranny, abandon the country and seek a more tolerable mode of existence, either in the towns or camps, as bearers of burdens, carriers of water, or servants to horsemen. Sometimes, they fly to the territories of a Raja, because there they find less oppression, and are allowed a greater degree of comfort. 4. In Vijayanagar, Abdul Razzak (A.D. 1336–1646) saw that palm leaves were used for writing and paper was not known. He observes, ‘the inhabitants of cambay alone use paper. All other Indians write on the leaves of trees. Abdul Razzak observed that chewing of pan (betel leaf) was a common practice at Vijiayanagar, and he attributes virility of the king to its stimulating properties. 5. Quest for Spices (1498–1580 A.D.): The Europeans had to pay extortionate prices for species, particularly pepper, which not only made their food tasty, but was also used as a preservative for meat. Pepper was also used in wine and pastry. 6. Domingo Paes, a Portuguese merchant, who visited Vijiyanagar in A.D. 1520. Domingo Paes presented a pair of spectacles to Vyasaraya, guru of Krishnadevaraya. Krishna Deva of Vijayanagar constructs the great dam and channel at Korragal, also the Basavanna channel. 7. Garcia da Orta‘s Coloquios dos simples e Drogas e cousas medicineis da India (A.D 1563) includes description of many Indian medicinal plants. Christophoras Acosta‘s Aromaticum et medicametorum in Orientali Indian nascentium liber and Historia Natural R moral de las Indias scuilla (Barcelona, A.D. 1591) are important works on medicinal plants of India. 8. Stevens is famous as the first Englishman known to have set foot on Indian soil. Born in Wiltshire and educated in Winchester, he made his",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Orientali Indian nascentium liber and Historia Natural R moral de las Indias scuilla (Barcelona, A.D. 1591) are important works on medicinal plants of India. 8. Stevens is famous as the first Englishman known to have set foot on Indian soil. Born in Wiltshire and educated in Winchester, he made his way to Rome and there entered the Jesuit order. Being desirous of serving in India, he obtained a passage at Lisbon in the spring of 1579 and reached Goa in October of that year. He was the first European to make a scientific study of Konkani, and he wrote two religious works, one of which was a long epic in Marathi. Describing a visit to Malabar he mentions a number of crops including pepper and coconut. “Here grows the pepper; and it springs up by a tree or a pole, and is like our ivy berry, but something longer, and at the first the bunches are green, and as they wax ripe they Cut them off and dry them. The leaf is much lesser than the ivy leaf and thin to zero. All the inhabitants here have very little houses covered with the leaves of the coco-trees. All the pepper of Calicut and coarse cinnamon grows here in this country. The best cinnamon comes from Ceylon, and is pilled from the young trees. Here are very many palm or coco-trees, which is their chief food; for it is their meat and drink, and yields many other necessary things. 156 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 9. Jeane-Baptiste Tavernier, a French jeweller and merchant, visited India six times, between the years 1638 and 1688. He corroborates the account given by Bernier. He states: ‘The peasants have for their sole garment a scrap of cloth to cover those parts which natural modesty requires should",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 9. Jeane-Baptiste Tavernier, a French jeweller and merchant, visited India six times, between the years 1638 and 1688. He corroborates the account given by Bernier. He states: ‘The peasants have for their sole garment a scrap of cloth to cover those parts which natural modesty requires should be concealed; and that they are reduced to great poverty, because if the Governors become aware that they possess any property they seize it straightaway by right or by force. You may see in India whole provinces like deserts from whence the peasants have fled on account of the oppression of the Governors.’ The flight of peasants from the land intensified during the reign of Aurangzeb. With the decrease in the number of peasants, the income of the assignees, the jagirdars, was reduced. The jagirdars, to make good their loss, put increased pressure on the working peasants. Moreover, the practice developed of selling governments of provinces for immense sums in hard cash. Hence, it naturally became the principal object of the individual thus appointed Governor, to obtain repayment of the purchase-money, which he had borrowed at a ruinous rate of interest. This in turn resulted in more repression on the cultivators. 10. Betel vines: Ibn Battuta also saw betel vines in Kerala. He states, Betel-trees are grown like vines on cane trellises or else trained up coco-palms. They have no fruit and are grown only for their leaves. The Indians have a high opinion of betel, and if a man visits a friend and the latter gives him five leaves of it, you would think he had given him the would, especially if he is a prince or notable. A gift of betel is a far greater honour than a gift of gold and silver. Evidence of the structure of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "visits a friend and the latter gives him five leaves of it, you would think he had given him the would, especially if he is a prince or notable. A gift of betel is a far greater honour than a gift of gold and silver. Evidence of the structure of the Mughal gardens and plants grown in them is in the Persian classics illustrated during the reign of Akbar. Among them is Diwan-i-Anwari, a collection of poems by the Persian poet Anwari, who flourished in the latter part of twelfth century. It contains some excellent paintings on gardens and gardening. Abu-l-Fazl mentions three kinds of sugarcane, viz., paunda, black and ordinary. Abu-l-Fazl provides a list of twenty-one fragrant flowering plants along with the colour of their flowers and the season of flowering in the Ain-i-Akbari. After describing the indigenous flowering trees and shrubs, Abu-l-Fazl mentions the names of those introduced from foreign countries. Abu-l-Fazl mentions that Akbar imported gardeners’ from Iran and Turan. Abu-l-Fazl provides a detailed account of fruits grown in India during the reign of Akbar in the Ain-i-Akbari. ‘His Majesty looks upon fruits as one of the greatest gifts of the Creator, and pays much attention to them,’ states Abu-l-Fazl. ‘The horticulturists of Iran and Turan have, therefore, settled here, and the cultivation of trees is in a flourishing state.’ ‘Melons and grapes have become very plentiful and excellent; and water melons, peaches, almonds, pistachios, pomegranates, etc., are everywhere to be found. Abu-l-Fazl mentions the names of eighteen vegetables and the seasons in which they were grown. Food and fodder for royal horses was standardized. Abu-l-Fazl states, ‘In winter, they give boiled peas or vetch; in summer, grain. ‘The betel leaf is, properly speaking, a vegetable, but connoisseurs call it an excellent fruit,’ states Abu-l-Fazl. ‘The eating",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "eighteen vegetables and the seasons in which they were grown. Food and fodder for royal horses was standardized. Abu-l-Fazl states, ‘In winter, they give boiled peas or vetch; in summer, grain. ‘The betel leaf is, properly speaking, a vegetable, but connoisseurs call it an excellent fruit,’ states Abu-l-Fazl. ‘The eating of the leaf renders the breath agreeable, and repasts odorous. It strengthens the gums, and makes the hungry satisfied, and the satisfied hungry. I shall describe some of the various kinds. 1. The leaf called Bilahri is white and shining, and does not make the tongue harsh and hard. It tastes best of all kinds. After it has been taken away from the creeper it turns white, with some care, after a month, or even after twenty days when greater efforts are made. 2. The Kaker leaf is white with spots, and full, and has hard veins. When much of it is eaten, the tongue gets hard. 3. The Jaiswar leaf does not get white, and is profitably sold mixed with other kinds. 4. The Kapuri leaf is yellowish, hard, and full of veins, but has a good taste and smell. 5. The Kapurkant leaf is yellowish-green, and pungent like pepper; it smells like camphor. You could not eat more than ten leaves. It is to be had at Banaras; but even there it does AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 157 not thrive in every soil. 6. The Bangla leaf is broad, full, hard, plushy, hot, and pungent. There are several kinds of leaves known under different names: 1. The Karhan leaf, which they separate for seedlings and call Peri. The new leaf is called Gadauta. 2. The Nauti leaf. 3. The Bahuti leaf. 4. The Chhiw leaf. 5. The Adhinida leaf. 6. The Agahniya or Lewar leaf. With the exception",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "kinds of leaves known under different names: 1. The Karhan leaf, which they separate for seedlings and call Peri. The new leaf is called Gadauta. 2. The Nauti leaf. 3. The Bahuti leaf. 4. The Chhiw leaf. 5. The Adhinida leaf. 6. The Agahniya or Lewar leaf. With the exception of the Gadauta (i.e., new leaf), the leaves are taken away from the creeper when a month old. The last kind of leaf is eaten by some others keep it for seeding: they consider it very excellent, but connoisseurs prefer the Peri. ‘A bundle of 11,000 leaves was formerly called Lahasa, which name is now given to a bundle of 14,000. Bundles of 200 are called Dholi; a Lahasa is made up of Dholis. In winter they turn and arrange the leaves after four or five days; in summer every day. People also put some betel nut and kath on one leaf, and some lime paste on another, and roll them up; this is called a hira. Some put camphor and musk into it, and tie both leaves with a silk thread. Others put single leaves on plates, and use them thus. They are also prepared as a dish. The Ain-i-Akbari tells us that fish formed an important part of the people’s food in Bengal and Orissa, and also in Sind. Travellers record that its use was common in the south of India, and that it was sometimes dried and salted for provisioning ships. Fish-oil was prepared in Sind, the use of fish manure was established in Gujarat when Thevenot visited Surat in 1666, and, speaking generally, it may be reasonably assumed that the fisheries were conducted very much on the familiar lines. 11. Terry, an English traveler, writes, ‘The country was abounding with muskmelons. One could also find watermelons,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "use of fish manure was established in Gujarat when Thevenot visited Surat in 1666, and, speaking generally, it may be reasonably assumed that the fisheries were conducted very much on the familiar lines. 11. Terry, an English traveler, writes, ‘The country was abounding with muskmelons. One could also find watermelons, pomegranates, lemons, oranges, dates, figs, grapes, coconut, plantains, mangoes, pineapples, pears, apples, etc.’ Terry also mentions the use of coffee by some people. He writes, ‘Many religious people drank a “wholesome liquor” which they called coffee. Black seeds were boiled in water, which also become black. It altered the taste of water very little. It quickened the spirit and cleansed the blood. 12. Francois Bernier: Of the European travelers who come to India during the Mughal rule, the most intelligent and learned was Francois Bernier a Frenchman. Bernier gives a vivid description of Bengal its landscape people and its plant and animals products. With extensive fields of rice, sugar, corn, three or four sorts of vegetables, mustard, for oils and small mulberry trees two or three feet (61 to 91 cm) in height, for the food of silk worms. Goose and ducks are cheap. There are also goats and sheep in abundance and pigs are obtained at so low a price that the Portuguese settled in the country live almost entirely upon pork. 13. Meadows Taylor states “The Bahmanis constructed irrigation works in the eastern provinces, which incidentally did good to the peasantry while primarily securing the crown revenue. Vincent Smith points out that those items to their credit weigh lightly against the wholesale devastation wrought by their credit weight lightly against the wholesale devastation wrought by their wars, massacres, and burnings. Their rule was harsh and showed little regard for the welfare of Hindu peasants, who were seldom allowed",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Smith points out that those items to their credit weigh lightly against the wholesale devastation wrought by their credit weight lightly against the wholesale devastation wrought by their wars, massacres, and burnings. Their rule was harsh and showed little regard for the welfare of Hindu peasants, who were seldom allowed to retain the fruits of their labour much more than would suffice to keep body and soul together. 14. Herodotus (484-425 B.C.) the father of history reported in his writings that the wild Indian (cotton) trees possessed in their fruits fleeces, superseding those of sheep in beauty and excellence from which the natives used to weave cloth. Herodotus further wrote that “trees which grow wild in India and the fruit of which bear wool exceeding in beauty and fineness that of sheep wool Indians make their clothes with this tree wool”. Some traveller writers fabricated stories of a lamb sitting inside the fruit. Marco Pola, a Venetian, who traveled widely throughout 158 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY the Asia in A.D. 1290 said that the coast of Coromandel (Madras, India) produced the finest and most beautiful cotton in the world. Indian cloth, particularly the Dacca muslin was renowned all over the world and has been described as ‘webs of woven wind’ by oriental poets. It was so fine that it could hardly be felt in the hands. It is said that when such muslins were laid on the grass to bleach and the dew had fallen, it was no longer visible. A whole garment made from it could be drawn through a wedding ring of medium size. There is also the often repeated tale of Moghul princes who put on seven layers of muslin and still the contours of her body were so visible that she had to be admonisher by",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "A whole garment made from it could be drawn through a wedding ring of medium size. There is also the often repeated tale of Moghul princes who put on seven layers of muslin and still the contours of her body were so visible that she had to be admonisher by her father, Muhamed Bin Thughlak. 2.45 OUR JOURNEY IN AGRICULTURE Indian history can be broadly divided into five phases based on archeological findings: • Period of Saraswati (Harappan) civilization 6500 B.C – 1000 B.C or also called ‘Vedic period’ • Golden period of Indian History 500 B.C – 800 A.D • Muslim influence in India 1000 A.D – 1700 A.D • British period in India 1700 A.D – 1947 A.D • Modern India 1947 – till date The famine from 1876–78 led to institution of Famine Commission of 1880. George Nathaniel Curzon succeeded Lord Mayo as Viceroy of India. The horrors of Famine (1889–90) convinced Lord Curzon that urgent attention must be paid to agriculture. Lord Curzon passed the Land Alienation Act (1900) and Cooperative Societies Act (1904). Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India with the generous donations from Henry Phipps of the USA had founded the Imperial Agriculture Research Institute in 1905 at Pusa, a village in the Darabhanga district of Bihar. The main building at Pusa was named after its donor as the Phipps Laboratory. [PUSA stands for the donor of the Institute, Phipps of the USA]. There was a disastrous earthquake in 1936 and Pusa suffered heavily. After careful consideration the Government of India rebuilt the institute at New Delhi. The transfer to New Delhi was completed by October 1936. The Marquees of Linlithgo, the then Viceroy of India, opened this Institutes in November 1936. This Institute (IARI) in Delhi is popularly known as the Pusa Institute.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "After careful consideration the Government of India rebuilt the institute at New Delhi. The transfer to New Delhi was completed by October 1936. The Marquees of Linlithgo, the then Viceroy of India, opened this Institutes in November 1936. This Institute (IARI) in Delhi is popularly known as the Pusa Institute. Under the University Grants Commission Act 1956, the Institute (at New Delhi) got the status of the Deemed University and Teaching and Research activities were intensified from 1958. In 1947, India had about 27 Agricultural and Veterinary Colleges including the Indian Agricultural Research Institutes, Indian Veterinary Research Institute and five other Agricultural Colleges established during the first decade of the century. These Colleges were purely teaching institutions affiliated to traditional universities and contributed little to research. Agriculture Colleges were started at Poona (Pune) and Kanpur. Teaching was the main mandate. The Civil Veterinary Department was established in 1889, the main attention was on horse and male breeding. Systematic investigation on animal breeding began in 1890 with the Imperial Bacteriologist at the College of Science, Poona. Which was shifted to Mukteswer where the Imperial Bacteriologist Laboratory was established in1895. This institution has been pioneer in the field of Veterinary research in the Country. Veterinary Colleges were started at Bombay, Lahore (now in Pakistan), Calcutta and Madras. The Indian Central Cotton Committee (ICCC) (1921) was formed as per recommendation of the Indian Central Cotton Commission (1917–18). The Government of India appointed a Royal Commission in 1926 to examine the condition of agricultural and rural economy in India. The Imperial Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was established in 1929 as a Society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. The Society was registered AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 159 on July 16, 1929. [After Independence, the name of the society was changed to Indian Council",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and rural economy in India. The Imperial Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was established in 1929 as a Society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. The Society was registered AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 159 on July 16, 1929. [After Independence, the name of the society was changed to Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)]. The food crisis created by the Second World War and the Bengal famine in 1943 deepened and become the matters of great concern to Government of India. To meet the food shortage the Grow More Food campaign was started in 1943. On the recommendation of the Royal Commission on Agriculture in India (1927-1928), the Indian Lac Cess committee, though it had its origin in Lindsay-Harlow Committee (1921) got its statutory enactment in 1931 and the Indian Central Jute Committee (ICJC) on the line of cotton committee was set up in 1936. To undertake improvement and development of sugarcane, Jaggery (gur), Sugar and other by-products the Indian Central Sugarcane Committee (ICSC) was constituted in 1944. The Development Council for sugar industries was formed in 1951. The ICSC was entrusted with responsibility of Research on Sugarcane. The development of Gur was entrusted to the All India Village Industries and Khadi Commission. The Indian Central Coconut Committee and the Indian Central Tobacco Committee were formed in 1945. The Indian Central Arecanut Committee was formed in 1949 and the Indian Central Spices and Cashew nut Committee were formed in 1958. Regional stations\\sub-station on cotton, Jowar, Finger millet, setaria, castor, groundnut, linseed, bajra were established and the PIRRCOM (Project for Identification of Regional Research on Cotton, Oilseeds and Millets) were started. Agricultural development has to be guided not only by compulsion of improving food and nutritional security but also by the concern for environmental protection, sustainability, profitability and even export. Crop",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "linseed, bajra were established and the PIRRCOM (Project for Identification of Regional Research on Cotton, Oilseeds and Millets) were started. Agricultural development has to be guided not only by compulsion of improving food and nutritional security but also by the concern for environmental protection, sustainability, profitability and even export. Crop productivity has to be improved in comparison with other countries. Further following the WTO agreement and liberalization process, the consequent liberalization process, the consequent globalization of markets would call for competitiveness and efficacy of agricultural production. The process of agricultural development could be accelerated and sustained only through investments on research and education. A. All India Coordinated Research Projects (AICRP) The AICRPs were born from the coordinated project on maize developed with the Rockefeller Foundation’s assistance in 1957, ICAR has now about 70 All India Coordinated Research projects covering various disciplines and commodity crops, livestock, fisheries, home science, and agricultural engineering. An AICRP enables effective utilization of the resources in man and material anywhere in the country to tackle some of the important national problems. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research is an autonomous apex body responsible for the: organization and management of research and education in all disciplines of agricultural sciences. It has been reorganized twice. In 1963 an expert committee (M.W. Parker Committee), was appointed by the Government of India to inquire into the present set up and to suggest suitable changes in the ICAR. The Committee submitted its report in 1964. As per recommendations of the committee the ICAR become an autonomous body; its rules and bylaws were revised. A scientist heads as Director General (DG). To assist the DG, four posts of Deputy Director General (DDG)-Crop Science, Soils, Agronomy, Irrigation and Agricultural Engineering, Animal Sciences and Agricultural Education were created. The Institute of Horticultural Research (Hassarghata),",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the ICAR become an autonomous body; its rules and bylaws were revised. A scientist heads as Director General (DG). To assist the DG, four posts of Deputy Director General (DDG)-Crop Science, Soils, Agronomy, Irrigation and Agricultural Engineering, Animal Sciences and Agricultural Education were created. The Institute of Horticultural Research (Hassarghata), and Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (Karnal) were started. By this time there were 33 Research Institutes (25 in agriculture, 7 in Veterinary and animal husbandry and fishers and one in statistics) under the ICAR. In 1965, the ICAR became the nodal agency for coordinating agricultural research in the country. It gained administrative control over the various institutes and commodity research institutes. Late Dr. B.P. Pal took over as the first scientist as Vice President of ICAR. Dr. Pal instituted the AllIndia Coordinated Research Projects on various crops to integrate different disciplines and different institutions and universities for an effective national grid of coordinated experiments. He has been 160 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY internationally acclaimed for this contribution. In 1973, the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) was started by Dr M.S. Swaminathan, the first Director-General and Secretary of the Government of India and Dr Pal’s, successor; to enable scientist’s to move to other institutes within the system or sister organizations viz., the CSIR, BARC, etc., ICAR started the National Agricultural Research Project (Phase I) in 1983-94. NARP Phase II was wound up in 1992. Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) was initiated in 1964. From 1966-67, High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP) in crops like rice, wheat, maize, jowar, bajra, was started. The Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs ) and Trainers ‘Training Centres (TTCs) were established on the recommendations of the Education Commission (1964-66).The Lab to Land Programme was launched by the ICAR in 1979 to extend and promote adoption of new technology among",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "crops like rice, wheat, maize, jowar, bajra, was started. The Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs ) and Trainers ‘Training Centres (TTCs) were established on the recommendations of the Education Commission (1964-66).The Lab to Land Programme was launched by the ICAR in 1979 to extend and promote adoption of new technology among the small and marginal farmers and agricultural laborers to test the relevance of Technology under their socio-economic conditions. B. ICAR Institutes The ICAR is directly responsible for administering 32 research institutes in the fields of agriculture, animal sciences and fisheries. Some of these are single commodity-oriented crop institutions while a few of them undertake work on a number of crops. The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, the Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, and the National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal are the three national institutions which have responsibilities both for research and post-graduate education. However, only the IARI has been given the status of a deemed university by virtue of which it awards its own post-graduate degrees in the field of agriculture. NDRI and IVRI are performing this function through affiliation with other universities. The recent establishment of the National Academy of Agricultural Management at Hyderabad as a constituent unit of the Council is an important landmark in institution building. This Academy would be responsible for providing quality training to various categories of personnel involved in agricultural research all over the country. Establishment of an Agricultural Research Service (ARS) started on October 1st, 1975 marks yet another landmark in the history of research management of ICAR. C. Agricultural Universities The responsibility for research in most of the States is now with the 21 agricultural universities, which perform in an integrated way the functions of teaching, research and extension education. The ICAR has recently taken major steps to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "landmark in the history of research management of ICAR. C. Agricultural Universities The responsibility for research in most of the States is now with the 21 agricultural universities, which perform in an integrated way the functions of teaching, research and extension education. The ICAR has recently taken major steps to further strengthen the agricultural research capabilities of the agricultural universities through the National Agricultural Research Project (NARP), which is being implemented through the assistance of IBRD. D. Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) The ICAR has sponsored a programme known as the Krishi Vigyan Kendras, designed to provide skill oriented vocational training to practicing farmers, in-service field level extension. Workers or those who intend to go in for self-employment. E. Other ICAR Schemes • National demonstrations and Operational Research Projects in 1964–65 • Scheme of Professors of Eminence/National Fellows • National Research Centres • Advanced Centres of post-Graduate Education and Research AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 161 F. Timeline of Agricultural Activities in India Since Independence Year Events 1947 Central Tobacco Research Institute established at Rajmundry, (Andhra Pradesh). Central Marine Fishers Research Institute established at Cochin (Shifted to Mandapam in 1949). Central Island Fisheries Station (now an Institute) established at Barrackpore (West Bengal). 1949 Turlock Singh invents the concept of standard acre. Central Potato Research Institute established at Patina (It was transferred to Simla in 1956). The University Education Commission under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishanan, recommends the creation of rural universities. 1950 Indian Agricultural Research Institute started in Delhi. Intensive Cultivation Scheme in 19 Villages at the initiative of K.M. Munshi. Garden Colony Scheme Launched in Punjab. 1951 Fertilizer factory set up at Sindri (Bihar). The Japanese mint, source of menthol, introduced into India by Sir R.N. Chopra. A factory established at Calcutta to manufacture BHC. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Scheme in 19 Villages at the initiative of K.M. Munshi. Garden Colony Scheme Launched in Punjab. 1951 Fertilizer factory set up at Sindri (Bihar). The Japanese mint, source of menthol, introduced into India by Sir R.N. Chopra. A factory established at Calcutta to manufacture BHC. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research started at Lucknow. 1953 Jute Agriculture Research Institute started at Barrackpur, West Bengal. 1955 National Dairy Research Institute started at Karnal. Fertilizer Association of India organized. Lower Bhavani Project completed in Madras (Tamil Nadu). 1956 All-India Soil Survey Scheme started in the IARI. Central Potato Research Institute started at Simla. 1957 Central Institute of Fisheries Technology started at Cochin. 1958 All-India Soil and land Use Survey Organization started. 1959 Institute of Agriculture Research Statistics, which made a modes beginning in 1933 as a Statistics, Wing of the ICAR, comes into being. (It was strengthened and renamed Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute in 1978). Central arid zone research institute established at Jodhpur (Rajasthan). 1960 International Rice Research Institute established at Los Banos, Philippines. Over the years, this institute actively collaborated with rice research in India. Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology set up at Pantnagar, Uttar Pradesh. 1961 Fertilizer Corporation of India set up at New Delhi. Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) stated in seven districts. Package of agricultural practices prepared for wheat and rice cultivation in the States. Dwarflines of wheat incorporating Norin Genes released by N.E. Borlaug at CIMMYT, Mexico. These varieties later had a major impact on India’s Green Revolution. 1962 Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute started at Avikanagar, Rajasthan. Punjab Agricultural University set up at Ludhiana, Punjab (inaugurated on 8 July 1963). Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology set up at Bhubaneshwar, Orissa. Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute established at Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "on India’s Green Revolution. 1962 Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute started at Avikanagar, Rajasthan. Punjab Agricultural University set up at Ludhiana, Punjab (inaugurated on 8 July 1963). Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology set up at Bhubaneshwar, Orissa. Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute established at Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. (Contd.) 162 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Year Events 1963 N.E. Borlaug visits India, On return to Mexico he sends 100 kg seed of each of the dwarf and semi-dwarf wheat varieties and 613 primary selections in advanced generation to the IARI. The IARI arranged multi-location testing programme at Delhi, Ludhiana, Pusa, Kanpur, Pantnagar, Bhowali and Wellington. Out of these, ‘Kalyan Sona’ was independently selected at Delhi and Ludhiana, and ‘Sonalika’ at Delhi. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute started at Trivandrum, Kerala . The National Seeds Corporation set up. 1964 Intensive Agricultural Areas Programme (IAAP) started in 114 blocks, with M.S. Randhawa as Director-General. C. Subramaniam appointed Minister for Food and Agriculture and Community Projects Government of India. India faces food crisis due to prolonged drought. 1965 About 250 t of wheat seed imported from Mexico. B.P. Pal appointed Vice-President of the ICAR. He was the first agricultural scientist to hold this post. Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University set up at Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. University of Agricultural Sciences set up at Bangalore, Karnataka. National Dairy Development Board formed at Anand, Gujarat. Agricultural Prices Commission established. Warehousing Corporation set up. 1966 The Report of the Education Commission (Headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari) recommends the setting up of at least one agricultural university in each State. Agro-industries Corporations set up in Bihar, Punjab and Tamil Nadu. Start of the Green Revolution. ‘Rojo 69’ and ‘Sonora 64’ imported from Mexico. Neyveli Fertilizer Plant commissioned. 1967 Indian Institute of Horticultural Research started at Bangalore, Karnataka. International",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the setting up of at least one agricultural university in each State. Agro-industries Corporations set up in Bihar, Punjab and Tamil Nadu. Start of the Green Revolution. ‘Rojo 69’ and ‘Sonora 64’ imported from Mexico. Neyveli Fertilizer Plant commissioned. 1967 Indian Institute of Horticultural Research started at Bangalore, Karnataka. International Rice Research Institute, Philippines, enters into an agreement with the ICAR and the USAID to participate in the development of rice research in India. This led to development of many high-yielding varieties of rice. All-India co-ordinated Research Project on Soybean started by the ICAR. C.T. Patel develops hybrid cotton, ‘H 4’. Which gave a yield of 6,918 kg per hectare. 1969 Wealth tax imposed on agricultural land. Assam Agricultural University set up at Jorhat, Assam. Central soil Salinity Research Institute started at Karnal, Haryana. 1970 Central Plantain Crops Research Institute started at Kasargod, Kerala. Haryana Agricultural University set up at Hissar, on account of bifurcation of the Punjab Agricultural University. Indian Dairy Corporation started with V. Kurien as Chairman. Operation Flood started by the National Dairy Development Board. 1971 Directorate of Agricultural Aviation started by the Government of India. (Contd.) AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 163 Year Events Tamil Nadu Agricultural University set up at Coimbatore. Rajendra Agricultural University set up at Patna, Bihar. 1972 Ceiling on Land-holdings fixed at 4–7 hectares of double-cropped land per family. International crops Research Institute for Semi-arid Tropics established at Hyderabad , Andra Pradesh, with R.W. Cummings as its first Director. Kerala Agricultural University set up at Mannuthy, Kerala. 1974 Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute started at Dehradun. 1976 Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering started at Bhopal. Central Institute for Cotton Research started at Nagpur. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources set up at New Delhi. National Bureau of Soil Survey",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "up at Mannuthy, Kerala. 1974 Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute started at Dehradun. 1976 Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering started at Bhopal. Central Institute for Cotton Research started at Nagpur. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources set up at New Delhi. National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land-Use Planning started functioning independently at New Delhi; shifted to Nagpur in 1978. Integrated Rural Development programme started. 1977 Prakash Singh Badal appointed Minister, Food and Agriculture, Government of India. Surjit Singh Barnala appointed Minister, Food and Agriculture, as Parkash Singh Badal becomes Chief Minister of Punjab. Production of Potatoes in India rises to 7,287 thousand tones. 1978 Central Agricultural Research Institute for Andaman and Nicobar Group of Islands started at Port Blair. 1979 Brahm Parkash Choudhary appointed Minister, Food and Agriculture, Government of India. Central Avian Research Institute comes into being at Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh. 1980 Ramagundam Fertilizer project completed to manufacture ammonia and urea. Wealth tax on agricultural lands-an iniquitous, Vexatious and anti-improvement measure-abolished. 2.45.1 Vision for Agriculture in 2020 A.D. Every country needs a vision statement, which stirs the imagination and motivates all segments of society to a greater effort. It is an essential step in building a political consensus on a broad national development strategy, which encompasses, inter-alia, the roles and responsibilities of different agents in the economy, such as Central, State and local government, the private corporate sector, the small and tiny sector, people’s organization etc. It must identify potential risks and bottlenecks and their possible solutions in order to mobilize efforts in a focused manner. It is clear, therefore, that to meet these objectives, a vision statement has to operate at several levels of generality and specificity. A vision is a picture of what is possible or what is desired in a longer-term",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "their possible solutions in order to mobilize efforts in a focused manner. It is clear, therefore, that to meet these objectives, a vision statement has to operate at several levels of generality and specificity. A vision is a picture of what is possible or what is desired in a longer-term future. It could be of one individual in origin or it could be a collective in its conception. President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam’s address to the joint session of Parliament in 2003: The people to strive towards the goal of transforming India into a Developed Nation by 2020. This vision captures our people’s heightened self-confidence, rooted in India’s impressive achievements in many fields. It also reflects the increased expectations of our people at the beginning of the new century, that India no longer be categorized as a developing, much less, a poor country. Nearly 260 million people, who are below the poverty line, want to join the mainstream of development. Our people are impatient to 164 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY achieve 100 percent literacy, health for all, shelter for all, prosperity through knowledge-driven productivity, and a better quality of life—all of these enriched with our value system. Hence, it is time India launched a new vision, which I would call “Vision–2020”. To achieve this, they should concentrate on two mantras: Effective Implementation with People’s Participation; and Effective Communication for People’s Participation. A key element of “Vision 2020” would be “Providing Urban amenities in Rural Areas (PURA)”. More than two-thirds of India’s population lives in rural areas. We need to give a new thrust to their all-round development through a mega mission for their empowerment. The richness and diversity of India’s bio-resources are a major gift of nature to us. The Biological Diversity Bill 2002, passed in the Winter Session, marked a",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "population lives in rural areas. We need to give a new thrust to their all-round development through a mega mission for their empowerment. The richness and diversity of India’s bio-resources are a major gift of nature to us. The Biological Diversity Bill 2002, passed in the Winter Session, marked a major milestone in India’s commitment to conservation and sustainable utilization of our bio-resources. An ambitious afforestation programme with people’s participation that establishes Joint Forest Management Committees in all the 1.73 lakh villages located on the fringes of the forest areas has been launched. The scope of the National River Conservation Plan has been considerably broadened to include works in 155 towns along polluted stretches of 29 rivers spread over 17 States. India successfully hosted the Eighth Conference of Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in New Delhi last year. The successful adoption of the Delhi Declaration helped to raise awareness of developing country concerns in climate change. India welcomes the adoption of the Plan of Action at the World Summit on Sustainable Development, which was held in Johannesburg last year. India’s first meteorological satellite was successfully launched. The forthcoming launches of satellites in the INSAT-3 series will add further capacity to the INSAT system, which is already one of the largest domestic communication satellite systems in Asia. An exclusive satellite for education, EDUSAT, is also under development. ISRO has taken up the task of tele-medicine connectivity to provide medical services to remote areas. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellites continue to provide valuable data for our resources survey and management. Groundwater prospect maps for six States were released recently to help locate sites for drilling bore wells. The Nation has been searching for a lasting solution to the recurring problem of droughts and floods, which have been",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Sensing Satellites continue to provide valuable data for our resources survey and management. Groundwater prospect maps for six States were released recently to help locate sites for drilling bore wells. The Nation has been searching for a lasting solution to the recurring problem of droughts and floods, which have been taking a huge human and economic toll. Networking of our river systems to transfer water from the surplus basins to the areas of deficit has engaged people’s attention for many decades. The Government has set up a Task Force to prepare a practical blueprint for this project, without compromising environmental safety and the interest of displaced people. This initiative will bring significant benefits in drinking water, irrigation, power generation, inland navigation, and tourism. I must emphasize that this mega project does not negate the need for promoting small and micro programmes for water conservation at local levels. The two are mutually complementary. The National Water Resources Council has adopted a new National Water Policy emphasizing integrated water resources development and management for optimal and sustainable utilization of available surface and groundwater. The Centre has launched a Fast Track Programme for the completion of those major and medium irrigation schemes that can be completed in one year. Subsequent to the approval by the Narmada Control Authority, the dam height was raised, and this has mitigated the problem of drinking water and irrigation in arid areas of Saurashtra and North Gujarat. The policy of procurement at the Minimum Support Price, while ensuring remunerative prices for wheat and rice farmers in surplus States, has resulted in huge stocks of rice and wheat with the public agencies. As a response to this, the Government has been encouraging exports of food grains. The wide-ranging recommendations on long-term food management made by the High Level Committee",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "remunerative prices for wheat and rice farmers in surplus States, has resulted in huge stocks of rice and wheat with the public agencies. As a response to this, the Government has been encouraging exports of food grains. The wide-ranging recommendations on long-term food management made by the High Level Committee are being examined. There is an urgent need to review the current policies, which have impeded crop diversification and led to unsustainable food subsidies, and to ensure crop neutral support to our farmers without excessive procurement. Fertilizers are a critical component in our scheme of food security. The new pricing policy AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 165 for urea to be implemented from April 2003 aims at greater transparency, efficiency, and fiscal discipline. While the Government is committed to deregulate the marketing and distribution of fertilizers, it would ensure that major fertilizers are available in the country both in adequate quantity and quality at affordable prices to farmers in all the States. The sugar industry has lately faced serious difficulties, constraining the capacity of sugar factories to make timely payment to sugarcane farmers. Several steps have been initiated to protect the interests of sugarcane growers, while ensuring viability of sugar mills. Sustained efforts are being made to promote horticulture as a major area of diversification in agriculture. The cold storage scheme is working well and has created an additional capacity of 28 lakh t. A new scheme of construction, renovation, and expansion of rural godowns called Grameen Bhandaran Yojana has been launched. This scheme will help prevent distress sales by small and marginal farmers. A new National Policy on Cooperatives has been announced. A National Seeds Policy has been finalized. Under the scheme of Agriclinics and Agribusiness Centres, launched last year, unemployed agriculture graduates provide extension services to the farmers on",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "launched. This scheme will help prevent distress sales by small and marginal farmers. A new National Policy on Cooperatives has been announced. A National Seeds Policy has been finalized. Under the scheme of Agriclinics and Agribusiness Centres, launched last year, unemployed agriculture graduates provide extension services to the farmers on payment. Recognizing the need for value-addition in agricultural and horticultural produce, the Government has given high priority to the development of food processing industries. A Group of Ministers has been constituted to propose a single modern integrated food law and related regulations, to replace the existing myriad laws, which have affected the growth of this sector. A. Agricultural Education in India Greater coverage and better quality education at all levels from basic literacy to hi-tech science and technology is the essential prerequisite for raising agricultural productivity. The Education Division is headed by the Deputy Director General (Education). Five Assistant Directors General (ADGs)-ADG (HRD-I), ADG (HRD-II), ADG (Education Planning and Development), ADG (Accreditation), ADG (Home Science), and Deputy Secretary (Education), assist the DDG (Edn). Each is supported by a Section Officer (SO) and other staff. The Examination Cell established to conduct All India Entrance Examination is functioning under a revolving fund scheme from the current financial year, and is headed by ADG (HRD-I). The Education Division provides administrative support to the National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM). B. Thrust Areas • Accreditation for quality assurance. • Global competitiveness in HRD. • Distance education for reaching the unreached. • Fellowship as a tool for HRD, National integration and reducing inbreeding. • Women technological empowerment. • Faculty competence improvement. • Networking for access to information. “A developed country is one which is able to utilize its core strength to the best possible extent. If a country is not able to use its",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a tool for HRD, National integration and reducing inbreeding. • Women technological empowerment. • Faculty competence improvement. • Networking for access to information. “A developed country is one which is able to utilize its core strength to the best possible extent. If a country is not able to use its core strengths or is underutilizing its core strengths it remains underdeveloped”. Utilization of core strengths is finally the utilization of strengths of its people. Empowering each Indian with right skills and knowledge (to enable him/her to add value addition) is crucial for national development. If people are poor, it is because they have not been empowered with right skills, which can provide value addition in the competitive world of market economics. We cannot afford to ignore the rights of our children to live prosperously in a world which is going to pay only those who have the right skills. Education and skill imparting is not a slot machine–it 166 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY requires gestation periods for a person who enters it to come out with reasonable skills and knowledge base. So we need to bold in our approach to expand skill and knowledge delivery systems to our people on a massive scale to enable them to be productive in a competitive globalised world. That will in turn and would also spread entrepreneurship thus creating a virtuous cycle of economic acceleration and knowledge-skill base growth. C. Agricultural Research in India The research thrust areas identified for immediate future are: • Increasing the productivity of crops • Micro-propagation of agricultural and horticultural plants though tissue culture techniques, biotechnology, etc. • Forage crops for various agro climatic regions • Achieving sustainable agriculture through integrated farming systems, integrated nutrient management, biofertilizers, etc. • Optimal cropping system in accordance with resource base in dry",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Increasing the productivity of crops • Micro-propagation of agricultural and horticultural plants though tissue culture techniques, biotechnology, etc. • Forage crops for various agro climatic regions • Achieving sustainable agriculture through integrated farming systems, integrated nutrient management, biofertilizers, etc. • Optimal cropping system in accordance with resource base in dry land agriculture • Organic farming • Wasteland development through agro forestry, agri-horticulture, silvipasture, insitu soil moisture conservation, and technologies for problem soils • Evolving eco-friendly, low cost technologies including biopesticides and biocontrol agents • Production of quality seeds of agricultural and horticultural crops including hybrids seeds • Strengthening post harvest research and protected cultivation from crop produce losses • Developing suitable farm machineries and tools to manage labour scarcity in farm operations • Strengthening research on new irrigation methods, developing drought tolerant crop varieties to manage water scarcity • Developing low cost packing and processing technologies to agricultural and horticultural commodities • Non-conventional energy resources • Research on productivity and processing of medicinal plants. Commercial exploitation of medicinal plants in domestic and foreign markets • Setting of agri-clinics and agri-business centres in areas such as soil, water quality and input laboratory service centre, plant protection, horticulture, marketing, farm machinery and primary processing, etc. The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has unveiled a document “Biotechnology-A Vision”. The document outlines time-bound mission oriented inter-agency, inter-disciplinary projects to achieve the objectives. The mission would be a well-directed effort for the generation of products, processes and technologies to provide food, environment, health and nutritional security. India and Switzerland have taken up a wheat research programme to develop high-yielding improved varieties, resistant to fungal diseases. The DBT and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) are working towards a Swiss proposal for joint research on Golden Rice i.e., a pro-vitamin-A rich rice variety. Collaborative arrangements have",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "India and Switzerland have taken up a wheat research programme to develop high-yielding improved varieties, resistant to fungal diseases. The DBT and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) are working towards a Swiss proposal for joint research on Golden Rice i.e., a pro-vitamin-A rich rice variety. Collaborative arrangements have also been entered into with the National Institute of Mental Health, USA and the Brain Research Centre, Riken, Japan, for research in neuro-sciences. There is a major mission for technology for bamboo products recently approved. This will greatly facilitate rural poor to earn through selling bamboo with value addition. AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 167 D. National Textile Policy Deciding to redefine the goals and objectives, focus on thrust areas and sharpen strategy in tune with the times, the National Textile Policy–2000 is enunciated as follows: The Indian Textile Industry shall be the policy to produce cloth of good quality at acceptable prices to meet the growing needs of the people; increasingly contribute to the provision of sustainable employment and the economic growth of the nation; and compete with confidence for an increasing share of the global market. The strategic thrust areas will be on technological upgradation, enhancement of productivity, quality consciousness, strengthening of the raw material base, product diversification, increase in exports and innovative marketing strategies, financing arrangements, maximizing employment opportunities and integrated human resource development. The important endeavour will be to achieve increase in cotton productivity by at least 50% and upgrade its quality to international standards, through effective implementation of the Technology Mission on Cotton; launch the Technology Mission on Jute to increase productivity and diversify the use of this environment-friendly fibre; strengthen and encourage the handloom industry to produce value added items and assist the industry to forge joint ventures to secure global markets; facilitate the growth",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "implementation of the Technology Mission on Cotton; launch the Technology Mission on Jute to increase productivity and diversify the use of this environment-friendly fibre; strengthen and encourage the handloom industry to produce value added items and assist the industry to forge joint ventures to secure global markets; facilitate the growth and strengthen HRD Institutions including NIFT (National Institute of Fashion Technology) on innovative lines; review and revitalize the working of the TRAs (Textile Research Associations) to focus research on industry needs. The textile sector is grappling with the challenges of a globalized market and problems created by slow modernization. Nine Apparel Parks have been sanctioned for setting up garment units with state-of-the-art machinery. Several new schemes have been approved to improve facilities in major textile centres in the country. At the same time, the problems of the traditional handloom and handicraft sectors, which provide livelihood to vast numbers of our weavers and artisans, are also being comprehensively addressed through a special package of measures. E. Agricultural Extension in India The farming community needs to increase their productivity through the mission Second Green Revolution using technological advances. Also dry land cultivation needs a thrust. The technology is the base item for the action plan to bring India into a developed nation in reality. Grooming ‘technology’ from seed up to a fruit-bearing tree is an art, science and a specialized enterprise in itself. The key to success lies in assessing where, when and how to facilitate entry for money in the process of technological project realization. There are many other prior activities, which need to be done if technology development can mature into a good business activity. Another important development was that in addition to rapid spreading of interest within the actual farmers, the whole community (in the benefited areas) got involved.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of technological project realization. There are many other prior activities, which need to be done if technology development can mature into a good business activity. Another important development was that in addition to rapid spreading of interest within the actual farmers, the whole community (in the benefited areas) got involved. For example, a women ‘Self Help Group’ is being formed for certain joint cooperative efforts for better quality of life. Farmers get considerable earnings (and substantial returns on their investment in Agro processing) per hectare. Stabilizing the agro technologies for the well chosen (market sharewise) medicinal herbs and placing them in the correct places of value chain. Ever since the Agreement on Agriculture of the World Trade Organization (WTO) began to be debated in the country, increasing agricultural productivity and improving food quality are being tossed as the only solutions for farmers’ survival. Invariably, at every conference and seminar on WTO, the common refrain is that farmers are left with no choice but to increase productivity and thereby reduce the cost of production to remain competitive in a globalised world. The productivity bug has bitten not only the agricultural scientists but also the policymakers, planners and, of course, the politicians. 168 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Chapter 3 Crops and Crop Production In general, crop is an organism grown or harvested for obtaining yield. Agronomically, crop is a plant cultivated for economic purpose. 3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS Classification is done to generalize similar crop plants as a class for attaining better understanding of them. Field crops are classified in the following ways. • According to range of cultivation • According to the place of origin • Botanical classification • Commercial classification • Economic/Agricultural/Agrarian classification • Seasonal classification • Classification based on ontogeny • According to cultural requirement • According to important",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "understanding of them. Field crops are classified in the following ways. • According to range of cultivation • According to the place of origin • Botanical classification • Commercial classification • Economic/Agricultural/Agrarian classification • Seasonal classification • Classification based on ontogeny • According to cultural requirement • According to important uses 3.1.1 Range of Cultivation (a) Garden crop Grown on a small scale in gardens. e.g., Onion, Brinjal etc. (b) Plantation crop Grown on a large scale in estates and perennial in nature. e.g., Tea, Coffee, Cacao, Rubber etc. (c) Field crop Grown on a vast scale under field condition. They are mostly seasonal such as rice, wheat, cotton etc. 3.1.2 Place of Origin (a) Native Crops grown within the geographical limits of their origin, for e.g., rice, barely, black gram, green gram, mustard, castor, sugarcane and cotton, grown in India, are native to India. (b) Exotic or Introduced Crops introduced from other countries, such as tobacco, potato, jute, maize, apple, etc. CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 169 3.1.3 Botanical/Taxonomical Classification According to systematic botany plants are classified as order, family etc. Similarly crop plants are grouped into families as, (a) Poaceae (Graminae) : Cereals, millets and grasses (b) Papilionaceae (Legumes) : Pulses, legume fodders, vegetables, groundnut, berseem, green manures etc. (c) Cruciferae : Mustard, Indian rape seed, radish cabbage, cauliflower etc. (d) Cucurbitaceae : All gourds, cucumber, pumpkin etc. (e) Malvaceae : Cotton, lady’s finger, Roselle etc. (f) Solanaceae : Potato, tomato, tobacco, chillies, brinjal (g) Tiliaceae : Jute (h) Asteraceae (Compositae) : Sunflower, safflower, niger (i) Chenopodiaceae : Spinach, sugar beet (j) Pedeliaceae : Sesame (k) Euphorbiaceae : Castor, tapioca (l) Convolvulaceae : Sweet potato (m) Umbelliferae : Coriander, cumin, carrot, anise (n) Liliaceae : Onion, garlic (o) Zingiberaceae : Ginger, turmeric 3.1.4 Commercial Classification Based on the plant",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Asteraceae (Compositae) : Sunflower, safflower, niger (i) Chenopodiaceae : Spinach, sugar beet (j) Pedeliaceae : Sesame (k) Euphorbiaceae : Castor, tapioca (l) Convolvulaceae : Sweet potato (m) Umbelliferae : Coriander, cumin, carrot, anise (n) Liliaceae : Onion, garlic (o) Zingiberaceae : Ginger, turmeric 3.1.4 Commercial Classification Based on the plant products which come into the commercial field are grouped as: (a) Food crops: Rice, wheat, green gram, soybean, groundnut, etc. (b) Food crops/Forage crops: All fodders, oats, sorghum, maize, napier grass, stylo, Lucerne etc. (c) Industrial/Commercial crops: Cotton, sugarcane, sugar beet, tobacco, jute, etc. (d) Food adjuvunts: Turmeric, garlic, cumin, etc. 3.1.5 Economic/Agrarian/Agricultural Classification This classification is based on use of crop plants and their products. This is an important classification as for as agronomy is concerned (Agronomic classification) (For botanical names of crops, refer annexure–II). (a) Cereals They are cultivated grasses grown for their edible starchy grains (one seeded fruit– caryopsis). Larger grains used as staple food are cereals–rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats etc. The word cereal was derived from the word ceres, which denotes a goddess who was believed as the giver of grains by Romans. rice, wheat Bread wheat Triticum aesticum, Triticum vulgare Macaroni wheat T. durum Emmer wheat T. dicoccum (Mysore and Nilgiri) Bean Var. lignosus maize, barley and oats 170 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (b) Millets Small grained cereals, which form the staple food in drier regions of the developing countries, are called millets. e.g. Major Sorghum, pearl Millet or cumbu and finger millet or ragi. Minor Fox tail millet, little millet, common millet, barnyard millet and kodomillet (c) Oil seeds Crops that yield seeds rich in fatty acids, are used to extract vegetable oils. e.g., groundnut or peanut, sesamum or gingelly, sunflower, castor, linseed or flax, niger, safflower, mustard and cotton. (d) Pulses Seeds",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "ragi. Minor Fox tail millet, little millet, common millet, barnyard millet and kodomillet (c) Oil seeds Crops that yield seeds rich in fatty acids, are used to extract vegetable oils. e.g., groundnut or peanut, sesamum or gingelly, sunflower, castor, linseed or flax, niger, safflower, mustard and cotton. (d) Pulses Seeds of leguminous plants used as food. They produce dal rich in protein. e.g., red gram, black gram, green gram, cowpea, bengal gram, horse gram, dew gram, soybean, peas or garden pea and garden-bean. (e) Feed/Forage It refers to vegetative matter, fresh or preserved, utilized as feed for animals. It includes hay, silage, pasturage and fodder. e.g., bajra napier grass, guinea grass, fodder-sorghum, fodder-maize, lucerne, desmanthus, etc. (f) Fibre crops Plants grown for their fibre yield. There are different kinds of fibre. They are: (i) seed fibre–cotton, (ii) stem fibre-jute, mesta, (iii) leaf fibre–agave, pineapple. (g) Sugar and starch crops Crops grown for production of sugar and starch. e.g., sugarcane, sugar beet, potato, sweet potato, tapioca and asparagus. (h) Spices and condiments Crop plants or their products used to season, flavour, taste, and add colour to the fresh or preserved food. e.g., ginger, garlic, fenugreek, cumin, turmeric, chillies, onion, coriander, anise and asafetida. (i) Drug crops/medicinal plants Crops used for preparation of medicines. e.g., tobacco, mint etc. (j) Narcotics, fumitories and masticatories Plants/products used for stimulating, numbing, drowsing or relishing effects. e.g., tobacco, ganja, opium poppy. (k) Beverages Products of crops used for preparation of mild, agreeable and stimulating drinking. e.g., tea, coffee, cocoa. 3.1.6 Seasonal Classification Crops are grouped under the seasons in which their major field duration falls. (a) Kharif or South West Monsoon season crops Crops grown during June–July to September– October, which require a warm wet weather during their major period of growth and shorter day length",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "tea, coffee, cocoa. 3.1.6 Seasonal Classification Crops are grouped under the seasons in which their major field duration falls. (a) Kharif or South West Monsoon season crops Crops grown during June–July to September– October, which require a warm wet weather during their major period of growth and shorter day length for flowering. e.g., rice, maize, castor and groundnut. (b) Rabi crops/post monsoon crops Crops grown during October–November to January–February, require cold dry weather for their major growth period and longer day length for flowering. e.g., wheat, mustard, barley, oats, potato, Bengal gram, berseem, cabbage and cauliflower. (c) Zaid or summer crops Crops grown during February–March to May–June which requires warm dry weather for growth and longer day–length for flowering. e.g., black gram, green gram, sesame, cowpea etc. This classification is not a universal one. It only indicates the period when a particular crop is raised. e.g., kharif rice, kharif maize, rabi maize, summer pulse etc. 3.1.7 According to Ontogeny It is a classification based on the life cycle of a plant. (a) Annual crops Crop plants that complete life cycle within a season or year. They produce seed and die within the season. e.g., wheat, rice, maize, mustard. CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 171 (b) Biennial crops Plants that have life span of two consecutive seasons or years. First year/Season these plants have purely vegetative growth usually confined to rosette of leaves. The tap root is often fleshy and serves as a food storage organ. During the second year/season they produce flower stocks from the crown and after producing seeds the plants die. e.g., sugar beet, beet root, cabbage, radish, carrot, etc. (c) Perennial crops They live for three or more years. They may be seed bearing or non-seed bearing. e.g., sugarcane, napier grass. In general perennial crops occupy land for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "flower stocks from the crown and after producing seeds the plants die. e.g., sugar beet, beet root, cabbage, radish, carrot, etc. (c) Perennial crops They live for three or more years. They may be seed bearing or non-seed bearing. e.g., sugarcane, napier grass. In general perennial crops occupy land for more than 30 months. 3.1.8 According to Cultural Requirement of Crops Certain group of plants is alike in cultural requirements due to their similar agro-botanical or morpho agronomical characters. A. According to suitability of toposequence (i) Crops grown on upland Levelled elevated land with drain all around or unbunded levelled land with drains or drops. Crops that cannot tolerant water stagnation come under this group. e.g., red gram, groundnut, maize, sorghum, cotton, sesamum, napier etc. Crops that require sufficient soil moisture but cannot tolerate water stagnation. e.g., Potato, sugarcane, upland rice, ragi, wheat, black gram, Bengal gram. (ii) Crops grown on lowland These lands are provided with dykes or bunds all around to stagnate water. Crops that require abundant supply of water and can withstand prolonged water logged conditions. e.g., rice, daincha, Para grass and jute. B. According to source of water (i) Irrigated crops The crop cultivation primarily depends upon the irrigation water for a part/ entire growth period of the crop. All crops irrespective seasons are possible to be raised in this category. (ii) Rainfed crops The crop cultivation entirely depends upon the rainfall received. Crop varieties depend upon the season and the rainfall pattern. C. According to moisture availability the soil (i) Wet lands The soil moisture is allowed to occupy both macro and microspores. Anaerobic field condition prevails here. Crops suitable are those crops, which tolerate water stagnation. e.g., green manures like sesbania group, grasses etc. (ii) Dry lands The soil moisture is allowed only on",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "moisture availability the soil (i) Wet lands The soil moisture is allowed to occupy both macro and microspores. Anaerobic field condition prevails here. Crops suitable are those crops, which tolerate water stagnation. e.g., green manures like sesbania group, grasses etc. (ii) Dry lands The soil moisture is allowed only on to microspores. Macro pores are filled with air. Magnitude of soil moisture varies according to the crop. Crops like maize, highly sensitive to excess moisture and drought, crops tolerant to drought and temporary stagnation, sorghum are cultivated in this type of field condition. D. According to the suitability of the textural groups of soils (i) Crops suitable to sandy to sandy loam (light) soils Sorghum, bajra, green gram, sunflower, potato, onion, carrot etc. (ii) Crops suitable to silty loam (medium) soils Jute, sugarcane, maize, cotton, mustard, tobacco, bengal gram, red gram, cowpea, etc. (iii) Crop suitable to clay loam (heavy) soils Rice, wheat, barley, linseed, lentil, para grass, guinea grass, marvel grass etc. 172 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY E. According to tolerance to problem soils (i) Tolerant to acidic soils Wet rice, potato, mustard. (ii) Tolerant to saline soils Chillies, cucurbits, wheat, sorghum, bajra, cluster beans, barley etc. (iii) Tolerant to alkali/sodic soils Barley, cotton, bengal gram, berseem, sunflower, maize, etc. (iv) Tolerant to waterlogged soils Wet rice, daincha, para grass, napier grass, guinea grass. (v) Crops tolerant to soil erosion Marvel grass, groundnut, black gram, rice bean, moth bean, and horse gram. F. According to tillage requirement (i) Arable crops Require preparatory tillage. e.g., Potato, tobacco, rice, maize. (ii) Non-arable crops May not require preparatory cultivation/tillage. e.g., para grass. G. According to the depth of root system (i) Shallow rooted crops Rice, potato, and onion. (ii) Moderately deep rooted Wheat, groundnut, castor, and tobacco. (iii) Deep rooted Maize, cotton,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "crops Require preparatory tillage. e.g., Potato, tobacco, rice, maize. (ii) Non-arable crops May not require preparatory cultivation/tillage. e.g., para grass. G. According to the depth of root system (i) Shallow rooted crops Rice, potato, and onion. (ii) Moderately deep rooted Wheat, groundnut, castor, and tobacco. (iii) Deep rooted Maize, cotton, and sorghum. (iv) Very deep rooted Sugarcane, safflower, lucerne, and red gram. H. According to the tolerance to hazardous weather condition (i) Frost tolerant Sugar beet, beet root. (ii) Cold tolerant Potato, cabbage, and mustard. (iii) Drought tolerant Bajra, jowar, barley, safflower, castor. I. According to method of sowing/planting (i) Direct seeded crop Where the seeds are sown directly either dry or sprouted. upland rice, wheat, jowar, bajra, groundnut etc. (ii) Planted crops Where plant parts are planted directly. e.g., sugarcane, potato, sweet potato, napier, guinea grass. (iii) Transplanted crops Where seedlings are raised in the nursery, pulled out and planted in the field: rice, ragi, bajra, tobacco, bellary onion, brinjal. J. According to inter-tillage requirement specially earthing up (i) Intertilled crops Potato, sweet potato, groundnut, maize, sugarcane, and turmeric. (ii) Non-intertilled crops Fodder sorghum, deenanath grass, para grass etc. K. According to length of field duration of crops (i) Very short duration crops (upto 75 days) : pulses (ii) Short duration crops (75–100 days) : sunflower, cauliflower, upland rice (iii) Medium duration crops (100–125 days ) : wheat, jowar, bajra, groundnut, sesame, jute (iv) Long duration crops (125–150 days) : mustard, tobacco, cotton (v) Very long duration crops: above 150 days : sugarcane, red gram, castor. L. According to the method of harvesting (i) Reaping : rice, wheat, (ii) Uprooting by pulling : bengal gram, black gram, lentil, rapeseed (iii) Uprooting by digging : potato, sweet potato, groundnut, carrot etc. CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 173 (iv) Picking : cotton,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "150 days : sugarcane, red gram, castor. L. According to the method of harvesting (i) Reaping : rice, wheat, (ii) Uprooting by pulling : bengal gram, black gram, lentil, rapeseed (iii) Uprooting by digging : potato, sweet potato, groundnut, carrot etc. CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 173 (iv) Picking : cotton, vegetables, brinjal, bhendi, chillies (v) Priming : tobacco (vi) Cutting : berseem, napier, amaranthus (vii) Grazing : para grass, kolukkattai grass, and stylo. M. According to post harvest requirement (i) Curing : tobacco, mustard (ii) Stripping : jute, sunnhemp (iii) Shelling : groundnut (iv) Ginning : cotton (v) Seasoning : turmeric, chillies (vi) Grading and sorting : potato, rice, wheat, fibre crops etc. N. Based on crops growing soil condition (i) Psammophytes (Sandy soil) : castor (ii) Lithophytes (Rock surface) : ferns (iii) Chasmophytes (Rock crack) : potato (iv) Acedophytes (Acid soil) : potato (v) Basophytes (Alkali soil) : rice (vi) Calciphytes (Basic soil) : asparagus (vii) Halophytes (Saline soil) : sugar beet, alfalfa O. Based on climatic condition (i) Tropical crop : coconut, sugarcane (ii) Sub-tropical crop : rice, cotton (iii) Temperate crop : wheat, barley (iv) Polar crop : all pines, pasture grasses 3.1.9 According to Important Uses Though plants are useful in many ways only certain uses are given below. (a) Catch crops/contingent crops are those crops cultivated to catch the forth coming season. It replaces the main crop that has failed due to biotic or climatic or management hazards. Generally, they are of very short duration, quick growing, harvestable or usable at any time of their field duration and adaptable to the season, soil and management practices. They provide feed, check weed growth, conserve soil, utilized added fertilizer and moisture. e.g., green gram, black gram, cowpea, onion, coriander and bajra. (b) Restorative crops are those crops,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "quick growing, harvestable or usable at any time of their field duration and adaptable to the season, soil and management practices. They provide feed, check weed growth, conserve soil, utilized added fertilizer and moisture. e.g., green gram, black gram, cowpea, onion, coriander and bajra. (b) Restorative crops are those crops, which provide a good yield along with enrichment or restoration of soil fertility or amelioration of the soils. They fix atmospheric nitrogen in root nodules, shed their leaves during ripening and thus restore soil conditions. e.g., legumes. (c) Exhaustive crops are those crop plants, which on growing leave the field exhausted because of a more aggressive nature. e.g., gingelly, brinjal, linseed, sunflower etc. (d) Paira crop/residual crops are those crop plants which are sown a few days or weeks before the harvest of the standing mature crops to utilize the residual moisture, without preparatory tillage. The standing crop and the later sown (paira) crop become simultaneous (forming a pair) for a short period. For e.g., rice fallow pulses black gram, lathyrus, lentil etc. Paira crops in succession may constitute relay cropping. 174 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (e) Smother crops are those crop plants which are able to smother or suppress the weed growth by providing suffocation (curtailing movement of air) and obscuration (of the incidental radiation) through their dense foliage developed due to quick growing ability with heavy tillering or branching, planophyllic or procumbent or trailing habits. e.g., barley, mustard, cowpea, etc. (f) Cover crops are those crop plants, which are able to protect the soil surface from erosion (wind, water or both) through their ground covering foliage and or root mats. e.g., groundnut, black gram, marvel grass, sweet potato. (g) Nurse crops: A companion crop, which nourishes the main crop by way of nitrogen fixation and or adding the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "are able to protect the soil surface from erosion (wind, water or both) through their ground covering foliage and or root mats. e.g., groundnut, black gram, marvel grass, sweet potato. (g) Nurse crops: A companion crop, which nourishes the main crop by way of nitrogen fixation and or adding the organic matter into the soil. e.g., cowpea intercropped with cereals, glyricidia, tephrosia in tea. (h) Guard/barrier crops are those crop plants, which help to protect another crop from trespassing or restrict the speed of wind and thus prevent crop damage. Main crop in the centre surrounded by hardy or thorny crop. e.g., mesta around sugarcane; sorghum around cotton; safflower around gram. (i) Trap crops are those crop plants grown to trap soil borne harmful parasitic weeds. For e.g., orabanche and striga are trapped by solanaceous and sorghum crops respectively. Nematodes are trapped by solanaceous crops (On uprooting crop plants, nematodes are removed from the soil). Castor in cotton, groundnut act as crop for army worm pest. (j) Augmenting crops are those sub crops sown to supplement the yield of the main crop. e.g., Mustard or cabbage with berseem to augment the forage yield of berseem. (k) Alley crops are those arable crops, which are grown in ‘alleys’ formed by trees or shrubs, established mainly to hasten soil fertility restoration, enhance soil productivity and reduce soil erosion. They are generally of non-trailing with shade tolerance capacity. For e.g., growing pulses in between the rows of casuarina. 3.2 CROP ADAPTATION AND DISTRIBUTION 3.2.1 Adaptation Adaptation may be defined as any feature of an organism, which has survival value under the existing condition of its habitat. Such features or feature may allow the plants to make fuller use of nutrients, water, temperature or light available or may give protection against adverse factors such",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "3.2.1 Adaptation Adaptation may be defined as any feature of an organism, which has survival value under the existing condition of its habitat. Such features or feature may allow the plants to make fuller use of nutrients, water, temperature or light available or may give protection against adverse factors such as temperature extremes, harmful insects and diseases. Adaptation may be morphological or physiological. (a) Morphological adaptation such as growth habit, strength of stalk, radial symmetry, or rhizomes. (b) Physiological adaptation, which result in resistance to parasites, greater ability to compete for nutrients or ability to withstand desiccation. However both morphological and physiological adaptation represents the expression of physiological processes. 3.2.2 Principles of Plant Distribution Environmental factors are highly influential in determining the natural distribution of plants. There are eight principles of plant distribution • Evolution • Climatic factors like light, temperature, moisture, wind etc. • Edaphic factors like soil, parent material, physiography • Dispersal of flora CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 175 • Plant migrations • Climatic variations or change • Relative distributions of land and sea (occurrence in geological time) and it exerts a high degree of control over distribution of flora • Biotic factors like obligate insect pollination, seed dissemination by animals and grazing by live stock directly influence the plant distribution. 3.2.3 Theories Governing Crop Adaptation and Distribution Theory of tolerance Each plant or living organisms is able to thrive well in certain climatic conditions below which and above which the plant can’t grow, i.e., it requires optimum climatic conditions. Temperature is one of the most common limiting factors in plant distribution. Many tropical crops such as rubber, cocoa, banana will not with stand freezing temperature (0°C). In these rubber probably has the narrowest tolerance range and banana the widest range for temperature tolerance. Theory of avoidance It",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "climatic conditions. Temperature is one of the most common limiting factors in plant distribution. Many tropical crops such as rubber, cocoa, banana will not with stand freezing temperature (0°C). In these rubber probably has the narrowest tolerance range and banana the widest range for temperature tolerance. Theory of avoidance It may be accomplished through rapid completion of the life cycle, as in ephemerals, dormancy in seeds to avoid effects of the hottest and driest periods, dormancy in vegetative parts or roots of all the perennials, water accumulation in succulents and extremely deep root systems to avoid moisture deficiency. Theory of factors replaceability One factor that can be replaced by another or substituted by another. For e.g., • Elevation can be substituted for latitude because of its temperature effects. The climatic conditions at the latitudes of 35–45° N resembles to that of tropical regions at elevation of 4000–6000 ft. • The angle direction of slope may be substituted for latitude. This is also a temperature adjustment, depending on the angle of exposure to solar radiation, wind etc. • Parent materials may compensate for climate. • Rainfall may be replaced by fog and to some extent by dew. • Soil texture may be substituted for moisture. 3.2.4 Major Crops of Indian Sub-continent The packages and practices of different crops are given in the chapter 15. The origin, adaptation, altitude, rainfall and temperature, soil and distribution of different crops are given below. 1. Rice In India rice is the most important food crop and it is the staple food in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa. Origin: Indo-Burma (Indo-Myanmar). Adaptation: Grown in the world between 39°S (Australia) 50°N latitude (China). In India it is grown between 8°N to 34°N latitude. Altitude: From below sea level (Kuttanad region of Kerala) to 3000",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and it is the staple food in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa. Origin: Indo-Burma (Indo-Myanmar). Adaptation: Grown in the world between 39°S (Australia) 50°N latitude (China). In India it is grown between 8°N to 34°N latitude. Altitude: From below sea level (Kuttanad region of Kerala) to 3000 m (Jammu and Kashmir) above MSL. Rainfall and Temperature: Rice is classified as a hydrophyte. A heavy rainfall (R.F.) of 125 cm is required during its growing period. There should be a monthly R.F. of 200 mm to grow lowland rice and 100 mm to grow upland rice respectively. Deep water rice requires one meter height of standing column of water. Rice requires high humidity and high temperature (18–32°C). The critical mean temperature for flowering and fertilization is 16–20°C. Soil: Though rice can be grown in variety of soils, ideal soil is heavy alluvial soils of river valley and delta. The best is soils with slightly acidic nature 5.5 to 6.5 pH, but rice is commonly grown in soils of 4.5 to 8.5 pH. Rice is also grown in acidic peaty soils of Kerala with pH of 3.0 and 176 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY highly alkaline soils of Punjab and Haryana with pH 10.0. Distribution: Rice is widely distributed in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Taiwan, China, Japan, Australia, USA, Spain, Korea. In India rice is grown in the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh etc. 2. Wheat Wheat is the most important and widely cultivated crop in the world. In occupies a prime position in terms of production. India ranks second in production next to China. In India, wheat is the second most important food crop next to rice. Origin: Central Asia. Cultivated species Common/bread wheat–95% production. Durum/macaroni/samba wheat–3-4% production. Emmer",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "important and widely cultivated crop in the world. In occupies a prime position in terms of production. India ranks second in production next to China. In India, wheat is the second most important food crop next to rice. Origin: Central Asia. Cultivated species Common/bread wheat–95% production. Durum/macaroni/samba wheat–3-4% production. Emmer wheat–1% production Indian dwarf wheat–less than 1% production Distribution: Widely distributed in USSR, China, USA, Switzerland, France, Germany, India etc. In India wheat is grown in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Bihar, Haryana, Maharashtra and Gujarat. Adaptation: It can be cultivated from sea level to as high as 3,300 m above MSL. Climate: Cool winter and dry hot summer is required. Wheat requires a rainfall of 40–90 cm. But high temperature and high humidity are harmful. Soils: Though grown in wide range of soil, well drained loams and clay loams are better suited. It is grown in soils with pH above 5.8 and the most suitable pH is 6.5–7.5. Seasons Winter wheat: Long duration wheat varieties are grown in this season, which require low temperature during early growth for flowering and fruiting. It is grown from October, November to May, July. Spring wheat: These varieties do not require low temperature for flowering the fruiting. Normally grown from March, May to August, September. In India, spring wheat is grown in winter (October, November to March, April). There are two seasons for wheat in hills of Tamil Nadu (i) October–April, and (ii) May–September. Wheat zones of India 1. North Western plains, 2. North Eastern plains, 3. Central zone, 4. Peninsular zone. 3. Maize It is a multipurpose cereal, grown in USA, Brazil, China, Mexico, India and Canada. In India it is grown in states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Punjab, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh. It requires a",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "North Western plains, 2. North Eastern plains, 3. Central zone, 4. Peninsular zone. 3. Maize It is a multipurpose cereal, grown in USA, Brazil, China, Mexico, India and Canada. In India it is grown in states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Punjab, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh. It requires a mean temperature of 24°C and night temperature more than 15°C. Summer temperature below 19°C is not suitable. It requires a well distributed rainfall of 50–75 cm. It can be grown from sea level to 3000 m above MSL. 4. Sorghum (Jowar) It is a cereal crop for food in underdeveloped countries and it is grown in USA, China, Nigeria, Sudan and Argentina. In India, it is grown in states of Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The Temperature requirement is minimum 8 to 10°C, optimum 26-29°C and maximum 35-40°C. Sorghum can tolerate high temperature throughout its life cycle better than any other cereal crops. Sorghum can tolerate drought condition. Because (a) it remains dormant during moisture CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 177 stress and resumes growth when favourable condition reappear, and (b) it possesses (i) high resistance to desiccation, (ii) low transpiration rate, and (iii) largest number of fibrous roots. 5. Chick pea/Bengal gram It is number one pulse in area, production and economic importance in India. It is grown in India, Pakistan, Ethiopia, Burma, Turkey. In India, it is grown in states of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Maharastra. It is a winter season crop but severe cold and frost are injurious to it. It requires a moderate rainfall of 60-90 cm. 6. Pigeonpea (arhar) A pulse crop of India with high demand. It is the second most important pulse crop of India and foremost in Southern India. It is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is a winter season crop but severe cold and frost are injurious to it. It requires a moderate rainfall of 60-90 cm. 6. Pigeonpea (arhar) A pulse crop of India with high demand. It is the second most important pulse crop of India and foremost in Southern India. It is a crop with great resilience and withstands water stress and association of short duration crops without any considerable adverse effect on yield. It is grown as pure crop, intercrop border crop etc. 7. Groundnut (peanut) It is an introduced important oilseed crop of India. It is a tropical crop grown in India, China, U.S.A. and Brazil. In India, it is grown in the states of Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Punjab. It is grown between 45°N and 30°S latitude with R.F: 370–600 mm, minimum temperature: 14–16°C and optimum temperature : 21–26.5°C. 8. Sunflower It is also an important oil seed crop of India. It requires a rainfall of 380 mm in summer and 550 mm in sandy loam soils. Sunflower has a heliotropic response. It is grown in U.S.A, Argentina, Romania, Spain, Yugoslovakia, Turkey and former USSR countries. Being thermo and photo insensitive it can be grown throughout the year. 9. Mustard An oilseed of Indian origin. It is grown in India, China, Pakistan and Bangladesh. In India, it is grown in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal and Gujarat. It requires cool climate and rainfall of 35–45 cm. 10. Cotton It is a fibre crop of commercially important and an industrial crop. It is grown in India, U.S.A, former USSR countries, China, Brazil, Egypt, Pakistan, Mexico, Turkey and Sudan. In India, it is grown in Maharastra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Cotton is a heat loving",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fibre crop of commercially important and an industrial crop. It is grown in India, U.S.A, former USSR countries, China, Brazil, Egypt, Pakistan, Mexico, Turkey and Sudan. In India, it is grown in Maharastra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Cotton is a heat loving plant requires a minimum rainfall of 175-200 mm (well distributed). It requires a minimum of 180–200 frost free days. 11. Jute It is also a fibre crop. It is grown in India, Bangladesh, China, Thailand, Brazil, Peru, Burma, Nepal and Vietnam. In India, it is grown in West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Meghalaya and Tripura. It requires an optimum temperature of 25–38°C, rainfall of 150 cm/annum and relative humidity of 55–90%. 12. Tobacco It is grown in India, China and USA. In India, it is grown in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar, Maharastra and Uttar Pradesh. It is a day neutral plant. It requires a rainfall of 500 mm and 90-120 frost free days. The temperature requirement is, minimum temperature 13–14°C, Optimum temperature 27–32°C and maximum temperature 35°C. 13. Sugarcane It is an important commercial cash crop, grown in India, Cuba, Brazil, Mexico, Pakistan, China, Philippines, Thailand and USA. In India, it is grown in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar, Maharastra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. (It is grown in 30°N–30°S latitude) Frost causes injury to sugarcane buds. It requires an annual rainfall of 1250–2500 mm. It is a short day plant, flowering can be photoperiodically controlled. It requires an optimum temperature of 26–32°C for growth. 14. Potato Being a crop of temperate crop, requires a cool temperature. Ideal temperature for vegetative growth is 24°C and that for tuberisation is 18-20°C. It is susceptible to frost and requires bright sunny",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "day plant, flowering can be photoperiodically controlled. It requires an optimum temperature of 26–32°C for growth. 14. Potato Being a crop of temperate crop, requires a cool temperature. Ideal temperature for vegetative growth is 24°C and that for tuberisation is 18-20°C. It is susceptible to frost and requires bright sunny weather. High humidity coupled with cloudy days is injurious to potato because the crop is attacked by fungal diseases (late blight). 178 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 15. Sugar beet It is grown in former USSR countries, USA., France, Germany, Italy, Turkey, Poland, Czechoslovakia etc. In India, it is grown in Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Maharastra. It requires an optimum temperature of 20–22°C and maximum temperature of 30°C and the crop is highly tolerant to frost and cold. 16. Banana It is grown in India, Taiwan, Equator, Coasto rica, Panama, Mexico, Ivory coast, Columbia and Guatemala. In India, it is grown in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It is grown with rain fall of 1800–2500 mm. It requires a minimum temperature of 8–9°C and optimum temperature of 24–29°C. 3.2.5 Factors Governing Choice of Crop and Varieties (i) Climate (a) Seasons Kharif season crops: Rice, maize, sorghum, bajra, ragi, minor Millets. Rabi season crops: Wheat, barley, oats, chickpea, sorghum, potato, safflower, rapeseed and mustard. Summer season crops: Gingelly, black gram, green gram. (b) Rainfall (i) > 30 cm/month for at least 3 months rice (ii) 20-30 cm/month for not less than 3 months maize/black gram (iii) 10-20 cm/month for at least 3 months bajra, small millets (iv) Rainfall 5-10 cm/month grasses (v) < 5 cm Not suited for crop production (c) Length of crop season Effective crop growing period cropping system < 20 weeks Sole crop 20-30 weeks Sole crop + Inter crop > 30 weeks Two crops in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "at least 3 months bajra, small millets (iv) Rainfall 5-10 cm/month grasses (v) < 5 cm Not suited for crop production (c) Length of crop season Effective crop growing period cropping system < 20 weeks Sole crop 20-30 weeks Sole crop + Inter crop > 30 weeks Two crops in sequence (ii) Natural resources (a) Soil Cropping pattern is governed by rainfall and soil characteristics. Rainfall (mm) MHC-moisture holding capacity of soil (mm) cropping pattern <350 – Not suited for crop production 350-650 100 Single crop 650-750 100 Intercropping 750-900 150 Sequential cropping (Relay cropping) >900 200 Double cropping assured (b) Irrigation facilities/water According to water release in the canal it is decided whether single (late release of water) or double crop (early release of water) can be grown in a year. Depending upon the availability of water from river, canal or well source the crops are selected based on CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 179 their water requirement. For e.g., the following is the water requirement of some crops; Banana 2000-2200 mm; Rice 1100-1150 mm; Sorghum 400-450 mm; Cotton 550-650 mm. (iii) Socio-economic aspects of the farmer Big farmers and rich farmers can purchase inputs like fertilizers, pesticides and apply in time, but poor small and marginal farmers cannot do so. Education status, knowledge about principles and practices of crop production, technological know-how and skill also plays a major role in crop selection and management. (iv) Marketing facilities Mostly marketing facilities are available near the town, cities and agro based processing industries. Farmers prefer a crop, the produce of which will fetch high price in the market. In earlier days sunflower and soybean were grown in limited areas due to lack of processing industry. Now, due to industrial development they are grown in large scale. (v) Economics The ultimate objective",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "processing industries. Farmers prefer a crop, the produce of which will fetch high price in the market. In earlier days sunflower and soybean were grown in limited areas due to lack of processing industry. Now, due to industrial development they are grown in large scale. (v) Economics The ultimate objective of commercial farming is to produce more produce per rupee invested. Based on this criteria farmers select the high yielding varieties of maize, sorghum, sunflower and hybrid maize, hybrid cotton that produce more yield than local varieties. Generally farmers are interested to grow the hybrids to get maximum monetary benefits i.e., more income per rupee invested. 3.3 INTENSIVE CROPPING Definition: Intensive cropping is the process of growing a number of crops on the same piece of land during the given period of time. Method of intensive cropping The following methods have been developed to make intensive cropping a success. 3.3.1 Multiple Cropping Growing two or more crops on the same field in one year. The intensification of cropping is in temporal and spatial dimensions. Double, triple and quadruple cropping refers to growing two, three and four crops respectively, on the same land in a year in sequence. (a) Sequential cropping Multiple cropping may be of the following types growing two or more crops in sequence (in succession) on the same field in an year. The succeeding crop is planted after the proceeding crop has been harvested. The crop intensification is only in time dimension. e.g., Rice-Rice-Cotton, Ragi-Cotton-Sorghum. (b) Relay cropping It refers to planting of the succeeding crop before harvesting the preceding crop. e.g., (i) Rice–Black gram (rice fallow pulse), (ii) Rice–Lathyrus, (iii) Rice–Lucerne, (iv) Rice–Berseem and (v) Cotton–Berseem. Here the seeds of black gram, lathyrus, lucerne or berseem are broadcasted in standing rice or cotton crop just before they",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "It refers to planting of the succeeding crop before harvesting the preceding crop. e.g., (i) Rice–Black gram (rice fallow pulse), (ii) Rice–Lathyrus, (iii) Rice–Lucerne, (iv) Rice–Berseem and (v) Cotton–Berseem. Here the seeds of black gram, lathyrus, lucerne or berseem are broadcasted in standing rice or cotton crop just before they are ready for harvesting. Thus the field is never left fallow or there is no gap at all between two successive crops. (c) Ratoon cropping or ratooning It refers to raising a crop with regrowth coming out of roots or stalks after harvest of the crop although not necessarily for grain. e.g., Sugarcane, Banana, Sorghum. (d) Overlapping system of cropping In this system the crop is harvested in phases and the vacated area is sown by next crop. e.g., forage crops, part of the crop is harvested for feeding to the cattle and vacated area is sown with alternate crops like berseem or lucerne. 3.3.2 Intercropping Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field. The crop intensification is in both temporal and spatial dimensions. There is intercrop competition all or part of crop growth (as opposed to intercropping, sole cropping is growing one crop alone in pure stand at normal density). 180 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Principles of Intercropping • The associating crop should be complimentary to the main crop. • The subsidiary crop should be of shorter duration and of faster growing habits, to utilize early slow growing period of main crop. • The component crops should require similar agronomic practices. • Erect growing crops should be intercropped with cover crop. • Erosion permitting crop should be intercropped with erosion resisting crop. • The component crops should have different rooting pattern and depth of rooting. B. Types of intercropping based on Interactions 1. Parallel cropping Under",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "should require similar agronomic practices. • Erect growing crops should be intercropped with cover crop. • Erosion permitting crop should be intercropped with erosion resisting crop. • The component crops should have different rooting pattern and depth of rooting. B. Types of intercropping based on Interactions 1. Parallel cropping Under this two crops are selected which have different growth habits and have a zero competition between each other and both of them express their full yield potential. e.g., black gram with maize, soybean with cotton. 2. Companion cropping Usually a short duration crop is grown along with a long duration crop as a companion crop i.e., the base crop gets the company of another crop for a certain period. e.g., Cotton + black gram/Green gram. 3. Synergistic cropping Here the yield of crops, grown together is found to be higher than the yield of their pure crops on unit area basis. e.g., Sugarcane and potato. C. Advantages of Intercropping • It offers similar benefits to that from rotational cropping. • The total biomass production/unit area/unit time is increased because of the fullest use of land as the inter row spaces are utilized which otherwise would have been used for weed growth. • The fodder value in terms of quantity and quality becomes higher when a non-legume is intercropped with legume. e.g., Napier + desmanthus, sorghum + cowpea.. • It provides crop yields in different times, which reduces the marketing risks. • It offers more employment and better utilization of labourers, machine and power throughout the year. • It is an insurance against drought. D. Difference between intercropping and mixed cropping Intercropping Mixed cropping 1. The main objective of intercropping The main objectives of mixed cropping are insurance against is to utilize the space between rows crop failure. Purpose is to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "machine and power throughout the year. • It is an insurance against drought. D. Difference between intercropping and mixed cropping Intercropping Mixed cropping 1. The main objective of intercropping The main objectives of mixed cropping are insurance against is to utilize the space between rows crop failure. Purpose is to get at least one crop under any of main crop and to produce more climatic, disease or insect hazards grain per unit area 2. There is no competition between main There is competition between crops. Here all crops area given and subsidiary crops equal care and there is no main or subsidiary crop 3. In intercropping, the main crop is of Generally crops are of the same duration (and may be of long duration and subsidiary crop short different duration also) duration/early maturing 4. Main and subsidiary crops are sown in Mixed cropping, generally crop seed are mixed and broadcasted rows with definite row and special without any row and spatial arrangement arrangement 5. The sowing time of both the crops may be The sowing time for all crops is same the same or the main crop is sown earlier than the subsidiary crop CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 181 E. Types (a) Mixed Intercropping (mixed cropping) Growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row arrangement. (b) Row Intercropping (intercropping) Growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops are planted in rows. 3.3.3 Multistoried Cropping Growing crops of different heights in the same field at the same time. It is practiced in orchards and plantation crops for maximum use of solar energy even under normal planting density. e.g., Sugarcane, potato and onion, coconut, pepper, cocoa and pineapple. 3.4 CROP ROTATION Crop rotation may also be defined as a process of growing different crops in succession on",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "same time. It is practiced in orchards and plantation crops for maximum use of solar energy even under normal planting density. e.g., Sugarcane, potato and onion, coconut, pepper, cocoa and pineapple. 3.4 CROP ROTATION Crop rotation may also be defined as a process of growing different crops in succession on a piece of land in a specific period of time with an object to get maximum profit from minimum investment without impairing the soil fertility. A. Principles and Advantages If the same crop is repeatedly grown on the same land it is referred as monoculture or monocropping (e.g., rice-rice-rice) whereas crop rotation is the repetitive cultivation of an orderly succession of different crops and crops and fallow on the same land. One cycle may take several years (one year or more than one year) to complete e.g., rice-rice-pulse (one year), sugarcane–ratoon sugarcane–Rice (2 or 3 years), banana–ratoon banana–rice (3 years). B. Principles of Crop Rotation • The crops with tap roots (deep rooted) should be followed by those, which have fibrous (shallow) root system. This helps in proper and uniform use of nutrients from the soil. • The leguminous crops should be grown before non-leguminous crops because legumes fix atmospheric N into soil and add more organic matter to the soil. • More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops because crops like potato, sugarcane, maize etc., need more inputs such as better tillage, more fertilizers, greater number of irrigations etc. • Selection of the crop should be demand based. • The crop of the same family should not be grown in succession because they act as alternate hosts for insect pests and diseases. • An ideal crop rotation is one, which provides maximum employment to the farm family and labour and permits efficient use of machines and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "demand based. • The crop of the same family should not be grown in succession because they act as alternate hosts for insect pests and diseases. • An ideal crop rotation is one, which provides maximum employment to the farm family and labour and permits efficient use of machines and equipments and ensures timely agricultural operations simultaneously maintaining soil productivity. • The selection of the crops should be problem based i.e. • One sloppy lands, which are prone to erosion, an alternate cropping of erosion promoting and erosion resisting crops like legumes should be adopted. • In low-lying and flood prone area, the crops, which can tolerate water stagnation, should be selected. • Under dry farming the crops, which can tolerate the drought, should be selected. 182 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • The selection of crops should suit farmer’s financial conditions. • The crop selected should also suit the soil and climatic conditions. C. Advantages of Crop Rotation • Crop rotation helps in maintaining of soil fertility, organic matter content and recycling of plant nutrients. All crops do not require the plant nutrients in the same proportion. If different crops are grown in rotation, the fertility of land is utilized more evenly and effectively. • Restorative crops like heavy foliage crops and green manure crops included in rotation increase the nitrogen and organic matter content of the soil. • Helps in control of specific weeds like bermuda grass, cyprus (sedges) and Trianthema portulacastrum. • Avoids accumulation of toxins and maintains physical properties of soil. • Controls certain soil borne pests and disease. • Reduces the pressure of work due to different farm operations in a stipulated period of time. 3.5 CROPPING PATTERNS AND CROPPING SYSTEMS Cropping pattern is the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or crops and fallow",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "physical properties of soil. • Controls certain soil borne pests and disease. • Reduces the pressure of work due to different farm operations in a stipulated period of time. 3.5 CROPPING PATTERNS AND CROPPING SYSTEMS Cropping pattern is the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or crops and fallow on a given land area (District, part of a state, a state or part of the country). Cropping system: Cropping patterns used on a farm and their interactions with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology that determine their make up. Individual crops are the components of a given cropping pattern/system. A. Factors determining the Cropping System Prevailing or existing crops and varieties in a cropping system are the cumulative results of past and present decisions of individuals, communities and Government and their agencies. These decisions were based on experimentation, tradition, expectation, profit (economics) personal preferences and resources, political and social pressures and so on. In general, cropping system is developed taking into account: • availability of resources (input) and managerial skill of farmers suggested for each crop or variety and in crop combination, • ecologically practicable pest and disease control methods to the existing cropping system and the proposed cropping system, • interaction of the existing and chosen crop or introduced crops individually or in combination, • economics of a cropping system prevailed in a region, • influence of infrastructure facilities including marketing on the ecologically feasible crops of a regional and • operational factors deciding the existence of economically preferable crops or cropping system in a region. To describe the cropping pattern of a region the crop occupying the highest percentage of the sown area in a particular season or year of the region is taken as the base crop. • a substitute for base crop in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of economically preferable crops or cropping system in a region. To describe the cropping pattern of a region the crop occupying the highest percentage of the sown area in a particular season or year of the region is taken as the base crop. • a substitute for base crop in the same season. CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 183 • crop which fit in with the rotation in the subsequent seasons. • supplementary crops-which are grown in addition to base crop as intercrops. B. Factors determining the Cropping Pattern Climate (a) Atmospheric temperature, (b) Occurrence of rainfall : (i) Quantity of rainfall, and (ii) Period of rainfall. Topography Altitude and slope will decide the crops and cropping pattern of a locality. Soils (a) Black soil–cotton (b) Red soil–sorghum, red gram, groundnut (c) Laterite and Lateritic soils–rice/tea, (d) Alluvial soils, (e) Sierozemic soils, (f) Chesnut or brown soils. C. Cropping Patterns 1. Cropping Patterns in India India may be broadly divided into five agricultural regions. Rice region: North East, South West and West Coast regions of India. Wheat region: North, West and Central India. Millet region (sorghum): Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Deccan Plateau, Southern peninsula. Temperate Himalayan region: Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh. Plantation crops region: Assam and hills of South India. (a) Kharif season cropping patterns 1. Rice based cropping patterns On all India basis thirty rice based cropping patterns has been identified in different states. Rice is grown in sequence with cotton, pulses, gingelly, jute, wheat, sugarcane, banana, turmeric, betel vine etc. 2. Millets based cropping patterns– (a) Maize based cropping patterns Maize is grown in sequence with sugarcane, groundnut, cowpea, cotton etc. In India twelve cropping patterns were identified with maize. (b) Sorghum based cropping pattern Seventeen patterns were in practice in India. (c) Pearl millet based",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "turmeric, betel vine etc. 2. Millets based cropping patterns– (a) Maize based cropping patterns Maize is grown in sequence with sugarcane, groundnut, cowpea, cotton etc. In India twelve cropping patterns were identified with maize. (b) Sorghum based cropping pattern Seventeen patterns were in practice in India. (c) Pearl millet based cropping patterns Twenty cropping patterns were identified. Both sorghum and pearl millets are grown mostly under identical environmental conditions. Sorghum and peal millet or growth with red gram, groundnut, etc. 3. Cotton based cropping patterns On All India basis sixteen cropping patterns are identified with cotton. It is grown with groundnut, sorghum, minor millets, rice, sugar cane and tobacco. (b) Rabi season cropping patterns Among rabi crops wheat, barley, oats, bengal gram, sorghum are the main base crops. Generally wheat and gram are concentrated in the sub-tropical region in the North India, where as rabi sorghum is grown mostly in deccan. Wheat and gram based cropping system : On all India basis, nineteen cropping patterns were identified with wheat and seven with gram. Wheat and gram are grown in sequence with maize, rice, sorghum, millets, groundnut, pearl millet, cotton etc. Rabi sorghum based cropping system : 13 cropping patterns were identified with rabi sorghum which are grown in sequence with pulses, oilseeds, rice, tobacco, groundnut etc. (For more details refer Annexure IV). 184 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 2. Cropping Pattern in Southern India Tamil Nadu (a) Wetland cropping patterns Rice – Rice – Rice (June-September) (October-February) (February-July) Rice – Rice – Cotton (July-October) – (October-February) (February-July) Rice – Rice – Black gram/Green gram/Gingelly Rice – Rice – Groundnut (b) Irrigated dry cropping patterns Cotton – Sorghum – Ragi (August-February) (February-March) (June-August) Sorghum – Fodder sorghum – Cotton (August-November) (November-January) – (February-July) Maize – Sunflower – Green gram (June-September) (OctoberDecember) (January-March)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "– Cotton (July-October) – (October-February) (February-July) Rice – Rice – Black gram/Green gram/Gingelly Rice – Rice – Groundnut (b) Irrigated dry cropping patterns Cotton – Sorghum – Ragi (August-February) (February-March) (June-August) Sorghum – Fodder sorghum – Cotton (August-November) (November-January) – (February-July) Maize – Sunflower – Green gram (June-September) (OctoberDecember) (January-March) (c) High intensive cropping system for irrigated drylands It can be achieved by inclusion of an intercrop in each component crop of the cropping pattern. sorghum + cowpea (February–May) – onion + ragi (June–August) cotton + onion/black gram (August–February) (d) Rainfed dryland cropping patterns sorghum + cowpea/black gram (South West Monsoon) sorghum + red gram (SWM) sorghum (SWM) – ratoon sorghum/fodder sorghum (NEM) sorghum (SWM) – horsegram/Lablab (NEM) groundnut + red gram (SWM) finger millet + lablab (SWM) cotton + black gram/green gram (SWM) (e) Multi-tier cropping in rainfed drylands Three tier cropping of castor, red gram and groundnut and castor-cotton-coriander or black gram mixtures is popular for a number of years. CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 185 3.6 CROP PRODUCTION 3.6.1 Factors Affecting Crop Production The factors are classified under the following types. Crop growth Internal factors External factors (Genetic or Hereditary) (Environmental) A. Climatic B. Edaphic C. Biotic D. Physiographic E. Socio-economic (Anthropic) 3.6.1.1 Internal Factors The increased yield and other desirable characters are related to the genetic make up of the plant. The following are the areas to improve the potential of crop plants through genetics and plant breeding techniques. • High yields under given environmental conditions. • Early maturity (in some cases late maturity). • Resistance to lodging. • Drought, flood and salinity tolerance. • Tolerance to insects and diseases. • Chemical composition of grains (high percentage of oil, increase in protein quantity or quality, etc.). • Quality of grains (fineness, coarseness, etc.). • Quality of straw",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Early maturity (in some cases late maturity). • Resistance to lodging. • Drought, flood and salinity tolerance. • Tolerance to insects and diseases. • Chemical composition of grains (high percentage of oil, increase in protein quantity or quality, etc.). • Quality of grains (fineness, coarseness, etc.). • Quality of straw (sweetness, juiciness, etc.). 3.6.1.2 Environmental Factors Life of crop is so intimately related with the environmental factors of a place. Environmental factors do not act in isolation from one another. All these environmental factors as discussed below interact with one another to influence the crop growth and production. A. Climatic factors The atmospheric factors, which affect the crop plants, are called climatic factors. They are: • Precipitation • Temperature • Atmospheric humidity • Solar radiation • Wind velocity • Atmospheric gases (i) Precipitation Precipitation includes all forms of water, which falls from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface, in a variety of forms such as rainfall, snow, hail, fog and dew. Fog particles, which contact vegetation, may adhered, coalesced with other droplets and eventually form a drop large enough to fall to the ground. Condensation of the water vapour present in the air in cool nights results in a deposit as dew. 186 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Rainfall is one the most important factors influencing the vegetation of a place. Most of the crops receive their water supply from rainwater. Rainwater is the source of soil moisture so essential for the life of a plant. The yearly precipitation, both in total amount and seasonal distribution greatly affects the choice of cultivated crops of a place. Low and ill-distributed rainfall are common features of dry farming wherein drought resistant crops like sorghum, pearl millet, Italian millet and other minor millets are commonly grown. On the other hand in places of heavy",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "total amount and seasonal distribution greatly affects the choice of cultivated crops of a place. Low and ill-distributed rainfall are common features of dry farming wherein drought resistant crops like sorghum, pearl millet, Italian millet and other minor millets are commonly grown. On the other hand in places of heavy and regular rainfall areas such as in the Western Ghats of India crops like rice are grown in flat areas while tea, coffee, rubber etc., are grown in the slopes. The interaction of rainfall with temperature has a very profound effect on the vegetation and soil of a place. Very heavy rainfall and high temperature in the equatorial and tropical zones cause the formation of most highly developed vegetation of the world. Relationship between Climate, Natural Vegetation and Soil Dry cold Wet cold Perpetual snow and ice – – Perpetual snow and ice Tundra – – Tundra soils Taiga – – Podzol soils Arid Semi arid Subhumid Humid rain forests Desert grasses and shrubs Steppe Grassland Sierozems and desert soils Chestnut and brown soils Prairie soils and Podzol, grey brown/red chernozems podzol soils laterite soil Dry hot Wet hot It may thus be seen that while desert grasses and shrubs are found in desert soils of dry hot climate, rain forests are seen in laterite soils of wet hot climate. (ii) Temperature Temperature is a measure of intensity of heat energy. The range of temperature for maximum growth of most of the agricultural plans is between 15 and 40°C. The temperature of a place is largely determined by its distance from the equator (latitude) and the altitude. Based on the above, the vegetations are classified as tropical, temperate, taiga, tundra and polar. Some investigators have classified the vegetative of the world into four classes on the basis of prevailing temperature",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "temperature of a place is largely determined by its distance from the equator (latitude) and the altitude. Based on the above, the vegetations are classified as tropical, temperate, taiga, tundra and polar. Some investigators have classified the vegetative of the world into four classes on the basis of prevailing temperature conditions as shown in the following Table 3.1. Table 3.1. Classification of Vegetation based on Temperature Class Region Temperature Type of vegetation Common crops conditions cultivated Megatherms Equatorial and tropical High temperature Tropical rain Tropical crops like throughout the year cassava, varieties of rubber, rice, etc. Mesotherms Tropical and sub tropical High temperature Tropical deciduous Sub-tropical crops alternating with low forests like maize, sorghum temperature of winter etc. (Contd.) CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 187 Class Region Temperature Type of vegetation Common crops conditions cultivated Microtherms Temperate and altitude Low temperature Mixed coniferous Temperate crops like plants (upto 12,000 ft of forests wheat, oats, potato tropical and sub-tropical) Hekistotherms Arctic and Alpine regions Very low temperature Alpine vegetation Pines, Spruce, etc. (above 16,000 ft in tropics and 12,000 ft in temperature regions) Every plant community has its own minimum, optimum and maximum temperature known as their cardinal points (Table 3.2). Apart from the reduction in yield many injuries on the plants and adverse effect on soil conditions occur under both extremes on temperature. Table 3.2. Cardinal Temperature of certain Crops for Germination Crops Minimum °C Optimum °C Maximum °C Wheat 4.5 20 30–32 Barley 4.5 20 29–30 Oats 4.5 20 29–30 Maize 8–10 20 40–43 Sorghum 12–13 25 40 Rice 10–12 32 36–38 Tobacco 12–14 29 35 B. Daily cycle of temperature (Diurnal Variation) From sun rice until 2-4 pm, when the energy is being supplied by incoming solar radiation is faster than it is being lost by earth by re-radiation,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Maize 8–10 20 40–43 Sorghum 12–13 25 40 Rice 10–12 32 36–38 Tobacco 12–14 29 35 B. Daily cycle of temperature (Diurnal Variation) From sun rice until 2-4 pm, when the energy is being supplied by incoming solar radiation is faster than it is being lost by earth by re-radiation, the air temperature rises. From about 2-4 pm when the loss of radiation by earth exceeds receipt of solar energy the temperature falls. It is noticeable that the time of highest temperature (2-4 pm) does not, however, exactly coincide with that of noon solar radiation. This lag occurs because temperature continued to rise as long as the amount of incoming solar radiation exceeds the outgoing earth’s radiation. Although the energy receipts being to decline in the afternoon they continue to exceed the energy losses until about 3 pm. The energy gained during the day is slowly lost to the atmosphere by re-radiation, resulting in the reduction of temperature. Hence, minimum temperature is reached between 2 to 6 am. Diurnal = pertaining to action that are completed within 24 hours and that recur every 24 hours. This variation is knows as diurnal variation. The temperature distribution varies with latitude, altitude and the seasons. It varies diurnally at a given location because of the rotation of the earth. C. Vertical distribution (altitude) As a general rule throughout the troposphere, the temperature decreases with elevation. The rate of decrease with altitude is not uniform; it varies with time of the day, season and location. The average decrease is approximately 0.65oC/100 m. (6.5o C/km). This is knows as normal lapse rate or vertical temperature gradient. 188 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY D. Temperature inversion Although normally, the lower several miles of atmosphere show a decrease in temperature with increasing altitude, this condition is reversed at",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "location. The average decrease is approximately 0.65oC/100 m. (6.5o C/km). This is knows as normal lapse rate or vertical temperature gradient. 188 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY D. Temperature inversion Although normally, the lower several miles of atmosphere show a decrease in temperature with increasing altitude, this condition is reversed at certain levels so that temperature temporarily increases with altitude when the colder air lies below warmer air and closer to earth’s surface the normal lapse rate is reversed and this is called temperature inversion. E. Horizontal distribution (Latitude) The lines connecting places, which have same air temperature, are called isotherms. Thus, all the points on a map through which any one isotherm passes have identical average temperature for the period indicated. There is general decrease from equator to poles (increase in latitude). • Irregular distribution of land and water on earth’s surface breaks the latitudinal variation in temperature. • Land areas warm and cool rapidly than water bodies. • Mountain barriers influence horizontal distribution of temperature by restricting movement of air masses. • On local scale topographic relief exerts an influence on temperature distribution. F. Seasonal variations Temperature (diurnal, mean and range) varies according to the season. The main factors contributing to seasonal variations are: • The angel of inclination of solar rays, which decides the intensity of radiation. • Distance between earth and sun. • The movement of seasonal winds which contributes to rain and precipitation. G. Effect of temperature Air temperature is the most important weather parameter, which affects the plant life. The growth of higher plants is restricted to a temperature between 0–60oC and the optimum 10oC–40oC. Beyond these limits, plants are damaged severely and even get killed. The maximum production of dry matter occurs when the temperature ranges from 20 to 30oC. Apart from yield reductions,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "affects the plant life. The growth of higher plants is restricted to a temperature between 0–60oC and the optimum 10oC–40oC. Beyond these limits, plants are damaged severely and even get killed. The maximum production of dry matter occurs when the temperature ranges from 20 to 30oC. Apart from yield reductions, many visible injuries on the plants are seen due to very low or very high temperature. I. Low temperature effects (a) Cold injury Plants are injured due to very low temperature in the following ways: Chilling injury Plants growing in hot climate, if exposed to low temperature (which is above the freezing point) for some time, are found to be killed or injured severely. e.g., Chlorotic condition or bands on leaves of sugarcane, sorghum and maize when exposed for 60 hours at 2–4oC. Freezing injury This is generally caused in plants growing in temperate region. When the plants are exposed to very low temperature, water is frozen into ice crystals in the intercellular spaces. With further fall in temperature, water is withdrawn from the cells, resulting in increase in the size of ice crystals in the intercellular spaces. The protoplasm of the cell is dehydrated, and mechanical distortion takes place resulting in killing of the cells. Frost damage to potatoes, tea etc., in winter in the hilly areas like the Nilgiris is a typical e.g., of the freezing injury. Suffocation During winter the ice or the snow form a thick cover over the ground and the crop suffers for want of oxygen. Ice in contact with roots inhibits diffusion of carbon dioxide and the respiratory products may become harmful to plants. CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 189 Heaving Injury to plants is caused by a lifting upward of the plant along with the soil from its normal position in temperate regions",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of oxygen. Ice in contact with roots inhibits diffusion of carbon dioxide and the respiratory products may become harmful to plants. CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 189 Heaving Injury to plants is caused by a lifting upward of the plant along with the soil from its normal position in temperate regions where snowfall is common. II. High temperature effects Cells of most plant species get killed when the temperature ranges from 50 to 60oC. This point of temperature is called thermal death point. But it varies with the species, the age of tissue and the time of exposure to high temperature. It is reported that most plant cells are killed at a temperature of 45 to 55oC. Some plants tissues withstand a temperature of up to 105oC. The aquatic plants and shade loving plants are killed at comparatively, lower temperature (40oC); where as, for xerophytes it is 50oC. High temperature results in desiccation of the plants and disturbs the balance between photosynthesis and respiration. Higher temperature increases the respiration leading to rapid depletion of reserve food in plants resulting in growth stunted due to incipient or starvation. Heat injury Very high temperature often stops growth. The plant faces incipient starvation due to high respiration rates. The plant is stunted and if such a condition persists for a long period the plant is killed. Direct temperature effects are noticeable in young seedlings and transplanted crops. High temperature causes sterility in flowers. The general effects of excessive heat are defoliation, premature dropping of fruits and in extreme cases death of plants. (i) Sun clad: Injury caused by high temperature on the sides of bark is known as sun clad. This is nothing but exposure of barks of the stems to high temperature during daytime and low temperature during nighttime. (ii) Stem girdle: It",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fruits and in extreme cases death of plants. (i) Sun clad: Injury caused by high temperature on the sides of bark is known as sun clad. This is nothing but exposure of barks of the stems to high temperature during daytime and low temperature during nighttime. (ii) Stem girdle: It is another injury associated with high temperature. High temperature at the soil surface scorches the stems at ground level. This type of injury is very common in young seedlings of cotton in sandy soil where the after noon soil temperature exceeds 60oC to 65oC. The stem girdle injury is first noticed through a discoloured band a new millimeter wide. This is followed by shrinkage of the tissues, which have been discoloured. The stem girdle causes the death of the plant by destroying the conductive and cambial tissues or by the establishment of pathogens in the injury. As direct effects on crop plants high temperature causes sterility in flowers. The general effects of excessive heat are defoliation, pre-mature dropping of fruits. In extreme cases, death of the plants may also occurs. A. Effects of Temperature on Crop Production Plants can grow only within certain limits of temperature. For each species and variety there are not only optimal temperature limits, but also optimal temperatures for different growth stages and functions, as well as lower and upper lethal limits. During photosynthesis there are certain biochemical processes preceding and following the reduction of carbon dioxide, which are affected mainly by temperature. As long as light is limiting, temperature has little effect on the rate of photosynthesis. When light is not limiting, it has a profound effect on the rate of photosynthesis. In general, high temperature accelerates growth process. Rarely are high temperatures per se the direct cause of death of plants, provided the water",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "light is limiting, temperature has little effect on the rate of photosynthesis. When light is not limiting, it has a profound effect on the rate of photosynthesis. In general, high temperature accelerates growth process. Rarely are high temperatures per se the direct cause of death of plants, provided the water supply is adequate. Retardation of growth and difficulties in fertilization are observed even in heat loving crops such as sorghum, at extremes of temperatures. The harmful effects of excessive temperatures are usually aggravated by lack of available moisture. Hot dry winds will further increase the damage. Increasing temperatures increases evapotranspiration. The daily alternations of high and low temperature may effect grain production. B. Factors Affecting Air Temperature Latitude The time of occurrence of maximum monthly mean temperature and minimum monthly 190 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY mean temperature also depends on latitude of a place. (e.g.) The coldest month is January in northern regions of India while December in the south. Similarly, the warmest month is May in the south while June in the north across the country. Altitude The surface air temperature decreases with increasing altitude from the mean sea level as the density of air decreases. Since the density of air is less at higher altitudes, the absorbing capacity of air is relatively less with reference to earth’s long wave radiation. Distribution of land and water Land and water surfaces react differently to the insolation. Because of the great contrasts between land and water surfaces their capacity for heating the atmosphere varies. Variations in air temperature are much greater over the land than over the water. The differential heating process between land and sea surfaces are due to their properties. It is one of the reasons for Indian monsoon. Ocean currents The energy received over the ocean surface carried",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the atmosphere varies. Variations in air temperature are much greater over the land than over the water. The differential heating process between land and sea surfaces are due to their properties. It is one of the reasons for Indian monsoon. Ocean currents The energy received over the ocean surface carried away by the ocean currents from the warm areas to cool areas. This results in temperature contrast between the equator and poles. The occurrence of El Nino is due to change in sea surface temperature between two oceanic regions over the globe. Prevailing winds Winds can moderate the surface temperature of the continents and oceans. In the absence of winds, we feel warm in hot climates. At the same time, the weather is pleasant if wind blows. Cloudiness The amount of cloudiness affects the temperature of the earth’s surface and the atmosphere. A thick cloud reduces the amount of insolation received at a particular place and thus the daytime temperature is low. At the same time, the lower layers in the atmosphere absorb earth’s radiation. This results in increasing atmospheric temperature during night. That is why, cloudy nights are warmer. This is common in the humid tropical climates. Mountain barriers Air at the top of the mountain makes little contact with the ground and is therefore cold while in the valley at the foothills makes a great deal of contact and is therefore warm. That is, the lower region of the earth’s atmosphere is relatively warmer when compared to hillocks. III. Atmospheric humidity Water is always present in the atmosphere in the form of invisible water vapour, normally known as humidity of the air. When the atmosphere contains the maximum possible amount of water vapour it is said to be saturated at the particular temperature and pressure. Any increase in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "III. Atmospheric humidity Water is always present in the atmosphere in the form of invisible water vapour, normally known as humidity of the air. When the atmosphere contains the maximum possible amount of water vapour it is said to be saturated at the particular temperature and pressure. Any increase in temperature, water remaining constant, will make the air unsaturated. In unsaturated condition, the water vapour content of air is usually expressed as relative humidity, which is the ratio between the actual humidity present and the saturation humidity possible at that temperature. The relative humidity of a place, is being affected by temperature and pressure. It is also affected by wind, exposure to radiation, vegetation and water content of the soil. The evaporation of water from plants or a body of water is directly dependent on the relative humidity of the atmosphere. Humidity: The terminology related to humidity and concerned with gaseous form of water i.e., water vapour, several expression of the amount of water vapour in the air is used. Absolute humidity: It denotes the actual mass of water vapour in given volume of air. It may be expressed as the number of grams of water vapour in a cubic meter of moist air or mass of water vapour per unit volume of air. Specific humidity: It is defined as the moisture content of moist air as determined by the ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of moist air in which the mass of water vapour is contained. Relative humidity: Relative humidity is a common parameter for expressing water vapour content CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 191 of the air. It is the percentage of water vapour present in the air in comparison with saturated condition at a given temperature and pressure. The R.H. can be expressed",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is contained. Relative humidity: Relative humidity is a common parameter for expressing water vapour content CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 191 of the air. It is the percentage of water vapour present in the air in comparison with saturated condition at a given temperature and pressure. The R.H. can be expressed as 100r RH rw = Where “r” is the mixing ration of moist air at pressure (p) and temperature and “rw” is the saturation-mixing ratio at same temperature and pressure. Mixing ratio: The mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry air is a convenient parameter to express the relative composition of the mixture. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air with which the water vapour is associated. Dew point: The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given mass of air. The dew point temperature is often compared with the temperature of free air and also used to predict the occurrence of fog, dew, frost or precipitation. Vapour pressure: This is the amount of partial pressure created by water vapour in the air expressed in the units of millibar (or) inches of mercury. Evapotranspiration of crop plants increases with temperature but decreases with high relative humidity affecting the quantity of irrigation water. Moist air favours the growth of many fungi and bacteria and these affect seriously the crop. The blight diseases of potato and tea are common examples of diseases spread under moist weather. Similarly many kinds of insect parasites such as aphids and jassids thrive well moist conditions. RH on Plant growth Increase in RH decreases the temperature. This phenomenon increases heat load of the leaves. Since transpiration is reduced not much heat energy used. Excessive heat due to closure of stomata entry of CO2 is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of insect parasites such as aphids and jassids thrive well moist conditions. RH on Plant growth Increase in RH decreases the temperature. This phenomenon increases heat load of the leaves. Since transpiration is reduced not much heat energy used. Excessive heat due to closure of stomata entry of CO2 is reduced. Reduction in transpiration reduces the rate of food translocation and uptake of nutrients. Very high RH is beneficial to – Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane (C4 Plants) Harmful to – Sunflower, Tobacco. For almost all the crops it is always safe to have a moderate R.H. of above 40%. 60–80% conducive for growth and development of plants. The humidity is not an independent factor. It is closely related to rainfall, wind and temperature. It plays a significant role in crop production. • The humidity determines the crops grown in a given region. • It affects the internal water potential of plants. • It influences certain physiological phenomena in crop plants including transpiration • The humidity is a major determinant of potential evapotranspiration. So, it determines the water requirement of crops. • High humidity reduces irrigation water requirement of crops as the evapotranspiration losses from crops depends on atmospheric humidity. • High humidity can prolong the survival of crops under moisture stress. However, very high or very low relative humidity is not conducive to higher yields of crops. • There are harmful effects of high humidity. It enhances the growth of some saprophytic and parasitic fungi, bacteria and pests, the growth of which causes extensive damage to crop plants. e.g., (a) Blight disease on potato. (b) The damage caused by thirips and jassids on several crops. • High humidity at grain filling reduces the crop yields. 192 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • A very high relative humidity is beneficial to maize, sorghum,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "which causes extensive damage to crop plants. e.g., (a) Blight disease on potato. (b) The damage caused by thirips and jassids on several crops. • High humidity at grain filling reduces the crop yields. 192 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • A very high relative humidity is beneficial to maize, sorghum, sugarcane etc, while it is harmful to crops like sunflower and tobacco. • For almost all the crops, it is always safe to have a moderate relative humidity of above 40%. IV. Solar radiation The sun is the primary source of heat to the earth and its atmosphere. The heat received forms other celestial bodies as well as the interior of the earth is rather too insignificant to merit our attention. The distance that separates the earth from the sun is about 1,49,000,000 km. The diameter of the sun measures roughly about 13,82,400 km. The surface temperature of the sun is estimated between 5500oC and 6100oC (or 5762oK). Solar radiation provides more than 99.9% of the energy that heats the earth. Undoubtedly, the radiant energy from the sun is the most important control of our weather and climate. The most astonishing fact about the incoming solar radiation (insolation) that strikes the earth’s surface is that it is equal to about 23 billion horsepower. Actually it is this amount of energy received from the sun that acts as the driving force for all the atmospheric as well as biological processes on the earth. Besides, all other sources of energy found on earth such as coal, oil and wood etc., are nothing but converted form of solar energy. The word ‘insolation’ is contraction of “incoming solar radiation”. Radiant energy from the sun that strikes the earth is called insolation. Fig. 3.1 Solar energy provides two essential needs of plants (a) light, required",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "earth such as coal, oil and wood etc., are nothing but converted form of solar energy. The word ‘insolation’ is contraction of “incoming solar radiation”. Radiant energy from the sun that strikes the earth is called insolation. Fig. 3.1 Solar energy provides two essential needs of plants (a) light, required for photosynthesis and for many other functions of the plant-including seed germination, leaf expansion, growth of stem and shoot, flowering, fruiting and even dormancy, and (b) thermal conditions required for the normal physiological functions of the plant. Solar radiation consists of a bundle of rays of radiant energy of different wavelengths. The sum emits radiant energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. The visible portion of the solar spectrum appears as light. Light travels with a speed of 2,97,600 km/sec. It takes 8 minutes and 20 seconds to reach the earth. Light is the total effect of the combination of the seven different colours, namely red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. (VIBGYOR). The waves that produce the effect of red colour are the longest and those producing the violet are the shortest. Waves shorter than the violet are called ultraviolet rays, while those longer than the red are known as infrared rays. The ultra violet waves form only 6% of the insolation, but have strong photochemical effects on some substances. The infrared rays, even though invisible, form 43% of the insolation. They are largely absorbed by water vapour that is concentrated in the lower atmosphere. Spring equinox 21 March Spring Winter Sun’s rays Equator 146.2 m km Perihelion 3rd January Winter slostice 21 December Autumn Sun Aphelion 4th July Summer soistice 21 June 154 m km Autumn equinox 23 September Summer Sun’s rays Arctic circle CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 193 Solar constant is defined as the rate at",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "March Spring Winter Sun’s rays Equator 146.2 m km Perihelion 3rd January Winter slostice 21 December Autumn Sun Aphelion 4th July Summer soistice 21 June 154 m km Autumn equinox 23 September Summer Sun’s rays Arctic circle CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 193 Solar constant is defined as the rate at which solar radiation is received outside the earth’s atmosphere on a surface perpendicular to the sun’s rays when the earth is at an average distance from the sun. The Smithsonian Institute, USA has come to the conclusion that the standard value of solar constant is 1.94 gram calories per cm2/minute. Since there is fluctuation in the amount of radiant energy emitted by the sun due to periodic disturbances on the solar surface, the amount of solar constant, therefore, registers a slight increase or decrease. However, this variation hardly exceeds 2-3%. Light is one of the most important climatic factors for many vital processes of the plant. It is indispensable for the synthesis of the most important pigment of the plant, i.e., the green chlorophyll. The chlorophyll is capable of absorbing radiant energy and converting it into potential chemical energy of carbohydrates. The carbohydrates manufactured by the plants during photosynthesis are the only link between the solar energy and the living world. It regulates the rate of transpiration by controlling the opening and closing of stomata. Light affects the plants through its intensity, quality (wave length), duration (photoperiod) and direction. 1. Light intensity The variations in light intensity are always accompanied with change in temperature and relative humidity and therefore it is difficult to evaluate light effects alone. Generally speaking light intensity falling at a particular place is normally enough for the plants and their physiological phenomena viz., photosynthesis. In photosynthesis about one percent of the light energy is converted into",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "with change in temperature and relative humidity and therefore it is difficult to evaluate light effects alone. Generally speaking light intensity falling at a particular place is normally enough for the plants and their physiological phenomena viz., photosynthesis. In photosynthesis about one percent of the light energy is converted into potential chemical energy. Very low light intensity reduces the rate of photosynthesis and may even result in the closing of the stomata. This results in reduced vegetative growth of the plants. Very high light intensities are detrimental to plants in many ways. It increases the rate of respiration and thus disturbs the photosynthesis–respiration balance. It causes rapid loss of water resulting in the closure of stomata. The most harmful effect of high light intensity is the phenomenon of “Solarization” in which all the cell contents are oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. This oxidation is different from respiration and is termed as photo oxidation. Based on the response to light intensities, the plants are classified as follows: (i) Sciophytes (Shade loving plants) The plants that grow better under partially shaded (low light) conditions e.g., betel vines, buckwheat, turmeric etc. (ii) Heliophytes (Sun loving plants) Many species of plants produce maximum dry matter under high light intensities when the moisture is available at the optimum level, e.g., maize, sorghum, rice etc. Except under glass house or shaded conditions, intensity of light cannot be controlled. Depending upon the nature of the crops, the dry matter production is affected. Many species produce maximum dry matter under high light intensity if water is available in plenty. However crops like betelvine, turmeric, buckwheat, and tobacco grown during summer produce greater dry matter if slightly shaded. 2. Quality of light When white light is passed through a prism it is dispersed into wavelengths of different colors; violet 400-435",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "under high light intensity if water is available in plenty. However crops like betelvine, turmeric, buckwheat, and tobacco grown during summer produce greater dry matter if slightly shaded. 2. Quality of light When white light is passed through a prism it is dispersed into wavelengths of different colors; violet 400-435 mill microns (mµ); blue 435–490; green 490–574; yellow 574–595; orange 595–626 and red 626 to 750 mµ. Visible rays 390–760 micron µ, nm 6 1 Micron 10 meter 1000000 − = = 3 1 10 mm 1000 − = = 194 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 9 Milli micron : 10 m nanometer − = The principle wavelength absorbed in photosynthesis is in the violet-blue and the orange red regions. Among these short rays beyond the violet such as Ultra Violet rays, X rays and Gamma rays and longer rays beyond red such as infrared are detrimental to growth. Red light seems to be the most favourable light for growth followed by violet-blue. Ultraviolet and shorter wavelengths of the visible light are scattered and infrared and longer wavelengths are absorbed by moisture of the atmosphere. Such a light is called diffused light or skylight. Ultraviolet and shorter wavelengths kill bacteria and many fungi. 3. Duration of light It is important from the farmer’s point of view in selecting the variety of a crop. The length of the day has greater influence than the intensity. The response of plants to the relative length of day and night is known as ‘photo periodism’. Plants which develop and produce normally when the photoperiod is greater than a critical minimum (more than 12 hours of illumination) are called ‘long day plants’ (sugar beet, wheat, barley) and those develop normally when the photoperiod is less than a critical maximum (less than 12 hours of illumination) are",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Plants which develop and produce normally when the photoperiod is greater than a critical minimum (more than 12 hours of illumination) are called ‘long day plants’ (sugar beet, wheat, barley) and those develop normally when the photoperiod is less than a critical maximum (less than 12 hours of illumination) are called ‘short day plants’ (soybeans, maize and millets). Some plants are found to be unaffected by photoperiod and are called as ‘day-neutral’ plants (Tomato, asparagus etc.) Plant characters like floral development, floral initiation, bulb formation, rhizome production etc. are all influenced by photo-periodism. If a long day plant is subjected to short day periods the internodes may be shortened to give a rosette appearance and flowering will not take place. In the same way when a short day plant is subjected to long day period, the growth of the plant becomes abnormal and there is no floral initiation (For e.g., CO 36 rice variety). 4. Direction of light Shoots, roots and leaves show different orientation to the direction of light. In temperate regions, the southern slopes show better growth of crops than the northern slopes due to the direction of light contributing more sunlight towards the southern side. (i) Orientation of leaves The change of position or orientation of organs of plants caused by light is usually called as “Phototropism”. For e.g., the leaves are oriented at right angles to incidence of light to receive maximum radiation. (ii) Photomorphogenesis Change in the morphology of plants due to light. This is mainly due to ultra violet and violet rays of the sun. Instruments used for measuring solar radiation Bellanis pyranometer, Sunshine recorder, Line quantum sensor, Photometer, Lux meter measures the light intensity and Radiometer. V. Wind velocity and its effect on crop production Air in horizontal motion is known as wind.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "mainly due to ultra violet and violet rays of the sun. Instruments used for measuring solar radiation Bellanis pyranometer, Sunshine recorder, Line quantum sensor, Photometer, Lux meter measures the light intensity and Radiometer. V. Wind velocity and its effect on crop production Air in horizontal motion is known as wind. Vertical movement is noticed but negligibly small compared to horizontal movement as the height of the atmosphere is only for few km. However vertical movement or uplift of air only causes significant weather changes in cloud formation and rain. The velocity of wind at a place depends on various factors such as geographical situation, topography, altitude, distance from seashore, flat plains, vegetation etc. Wind affects crop growth mechanically (directly) and physiologically (indirect). Wind speed in different seasons Winds represent air in motion. The primary cause of all winds is regional differences in temperature, producing regional differences in pressure. When these pressure differences persist for several hours, the rotation of the earth modifies the direction of motion, till the winds blow along lines of equal CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 195 pressure. Wind direction and speed are modified frequently due to seasonal variation in solar radiation and differential heating of the earth’s surface. 1. Wind speed: The winds are generally measured over level, open terrain at 3 metres about ground. Yet, a general idea of the distribution of the mean daily wind speed, on an annual basis as well as on a monthly basis, would be useful. The mean daily wind speed is the value obtained by averaging the wind speed (irrespective of direction) for a whole day. This averaged for all the days of a month is the mean daily wind speed for that month. The daily values averaged for all the 365 days of the year is the annual mean",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is the value obtained by averaging the wind speed (irrespective of direction) for a whole day. This averaged for all the days of a month is the mean daily wind speed for that month. The daily values averaged for all the 365 days of the year is the annual mean daily wind speed. 2. Wind Direction: Winds are always named after the direction they come from. Thus, a wind from the south, blowing towards north is called south wind. The wind vane is an instrument used to find out the direction of the wind. Windward refers to the direction wind comes from, and leeward refers to the direction it blows to. When a wind blows more frequently from one direction than from any other, it is called a prevailing wind. 3. South West Monsoon wind direction: During South West Monsoon period of June to September, the westerly winds prevail on the west of Kerala and south winds on the west of northern Circars, Orissa and Bengal. During April and May the region of high temperature is shifted to north viz., upper Sind, lower Punjab and Western Rajasthan. This area becomes the minimum barometric pressure area to which monsoon winds are directed. 4. North East Monsoon wind direction: During North East Monsoon period of October to December, on account of the increase in barometric pressure in Northern India, there is a shift in the barometric pressure to the South East and North Easterly winds begin to flow on the eastern coast, by the end of September. These changes bring on heavy and continue rainfall to the Southern and South Eastern India. (a) Mechanical effects • Wind causes mechanical lacerations and bruises on the tissues of crop plants, • Violent winds causes lodging of crop plants such as wheat, maize, sugarcane, rice",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "by the end of September. These changes bring on heavy and continue rainfall to the Southern and South Eastern India. (a) Mechanical effects • Wind causes mechanical lacerations and bruises on the tissues of crop plants, • Violent winds causes lodging of crop plants such as wheat, maize, sugarcane, rice etc., • A very high velocity of wind (gale, blizzard, hurricane, cyclone etc., breaks dead and living branches of trees and even uproots them completely, • In bare deserts, high velocity of wind causes constant soil erosion and this makes it difficult for plants to grow, • Wind has a powerful effect on the humidity of atmosphere. (b) Physiological effects • Wind increases the rate of transpiration in plants. • Hot dry winds causes much damage to crops at the time of flowering. • The internal water balance of plants is affected resulting in poor seed setting. • Another form of damage in blossom injury caused by evaporation of secretions from the stigmas. (c) Beneficial effects • Wind is also responsible for causing rainfall to a very large extent. In India the monsoon type of rainfall is largely determined by particular patterns of wind movement. (Trade winds) • Wind helps in pollination of flowers and dispersal of seed, fruits and microorganisms. • The hot, dry wind may reduce the incidence of dangerous yellow rust of wheat. • Moderate wind has a beneficial effect on photosynthesis by continuously replacing the carbon dioxide absorbed by the leaf surfaces. 196 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (d) Remedy Velocity of wind can be reduced by growing tall, sturdy trees across the direction of the wind as wind breaks. To arrest the movement of soil by wind erosion shelterbelts of vegetation are raised. VI. Atmospheric gases The atmosphere surrounding the earth contains a mixture of gases",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "AGRONOMY (d) Remedy Velocity of wind can be reduced by growing tall, sturdy trees across the direction of the wind as wind breaks. To arrest the movement of soil by wind erosion shelterbelts of vegetation are raised. VI. Atmospheric gases The atmosphere surrounding the earth contains a mixture of gases viz., carbon dioxide (0.03%), oxygen (20.95%), nitrogen (78.09%), argon (0.93) and miscellaneous gases (0.02%) in a constant proportion. (a) Carbon dioxide The CO2 is the man source of carbon for the various types of organic compounds in the body of the plants. It is the main raw material for the manufacture of carbohydrates by the photosynthetic process of the green plants. Photosynthesis is approximately proportional to the concentration of CO2 in the air surrounding the foliage of the crop. The CO2, which gets incorporated into the organic compounds of the plants, returns to the atmosphere by respiratory break down of these compounds and by the death, decay and combustion of plants (carbon cycle). Increased growth and greater yield of vegetables are possible under green house conditions by increasing the content. Aquatic plants utilize the dissolved CO2, from water. (b) Oxygen Life sustains because of oxygen. The amount of O2, is normally constant in the air because plants give off O2, during photosynthesis. (c) Nitrogen Lightning, rainfall and nitrogen fixing microorganism contributes nitrogen to the soil from the atmosphere. Symbiotic bacteria like rhizobium, free-living bacteria like azotobacter, blue green algae etc., fix a good amount of nitrogen in the soil. The decomposition of dead plants and animals also adds N to the soil. The N in the soil is made available to the crops by the activity of nitrifying bacteria. Certain gases like SO2, CO and HF when released into the air in sufficient quantities are toxic to plants. A. Edaphic",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "decomposition of dead plants and animals also adds N to the soil. The N in the soil is made available to the crops by the activity of nitrifying bacteria. Certain gases like SO2, CO and HF when released into the air in sufficient quantities are toxic to plants. A. Edaphic factors Plants grown in a land are completely dependent on the soil in which they grow for anchorage, water and mineral nutrients. The soil factors, which affect the crop growth, are: 1. Soil moisture; 2. Soil air; 3. Soil temperature; 4. Soil mineral matter; 5. Soil organic matter, 6. Soil organisms, and 7. Soil reaction. Table 3.3. Composition of Soil Composition Percent Mineral matter 30 Soil moisture 30 Soil air 30 Soil organic matter 5–10 Soil moisture In plant tissues water constitute about 90%. The moisture lost through transpiration is made up only by absorbing water from the soil. The moisture is held within the soil by the attractive forces of the soil particles. The capillary moisture held in the pF range of 2.54–4.2 is available for plants. It is the available soil moisture range between saturation point and wilting point. The moisture with about pF 2.54 is very favourable for plant growth. The moisture near pF 4.2 (wilting point) is CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 197 absorbed by plants only with great difficulty and the plants may not be able to make vigorous growth near this moisture level. pF: is the logarithm of height (in cm) of a water column that represents total stress with which water is held by the soil. Soil air Aeration of the soil is absolutely essential for the absorption of water by roots. O2 is required for respiration of roots and microorganisms. In poorly aerated soil the CO2 get accumulated and is detrimental, for absorption",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "that represents total stress with which water is held by the soil. Soil air Aeration of the soil is absolutely essential for the absorption of water by roots. O2 is required for respiration of roots and microorganisms. In poorly aerated soil the CO2 get accumulated and is detrimental, for absorption of water by the roots. Soil air is also useful in increasing the nutrient availability of the soil by, • breaking down the insoluble mineral into soluble salts; • decomposing organic matter, and • bringing out nitrifying (nitrogen releasing) and nitrogen fixing processes of bacteria. Soil temperature It affects the physical and chemical processes going on in the soil. It influences the rate of absorption of water and solutes, the germination of seeds and the rate of growth of the underground portions of the plant body. The maximum absorption of water by the roots takes place generally between 20°C and 30°C. Temperature below 20°C causes appreciable reduction in the rate of absorption of water. Cold soils are therefore not conducive for rapid growth of most agricultural crops. Soil temperature controls microbiological activity and processes involved in the availability of nutrients to plants. Nitrification begins in the soil when the temperature reaches about 5°C. Soil mineral matter The mineral content of the soil is derived from the weathering of the rooks and minerals as particles of different sizes. These are sources of plant nutrients such as Si, Ca, Mg, Fe, K, Na and Al. Minor elements (trace elements) like B, Mo, Zn, Cu, Co, Iodine and Fe are also present in very small quantities. Soil organic matter The soil organic matter content varies from less than 1% in arid sandy soils to as much as 90% of dry weight of well developed soil. It has a marked influence on the soil",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Zn, Cu, Co, Iodine and Fe are also present in very small quantities. Soil organic matter The soil organic matter content varies from less than 1% in arid sandy soils to as much as 90% of dry weight of well developed soil. It has a marked influence on the soil properties and growth of crops. The organic matter of the soil is derived from (i) dead and decaying roots of plants and living organisms present in the soil, and (ii) dry leaves, twigs, dead plants and animals added to the soils. Advantages of soil organic matter • It is the source of essential plant nutrients for crop growth. It contains 95% of total N, 50–60% of total P and 10–20% of the total S; • It increases water holding capacity of the soil due to its organic colloids; • It increase the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil; and • It is a source of food for most of the soil organisms. Soil organisms Raw organic matter in the soil is not directly used by the plants as food. It must be broken down first into humus and then into simpler products before it can be utilized. This work is done by different kinds of organisms as given below, which inhabit the soil in billions. Flora Macro flora Roots of higher plants Micro flora Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Fungi, Algae Fauna Macro fauna Earthworms, Burrowing vertebrates (moles, gophers, rats, etc.) Micro fauna Protozoa, Nematodes, Mites, Insects 198 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Soil reaction Soils may be neutral, acidic or alkaline depending upon their content of basic salts and acidic components. Neutral soils are the best for growth of most crops. Soil acidity beyond a particular limit (soil with low pH) is injurious to the plant growth due to: • Aluminium toxicity",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Soil reaction Soils may be neutral, acidic or alkaline depending upon their content of basic salts and acidic components. Neutral soils are the best for growth of most crops. Soil acidity beyond a particular limit (soil with low pH) is injurious to the plant growth due to: • Aluminium toxicity under high acidity. • Interferes with the absorption of several nutrients particularly cation like K, Ca and Mg. Effects of high soil pH • P gets fixed in acidic soils. • Organic matter decomposition is reduced. • Activities of nitrifying and nitrogen fixing bacteria may be checked. • Favours fungal diseases like potato scab. Similarly high alkalinity of the soil (soil with high pH) also adversely affects crop growth. Presence of high amount of sodium interferes with nutrient and water absorption. Soil aeration and infiltration are also reduced due to poor physical condition. B. Biotic factors Beneficial or harmful effects caused by other plants and animals on the crop plants are the effect of biotic factors. Plants (a) Competitive and complimentary nature among field crops Competition between plants occurs when there is demand for nutrients, moisture and sunlight, particularly when they are in short supply or the plants are closely spaced. Optimum spacing of crops is an important agronomical practice. When different crops such as cereals and legumes are grown together as in mixed cropping there is mutual benefit resulting in better yield. (b) Competition between weed and crop Weeds reduce crop yields due to competition with crops for water, soil nutrients and light. In dry farming condition weeds compete with crops for water. In irrigated tracts, the competition is severe for nutrients. Weeds in fallow land deplete the soil of both moisture and nutrients. (c) Plants as Parasites A plant parasite is dependent on its host plant for its",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "soil nutrients and light. In dry farming condition weeds compete with crops for water. In irrigated tracts, the competition is severe for nutrients. Weeds in fallow land deplete the soil of both moisture and nutrients. (c) Plants as Parasites A plant parasite is dependent on its host plant for its existence. Parasitic plants like striga, orabanche, cuscuta and loranthus live on the host plants and affects growth of the cop plants. Parasitic fungi, bacteria, virus etc., causes different kinds of diseases on agricultural crops. (d) Symbiosis Different organisms have mutual relationship with each other and with the environment. This biological inter relationship among the organisms is termed as symbiosis. e.g., Legumes and rhizobia–nodule forming; Azotobacter–free living (it fixes elemental N present in the atmosphere and supplies to the plants). Animals (a) Soil animals or Soil fauna include protozoa, nematode, rotifers, snails and insects. They help organic matter decomposition while using the organic matter for their living. (i) Harmful organisms Insects and nematodes cause considerable damage as crop pests during the growth of plants and in storage of grains. The average loss due to insects is about 20% throughout the world. CROPS AND CROP PRODUCTION 199 (ii) Beneficial organisms Many plants are pollinated primarily by insects. The examples of beneficial organisms are: 1. Bees and wasps are important for pollination. 2. Moths, butterfly and beetles also do pollination. Beetle (Elaeis kaemeniricus) is necessary to have good pollination in oil palm crop. 3. Burrowing of earthworm facilitate aeration and drainage of the soil, Ingestion of organic matter and mineral matter results in a constant mixing of these materials in the soil there by favours better growth of plants. (b) Small animals Small animals like rabbits, squirrels and field rats also cause excessive damage to field and garden crops. (c) Large animals Large",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "soil, Ingestion of organic matter and mineral matter results in a constant mixing of these materials in the soil there by favours better growth of plants. (b) Small animals Small animals like rabbits, squirrels and field rats also cause excessive damage to field and garden crops. (c) Large animals Large animals like domestic animals and wild animals cause damage to crop plants by grazing and browsing habits. C. Physiographic factors It can be studied under two categories such as: (1) Geological Strata It accounts not only for the kind of parent material utilized in soil formation but also on the nature of crops grown in these soils for proper utilization. (2) Topography The nature of the surface of earth is known as topography. Topographic factors affect the crops indirectly by modifying climatic and edaphic factors of a place. It includes: 1. Altitude of the place: Increase in altitude causes decrease in temperature and increase in precipitation and wind velocity. 2. Steepness of slope: It causes swift run off of rainwater resulting decreased moisture content of soil. The organic matter of the soil increases resulting in high N content and acidity of the soil. 3. Exposure of the slope to light and wind: A mountain slope exposed to weak intensity of light and strong dry winds as the case of northern slopes of temperate regions and the Himalayas may have poor crops due to want of moisture and sunlight. Similarly the western slopes of Tamil Nadu hills poor crops due to damage caused by heavy winds. 4. Direction of the mountain chains: It governs the distribution of the rainfall during monsoon and also the type of crops in dry farming. D. Anthropic (socio economic) factors • Man/women produce changes in plant environment and are responsible for scientific crop and soil management,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "damage caused by heavy winds. 4. Direction of the mountain chains: It governs the distribution of the rainfall during monsoon and also the type of crops in dry farming. D. Anthropic (socio economic) factors • Man/women produce changes in plant environment and are responsible for scientific crop and soil management, • breeding varieties for increased yield, and • introduction of exotic plants These factors affect the management of soil and crop, which leads to higher production. In addition to the above the socio economic factors affecting the crop production are: (i) the economic conditions of the farmer greatly decides the input/resource mobilizing capacity, (ii) the educational status and technical know-how of the farmer, (iii) the resource allocation ability and social values of the farmer, (iv) government price policy, and (v) marketing and storage facilities etc. 200 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Chapter 4 Agricultural Meteorology Meteorology is derived from a Greek word “Meteoro” means ‘above the earth’s surface’ (atmosphere) and “logy” means “indicating science”. It is a branch of physics dealing with atmosphere and it is often quoted as the “Physics of the lower atmosphere”. It studies the individual phenomenon of the atmosphere. In other words, it is concerned with the study of the characteristics and behaviour of the atmospheres. It explains and analyses the changes of individual weather elements such as air pressure, temperature and humidity that are brought about due to the effect of insolation (radiation from the sun received by earth’s surface). Agricultural meteorology is a branch of applied meteorology, which investigates the physical conditions of the environment of growing plants or animal organisms. It is an applied science, which deals with the relationship between weather/climatic conditions and agricultural production or it is a science concerned with the application of meteorology to the measurement and analysis of the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "applied meteorology, which investigates the physical conditions of the environment of growing plants or animal organisms. It is an applied science, which deals with the relationship between weather/climatic conditions and agricultural production or it is a science concerned with the application of meteorology to the measurement and analysis of the physical environment in agricultural systems. 4.1 IMPORTANCE The word ‘Agrometeorology’ is the abbreviated form of agricultural meteorology to study the interaction between meteorological and hydrological factors on the one hand and agriculture in the widest sense, including horticulture, animal husbandry and forestry on the other (WMO). Agrometeorology deals with the behaviour of the weather elements, which have direct relevance to agriculture and their effect on crop production. Weather and climate are the important factors determining the success or failure of agriculture. Weather influences agricultural operations from sowing of a crop to the harvest and particularly rainfed agriculture depends on the mercy of the weather. In India every year there is a considerable damage by floods in one part of the country and a severe drought causing famines in another part. The total annual pre harvest losses for the various crops are estimated from 10 to 100%; while, the post harvest losses are estimated between 5 and 15%. Hence, Agrometeorology is very important in the following ways: • Helps in planning cropping patterns/systems. • Selecting of sowing dates for optimum crop yield. • To go for cost effective ploughing, harrowing, weeding etc. • Reducing losses of applied chemicals and fertilizers. Avoid fertilizer and chemical sprays when rain is forecast • Judicious irrigation to crops. AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 201 • Efficient harvesting of all crops. • Reducing or eliminating outbreak of pests and diseases. • Efficient management of soils, which are formed out of weather action. • Managing weather abnormalities like cyclones, heavy",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fertilizer and chemical sprays when rain is forecast • Judicious irrigation to crops. AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 201 • Efficient harvesting of all crops. • Reducing or eliminating outbreak of pests and diseases. • Efficient management of soils, which are formed out of weather action. • Managing weather abnormalities like cyclones, heavy rainfall, floods, drought etc. This can be achieved by weather forecasting. • Mitigation measures such as shelterbelts against cold and heat waves, effective environmental protection. etc. • Avoiding or minimizing losses due to forest fires. 4.2 NEED AND SCOPE The agrometeorology is needed since, the crops are to be sown at the optimum period for maximum yield. In dry lands, the time of receipt of rainfall decides the sowing date. Predicted onset of monsoon for premonsoon sowing. Study of agrometeorology helps to minimize the crop losses due to excess rainfall, cold/heat waves, cyclones etc. It helps in forecasting pests and diseases, choice of crops, irrigation and other intercultural operations through short, medium and long-range forecasts. It helps to identify places with same climatic conditions (Agroclimatic zones). This will enable to adopt suitable crop production practices based on the local climatic conditions. It also helps in the introduction of new crops and varieties, which are more productive than the native crops, and varieties. It helps in the development of crop weather models, which enables to predict crop productivity under various climatic conditions. It helps in the preparation of crop weather calendars for different locations. It enables to issue crop weather bulletins to farmers. It enables to forecast the crop yield based on weather to plan and manage food production changes in a region. It is needed to make the farmers more “weather conscious” in planning their agricultural operations. The study of agrometeorology is needed for the following reasons: • To study",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to farmers. It enables to forecast the crop yield based on weather to plan and manage food production changes in a region. It is needed to make the farmers more “weather conscious” in planning their agricultural operations. The study of agrometeorology is needed for the following reasons: • To study climatic resources of a given area for effective crop planning. • To evolve weather based effective farm operations. • To study crop weather relationships in all-important crops and forecast crop yields based on agro climatic and spectral indices using remote sensing. • To study the relationship between weather factors and incidence of pests and diseases of various crops. • To delineate climatic/agro ecological/agro climatic zones for defining agro climatic analogues so as to make effective and fast transfer of technology for improving crop yields. • To prepare crop weather diagrams and crop weather calendars. • To develop crop growth simulation models for assessing/obtaining potential yields in different agro climatic zones. • To monitor agricultural droughts on crop-wise for effective drought management. • To develop weather based agro advisories to sustain crop production utilizing various types of weather forecast and seasonal climate forecast. • To investigate microclimatic aspects of crop canopy in order to modify them for increased crop growth. • To study the influence of weather on soil environment on which the crop is grown • To investigate the influence of weather in protected environment (e.g., glass houses) for improving their design aiming at increasing crop production. 202 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 4.3 CLIMATOLOGY Climatology is compounded of two Greek words, “klima + logos”; klima means slope of the earth, and logos means a study. In brief, climatology may be defined as the scientific study of climate. In the early civilization, Gods were often assigned to the climatic elements, Indians",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "OF AGRONOMY 4.3 CLIMATOLOGY Climatology is compounded of two Greek words, “klima + logos”; klima means slope of the earth, and logos means a study. In brief, climatology may be defined as the scientific study of climate. In the early civilization, Gods were often assigned to the climatic elements, Indians still hold ceremonial worships/dances to God’s to produce rains at times of drought. The Greek philosophers showed a great interest in meteorological science. It concerns with the integration of day-to-day weather over a period of time. It is very essential to differentiate the terms climate and weather. A. Weather and Climate In Climatology, the terms “Weather” and “Climate” have different connotations. Weather refers to the state of atmosphere at any give time denoting the short-term variations of atmosphere in terms of temperature, pressure, wind, moisture cloudiness, precipitation and visibility. It is highly variable, constantly changing, sometimes from hour to hour and at other times from day to day. The afore-mentioned properties of the atmosphere are subject to constant change and their state at any time determines the state of the weather. However, weather elements are not separate rather they are closely related with each other. Climate on the other hand, is the sum or total of the variety of weather conditions of place or an area. It may be defined as the sum of all statistical weather information of a particular area during a specified interval of time, usually several decades. The WMO has suggested standard period of 31 years for calculating the climatic averages of different weather elements. B. Factors affecting Weather and Climate Latitude Based on latitude, the climate has been classified as: (i) Tropical, (ii) Subtropical, (iii) Temperate and (iv) Polar. The tropical climate is characterized by high temperature throughout the year. Subtropical is also characterized by",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for calculating the climatic averages of different weather elements. B. Factors affecting Weather and Climate Latitude Based on latitude, the climate has been classified as: (i) Tropical, (ii) Subtropical, (iii) Temperate and (iv) Polar. The tropical climate is characterized by high temperature throughout the year. Subtropical is also characterized by high temperature alternating with low temperature in winter. The temperate climate has low temperature throughout the year. The polar climate is noted for its very low temperature throughout the year. Altitude (Elevation) The height from the mean sea level creates variation in climate. Even in the tropical regions, the high mountains have temperate climate. The temperature decreases by 1.8oC for every 300 m from the sea level. Generally, there is a decrease in pressure and increase in precipitation and wind velocity. The above factors alter the kind of vegetation, soil types and the crop production. Precipitation The quantity and distribution of rainfall decides the nature of vegetation and the nature of the cultivated crops. The crop region are classified on the basis of average rainfall which are as follows: Rainfall (mm) Climatic region Less than 500 Arid 500 750 Semi Arid 750 1000 Sub humid More than 1000 Humid Soil Type: Soil is a product of climatic action on rocks as modified by landscape and vegetation over a long period of time. The colour of the soil surface affects the absorption, storage and re-radiation of heat. White colour reflects while the black absorbs more radiation. Due to differential absorption of heat energy, variations in temperature are created at different places. In black soil areas, the climate is hot; while in red soil areas, it is comparatively cooler due to lesser heat absorption. AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 203 Nearness to large water bodies (Nearness to sea) The presence of large water bodies like",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "heat energy, variations in temperature are created at different places. In black soil areas, the climate is hot; while in red soil areas, it is comparatively cooler due to lesser heat absorption. AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 203 Nearness to large water bodies (Nearness to sea) The presence of large water bodies like lakes and sea affects the climate of the surrounding areas. e.g., Islands and coastal areas. The movement of air from earth surface and from water bodies to earth modifies the climate. The extreme variation in temperature during summer and winter is minimized in coastal areas and Islands. Topography (relief) The surface of landscape (leveled or uneven surface areas) produces marked changes in the climate. This involves the altitude of the place, steepness of the slope and exposure of the slope to light and wind. Vegetation Kind of vegetation characterizes the nature of climate. Thick vegetation is found in tropical regions where temperature and precipitations are high. General types of vegetations present in a region indicate the nature of climate of that region. Other factors that affect the weather and climate are • Semi permanent high and low pressure systems. • Winds and air masses. • Atmospheric disturbances or storms • Ocean currents and mountain barriers. C. Scales of Climate (i) Microclimate Microclimate deals with the climatic features peculiar to small areas and with the physical processes that take place in the layer of air very near to the ground. Soil-ground conditions, character of vegetation cover, aspect of slopes, and state of the soil surface, relief forms–all these may create special local conditions of temperature, humidity, wind and radiation in the layer of air near the ground which differ sharply from general climatic conditions. It is concerned with the study of the properties of air near the ground and surface layer",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the soil surface, relief forms–all these may create special local conditions of temperature, humidity, wind and radiation in the layer of air near the ground which differ sharply from general climatic conditions. It is concerned with the study of the properties of air near the ground and surface layer of soil, which falls under the microclimate. (ii) Mesoclimate The scale of mesoclimate falls between micro and macroclimates. It is concerned with the study of climate over relatively smaller areas between 10 and 100 km across. (iii) Macro climate Macroclimate deals with the study of atmosphere over large areas of the earth and with the large-scale atmospheric motions that cause weather. The scales of air motion in different climates are given in the Table 4.1 below. Table 4.1. Scales of Air Motion in Different Climate Type of Climate Horizontal scale (km) Vertical scale (km) Time scale (hrs) A. Macroclimate 1. Planetary scale 2. Synoptic scale 2000-5000 and 10 200-400 more 500-2000 10 100 B. Mesoclimate 1-100 1-10 1-10 C. Microclimate <100m 200 m 6-12 minutes If any weather system develops under different types of climate, it persists longer periods under the macroclimate while smaller periods under microclimates. 204 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 4.4 COORDINATES OF INDIA AND TAMIL NADU A. Definition Coordinates: Latitude, longitude and altitude of a place as coordinates. Latitude: Angular distance, measure in degrees, north or south from the equator. Equator: An imaginary circle around the earth, equally distant at all points from both the North pole and the south pole. It divides the earth’s surface into the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere. Longitude: (Length) The distance of a place east or west on the meridian of Greenwich, England or the prime meridian as an angle is known as longitude. Meridian: A great circle of the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and the south pole. It divides the earth’s surface into the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere. Longitude: (Length) The distance of a place east or west on the meridian of Greenwich, England or the prime meridian as an angle is known as longitude. Meridian: A great circle of the earth passing through the geographical poles an any given point on the earth’s surface. (Geographical) Altitude: Height of a place above the earth’s surface or above sea level. Coordinates of India Area : 3.28 m sq. km or 328 million ha Longitude : 68° E 98° E Latitude : 8° N 37° N Distance form North to South : 3214 km. Distance form East to West : 2933 km. Land frontiers : 15200 km. Coast line : 6083 km. Coordinates of Tamil Nadu Latitude : 8 °5' and 13° 10' N latitude Longitude : 76° 15' and 80° 20' E longitude Costal line : Approximately 1000 km. Temperature range : 29-38°C (maximum), 19-27°C (minimum) 4.5 ATMOSPHERE Earth is elliptical in shape and has three spheres viz., 1. Hydrosphere–the water portion, 2. Lithosphere– the solid portion, and 3. Atmosphere–the gaseous portion. The atmosphere is the colourless, odourless and tasteless physical mixture of gasses, which surrounds earth on all sides. It is mobile, compressible and expandable. The uses of atmosphere are as follows: • Provides oxygen which is useful for crop respiration • Provides CO2 to build biomass in photosynthesis. • Provides N, which is essential for plant growth. • Acts as a medium for transportation of pollen. • Protects crops and human beings from harmful UV rays. • Provides rain to field crops. A. Composition The atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of many gases, not a chemical compound. In addition, it AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 205 contains water vapour volume (4% of atmospheric",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a medium for transportation of pollen. • Protects crops and human beings from harmful UV rays. • Provides rain to field crops. A. Composition The atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of many gases, not a chemical compound. In addition, it AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 205 contains water vapour volume (4% of atmospheric composition) and huge number of solid particles, called aerosols. Some of the gases (N, O2, Ar, CO2) may be regarded as permanent atmospheric components that remain in fixed proportions to the total gas volume. Other constituents vary in quantity from place to place and from time to time. If the suspended particles, water vapour and other variable gases are excluded from the atmosphere, the dry air is very stable all over the earth up to an altitude of about 80 km. The principal gases comprising dry air in the lower atmosphere is given as follows: Constituents % by volume Nitrogen (N2) 78.08 Oxygen (O2) 20.94 * Argon (Ar) 0.93 Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.03 * Neon (Ne) 0.0018 * Helium (He) 0.0005 Ozone (O3) 0.00006 Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005 * Krypton (Kr) Trace * Xenon (Xe) Trace Methane (Me) Trace *Inert chemically never found in any chemical compounds. (a) Gases N and O2 make up about 99% of the clean, dry air. The remaining gases are mostly inert and constitute about 1% of the atmosphere generally homogeneous and it is called as homosphere. At higher altitudes, the chemical constituent of air is changed considerably. The layer is known as the heterosphere. N2 Relatively inactive chemically. It regulates combustion by diluting O2 and indirectly helps oxidation. Mainly diluent. CO2 Plants take CO2 in the process of photosynthesis. It is an efficient absorber of heat from upper atmosphere as well as the earth. It emits half of the absorbed heat back to earth. It",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Relatively inactive chemically. It regulates combustion by diluting O2 and indirectly helps oxidation. Mainly diluent. CO2 Plants take CO2 in the process of photosynthesis. It is an efficient absorber of heat from upper atmosphere as well as the earth. It emits half of the absorbed heat back to earth. It influences flow of energy through the atmosphere. The probation remains same but percentage increases due to burning of fossil fuels. From 1890 to 1970, CO2 content has been increased more than 10 times, result in warming of lower atmosphere and climatic changes. Ozone (O3) It is a type of oxygen molecule formed of three atoms rather than two. It is found only in very small quantity in the upper atmosphere. It is less than 0.0006% by volume. The maximum concentration of ozone is found between about 30 and 60 km. Although it is formed at higher levels and transported downward. It is the most efficient absorber of the burning UV radiation from the sun and acts as a filter. Absence of ozone layer will make the earth’s surface unfit for human habitation for all living organisms. Of all the gases, oxygen happens to be the most important for it is essential to all living organisms. (b) Water Vapour Water vapour is one of the most variable gases in the atmosphere, which is present in small amounts, but is very important. The water vapour content of air may vary from 0.02% by volume in a cold dry climate to nearly 4% in the humid tropics. The variations in this percentage over time and place are very important considerations climatically. Like CO2, water vapour has insulating action of the atmosphere. It absorbs not only the long wave terrestrial radiation, but also 206 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY a part of the incoming solar",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the humid tropics. The variations in this percentage over time and place are very important considerations climatically. Like CO2, water vapour has insulating action of the atmosphere. It absorbs not only the long wave terrestrial radiation, but also 206 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY a part of the incoming solar radiation. Thus, it regulates energy transfer through the atmosphere. It is the source of all clouds and perceptions. (c) Dust particles: Dust particles are a major contributory factor in the formation of clouds and fogs. It is responsible for the red, orange colour of the sky at sunrise and sunset. B. Structure The earth’s atmosphere consists of zones or layers arranged like spherical shells based on altitude above the earth’s surface. The atmosphere is divided into the following more significant spheres. • Troposphere • Stratosphere • Ozonosphere (also called Mesosphere) • Ionosphere, and • Exosphere Fig. 4.1 Troposphere It contains about 75% of the total gaseous mass of the atmosphere. It has been derived from the Greek word ‘tropos’ meaning “mixing” or turbulence. The average height of this lowermost layer of the atmosphere is placed at about 14 km above sea level. Under normal conditions, the height of the troposphere at the poles is about 8 km, while at the equator, it is about 16 km. A shallow layer separating troposphere from the next thermal layer of the atmosphere (stratosphere) is Tropopause. It is marked by turbulence and eddies. It is also called connective region. Various types of clouds, thunderstorms as well as cyclones and anticyclones occur in this sphere because of the concentration of almost all the water vapour (4% of the atmosphere composition) aerosols in it. Wind velocities increase with height and attain maximum at the top. Most important is decrease in temperature with increasing elevation up to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "as well as cyclones and anticyclones occur in this sphere because of the concentration of almost all the water vapour (4% of the atmosphere composition) aerosols in it. Wind velocities increase with height and attain maximum at the top. Most important is decrease in temperature with increasing elevation up to 14 km. Stratosphere The stratosphere begins at the troposphere, which forms its lower boundary. The lower stratosphere is isothermal in character (16-30 km). There is a gradual temperature increase with 100 80 60 50 40 20 \u0001100°C \u000180°C \u000160°C \u000140°C \u000120°C 20°C 0 Troposphere Upper stratosphere Mesosphere Lower stratosphere Tropopause Stratopause Mesopause Thermosphere Height (km) 1000°C Temperature AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 207 height beyond 29 km i.e., upper stratosphere. There is no visible weather phenomena occur above tropopause. Ozonosphere or Mesosphere There is maximum concentration of ozone between 30 and 69 km above the surface of the earth. Because of the concentration of ozone in this layer, it is called the ozonosphere. It is a warm layer because of selective absorption of ultra violet radiation by ozone. In fact, it acts as a filter for ultra violet radiation from the sun. In this layer, the temperature increases with height @ 5oC/km. The maximum temperature recorded in the ozonosphere is higher than that at the earth’s surface. Because of the preponderance of chemical processes, this sphere is sometimes called as chemosphere. Ionosphere Ionosphere lies beyond the ozonosphere at a height of about 60 km above the earth’s surface. At this level, the ionization of atmosphere begins to occur. Above ozonosphere, the temperature falls again reaching a minimum of about 100oC at a height of 80 km above earth’s surface. Beyond this level, the temperature increases again due to the absorption of short wave solar radiation by the atoms of N in this ionosphere.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of atmosphere begins to occur. Above ozonosphere, the temperature falls again reaching a minimum of about 100oC at a height of 80 km above earth’s surface. Beyond this level, the temperature increases again due to the absorption of short wave solar radiation by the atoms of N in this ionosphere. Layers of ionosphere D Layer : 60-89 km E Layer : 90-130 km Sporadic Layer : 110 km E2 Layer : 150 km F1 Layer F2 Layer ⎫ ⎬ ⎭ : 150-380 km G Layer : 400 km and above. Exosphere The outer most layer of earth’s atmosphere is known as the exosphere, which lies between 400 and 1000 km. At such great height, density of atoms in the atmosphere is extremely low. Hydrogen and helium gases predominate in the outer most region. Kinetic temperature may reach 5568°C. In modern view regarding the structure of atmosphere, the atmosphere is divided into two broad spheres on the basis of composition. I. Homospheres Homosphere means zone of homogenous composition height-up to 88 km. The proportions of the component gases of the sphere are uniform at different levels. It is sub-divided into: • Troposphere – Very shallow transition layer Tropopause • Stratosphere – Stratopause • Mesosphere – Mesopause II. Heterosphere The atmosphere above the homosphere is not uniform in composition. Different layers of the atmosphere in this part differ from one another in their chemical and physical properties. In this sphere, gases are said to be arranged into the following four roughly spherical shells, each of which has its own distinctive composite. 208 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (a) Nitrogen layer 200 km above earth’s surface -molecular N. (b) Oxygen layer Average height 1120 km. atomic oxygen (c) Helium layer 3520 km (d) Hydrogen layer Arranged based on the weight of the gases. C.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "shells, each of which has its own distinctive composite. 208 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (a) Nitrogen layer 200 km above earth’s surface -molecular N. (b) Oxygen layer Average height 1120 km. atomic oxygen (c) Helium layer 3520 km (d) Hydrogen layer Arranged based on the weight of the gases. C. Lapse Rate The decrease in air temperature with height is known as the normal/environmental lapse rate and it is 6.5°C/km. Adiabatic lapse rate The rate of change of temperature in an ascending or descending air mass through adiabatic process is called as adiabatic lapse rate. The thermodynamic transformation, which occurs without exchange of heat between a system and its environment, is known as adiabatic process. In adiabatic process, adiabatic cooling accompanies expansion, and adiabatic warming accompanies compression. 4.6 CLIMATE OF INDIA Thornthwaite during 1931 and 1948 classified the climate using precipitation and evaporation/Potential evaporation and was subsequently modified by Mathur (1955) for the Moisture Index (Im) and is given below: Im = 100 [(P-PE)/PE] Where P = Precipitation, PE = Potential evapotranspiration Using the moisture Index (Im), the following classification was made Im quantity Climate classification 100 and above Per humid 20 to 100 Humid 0 to 20 Moist sub humid −33.3 to 0 Dry sub humid −66.7 to −33.3 Semi arid −100 to -66.7 Arid Another classification by Troll (1965) based on number of humid months, said to be of more agricultural use was modified by ICRISAT for India. Humid month is one having mean rainfall exceeding the mean PET. Climate Number of humid months % Geographical area of India Arid < 2.0 17.00 Semiarid-dry 2.0-4.5 57.17 Semiarid-wet 4.5-7.0 12.31 Humid > 7.0 1.10 The ICAR under All India Coordinated Research Project on Dry land Agriculture adopted classification based Moisture Deficit Index (MDI) AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 209 P PET MDI",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "PET. Climate Number of humid months % Geographical area of India Arid < 2.0 17.00 Semiarid-dry 2.0-4.5 57.17 Semiarid-wet 4.5-7.0 12.31 Humid > 7.0 1.10 The ICAR under All India Coordinated Research Project on Dry land Agriculture adopted classification based Moisture Deficit Index (MDI) AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 209 P PET MDI 100 PET − = × Where P is annual precipitation (cm) and PET is Potential Evapotranspiration. Based on MDI, the climate is divided into three regions as below. Type of climate MDI Sub humid 0.0 to 33.3 Semiarid −33.3 to −66.6 Arid > −66.6 Temperature based Classification The tropic of cancer, which passes through the middle of the country, divides it into two distinct climates. The tropical climate in the South where all the 12 months of the year have mean daily temperature exceeding 20°C; and in the North where a sub-tropical climate prevails. In sub-tropics during the winter months, it is cool to cold. Frosts occur sometime during the months of December and January. Some areas in the Northern India have a temperate climate. Here, it snows during the winter months and freezing temperatures may extend to two months or more during the year. Three main climatic zones of India based on temperature are shown in the map. The weather elements affecting crop production are discussed in detail in the Chapter 3. 210 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 4.7 CLOUDS Clouds have been defined as a visible aggregation of minute water droplets and/or ice particles in the air, usually above the general ground level. A. Classification of Clouds Clouds are usually classified according to their height and appearance. For convenience, we can list them in descending order viz., high clouds, middle clouds and low clouds. We must exercise some caution in relying on height data. There is some seasonal as",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the general ground level. A. Classification of Clouds Clouds are usually classified according to their height and appearance. For convenience, we can list them in descending order viz., high clouds, middle clouds and low clouds. We must exercise some caution in relying on height data. There is some seasonal as well as latitudinal variation and there is some overlapping form time to time. However, the appearance of clouds is quite distinctive for each height category. WMO cloud classification (1957) The WMO classified the clouds according to their height and appearance into 10 categories. From the height, clouds are grouped into 4 categories (viz., family A, B, C and D) as stated below and there are sub categories in each of these main categories. A. High clouds (mean heights 5–13 km) (Mean lower level 20000 ft) • Cirrus (ci) • Cirrocumulus (cc) • Cirrostratus(cs) B. Middle clouds (Mean heights 2–7 km) (6500–20000 ft) • Altostratus (As) • Altocumulus (Ac) C. Low (clouds mean heights 0–2 km) (Close to earth’s surface–6500 ft.) • Nimbostratus (Ns) • Stratocumulus (Sc) • Stratus (St) • Cumulus (Cu) • Cumulonimbus(Cn) Family A The clouds in this category are high clouds. The mean lower level is 7 km and the mean upper level is 12 km in tropics and sub-tropics. In this family, there are three sub-categories: 1. Cirrus (Ci) In these clouds ice crystals are present. It looks like wispy and feathery, and it is delicate, desist, white fibrous, and silky appearance. Sunrays pass through these clouds and sunshine without shadow. It does not produce precipitation. 2. Cirrocumulus (Cc) Like cirrus clouds, ice crystals are present in these clouds also. It looks like rippled sand or waves of the seashore. It contains white globular masses and transparent with no shading effect. The sky is mackerel sky.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "clouds and sunshine without shadow. It does not produce precipitation. 2. Cirrocumulus (Cc) Like cirrus clouds, ice crystals are present in these clouds also. It looks like rippled sand or waves of the seashore. It contains white globular masses and transparent with no shading effect. The sky is mackerel sky. 3. Cirrostratus (Cs) Like the above two clouds, ice crystals are present in these clouds also. It looks like whitish veil and covers the entire sky with milky white appearance. It produces “Halo”. Family B The clouds in this category are middle clouds. The mean lower level is 2.5 km and the mean upper level is 7 km in tropics and sub-tropics. In this family, there are 2 sub-categories. 1. Altocumulus (Ac) In these clouds ice water is present. It has grayish or bluish globular masses. It looks like sheep back and also known as flock clouds or wool packed clouds. AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 211 2. Alto-stratus (As) In these clouds, water and ice are present separately. It looks like fibrous veil or sheet and grey or bluish in colour. It produces coronas and cast shadow. Rain occurs in middle and high latitudes. Family C The clouds in this category are lower clouds. The height of these clouds extends from ground to upper level of 2.5 km in tropics and sub-tropics. In this family, there are 3 sub-categorizes. 1. Strato cumulus (Sc) These clouds are composed of water. It looks soft and grey, large globular masses and darker than altocumulus. Long parallel rolls pushed together or broken masses. The air is smooth above these clouds but strong updrafts occur below. 2. Stratus (St) These clouds are also composed of water. It looks like for as these clouds resemble grayish white sheet covering the entire portion of the sky (cloud near the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "parallel rolls pushed together or broken masses. The air is smooth above these clouds but strong updrafts occur below. 2. Stratus (St) These clouds are also composed of water. It looks like for as these clouds resemble grayish white sheet covering the entire portion of the sky (cloud near the ground). It is mainly seen in winter season and occasional drizzle occurs. 3. Nimbostratus (Ns) These clouds are composed of water or ice crystals. It looks thick dark, grey and uniform layer, which reduces the daylight effectively. It gives steady precipitation. Sometimes, It looks like irregular, broken and shapeless sheet like. Family D These clouds form due to vertical development i.e., due to convection. The mean low level is 0.5 km and means upper level goes up to 16 km. In this family, there are two sub-categories. 1. Cumulus (Cu) These clouds are composed of water with white majestic appearance with flat base. Irregular dome shaped and looks like cauliflower with wool pack and dark appearance below due to shadow. These clouds usually develop into cumulo-nimbus clouds with flat base. 2. Cumulonimbus (Cb) The upper levels of these clouds possess ice and water is present at the lower levels. These clouds have thunderhead with towering anvil top and develop vertically. These clouds produce violent winds, thunderstorms, hails and lightening, during summer. B. Cloud Formation Air contains moisture and this is extremely important to the formation of clouds. Cloud is formed around microscopic particles such as dust, smoke, salt crystals and other materials that are present in the atmosphere. These materials are called “Cloud Condensation Nucleus” (CCN). Without these, no cloud formation will take place. Certain special types known as “ice nucleus” on which cloud droplets freeze or ice crystals form directly for water vapour. Generally, condensation nuclei are present in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "other materials that are present in the atmosphere. These materials are called “Cloud Condensation Nucleus” (CCN). Without these, no cloud formation will take place. Certain special types known as “ice nucleus” on which cloud droplets freeze or ice crystals form directly for water vapour. Generally, condensation nuclei are present in plenty in air. But there is scarcity for special ice forming nuclei. Generally, clouds are made up of billions of these tiny water droplets or ice crystals or combination of both. There are two rain forming process, viz., 1. Warm rain process (rain fall process in the tropics), and 2. Cold rain process. Warm rain Rain occurs when the temp is above 0°C never colder than 0°C and when larger droplets collide and absorb smaller cloud droplets. They grow larger and larger and become raindrops. This process is known as “Coalescence cold rain process”. Cold rain It occurs when the cloud temperature is colder than 0°C. Clouds are usually with ice crystals and liquid water droplets. These crystals grow rapidly drawing moisture from the surrounding cloud droplets until their weight-causes them to fall. Falling ice crystals may melt and join with smaller liquid cloud droplets. Resulting in raindrops if ice crystals do not melt, they may grow into large snowflakes and reach the ground as snow. C. Conditions Favourable for the Occurrence of Precipitation • The cloud dimension (vertical 7 km horizontal 60–70 km). • The lifetime of the cloud (at least 2–3 hrs.) 212 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • The size and concentration of cloud droplets and ice particles. • RH should be 75%. • Wind velocity (20 km). • Cloud seeding. D. Principles of Rainmaking Clouds are classified into warm and cold clouds based on cloud top temperature. If the cloud temperature is positive, these clouds are called",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "The size and concentration of cloud droplets and ice particles. • RH should be 75%. • Wind velocity (20 km). • Cloud seeding. D. Principles of Rainmaking Clouds are classified into warm and cold clouds based on cloud top temperature. If the cloud temperature is positive, these clouds are called warm clouds and if it is negative, they are called as cold clouds. The nucleus needed for precipitation differs with type of clouds. Hygroscopic materials are necessary as nucleus for warm clouds. Cloud seeding It is the process by which the conditions of the cloud, (dimension, life time and size) are modified by supplying them with suitable nucleus at proper time and place. For accelerating the warm rain process, seeding with very large nuclei such as salt crystals can be used. In the case of cold rain process, seeding with ice nuclei such as silver iodide are used. Cloud seeding is one of the tools to mitigate the effects of drought. It is defined as a process in which the precipitation is encouraged by injecting artificial condensation nuclei through aircrafts or suitable mechanism to induce rain from rain bearing cloud. The raindrops are several times heavier than cloud droplets. These mechanisms are different for cold and warm clouds. (a) Seeding of cold clouds This can be achieved by two ways as given below: 1. Dry ice seeding Dry ice (solid carbon-dioxide) has certain specific features. It remains as it is at –80°C and evaporates, but does not melt. Dry ice is heavy and falls rapidly from top of cloud and has no persistent effects due to cloud seeding. Aircrafts are commonly used for cloud seeding with dry ice. Aircraft flies across the top of a cloud and 0.5-1.0 cm dry ice pellets are released in a steady stream. While falling",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is heavy and falls rapidly from top of cloud and has no persistent effects due to cloud seeding. Aircrafts are commonly used for cloud seeding with dry ice. Aircraft flies across the top of a cloud and 0.5-1.0 cm dry ice pellets are released in a steady stream. While falling through the cloud, a sheet of ice crystals is formed. From these ice crystals, rain occurs. This method is not economical as 250 kg of dry ice is required for seeding one cloud. To carry the heavy dry ice over the top of clouds special aircrafts are required, which is an expensive process. 2. Silver Iodide seeding Minute crystals of silver iodide produced in the form of smoke acts as efficient ice-farming nuclei at temperatures below –5°C. When these nuclei are produced from the ground generators, these particles are fine enough to diffuse with air currents. Silver iodide is the most effective nucleating substance because; its atomic arrangement is similar to that of ice. The time for silver iodide smoke released from ground generator to reach the super cooled clouds was offer some hours, during which it would draft a long way and decay under the sun light. The appropriate procedure for seeding cold clouds would be to release silver iodide smoke into super cooled cloud from an aircraft. In seeding cold clouds, silver iodide technique is more useful than dry ice techniques, because, less quantity of silver iodide is required per cloud. There is no necessity to fly to the top of the cloud, if area to be covered is large. (b) Seeding of warm clouds 1. Water drop technique Coalescence process is mainly responsible for growth of rain drops in warm cloud. The basic assumption is that the presence of comparatively large water droplets is necessary to initiate",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the top of the cloud, if area to be covered is large. (b) Seeding of warm clouds 1. Water drop technique Coalescence process is mainly responsible for growth of rain drops in warm cloud. The basic assumption is that the presence of comparatively large water droplets is necessary to initiate the coalescence process. So, water droplets or large hygroscopic nuclei are AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 213 introduced into the cloud. Water drops of 25 mm are sprayed from aircraft at 30 gallons per seeding on warm clouds. 2. Common salt technique Common salt is a suitable seeding material for seeding warm clouds. It is used either in the form of 10% solution or solid. The spraying is done by power sprayers and air compressors or even from ground generators. The balloon burst technique is also beneficial. In this case, gunpowder and sodium chloride are arranged to explode near cloud base dispersing salt particles. 4.8 MONSOON RAINFALL VARIABILITY India receives its annual rainfall by the peculiar phenomenon known as monsoon. It consists of series of cyclones that arise in Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. These travel in north-east direction and enter the Peninsular India along its west coast. The most important of these cyclones usually occur from June to September resulting in summer monsoon or south-west monsoon. This is followed by a second rainy season from October to December. A third and fourth rainy seasons occur from January to February and from March to May respectively. Of the four rainy seasons, south-west monsoon is the most important as it contribute 80–95% of the total rainfall of the country. (a) South West Monsoon (SWM) In the beginning of the year, temperature of the Indian Peninsular rapidly rises under the increasing heat of the sun. A minimum barometric pressure is established in the interior",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "monsoon is the most important as it contribute 80–95% of the total rainfall of the country. (a) South West Monsoon (SWM) In the beginning of the year, temperature of the Indian Peninsular rapidly rises under the increasing heat of the sun. A minimum barometric pressure is established in the interior parts of the Peninsular by the month of March. Westerly winds prevail on the west Kerala and south winds on the west of Orissa and Bengal. During April and May, the region of high temperature is shifted to north viz., upper Sind, lower Punjab and western Rajasthan. This area becomes the minimum barometric pressure area to which monsoon winds are directed. The western branch of SWM touches north Karnataka, southern Maharashtra and then it make its way to Gujarat. When the South West Monsoon is fully operating on the Western India, another branch of the same is acting in the Bay of Bengal. It carries rains to Burma, Northern portions of the east coast of India, Bengal, Assam and the whole of North India in general. (b) North East Monsoon (NEM) During September end, the SWM penetrates to north western India but stays on for a full month in Bengal. On account of the increase in barometric pressure in Northern India, there is a shift of the barometric pressure to the South East and North Easterly winds begin to flow on the eastern coast. These changes bring on heavy and continuous rainfall to the southern and south eastern India. (c) Winter rainfall It is restricted more to northern India and is received in the form of snow on the hills and as rains in the plains of Punjab, Rajasthan and central India. Western disturbance is a dominant factor for rainfall during these months in northwestern India. Table 4.2 Rainfall Distribution",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Winter rainfall It is restricted more to northern India and is received in the form of snow on the hills and as rains in the plains of Punjab, Rajasthan and central India. Western disturbance is a dominant factor for rainfall during these months in northwestern India. Table 4.2 Rainfall Distribution in Tamil Nadu in Different Seasons Rainfall Season Quantity (mm) Share (%) South West Monsoon 311.7 32 North East Monsoon 457.8 47 Cold weather period 48.7 5 Hot weather period 155.9 16 214 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (d) Summer rainfall The summer rainfall is received from March to May as local storms. It is mostly received in the South-east of Peninsular and in Bengal. Western India does not generally receive these rains. 4.9 EVAPORATION, TRANSPIRATION AND ET A. Evaporation The change of state of water from solid and liquid to the vapour and its diffusion into the atmosphere is referred to as evaporation. In agricultural meteorology, evaporation is defined as the maximum possible loss of moisture form a wet, horizontal, flat surface exposed to weather parameters, which exist in the vicinity of plants. Evaporation is an important process of hydrologic cycle. The evaporation from the soil is an important factor deciding the irrigation water requirements of a crop. In modifying the microclimate of a crop, the evaporation from the soils is an important factor. It is the most important of all the factors in the heat budget, after radiation and in the water economy. Since, a certain amount of evaporation also demands a definite amount of heat, it provides a link between water budget and heat budget. Factors affecting evaporation The evaporation from a fully exposed water surface is the function of several environmental factors. 1. Environmental factors Water temperature With an increase of temperature, the kinetic energy of water",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "also demands a definite amount of heat, it provides a link between water budget and heat budget. Factors affecting evaporation The evaporation from a fully exposed water surface is the function of several environmental factors. 1. Environmental factors Water temperature With an increase of temperature, the kinetic energy of water molecules increases and surface tension decreases which increases evaporation. Wind The evaporation from fully exposed surface is directly proportional to the velocity of wind and vice-versa, because dry wind replaces the moist air near water. The process of evaporation takes place continuously when there is a supply of energy to provide latent heat of evaporation (540 calories/ gram of water). Relative humidity The evaporation is greater at low RH than at high RH. Pressure The evaporation is more at low pressure and less at high pressure. 2. Water factors Composition of water The dissolved salts and other impurities decrease the rate of evaporation. The evaporation is inversely proportional to the salinity of water. Area of evaporation The larger the area of exposure, greater will be the evaporation. Those affecting water supply at the evaporating surface. i.e., soil and plants including soil storage capacity, rainfall and irrigation and those affecting energy supply to the evaporating surface like solar radiation. B. Transpiration Most of the water absorbed by plants is lost to the atmosphere. This loss of water from living plants is called transpiration. It can be stomatal, cuticular or lenticular. It plays an important role in dissipation of radiant energy by plant parts, translocation of water in the plants and translocation of minerals in the plant. Factors affecting transpiration (i) Environmental factors Light: By directly opening and closing of the stomata, there is periodicity in the transpiration rate. Indirectly by increasing the temperature of leaf cells, the transpiration is increased. AGRICULTURAL",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "plant parts, translocation of water in the plants and translocation of minerals in the plant. Factors affecting transpiration (i) Environmental factors Light: By directly opening and closing of the stomata, there is periodicity in the transpiration rate. Indirectly by increasing the temperature of leaf cells, the transpiration is increased. AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 215 Atmospheric humidity: The rate of transpiration is almost inversely proportional to atmospheric humidity. Air Temperature: Increase in temperature results in opening of stomata, which in turn increase transpiration. Wind velocity: The higher the wind speed, higher the transpiration. (ii) Plant factors Plant height: Water need of the crop varies with height. Leaf characteristics: Reduction in leaf area brings reduction in transpiration. Availability of water to the plant: If there is little water in the soil, the tendency for dehydration of leaf causes stomatal closure and a consequent fall in transpiration. C. Evapotranspiration (ET) Evapotranspiration denotes the quantity of water transpired by plants or retained in the plant tissue plus the moisture evaporated from the surface of the soil. As long as the rate of root uptake of soil moisture balances the water losses from the canopy, evapotranspiration continues to occur at its potential rate. When the rate of root water uptake falls below the transpiration demand, actual transpiration begins to fall below the potential rate. This is either because the soil cannot supply water to roots quickly or the plant can no longer extract water to meet the evaporation demand. D. Reference Evapotranspiration (ET0 ) This represents the maximum rate of evapotranspiration from an extended surface of 8–10 centimeters tall green grass cover, actually growing and completely shading the ground under limited supply of water. Potential evapotranspiration (PET) Potential evapotranspiration (PET) for any crop is obtained from reference evapotranspiration and crop factors (Kc) when water supply is unlimited.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "maximum rate of evapotranspiration from an extended surface of 8–10 centimeters tall green grass cover, actually growing and completely shading the ground under limited supply of water. Potential evapotranspiration (PET) Potential evapotranspiration (PET) for any crop is obtained from reference evapotranspiration and crop factors (Kc) when water supply is unlimited. PET = Kc × ET0 Evapotranspiration is also called water use (WU) or consumptive use (CU). The factors influencing ET are climate and management practices. (a) Importance of ET and PET • Estimation of the soil moisture thereby planning irrigation schedule of crops. • Understanding the relationship between the crop yield and irrigation water. • Guiding for the production of a crop with a fully developed canopy. • The evapotranspiration can also help to demarcate soil climatic zones including the drought prone areas. • These will form the base for developing suitable soil and crop management practices, crop varieties, water conservation techniques, cropping pattern and ways to improve productivity rainfed crops. (b) Factors affecting ET • Those affecting water supply i.e., soil storage capacity, rainfall and irrigation. • Those affecting energy supply. • Light • Temperature • Relative Humidity 216 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Wind • Plant character root/shoot–ratio, leaf characteristics and thick cuticle. 4.10 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE Hydrologic cycle involves four major steps viz., evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation. Though the cycle has neither a beginning nor an end, the concept of cycle begins with the water of the oceans, since it covers nearly ¾ of the earth’s surface. Radiation from the sun evaporates the water as water vapour from the oceans into the atmosphere. The water vapour rises and collects to form clouds. Under certain conditions, the cloud moisture condenses and falls back to the earth as rain, snow, hail etc. Precipitation reaching the earth’s surface may be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Radiation from the sun evaporates the water as water vapour from the oceans into the atmosphere. The water vapour rises and collects to form clouds. Under certain conditions, the cloud moisture condenses and falls back to the earth as rain, snow, hail etc. Precipitation reaching the earth’s surface may be intercepted by vegetation, enter into the soil, may flow as run or may evaporate. Evaporation may be from the surface of the ground or from free water surface. Transpiration may be from plants. A. Monsoons of India The term monsoon is derived from an Arabic word ‘Mausim’ or from Malayan word ‘monsin’ which means ‘season’. The word monsoon is applied to such a circulation, which reverses its direction every six months i.e. from summer to winter and vice-versa. The economic significance of monsoon is enormous, because a population of more than 2000 million lives, i.e., roughly about half the world’s population (54%), depends on the monsoon rains for their crops. Moreover, a large percentage of total population in the monsoon region derives its income from agriculture. In India, monsoon means lifegiving rains. Failure of monsoon rains cause loss of food crops. Erratic behaviour of monsoon cause disastrous floods in some parts of the country while in other parts there is severe drought. During the hot, dry season (April-May), when temperatures rise rapidly and pressures over land decrease, the warm and moist air form over the adjacent seas starts blowing, towards the above-mentioned low pressure centre. However, in the beginning the maritime, air masses are drawn only from a short distance. But by the end of May or the first week of June, when the low pressure centre has fully developed, the pressure-gradient is steeped so that even the trade winds from southern hemisphere are drawn towards the thermal low positioned",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "maritime, air masses are drawn only from a short distance. But by the end of May or the first week of June, when the low pressure centre has fully developed, the pressure-gradient is steeped so that even the trade winds from southern hemisphere are drawn towards the thermal low positioned in north-western region of the sub-continent. The southerly trades on crossing the equator are deflected to their right in accordance with Ferrell’s Law. Now, the originally south-east trade winds become southwesterly blowing towards north-east. Southwesterly onshore winds blowing towards the centre of low pressure over northern India traverse thousand of miles over the warm tropical ocean. They are, therefore, full of moisture and have a great potential for heavy precipitation. The south-west monsoon, as it is called in this region, is split into two branches by the shape of Peninsular India. They are known as: (a) the Arabian Sea branch, and (b) the Bay of Bengal branch. (a) Arabian Sea branch The Arabian sea branch strikes the elevated western ghats of India at almost right angles. The windward slopes of western ghats receive heavy orographic precipitation. However, the westerly current from the Arabian Sea continues its journey across the Indian Peninsula, but the amount of rainfall on the leeward side goes on diminishing with increasing distance from the sea cost. The western ghats have 100–250 cm of rainfall on their windward slopes, while there is a well-marked rain-shadow to the leeward. Towards the north, where western ghats are not very high, the difference in the amount of rainfall between the windward and leeward side is rather negligible. Some of the air currents from the Arabian sea branch manage to proceed towards Chhota Nagpur plateau through the Narbada and Tapit gaps. These air currents ultimately unite with the Bay of Bengal",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "high, the difference in the amount of rainfall between the windward and leeward side is rather negligible. Some of the air currents from the Arabian sea branch manage to proceed towards Chhota Nagpur plateau through the Narbada and Tapit gaps. These air currents ultimately unite with the Bay of Bengal branch. AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 217 (b) Bay of Bengal branch One current of the Bay of Bengal branch moves towards Assam where Mausinram (near Cherapunji), situated on the southern slope of Khasi hills, has the unique distinction of recording the highest annual average precipitation (965 cm) in the world. This is because of its peculiar geographical location. A current of the Bay of Bengal branch recurves westward and advances up to the gangetic plain towards the Punjab. It may be mentioned that the westward movement of monsoon current takes place around the eastern end of a trough of low pressure developed over northern India. The movement of winds is, of course, parallel to the Himalayan ranges. The rainfall occurring in the Gangetic plain is partly controlled by the relief, and partly by the cyclonic storms or monsoon depressions, which followed the track of low relief and low pressure along southern fringe of the plains. It is to be noted that in this region, the monsoon current blows from a south-east direction. The rainfall decreases from east to west and from north to south. The main reason for decrease in amount of rainfall westwards is the increasing distance from the source of moisture. The southward decrease in rainfall is due to the increasing distance form the Himalayas, which cause the forced ascent of rain bearing air currents. (c) Winter Monsoon A secondary high pressure system develops over Kashmir and the Punjab. The high pressure area controls the prevailing wind direction over the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "moisture. The southward decrease in rainfall is due to the increasing distance form the Himalayas, which cause the forced ascent of rain bearing air currents. (c) Winter Monsoon A secondary high pressure system develops over Kashmir and the Punjab. The high pressure area controls the prevailing wind direction over the rest of the subcontinent. Contrary to the pressure condition over land, there are low pressure centres formed over the Indian ocean, the Arabian sea, and northern part of Australia. In the cool season, therefore, there is pressure gradient from land to sea as a result of which winds begin to move from land to sea. These are the north-east or winter monsoons of northern hemisphere. The southern part of Indian Peninsula receives rainfall from north-east monsoon currents. These currents while traveling over the Bay of Bengal pick up moisture from warm ocean surface. The amount of winter rainfall on the eastern side of the peninsula is much heavier than that on the other side. It is also known as retreating monsoon. 4.11 FLOOD Years in which actual rainfall is ‘above’ the normal by twice the mean deviation or more is defined as years of floods or excessive rainfall. Like droughts, the definition of floods also varies one situation to another and form one region to other or high degree of runoff is known as flood. Runoff is that portion of precipitation that returns to the oceans and other water bodies over the land surface or through the soil and water table. The factors affecting runoff are the amount and intensity of precipitation, temperature, characters of the soil, vegetative cover of the area and slope of the land. It may be a direct return of rainfall or the flow from melted snow and ice fields-which have temporarily stored water. When rain",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "table. The factors affecting runoff are the amount and intensity of precipitation, temperature, characters of the soil, vegetative cover of the area and slope of the land. It may be a direct return of rainfall or the flow from melted snow and ice fields-which have temporarily stored water. When rain occurs, the proportion of runoff will depend on capacity of the soil and vegetation to absorb. Plants retain some rainfall on their external structures and slow the velocity of raindrops. They also detain water in its horizontal movement. Plants improve soil structure and their roots provide channels to move water to greater depths. The high humus content of soils with dense grass cover enhances absorption than impervious sub-soil. Some of the flood years due to high and intense rainfall in India are as follows. 1878, 1872, 1917, 1933, 1942, 1956, 1959, 1961, 1970, 1975, 1983, 1988, 2005, 2006 Flood differs from simple runoff only in degree. Distinction between the two depends upon how they affect surface features. River floods occur whenever the channel capacity is exceeded by the runoff due to excessive runoff of rainfall or snow melt. But, the channel capacity may also be affected by 218 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY barriers to flow, sudden change of direction of stream, siltation of the streambed, or sudden release of water due to broken dam. (a) Climatic causes The predisposition of a climate to storms producing excessive precipitation is the fundamental basis of the flood. In some cases, storms occur irregularly; in others they follow a seasonal pattern. Two types storms causing flood are: • Violent thunder showers, which is of short duration and produces a flash flood. • Prolonged wide spread rain which through sheer quantity of water, creates extensive flooding over entire watersheds. (b) Damages The damages due to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in others they follow a seasonal pattern. Two types storms causing flood are: • Violent thunder showers, which is of short duration and produces a flash flood. • Prolonged wide spread rain which through sheer quantity of water, creates extensive flooding over entire watersheds. (b) Damages The damages due to flood are: • Loss of human life, cattle wealth and properties. • Loss of field crops, soil-may vary according to the duration and intensity of flooding. Not all floods are “bad” for agricultural areas in the lower-Nile flood plain and Mesopotamia depend on annual river flooding and the accompanying deposits of fertile silt. (c) Management of flood For managing flood, the following measures may be taken. • Conserve water in the soil where it falls by increasing porosity of the soil and growing vegetations to reduce runoff. • Increase the capacity of channels (rivers) to carry excess water direct to the ocean or to the water bodies for storage. • Avoid silting of water courses to conserve soil by adopting soil conservation techniques such as by vegetative barriers, counter bunding, contour cultivation, allowing grassy water ways etc. The most injurious aspects of flooding or too much of water are lack of aeration and reduction in oxygen supply. In wet soil, nitrification suffers which causes yellowing and sticky appearance of plants. The following measures may be taken for the crops affected by flood. • Drain away excess water as early as possible. • Give a foliar spray of nutrients especially N for immediate relief e.g., rice: 1.0% urea + 0.5% ZnSO4. • Spray fungicides to protect the crop from fungal diseases, which are common under high moisture condition. 4.12 WEATHER ABERRATIONS 1. Dry spells The interval between the end of a seven day wet spell, beginning with the onset of effective",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for immediate relief e.g., rice: 1.0% urea + 0.5% ZnSO4. • Spray fungicides to protect the crop from fungal diseases, which are common under high moisture condition. 4.12 WEATHER ABERRATIONS 1. Dry spells The interval between the end of a seven day wet spell, beginning with the onset of effective monsoon and another rainy day with 5 e mm of rain (where “e” is the average daily evaporation) or the commencement of another seven day rainy spell with four of these as rainy days (satisfying the third criterion) and with a total rain of 5 e mm or more during this spell is called the first dry spell. If the duration of this dry spell exceeded certain value, depending on the crop-soil complex of the region, this dry spell was called a critical dry spell. Criteria for forecasting rainfall characteristics (like onset of effective monsoon) are as follows: • The first day rain in the 7-day spell signifying the onset of effective monsoon, should not be less than “e” mm. • The total rain during the 7-day spell should not be less than 5 e + 10 mm. • At least four of these seven days should have rainfall, with not less than 2.5 mm of rain on each day. AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 219 2. Wet spell A wet spell is defined as a rainy day with “X” mm of rainfall or a 7 day spell where the total amount of rainfall equals “x” mm or more and the condition that three out of these seven days must be rainy with rainfall more than 2.5 mm on each day. In this, “x” is the amount of rainfall, which brings the top 50 cm soil layer to field capacity. The water holding capacity varies with the type of soil. For example, the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "three out of these seven days must be rainy with rainfall more than 2.5 mm on each day. In this, “x” is the amount of rainfall, which brings the top 50 cm soil layer to field capacity. The water holding capacity varies with the type of soil. For example, the value of “x” is equal to 83 mm for light soils, 125 mm for medium soils and 166 mm for heavy soils of Punjab. 3. Critical Dry Spell (CDS) CDS is defined as the duration between the end of a wet spell and the start of another wet spell during which a 50% depletion of available moisture occurs in the top 50 cm soil layer. It is calculated by the following formula. AMD CDS ET = Where CDS in day; AMD = 50% of the available soil moisture in the top 50 cm soil layer, expressed in terms of depth (mm); ET = Average maximum daily ET of a crop (mm/day). 4. Drought Drought has varied meanings for different people. In general, drought may be defined as a complex phenomenon, which results from the prolonged absence of precipitation in conjunction with high rate of evaporation. This causes abnormal loss of water form water bodies, lowering of the water table and dehydration of the root zone of the soil, thus upsetting water supply to plants. The term drought can be defined by several ways. • The condition under which crops fail to mature because of insufficient supply of water. • The situation in which the amount of water required for transpiration and evaporation by crop plants in a defined area exceeds the amount of available moisture in the soil. • A situation of no precipitation in a rainy season for more than 15 days continuously. Such length of non-rainy days can",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "situation in which the amount of water required for transpiration and evaporation by crop plants in a defined area exceeds the amount of available moisture in the soil. • A situation of no precipitation in a rainy season for more than 15 days continuously. Such length of non-rainy days can also be called as dry spells. The details on classification of drought is given in the chapter 13 (Section 13.3 B) 5. Aberrations in rainfall Aberration means the deviation from the normal behaviour of the rainfall. As the principal source of water for dry land crops is rain, a major portion of which is received during the monsoon period. Bursts of rain alternated with “Breaks” are not uncommon. There are at least four important aberrations in the rainfall behaviour. • The commencement of rains may be quite early or considerably delayed. • There may be prolonged breaks during the cropping season (Intermittent drought). • The rains may terminate considerably early (early cessation of rain) or continue for longer periods. • There may be spatial and/or temporal aberrations. (a) Early or delayed onset of monsoon To quantity the aberrations in the onset of monsoon, 50 years of data to be analyzed for the date of onset of monsoon has to be studied for different regions of the country. The aberrations require changes in crops and varieties with the normal onset of NEM (Sep.–Oct.). Crops like sorghum, bajra, pulses and oil seeds can be grown in Kovilpatti tract of Tamil Nadu with the onset of monsoon. If monsoon is delayed up to late October, crops like bajra, pulses, sunflower etc., can be raised. If it is very much delayed up to first week of November, crops like sunflower can be sown. (b) Breaks in the monsoon rains-Intermittent drought The breaks can be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the onset of monsoon. If monsoon is delayed up to late October, crops like bajra, pulses, sunflower etc., can be raised. If it is very much delayed up to first week of November, crops like sunflower can be sown. (b) Breaks in the monsoon rains-Intermittent drought The breaks can be of different durations. Breaks of shorter duration (5–7 days) may not be a serous concern, but breaks of 2–3 weeks or even more, lead to plant-water stress causing reduction in production. This intermittent drought can be of 220 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY different magnitude and severity, and affect different crops in varying degrees. The yields of sensitive crops are seriously affected but not drought resistant crops. Another aspect of the breaks or intermittent drought is the stage of the crop at which the drought occurs. The effect on crop will be different at different stages. Another important factor is the effect of breaks or intermittent drought depends on the physical properties of the soil particularly its water holding capacity. Deep black soils have capacity to store as much as 300 mm of available soil moisture in one meter depth, whereas light soils can store only as little as 100 mm or so. Hence drought is more pronounced in the soils having less storage capacity. (c) Early withdrawal of monsoon The normal withdrawal of SWM in Rayalaseema region will be between 25th September and 15th October. But, in 4% of the years out of 55 years, monsoon withdraws during first fortnight of September and in 10% of the years, it withdraws during the month of December. Since, crops and varieties in any given region are selected based on the normal length of growing season. Persistence of rains much beyond normal dates creates an extraordinary situation. Under Kovilpatti (Tamil Nadu) conditions, short",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of September and in 10% of the years, it withdraws during the month of December. Since, crops and varieties in any given region are selected based on the normal length of growing season. Persistence of rains much beyond normal dates creates an extraordinary situation. Under Kovilpatti (Tamil Nadu) conditions, short duration bajra and sunflower will be suitable under early withdrawal of monsoon. Cultural practices to mitigate the effect of moisture stress due to intermittent drought and early withdrawal of monsoon are: (a) shallow intercultural operations to eradicate weeds, (b) maintain soil mulch to conserve soil moisture, (c) application of surface mulch, (d) thinning of crops by removing alternated rows as in sorghum and bajra, (e) recycling of stored run off water, (f) ratooning in crops like sorghum and bajra, and (g) 2–3% urea spray after a rain for indeterminate crops like castor and red gram. (d) Uneven distribution of monsoon rains, in space and time This situation is encountered almost every year in one or another part of the country during monsoon period leading to periodical drought and flood situations. High variability of rainfall is the single factor which influences the high fluctuations in the crop yields in the different parts of the country. 4.13 AGROCLIMATIC ZONES Climate in general, is the totality of weather observed over wide area for a longer period. An agroclimate can be defined as the conditions and effects of varying weather parameters like solar radiation, rainfall, etc., on crop growth and production. Agroclimatic classification is a method of arranging various data of climatic parameters to demarcate a country or region into homogenous zones, i.e., places having similar conditions. A. Advantages The classification would enable in exploring agricultural potentiality of the area. Locating similar type of climate zone will enable in identifying the specific problems of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a method of arranging various data of climatic parameters to demarcate a country or region into homogenous zones, i.e., places having similar conditions. A. Advantages The classification would enable in exploring agricultural potentiality of the area. Locating similar type of climate zone will enable in identifying the specific problems of soil and climate related to agriculture. It will help in introduction of new crops from other similar areas e.g., introduction of oil palm in Tamil Nadu and Kerala from Malaysia. It will help in developing crop production technologies, specific to the region. The classification will be useful to take up research work to solve the regional problems and to transfer the technology easily among the farmers. B. Agroclimates of India Krishnan and Muktar Singh (1969) have classified India into eight major agroclimatic zones using Thornthwaite moisture index and thermal index. The moisture index is given by the following formula. P PE MI 100 PE − = × AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 221 where MI = Moisture Index P = Precipitation/rainfall PE = Potential evapotranspiration Based on the indices, eight moisture and four thermal belts were formed. All together there are 32 sub-zones. During the year 1989, the Planning Commission made an attempt to delineate India into different agro-climatic zones. Based on the similarity in rainfall, temperature, soil topography, cropping, farming system and water resources, India has been divided into fifteen agro-climatic regions. This was done mainly to identify the production constraints and to plant future strategies. 4.14 AGROCLIMATIC NORMAL Crop yields are influenced by external and internal factors that occur during the crop growing period. The external environment is the climate, which regulates and determines the growth and development and final output of crop plants. But, man has no control over weather alone, because its dominance over the success or failure of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "influenced by external and internal factors that occur during the crop growing period. The external environment is the climate, which regulates and determines the growth and development and final output of crop plants. But, man has no control over weather alone, because its dominance over the success or failure of agricultural enterprises. According to the WMO, the weather-induced variability in crop yields is as high as 50%. Therefore, weather should be taken as one of the inputs in agricultural planning. Under optimum climatic conditions, the plants manifest their maximum growth and production. Different crop growth cycles demand different climatic condition for fulfillment. Green houses where every growth factor can be controlled and growth chambers for maximum production of a crop are not available in plenty. Alternatively, the climate of a region where a particular crop is best grown with less pest and diseased incidence can be studied elaborately. A. Definition Climatic normal means the degree of temperature, amount of rainfall, humidity, etc., which distinguish optimal conditions from abnormal, both because of excess and insufficiency. The climatic normal is the average value of 30 years of a particular weather element. The period may be a week/month and/or year. The crop distribution, production and productivity depend on the climatic normal of a place. If the crops are selected for cultivation based on the optimum climatic requirements, the crop production can be maximized. The uses of studying Agro-climatic normal for field crops can be as follows: • Useful for agricultural planning. • Useful in introduction of any crop. e.g., introduction of groundnut in peninsular India from Africa and long grained patnai rice into California. • Useful to forecast the abnormal weather. B. Climatic Normal for Crop Plants 1. Rice Besides rainfall, temperature and solar radiation influence rice yield by directly affecting the physiological",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in introduction of any crop. e.g., introduction of groundnut in peninsular India from Africa and long grained patnai rice into California. • Useful to forecast the abnormal weather. B. Climatic Normal for Crop Plants 1. Rice Besides rainfall, temperature and solar radiation influence rice yield by directly affecting the physiological processes involved in grain production and indirectly through the incidence of pest and diseases. Temperature The difference in yield is mainly due to temperature and solar radiation received during its growing season. It requires high temperature, ample water supply and high atmospheric humidity during growth period. Rice tolerates up to 40°C provided water is not limiting. A mean temperature of 22oC is required for entire growing period. If high temperature drops lower than 15°C during the growth phase, the rice yield is greatly reduced by formation of sterile spikelets. The period 222 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY during which low temperature is most critical, is about 10–14 days before heading. The optimum temperature requirements for the different stages of rice crop are given in the Table 4.3. Table 4.3. Optimum Temperature Requirements for Rice Growth stages Temperature in oC Low High Optimum Germination 10 45 20–35 Seedling establishment 12–13 35 25–30 Rooting 16 35 25–28 Leaf elongation 9–18 38 31 Tillering 9–16 33 25–31 Panicle initiation 15–20 38 33 Anthesis 22 35 30–32 Ripening 12–18 30 20–25 Solar radiation Low sunshine hours during the vegetative stage have slight ill effect on grain production, whereas the same situation during reproductive stage reduce the number and development of spikelets and thereby the yield. For getting grain yield of 5 t/ha, a solar radiation of 300 cal.cm2/day is required. A combination of low daily mean temperature and high solar radiation during reproductive phase is good for getting higher yield. Rainfall Rice requires high moisture",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the number and development of spikelets and thereby the yield. For getting grain yield of 5 t/ha, a solar radiation of 300 cal.cm2/day is required. A combination of low daily mean temperature and high solar radiation during reproductive phase is good for getting higher yield. Rainfall Rice requires high moisture and hence classified as hydrophytes. Rice requires a submerged condition from sprouting to milky stage. The water requirement is 125 cm. An average monthly rainfall of 200 mm is required to grow low land rice and 100 mm to grow upland rice successfully. 2. Wheat Temperature Optimum temperature for sowing is 15–20oC. At maturity, it requires 25oC. At harvest time, wheat requires high temperature of 30–35oC and bright sunny period of 9–10 hours. Moisture One ha of wheat consumes about 2500–3000 tones of water. Water deficiency at the heading stage results in shriveled grains and low yield. 3. Maize This crop is best suited for intermediate climates of the earth to which the bulk of its acreage is confined. Temperature Maize requires a mean temperature of 24oC and a night temperature above 15oC. No maize cultivation is possible in areas where the mean summer temperature is below 19oC or where the average night temperature during the summer falls below 21oC. However, high night temperature also results in low yield. Moisture Maize is adapted to humid climates and has high water requirements. It needs 75 cm of rainfall during its growth period. The average consumptive use of water by maize is estimated to range between 41 and 64 cm. From germination up to the earing stage, maize requires less water. However, at flowering, it requires more water and the requirement reduces towards maturity. 4. Groundnut Temperature It is a tropical crop. It can be raised under a wide range of temperature.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "estimated to range between 41 and 64 cm. From germination up to the earing stage, maize requires less water. However, at flowering, it requires more water and the requirement reduces towards maturity. 4. Groundnut Temperature It is a tropical crop. It can be raised under a wide range of temperature. However, both very high and low temperature adversely affects the groundnut. A temperature range of 14–16oC is necessary for seed germination. Higher temperature results in better performance in terms of length of AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 223 stem, number of flowers and the number of pods. Maximum pods have been harvested at a mean soil temperature of 23oC. The number of pods decreases as the temperature increases. Moisture Rainfall of 75–125 mm during summer months preceding sowing, 125–175 mm during a fortnight after sowing and 370–600 mm of well distributed rainfall during the crop growth. 5. Cotton It requires 4-5 months of uniformly high temperature (28–45oC) during its crop growth period. Mean air temperature of 21–29oC is required at vegetative period. The optimum air temperature for reproductive phase is 27–32oC; mean sunshine hours are 8-9 hrs/day; and mean RH is 70%. But at boll development and boll opening period (September to November), RH less than 70% and 8 hrs. of sunshine are ideal for good cotton production. The growth rate of cotton crop is increased at 25–30oC. Temperature below 15oC retards growth and reduces the square (bud) formation. Moisture The minimum rainfall required for cotton is 500–650 mm. Heavy rainfall during early stage is undesirable. Dry autumn months are desirable for good quality produce. Excess rainfall at later stage may cause shedding of leaves, squares and bolls. It also stimulates top growth, delays maturity and changes colour of lint. High humidity favours many pests and diseases. 6. Sugarcane Mean temperature for optimum",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "stage is undesirable. Dry autumn months are desirable for good quality produce. Excess rainfall at later stage may cause shedding of leaves, squares and bolls. It also stimulates top growth, delays maturity and changes colour of lint. High humidity favours many pests and diseases. 6. Sugarcane Mean temperature for optimum germination is 30oC. Mean temperature for optimum growth is 35oC. At temperature less than 20oC, growth is reduced. Ideal climate is 4–5 months of hot period with temperature of 30–35oC followed by 6–8 weeks of cooler period for better maturity. 4.15 WEATHER FORECASTING Weather is the most important factor, which influences agricultural operations and crop production. A substantial portion of crop is lost due to aberrant weather. The pre-harvest loss may range between 10 and 100% in various crops. The post-harvest loss is mainly due to rains and excessive humidity. Weather forecast is the prediction of weather for the next few days to follow. The Figure below depicts different weather forecasting services normally practiced in a country. Fig. 4.3 Weather forecasting services Agriculture including forestry and animal husbandry General public Fishing Mountaineering Cyclones, floods and drought Government and post officials Off shore drilling Aviation civil & military Defense services Shipping mercantile & naval 224 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Importance Weather has many social and economic impacts in a place. Among different factors that influence crop production, weather plays a decisive role as aberrations in it (up to 50% variations in crop production). The rainfall is the most important among the required forecast, which decides the crop production in a region and ultimately the country’s economy. The planning for moisture conservation under weak monsoon condition and for flood relief under strong monsoon condition is important in a region. A reliable weather forecasting when disseminated appropriately will pave way for the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the required forecast, which decides the crop production in a region and ultimately the country’s economy. The planning for moisture conservation under weak monsoon condition and for flood relief under strong monsoon condition is important in a region. A reliable weather forecasting when disseminated appropriately will pave way for the effective sustainability. One can minimize the damage, which may be caused directly or indirectly by unfavourable weather. The recurring crop losses can be minimized if reliable forecast on incidence of pest and diseases is given timely based on weather variables. It helps in holding the food grain prices in check through buffer stock operations. In good monsoon years when prices fall, the government may step in and buy, and in bad years when price tend to rise, the government may unload a part of what it had purchased. Judicious use of water can be planned in a region depending up on the forecast. B. Type of Weather Forecast There are three types of weather forecasting for agriculture. 1. Short range forecast It is valid for 24–48 hours with 70–80% accuracy. Short range forecast gives emphasis on temperature, wind velocity and directions, duration of sunshine, time and amount of precipitation and relative humidity. It helps in scheduling irrigation, adjusting time of agricultural operations and protecting plants from frost. 2. Extended forecast It is valid within 5 days with 60–70% accuracy. It gives emphasis on type of weather, sequence of rainy days, normal weather, sequence of rainy days, normal weather hazards in farming such as strong winds, extended dry or wet spells. This type of forecast helps to determine sowing time and depth of sowing; in planning of irrigation; in making decisions on harvesting and time of spraying to get higher efficiency and in managing labourers and equipments. 3. Long range forecast",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "farming such as strong winds, extended dry or wet spells. This type of forecast helps to determine sowing time and depth of sowing; in planning of irrigation; in making decisions on harvesting and time of spraying to get higher efficiency and in managing labourers and equipments. 3. Long range forecast It is valid up to 4 weeks to the season. It has emphasis in abnormality of temperature and precipitation. This forecast will be helpful in deciding soil moisture management, irrigation scheduling, selection of crops, managing irrigation with limited water supply and deciding cropping pattern and crop yield. Types of forecast Validity period Main users Predictions 1. Short range Up to 72 hours Farmers, marine agencies, Rainfall distribution, heavy rainfall, (a) Now casting 0-2 hours general public heat and cold wave conditions, (b) Very short range 0-12 hours thunder storms etc. 2. Medium range Beyond 3 days and Farmers Occurrence of rainfall, temperature. up to 10 days 3. Long range Beyond 10 days up to Planners This forecasting is provided for a month and a season Indian monsoon rainfall. The out looks are usually expressed in the form of expected deviation from normal condition. C. Usefulness of Weather Forecasting Though the losses due to weather factors cannot be avoided completely, the losses could be minimized by making adjustment with weather through timely and accurate weather forecasting. The weather AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 225 forecasts also provide guidelines for long range seasonal planning and selection of crops suited to the anticipated climatic condition. By forecasting anticipated heavy rains, • Irrigation from wells can be avoided by which we can save electricity. • The harvesting could be advanced if the crop is in maturity stage. • Threshing of harvested produce could be done before rains by which crop losses can be avoided. Loss of seed,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "forecasting anticipated heavy rains, • Irrigation from wells can be avoided by which we can save electricity. • The harvesting could be advanced if the crop is in maturity stage. • Threshing of harvested produce could be done before rains by which crop losses can be avoided. Loss of seed, diesel, labourer and time can be avoided by not sowing in unsuitable weather. Fertilizer losses can be avoided by not applying during unsuitable weather condition for fertilizer application. Similarly pesticide wastage can also be minimized. D. Weather Forecasting Organization Suitable organizations have been set up in most parts of the World for weather forecasting. Accepted international norms for measuring weather elements and representing them in international code are being adopted by all the participating countries. There are about 300 meteorological observatories of different types, distributed all over India, for the purpose of forecasting. Recently, automatic weather stations for all regions are being installed in districts by ISRO. E. Tools Synoptic charts and crop weather calendar are the tools for making weather forecasts. 1. Synoptic charts An enormous volume of meteorological data is being collected from all over the world continuously round the clock through various telecommunication channels. To assess, assimilate and analyze the vast data, they have to be suitably presented. For this purpose, the observations are plotted on maps in standard weather codes. These maps are called ‘Synoptic maps or charts’. Synoptic charts display the weather conditions at a specified time over a large geographical area. The surface synoptic charts plotted for different synoptic hours (00, 03, 06, 09, 12, 15, 18, 21 UTC) depict the distribution of pressure, temperature, dew point, clouds, winds, present and past weather. In place of GMT, UTC (Universal Time Co-ordinate) is used. The upper air charts are also prepared at the standard pressure",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "charts plotted for different synoptic hours (00, 03, 06, 09, 12, 15, 18, 21 UTC) depict the distribution of pressure, temperature, dew point, clouds, winds, present and past weather. In place of GMT, UTC (Universal Time Co-ordinate) is used. The upper air charts are also prepared at the standard pressure levels of the atmosphere (different heights) of the atmosphere wherein the pressure, wind and temperature are plotted. The surface charts together with the upper air charts provide a composite three-dimensional weather picture pertaining to a given time. Thus, it gives a birds eye view of the state of atmosphere at a time over a large area and is a important tool used by operational meteorologists and scientists. The surface synoptic charts are the most used charts. It contains the maximum number of observations with the largest number of parameters plotted and often forms the base on which the pressure level charts are built up. The pattern of the pressure distribution is brought out by drawing isobars, troughs, ridges, lows, highs, depressions, cyclones, fronts and discontinuities. These systems are clearly marked and labelled using appropriate symbols and colours. In synoptic charts, different weather phenomena and atmospheric characters are marked with different symbols as mentioned below. S.No Symbols Weather element/character/phenomenon 1. Narrow black lines Isobars 2. Numbers at ends of isobars Pressure values in hPa (Contd.) 226 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY S.No Symbols Weather element/character/phenomenon 3. Shading Precipitation 4. Arrows Wind direction 5. Feathers in the arrows Wind velocity 6. Small circles with shading Amount of clouds In addition to the above, different symbols are used for recording weather phenomena. Fig. 4.3 2. Weather calendar In order to provide the farmers with an efficient weather service, it is essential that the weather forecaster should be familiar with the crops that are grown",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "with shading Amount of clouds In addition to the above, different symbols are used for recording weather phenomena. Fig. 4.3 2. Weather calendar In order to provide the farmers with an efficient weather service, it is essential that the weather forecaster should be familiar with the crops that are grown in a particular agroclimatic zone. The type of forecast warnings to be given depends on the stages of the crop. The farmers should become familiar with weather bulletins and learn how to interpret. To meet the above requirement, the detailed information collected from the agricultural departments has been condensed by the IMD and presented in a pictorial form known as crop weather calendar. This calendar has three parts viz., (a) Bottom part, (b) Middle part, and (c) Top part. (a) Bottom part provides the activities related to crop or information related to phenological stages of the crop and the months. SYMBOLS FOR RECORDING WEATHER PHENOMENA Sample daily weather report AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 227 (b) Middle part gives information regarding normal weather condition required for active crop growth. It is divided into different sections according to rainfall, rainy days, minimum and maximum temperature, pan evaporation and sunshine hours. (c) Top part gives information related to the weather abnormalities or to take precautionary measures. Top part is divided into different sections according to dry spell length, high wind, heavy rainfall and cloudy weather. Table 4.4. Weather normals for Agricultural Crops Sl. No. Crops Optimum temperature °C Day length Rainfall (mm) Altitude above Germination Growth stage MSL (m) 1 Rice <10°C 22-25 (flowering) 1500 <3000 20-21 (grain formation) 20-25 (ripening) 2 Maize 35-44°C 3 Sorghum 7-10 25-30 Short day 4 Pearl millet 28-32 400-750 5 Finger millet 500-1000 6 Kodo millet 400-500 7 Wheat 20-22 16-22 250-1800 <3500 8 Barley 12-15 (growth) Long day",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Growth stage MSL (m) 1 Rice <10°C 22-25 (flowering) 1500 <3000 20-21 (grain formation) 20-25 (ripening) 2 Maize 35-44°C 3 Sorghum 7-10 25-30 Short day 4 Pearl millet 28-32 400-750 5 Finger millet 500-1000 6 Kodo millet 400-500 7 Wheat 20-22 16-22 250-1800 <3500 8 Barley 12-15 (growth) Long day 400-500 30 (reproduction) 9 Oats 15-25 380-1140 10 Ground nut 27-30 24-27 500-1250 11 Sesame 25-27 Short day 500-650 <1250 12 Castor 20-26 Long day 500-600 <3000 13 Sunflower 20-25 500-700 <2500 14 Rape seed 18-25 Long day 300-400 and Mustard 15 Safflower 15-16 25-30 Day neutral 600-900 16 Soybean 15-32 30-33 600-650 1200-2000 17 Pigeon pea 20-30 18 Green gram 15 20-40 Short day 600-1000 19 Black gram 1500 20 Cow pea 12-15 21-35 Short day 600 21 Bengal gram 15-25 600-1000 22 Cotton 18 21-27 Day neutral 500 23 Jute 27-40 Short day 1500 24 Tobacco 28 25-35 500-1000 25 Sugar cane 24-30 Long day 2000-2500 26 Sugar beet 12-15 22-30 Long day 27 Potato 18-20 18-20 228 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 4.16 REMOTE SENSING (RS) Remote sensing is defined as the art and science of gathering information about objects or areas from a distance without having physical contact with objects/areas being investigated. Role of RS Agricultural resources are important renewable dynamic natural resources. In India, agriculture sector alone sustains the livelihood of around 67% of the population. Increasing agricultural productivity has been the main concern since scope for increasing area for cultivation is rather limited. This demands judicious and optimal management of both land and water resources. Hence, comprehensive and reliable information on land use/cover, forest area, soils, geological information, extent of wastelands, agricultural crops, water resources (surface and underground) and hazards/natural calamities like drought and floods is required. Season-wise information on crops, their acreage, vigour and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "judicious and optimal management of both land and water resources. Hence, comprehensive and reliable information on land use/cover, forest area, soils, geological information, extent of wastelands, agricultural crops, water resources (surface and underground) and hazards/natural calamities like drought and floods is required. Season-wise information on crops, their acreage, vigour and production enables the country to adopt suitable measures to meet shortages, if any, and implement proper support and procurement policies. Remote sensing systems, having capability of providing regular, synoptic, multi-temporal and multi-spectral coverage of the country, are playing an important role in providing such information. Many experiments have been carried out in developing techniques for extracting agriculture related information from ground borne, air borne and space borne data. A. Principles of Remote Sensing Every material on the earth absorbs and reflects the solar energy. In addition, they emit certain amount of internal energy. The absorbed, reflected and emitted energy is detected by remote sensing instruments or sensors, which are carried in aircraft or satellites. The detections are made by characteristic terms called “spectral signatures” and “images”. Remote sensing systems in common use, record radiation in the form of electromagnetic spectrum (sunlight), i.e., visible range (0.4–0.7 nm), near infrared (0.7–1000 nm) and microwaves (1nm–0.8 nm). Artificial sources of illumination such as radars are also used. B. Sensors Used in Remote Sensing Photography: Photographic systems are the most commonly used sensing systems. The film records the energy reaching it at the exposure time in the visible and near infrared ranges of the spectrum. The photographic technique is used to identify soil types, plants grown, disease incidence and drainage patterns. Line scan and related system: The system uses the visible and near infrared portion of the spectrum. In this system, a mirror is rotated parallel to the direction of the movement of the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "spectrum. The photographic technique is used to identify soil types, plants grown, disease incidence and drainage patterns. Line scan and related system: The system uses the visible and near infrared portion of the spectrum. In this system, a mirror is rotated parallel to the direction of the movement of the aircraft or satellite. The mirror reflects the radiation received on to a detector and the data is recorded. The multi spectral scanners have different channels for different colours of visible and IR portions. The IR sensors also record the thermal infrared radiation emitted by the earth proportional to the surface temperature. The infrared imagery is used to study the extent of vegetation, soil moisture, etc. Microwave system: The microwave radiation emitted from earth’s surface in small quantities is used by microwave sensors in a wavelength of about 1 nm–1000 nm. The sensors record the microwave radiation through complex antennae. These are used in weather satellites. The active microwave systems are known as radars. Radars are used to study soil characters, plant condition, soil moisture and runoff slopes. C. Remote Sensing Platforms Three platforms are generally used for remote sensing techniques. They are ground based, air based and satellite based. Infrared thermometer, spectral radiometer, pilot balloons and radars are some of the ground-based remote sensing tools while aircrafts are air based remote sensing tools. Since the ground AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 229 based and air based platforms are very costly and have limited use, space based satellite technology has become handy for wider application of remote sensing techniques. The digital image processing, using powerful computers, is the key tool for analyzing and interpretation of remotely sensed data. The advantages of satellite remote sensing are: • Synoptic view – Wide area can be covered by a single image/photo (One scene of Indian Remote Sensing",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "application of remote sensing techniques. The digital image processing, using powerful computers, is the key tool for analyzing and interpretation of remotely sensed data. The advantages of satellite remote sensing are: • Synoptic view – Wide area can be covered by a single image/photo (One scene of Indian Remote Sensing Satellite IRS series cover about 148 × 178 sq. km area). • Receptivity – We can get the data of any area repeatedly (IRS series cover the same area every 16-22 days). • Coverage – Inaccessible areas like mountains, swampy areas and thick forests are easily covered. Space based remote sensing is the process of obtaining information about the earth from the instruments mounted on the earth observation satellites (EOS). The satellites are subdivided into two classes and the types of satellite are as follows: (i) Polar orbiting satellites These satellites operate at an altitude between 550 and 1,600 km along an inclined circular plane over the poles. These satellites are used for remote sensing purposes. LANDSAT (USA), SPOT (FRANCE), and IRS (INDIA) are some of the remote sensing satellites. (ii) Geostationary satelliteThese satellites have orbits around the equator at an altitude of 36,000 km and move with the same speed as the earth, so as to view the same area on the earth continuously. They are used for telecommunication and weather forecasting purposes. INSAT series are launched from India for the above purposes. All these satellites have sensors on board operating in the visible and near infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. INSAT-3A was launched on 10th April, 2003. D. Application Remote sensing techniques are used in agricultural and allied fields for the following reasons: • For collection of basic data for monitoring crop growth • For estimating the cropped area • For forecasting the crop production • For",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the electromagnetic spectrum. INSAT-3A was launched on 10th April, 2003. D. Application Remote sensing techniques are used in agricultural and allied fields for the following reasons: • For collection of basic data for monitoring crop growth • For estimating the cropped area • For forecasting the crop production • For mapping of wastelands • For drought monitoring and its assessment • For flood mapping and damage assessment • For land use/cover mapping and area under forest coverage • For soil mapping • For assessing soil moisture condition, irrigation, drainage • For assessing outbreak of pest and disease • For ground water exploration. Areas of general application: (i) Agricultural land use mapping; (ii) Agricultural population distribution; (iii) Land use potential, and (iv) Soil and water resource surveys. Areas of specific application: (i) Crop identification; (ii) Crop acreage, vigour and density; (iii) Crop growth rates and maturity; (iv) Yield estimation and forecasting; (v) Soil problems like salinity etc.; (vi) Soil moisture, water quality and irrigation effectiveness; (vii) Drought prediction; (viii) Insects, diseases and nematodes; (ix) Frost damage; (x) Storm and flood warning; (xi) Fire 230 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY surveillance and control; (xii) Water availability and location of canals; (xiii) dates of planting and harvesting and (xiv) Areas of fertilizer application and effect of fertilizers. Application to range surveys • Identification of forage species and their yield • Delineation of forest types and condition of range • Carrying capacity of ranges • Soil fertility and soil erosion • Identification of poisonous species • Pest, disease and weed infestation • Wild life inventory • Fire surveillance. Application of livestock surveys • Population studies, distribution of animals • Animal behaviour, health of animals • Types of farm buildings. E. RS in India India, with the experience gained from its experimental remote sensing satellite missions",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "• Pest, disease and weed infestation • Wild life inventory • Fire surveillance. Application of livestock surveys • Population studies, distribution of animals • Animal behaviour, health of animals • Types of farm buildings. E. RS in India India, with the experience gained from its experimental remote sensing satellite missions BHASKARA-I (1979) and BHASKARA-II (1981), has now established satellite based operational remote sensing system in the country with the launch of Indian Remote Sensing Satellite IRS-IA in 1988, followed by IRS-IB (1992), IRS-IC (1995) and IRS-ID (1997). The Department of Space (DOS)/Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) as the nodal agency for establishing an operation remote sensing system in the country initiated efforts in the early 1970s for assessing the potentials of remotely sensed data through several means. In order to meet the user requirement of remote sensing data analysis and interpretation, ISRO/DOS has set up a system to launch remote sensing satellites once in three or four years to maintain the continuity in data collection. The remote sensing and some of its related institutes are depicted. Fig. 4.5 In 1920, the first air survey using aerial photography was conducted. In 1926, Aerial photography was used to assess flood situation. REMOTE SENSING RELATED INSTITUTES ISRO DOS National Remote sensing Agency (NRSA) Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC) Space Application Centre (SAC) State Remote Sensing Centres (SRSC) Other User Organizations: SAUs & ICAR AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 231 In seventies, ISRO used remote sensing for resource inventory and launched Rohini–I (1981) and Rohini–II (1983). F. Organizations using RS Techniques • National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad • Space Application Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad • National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSSLUP), Nagpur • Central Ground Water Board ( CGWB) • National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) • All India Soil and Land Use",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "F. Organizations using RS Techniques • National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad • Space Application Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad • National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSSLUP), Nagpur • Central Ground Water Board ( CGWB) • National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) • All India Soil and Land Use Survey (AISLS), New Delhi. 4.17 CROP WEATHER MODELING Variations in crop yields between years are associated with many factors. This is mainly due to weather, soil and management factors. There is a complex reaction of weather variables among themselves as well as with other factors. Therefore, many attempts were made to study the effect of weather variables on crop yields through simulation modeling. A. Model Mathematical representation of a system is called as a Model. The process of developing such representation is termed as modeling. In a general term, a model brings into mind the thoughts about the form and functional form of real objects like children’s toy, tailors dummies and make-ups of buildings and structure to be constructed later in the real forms. Models also construct the objects or situations not yet in existence in real form. A model can also be referred as a representation of relationship under consideration and may be defined as an act of mimicry. B. Crop Model It is a representation of a crop through mathematical equations explaining the crops interaction with both above ground and below ground environment. The increase in dry matter of the crop is referred to as growth. The rate of growth of a healthy crop depends on the rate at which radiation is intercepted by foliage and/or on the rate at which water and nutrients are captured by root systems and therefore, on the distribution of water and nutrients in the soil profile. The crop development is described in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of growth of a healthy crop depends on the rate at which radiation is intercepted by foliage and/or on the rate at which water and nutrients are captured by root systems and therefore, on the distribution of water and nutrients in the soil profile. The crop development is described in terms of various phenophases through which the crop completes its lifecycle. That is the progress of the crop from seeding or primordial initiation to maturity. Finally, the yield of crop stand is expressed as a product of three components viz., the period over which dry matter is accumulated (the length of the growing period), the mean rate at which dry matter is accumulated and the fraction of dry matter treated as yield when the crop is harvested. It is understood that the crop growth, development and yield depend upon the mean daily temperature, the length of the day and the amount of solar radiation (PAR) received by the crop. Max. daily temperature Min. daily temperature DTT Base temperature 2 + = − Where, DTT = Daily thermal time accumulation. The time needed for the crop to reach a development stage depends upon temperature measured above a base value (DTT) and for photo periodically sensitive phases such as flowering, the day length above a fixed base. In the absence of stress, the harvest index does not vary much from year to year for a specified variety. Therefore, crop weather modeling is based on the principles that govern the 232 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY development of crop and its growing period based on temperature and/or day length. They are used to quantify the rate of crop growth in terms of radiation interception, water use and nutrient supply which moderate harvest index, when the crops experience stress condition. The basic information required to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "OF AGRONOMY development of crop and its growing period based on temperature and/or day length. They are used to quantify the rate of crop growth in terms of radiation interception, water use and nutrient supply which moderate harvest index, when the crops experience stress condition. The basic information required to be generated for crop weather modeling includes. • Crop phenology in relation to the temperature and day length • Water use by the crop during different phenophases of crop growth • The relationship between radiation interception, crop water use and total dry matter production • Partitioning of dry matter into various plant components as influenced by water and nutrient availability, and • The effect of weather parameters on biotic interference to crop growth. C. Types of Models Simple statistical or Empirical statistical models These models rely mainly on the statistical techniques such as correlation or regression of the appropriate plant and environmental variables. The regression co-efficient is not necessarily related to the important processes, but estimate the yield alone. Therefore, many studies are required to produce the regression equations necessary for the wide spread application of this kind of models. A great advantage of these simple crop weather models is that they use readily available weather data. A model based on physiological and physical aspects These are mechanistic models where plant and soil processes are described with respect to physiological or physical or chemical aspects. For example, N may be taken up from the soil by the root system depending on soil N content and rate of availability to the roots. Thus, physical place of N in the visibility of root system and transformation is important. Phenological model These models predict the crop development from one growth stage to another. The prediction is generally based on the accumulated heat limits.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "on soil N content and rate of availability to the roots. Thus, physical place of N in the visibility of root system and transformation is important. Phenological model These models predict the crop development from one growth stage to another. The prediction is generally based on the accumulated heat limits. Mechanistic model These models explain not only the relationships between the weather parameters and the yield, but explain the relationship of influencing dependent variables. Deterministic models These models estimate the exact value of the yield or dependent variable and have defined co-efficient. Stochastic models A probability element is attached to each output. For each set of inputs different outputs are given along with probabilities. These models define the yield or state of dependent variable at a given rate. Dynamic models Time is included as a variable. Both dependent and independent variables are having values, which remain constant over a given period of time. Over a period of time, these variables are changing due to change in rate of increment. Static models Time is not included as a variable. The dependent and independent variables having values remain constant over a given period of time. Dynamic crop simulation models These models predict changes in crop status with time. As example, model, which predicts soil water content at a certain depth throughout the season, or the one, which predicts changing number of bolls on cotton with the season, are dynamic simulation models. Crop simulation model predicts the final yield and also provides quantitative information on intermediate steps like daily weight of different plant parts, which is verified through experimentation. The model acts like a real crop be gradually growing leaves, stems, roots etc., during a season. In other words, simulation is the process of using a model dynamically by following a system over",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "information on intermediate steps like daily weight of different plant parts, which is verified through experimentation. The model acts like a real crop be gradually growing leaves, stems, roots etc., during a season. In other words, simulation is the process of using a model dynamically by following a system over a time period. A dynamic crop simulation model is most successfully developed by a multi-disciplinary AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 233 team consisting of agro-meteorologists, agricultural engineers and plant physiologists. Computer models in general, are a mathematical representation of a real world system. One of the main goals of crop simulation models is to estimate agricultural production as a function of weather and soil conditions as well as crop management. These models use one or more sets of differential equations over time, normally from planting until harvest maturity or final harvest. Descriptive models A descriptive model defines the behaviour of a system in a simple manner. The model reflects little or none of the mechanisms that are the causes of phenomena but consists of one or more mathematical equations. An example of such an equation is the one derived from successively measured weights quickly the weight of the crop where no observation was made. Explanatory models This model consists of quantitative description of the mechanisms and process that cause the behaviour of the system. To create this model, a system is analyzed and its process and mechanisms are quantified separately. The model is built by integrating these descriptions for the entire system. It contains descriptions of distinct processes such as leaf area expansion, tiller production etc. Crop growth is a consequence of these processes. D. Uses of Crop Weather Modeling The models can be used as a research tool in planning alternative strategies for cropping, land and water management practices for a range",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "contains descriptions of distinct processes such as leaf area expansion, tiller production etc. Crop growth is a consequence of these processes. D. Uses of Crop Weather Modeling The models can be used as a research tool in planning alternative strategies for cropping, land and water management practices for a range of agro-climatic conditions. It will be helpful for economists to work out cost benefit ratio analysis. It enables plant breeder to develop crop varieties tailored to different agro-climatic conditions. It helps in making appropriate management decision for production and in identifying most potential area for research. E. Advantages of Crop Weather Modeling Modeling relates plant growth and development from seedling to maturity. The variability of growth and development is understood by basic concepts explained on mathematical basis. The response of plants to their macro and microenvironments are quantified. It provides an understanding of the development process in plants and also helps in knowing missing data to have complete picture of the processes. It will give new ideas leading to experimental approaches. Modeling enables the researchers to understand the effect of single factor and combination of several factors in one experiment. As such separate adhoc experiments can be avoided. Models will indicate priorities for applied research and will help managers in making suitable decisions. 4.18 CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY A. Climate Change Any permanent change in weather phenomena from the normal of a long period average is referred as climate change e.g., the global temperature has increased by 2.0–3.0°C and increase in CO2 from 180 ppm to 350 ppm. The earth’s atmosphere has never been free of change (in its composition, temperature, self-cleaning ability). Due to change in atmosphere, the world is warming, climatic zones are shifting; glaciers are melting and sea level is rising. B. Climate Variability The temporal changes",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in CO2 from 180 ppm to 350 ppm. The earth’s atmosphere has never been free of change (in its composition, temperature, self-cleaning ability). Due to change in atmosphere, the world is warming, climatic zones are shifting; glaciers are melting and sea level is rising. B. Climate Variability The temporal changes in weather phenomena, which is part of general circulation of atmosphere and occurs on a yearly basis on a global scale. Climate change and climate variability are the concern of human kind in recent decades all over the world. The recurrent drought and desertification seriously threaten the livelihood of over 1–2 billion 234 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY people who depend on the land for most of their needs. The weather related disasters viz. drought and floods, ice storms, dust storms, land slides, thunder clouds associated with lightening and forest fires are uncommon over one or other region of the world. The year 1998 was one of the recent weather related disaster year, which caused hurricane house in Central America and floods in China, India and Bangladesh. Canada and New England in the U.S. suffered heavily due to ice storm in January while Turkey, Argentina and Paraguay with floods in June 1998. Vast fires in Siberia burned over three million acres of forests. Human and crop losses are the worst phenomena in such weather disasters, affecting global economy to a considerable extent. In 2004, nobody can forget the Tsunami problem in Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka and other Asian countries. The 1997-98 El-Nino events, the strongest of the last century is estimated to have affected 110 million people and cost the global economy nearly US $ 100 billion. Statistics compiled from insurance companies for the period 1950-1999 show that major natural catastrophes that are mainly weather and climate related caused estimated economic",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "El-Nino events, the strongest of the last century is estimated to have affected 110 million people and cost the global economy nearly US $ 100 billion. Statistics compiled from insurance companies for the period 1950-1999 show that major natural catastrophes that are mainly weather and climate related caused estimated economic losses of US $ 960 billion. Most of the losses were recorded in recent decades. Increase in aerosols due to emission of green house gases including black carbon and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS), ozone depletion, UV-B filtered radiation, cold and heat waves, global cooling and warming and “human hand” in the form of deforestation and loss of wetlands in the process of imbalanced development for betterment of human kind may be caused factors for climate variability and climate change. C. Causes of Climatic Variability External causes • Solar output: An increase in solar output by 0.3% when compared to 1650–1700 A.D. data. • Orbital variation: 1. Earth orbit varies form almost a complete circle to marked ellipse (Eccentricity). 2. Wobble of earth’s axis (Precession of equinox) 3. Tilt of the earth’s axis of rotation relative to the plane of the orbit varies between 21.8º and 24.4º. Internal causes • Changes in the atmospheric composition-change in the green house gases especially CO2 • Land surface changes particularly the afforestation and deforestation • The internal dynamics of southern oscillation–changes in the sea surface temperature in western Tropical Pacific (El-Nino/La-Nina) coupled with Southern Oscillation Index, the Tahiti minus Darwin normalized pressure index leading to the ENSO phenomena • Anthropogenic causes of climate variation in green house gases and aerosols. D. Effects of Climate Change The increase in concentration of CO2 and other green house gases are expected to increase the temperature of the earth. Crop production is weather dependant and any change will have major",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "ENSO phenomena • Anthropogenic causes of climate variation in green house gases and aerosols. D. Effects of Climate Change The increase in concentration of CO2 and other green house gases are expected to increase the temperature of the earth. Crop production is weather dependant and any change will have major effects on crop production and productivity. Elevated CO2 and temperature affects the biological process like respiration, photosynthesis, plant growth, reproduction, water use etc. Depending on the latitude, the CO2 may either offer beneficial effect or may behave otherwise also. 1. Greenhouse effect The theory of “greenhouse effects” was conceived by J.B. Fourler over a century ago. It was supported by Tyndall’s studies on the absorption of heat by gases. The Swedish Svante-Arrhenius had calculated in 1896 that there would be a global warming by 3.2-4.0oC due to doubling of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. This level could be attained sometime in the next century, due to large industrial emissions and large population, which has changed the land and increased the use of fossil fuels. Some gases change the heating rates in AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 235 the atmosphere. Like one way filter, they allow the energy from sun to pass through them, but trap the heat that the earths surface sends back. This is similar to what occur in a green house, where the glass on the roof is transparent to solar radiation but absorbs long wave radiation. Due to this analogy the term “green house effect” has been given. Increased human activities increase carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) etc., which lead to increase in temperature and sea level rise. These gases, which are in traces, cause environmental perturbations (disturbances) such as green house effect (global warming), stratospheric ozone depletion, acid deposition, smog and corrosion. Environmental perturbations Responsible gases Green",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "activities increase carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) etc., which lead to increase in temperature and sea level rise. These gases, which are in traces, cause environmental perturbations (disturbances) such as green house effect (global warming), stratospheric ozone depletion, acid deposition, smog and corrosion. Environmental perturbations Responsible gases Green house effect CO2, CH4, Methane, N2, CFCS, Ozone Ozone depletion in the stratosphere Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS) Acid deposition SO2, NO, NO2, S, O3 Smog corrosion SO2 Impacts of Green House Effect (i) Global warming, and (ii) sea level rise The green house effect will disturb the climate by changing rainfall, wind, cloud, ocean currents and the extent of polar ice caps. The global impact of these changes could be very large. The first issue and the cause of some major problems in the future, the depletion of the ozone layer, threatens the inhabitants of Earth due to the advent of harmful ultraviolet radiation. The second issue, global warming and the plight of Antarctica, involves the melting of polar ice caps threatening our coastal regions in the future. The third issue, electric cars, may or may not be the solution to major environmental problems 50 years in the future. We hope that by exploring our website, you will be enlightened about these three issues concerning the future of our planet in the year 2050. The depletion of the Ozone layer The ozone is a thin layer of atmosphere that protects us from the sun. It wraps all the way around the Earth, about 10 to 30 miles straight up. From the beginning of time, the ozone has blocked the sun’s most dangerous ultraviolet rays from reaching us. It continues to do so even today. Each ozone molecule is made up of three small oxygen atoms that act like a safety net to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "about 10 to 30 miles straight up. From the beginning of time, the ozone has blocked the sun’s most dangerous ultraviolet rays from reaching us. It continues to do so even today. Each ozone molecule is made up of three small oxygen atoms that act like a safety net to catch most of the UV rays and keep them from getting down to the Earth’s surface. There’s been a problem in the last few decades though. The ozone layer is being depleted with the higher usage of products that emit chlorofluorocarbons, or CFC’s. Right now, only a small region of Antarctica is actually covered by ozone because such a large hole is forming over the area. The ozone layer is thinning even over more heavily populated areas like North America and Australia. What Depletes the Ozone Layer? The depletion of ozone is caused by the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozonedepleting substances (ODS). Some common ODS are refrigerants, insulating foams, and solvents. The following focuses mostly on CFCs, but is relevant to all ODS. Although CFCs are heavier than air, they are eventually carried into the stratosphere in a process that can take as long as 2 to 5 years. Measurements of CFCs in the stratosphere are made with the help of balloons, aircraft, and satellites. When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes them to break apart and release chlorine atoms which react with ozone, starting chemical cycles of ozone destruction that deplete the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break apart more than 100,000 ozone molecules. 236 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Other chemicals that damage the ozone layer include methyl bromide (a pesticide), halons (used in fire extinguishers), and methyl chloroform (a solvent used in industrial processes). As methyl bromide and halons are",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break apart more than 100,000 ozone molecules. 236 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Other chemicals that damage the ozone layer include methyl bromide (a pesticide), halons (used in fire extinguishers), and methyl chloroform (a solvent used in industrial processes). As methyl bromide and halons are broken apart, they release bromine atoms, which are 40 times more destructive to ozone molecules than chlorine atoms. CFCs and other ODS are heavier than air. In a still room, they would pool on the floor, but the atmosphere certainly not still. Numerous measurements have proven that these molecules are mixed nearly uniformly throughout all the trophosphere over the entire earth. In the same way that vinegar and oil normally separate when still, but mix when shaken, ozone depleting substances and air are thoroughly stirred together by winds in the troposphere. Global Warming: Problems for Antarctica This heating of the earth might cause many problems in the future if not stopped. The higher temperatures will melt the polar ice caps, and that means that the sea level will increase. The sea level has already risen around 4 to 10 inches in the past 100 years. A higher sea level might wash out beaches all over the world and inundate seaside cities and towns that are at or below sea level. 1. Preventing global warming There are things that we as people in society can do to prevent further global warming. We can try to emit the least possible amounts of greenhouse gases. We can do this by carpooling, using more efficient cars or electrical cars, not purchasing aerosol products and by getting our air conditioners serviced annually. Another simple way to help is to turn off electrical appliances when they are not being use. This will reduce the amount of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "greenhouse gases. We can do this by carpooling, using more efficient cars or electrical cars, not purchasing aerosol products and by getting our air conditioners serviced annually. Another simple way to help is to turn off electrical appliances when they are not being use. This will reduce the amount of electricity being consumed and allow power plants to reduce the amount of fossil fuels being burned. The burning of fossil fuels release enormous amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Plants, on the other hand, use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis so the more plants and trees we plant, the less carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. One acre of lawn removes one ton of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and other air pollutants in one year. The problem is that many rainforests are being razed to make way for cattle grazing and cows are one of the largest sources of methane. Other forests are being burned down (which by itself creates more carbon dioxide) to make room for the increasing population. We must control the population explosion as well to prevent more global warming. The more aware every individual is, the more will be contributed to stopping the increase of global warming. If we try to reduce the greenhouse gases being emitted, we can save Antarctica and prevent other disasters and changes of temperature that will affect the coastal regions and the rest of the environment. 2. EL Nino and La–Nina El-Nino is a Spanish word meaning “the boy child” (‘Child Christ’) because El-Nino occurs around Christmas time each year when the water of the Peruvian coast warm slightly. In every 3–6 years, the water becomes unusually warm. ‘El Niño’ is now used more widely to refer to this abnormal warming of the ocean and the resulting effects on weather. ‘El Niño’",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "because El-Nino occurs around Christmas time each year when the water of the Peruvian coast warm slightly. In every 3–6 years, the water becomes unusually warm. ‘El Niño’ is now used more widely to refer to this abnormal warming of the ocean and the resulting effects on weather. ‘El Niño’ is often coupled with ‘Southern Oscillation’ as the acronym ENSO. ‘La Niña’ is used popularly to signify the opposite of El Niño, occurring when the waters of the eastern Pacific are abnormally cold. La Niña episodes are associated with more rainfall over eastern Australia, and continuing drought in Peru. Peruvian meteorologists have objected to term La Niña-the Girl Child-because Christ is not known to have had a sister, and the term anti-ENSO is sometimes preferred. The El-Nino event is due to decrease in atmospheric pressure over the South East Pacific Ocean. At the same time, the atmospheric pressure over Indonesia and North Australia increases. Once the El-Nino event is over, the atmospheric pressure over the above regions swings back. This sea-saw pattern of atmospheric pressure is called Southern Oscillation. Since El-Nino and Southern Oscillation AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 237 are linked they often termed as ENSO. It is most important one, which represents a tendency for high atmospheric pressure over the Pacific Ocean, represents to be associated with low pressure over the Indian Ocean and vice-versa. A measure of the monsoon low pressure is the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) represented by the difference in sea level pressure over Tahiti, an Island in South central pacific and Darwin in North Australia, which represents the northern part of the Indian Ocean. The positive SOI denotes high pressure over the central pacific and low over Indonesia, North Australia and Northern Indian Ocean. Above average rainfall is expected over India and Indonesia and North Australia if",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "South central pacific and Darwin in North Australia, which represents the northern part of the Indian Ocean. The positive SOI denotes high pressure over the central pacific and low over Indonesia, North Australia and Northern Indian Ocean. Above average rainfall is expected over India and Indonesia and North Australia if the SOI is positive. Drought or deficit rainfall is expected in the above countries if the SOI is negative, indicating high atmospheric pressure over Indonesia and low in the central pacific. Sir Gilbert Walker 1920, discovered there is a see-saw pattern in the atmospheric pressure between the Pacific ocean and Indian ocean. Where the pressure was high over the Southern Pacific, it was low over the Indian ocean, but once in every few years, the pressure pattern was reversed, that is, the pressures over the Indian ocean because high, while lower pressures prevailed over Southern pacific. Sir Gilbert called it the Southern Oscillation, Dr. Bjerknes 1958–59 who found that the Southern Oscillation was closely linked to the sudden appearance of warm waters off coastal park in South America-due to raise in sea surface temperature. This abnormal warming of sea surface in off the coast of few and equator is called El nino, which is highly related, with Southern Oscillations and these two phenomenon are collectively called ENSO. It has highly variable effect on global and Indian weather. EL-Nino (warm phase) event has a negative correlation with Indian SWM rainfall, while positive association with NEM rainfall in extreme peninsular India. Towards the end of 1972 as series of catastrophic events in different parts of the world drew attention to their possibility of global teleconnection in weather, the monsoon off 1972 was poor-severe drought in Northern Africa. Around the same period of this are abnormal current of warm waters off the coast",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the end of 1972 as series of catastrophic events in different parts of the world drew attention to their possibility of global teleconnection in weather, the monsoon off 1972 was poor-severe drought in Northern Africa. Around the same period of this are abnormal current of warm waters off the coast of few in the Eastern pacific separately developed the fishering industry of the South America. EL-Nino is associated with poor or indifferent monsoon. Out of 24 warm phase EL-Nino years, only 6 years recorded more widely the average rainfall. La-Nina refers the cold event, sudden reduction in the sea surface temperature in the Pacific ocean causes the change in Indian winter monsoon, Selvaraju et al., (1998) showed that when La-nina event occurs (cold event), the winter monsoon rainfall is going to be below normal. In the 11 out of 16 years, where La-nina occurs (cold phase) the NEM rainfall of Coimbatore was found to be below normal. 238 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Chapter 5 Soils In general, soil is defined as the more or less loose and crumby part of the outer earth crust. It is a natural dynamic body of mineral and organic constituents, differentiated into horizons, which differs among themselves as well as from the underlying parent material in morphology, physical make-up, chemical composition and biological characteristics. It is made up of small particles of different sizes. Soil is a three-dimensional body, which supports plant establishment and growth and it is a natural and dynamic medium. For a farmer, soil refers to the cultivated top layer (surface soil) only, that is, up to 15–18 cm of the plough depth. Soils widely vary in their characteristics and properties. Understanding the properties of soils is important (1) for optimum use they can be put to and (2) for best management",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "farmer, soil refers to the cultivated top layer (surface soil) only, that is, up to 15–18 cm of the plough depth. Soils widely vary in their characteristics and properties. Understanding the properties of soils is important (1) for optimum use they can be put to and (2) for best management requirements for their efficient and productive use. Functions of soil • It provides place and anchorage for plant growth and development. • It serves as a medium for air and water circulation. • It acts as a reservoir for water and nutrients. • It provides space for beneficial microorganisms. Pedology The origin of the soil, its classification and its description are involved in pedology. Pedologist considers soil as a natural body and does not focus primarily on the soil’s immediate practical utilization. Pedologist studies, examines and classifies soil as they occur in their natural environment. Edaphology It is the study of soils from the standpoint of higher plants. It considers various properties of soil as they relate to plant production. The edaphologist is practical, having the production of food and fibre as an ultimate goal. Simultaneously, the edaphologist must be a scientist to determine the reasons for variations in the soil productivity, and to find means of conserving and improving soil productivity. 5.1 SOIL PHASES Soil is a complex system, made of solid, liquid and gaseous materials. Soil is a three phase or polyphasic system comprising of (a) solid phase, (b) liquid phase, and (c) gaseous phase in some proportions. Normally the proportion is 50:25:25, but this may vary from soil to soil. In some occasions, liquid or gaseous phase may be absent. For e.g., in water logged soil, air is not present; similarly in desert dry sandy soils, water is not present. SOILS 239 Components of Soil Soil consists",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Normally the proportion is 50:25:25, but this may vary from soil to soil. In some occasions, liquid or gaseous phase may be absent. For e.g., in water logged soil, air is not present; similarly in desert dry sandy soils, water is not present. SOILS 239 Components of Soil Soil consists of four major components. They are: (i) Mineral matter, (ii) Organic matter, (iii) water, and (iv) air. Physically, soil consists of stones, large pebbles, dead plant twigs, roots, leaves and other parts of the plant, fine sand, silt, clay and humus derived from the decomposition of organic matter. In the organic matter portion of the soil, about half of the organic matter comprised of the dead remains of the soil life in all stages of decomposition and the remaining half of the organic matter in the soil is alive. The living part of the organic matter consists of plant roots, bacteria, earthworms, algae, fungi, nematodes actinomycetes and many other living organisms. Fig. 5.1 Soil contains about 50% solid space and 50% pore space. Mineral matter and organic matter occupy the total solid space of the soil by about 45% and 5% respectively. The total pore space of the soil is occupied and shared by air and water on roughly equal basis. The proportion of air and water will vary depending upon the weather and environmental factors. (a) Soil mineral matter (SMM) Size and composition of mineral matter in soils are variable due to nature of parent rock from which it has been derived. The rock fragments are disintegrated and broken portion of the massive rocks, from which regolith through weathering, the soil has been formed. These materials are usually very coarse and the minerals are extremely variable in size. The primary minerals viz., quartz, biotite, muscovite (dominates coarse fractions of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "has been derived. The rock fragments are disintegrated and broken portion of the massive rocks, from which regolith through weathering, the soil has been formed. These materials are usually very coarse and the minerals are extremely variable in size. The primary minerals viz., quartz, biotite, muscovite (dominates coarse fractions of the soil) and the secondary minerals viz., silicate clays and hydrous oxides clays of iron and aluminium (as very fine fraction) are present. (b) Soil organic matter (SOM) Soil organic matter exists as partly decayed and partially resynthesized plant and animal residues. These are continuously being broken down as a result of microbial activity in soil. Due to constant change, it must be replenished to maintain soil productivity. The organic matter content in a soil is very small and varies from only about 3–5% by weight in topsoil. In addition to partly decayed plant and animal residues, soil organic matter contains living and dead microbial cells, microbiologically synthesized compounds and derivatives. Importance • Organic matter is a storehouse of nutrients in soil. It is responsible to get the most desirable soil structure. • It promotes greater proportion of large pore sizes, improves water holding capacity and aeration status of soil. 45% Minerals Solid phase (50%) Pore space (50%) Organic matter Air 25% Water 25% 5% 240 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • It is a main source of N, 5-6% of P, and 80% of S. It also supplies different trace elements like boron, molybdenum etc. • It acts as a chelate, due to chelate formation between organic matter and various metals; the availability of these metallic elements will be increased. • It contributes to cation exchange capacity in soils. • It reduces soil erosion; shades the soil and keeps the soil cooler. (c) Soil water Soil water plays a very",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "chelate, due to chelate formation between organic matter and various metals; the availability of these metallic elements will be increased. • It contributes to cation exchange capacity in soils. • It reduces soil erosion; shades the soil and keeps the soil cooler. (c) Soil water Soil water plays a very significant role in soil-plant growth relationship. Water is held within the soil pores with varying degree of forces depending upon the amount of water present. With the increasing amount of water in soil, the forces of retention of water by the soil will be low and vice-versa. The movement and retention of water in the soil is primarily influenced by the characteristics of the soil viz., texture, nature of inorganic and organic colloids, type and amount of exchangeable cations, size and total amount of pore spaces etc. Water held by soil with high force of attraction is not available to the plants. Soil water along with dissolved salts makes up the soil solution. These soil solution acts as an important medium for supplying different nutrient elements through exchange phenomena between soil solid surface and soil solution and the plant roots. (d) Soil air Pore spaces in soil consist of that portion of the soil volume not occupied by soil solids, either mineral or organic. Under field condition, pore spaces are occupied by air and water; the more the water the less the room for air and vice-versa. The relative amounts of air and water in the pore space fluctuate continuously. During rainy season, water replaces air from the soil pore spaces, but as soon as water leaves by downward movement, surface evaporation, and transpiration etc., air gradually replaces the water, as it is lost form the pore spaces. Soil air contains various gases like CO2, very small amounts of O2",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "During rainy season, water replaces air from the soil pore spaces, but as soon as water leaves by downward movement, surface evaporation, and transpiration etc., air gradually replaces the water, as it is lost form the pore spaces. Soil air contains various gases like CO2, very small amounts of O2 and N etc. Generally, soil air contains much more CO2 and small amount of O2 than that of atmospheric air due to microbial respiration when large amounts of CO2 releases into the air and O2 is taken up by soil microorganisms. Well-aggregated soil having large pore spaces offers less mechanical impedance to root developments and shoot emergence and do not form crusts easily. Good aeration occurs in well-drained soils, which have sufficient proportion of their volume occupied by pores. Cultural practices affect soil aeration and plant growth through modification of different soil physical properties like bulk density, porosity, aggregation etc. Soil air also influences beneficial microorganisms in soil. 5.1.1 Solid Phase The solid phase is made of minerals, organic matter and various chemical compounds. (a) Mineral The mineral particles are the chief components of most soils. They consist of remains of parent rock and particles developed in situ by weathering or deposited in bulk by wind or water force. The proportion and sizes of these particles determines the soil texture. (b) Organic matter The organic fraction consists of both plant and animal matter in two phases either alive or in different stages of decomposition as discussed above. It varies from 1-5% by weight in different soils. Normally in tropics, red soil contains less than 1% and heavy soil up to 2%. (c) Chemical compounds The chemical components of soils are made of silica and silicates. It varies from profile to profile; generally the larger particles contain more silica content and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1-5% by weight in different soils. Normally in tropics, red soil contains less than 1% and heavy soil up to 2%. (c) Chemical compounds The chemical components of soils are made of silica and silicates. It varies from profile to profile; generally the larger particles contain more silica content and finer particles contain more of potassium, calcium and phosphorus. The dominant minerals are quartz in sand, quartz and feldspars in fine sand and silt, vermiculite, montmorillonite, kaolinite and amorphous colloids in clay. Oxides, carbonates and sulphates are the other common minerals present in the soil. SOILS 241 5.1.2 Liquid Phase The liquid phase of soil consists of water, dissolved minerals and soluble organic matter. This is known as soil water, which is stored in the space between soil particles known as pore space. This pore space is the most important physical structure and plays a vital role in irrigation studies. Plants absorb water from the pore spaces and hence this water must be replenished by rain or irrigation water for the successful growth of crops. Hence, the soil serves as a reservoir for moisture. 5.1.3 Gaseous Phase The spaces in between soil particles are not only filled with water, but some spaces are occupied with air. The soil air differs from atmospheric air in its composition. Soil air contains less O2 content and more CO2 than atmospheric air, because of the respiration of soil microorganisms and plant roots in which oxygen is consumed and carbon dioxide is released. So, the pore spaces enclosed by soil matrix are shared by soil-air and soil-water. As the amount of one increases, that of the other decreases. Table 5.1. Composition of Soil and Atmospheric Air (%) Air O2 CO2 N2 Soil air 20.05 0.25 79.20 Atmospheric air 20.97 0.03 78.03 5.2 PROPERTIES OF SOIL",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "pore spaces enclosed by soil matrix are shared by soil-air and soil-water. As the amount of one increases, that of the other decreases. Table 5.1. Composition of Soil and Atmospheric Air (%) Air O2 CO2 N2 Soil air 20.05 0.25 79.20 Atmospheric air 20.97 0.03 78.03 5.2 PROPERTIES OF SOIL 5.2.1 Physical Properties of Soil 5.2.1.1 Soil Texture It refers to the nature of distribution of particles of various sizes present in the soil. It is the proportion of coarse, medium and fine particles, which are termed as sand, silt and clay respectively. Hence, it can be defined as the proportion of sand, silt and clay particles in soil. The mineral soil particles are classified according to their sizes. I. Textural classification based on size of soil particles (USDA) Particle diameter Classified as < 0.002 mm Clay 0.002 0.05 mm silt 0.05 0.10 mm very fine sand 0.10 0.25 mm fine sand 0.25 0.50 mm medium sand 0.50 1.00 mm coarse sand 1.00 2.00 mm very coarse and >2.00 mm gravel 242 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY This is simply classified into four groups as follows < 0.002 mm – Clay 0.002 to 0.05 mm – silt 0.05 to 2 mm – sand > 2 mm – gravel II. International Society of Soil Science-ISSS (Atterberg, 1922) > 2 mm gravel 2-0.2 mm coarse sand 0.2-0.02 mm fine sand 0.02-0.002 mm silt <0.002 mm clay III. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Gravel > 2 mm Very coarse sand 2-1 mm Coarse sand 1-0.5 mm Medium sand 0.5-0.25 mm Fine sand 0.25-0.1 mm Very fine sand 0.1-0.05 mm Silt 0.05.0-0.002 mm Clay < 0.002 mm Out of these systems, the textural classification based on size of soil particles is commonly followed in India. Based on the proportion of sand, silt and clay",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sand 1-0.5 mm Medium sand 0.5-0.25 mm Fine sand 0.25-0.1 mm Very fine sand 0.1-0.05 mm Silt 0.05.0-0.002 mm Clay < 0.002 mm Out of these systems, the textural classification based on size of soil particles is commonly followed in India. Based on the proportion of sand, silt and clay particles, classification was made and standardized into twelve classes as shown in a triangular diagram. This triangle is known as USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) soil textural classification triangle. The twelve classes are as follows. 1. Sand, 2. Silt, 3. Clay, 4. Loam Sandy, 5. Clay silty, 6. Clay, 7. Clay-loam 8. Loamy sand, 9. Sandy loam,10. Silty loam,11. Sandy clay loam, and 12. Silty clay loam. For example, in a soil sample if the silt percentage is 20, sand percentage is 50 and clay percentage is 30, then these proportions are intersecting at sandy clay loam. USDA Soil Textural Triangle A. Soil texture (a) Sand It contains < 50% clay and silt, and at least 70% of sand. Coarse, highly porous, large volume of non-capillary pore space, easy drainage, free air circulation, rapid decomposition of organic matter due to free air circulation, low water holding capacity, low nutrient content, low CEC, frequent irrigation requirement and easiness for workability of implements are the characteristic features of sandy soil. SOILS 243 Fig. 5.2 (b) Clay It contains >45% of clay and 45% of sand or silt. Minute fine particles, large internal surface area, more active both chemically and biologically, sticky when wet and hard when dry, high water holding capacity (WHC), relatively high nutrient holding capacity, slow movement of water and air, hardier for workability of implements and slow release of water to plants with poor drainage are its important features. (c) Silt It contains 80% silt and less than",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "when wet and hard when dry, high water holding capacity (WHC), relatively high nutrient holding capacity, slow movement of water and air, hardier for workability of implements and slow release of water to plants with poor drainage are its important features. (c) Silt It contains 80% silt and less than 12% of clay. Medium in all the above said characteristics discussed in sand and clay. (d) Loam It contains equal amount of sand, clay and silt. These soils are considered better for plant growth. 100 90 60 50 Silt per cent Clay per cent Clay Silty clay Silt 10 20 30 40 80 70 60 50 40 30 70 80 90 100 Clay loam 10 20 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Sand per cent Silty clay loam Silt loam Loamy sand Sand Sandy clay loam Sandy clay 244 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Table 5.1. General terms to describe Soil Texture in relation to Soil Textural Class Names Common names Texture Basic soil textural class Sandy soils Coarse Sands Loamy sands Sandy loam Loam Silt loam Loamy soils Medium Silt Sandy clay loam Silty clay loam Clay loam Sandy clay Clayey soils Fine Silty clay Clay B. Importance in irrigation management It plays a vital role in permeability of water and water movement, gaseous exchange capacity, root growth, water holding capacity of soil and water supplying capacity to the plants. All the above functions are determined by the predominant soil particles viz., sand, silt and clay. (i) Stones and gravel If stones and gravels are present < 10 percent, it reduces evaporation, facilitates good drainage, and results in easiness for the workability of tillage and intercultural implements. If stones and gravels are present > 10 percent, Soil will be too open and loose; It permits rapid",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(i) Stones and gravel If stones and gravels are present < 10 percent, it reduces evaporation, facilitates good drainage, and results in easiness for the workability of tillage and intercultural implements. If stones and gravels are present > 10 percent, Soil will be too open and loose; It permits rapid drainage; It reduces soil water retention capacity and Indirectly it leaches the soil nutrients. (ii) Sand If sand particles are about 40 percent, the soil will be open and friable which favours optimum retention capacity of soil water, optimum gaseous exchange and optimum drainage. If sand particles are > 40%, it causes rapid evaporation, excess drainage and percolation and poor water holding capacity. (iii) Silt If silt content is 30–40 percent, it provides a good loamy condition, which favours optimum water holding capacity and optimum drainage. If silt content is > 40%, it causes poor drainage. (iv) Clay The clay content should be < 50% for irrigated crops. If clay content is more than this, it will lead to poor drainage and stagnation of water, poor gaseous exchange and high water holding capacity. 5.2.1.2 Soil Structure It is defined as the shape and arrangement of soil particles with respect to each other in a soil mass or block. The soil aggregates are not solids but possess a porous or spongy character. Most soils are having a mixture of single grain structure or aggregate structure. The number of primary particles (sand, silt and clay) is combined together by the binding effect of organic and inorganic soil colloids. The binding or cementing materials are: Iron or Aluminium Hydroxide and decomposing organic matter. The names of soil structures based on their shapes are: 1. Platy, 2. Prismatic, 3. Columnar, 4. Blocky, 5. Cloddy, 6. Granular, 7. Crumb, 8. Single grain, and 9. Massive.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of organic and inorganic soil colloids. The binding or cementing materials are: Iron or Aluminium Hydroxide and decomposing organic matter. The names of soil structures based on their shapes are: 1. Platy, 2. Prismatic, 3. Columnar, 4. Blocky, 5. Cloddy, 6. Granular, 7. Crumb, 8. Single grain, and 9. Massive. SOILS 245 Fig. 5.3 Different types of soil structures Soil structure is described under three categories viz., 1. Type, 2. Classes, and 3. Grades. I. Type: Depending upon the presence or absence of interconnection between soil pores the aggregates are divided into two groups. Each group is further subdivided into two sub groups depending upon the regularity of the size and shapes of the pores. Each sub group is named as under. (i) Pores interconnected (a) Spongy, if pores are irregular in shape and size (b) Cellular, if pores are regular in shape and size (ii) Pores not interconnected (a) Vesicular, if pores and cavities are small, round and smooth inside. (b) Tubular, if pores and cavities are regular in size and connected to form tubes. 2. The classification is based on the shape, size and other physical features of soil aggregates. The aggregates are first classified into four groups according to main shape of aggregates or fragments. (i) Plate like (ii) Prism like (iii) Block like (iv) Spheroidal. (i) Plate like The horizontal dimensions are much more developed than the vertical axis resulting a flattened compressed or lens like appearance. When the units are thick, they are called platy. When the units are thin, they are called laminar. The platy is often inherited from the parent Single grain Blocky Platy Rapid Rapid Moderate Moderate Slow Slow Granular Prismatic Massive 246 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY materials. In addition, frost, fluctuating water table, compaction and this layering of different textured alluvium",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "When the units are thin, they are called laminar. The platy is often inherited from the parent Single grain Blocky Platy Rapid Rapid Moderate Moderate Slow Slow Granular Prismatic Massive 246 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY materials. In addition, frost, fluctuating water table, compaction and this layering of different textured alluvium or lacustrine can form platy type of soil structure. (ii) Prism like The vertical axis is more developed than others, with flattened sides, giving and pillar like shape. It has also two sub types. Columnar–when the top of such ped is rounded and prismatic–when the top of the prisms are plane, level and clean cut. The prisms like structure are commonly found in sub soil horizons in arid and semi arid regions. (iii) Block like All three dimensions are about the same size and the peds are cube like with flat rounded faces. Block like structure has also two sub types: angular blocky–when the faces are flat and edges of the cubes are sharp angular and sub–angular blocky–when the faces and edges are mainly rounded. The block like soil structures are usually found in the sub-surface horizons and their other characteristics have much to do with soil drainage aeration and root penetration. (iv) Spheroidal All axes are developed equally with the same length, curved and irregular faces. All rounded or sphere like peds may be placed in this type of soil structure. This type has two structural sub types (a) granular simply the aggregates of this type are usually termed as granular and it is less porous, and (b) crumb, when the granules are especially porous. II. Classes of soil structure: Each primary structural type of soil is differentiated into five size classes based on the size of the individual peds. They are as follows: • Very fine or very",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "as granular and it is less porous, and (b) crumb, when the granules are especially porous. II. Classes of soil structure: Each primary structural type of soil is differentiated into five size classes based on the size of the individual peds. They are as follows: • Very fine or very thin • Fine or thin • Medium • Coarse or thick • Very coarse or very thick. III. Grades of Soil Structure: Grades of soil structure indicates the durability of the individual peds. Structure less There are no visible peds or aggregates. If the appearance is coherent as in compact clay the term massive is used and if non-coherent as in loose sand it is called single grain. Week Poorly formed, non-durable, indistinct peds that break into a mixture of a few entire and many broken peds. Moderate Moderately well developed peds, which are fairly durable and distinct. Strong Very well formed peds, which are fairly durable and distinct. A. Difference between structure and texture Structure It is the arrangement of soil particles with each other and it can be changed or improved by operations like ploughing, puddling, addition of organic matter, etc. Texture It is the proportion of soil particles (sand, silt and clay). It cannot be changed by physical manipulation like ploughing or puddling: but can be improved through addition of organic matter like FYM, tank silt etc. B. Role of soil structure in irrigation management It plays a vital role in soil-air-water system. In surface soil, structure is associated with tilth of soil. The permeability of water and air into the soil and penetration of roots are influenced primarily by soil structure. It is the determining factor for the soil porosity, bulk density, etc. Hence it directly plays a role on water retention, permeability, etc. SOILS 247",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is associated with tilth of soil. The permeability of water and air into the soil and penetration of roots are influenced primarily by soil structure. It is the determining factor for the soil porosity, bulk density, etc. Hence it directly plays a role on water retention, permeability, etc. SOILS 247 There are two distinct phases in the formation of soil structure viz., 1. Development of interparticle bonds (aggregates), and 2. Separation of structural units from each other (between aggregates). The structural composition of aggregates will vary in their characteristics. Their resistance against raindrop and their condition under submergence. This stability depends upon clay content, nature of flocculation, organic and inorganic linkage, microbes, chemical constituents such as iron and aluminum oxides. Under excess water condition Small pores are not important since there is no need for retaining water for longer time. But pores are needed for better air circulation. Under dry farming condition Both the aeration and water storage are needed to facilitate infiltration and retention. In general, the good soil structural aggregate should be • Stable to withstand rainfall • Stable to withstand submerged condition • Sand sized or gravel sized • Rounded edged • Having Friable condition but not too loose • Having High infiltration capacity • Having Medium percolation capacity • Having Good aeration. C. Soil structure management The management practices like proper land use, suitable tillage practice at optimum moisture level, addition of organic matter, crop rotation, optimum fertilization, mulching, drainage, controlled irrigation, soil conservation, protection against compaction and use of soil conditioner may be tried for better soil structure management. D. Soil physical properties with reference to volume–weight relationship This relationship can be simply explained through a schematic diagrams as indicated below: Fig. 5.4 Schematic diagrams Va – Volume of air Vw – Volume of water",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "compaction and use of soil conditioner may be tried for better soil structure management. D. Soil physical properties with reference to volume–weight relationship This relationship can be simply explained through a schematic diagrams as indicated below: Fig. 5.4 Schematic diagrams Va – Volume of air Vw – Volume of water Vs – Volume of solids Vp – Volume of pore space alone (Va + Vw) Volume Weight Va Air Wa Vw Water Ww Vs Solids Ws 248 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Vt – Total volume = Va + Vw + Vs (or) Vp + Vs Wa – Weight of air (negligible) Ww – Weight of water Ws – Weight of solids Wt – Total Weight = Wa + Ww + Ws 5.2.1.3 Density of Solids (DS) or Particle Density It is defined as the ratio of weight of solid to its volume alone. Mass of solid Ws DS Volume of solid VS Pw = = × Where, Pw = density of water at 4oC. Since density of water = 1, this can be written as Ws DS and expressed in g/cc. Vs = 5.2.1.4 Dry Bulk Density It is defined as the ratio of mass of dried particles to the total volume of soil including pore spaces. Ws Ws Ws Vt VA Vw Vs Vp Vs = = = + + + expressed in g/cc 5.2.1.5 Real Specific Gravity It can be defined as the ratio of the weight of any volume of soil particles to the weight of an equal volume of water and hence known as real specific gravity or true specific gravity which is more than or equal to particle density. Wt. of unit volume of soil solid Wt. of an equal volume of water 5.2.1.6 Apparent Specific Gravity (ASG) It is the ratio of weight of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "equal volume of water and hence known as real specific gravity or true specific gravity which is more than or equal to particle density. Wt. of unit volume of soil solid Wt. of an equal volume of water 5.2.1.6 Apparent Specific Gravity (ASG) It is the ratio of weight of unit volume of dry soil including pore spaces to weight of an equal volume of water. Wt. of unit volume of solid pores ASG Wt. of an equal volume of water + = This has a unit (g/u) and is equal to dry bulk density. The bulk density or apparent specific gravity plays a vital role in irrigation. The bulk density is influenced by structure, texture and compaction of soil. Bulk density influences the water holding capacity, infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity, water movement etc. 5.2.1.7 Wet Bulk Density It is the ratio of unit mass of moist soil per unit volume of moist soil. This is also called as total bulk density. SOILS 249 Wt Ws Ww Wa Vt Vs Vw Va + + = + + 5.2.1.8 Soil Wetness The soil wetness refers to the relative water content in the soil. It can be described as mass wetness and volume wetness. (a) Mass wetness It is the ratio of mass wetness to the mass of the soil. Mass of water in soil MW Mass of soil = This is commonly called as soil moisture content or gravimetric moisture content and generally expressed in percentage. It ranges from 25% to 65% depending upon the bulk density. (b) Volume wetness Relative water content expressed in volume basis of water and soil Volume of water in soil Vw Total soil volume Vt = = Vw Vw Vs Va = + + Degree of saturation Represents to the volume of water present in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "65% depending upon the bulk density. (b) Volume wetness Relative water content expressed in volume basis of water and soil Volume of water in soil Vw Total soil volume Vt = = Vw Vw Vs Va = + + Degree of saturation Represents to the volume of water present in the pore spaces. Vw Vw Degree of saturation Va Vw Vp = = + This is also known as Relative saturation. Volume of water filled in pore space Relative saturation volume Total pore volume = 5.2.1.9 Pore Space Soil is a porous material consisting of particles of different sizes touching each other but leaving spaces in between. These spaces, which are not occupied by the soil particles, are known as pore space. A. Role and its importance It constitutes about 40 to 60% of soil in volume basis. It provides space for water and air circulation and it plays a vital role in irrigation management. There are two types of pore spaces viz., micro pore and macro pore. There is no sharp line of demarcation between the macro and micro pores. The macro pores allow the ready movement of air and permeability of water freely. In contrast, the micro pore air movement is greatly difficult and water movement is restricted to slow capillary movement. The volume of pore spaces varies according to the texture, structure and organic matter content. Soils having big particles contain less pore space than those having small particles. Thus the volume of pore space in an enclosed container having big particles is less than that of small particles. The size of individual pores is highly important for the movement of water in soil than the percentage of total pore space in soil. For example, percentage of pore space is high in clay soil, which contains more",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "enclosed container having big particles is less than that of small particles. The size of individual pores is highly important for the movement of water in soil than the percentage of total pore space in soil. For example, percentage of pore space is high in clay soil, which contains more micropores where water movement is highly restricted and thereby water-holding capacity is more. In sandy soil, the 250 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY percentage of pore space is relatively less than clay soil, but it contains large number of macropores. Hence, the water movement is free. Addition of organic matter increases the volume of pore space by lowering the bulk density. Similarly mechanical manipulation or stirring of soil, decomposition of vegetation, root penetration, etc., increase the pore spaces. If macropores are more in top layer, (0–30 cm depth) it is desirable for easy movement of air and water and rapid infiltration of water. Between 30 and 150 cm depth, equal amount of macro and micropores are essential to allow sufficient moisture, and permit moderate percolation to lower layer, which acts as storage reservoir. Below 150cm depth mostly micropores are desirable so as to help to: • retain more moisture. • To replenish the moisture in the upper layer whenever it is depleted. • To restrict deep percolation loss. B. Void ratio or relative porosity It is the ratio of volume of pores to the volume of solids alone. Here the above ratio between the volume of pores to volume of solids alone excluding of pore space is taken for consideration. Porosity is the comparison between the volume of pores to the total volume of soil i.e., including pore space is given consideration. Hence this index has certain advantage and accuracy over porosity. Capillary and non-capillary pores The soil pores are also",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "alone excluding of pore space is taken for consideration. Porosity is the comparison between the volume of pores to the total volume of soil i.e., including pore space is given consideration. Hence this index has certain advantage and accuracy over porosity. Capillary and non-capillary pores The soil pores are also classified as capillary and noncapillary pores based on their role in the movement of water or conductance of water. (i) Capillary pores They retain the water after gravitational drainage of water is ceased or stopped. This water available to plants is held with the forces of cohesion, adhesion and surface tension. Here the capillary porosity is the percentage that is occupied by capillary water. (ii) Non capillary pore space This is also termed as aeration pores. Non-capillary pores are large pore spaces and do not hold water with tension. Since the water movement is not restricted, its movement is relatively high and thereby the pore space cannot hold water except condition of saturation. Generally, this pore space is occupied with soil air. Hence, non-capillary porosity is the percentage of pore space filled with air. The large non-capillary porosity of sandy soil results in better drainage and aeration with low water holding capacity than the clay soil whereas the clay soils have larger proportion of small capillary pores which restricts the movement of water and hence water holding capacity is high but drainage is difficult. An ideal soil has pore space of equal amount of capillary and non-capillary pores and solids and pore spaces in equal proportion. 5.2.2 Soil/irrigability Classification Soil is the reservoir for water in retaining and supplying the soil moisture to plant growth. The periodical recharging of water in soil pore spaces can be made either by irrigation or rainfall. The recharged water has to be supplied to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and pore spaces in equal proportion. 5.2.2 Soil/irrigability Classification Soil is the reservoir for water in retaining and supplying the soil moisture to plant growth. The periodical recharging of water in soil pore spaces can be made either by irrigation or rainfall. The recharged water has to be supplied to plant system. This retention capacity and supply capacity varies from soil to soil based on its physical and chemical properties. Based on this, soil classification is made for its suitability for irrigation. This classification is also known as irrigability classification. Generally, soil can be broadly grouped as shallow soil and deep soil. (i) Shallow soil It means the actual depth of soil profile to hold moisture is very less and depth of soil medium available for plant to extend its root system for tapping water and nutrients is less. (ii) Deep soil The soil profile depth is more to hold moisture and the depth of soil medium available for plant roots to extend its branches to tap water and nutrients is also more. The recent SOILS 251 classification of soil for irrigability classes in arid and semi arid regions are as follows. This classification can be adopted to our country. Class A – No soil limitation Class B – Moderate soil limitation Class C – Severe soil limitation Class D – Very severe soil limitation Class E – Not suitable for irrigation A. Grouping of soil based on their suitability for irrigation Based on the suitability, the soils are grouped into 5 classes as I to V for the purpose of irrigation, survey and mapping as follows. Group I It is indicated in green colour in soil mapping. The soil has the characteristic features of: • Good available moisture holding capacity • Low water table • Low salts either soluble",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "into 5 classes as I to V for the purpose of irrigation, survey and mapping as follows. Group I It is indicated in green colour in soil mapping. The soil has the characteristic features of: • Good available moisture holding capacity • Low water table • Low salts either soluble or exchangeable • No soil crust and pan formation • Negligible sodium amount. • Negligible sub soil salinity. • Good Internal permeability. Group II Group II is marked in yellow colour. The soil has the following characteristics of: • Moderately suitable for irrigation • Relatively higher, salt and exchangeable sodium content is more than group I • Deep soil with loamy sand texture; some permeable clay may be there • Subsoil is also permeable in nature. Group III It is indicated in red colour. • Limited irrigation is practiced with limited cropping intensity • Available soil moisture holding capacity is medium • Medium water table • Moderate salt content and exchangeable sodium percentage • Moderate internal permeability • No soil crust or pan formation within the root zone • Sub soil water may be slightly to moderately saline. Group IV It is indicated in blue colour. This soil group is usually not suitable for irrigation. Reclamation work such as addition of organic manures, sand, silt, and application of gypsum may bring the soil under irrigation. It has the characteristic features of: • shallow depth due to rocky substrata • hard impervious pan formation • high soil pH • more soluble salt content (0.5%) • low moisture supplying capacity • low internal permeability. Group V It is indicated in dark green colour. 252 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • The soil is shallow in depth • Total soluble salt and exchangeable sodium percentage is high (more than 25%) • Stony impervious layers",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "salt content (0.5%) • low moisture supplying capacity • low internal permeability. Group V It is indicated in dark green colour. 252 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • The soil is shallow in depth • Total soluble salt and exchangeable sodium percentage is high (more than 25%) • Stony impervious layers • Severe crust and pan formation are common • It cannot be reclaimed by normal reclamation work The soil grouping may be again grouped based on the following limitation • Erosion/drainage which is indicated by the symbol (O) • Drainage, wetness or overflow indicated by (W) • Root zone limitation indicted by the symbol (S) • Climate limitation indicated by the symbol (C) Based on the dominance, the limitation will be ranked serially. B. Irrigability classes and rating It is very difficult to classify the lands to determine their suitability for irrigation. The bureau of reclamation, USA has developed a system to classify the suitability of various lands for irrigation agriculture. The system uses six classes. Class I • Land topographic and drainage characteristic are highly favourable for irrigation. • Wide range of crops can be cultivated. • Climate also highly suitable for wide range of crops. • Higher Yield may be obtained with low cost. Class II • Capacity to produce crops may be high as that for class I land. • Production, drainage and land development costs are higher. Class III • The capacity of the soil for crop production is moderately lower than class II. • More extreme deficiencies or limitations with soil respect to drainage, topographic undulations even though it is suitable for irrigation. Class IV • Some lands in this may be costly to irrigate but due to intensive cropping the returns are adequate. • The reclamation cost will be high in some lands. •",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "extreme deficiencies or limitations with soil respect to drainage, topographic undulations even though it is suitable for irrigation. Class IV • Some lands in this may be costly to irrigate but due to intensive cropping the returns are adequate. • The reclamation cost will be high in some lands. • Yields of crops are very low with low cost of production. Class V • Normally unsuitable for irrigation: temporarily irrigation may be made under specific condition. Class VI • Lands will not pay for irrigation. A wide range of physical and economic constraints are there. • Reclamation work is very difficult. • In general the first four groups are suitable for irrigation. Class V is temporarily suitable and SOILS 253 Class VI is considered as unsuitable for irrigation. Rating In rating some characteristic features will be given important consideration. Based on their dominancy, soil will be rated. The rated characteristics for each land class are: • depth • organic matter content • fertility • ability to absorb moisture • store and release of moisture for crops • drainage characteristics • salt content • response to fertilizers • erodability • workability for implements 5.2.3 Soil Water or Soil Moisture The soil moisture is the most important component or ingredient of the soil, which plays a vital role in crop production or plant growth. Water is retained as thin film around the soil particles and in the capillary pores by the forces of adhesion, cohesion and surface tension. A. Adhesion It is the force of attraction between molecules of different substance. That is the force of attraction between solid surface (soil mass) to liquid surface (soil water). A thin film of water is held in soil particles due to this adhesive force. B. Cohesion Cohesion is the force of attraction between molecules",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the force of attraction between molecules of different substance. That is the force of attraction between solid surface (soil mass) to liquid surface (soil water). A thin film of water is held in soil particles due to this adhesive force. B. Cohesion Cohesion is the force of attraction between molecules of same substances i.e., between liquid molecules or water molecules. Hence, a thick film of water is formed due to this cohesive force. C. Surface Tension It is the total force acting in a solid-liquid-air system. The liquid surface has some properties of stretched elastic nature. This is due to the unequal forces of molecular attraction at the surface layer. This elasticity is known as surface tension. In other words, surface tension is defined as the “Force pulling tangentially along the surface of a liquid”. This force tends to make the surface area as small as possible and has the dimension of force per unit length or energy per unit area expressed in Newton/meter (N/ m) or dynes/cm. As a result of this surface tension, the air-water interspace become curved. D. Soil moisture tension Soil moisture tension is the tenacity with which water is held in the soil. To remove this water, some pressure (force per unit area) must be given or exerted. This pressure or tenacity is measured in terms of potential energy of water and is expressed in atmosphere or bars. 1 atmosphere = 1036 cm water column or 76.39 cm of mercury 1 Bar = 1023 cm water column To convert the soil moisture tension to equivalent atmosphere, the above conversion ratio can be used. 254 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY But here, there is no real vertical pressure of water column. Hence, it can be stated as suction or negative pressure. Hence, soil moisture tension of one",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "water column To convert the soil moisture tension to equivalent atmosphere, the above conversion ratio can be used. 254 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY But here, there is no real vertical pressure of water column. Hence, it can be stated as suction or negative pressure. Hence, soil moisture tension of one atmosphere is approximately equal to suction or a negative pressure of 1000 cm of water column. At different soil moisture constants the soil moisture tension will vary. For example, the loam or clay type of soil retains moisture at a tension of 1/3 atmosphere at field capacity level, whereas the sandy soil has a tension of as low as 1/10 atmosphere. The available soil moisture is not only the function of soil physical characteristics like texture and structure but also the soil depth. E. Kinds of Soil Water The soil water can be classified based on their nature of attachment to the soil particles. • Hygroscopic water • Capillary water • Gravitational water Fig. 5.5 Kinds of soil water 1. Hygroscopic water This is the first stage of soil water content where water is held tightly by the surface of the soil particles by the forces of adhesion or adsorption force. Hence, it is also known as water of adhesion. At this condition the tension with which water is held in soil surface is from 10,000 atmosphere to 31 atmosphere. So the plant cannot exert this much of energy to extract the water from the soil particles. Hence, it is the unavailable form of water. This condition mostly occurs at permanent wilting point stage or dry condition. 2. Capillary water This is the next stage after attaining hygroscopic water, with reference to soil-water relationship. In this stage there is relatively better thick film of water around the soil particles and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the unavailable form of water. This condition mostly occurs at permanent wilting point stage or dry condition. 2. Capillary water This is the next stage after attaining hygroscopic water, with reference to soil-water relationship. In this stage there is relatively better thick film of water around the soil particles and between the soil particles. Hence, the cohesive force is responsible for the attraction of water molecules with each other. At this condition some of the pore spaces are not filled with water. Only the micro pores are filled up with water and little chances for macro pores to hold water. This condition will appear at field capacity level where the water is held at a tension of one-third atmosphere to 15 atmosphere. The water is available to the plants because plants Zone of progressive thickening of water film Tension of thinnest film 10,000 atoms Soil-liquid interface Soil-liquid Water of adhesion (Hygroscopic water) Tension of thickest film 1/3 atoms Water of cohesion (Capillary water) Hygroscopic coeff. about 31 atoms. Some water almost subject to gravity flow thru macropores (Gravitational water) SOILS 255 can exert the same amount of energy to extract this water. Hence, it is known as available water. When water comes in contact with the surface of soil particles, it will be attracted by the surface of the soil by adhesive force and gravitational force. At the same time there is repulsion for this attraction due to cohesive force along the liquid surface. This elasticity is known as surface tension. Due to the surface tension, the liquid tries to move tangentially along the water surface. This movement is called capillary water movement and the available water to plant is decided by the capillary water, which will be the function of pore space, which again depends upon the soil texture,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "tension. Due to the surface tension, the liquid tries to move tangentially along the water surface. This movement is called capillary water movement and the available water to plant is decided by the capillary water, which will be the function of pore space, which again depends upon the soil texture, structure and organic matter. Texture Finer the texture greater is the capillary capacity. Structure Granular structure produces higher capillary capacity Organic matter More organic matter increases the capillary capacity 3. Gravitational water It is the third stage of soil water where water that moves freely as response to gravity percolates downwards and drains out to deeper layer of soil profile. It is also known as free water. At this condition, the macro and micro pores are completely filled up with water. There is no space for air movement in soil pore spaces. This state will appear when the soil is under saturation. 5.3 SOIL CLASSIFICATION Any classification helps to understand the subject in question systematically and effectively with reference to all characteristics. Soil taxonomy groups the soil in orderly and logical and hierarchical manner involving successive sub divisions. Modern soil taxonomy considers soil and natural body and has two major features. • The classification system is based on all soil properties which can easily be verified by other scientists, and • The unique nomenclature has given a connotation or expression of major characteristics of the soil. Purpose • Besides attempting the genetic relationship, it helps to communicate all scientists with a specific language, which is a shorthand impression on the nature of the soil profile. • It helps the soil scientists to remember the soil properties very easily. • It easily establishes the relationship between soil individuals. • It predicts the soil behaviour with reference to the purpose for which",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a specific language, which is a shorthand impression on the nature of the soil profile. • It helps the soil scientists to remember the soil properties very easily. • It easily establishes the relationship between soil individuals. • It predicts the soil behaviour with reference to the purpose for which put into. • It identifies the soils best uses. • It also helps to estimate the soil productivity and helps to identify soils for research and agro technology transfer. In order to establish the interrelationship between soil characteristics, the soils require to be classified. The major soil groups of India are as follows: 5.4 MAJOR SOILS OF INDIA 5.4.1 Alluvial Soils (Entisols, Inceptisols and Alfisols) The alluvial soils are the most important soils from the agricultural point of view. 256 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Characteristics These soils are derived from the deposition laid by the numerous tributaries of the Indus, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra systems. The products of weathering of rocks in the Himalayas are brought down and materials transported by water, ice, gravity and wind. The alluvial soils include the deltaic alluvium, calcareous alluvial soils, coastal alluvium and coastal sands. This is the largest and most important soil group of India. It contributed the largest share to India’s agricultural wealth. Broadly this soil is divided into two types: Newer alluvium: Sandy, generally light coloured and less kankary. Older alluvium: More clayey in composition, generally dark and full of Kankar. Formation of hard pans (impervious layer) is often observed in Indo-gangetic alluvial soils of Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In Assam, old alluvium at hills is more acidic than the new alluvial soils along the riverbanks, which are often neutral or alkaline. In general alluvial soils are low in N except in Brahmaputra valley where they are moderate. Alluvial",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in Indo-gangetic alluvial soils of Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In Assam, old alluvium at hills is more acidic than the new alluvial soils along the riverbanks, which are often neutral or alkaline. In general alluvial soils are low in N except in Brahmaputra valley where they are moderate. Alluvial soils are found in Indo-gangetic plains of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar and Brahmaputra valley of Assam. Alluvial soils are fertile and suitable for most of the agricultural crops like lowland rice, pulses, cotton, banana etc. 5.4.2 Black Soils (Entisols, Inceptisols, Vertisols) Characteristics Black Soils are dark grey in colour, which is due to the presence of clay–humus complex. Black soils are: • mainly formed from Deccan basalt trap parent material • occur in monsoon climate, mostly of semi-arid and sub humid type • alternate dry and wet periods and calcification favours black soil formation • Cracks are formed on the surface soil (from 0.5-l cm up to 6 cm wide) during summer • mixing of soil along the entire solum • highly clayey (35-60% clay); Calcareous with high CEC (30-50 C mol/kg of soil) • high swelling and shrinkage, plasticity and stickiness • impeded drainage and low permeability • high content of exchangeable calcium and management • poor in organic matter, N and available P2O5. Suitable crops Cotton, Sugarcane, Groundnut, Millets, Maize, Pulses, Safflower 5.4.3 Red Soils (Alfisols, Inceptisols, Ultisols) Characteristics The red colour of soils is due to the coating of ferric oxides on soil particles. Red soils are: • formed from granites, gneiss and other metamorphic rocks either in-situ or from decomposed rock materials • with Argillic subsurface horizon • Occur in semi-arid tropics • Light textured, friable, absence of lime and CaCO3 and low contents of soluble salts • Kaolinite with an admixture of illite clay",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "are: • formed from granites, gneiss and other metamorphic rocks either in-situ or from decomposed rock materials • with Argillic subsurface horizon • Occur in semi-arid tropics • Light textured, friable, absence of lime and CaCO3 and low contents of soluble salts • Kaolinite with an admixture of illite clay minerals • Well drained with moderate permeability • Excess gravelliness, surface crusting, susceptibility to erosion. Suitable crops : Maize, Wheat, Millets, Groundnut and Pigeon pea. SOILS 257 5.4.4 Laterites and Lateritic Soils (Ultisols, Oxisols, Alfisols) Characteristics • Eluviations of silica and enrichment with oxides of Fe and Al. (Laterization process) • Occurrence of plinthite or a pallid zone above water table. High level laterite: not useful for agriculture (thin and gravelly). Low level laterite: clays and loams in coastal regions. • Laterization is intensified with increase in rainfall but with low intensity • Low Silica/Sesquioxide ratio ( SiO2 : R2O3) • Rich in nutrients and contain 10-20% organic matter ( Low pH) • Low in Ca and Mg but well drained and porous • Kaolinite and traces of illite clays ( CEC 2-7 C.mol/kg) Suitable crops: At lower elevations: Rice At higher elevations: Tea, Coffee, Cinchona, and Rubber 5.4.5 Desert Soils (Aridisols, Entisols) Characteristics • Sand dunes and undulating sandy plains • Presence or accumulation of alkaline earth carbonates • Clay content is very low ( <8%) • Presence of sodic clay (dispersion and less permeable) with pH 8.0-8.8. • Presence of phosphate and nitrate makes desert soils fertile and productive under water supply • Dominantly illitic with smaller amount of kaolinite, chlorite, vermiculite 5.4.6 Tarai Soils (Mollisols) Tarai soils are derived from the materials washed down by the erosion of mountains (alluvial origin). Characteristics • Hard clay, coarse sand and gravel (parent material) • Relatively high moisture content for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "productive under water supply • Dominantly illitic with smaller amount of kaolinite, chlorite, vermiculite 5.4.6 Tarai Soils (Mollisols) Tarai soils are derived from the materials washed down by the erosion of mountains (alluvial origin). Characteristics • Hard clay, coarse sand and gravel (parent material) • Relatively high moisture content for the greater part of the year results in luxuriant vegetation • Organic matter content is high • Sandy loam to silty loam in texture Suitable cops: Tall grasses. 5.4.7 Saline and Sodic Soils (Aridisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols, Entisols, Vertisols) A. Saline soils These soils contain excess amounts of neutral soluble salts dominated by chlorides and sulphates of Na, Ca and Mg, which affect plant growth. White encrustation of salts occurs on the surface of the saline soils hence called as “White alkali”. These soils are characterized by EC: 4dSm-1 at 25°C; ESP : < 15; pH: < 8.5. These soils need leaching and drainage before cropping. The crops grown in these soils are grouped as: (i) High salt tolerant: Sesbania, rice, sugarcane, oats, berseem, lucerne, indian clover and barley. (ii) Medium salt tolerant: Castor, cotton, sorghum, cumbu, maize, mustard and wheat. (iii) Low salt tolerant: Pulses, peas, sunnhemp, gram, linseed, sesamum. 258 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY B. Sodic/Alkali Soils These soils contain high content of CO3 and HCO3 of Na. Hence, they are with high exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). Generally, they are non-saline and with dark encrustation hence called as “black alkali”. These soils are rich in NaHCO3 and characterized by pH: > 8.5; EC: < 4d Sm-1 ; ESP : > 15. Use gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) as amendment for reclamation of sodic/alkali soils. Iron pyrites, (FeS2) bulky organic manures (especially green manures) and crop residues which produce weak organic acids are also used for reclamation. Crops having tolerance are grown",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "pH: > 8.5; EC: < 4d Sm-1 ; ESP : > 15. Use gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) as amendment for reclamation of sodic/alkali soils. Iron pyrites, (FeS2) bulky organic manures (especially green manures) and crop residues which produce weak organic acids are also used for reclamation. Crops having tolerance are grown in the soils. (i) Tolerant crops: Karnal/rhodes/para/bermuda grass, rice, sugar beet. (ii) Semi – Tolerant: Wheat, barley, oats, berseem, and sugarcane. (iii) Sensitive: Cowpea, gram, groundnut, lentil, peas, and maize. 5.4.8 Acid Soils Characteristics • Low pH with high amounts of exchangeable H+ and A13+. • Occur in regions with high rainfall. • Laterization, Podzolization in areas with sub temperate to temperate climate. • Significant amount of partly decomposed organic matter. • Kaolinitic and Illitic. • Low CEC and high base saturation. • Liming and judicious use of fertilizers are the management measures suggested. Suitable crops: Acedophytes (like potato). 5.5 MAJOR SOILS OF SOUTHERN INDIA – TAMIL NADU In Tamil Nadu, the major portion is covered by red sandy soil and red loamy soils. Red sandy soils have developed from acidic parent material like granite, gneiss, quartzite, sandstone etc. The red colour of soils is due to the coating of ferric oxides on soil particles. Sand particles are coated with red coloured hematite or yellow coloured limonite, which is responsible for the various shades of red and yellow of these soils, which usually contain ferruginous gravel containing iron, aluminium and silica. These sandy, loamy sand and sandy loam soils are heavily leached and therefore, poor in basic elements and plant nutrients. Their pH ranges from 6.6-8.0. Calcium is the important exchangeable cation in these soils. They are neutral to slightly alkaline in reaction. 5.5.1 Black Soils or Vertisol About 18 lakh ha occurs in all districts except Kanyakumari and Nilgiris.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "heavily leached and therefore, poor in basic elements and plant nutrients. Their pH ranges from 6.6-8.0. Calcium is the important exchangeable cation in these soils. They are neutral to slightly alkaline in reaction. 5.5.1 Black Soils or Vertisol About 18 lakh ha occurs in all districts except Kanyakumari and Nilgiris. The soils are deep black cotton soil and old alluvial soils. Soils are very deep, clayey calcareous and poorly drained, develope cracks during summer, contains high amount of Ca, Fe and Mg. CaCO3 is present in the form of Kankar nodules. Poor in organic matter, N and P, but fairly well supplied with K and lime. The soil reaction is mild alkaline (pH: 7.8-8.2) CEC is high (30-70 c. mol (p+) kg-1). Black soils of Tamil Nadu, which are either shallow (3-4 ft, deep) or deep, are of very heavy texture, have a high moisture retention capacity, and are rich in lime and alkaline in reaction. They contain low amounts of nitrogen but sufficient amounts of phosphoric acid and potash. Mixed red and black soils occur in Coimbatore, Madurai, Ramanathapuram and Tirunelveli districts. Black soils are dominated by beidellite, while red soils are dominated by kaolinite. So the cation exchange capacity of red soils is maximum at an intermediate depth. SOILS 259 5.5.2 Laterite Soils Laterite soils occur in the Chengalpet and Thanjavur districts. These were formed from different parent materials in humid climate. Paddy is grown in lower elevation and tea, cinchona, rubber and coffee are grown at the higher elevation. They are rich in humus and plant nutrients and strongly acidic in reaction. Soil acidity increases with elevation. 5.5.3 Alluvial Soils or Entisols It covers an area of more than 18 lakh ha in all districts except Madurai, Dindugal. The soils are river alluvium, Coastal alluvium and eroded",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "higher elevation. They are rich in humus and plant nutrients and strongly acidic in reaction. Soil acidity increases with elevation. 5.5.3 Alluvial Soils or Entisols It covers an area of more than 18 lakh ha in all districts except Madurai, Dindugal. The soils are river alluvium, Coastal alluvium and eroded soils. River alluvium is cultivated with wetland crops like rice, banana etc. In coastal alluvium casuarinas can be cultivated and made use of development of pastures. The texture of soil is sandy or fine alternate with sandy clays. The soils are poor in N, P, K and organic matter rich in clay and lime, CEC–25 cm (p+) kg, Si/sesquioxide is 2.5, Dominant clay minerals (2:1 type). There are two kinds of alluvium–Deltaic alluvium occurs in the Thanjavur district and a belt of coastal alluvium covers Tamil Nadu from Chennai to Kanyakumari. Alluvial soils are most extensive and most fertile. They are very deep, the solum sometimes extending over several feet. These soils consist of alternate layers of silt, clay and sand of varying thickness. The texture of the surface soil is usually loamy. The Cauvery alluvium is poor in humus, nitrogen and phosphorus, but rich in potash and lime. These soils possess a low cation exchange capacity and are alkaline in reaction. Soils developed from Cuddalore sandstone are loamy in texture and, yellow and light yellow and even grayish white in colour and deficient in humus, nitrogen, phosphorus and lime. The profile characteristics of coastal alluvial soils formed from recent marine deposits are similar to Cauvery alluvium in their alternate layers of clay, silt and sand but exhibit influence of sea indicated by the presence of shells and bleached sand. They are poor in nitrogen and available phosphorus but rich in potash and lime. Some of them also contain salts.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "marine deposits are similar to Cauvery alluvium in their alternate layers of clay, silt and sand but exhibit influence of sea indicated by the presence of shells and bleached sand. They are poor in nitrogen and available phosphorus but rich in potash and lime. Some of them also contain salts. 5.5.4 Peaty Soils Peaty soils, which occur mainly on the south-east coast of Tamil Nadu, are usually coloured blue due to the presence of ferrous iron. They contain varying amounts of organic matter. 5.5.5 Problem Soils Problem soils such as acidic, saline and sodic soils are also found in Tamil Nadu. Soils of Kanyakumari, The Nilgris districts are mostly acidic. Area of alkalinity is scattered in many districts. Coastal salinity occurs in districts like Thiruvallur, Cuddalore, Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur, Ramanathapuram, Pudukkottai and Tirunelveli with poor drainage and high evaporation. Inland salinity is also noted in few pockets of Tamil Nadu. 5.5.6 Alfisols It is distributed in an area of more than 31 lakh ha in all districts except hills. Soils are well drained, very deep, reddish in colour and well developed surface horizon, pH; 6.5-8, low in total soluble salts, CEC 10-15 c.mol (p+) kg-1, low in N and P, medium to high in K, cultivated with pulses under dry condition; Groundnut & cotton under irrigated conditions. 5.5.7 Inceptisols This soils are distributed in all districts of Tamil Nadu and covers an area of more than 22 lakh ha. The soils included are moderately deep red, brown and black soils in moderately well developed sub soil. 260 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY The soils are cultivated with sorghum, groundnut, cumbu, pulses and tapioca. Under irrigated condition, groundnut, maize, onion, tapioca etc. Poor in lime N, P, rich in Kaolinite clay minerals, CEC 10-15 c.mol(p+)kg−1. 5.5.8 Ultisols Area 36, 499 ha occur in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "moderately well developed sub soil. 260 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY The soils are cultivated with sorghum, groundnut, cumbu, pulses and tapioca. Under irrigated condition, groundnut, maize, onion, tapioca etc. Poor in lime N, P, rich in Kaolinite clay minerals, CEC 10-15 c.mol(p+)kg−1. 5.5.8 Ultisols Area 36, 499 ha occur in Salem, Dharmapuri, Nilgiri districts crops cocoa, coffer and cold vegetables very deep and highly weathered soil, dark coloured surface with high organic matter (2-5%) acidic in soil reaction, CEC: 3-15 c.mol (p+) kg–1, poor in bases, phosphorus is not available, i.e., fixed by Fe and Al. 5.6 PROBLEM SOILS 5.6.1 Saline Soils Saline (Solonchak, Russian term) soil are defined as a soil having a conductivity of the saturation extract (EC) greater than 4 dSm-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) less than 15. The pH is usually less than 8.5. Formerly these soils were called white alkali soil because of surface curst of white salts. The saline soils are originating due to accumulations of soluble salts. The most soluble salts in saline soils are composed of the cations sodium, calcium, magnesium and the anions chloride, sulphate and bicarbonate. Usually smaller quantities of potassium, ammonium, nitrate and carbonate also occur. A. Sources of Soluble Salts There are various sources from which soluble salts are accumulated in the soil. (a) Primary minerals During the process of chemical weathering (hydrolysis, hydration, solution, carbonation and oxidation) various constituents like Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+ are gradually released and made soluble. (b) Arid and semi arid climate Salt affected soil are mostly formed in arid and semi arid regions where low rainfall and high evaporation prevails. (c) Ground water If ground water contains large amounts of water soluble salts, irrigation of such water leads to accumulation of salts in soil. (d) Ocean or seawater Seawater enters",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "climate Salt affected soil are mostly formed in arid and semi arid regions where low rainfall and high evaporation prevails. (c) Ground water If ground water contains large amounts of water soluble salts, irrigation of such water leads to accumulation of salts in soil. (d) Ocean or seawater Seawater enters into the land by inundation and deposited on the soil surface as salts. In arid regions near the sea, appreciable amount of salts are blown by wind year after year and get deposited on the surface soil. The salinity of Rajasthan are mostly developed through this source. (e) Excessive use of basic fertilizers Use of basic fertilizers like sodium nitrate, basic slag etc. may develop soil alkalinity. B. Genesis/Origin The process by which the saline soil formed is called ‘salinization’. Saline soils occur mostly in arid or semi arid regions, which have very low rainfall and high evaporation. The low rainfall in these regions is not sufficient to leach out the soluble products of weathering and hence the salts accumulate in the soil. During rainy season the salts dissolve in rainwater and move down to lower layers. However, due to limited rainfall, the downward movements are restricted to a short distance only. In dry weather, the salts move up with the water and are brought up to the surface where they are deposited as the water evaporates. With alternate downward and upward movements of rainwater, the salts get concentrated in the surface layer and form a ‘white’ efflorescence’. SOILS 261 Restricted drainage is another factor that usually contributes to the soil salinization and may involve the presence of a high ground water table. C. Characteristics • When the soil contains excess of sodium salts while in clay complex still contains preponderance of exchangeable calcium. • The salts usually present in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Restricted drainage is another factor that usually contributes to the soil salinization and may involve the presence of a high ground water table. C. Characteristics • When the soil contains excess of sodium salts while in clay complex still contains preponderance of exchangeable calcium. • The salts usually present in saline soils are the chlorides, sulphates, bicarbonates and sometimes nitrates of sodium. • Soluble carbonate are usually absent. • Among the anions, sulphates and chlorides are present in greater proportion than nitrates and bicarbonates. • Sodium forms less than 50% of the total cations present in soil solution. The presence of chlorides and sulphates of sodium gives a white colour on the surface and such soil is known as “White alkali”. When nitrates are in excess, they give a brown colour to the soil and this soil is known as “brown alkali”. • The pH of soil is <8.5, ESP <15 and EC while be >4 dSm-1. • Wilting coefficient of saline soil is very high. • Amount of available soil moisture is low. • Excessive salts in the soil solution increases the osmotic pressure of soil solution in comparison to cell sap. This effect makes it more difficult for plant roots to extract water and nutrients. • High concentration of soluble salts produces toxic effect directly to plants such as root injury, inhibition of seed germination. D. Criteria for characterization of saline soils Different criteria are employed for characterizing soil salinity. (a) Soluble salt concentration in soil solution In saline soil the soluble salt concentration in soil solution is very high and as a result osmotic pressure of the solution is also very high. As a result of which the plant growth is affected due to wilting and nutrient deficiency. Salt content more than 0.1% is injurious to plant",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "saline soil the soluble salt concentration in soil solution is very high and as a result osmotic pressure of the solution is also very high. As a result of which the plant growth is affected due to wilting and nutrient deficiency. Salt content more than 0.1% is injurious to plant growth. (b) Osmotic pressure (OP) Osmotic pressure of the soil solution is closely related to the rate of water uptake and the growth of plants in saline soils. The relation between OP and electrical conductivity (EC) for salt mixtures found in saline soils is given below. OP = 0.36 × EC dSm-1 (c) EC of the soil saturation extract Measurement of EC of the soil saturation extract is also essential for the assessment of saline soil for the plant growth. EC (dSm-1) <2 – Salinity effects mostly negligible 2-4 – Yields of very sensitive crops may be restricted 4-8 – Yields of many crops restricted 8-16 – Only tolerant crops yield satisfactorily >16 – Only a few tolerant crops yield satisfactorily (d) Concentration of water -soluble boron The determination of water soluble boron concentration is also an another criteria for characterization of saline soils. The critical limits of boron concentration for the plant growth is given below. 262 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Boron concentration (ppm) <0.7 – Crops can grow (safe) 0.7-1.5 – Marginal >1.5 – Unsafe (e) Soil texture A sandy soil with 0.1% salt would be enough to injure the growth of common crops, while a clayey soil with the same amount of salt may be just a normal soil in which the yields of even sensitive crops would not be affected. The US Salinity Laboratory has developed the concept of saturation percentage which depends on texture of soil and that is used for characterizing saline soil. E.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "with the same amount of salt may be just a normal soil in which the yields of even sensitive crops would not be affected. The US Salinity Laboratory has developed the concept of saturation percentage which depends on texture of soil and that is used for characterizing saline soil. E. Reclamation In saline soils, reclamation consists mainly in removing the excess salts. This can be done either. • By scraping the salt from the surface (or) • Washing them down into lower layer beyond the root zone preferably completely out of the solum (or) • By growing salt tolerant crops (or) by a combination of two (or) more of these methods. Scraping helps to remove salts that have formed an encrustation on the surface, but it is never very helpful in complete reclamation. Substantial quantities of soluble salts are still present in the soil body and hinder plant growth. The growing of salt tolerant plants with a view to remove salts is also not a practical proposition. Although these plants remove fairly substantial quantities of salts from the soil, comparatively larger quantities are still left behind. Salt formation is a continuous process, hence the reclamation is never complete. (a) Leaching requirement (LR) It may be defined as the fraction of the irrigation water that must be leached through the root zone to control the soil salinity at any specified level. LR can be calculated as per the following formula dw iw iw dw D 100 Ec 100 LR or D EC × × = where LR – Leaching requirement in percentage Ddw – Depth of drainage water in inches Diw – Depth of irrigation water in inches ECiw – EC of irrigation water (dSm-1) ECdw – EC of drainage water (dSm-1) If the soil is not free draining, artificial drains",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "EC × × = where LR – Leaching requirement in percentage Ddw – Depth of drainage water in inches Diw – Depth of irrigation water in inches ECiw – EC of irrigation water (dSm-1) ECdw – EC of drainage water (dSm-1) If the soil is not free draining, artificial drains are opened (or) tile drains laid underground to help in washing out the salts. (b) Growing of salt tolerant crops High salt tolerant crops – rice, sugarcane, sesbania, oats Medium salt tolerant crops – castor, cotton, sorghum, cumbu Low salt tolerant crops – pulses, pea, sunnhemp, sesamum SOILS 263 5.6.2 Alkali Soils (Sodic/Solonetz) Alkali (or) sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the saturation extract less than 4 dSm-1 and an ESP of > 15. The pH is usually between 8.5-10.0. Formerly these soils were called “black alkali soils”. A. Genesis/origin It is evident that soil colloids adsorb and retain cations on their surfaces. Cation adsorption occurs as a consequence of electrical charges at the surface of the soil colloids. While adsorbed cations are combined chemically with the soil colloids, they may be replaced by other cations that occur in soil solution. The reaction whereby a cation in solution replaces an adsorbed cation is called cation exchange and is expressed as meg/100 g. Calcium and magnesium are the principal cations found in the soil solution and on the exchange complex of normal soils in arid regions. When excess soluble salts accumulate in these soils, sodium frequently becomes the dominant cation in the soil solution. In arid regions as the solution becomes concentrated through evaporation or water absorption by plants, the Ca2+ and Mg2+ are precipitated as CaSO4, CaCO3 and MgCO3, with a corresponding increasing of sodium concentration. When the Na+ concentration is more than 50% of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "becomes the dominant cation in the soil solution. In arid regions as the solution becomes concentrated through evaporation or water absorption by plants, the Ca2+ and Mg2+ are precipitated as CaSO4, CaCO3 and MgCO3, with a corresponding increasing of sodium concentration. When the Na+ concentration is more than 50% of the total cations a part of the original exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+ replaced by sodium resulting in alkali soils. Clay Ca 2+ + 2 Na + Clay Na + Na + + Ca 2+ Though the reaction is reversible, Ca2+ are removed in drainage water as soon as they formed. Hence, the reaction proceeds in one direction from left to right only. The process whereby a normal soil is converted into an alkali soil is known as “alkalization”. B. Characteristics There are various methods employed for characterizing alkali soils. • A direct determination of exchangeable sodium in sodic soils will serve as a guide for reliable appraisal of alkali conditions. Exchangeable sodium = Total sodium–soluble sodium • The soil pH also gives an indication of soil alkalinity indirectly. An increase in pH reading of 1.0 or more, with change in moisture content from a low to high value has itself been found useful in some area for detecting alkali conditions. • The higher the ESP, the higher is the soil pH • Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR). C. SAR The US salinity laboratory developed the concept of SAR to define the equilibrium between soluble and exchangeable cations as follows. + 2 2 Na SAR Ca Mg 2 + + = + 264 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+ are concentrations in saturation extract in me.l-1). The value of SAR can be used for the determination of exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) ( ) ( ) 100 0.0126 0.0147 SAR ESP 1",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2 Na SAR Ca Mg 2 + + = + 264 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+ are concentrations in saturation extract in me.l-1). The value of SAR can be used for the determination of exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) ( ) ( ) 100 0.0126 0.0147 SAR ESP 1 0.0126 0.0147 SAR − + ≈ + − + The following regression equation is also used to work out ESP of alkali soils Y = 0.0673 + 0.035 X Y indicates ESP and X indicates SAR Soils having SAR value greater than 13 are considered as sodic soils. D. Impact of Soil Sodicity • Dispersion of soil colloids leads to development of compact soil • Due to compactness of soil, aeration, hydraulic conductivity, drainage and microbial activity are reduced • High sodicity caused by Na2CO3 increases soil pH • High hydroxyl (OH) ion concentration have direct detrimental effect on plants • Excess of Na+ induces the deficiencies of Ca2+ and Mg2+ • High pH in alkali soil decreases the availability of many plant nutrients like P, Ca, N, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn. E. Reclamation (a) Conversion As alkali soil contains Na-clay, it gets dispersed and becomes sticky and impervious as soon as the salts are washed out. As a result, the downward movement of water stops and the soil gets waterlogged. Thus in the case of such soil it is necessary to remove the exchangeable sodium before the removal of soluble salts so that the physical condition of the soil is not impaired. While removing exchangeable sodium, the presence or absence of calcium carbonate in the soil has to be taken into consideration. If the soil has no reserve CaCO3, the addition of CaSO4 (Gypsum) is necessary. (b) Gypsum Requirement (GR) The main principle for the reclamation of sodic soil",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is not impaired. While removing exchangeable sodium, the presence or absence of calcium carbonate in the soil has to be taken into consideration. If the soil has no reserve CaCO3, the addition of CaSO4 (Gypsum) is necessary. (b) Gypsum Requirement (GR) The main principle for the reclamation of sodic soil is to replace exchangeable sodium by another cations say Ca2+. Of all calcium compounds, gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O) is considered to be the best and cheapest for the reclamation purpose. Gypsum requirement is determined from the formula ( ) ( ) ESP initial ESP final CEC GR 100 − × = where, ESP (initial) is obtained from soil analysis before reclamation ESP (final) is usually kept at 10 since this value is considered safe for tolerable physical conditions of the soil CEC-cation exchange capacity (meq/100 g) When gypsum is applied to alkali soil, the following reaction will take place. Ca2+ solubilized from gypsum replaces Na+ leaving soluble sodium sulphate in the water, which is then leached out. SOILS 265 Na2CO3 + CaSO4 ⎯⎯→ CaCO3 + Na2SO4 (leachable) Clay Na+ + CaSO4 ⎯⎯→ Ca (clay) + Na2SO4 (leachable) The other soil amendments suitable for different soil conditions are indicated below: Amendments Soil conditions Sulphur Alkaline soils having pH range 8.0–9.0 FeSO4 FeS2 Limestone Saline soils having pH less than 8.0 Gypsum Alkali soils having pH range upto 9.0 (b) Salt precipitation theory Recently salt precipitation theory is employed satisfactorily for the reclamation of sodic soils. The elimination of salts and exchangeable sodium from soils by leaching is presently practicing, but the leached salts have been washed into groundwater or streams, making those water more salty. Due to use of such water the soils are further subjected to salt problems. With this view, a new concept in managing soils has been developed and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "from soils by leaching is presently practicing, but the leached salts have been washed into groundwater or streams, making those water more salty. Due to use of such water the soils are further subjected to salt problems. With this view, a new concept in managing soils has been developed and that is known as precipitation of salts. The idea suggests that instead of leaching salt completely away, they can be leached to only 0.9-1.8 m deep (3-6 ft) where much of the salts would form as slightly soluble gypsum or carbonates (CaCO3, MgCO3) during dry periods and not react any longer as soluble salts. The ions precipitating will be mostly those of Ca2+, Mg2+, CO3, HCO3 and SO4. The management technique is simply to apply less water, but to do it more carefully and ensure inform depth of wetting. (c) Other management practices Application of FYM, green manure, sulphur, molasses, aluminium sulphate and even sulphuric acid have been found to be effective reclaiming agents. Growing salt tolerant crops like rice, berseem and daincha is recommended. Biological 2 2 2 4 2S 2H O 3O 2H SO + + ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ ( ) Oxidation 3 2 4 4 3 2 2CaCO H SO CaSO Ca HCO + ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ + ( )2 4 2 2 4 FeSO 2H O H SO Fe OH + ⎯⎯→ + The crop roots help to increase the permeability of subsoil by excreting CO2 and developing cracks in it. The CO2 neutralizes alkalinity by lowering the soil pH to a certain extent and the cracks allow more easy percolation of water. Both these processes hasten the removal of sodium salts and wash them to deeper layers. (d) Prevention • Avoid excess water table by following judicious water management practices • Ensure free and efficient drainage • Flooding of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to a certain extent and the cracks allow more easy percolation of water. Both these processes hasten the removal of sodium salts and wash them to deeper layers. (d) Prevention • Avoid excess water table by following judicious water management practices • Ensure free and efficient drainage • Flooding of land with large quantities of water must be avoided • Evaporation should be checked as far as possible by mulching or by providing proper shade. It has been estimated that about 7 million hectares of land in India are salt affected (Saline-alkali soils). 266 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Table 5.2. Difference between Saline Soil and Alkali Soil Sl.No. Saline soil Alkali soil 1. Formed by accumulation of soluble salts Formed due to adsorption of Na+ on the (Salinization) exchange complex (Alkalization) pH is >8.5 2. PH < 8.5 ED is <4 dSm-1 3. EC is > 3 dSm-1 ESP is >15 4. ESP is <15 Black alkali soils 5. White alkali soils Nitric horizon 6. Salic horizon Carbonates will be present 7. Free carbonates are absent Prismatic/columnar structure 8. No well developed structure SAR is > 13 9. SAR is < 13 Reclamation by applying amendments 10. Reclamation by leaching gypsum, sulphuric acid etc. 11. Solonchalk Solonetz 5.6.3 Saline-Alkali Soils Saline alkali soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of (EC) greater than 4 dSm-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) greater than 15. The pH is variable and usually above 8.5 depending on the relative amounts of exchangeable sodium and soluble salts. A. Genesis/origin These soils are formed as a result of the combined process of salinization and alkalization. If the excess soluble salts of these soils are leached downward, the properties of these soils may change markedly and become similar to those of sodic soil. As",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "exchangeable sodium and soluble salts. A. Genesis/origin These soils are formed as a result of the combined process of salinization and alkalization. If the excess soluble salts of these soils are leached downward, the properties of these soils may change markedly and become similar to those of sodic soil. As the concentration of these salts in the soil solution is lowered, some of the exchangeable sodium hydrolyzes and form sodium hydroxide. This may change to sodium carbonate upon reaction with CO2 absorbed from the atmosphere. Clay Na + H2O NaHCO3 CO2 Na2CO3 Clay Na + NaOH + (forming alkali soil) B. Reclamation In these soils, it is necessary to remove the exchangeable sodium before the removal of soluble salts so that the physical condition of the soil is not impaired. Degraded alkali soils If the extensive leaching of a saline-sodic soil occurs in the absence of any source of Ca2+ or Mg2+, part of exchangeable sodium is gradually replaced by hydrogen. The resulting soil may be slightly acidic with unstable structure. Such soil is called degraded alkali or sodic soils. SOILS 267 ( ) 2 Acid soil on surface horizon Leaching Clay Na H O Clay H NaOH + + ⎯⎯→ + 2 2 3 2 2NaOH CO Na CO H O + ⎯⎯→ + Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) dissolves humus and is deposited in the lower layer. The lower layer thus acquires a black colour. At the same time H-clay formed in this way does not remain stable. The process of break down of H-clay under alkaline condition is known as “solodization”. 5.7 SOIL PRODUCTIVITY CONSTRAINTS 5.7.1 Physical Constraints The following are the physical constraints. • Highly permeable soils • Impermeable soils (slowly permeable) • Crusted soils • Subsoil hard pan • Fluffy paddy soils 1. Highly permeable soils The",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of break down of H-clay under alkaline condition is known as “solodization”. 5.7 SOIL PRODUCTIVITY CONSTRAINTS 5.7.1 Physical Constraints The following are the physical constraints. • Highly permeable soils • Impermeable soils (slowly permeable) • Crusted soils • Subsoil hard pan • Fluffy paddy soils 1. Highly permeable soils The high permeability is associated with sand and loamy sand texture of soils. These oils occur in coastal areas, river delta and in the desert belts. These soils cover large areas in Rajasthan and Haryana. In Tamil Nadu, a total area of about 15 lakh ha were affected by excessively permeable soils. Characteristics • The structure of soil is loose to very weakly developed depending upon clay content. • Since most sandy soils are devoid of any structural development, these suffer from intensive erosion. • Lack of cohesion, adhesion and plasticity in soil. • The nature of excessive permeability of the sandy soils results in very poor water retention capacity, very high hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rates. So whatever the nutrients and water added to these soils are not utilized by the crops and subjected to loss. • Soils are lighter in colour. • Very low in organic carbon, nitrogen and medium in P and K. • Low nutrient diffusivity and buffering capacity. Remedial measures To correct the textural weakness of these sandy soils and to make them suitable for sound farming, various ameliorative measures have been devised. • Introduction of artificial barriers in the subsoil zone using asphalt, bitumen and cement have been found to arrest the higher rate of nutrient and water losses in sandy soils. This technology is costly. • Compaction technology The soils should be ploughed uniformly. About 24 hours after a good rainfall (or) irrigation, the soil should be rolled 10 times with 400 kg stone",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cement have been found to arrest the higher rate of nutrient and water losses in sandy soils. This technology is costly. • Compaction technology The soils should be ploughed uniformly. About 24 hours after a good rainfall (or) irrigation, the soil should be rolled 10 times with 400 kg stone roller of 1 m long (or) an empty tar drum filled with 400 kg sand. This practice increases the bulk density of 0-30 cm layer to optimum range (1.5-1.7 mg/m3). Then, shallow ploughing should be given and crops can be raised. 268 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • By mixing of a fine textured soil having 50% clay would reduce the hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate and also increases the N use efficiency. • Application of mulches is an effective means to conserve soil water and moderate soil temperature. • Form small plots and apply minimum and frequent irrigations. • Adopt more number of splits of N and K fertilizers. 2. Slowly permeable soils The slow permeable soil is mainly due to very high clay content and poor drainage conditions which results in poor aeration and water stagnation and ultimately leads to poor crop growth and in certain case leads to complete death of crops. The slow permeability of the soil is mainly associated with black clay soils. These soils cover an area of 49.8 m.ha in the Central India comprising Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and in Tamil Nadu, about 14.32 lakh ha of land affected by these soils. Characteristics • Very high clay content and bulk density • Poor drainage, hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate due to higher proportion of pores • Temporary water logging of the soil develops oxygen stress in root zone • Development of salinity with poor drainage • High soil pH and calcareousness may promote",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "• Very high clay content and bulk density • Poor drainage, hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate due to higher proportion of pores • Temporary water logging of the soil develops oxygen stress in root zone • Development of salinity with poor drainage • High soil pH and calcareousness may promote ammonia volatilization • Soils are low in organic carbon N, P, Zn and Fe Remedial measures • Addition of organics namely FYM/composted coir pith/press mud/urban compost at 12.5 t/ha found to be optimum for the improvement of the physical properties. It facilitates water movement to the root zone. • Formation of ridges and furrows: For rain fed crops, ridges are formed along the slopes for providing adequate aeration to the root zone. Interception of drainage channels of about 50 cm wide and 15 cm deep provides effective surface drainage. • Raised and sunken beds formation in between adjacent raised beds: The bulk density was found to be reduced due to increase in non-capillary pores in upper 10 cm layer of raised bed besides increase in yield of crops by forming raised and sunken beds. The 6–12 m wide and 20 cm high raised beds alternating with 6 m wide sunken beds provides in situ drainage. The raised beds are constructed by removing the soil from the sunken beds. • Formation of broad beds: To reduce the amount of water retained in black clay soils during first 8 days of rainfall, broad beds of 3–9 m wide should be formed either along the slope (or) across the slope with drainage furrows in between broad beds. • The productivity of sodic clay soils can be increased to a significant extent through use of gypsum and agricultural grade iron pyrites. • Long term application of organic manures along with chemical fertilizer under well",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "along the slope (or) across the slope with drainage furrows in between broad beds. • The productivity of sodic clay soils can be increased to a significant extent through use of gypsum and agricultural grade iron pyrites. • Long term application of organic manures along with chemical fertilizer under well aerated condition improves the available status of nutrients. 3. Subsoil hard pans The reasons for the formation of subsurface hard pan in red soils is due to the illuviation of clay to the subsoil horizons coupled with cementing action of iron, aluminium an calcium carbonate. In Tamil Nadu, red soils occupy about 8 million hectares. The occurrence of hard pan at shallow depths is the major prevalent soil physical constraints in these soils. SOILS 269 Characteristics • The subsoil hard pan is characterized by high bulk density (more than 1.8 Mg m-3), which in turn lowers infiltration, water holding capacity, available water and movement of air and nutrients with concomitant adverse effect on the yield of crops. • The high bulk density in sub surface soil results in water stagnation on the soil surface after heavy rainfall (or) irrigation and the crops turn yellow due to oxygen stress. • In high rainfall areas, sub surface layers at shallow depth reduce water storage capacity of the soil and run off starts even after a short shower, which cause floods in low-lying areas. Remedial measures To eradicate the problem of subsoil impervious layer, chisel plough is recommended. Chisel plough is a heavy iron plough which goes up to 45 cm depth, thereby shatters the hard pan in the subsoil. • The field is to be ploughed with chisel plough at 50 cm interval in both the directions • Chiseling helps to break the hard pan in the subsoil • Farm yard manure",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "iron plough which goes up to 45 cm depth, thereby shatters the hard pan in the subsoil. • The field is to be ploughed with chisel plough at 50 cm interval in both the directions • Chiseling helps to break the hard pan in the subsoil • Farm yard manure (or) press mud (or) coir pith at 12.5 t/ha is to be spread uniformly on the surface • The field should be ploughed with country plough twice for incorporating the added manures • The broken hard pan and incorporation of manures make the soil to conserve more moisture 4. Soil surface crusting Surface crusting is due to the presence of colloidal oxides of iron and aluminium in Alfisols, which binds the soil particles under wet regimes. On drying it forms a hard mass on the surface. The alluvial sandy loam soils in Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal form a crust on the soil surface, which interferes with germination and growth of crops. The red sandy loam soils ‘Chalkas’ which cover a large area of Andhra Pradesh become very hard on drying with the result that the crop growth is adversely affected. In Tamil Nadu, this problem is prevalent mostly in red soil areas (Alfisols) and is of greater magnitude in districts like Trichy, Pudukottai, Ramnad and Tirunelveli. The crusting of soils is directly related with aggregate stability, rainfall characteristics and its chemical composition. The poorly aggregated soil particles in alluvial, red and lateritic soils disintegrate easily under the impact of rain drops. The quantity of dispersed soil increases with the increase in drop size, drop velocity and rainfall intensity. The hydration of aggregates causes a disruption through the process of swelling and explosion of entrapped air. The fine fractions go into the suspension, which may either",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "under the impact of rain drops. The quantity of dispersed soil increases with the increase in drop size, drop velocity and rainfall intensity. The hydration of aggregates causes a disruption through the process of swelling and explosion of entrapped air. The fine fractions go into the suspension, which may either enters into the soil and clog the macropores or resettles on the surface to form a crust. (a) Impact on soil properties • Prevents germination of seeds • Retards/inhibits roots growth • Results in poor infiltration • Acceleration of surface run off • Creates poor aeration in the rhizosphere • Affects nodule formation in leguminous crops. Soil crusting generally found in laterite group of soils, which have high amounts of soluble iron and alumina. (b) Remedial measures • when the soil is at optimum moisture regime ploughing is to be given. 270 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • lime at 2 t ha-1 may be uniformly spread and another ploughing given for blending of the amendment with the surface soil. • FYM at 10 to ha-1 (or) composted coir pith at 12.5 t ha-1 (or) other organics may be applied to improve the physical properties of the soils after preparation of land to optimum tilth. • combined application of lime and FYM enhanced the yield of crops besides improving the physical properties of the soil. • scarping surface soil by tooth harrow will be useful. • bold grained seeds may be suited for sowing on the crusted soils • more number of seeds/hill may be adopted for small seeded crops. • sprinkling water at periodical intervals may be done wherever possible. • resistant crops like cowpea can be grown. • most of the red and laterite soils are poor in organic matter and therefore deficient in nitrogen. Organic manures and use",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of seeds/hill may be adopted for small seeded crops. • sprinkling water at periodical intervals may be done wherever possible. • resistant crops like cowpea can be grown. • most of the red and laterite soils are poor in organic matter and therefore deficient in nitrogen. Organic manures and use of biofertilizers holds promise. • these soils having high activity of Fe and Al in soil solution fix a good amount of soluble P. Application of rock phosphate will increase the available P and crop yield. 5. Fluffy paddy soils The traditional method of preparing the soil for transplanting rice consists of puddling. This results in substantial break down of soil aggregates into a structure less mass. The solid and liquid phases of the soil are thus changed. Under continuous flooding and submergence in rice-rice-rice sequence, the soil particles are always in a stage of flux and the mechanical strength is lost leading to the fluffiness of the soils. This is further aggravated by in situ incorporation of rice stubbles and weeds during pudding. In Tamil Nadu fluffy rice soils are prevalent in Cauvery deltaic zone and in many parts of the state due to the continuous rice-rice cropping sequence. Impact • Sinking of draught animals and labourers is one of the problems during puddling in rice fields. • Fluffiness of the soil led to very low bulk density and thereby leading to very rapid hydraulic conductivity and in turn the soil does not provide a good anchorage to the roots and the yield of crops is adversely affected. Remedial measures • The irrigation should be stopped 10 days before the harvest of rice crop. • After the harvest of rice, when the soil is under semi-dry condition (proctor moisture level), compact the field by passing 400 kg stone roller",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "roots and the yield of crops is adversely affected. Remedial measures • The irrigation should be stopped 10 days before the harvest of rice crop. • After the harvest of rice, when the soil is under semi-dry condition (proctor moisture level), compact the field by passing 400 kg stone roller or on empty drum filled with 400 kg of sand 8 times. • Then the usual preparatory cultivation is carried out after compaction. 5.7.2 Chemical Constraints The details on saline soil, alkali soil, saline-alkali soils are given in the previous sections of the chapter. 5.7.2.1 Acid soils Out of 157 million hectares of cultivable land in India, 49 million hectares of land are acidic. Acid soil is a base unsaturated soil which has got enough of adsorbed exchangeable H+ ions so that to give soil SOILS 271 a pH of lower than 7.0. The following important sources are responsible for the development of acidic soils. A. Sources of formation (a) Leaching due to heavy rainfall Acid soils are common in the regions where rainfall is high enough to leach appreciable amounts of exchangeable bases from the surface soils and relatively insoluble compounds of Al and Fe remains in soil. The nature of these compounds is acidic and its oxides and hydroxides reacts with water and release hydrogen ions in soil solution and soil becomes acidic. (b) Acidic parent material Some soils have developed from parent materials, which are acid, such as granite and that may contribute to soil acidity. (c) Acid forming fertilizers and soluble salts The use of ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate increases soil acidity. For (e.g.), ammonium ions from (NH4)2 SO4 when applied to the soil replace calcium ions from the exchange complex and the calcium sulphate is formed and finally leached out. (NH4)2SO4 NH4 + SO4",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Acid forming fertilizers and soluble salts The use of ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate increases soil acidity. For (e.g.), ammonium ions from (NH4)2 SO4 when applied to the soil replace calcium ions from the exchange complex and the calcium sulphate is formed and finally leached out. (NH4)2SO4 NH4 + SO4 Ca SO4+ O2 HNO3 NH4 NH4 + NH4 NH4 NH4 NH4 NH4 2 Clay Clay Leached out Clay + 3 Nitrification Clay + Acid soil + + + + + 2 + + (d) Humus and other organic acids Humus materials in soils occur as a result of microbiological decomposition of organic matter and contain different functional groups like carboxylic (–COOH), phenolic (–OH) etc., which are capable of attracting and dissociating H+ ions. During organic matter decomposition, humus, organic acids and different acid salts may be produced which increases the total acidity of soil. Aluminosilicate minerals At low pH values most of the aluminium (Al) is present as the hydrated aluminium ions (Al3+), which undergoes hydrolysis and release hydrogen (H+) ions in the soil solution. Al3+ + H2O ⎯⎯→ Al(OH)2+ + H+ Al (OH)2+ + H2O ⎯⎯→ Al(OH)2 + + H+ Al (OH)2 + + H2O ⎯⎯→ Al(OH)3 0 + H+ Al (OH)3 0 + H2O ⎯⎯→ ( )4 Al OH − + H+ Carbon dioxide (CO2) Root activity and other metabolism may serve as sources of CO2, which ultimately leads to acidity in soil. Soil containing high concentration of CO2 will have low pH. Hydrous oxides These are mainly oxides of iron and aluminium. Under favourable conditions they undergo stepwise hydrolysis with the release of H+ ions in the soil solution and develop soil acidity. Aluminium in the development of soil acidity Hydrogen ion contribute soil acidity directly while aluminium ions do so indirectly through hydrolysis. In aqueous solutions,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "oxides of iron and aluminium. Under favourable conditions they undergo stepwise hydrolysis with the release of H+ ions in the soil solution and develop soil acidity. Aluminium in the development of soil acidity Hydrogen ion contribute soil acidity directly while aluminium ions do so indirectly through hydrolysis. In aqueous solutions, Al3+ does not remain 272 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY as a free ion, but it is surrounded by six molecules of water forming hexaquoaluminium compound Al(H2O)6 3+. Hydrolysis of the monomeric hexaquo aluminium are illustrated by the following stepwise reactions with the liberation of hydronium ion (H3O+) and lower soil pH. Stepwise hydrolysis Dominant aluminium species pH levels Al(H2O)6 3+ Al(H2O)6 3+ + H2O Al(H2O)5 (OH)2 + + H3O+ < 4.7 Al(H2O)5 (OH)2+ + H2O Al(H2O)4 (OH)2 + + H3O+ 4.7–6.5 Al(H2O)4 (OH)2 + + H2O Al(H2O)3 (OH)3 + + H3O+ 6.5–8.0 Al(H2O)3 (OH)3 0 + H2O Al(H2O)2 (OH)4 + + H3O+ 8.0–11.0 Under strongly acid soils, the adsorbed aluminium is in equilibrium with A13+ ions in the soil solution and that Al3+ ion in solution produces H+ ions through the process of hydrolysis Adsorbed aluminium Al ⎯⎯→Al3+ Soil solution aluminium Hydrolysis Al3+ + H2O ⎯⎯→Al (OH)2+ + H+ Soil solution aluminium Under moderately acid soils, the percentage of base saturation and pH values are somewhat higher. At such higher pH values, aluminium exists as aluminium hydroxy ions and again on hydrolysis liberate H+ ions in soil solution. Al(OH)2+ + H2O ⎯⎯→Al(OH)2 + + H+ Al(OH)2 + + H2O ⎯⎯→Al(OH)3 0 + H+ B. Kinds of soil acidity Soil acidity may be of two kinds viz., 1. Active acidity, and 2. Potential/reserve/exchange acidity. Adsorbed H (and Al) ions ⎯⎯→ Soil solution H (and Al) (potential/exchange/reserve acidity) ←⎯⎯ (Active acidity) (a) Active acidity Active acidity may be defined as the acidity",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "0 + H+ B. Kinds of soil acidity Soil acidity may be of two kinds viz., 1. Active acidity, and 2. Potential/reserve/exchange acidity. Adsorbed H (and Al) ions ⎯⎯→ Soil solution H (and Al) (potential/exchange/reserve acidity) ←⎯⎯ (Active acidity) (a) Active acidity Active acidity may be defined as the acidity developed due to hydrogen (H+) and aluminium (Al3+) ions concentration of the soil solution. The magnitude of this acidity is limited. (b) Exchange acidity Exchange acidity may be defined as the acidity developed due to adsorbed hydrogen (H+) and aluminium (Al3+) ions on the soil colloids. The magnitude of this exchange acidity is very high. Total acidity = Active acidity + Exchange acidity C. Impact of soil acidity Problems of soil acidity may be divided into three groups: 1. Toxic effects (a) Acid toxicity Clay SOILS 273 (b) Toxicity of different nutrients 2. Nutrient availability (a) Non-specific effects (b) Specific effects (i) Exchangeable bases (ii) Nutrient imbalances 3. Microbial activity D. Toxic effects (a) Acid toxicity The H+ ion concentration is toxic to plants under strong acid conditions of soil. (b) Toxicity of different nutrient elements The concentration of Fe2+ and Mn2+ in soil solution depends upon soil pH, organic matter and soil redox condition. Due to increase in organic matter content in the soil, the population of soil microbes increases and very rapidly use the soil oxygen and results in reduced soil condition. As a result of reduction, the nutrient elements like Mn4+ and Fe3+ reduce to Mn2+ and Fe2+ respectively and toxicity of these elements develops. Due to such toxic effects, a physiological disease of rice is found in submerged soils, which is popularly known as “browning disease”. (c) Toxicity of Aluminium (Al) Al toxicity in soils affects pant growth in various ways: • It restricts the root",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Fe2+ respectively and toxicity of these elements develops. Due to such toxic effects, a physiological disease of rice is found in submerged soils, which is popularly known as “browning disease”. (c) Toxicity of Aluminium (Al) Al toxicity in soils affects pant growth in various ways: • It restricts the root growth. • It affects various physiological processes like division of cells, formation of DNA and respiration etc. • It restricts the absorption and translocation of nutrients like P, Ca, Fe, Mn etc., from soil to plant. • It causes wilting of plants. • It also inhibits the microbial activity in soil. (d) Nutrient imbalance It is evident that soluble iron, aluminium and manganese are usually present in higher concentration under strong acidic conditions. Phosphorus react with these ions and produces insoluble phosphatic compounds rendering phosphorus unavailable to plants. Besides these, fixation of P by hydrous oxides of iron and aluminium also reduces the P availability. In acid soils Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu are abundant but molybdenum and boron availability are decreased. N, P and S become less available in acid soil having pH less than 5.5. (e) Microbial activity Bacteria and actinomycetes function better in soils having moderate to high pH values. They can not sustain their activity when the soil pH drops below 5.5. Free living N fixing bacteria (Azotobacter sp.), and symbiotic N fixing bacteria (Rhizobium sp.) activities are inhibited under acidic condition. Fungi can grow well under very acid soils and causes disease like root rot of tobacco, blights of potato etc. E. Amelioration of soil acidity One of the most important feasible management practices is the use of lime and liming materials to ameliorate the soil acidity. (a) Lime requirement It may be defined as the amount of liming material that must be added to raise",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "tobacco, blights of potato etc. E. Amelioration of soil acidity One of the most important feasible management practices is the use of lime and liming materials to ameliorate the soil acidity. (a) Lime requirement It may be defined as the amount of liming material that must be added to raise the pH to some prescribed value. This value is usually in the range of pH 6.0 to 7.0 since this is an easily attainable value within the optimum range of most of the crop plants. Kinds of liming materials are: 274 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Oxides of lime – CaO (Burned lime) • Hydroxides of lime – Ca (OH)2 (Slaked lime) • Carbonates of lime – CaCO3 (calcite) and Ca Mg(CO3)2 (Dolomite) • Basic slag (By product of steel industry) Principles of liming reactions Reaction of lime in soils depends upon the nature and fineness of the liming materials. Lime is usually applied to soils in the form of ground limestone. The greater the partial pressure of CO2 in soil, the more soluble the limestone becomes. The reaction of limestone (CaCO3) can be written as 3 2 2 3 2 CaCO H O CO Ca(HCO ) + + ⎯⎯→ 2 3 2 3 Ca(HCO ) Ca 2HCO + − ⎯⎯→ + 3 2 3 2 2 H HCO H CO H O CO + − ⎯⎯→ + ⎯⎯→ + ←⎯⎯ (From soil solution) (From lime) In this way, hydrogen (H+) ions in the solution react to form weakly dissociated water and calcium ion from limestone is left to undergo cation exchange reactions. The acidity of the soil is, therefore, neutralized and the percent base saturation of colloidal material is increased. (b) Why gypsum is not considered as liming material Gypsum, on its application dissociates into Ca2+ and SO4 2−",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "water and calcium ion from limestone is left to undergo cation exchange reactions. The acidity of the soil is, therefore, neutralized and the percent base saturation of colloidal material is increased. (b) Why gypsum is not considered as liming material Gypsum, on its application dissociates into Ca2+ and SO4 2− CaSO4 ←⎯→ Ca2+ + SO4 2− The accompanying anion is sulphate and it reacts with the soil moisture produces mineral acid H2SO4 which also increases soil acidity instead of reducing soil acidity. SO4 + H2O ⎯⎯→ H2SO4 (c) Influence of lime on soil properties in relation to plant nutrition Direct benefits • Toxicity of Al3+ and Mn2+ is reduced • Reduced uptake of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the soil solution can be alleviated • Removal of H+ ion toxicity. Indirect benefits • The application of liming materials in acid soils will inactivate the iron and aluminium, thus increase the available P • The toxicity of most of the micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn) can be prevented by the application of lime • Most of the organisms responsible for the conversion of ammonia to nitrates (NH3NO3) require large amounts of active calcium. As a result nitrification is enhanced by liming to a pH of 5.5–6.5 • The process of N fixation both by symbiotic and non-symbiotic is favoured by liming • The structures of fine textured soil can be improved by liming SOILS 275 • The amelioration of soil acidity by liming may have a significant role in the control of plant pathogens, e.g., Club root disease of Cole crops can be reduced by liming • Liming increases the efficiency of different fertilizers especially N and P fertilizers. (d) Over liming If liming materials are applied over and above its requirement then it is called over liming. (e) Effects of over",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "plant pathogens, e.g., Club root disease of Cole crops can be reduced by liming • Liming increases the efficiency of different fertilizers especially N and P fertilizers. (d) Over liming If liming materials are applied over and above its requirement then it is called over liming. (e) Effects of over liming When excessively large amounts of lime are applied to an acidic soil, the growth of plants is affected by influencing either one or many of these following: • Deficiency of iron, copper and zinc will occur • P and K availability will be reduced • Due to high OH ion concentration by over liming, root development will be inhibited • Boron deficiency will occur • The incidence of diseases like scab in root crops will be increased 5.7.2.2 Acid sulphate soils Soils with sufficient sulphates (FeS2) will become strongly acidic when drained and aerated enough for cultivation. These are termed as acid sulphate soils or as in the Dutch refer to those soils as cat clays. When allowed to develop acidity, these soils are usually more acidic pH than 4.0. Before drainage, these soils may have normal pH and if soils undergo aeration the pH will be reduced and hence they are called “potential acid sulphate soils”. Generally acid sulphate soils are found in coastal areas where the land is inundated by salt water. In India, acid sulphate soil is mostly found in Kutanad (Kerala), Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. A. Formation Lands inundated with water that contain sulphates particularly salt water, accumulate sulphur compounds, which in poorly aerated soils are bacterially reduced to sulphides. Such soils are not usually acidic when first drained in water. When the soil is drained and then aerated, the sulphide (S2) is oxidized to sulphate (SO4) by a combination of chemical and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sulphates particularly salt water, accumulate sulphur compounds, which in poorly aerated soils are bacterially reduced to sulphides. Such soils are not usually acidic when first drained in water. When the soil is drained and then aerated, the sulphide (S2) is oxidized to sulphate (SO4) by a combination of chemical and bacterial actions, forming sulphuric acid (H2SO4). The magnitude of acid development depends on the amount of sulphide present in soil, conditions and time of oxidation. Reactions involving the formation of acid sulphate soils Acid sulphate soils are formed due to oxidation of sulphides in soils. The slow oxidation of mineral sulphides in soils is non biological until soil pH reaches to 4.0. Microbial 2 2 2 4 oxidation 2S 3O 2H O H SO + + ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Microbial 2 2 2 4 oxidation H S 2O H SO + ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ (Hydrogen sulphide) Non-biological 2 2 2 4 2 4 2FeS 2H O 7O 2FeSO 2H SO + + ⎯⎯→ + (Iron pyrite) (Ferrous sulphate) Accelerated by bacteria (Thiobacillus ferroxidans) 276 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 4 2 2 4 2 4 3 2 4FeSO O 2H SO 2Fe (SO ) 2H O + + ⎯⎯→ + (Ferric sulphate) B. Characteristics • It contain a sulphuric horizon which has a pH of < 3.5 plus some other evidences of sulphide content (Yellow colour). • Strong acidity in acid sulphate soils results in toxicities of aluminium, iron, manganese and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas. H2S often formed in low land rice soils causing “akiochi” disease that prevents rice plants roots from absorbing nutrients. C. Management Maintaining the reduced condition of flooded (anaerobic) soil inhibits acid development. (a) Controlling water table If a non-acidifying layer covers the sulphuric horizon, drainage to keep only the sulphuric layer under water (anaerobic) is possible. (b) Liming and leaching",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "disease that prevents rice plants roots from absorbing nutrients. C. Management Maintaining the reduced condition of flooded (anaerobic) soil inhibits acid development. (a) Controlling water table If a non-acidifying layer covers the sulphuric horizon, drainage to keep only the sulphuric layer under water (anaerobic) is possible. (b) Liming and leaching Liming is the primary way to reclaim any type of acid soil. Acid soil may require 11-45 MT/ha of lime in a 20-year period whereas, acid sulphate soil may require from several metric tones per hectare per year upto even 224 metric t/ha (100 t/ac) within a 10 year period. If these soils are leached during early years of acidification, lime requirements are lowered. Leaching however is difficult because of the high water table commonly found in this type of soil and low permeability of the clay. 5.7.3 Soil Survey Soils are non-renewable natural resource of any country. A through knowledge of a soil is very essential for making all kinds of land use policies. To frame such land use policies, an inventory of soil resources of a country should be made first. Preparation of such inventory starts with soil survey. Without soil survey effective, land development projects, irrigation projects, development of wild life sanctuaries, parks laying out transport facilities cannot be executed property. The soil survey helps us in several ways. At national level, soil survey helps to prepare soil resource inventory and overall land related policies and plans. At state level, it is basic to form land related development schemes. It is also useful to delineate agricultural, forestry wastelands etc. At town level, soil survey reports are of immense use for town planning or locating areas for residential building, roads, parks, waste disposal sites, other sanitation facilities etc., In an agro climatic region, soil survey helps us in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "development schemes. It is also useful to delineate agricultural, forestry wastelands etc. At town level, soil survey reports are of immense use for town planning or locating areas for residential building, roads, parks, waste disposal sites, other sanitation facilities etc., In an agro climatic region, soil survey helps us in locating research stations and in identifying representative soils for conducting field experiment, on farm trials and demonstration plots. At farm level, it helps to identify the suitable crops, cropping sequence, irrigation and nutrient managements. Soil survey can be defined as the study of soil in the field for their morphological and other characteristics supplemented by certain laboratory analysis, to classify the soils and map them into texa usually up to soil series level so as to enable any user to interpret their potentialities for different uses. In soil survey, we obtain the following information a through field examination and laboratory analysis. The information so obtained is used to interpret the utility of soil, limitation of soil for specific use and to suggest suitable soil management practices. • A complete description of soil • Distribution of different soil types A. Objectives A through knowledge of soil is very essential for effective land use planning and conservation. Soil SOILS 277 survey is the 1st step for any land use planning. The objectives of soil survey may be fundamental or applied (practical). The fundamental objectives of soil survey help thorough understanding of genesis and classification of soils. The applied objectives or practical aspects of soil survey are numerous. A few important applied practical objectives are listed below. • To delineate cultivated soils, problem soils (such as saline soil, saline-alkali and alkali, water logged, drained soils, coarse and heavy textured soils and wastelands. • To identify areas prone (subject) to wind and water erosion",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of soil survey are numerous. A few important applied practical objectives are listed below. • To delineate cultivated soils, problem soils (such as saline soil, saline-alkali and alkali, water logged, drained soils, coarse and heavy textured soils and wastelands. • To identify areas prone (subject) to wind and water erosion and suggest soil conservation measures. • To identify areas suited to specific crops. • To identify areas having one or more nutrient deficiencies or stresses. • To identify areas for settlement, rehabilitation, tax, appraisal, location of rail lines, airport, roads, parks etc. • To assess the suitability of area for irrigation and to assess the soil health due to irrigation etc. • To provide soil related information to development agencies or department for planning optimum land use policies or executing that policies. B. Types and methods of soil survey Soil surveys are of different types depending upon the purpose, method, the intensity of survey and the nature of resulting map. These types vary from nation to nation. • Explorative • Reconnaissance • Semi detailed • Detailed reconnaissance • Very detailed • National etc. Table 5.3. Details on type of Soil Survey and Maps Type Scale of Area/sq. cm Traverse disFrequency of Mapping Accuracy of soil base map of map tance between observation unit boundaries observation Reconnaissance 1:250,000 625 1.0 km 1 in 625 ha Association of Almost all 1:100,000 100 1 in 100 ha soil groups boundaries are inferred Semi detailed 1:50,000 25 500 m 1 in 25 ha Soil series or Some boundaries association of are checked most soil series inferred Detailed low 1:10,000 1 100 m 1 per ha Phases and soil Almost intensity all boundaries are checked High intensity 1:5,000 0.25 50 m 4 per ha Phases and soil All boundaries series are checked Each type can",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "series or Some boundaries association of are checked most soil series inferred Detailed low 1:10,000 1 100 m 1 per ha Phases and soil Almost intensity all boundaries are checked High intensity 1:5,000 0.25 50 m 4 per ha Phases and soil All boundaries series are checked Each type can be distinguished by the scale of map, typical soil mapping unit, typical land use capability and smallest area indicated on the map. In India, the following three types of survey are conducted. 278 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Reconnaissance survey • Detailed survey • Detailed reconnaissance survey Besides the purpose of survey, the terrain features, time, budget and persons available for survey will decide the types of survey to be under taken. C. Soil survey methods The area to be surveyed is decided by the Government based on certain priorities in land development projects. Once the area to be surveyed is communicated to the soil survey authority, the first step in the soil survey is the collection of top sheet and preparation of base maps. The second step involves the organizing the survey team. Usually, there will be 2 scientists, a driver and 1 or 2 technicians. The team rapidly traverse the area to get overall picture of geology, physiography, land use etc., and prepare a preliminary legend. After the area visit, the preliminary legend will be reviewed and modified if necessary. This forms the pre-survey exercise. The next stage in the soil survey forms the pre-survey exercise in the field. Using the map again, the entire area is traversed to note physiographic relationship. Wherever necessary and whenever available cross section of road cuts, dug well, open quarries are examined visually, the soils are examined with augers. The broad soil series and its associations are demarcated on the map and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "field. Using the map again, the entire area is traversed to note physiographic relationship. Wherever necessary and whenever available cross section of road cuts, dug well, open quarries are examined visually, the soils are examined with augers. The broad soil series and its associations are demarcated on the map and legends are finalized. Location of master profiles is selected and examined for various morphological characteristics, and given in soil survey description sheet. Horizon wise soil samples are collected for laboratory studies. Soil boundaries are checked with auger samples and field examination is completed. All data regarding land use pattern, crops and cropping sequence, industries, irrigation sources, education, socio economic status, ecosystem in general are collected from all available sources. (a) Post field activities In the laboratory, the soil samples are analyzed usually for pH, EC, available N, P, and K etc. If the survey sponsor insists other analysis for special purposes, analysis for such characteristics are also carried out and profile sheets are edited and finalized. The various data collected from various sources are compiled and tabulated, and appropriate interpretations are made. The maps are finalized to demarcate the soil series. (b) Grid survey In grid survey, survey is taken in a larger area. The area is divided into number of grids and traverse line located on a grid pattern. Generally 4–5 observations per ha. Comparable observations were connected and mapped. (c) Free survey Here, the surveyor selects the observation points and observes the change in physiography using the aerial photographs. The density of observation will vary. Chapter 6 Seasons and Systems of Farming Season is defined as “part of the year during which a distinguished type of weather prevails”. Season is a period in a year comprising few months during which the prevailing climate does not very much. Growing",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "photographs. The density of observation will vary. Chapter 6 Seasons and Systems of Farming Season is defined as “part of the year during which a distinguished type of weather prevails”. Season is a period in a year comprising few months during which the prevailing climate does not very much. Growing season for a crop is more important for its yield and other management practices to be followed. 6.1 SEASONS A. Seasons of Temperate Region • Spring (March-May) is the first season of the year in which plants being to grow and leaves emerge. • Summer (June-August) is the second and warmest season of the year out side the tropics during which plants flourish. • Fall or autumn (September-November) is the third season of the year in which leaves turn brown. • Winter (December-February) is the last and the coldest season of the year. Many trees loose their leaves. B. Seasons of India According to India Meteorological Department (IMD), there are four seasons in a year, in India. (i) Kharif/Monsoon or South-West Monsoon (June–September) (ii) Post monsoon (North-East Monsoon) (October–November) (iii) Winter (December to February) (iv) Zaid/Summer or pre-monsoon (March to May) The post monsoon and winter season are combined together and designated as Rabi (October to February) throughout India. Accordingly the agricultural seasons in India are called as kharif, rabi and summer. C. Seasons of South India In southern states of India (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka), there is slight variation in the season based on rainfall duration as follows: (i) Cold weather period (winter) : January–February 280 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (ii) Hot weather period (summer) : March–May (iii) South-West Monsoon period : June–September (Rainy season) (iv) North-East Monsoon period : October–December 6.1.1 Characteristics of Seasons A. Winter or Cold weather The weather prevailing during this period is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "follows: (i) Cold weather period (winter) : January–February 280 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (ii) Hot weather period (summer) : March–May (iii) South-West Monsoon period : June–September (Rainy season) (iv) North-East Monsoon period : October–December 6.1.1 Characteristics of Seasons A. Winter or Cold weather The weather prevailing during this period is cool, usually dry and pleasant with dewfall during morning hours. Occasional cyclonic depressions bring light rains to North-western regions in India. These rains though in small amount, are most beneficial to the winter crops. At times they do more harm than good, due to shedding of cotton bolls, damaging of tobacco quality. B. Summer or Hot weather This period is characterized by high temperature. The temperatures are higher in the north during this period than South India. Showers during this period are mainly useful for preparatory cultivation (summer ploughing). Gingelly and sorghum are sown with the rains. The garden land crops are benefited by these rains. C. South-West monsoon This is the rainy season in India except most part of the Tamil Nadu. About 60% of the rainfall in a year is received during this period. Most of the tropical crops (Kharif crops) are grown during this period. All dry lands and also wetlands directly depend on the rains received during this period. Garden land crops are also benefited by these rains. The climate prevailing during this period is warm and humid with bright sunshine except on rainy days (Tropical climate). D. North-East monsoon The temperature is high up to the middle of October and later starts falling rapidly. The rainfall received during the period is about 33% of annual rainfall except in Tamil Nadu and Coastal Andhra Pradesh where the annual rainfall received during this period is more than 55% half of it with occasional cyclones. The sky is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the middle of October and later starts falling rapidly. The rainfall received during the period is about 33% of annual rainfall except in Tamil Nadu and Coastal Andhra Pradesh where the annual rainfall received during this period is more than 55% half of it with occasional cyclones. The sky is clear in northern India. Mostly temperate (Rabi) crops are grown during this period. 6.1.2 Crop-wise Seasons 1. Rice seasons: Rice is grown in different seasons during a year. A. Rice seasons in North India (West Bengal) AUS : May–September AMAN : June, July–November, December (Kharif) BORO : January–May (summer) B. Rice seasons Totally seven seasons which vary with districts. (i) In Cauvery Delta (Thanjavore, Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam, parts of Villupuram, Tiruchirappalli, Pudukottai) SEASONS AND SYSTEMS oF FARMING 281 1. Kuruvai : June–September 2. Early Samba : July August–December January Samba : August–January Late Samba : September October–January February 3. Thaladi : September–January/February 4. Navarai : December–April (ii) In Chengalput, Tiruvallur, Thiruvannamalai, Vellore, Kanchipuram, Villupuram and Cuddalore districts, there is one more season in addition to above four as, 5. Sornavari: April May–August September (iii) In Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari districts, rice is grown in 6. Kar: May–September and 7. Pishanam: September–January 2. Cotton seasons (i) Winter Irrigated : August–September sowing (ii) Summer : February–March sowing (iii) Rice fallow : January–February sowing (iv) Rainfed cotton : September–October sowing 3. Sugarcane seasons (a) Early Season : December–January planting (b) Mid Season : February–March planting (c) Late Season : April–May planting (d) Special Season : June–July planting 6.1.3 Agronomic Concepts of the Growing Seasons Agronomically the growing season can be defined as the period when the soil water, resulting mainly from rainfall, is freely available to the crop. This condition occurs when the water consumed by the crop is in equilibrium with rainfall and water",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "June–July planting 6.1.3 Agronomic Concepts of the Growing Seasons Agronomically the growing season can be defined as the period when the soil water, resulting mainly from rainfall, is freely available to the crop. This condition occurs when the water consumed by the crop is in equilibrium with rainfall and water storage in the soil. The growing season for a rainfed crop involves three different periods during which the soil moisture conditions depend on the rainfall received. (a) Pre-humid period: During this period the precipitation will always remain lower than the potential evapotranspiration for the corresponding period. This period corresponds to the sowing period of the crop. Sowing can be done when the precipitation during the week is > 0.5 PET. (b) Humid period: During this second period the precipitation remains higher than the PET. The crops in this period will be in active vegetative and flowering phase and the water requirement will be at its peak. At the end of this period water balance is on the positive side and the water storage in the soil is on the increase, since the rainfall is higher than the water needs. (c) Post-humid period: This period follows the humid period. During this period there is a gradual reduction in the water stored in the soil due to the utilization by the crop plants. The crops will also make use of the rainfall received. This period usually coincides with maturity stage of the crop. 282 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Types of growing period There are four types of growing period. 1. Normal: In this type, rainfall is in excess during the humid period. At the end of the pre-humid period when precipitation is higher than the 0.5 PET sowing the crops are taken up. This type of growing season is prevalent in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "period There are four types of growing period. 1. Normal: In this type, rainfall is in excess during the humid period. At the end of the pre-humid period when precipitation is higher than the 0.5 PET sowing the crops are taken up. This type of growing season is prevalent in semi arid tropics. 2. Intermediate type: The precipitation is lower that the PET all round the year. The growing season is limited to the period when rainfall is in excess of 0.5 PET. Only drought hardy crops like pearl millet, castor, etc., can be grown. Dry farming is highly risky. 3. All year round humid: In this type, the precipitation is more than PET all round the year, indicating the moisture sufficiency for cropping. This type occurs in high rainfall areas and mostly perennial crops are raised. 4. All year round dry: The precipitation is lower than 0.5 PET throughout the year. Cropping is not possible in these areas. This type of growing season is found in extremely arid areas, mostly the deserts. The fluctuations in the crop yields depend on the following conditions. • The length of the rainy seasons i.e., from sowing to the end of the rains. • The quantity and distribution of rains during the pre-humid and humid periods. • The excess rainfall during humid period should go to soil storage. It may cause water logging and crop lodging. • The amount of rainfall received during post humid season, may supplement the soil moisture during maturity. This may favourably influence the yield. In India, four cropping seasons have been identified by IMD in dry farming areas. Table 6.1. IMD seasons S.No Name of the season Duration Water need Crops from rainfall 1. Short duration Up to 10 weeks 75% Very short duration crops 2. Medium duration",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "This may favourably influence the yield. In India, four cropping seasons have been identified by IMD in dry farming areas. Table 6.1. IMD seasons S.No Name of the season Duration Water need Crops from rainfall 1. Short duration Up to 10 weeks 75% Very short duration crops 2. Medium duration 10-15 weeks 75% Medium duration crops with intercrops 3. Extended medium duration 15-20 weeks 75% A medium duration crop followed by short duration crops if soil type is suitable 4. Long duration 20-30 weeks 75% Medium duration crops followed by short duration crops. 6.1.4 Effect of Season on Choice of Crops Season influences the crop selection to a greater extent as it decides the growth and establishment of the crop. The weather conditions prevailing during a season totally governs the crop production. The fluctuation in the crop yield depends on the length of the rainy season, the quantity and regularity of distribution of rainfall and the amount of rainfall received after the rainy season. The climatic factors viz., precipitation, wind, solar radiation (light and thermal energy) temperature, atmospheric air and its SEASONS AND SYSTEMS oF FARMING 283 pressure prevailing in a season very greatly influences the crop growth, establishment and yield as discussed in the earlier chapter on climatic factors affecting the crop production. 6.2 SYSTEMS OF FARMING For better understanding of different systems of farming it is essential to study certain terminologies. Farm is a piece of land with specific boundaries, where crop and livestock enterprises are taken up under a common management. Farming is the process of harnessing solar energy in the form of economic plant and animal products or it is the business of cultivating land, raising livestock etc. System refers to an orderly set of interdependent and interacting components none of which can be modified Fig.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "under a common management. Farming is the process of harnessing solar energy in the form of economic plant and animal products or it is the business of cultivating land, raising livestock etc. System refers to an orderly set of interdependent and interacting components none of which can be modified Fig. 6.1 A successful crop production purely based on supplemental irrigation either through canal, wells, tank, dam, etc. By the methods of surface irrigation, sub surface irrigation and overhead irrigation Crop cultivation done exclusively by rainwater Uncontrolled flooding (rice), less labourer and cheapest Rainfed dry farming Rainfed wet farming Controlled flooding Check basin Furrow irrigation Corrugated, small furrows Rainfed wet upland Rainfed wet Water availability is higher. Rainfall received is more than 800 mm Wet irrigated (low land or wetland). Both macro and micro pores are filled with H2O or there is submergence. Part of the growing period is under anaerobic condition Dry irrigated (garden land) More than 800 mm to bring into wet condition Even 300-400 mm bring wet condition standing water otherwise called Tropical Polar Rainfed Irrigated farming Rainfed farming System of farming Surface irrigation Sub surface – Drip Overhead Sprinklers Irrigated farming 284 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY without causing a related change elsewhere in the system. There are three distinct systems of farming as wetland system of farming, garden land (irrigated dry land) system of farming and dry land system of farming. 1. Wet land Pertaining to soils flooded or copiously irrigated through lake or pond or tank for a least several weeks in each year (or) to crop growth in such soils. The water is not entirely under the control of the farmer. Wetland Farming is the practice of growing crops in soils flooded through natural flow of water for most part of the year. 2. Garden",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for a least several weeks in each year (or) to crop growth in such soils. The water is not entirely under the control of the farmer. Wetland Farming is the practice of growing crops in soils flooded through natural flow of water for most part of the year. 2. Garden land The garden land system means the land supplied with water mostly from underground sources i.e., irrigated dry land. Garden land farming Growing crops with supplemental irrigation by lifting water from underground sources. Crops grown in these lands are irrigated through lift irrigation and hence the water is under control. 3. Dry Farming/Dry Land Farming It is the practice of crop production entirely with rainfall received during the crop season or with conserved soil moisture and the crop may face mild to severe stress during its life cycle. It is practiced in areas with an annual rainfall less than 800 mm (arid and semi arid). Rainfed farming In areas where the rainfall is more than 800 mm (humid and sub humid) the crops are grown entirely with the rainfall received during the crop season. The crop may face little or no moisture stress during its life cycle. Lowland means the land submerged for most part of the year. Lowlands are mostly wetlands either with irrigation (irrigated) or with rainfall (rainfed). Upland means the land unsubmerged and well aerated. Uplands are mostly dry lands. Table 6.2. Comparison of some selected Features of different Farming Systems Sl.No. Features Wetlands Irrigated land Dry land Rainfed 1. Farming practices 9-12 moths 9-12 months <6 months 6-8 months (duration) 2. Source of water river, lake, wells rainfall rainfall pond/tank (800 mm/year) (800 mm/year) 3. Climate arid to humid arid to humid arid to semi-arid sub humid to humid 4. Irrigation natural flow lift irrigation -no",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "land Rainfed 1. Farming practices 9-12 moths 9-12 months <6 months 6-8 months (duration) 2. Source of water river, lake, wells rainfall rainfall pond/tank (800 mm/year) (800 mm/year) 3. Climate arid to humid arid to humid arid to semi-arid sub humid to humid 4. Irrigation natural flow lift irrigation -no irrigation5. Water management management of economical water water excess water use conservation 6. Fertilizer management liberal use liberal use limited use 7. Objective maximizing yield maximization to get sustainable the yield yield 8. Constraints soil health, salt salt affected soils wind and water affected soils, erosion drainage The crop production is entirely different in dry farming and irrigated farming systems due to irrigation as given in Table 6.3. SEASONS AND SYSTEMS oF FARMING 285 Table 6.3. Difference between Dry Farming and Irrigated Farming Dry farming Irrigated farming 1. The field is ploughed deep to increase No need of deep ploughing to conserve water. infiltration of rains. 2. Land is prepared immediately after rainfall. Land is prepared according to optimum time of sowing. 3. Seeds are sown at more depth Seeds are sown at optimum depth. To make contact with moisture. 4. Crops or crop varieties having drought According to the need, crops or their varieties are tolerance or less water requirement are used. selected. 5. Generally, short duration crops. Selection of crops depends on the need are preferred. 6. Mixed inter cropping is beneficial. Generally pure cropping is done. 7. Due to limitation of moisture one or two More than 2 crops in a year are Grown, subject to the crops in a year is possible. availability of water. 8. Crop failure (risk) is expected. No chance of crop failure (no risk). Farming system Farming systems represent an appropriate combination of farm enterprises viz., cropping systems, livestock, fisheries, forestry, poultry",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2 crops in a year are Grown, subject to the crops in a year is possible. availability of water. 8. Crop failure (risk) is expected. No chance of crop failure (no risk). Farming system Farming systems represent an appropriate combination of farm enterprises viz., cropping systems, livestock, fisheries, forestry, poultry and the means of available to the farmer to raise them for profitability. It interacts adequately with environment without dislocating the ecological and socio-economic balance on one hand and attempts to meet the national goal and others. Terminologies Opportunity farming Yield or quality is taken into account. Profit is the deciding factor and not output. Response farming Maximum crop production (i.e.) output. Opportunity farming Response farming 5 t – IR 50 2½ t – Basmati 1 kg = Rs. 5/1 kg = Rs. 25/It prevails most parts of India It is carried on in areas where only one and the same crop is raised The details regarding different cropping systems and evaluation of cropping systems, and farming system are given in chapter 16. 286 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Chapter 7 Tillage Tillage operations in various forms have been practiced from the very inception of growing plants. Primitive man used tools to disturb the soils for placing seeds. The word tillage is derived from the Anglo-Saxon words tilian and teolian, meaning to plough and prepare soil for seed to sow, to cultivate and to raise crops. Jethrotull, who is considered as Father of tillage suggested that thorough ploughing is necessary so as to make the soil into fine particles. 7.0 DEFINITION Tillage refers to the mechanical manipulation of the soil with tools and implements so as to create favourable soil conditions for better seed germination and subsequent growth of crops. Tilth is a physical condition of the soil resulting from tillage.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "as to make the soil into fine particles. 7.0 DEFINITION Tillage refers to the mechanical manipulation of the soil with tools and implements so as to create favourable soil conditions for better seed germination and subsequent growth of crops. Tilth is a physical condition of the soil resulting from tillage. Tilth is a loose friable (mellow), airy, powdery, granular and crumbly condition of the soil with optimum moisture content suitable for working and germination or sprouting of seeds and propagules i.e., tilth is the ideal seed bed. 7.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TILTH Good tilth refers to the favourable physical conditions for germination and growth of crops. Tilth indicates two properties of soil viz., the size distribution of aggregates and mellowness or friability of soil. The relative proportion of different sized soil aggregates is known as size distribution of soil aggregates. Higher percentages of larger aggregates with a size above 5 mm in diameter are necessary for irrigated agriculture while higher percentage of smaller aggregates (1–2 mm in diameter) are desirable for rainfed agriculture. Mellowness or friability is that property of soil by which the clods when dry become more crumbly. A soil with good tilth is quite porous and has free drainage up to water table. The capillary and non-capillary pores should be in equal proportion so that sufficient amount of water and free air is retained respectively. 7.2 OBJECTIVES Tillage is done: • To prepare ideal seed bed favourable for seed germination, growth and establishment; • To loosen the soil for easy root penetration and proliferation; • To remove other sprouting materials in the soil; • To control weeds; • To certain extent to control pest and diseases which harbour in the soil; TILLAGE 287 • To improve soil physical conditions; • To ensure adequate aeration in the root",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "soil for easy root penetration and proliferation; • To remove other sprouting materials in the soil; • To control weeds; • To certain extent to control pest and diseases which harbour in the soil; TILLAGE 287 • To improve soil physical conditions; • To ensure adequate aeration in the root zone which in turn favour for microbial and biochemical activities; • To modify soil temperature; • To break hard soil pans and to improve drainage facility; • To incorporate crop residues and organic matter left over; • To conserve soil by minimizing the soil erosion; • To conserve the soil moisture; • To harvest efficiently the effective rain water; • To assure the through mixing of manures, fertilizers and pesticides in the soil; • To facilitate water infiltration and thus increasing the water holding capacity of the soil, and • To level the field for efficient water management 7.3 TYPES OF TILTH Fine Tilth refers to the powdery condition of the soil. Coarse Tilth refers to the rough cloddy condition of the soil. Fine seedbed is required for small seeded crops like ragi, onion, berseem, tobacco. Coarse seedbed is needed for bold seeded crops like sorghum, cotton, chickpea, lab-lab etc. 7.4 TYPES OF TILLAGE 1. On Season Tillage: It is done during the cropping season (June–July or Sept.–Oct.). 2. Off Season Tillage: It is done during fallow or non-cropped season (summer). 3. Special Types of Tillage: It is done at any time with some special objective/purpose. 7.4.1 On Season Tillage Tillage operations done for raising the crops in the same season or at the onset of the crop season are called as on season tillage. They are, A. Preparatory Tillage It refers to tillage operations that are done to prepare the field for raising crops. It is divided into three",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Tillage operations done for raising the crops in the same season or at the onset of the crop season are called as on season tillage. They are, A. Preparatory Tillage It refers to tillage operations that are done to prepare the field for raising crops. It is divided into three types viz., (i) primary tillage, (ii) secondary tillage, and (iii) seed bed preparation. (i) Primary tillage The first cutting and inverting of the soil that is done after the harvest of the crop or untilled fallow, is known as primary tillage. It is normally the deepest operation performed during the period between two crops. Depth may range from 10–30 cm. It includes ploughing to cut and invert the soil for further operation. It consists of deep opening and loosening the soil to bring out the desirable tilth. The main objective is to control weeds to incorporate crop stubbles and to restore soil structure. (ii) Secondary tillage It refers to shallow tillage operation that is done after primary tillage to bring a good soil tilth. In this operation the soil is stirred and conditioned by breaking the clods and crust, closing of cracks and crevices that form on drying. Incorporation of manures and fertilizers, leveling, mulching, forming ridges and furrows are the main objectives. It includes cultivating, harrowing, pulverizing, raking, leveling and ridging operations. (iii) Seed bed preparation It refers to a very shallow operation intended to prepare a seed bed or make the soil to suit for planting. Weed control and structural development of the soil are the objectives. 288 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY B. Inter Tillage/Inter Cultivation It refers to shallow tillage operation done in the filed after sowing or planting or prior to harvest of crop plants i.e., tillage during the crop stand in the field. It includes",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and structural development of the soil are the objectives. 288 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY B. Inter Tillage/Inter Cultivation It refers to shallow tillage operation done in the filed after sowing or planting or prior to harvest of crop plants i.e., tillage during the crop stand in the field. It includes inter cultivating, harrowing, hoeing, weeding, earthing up, forming ridges and furrows etc. Inter tillage helps to incorporate top dressed manures and fertilizers, to earth up and to prune roots. 7.4.2 Off Season Tillage Tillage operation is done for conditioning the soil during uncropped season with the main objective of water conservation, leveling to the desirable grade, leaching to remove salts for soil reclamation reducing the population of pest and diseases in the soils. etc. They are: (a) Stubble or Post harvest tillage Tillage operation carried out immediately after harvest of crop to clear off the weeds and crop residues and to restore the soil structure. Removing of stiff stubbles of sugarcane crop by turning and incorporating the trashes and weeds thus making the soil ready to store rain water etc., are the major objectives of such tillage operations. (b) Summer tillage Operation being done during summer season in tropics to destroy weeds and soil borne pest and diseases, checking the soil erosion and retaining the rain water through summer showers. It affects the soil aggregates, soil organic matter and sometimes favour wind erosion. It is called as Kodai uzavu in Tamil Nadu state. (c) Winter tillage It is practiced in temperate regions where the winter is severe that makes the field unfit for raising crops. Ploughing or harrowing is done in places where soil condition is optimum to destroy weeds and to improve the physical condition of the soil and also to incorporate plant residues. (d) Fallow tillage It refers",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "temperate regions where the winter is severe that makes the field unfit for raising crops. Ploughing or harrowing is done in places where soil condition is optimum to destroy weeds and to improve the physical condition of the soil and also to incorporate plant residues. (d) Fallow tillage It refers to the leaving of arable land uncropped for a season or seasons for various reasons. Tilled fallow represent an extreme condition of soil disturbance to eliminate all weeds and control soil borne pest etc. Fallow tilled soil is prone to erosion by wind and water and subsequently they become degraded and depleted. 7.4.3 Special Types Special type tillage includes (i) Subsoil tillage (sub soiling) is done to cut open/break the subsoil hard pan or plough pan using sub soil plough/chisel plough. Here the soil is not inverted. Sub soiling is done once in 4–5 years, where heavy machinery is used for field operations and where there is a colossal loss of topsoil due to carelessness. To avoid closing of sub soil furrow vertical mulching is adopted. (ii) Levelling by tillage Arable fields require a uniform distribution of water and plant nutrition for uniform crop growth. This is achieved when fields are kept fairly leveled. Levellers and scrapers are used for levelling operations. In leveled field soil erosion is restricted and other management practices become easy and uniform. (iii) Wet tillage This refers to tillage done when the soil is in a saturated (anaerobic) condition. For example puddling for rice cultivation. (iv) Strip tillage Ploughing is done as a narrow strip by mixing and tilling the soil leaving the remaining soil surface undisturbed. (v) Clean tillage Refers to the working of the soil of the entire field in such a way no living plant is left undisturbed. It is practiced to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(iv) Strip tillage Ploughing is done as a narrow strip by mixing and tilling the soil leaving the remaining soil surface undisturbed. (v) Clean tillage Refers to the working of the soil of the entire field in such a way no living plant is left undisturbed. It is practiced to control weeds, soil borne pathogen and pests. (vi) Ridge tillage It refers to forming ridges by ridge former or ridge plough for the purpose of planting. TILLAGE 289 (vii) Conservation tillage It means any tillage system that reduces loss of soil or water relative to conventional tillage. It is often a form of non-inversion tillage that retains protective amounts of crop residue mulch on the surface. The important criteria of a conservation tillage system are: (i) presence of crop residue mulch, (ii) effective conservation of soil and water, (iii) improvement of soil structure and organic matter content, and (iv) maintenance of high and economic level of production (refer section 7.10 of this chapter). (viii) Contour tillage It refers to tilling of the land along contours (contour means lines of uniform elevation) in order to reduce soil erosion and run off. (ix) Blind tillage It refers to tillage done after seeding or planting the crop (in a sterile soils) either at the pre-emergence stage of the crop plants or while they are in the early stages of growth so that crop plants (cereals, tuber crops etc.) do not get damaged, but extra plants and broad leaved weeds are uprooted. 7.5 FACTORS AFFECTING (INTENSITY AND DEPTH OF) THE TILLAGE OPERATIONS Several factors are responsible for deciding intensity and depth of tillage operations. They are soil type, crop and variety, type of farming, moisture status of the soil, climate and season, extent of weed infestation, irrigation methods, special needs and economic condition, and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "AFFECTING (INTENSITY AND DEPTH OF) THE TILLAGE OPERATIONS Several factors are responsible for deciding intensity and depth of tillage operations. They are soil type, crop and variety, type of farming, moisture status of the soil, climate and season, extent of weed infestation, irrigation methods, special needs and economic condition, and knowledge and experience of the farmer. (i) Crop It decides the type, intensity and depth of tillage operations with small sized seeds like finger millet, tobacco etc. Require a fine seedbed which can provide intimate soil-seed contact as against coarser seed bed required for larger size seeds such as sorghum, maize, pulses, etc. Root or tuber crops require deep tillage whereas rice requires shallow puddling. (ii) Soil type It dictates the time of ploughing. Light soils require early and rapid land preparation due to free drainage and low retentive capacity as against heavy soils. (iii) Climate It influences soil moisture content, draught required tilling and the type of cultivation. Low rainfall and poor water retentive capacity of shallow soil do not permit deep ploughing at the start of the season. Heavy soils developing cracks during summer (self tilled) need only harrowing. Light soils of arid regions need coarse tilth to minimize wind erosion. (iv) Type of farming It influences the intensity of land preparation. In dry lands, deep ploughing is necessary to eradicate perennial weeds and to conserve soil moisture. Repeated shallow tilling is adequate under such intensive cropping. (v) Cropping system In involves different crops, which need different types of tillage. Crop following rice needs repeated preparatory tillage for obtaining an ideal seedbed. Crops following tuber crops like potato require minimum tillage. Similarly crops following pulses need lesser tillage than that of following sorghum, maize or sugarcane. 7.6 DEPTH OF PLOUGHING Desirable ploughing depth is 12.5–20 cm. Ploughing depth",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of tillage. Crop following rice needs repeated preparatory tillage for obtaining an ideal seedbed. Crops following tuber crops like potato require minimum tillage. Similarly crops following pulses need lesser tillage than that of following sorghum, maize or sugarcane. 7.6 DEPTH OF PLOUGHING Desirable ploughing depth is 12.5–20 cm. Ploughing depth varies with effective root zone depth of the crops. Ploughing depth is 10–20 cm to shallow rooted crops and 15–30 cm to deep-rooted crops. Deep ploughing is done to control perennial weeds like Cyanodon dactylon and to break soil hard pans. Since deep ploughing increases the cost, most farers resort to shallow ploughing only. 7.7 NUMBER OF PLOUGHING It depends on soil conditions, time available for cultivation between two crops, (turn over period) type 290 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY of cropping systems etc. Small or fine seeded crop requires fine tilth, which may require more ploughings. Zero tillage is practiced in rice fallow pulse crops or relay cropping system. Three numbers of puddling is sufficient for rice cultivation. Minimum numbers of ploughing are taken up at optimum moisture level to bring favourable tilth depending on the need of the crop and financial resources of the farmer. In fact, this brought the concept of minimal tillage or zero tillage systems. 7.8 TIME OF PLOUGHING The time of ploughing is decided based on moisture status and type of soil. The optimum moisture content for tillage is 60% of field capacity. Ploughing at right moisture content is very important. Summer ploughing (March–May) can be practiced utilizing summer showers to control weeds and conserve soil moisture. Light soils can be worked under wide range of moisture. Loamy soils can be easily brought to good tilth. Pulverization of clay soils is difficult as they dry into hard clods. 7.9 METHOD OF PLOUGHING Ploughing aims at",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "be practiced utilizing summer showers to control weeds and conserve soil moisture. Light soils can be worked under wide range of moisture. Loamy soils can be easily brought to good tilth. Pulverization of clay soils is difficult as they dry into hard clods. 7.9 METHOD OF PLOUGHING Ploughing aims at stirring and disturbing the top layer of soil uniformly without leaving any unploughed strips of land. Straight and uniformly wide furrows give a neat appearance to the ploughed field. When the furrows are not straight or when the adjacent furrows are not uniformly spaced, narrow strips of land are left unploughed. The correct inter furrow space is little over the width of the furrow slice. After the harvest of a crop the land is first ploughed along the length of the field. This reduces the number of turns at the headlands for opening fresh furrows. The next ploughing is done across the field for breaking furrows of the previous ploughing. This must increase the turns at the headlands and the empty turns along the headlands, but is unavoidable. New turns are taken 6 m wide each time, till the entire field is covered. 7.10 MODERN CONCEPTS OF TILLAGE In conventional tillage combined primary and secondary tillage operations are performed in preparing seed bed by using animal or tractor, which cause hard pan in sub soils resulting in poor infiltration of rain water, thus it is more susceptible to run off and soil erosion. Farmers usually prepare fine seed bed by repeated ploughing, when the animal of the farm is having less work. Research has shown that frequent tillage is rarely beneficial and often detrimental. Repeated use of heavy machinery destroys structures, causes soil pans and leads to soil erosion. Moreover energy is often wasted during tillage processes. All these reasons",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "repeated ploughing, when the animal of the farm is having less work. Research has shown that frequent tillage is rarely beneficial and often detrimental. Repeated use of heavy machinery destroys structures, causes soil pans and leads to soil erosion. Moreover energy is often wasted during tillage processes. All these reasons led to the development of modern concepts namely the practices like minimum tillage, zero tillage, stubble mulch farming and conservation tillage, etc. 7.10.1 Minimum Tillage Minimum tillage is aimed at reducing tillage to the minimum necessary for ensuring a good seedbed, rapid germination, a satisfactory stand and favourable growing conditions. Tillage can be reduced in two ways by omitting operations, which do not give much benefit when compared to the cost, and by combining agricultural operations like seeding and fertilizer application. (a) Advantages (especially in coarse and medium textured soils) • Improved soil conditions due to decomposition of plant residues in situ. • Higher infiltration caused by the vegetation present on the soil and channels formed by the decomposition of dead roots. • Less resistance to root growth due to improved structure. TILLAGE 291 • Less soil compaction by the reduced movement of heavy tillage vehicles. • Less soil erosion compared to conventional tillage. (b) Disadvantages • Seed germination is lower with minimum tillage. • More nitrogen has to be added as the rate of decomposition of organic matter is slow. This point holds good only in temperate regions. Contrary to this in tropics, minimum tillage recommended to conserve organic matter in the soil. • Nodulation is affected in some leguminous crops like peas and broad beans. • Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary equipment. • Continuous use of herbicides causes pollution problems and dominance of perennial problematic weeds (weed shift). • Minimum tillage can be achieved by the following",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "matter in the soil. • Nodulation is affected in some leguminous crops like peas and broad beans. • Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary equipment. • Continuous use of herbicides causes pollution problems and dominance of perennial problematic weeds (weed shift). • Minimum tillage can be achieved by the following methods: (a) Row zone tillage Primary tillage is done with mould board plough in the entire area of the field, secondary tillage operations like discing and harrowing are reduced and done only in row zone. (b) Plough-plant tillage After the primary tillage a special planter is used for sowing. In one run over the field, the row zone is pulverized and seeds are sown by the planter. (c) Wheel track planting Primary ploughing is done as usual. Tractor is used for sowing, the wheels of the tractor pulverize the row zone in which planting is done. 7.10.2 Zero Tillage/No Tillage/Chemical Tillage Zero tillage is an extreme form of minimum tillage. Primary tillage is completely avoided and secondary tillage is restricted to seedbed preparation in the row zone only. It is also known as no-tillage and is resorted to places where soils are subjected to wind and water erosion, timing of tillage operation is too difficult and requirements of energy and labour for tillage are also too high. Weeds are controlled using herbicides. Hence, it is also referred as chemical tillage. There are two types of zero tillage. (a) Till Planting is one method of practicing zero tillage. A wide sweep and trash bars clear a strip over the previous crop row and planter–opens a narrow strip into which seeds are planted and covered. In zero tillage, herbicide functions are extended. Before sowing, the vegetation present has to be destroyed for which broad spectrum non-selective herbicides with relatively short residual effect",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and trash bars clear a strip over the previous crop row and planter–opens a narrow strip into which seeds are planted and covered. In zero tillage, herbicide functions are extended. Before sowing, the vegetation present has to be destroyed for which broad spectrum non-selective herbicides with relatively short residual effect (Paraquat, Glyphosate etc.) are used and subsequently selective and persistent herbicides are needed (Atrazine, Alachlor etc.). (b) Sod planting or sod culture: Sod refers to top few centimeters of soil permeated by and held together with grass roots or grass-legume roots. Planting of seeds in sods without any tillage operation is known as sod culture or sod seeding. Usually legumes or small grains are mechanically placed directly into a sod. Advantages • Zero tilled soils are homogenous in structure with more number of earthworms. These soil physical properties are apparent after two years of zero tillage. • The organic matter content increases due to less mineralization. • Surface runoff is reduced due to the presence of mulch. 292 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Disadvantages • In temperate countries highest dose of nitrogen has to be applied for mineralization of organic matter in zero tillage. • Large population of perennial weeds appears in zero tilled plots. • Higher number of volunteer plants and build up of pests are the other problems. 7.10.3 Stubble Mulch Tillage or Stubble Mulch Farming In this tillage, soil is protected at all times either by growing a crop or by leaving the crop residues on the surface during fallow periods. Sweeps or blades are generally used to cut the soil up to 12 to 15 cm depth in the first operation after harvest and the depth of cut is reduced during subsequent operations. When unusually large amount of residues are present, a disc type implement is used",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "during fallow periods. Sweeps or blades are generally used to cut the soil up to 12 to 15 cm depth in the first operation after harvest and the depth of cut is reduced during subsequent operations. When unusually large amount of residues are present, a disc type implement is used for the first operation to incorporate some of the residues into the soil. Two methods are adopted for sowing crops in stubble mulch farming. • Similar to zero tillage, a wide sweep and trash-bars are used to clear a strip and a narrow planter-shoe opens a narrow furrow into which seeds are placed. • A narrow chisel of 5–10 cm width is worked through the soil at a depth of 15–30 cm leaving all plant residues on the surface. The chisel shatters tillage pans and surface crusts. Planting is done through residues with special planters. Disadvantages • The residues left on the surface interfere with seedbed preparation and sowing operations. • The traditional tillage and sowing implements or equipments are not suitable under these conditions. 7.10.4 Conservation Tillage Though it is similar to that of stubble mulch tillage, it is done to conserve soil and water by reducing their losses. Modern tillage methods are practiced in western countries especially in USA. In India, it is not suitable due to several reasons. In USA, straw and stubbles are left over in the field but in India, it is a valuable fodder for the cattle and fuel for the home. Use of heavy machinery in India is limited and therefore, problem of soil compaction is rare. The type of minimum tillage that can be practiced in India is to reduce the number of ploughings to the minimum necessary i.e., unnecessary repeated ploughings/harrowing can be avoided. 7.11 TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS Any device used to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "heavy machinery in India is limited and therefore, problem of soil compaction is rare. The type of minimum tillage that can be practiced in India is to reduce the number of ploughings to the minimum necessary i.e., unnecessary repeated ploughings/harrowing can be avoided. 7.11 TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS Any device used to carry on some work is called as implement. Implements are operated by animal power or by machinery. Implements are classified into primary, secondary and intercultural, depending on the purpose for which it is being used. 7.11.1 Primary Tillage Implements Primary tillage is the deepest operations/performed during the period between two crops. The following are the implements used for primary tillage. 1. Country/wooden/Desi plough The indigenous plough consists of a wooden body to which a handle and a shaft pole are attached. The body is made of a bent piece of hard wood with two arms making an angle of about 135°. It is given a wedge shape with an isosceles triangular section. A small piece of flat iron (shares) serves as the piercing point of the plough and is fixed TILLAGE 293 over the plough body with clamps. The shaft pole is secured with the yoke during working. The working of plough results in the opening of ‘V’ shaped furrow. The width of furrow depends on the size of the plough bottom. The depth of penetration of a country plough can be altered a little by pulling the implement behind or pushing forward, which results in deeper or shallow ploughings respectively. It covers 0.15 to 0.20 hectare in 8 hours. 2. Improved iron plough The bullock drawn improved iron plough is made of mild steel except the pole shaft and hence it has longer life. As and when the share wears off, it can be pushed forward. Pole shaft angle",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "respectively. It covers 0.15 to 0.20 hectare in 8 hours. 2. Improved iron plough The bullock drawn improved iron plough is made of mild steel except the pole shaft and hence it has longer life. As and when the share wears off, it can be pushed forward. Pole shaft angle and height of the handle can be adjusted according to field requirements. The plough is provided with a mould board as optional attachment for soil inversion. This plough is suitable for dry ploughing in all types of soil with a pair of bullocks. It covers 0.5 ha per day and costs Rs. 750-1000/-. 3. Bose plough It is wooden plough with a mould board can share instead of the usual small iron share. It is used for the primary tillage operations in wetlands. Nowadays this plough is made up of iron angles instead of woods to make it sturdy. It is also called as Melur plough in Tamil Nadu. 4. Mould board plough It is a modern tillage implement used to plough deeply and pulverize the soil. It is more durable, easy to pull and can be adjusted properly. The main parts of the mould board plough are the frog or body, handle, beam, share, mould board, wheel and coulter. This type of plough leaves no unploughed land as the furrow slices are cut clean and inverted to one side resulting in better pulverization. The animal drawn mould board plough is small, ploughs to a depth of 15 cm. Big size tractor drawn mould board ploughs can plough up to a depth of 30 cm. Mould board ploughs are used when soil inversion is necessary. Victory plough is an animal drawn mould board plough with a short shaft. 5. Turn wrest plough This is also called reversible plough. The mould",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "size tractor drawn mould board ploughs can plough up to a depth of 30 cm. Mould board ploughs are used when soil inversion is necessary. Victory plough is an animal drawn mould board plough with a short shaft. 5. Turn wrest plough This is also called reversible plough. The mould board with share is hinged either left or right side of the central body with a hook. When the mould board is needed to shift to another side, the hook is released and the mould board is easily swing to the opposite side. By this when the plough reaches to one end of the land instead the mould board can be shifted Fig. 7.1 Ploughing with country plough Fig. 7.2 Rotavator Fig. 7.2a Tractor operated rotavator 294 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY to other side and the ploughing can be continued, so that furrow slices will uniformly fall and same direction. 6. Disc plough In the disc plough, the share, the mould board and coulter of the mould board plough are replaced by an inclined concave steel disc of 60-90 cm diameter, set at an angle to the direction of travel. Each disc revolves on an axle and the angel of the disc to the vertical position and to the furrow wall is adjustable. Lever arrangements are provided to lift the discs clear off the ground and for changing the angle of molding and adjusting the depth of penetration of the discs into the soil. While working, the discs rotate, scoop out furrows, invert the furrow slice and pulverize them thoroughly. Disc plough is especially useful under the following soil conditions: Soil with hard pan and sticky soil, Dry hard ground,Rough and stony ground, Ploughing weedy lands and lands with stubbles, Deep ploughing. Fig. 7.3 Mould board plough Fig. 7.3a Disc",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "out furrows, invert the furrow slice and pulverize them thoroughly. Disc plough is especially useful under the following soil conditions: Soil with hard pan and sticky soil, Dry hard ground,Rough and stony ground, Ploughing weedy lands and lands with stubbles, Deep ploughing. Fig. 7.3 Mould board plough Fig. 7.3a Disc plough 7. Reversible disc plough It is constructed in such a way that the disc can be reversed and the soil is thrown on one side. The land and furrow wheel adjust themselves properly when the plough is reversed. Reversible disc plough saves time taken up by ordinary disc plough. The furrow slice cut at each trip by the reversible disc plough is laid over the previous furrow thus resulting in a leveled field after ploughing. 8. Chisel plough or subsoil plough It is bullock drawn implement used to break hardpan that exists in the soil due to continuous same type of operation. It consists of a curved chisel “C” like tyne with 37 cm radius of curvature and 3 cm thickness. It is rigidly held in a frame, which is provided with a handle and a shaft pole. The operation of this plough is the same as that of an ordinary plough. It makes a simple vertical cut in the sub soil up to a depth of 45 cm and facilitates the downward movement of water and sub soil drainage. Chiseling becomes necessary in soil with hard impermeable plough pan. Both animal drawn (coverage 2 ha/day) costs Rs. 1200/and tractor drawn (coverage 5 ha/day) costs Rs. 6000/are available for usage. 7.11.2 Secondary Tillage Implements Secondary tillage is the shallow operation performed after the primary tillage. Secondary tillage implements are used for breaking clods and producing a loose, friable, smooth state. These implements are used with the following objectives. •",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "tractor drawn (coverage 5 ha/day) costs Rs. 6000/are available for usage. 7.11.2 Secondary Tillage Implements Secondary tillage is the shallow operation performed after the primary tillage. Secondary tillage implements are used for breaking clods and producing a loose, friable, smooth state. These implements are used with the following objectives. • Breaking the furrow slice and working the soil to get the required tilth • Destruction of weeds • Stirring the soil and forming mulch TILLAGE 295 • Mixing the manures and fertilizers with soil • Covering the seeds 1. Cultivators These implements have number of tines for piercing the soil and breaking clods. Tines of 23–30 cm long are fixed to a heavy and sturdy, frame, mounted on wheels. These tines penetrate up to a depth of 20 cm in heavy models. Cultivators are used when the soil is ploughed deep with heavy mould board ploughs to break the big clods that are formed. Fig. 7.4 Cultivator Fig. 7.4a Disc harrow 2. Harrows They are smaller implements with many tines like cultivators. Used for breaking smaller clods left unbroken by cultivators and for producing a powdery seedbed. Tines are set closer (5-8 cm) and are smaller in size. They penetrate up to about 10 cm depth. There are different types of harrows in use. A. Spike tooth harrow Peg like steel tines of round, oval, square, triangular or rhomboid section are fixed on a rigid or flexible frames for use under different soil conditions. Rhomboid section offers straight cutting edge and it enters the soil properly and is better than others. In undulating lands the flexible types adjust themselves to the uneven surface. When the frame is of a zigzag type it called zigzag harrow. B. Spring tine harrow Instead of rigid tines strong steel springs shaped like the letter",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and it enters the soil properly and is better than others. In undulating lands the flexible types adjust themselves to the uneven surface. When the frame is of a zigzag type it called zigzag harrow. B. Spring tine harrow Instead of rigid tines strong steel springs shaped like the letter “C” are attached to the frame. Depth of penetration is adjusted with lever arrangements. Tines ride over rocky and other obstructions in the field and are not damaged since the spring tines recoil on obstruction. Due to vibration they pulverize clods better than rigid types. C. Chain harrow Number of stout steel links is connected together to spread over the soil like a mat. Links may have spike like projections. Since, they are flexible they adjust unevenness of the surface. These harrows are used for breaking clods and making the surface smooth and even. It can also be used for covering seeds after broadcasting. D. Disc harrow These harrows are made up of number of concave discs of 46–56 cm in diameter, fitted 15 cm apart on square axles. Two sets of discs are mounted on different axles. Discs cut through the soil and effectively pulverize clods. Small animal drawn harrows have six discs and power driven harrows have larger number. E. Intercultivating harrow Different types of harrows are used for intercultivation. Tines pass through the inter row spaces and effectively remove the weeds. The typical example of the intercultivating harrow is junior hoe. Different attachments can be made in the tines of the junior hoe to make use of same harrow for different purposes. 296 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Sweeps are blades that move horizontally under the soil and cut the shallow rooted weeds. There are two kinds of sweeps. The Central sweep attached to the central tines has",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the tines of the junior hoe to make use of same harrow for different purposes. 296 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Sweeps are blades that move horizontally under the soil and cut the shallow rooted weeds. There are two kinds of sweeps. The Central sweep attached to the central tines has horizontal wings extending on both the sides. The One side sweep has the wing on the right or left side. On the side tines, one-sided sweeps are fixed on the side away from the crop rows. Hiller is a rhomboidal curved steel plate, shaped like the mould board, which is used for earthing up crop rows. Furrows have a double mould board one on either side, which splits the furrow slice and lays it on both sides equally. It is used with a central tine to open the furrow for sowing or to clean the furrow for irrigation. Cultivator steel is a steel plate with sharp edge, which penetrates into the soil. F. Blade Harrows Different from conventional harrows in that there are no tines but they are fixed with horizontal blades, which enter into the soil and travel below the surface at a constant depth. These blades severe (cut) the surface layer from the soil below and leaves it in its original position with slight disturbance to the surface soil. These harrows cut the weeds, eradicate all weeds except those, which have under ground bulbs. The Guntaka is the blade harrow used for primary tillage in ceded districts of Andhra Pradesh. It has a horizontal wooden beam of 15 cm diameter with a fixed handle, shaft pole and blade. The blade is fixed to the beam near the ends by two standards at 25 cm distance from beam. The blade is 1.0 m long, 7.5 cm broad and 1.25",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Andhra Pradesh. It has a horizontal wooden beam of 15 cm diameter with a fixed handle, shaft pole and blade. The blade is fixed to the beam near the ends by two standards at 25 cm distance from beam. The blade is 1.0 m long, 7.5 cm broad and 1.25 cm thick, with a cutting edge in front. Big sized guntakas are called as bara guntakas (1.8 m long blade). Small guntakas with 15 to 33 cm long blades are called as danties that are used for inter cultivation in crops, spaced at 28–46 cm apart. Since they are small, five or six danties are attached to a common yoke and guided by three or four people. It covers 0.4 ha/day of eight hours. 7.11.3 Inter Cultural Implements (i) Japanese rotary weeder It consists of two small-toothed rollers or drums mounted on a frame provided with handle. Each roller consists of about 5-toothed blades. This implement, while working is pushed and pulled alternatively by the operator in between rows of rice crop. The float provided will guide the implements smoothly while working and prevent the implement sinking into the puddle. The weeder is used to bury the weeds into the mud so as to decompose them add organic matter to the soil, sufficient for working this implement. (ii) Conoweeder It is also similar to rotary weeder in which instead of two toothed rollers or drums two toothed cones are mounted on a frame provided with handle. This implement while working is pushed and pulled alternatively by the operation in between rows of rice crop. The float provided will guide the implement smoothly while working and prevent the implement from sinking. (iii) Long-handled weeders Long handled weeders are used for weeding in row crops for removing shallow rooted weeds. Useful in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is pushed and pulled alternatively by the operation in between rows of rice crop. The float provided will guide the implement smoothly while working and prevent the implement from sinking. (iii) Long-handled weeders Long handled weeders are used for weeding in row crops for removing shallow rooted weeds. Useful in dry land and garden land crops when the soil moisture content is 8–10 percent. They are manually operated. One-man labour covers 0.05 ha/day. It costs Rs. 350/-. (a) Peg tooth type It is a long handled tool consists of two numbers of 2.5 cm diameter, 120 cm long pipes over which 52 cm long handled is fitted. To the bottom of the vertical pipe frames, two arms made of 25 × 2.5 × 0.3 cm MS plates are fitted. At the extreme end of the arm, peg wheel is placed. The blade can be adjusted to the desired angle and depth. The peg teeth permit the movement of the roller in clay soil without getting clogged. TILLAGE 297 (b) Star wheel type It is similar to the peg type weeder excepting that the star type roller facilitates easier operation of the weeders in loamy and sandy soils. 7.11.4 Special Purpose Implements Implements that are used for a specific purpose other than primary or secondary and intercultural tillage are called as special purpose implements. The following are some of them. 7.11.4.1 Multipurpose tool bar/carrier The multipurpose tool carrier is used for primary, secondary and intercultural operations, forming bunds, ridges and furrows and for sowing crops in rows. It is suitable for all soils. A multipurpose tool carrier is made up to G.I. tube, which has the provision to attach cultivators (4 Nos.), ploughs (3 Nos.), ridger (2 Nos.), seed drill (4 Nos.) and bund formers (2 Nos.). The spacing between rows",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and for sowing crops in rows. It is suitable for all soils. A multipurpose tool carrier is made up to G.I. tube, which has the provision to attach cultivators (4 Nos.), ploughs (3 Nos.), ridger (2 Nos.), seed drill (4 Nos.) and bund formers (2 Nos.). The spacing between rows is adjustable. The field capacity of plough is 1.2 ha/day, while for cultivator and ridger, it is about 0.74 ha/day. 7.11.4.2 Land leveling implements (a) Buck scraper It is a bullock-drawn implement made up of steel sheets like an open box with a bottom and three sides; the fourth side is left open. Two flat steel runners are provided at the bottom to protect the base and prevent the steel plate from being worn-out while leveling. Two handles are fixed at the sides for assisting in filling the box with earth and for emptying the contents. The drawbar is attached to the sides with hinge arrangement. It is a bullock drawn implement very useful to carry the soil to a long distance while levelling. (b) Levelling board It is a channel like or trapezoidal shaped wooden board with 2-2.75 m length and 20 cm diameter. It is attached to the shaft pole with a hinged hook. It is used for levelling rice fields after the final ploughing to facilitate uniform seed germination. When the operator stands over the board; it sinks lightly into the loose mud and when it moves, the soil in front of it is also moved, but is released when he gets down. (c) Wooden float It is a bullock drawn implement with a long sledge-like drag used for land smothering. By working the field with wooden float three or four times lengthwise, crosswise and diagonally the field is smoothen in a better way. 7.11.4.3 Land shaping",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is released when he gets down. (c) Wooden float It is a bullock drawn implement with a long sledge-like drag used for land smothering. By working the field with wooden float three or four times lengthwise, crosswise and diagonally the field is smoothen in a better way. 7.11.4.3 Land shaping implements (a) Ridge plough It is a bullock or tractor drawn implement. It is a double mould board plough with mould boards on both the sides, which meet along a central line. The mould boards are either fixed or adjustable so that the width of the furrow can be adjusted. The ridge plough lays the earth on both the sides equally, leaving an open furrow in the middle. It forms furrows and not ridges. However, when the furrows are close to one another; the inter furrow spaces take the form of ridges but when furrows are formed apart for planting sugarcane, cotton, etc., the inter furrow spaces take the form of ridges but when furrows are formed apart for planting sugarcane, cotton, etc., the inter-furrow spaces take the form of raised flat beds. (b) Bund former This consists of a pair of opposing wings, which are wide apart in front and converge towards the rear with a gap at the end. The wings gather loose soil from the surface and leave it in the form of bund with approximately 18-20 cm in height. To form reduced size bunds, the wings are lightly raised at the fore end and pulled a little backward. When the implement is hitched near the yoke, a small quantity of earth alone is gathered. The gaps formed at the intersection of long and cross bunds while working with the implement are closed with manual labour. Ridges for sowing cotton and similar crops are also formed with",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "little backward. When the implement is hitched near the yoke, a small quantity of earth alone is gathered. The gaps formed at the intersection of long and cross bunds while working with the implement are closed with manual labour. Ridges for sowing cotton and similar crops are also formed with bund former, with the bunds close to one another as when irrigation channels are formed. 298 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (c) Bed-furrow former It is a tractor-drawn iron implement, which is capable of forming alternate beds and channels. It will form two beds and three furrows in one pass of unit. Using this implement a well defined, raised beds 30 cm wide at top and ‘V’ shaped channels 45 cm wide and 15 cm deep are formed on the well-ploughed and harrowed field. It covers an area of 3–3.5 ha/day. (d) Rollers The rollers are used for breaking clods and compacting the soil. There are different types of rollers in use. (i) In Iron rollers cast iron rings of 0.6 m in diameter are fixed to an axle and provided with a hoped frame for hitching with power unit. Surface of the roller may be plain or fluted or ribbed. The fluted and ribbed rollers are more efficient in breaking clods. The plain rollers are used for compacting the soil surface. (ii) Stone rollers are commonly used for threshing grains. They are made up of cylindrical stone with 0.75 m length and 0.4 m diameter. (iii) Sheep foot roller is the latest implement developed by TNAU, to create partial compaction in rice fields in light soils. It has a cylindrical drum with projections on the surface like sheep foot. 7.11.4.4 Sowing implements (a) Country seed drill/‘Gorru’ It consists of a horizontal beam on which a number of tines are fixed",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the latest implement developed by TNAU, to create partial compaction in rice fields in light soils. It has a cylindrical drum with projections on the surface like sheep foot. 7.11.4.4 Sowing implements (a) Country seed drill/‘Gorru’ It consists of a horizontal beam on which a number of tines are fixed at suitable distances. The tine is like the body of the common wooden plough, but is much smaller. It has a vertical hole, a little above the point of penetration into the soil. Seeds are released from the above placed seed hoppers steadily few seeds at a time. The base of the hopper has as many holes as there are tines in the gorru and narrow bamboo or metal tubes connect the hopper and the tines. This enables the seeds released in the hopper being dropped in the furrows opened by the tines. The hopper and the seed tubes are held in position with thin ropes. (b) Mechanical seed drills It is of both bullock and tractor drawn. (i) Bullock drawn seed drill/TNAU improved planter A medium size five tined cup feed seed drill suitable for heavy size bullocks, a small three tined cup feed seed drill called as Kovai seed drill are suitable for small pair of bullocks. These drills are suitable for sowing seeds of groundnut, maize, sorghum, cotton, Bengal gram and pulses. It covers on ha per day and costs Rs. 3,500/-. (ii) Tractor drawn seed drill Both simultaneous formation of 1.5 m wide beds and sowing in the bed is possible using this drill. The implement consists of a pair of furrowers made of sheet metal with suitable hitching arrangements to the three-point linkage of the tractor. Over the framework of these furrowers 7 numbers of hoppers with metering mechanisms have been mounted. This implement simultaneously",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the bed is possible using this drill. The implement consists of a pair of furrowers made of sheet metal with suitable hitching arrangements to the three-point linkage of the tractor. Over the framework of these furrowers 7 numbers of hoppers with metering mechanisms have been mounted. This implement simultaneously sows in seven rows in the broad bed. It covers an area of 4 ha/day and saves 25% of sowing cost. (iii) Rice drum seeder for wetland (Drum seeder for direct sowing of rice) A manually pulled, rice seeder has been developed at TNAU for sowing pregerminated rice seeds in rows directly in well puddled and leveled soil. It requires 2 labourers and covers 0.4 ha/day. Using this seeder green manures (Sesbania sp.) can also be sown as intercrop in between rice rows. Cost of this seeder is Rs. 3000/-. 7.11.4.5 Implements for wetlands Under wetland system the land is prepared by puddling for planting wet rice. Puddling means mechanical manipulation of saturated soils with standing water in the field. Actually the structure of the TILLAGE 299 soil is destroyed under puddling. The optimum depth of puddling is about 10 cm in the clay and clayloam types of soils. Good puddling or neatly ploughed means the soil should be soft, uniformly leveled without weeds or stubbles and with minimum percolation. A. Why puddling? Puddling is done • To obtain a soft seedbed for the seedling to establish faster, • To minimize percolation of water so that water can stagnate in the field, • To minimize leaching loss of nutrients and thereby increase the availability of plant nutrients, • To facilitate better availability of nutrient by achieving reduced soil condition, • To incorporate the weeds and stubbles into the soils, and • To minimize the weed problems The implements used for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the field, • To minimize leaching loss of nutrients and thereby increase the availability of plant nutrients, • To facilitate better availability of nutrient by achieving reduced soil condition, • To incorporate the weeds and stubbles into the soils, and • To minimize the weed problems The implements used for puddling the wet soils are as follows: (i) Country plough, (ii) Bose plough, (iii) Wetland puddler, (iv) Cage wheel, (v) Sheep foot roller, and (vi) Helical bladed puddler. (i), (ii) and (v) were discussed already in this chapter. (iii) Wetland puddler It consists of three angular bladed cast iron hoods rigidly fixed to a hallow horizontal pipe and is rotated when dragged by a pair of bullocks. This implement is proved to be an economic, labour saving and an effective dual-purpose implement useful for puddling and trampling green leaf manure in the puddle field. When used for trampling the vegetative matter is cut and buried in the soil. It covers an area of 0.8 ha/day. (iv) Cage wheel It is used for puddling in medium and heavy clayey soils in wetlands for rice cultivation. The cage wheels are attached in place of pneumatic wheels in power tiller and tractor. The cage wheels perform well in all the fields except in fields with clay and silt content of the soil was more than 56%. It saves cost, time and brings more uniformity and thoroughness in the puddle than country ploughing. Cage wheel attached to power tiller covers an area of 0.44 ha/day. The average depth of puddle is 23 cm. (vi) Helical bladed puddler It is used to puddle the wetland soil after initial ploughing with country plough or melur plough. It is a bullock-drawn implement. Five numbers of helical blades made of mild steel are fixed in a skewed shape",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "ha/day. The average depth of puddle is 23 cm. (vi) Helical bladed puddler It is used to puddle the wetland soil after initial ploughing with country plough or melur plough. It is a bullock-drawn implement. Five numbers of helical blades made of mild steel are fixed in a skewed shape and mounted on a wooden frame having wooden bearing such that the blades can rotate freely. A handle and pole shaft are provided. Due to the helical shape of the blade, there will be continuous contact between the blades and the soil, which gives uniform load on the neck of the bullocks. After ploughing the land with country plough, the implement can be used to puddle the soil up to a depth of 10 cm. The helical geometry facilitates better churning and slicing of the soil required for puddling. It covers 0.6 ha/day. Fig. 7.5 Main field preparation using power tiller operated cage wheel 300 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Chapter 8 Seeds and Sowing Plants reproduce sexually by seeds and asexually by vegetative parts. Grains, which are used for multiplication, are called seeds while those used for human or animal consumption are called grains. Good stalks of planting materials are basic to profitable crop production. The seed or planting material largely determines the quality and quantity of the produce. A good seed or stalk of planting material is genetically satisfactory and true to type, fully developed and free from contamination, deformities, diseases and pests. Seed is a fertilized ripened ovule consisting of three main parts namely seed coat, endosperm and embryo, which in due course gives raise to a new plant. Endosperm is the storage organ for food substance that nourishes the embryo during its development. Seed coat is the outer cover that protects or shields the embryo and endosperm.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "consisting of three main parts namely seed coat, endosperm and embryo, which in due course gives raise to a new plant. Endosperm is the storage organ for food substance that nourishes the embryo during its development. Seed coat is the outer cover that protects or shields the embryo and endosperm. 8.1 CHARACTERISTICS A good quality seed should posses the following characteristics. • Seed must be true to its type i.e., genetically pure, free from admixtures and should belong to the proper variety or strain of the crop and their duration should be according to agroclimate and cropping system of the locality. • Seed should be pure, viable, vigorous and have high yielding potential. • Seed should be free from seed borne diseases and pest infection. • Seed should be clean; free from weed seeds or any inert materials. • Seed should be in whole and not broken or damaged; crushed or peeled off; half filled and half rotten. • Seed should meet the prescribed uniform size and weight. • Seed should be as fresh as possible or of the proper age. • Seed should contain optimum amount of moisture (8-12%). • Seed should have high germination percentage (more than 80%). • Seed should germinate rapidly and uniformly when sown. 8.2 ADVANTAGES OF USING GOOD QUALITY SEEDS The following are the advantages of using good quality seeds. • Reduced cost of cleaning, standardization and disinfections. SEEDS AND SOWING 301 • Uniform germination thus avoiding replanting, gap filling. • Vigorous seedling growth, which reduces weed and disease, damages. • Uniform growth stages, maturity and products. • Maintain good quality under storage conditions. • Reduced cost. 8.3 SEED GERMINATION Germination is a protrusion of radicle or seedling emergence. Germination results in rupture of the seed coat and emergence of seedling from embryonic axis.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "which reduces weed and disease, damages. • Uniform growth stages, maturity and products. • Maintain good quality under storage conditions. • Reduced cost. 8.3 SEED GERMINATION Germination is a protrusion of radicle or seedling emergence. Germination results in rupture of the seed coat and emergence of seedling from embryonic axis. Factors affecting germination are soil, environment, water, temperature, light, atmospheric gases and exogenous chemicals required for germination of seeds. Factors affecting Soil: Soil type, texture, structure and microorganism greatly influence the seed germination. Environment: Generally, the environmental conditions favouring growth of seedling also favours germination. Germination does not occur until the seeds attain physiological maturity. Water (soil moisture and seed moisture): Imbibitions of water is the prerequisite process for germination. Both living and dead seeds imbibe water and swell. Dead seeds imbibe more water and swell rapidly as compared to good seeds. The amount imbibed is related to the chemical composition of the seed such as proteins, mucilage’s pectins and biochemical components. Cereal grains such as maize imbibe water to approximately 1/3 of its seed weight, soybean seeds to 1/2 of its seed weight. Seed germination will be maximum when the soil moisture level is at field capacity. Slower rate of germination is noticed in places where soil moisture is near or at wilting point. Temperature: The cardinal temperature (Maximum, optimum and minimum temperature) for germination of some of the crops is given below; The optimum temperature is that one gives the highest germination percentage in the shortest period of time. Table 8.1. Cardinal Temperature for important Crops Minimum °C Optimum °C Maximum °C Maize 8–10 20–25 30–35 Rice 10–12 20–27 30–32 Wheat 3–5 15–31 33 Light: The most effective wavelength for promoting and inhibiting seed germination is red (660 nm) and infrared (730 nm), respectively. Atmospheric gases: Most crop",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "time. Table 8.1. Cardinal Temperature for important Crops Minimum °C Optimum °C Maximum °C Maize 8–10 20–25 30–35 Rice 10–12 20–27 30–32 Wheat 3–5 15–31 33 Light: The most effective wavelength for promoting and inhibiting seed germination is red (660 nm) and infrared (730 nm), respectively. Atmospheric gases: Most crop seeds germinate well in the ambient composition of air with 20% O2, 0.03% CO2 and 78.2% N. Exogenous chemicals: Some chemicals induce or favour quick and rapid germination. • Gibberellins stimulate germination in protoplasmic seeds. • Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is used for legumes, tomato and barley. • Ethylene (C2H4) is used for stimulating groundnut germination. 302 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 8.4 SEED RATE Seed rate is the quantity of seed required for sowing or planting in an unit area. The seed rate for a particular crop would depend not only on its seed size/test weight, but also on its desired population, germination percentage and purity percentage of seed. It is calculated as follows: 2 Area to be sown in m Test weight of the seed 1 Seed rate (kg) Germination% Purity% Spacing (m) 1000 × × = × × × 8.5 SEED TREATMENT Seed treatment is a process of application either by mixing or by coating or by soaking in solutions of chemicals or protectants (with fungicidal, insecticidal, bactericidal, nematicidal or biopesticidal properties), nutrients, hormones or growth regulators or subjected to a process of wetting and drying or subjected to reduce, control or repel disease organisms, insects or other pests which attack seeds or seedlings growing there from. Seed treatment also includes control of pests when the seed is in storage and after it has been sown/planted. The seed treatment is done for the following reasons; • To protect from seed borne pests and diseases. • To protect from or",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "which attack seeds or seedlings growing there from. Seed treatment also includes control of pests when the seed is in storage and after it has been sown/planted. The seed treatment is done for the following reasons; • To protect from seed borne pests and diseases. • To protect from or repel birds and rodents. • To supply plant nutrients. • To inoculate microorganisms. • To supply growth regulators. • To supply selective herbicides. • To break seed dormancy. • To induce drought tolerance. • To induce higher germination percentage, early emergence. • To obtain polyploids (genetic variation) by treating with x-rays, gamma rays and colchicines. • To facilitate mechanized sowing. 8.5.1 Methods of Seed Treatment 1. Dry treatment: Mixing of seed with powder form of pesticides/nutrients. 2. Wet treatment: Soaking of seed in pesticide/nutrient solutions 3. Slurry treatment: Dipping of seeds/seedlings in slurry. Example–rice seedlings are dipped in phosphate slurry. 4. Pelleting: It is the coating of solid materials in sufficient quantities to make the seeds larger, heavier and to appear uniform in size for sowing with seed drills. Pelleting with pesticides as a protectant against soil organisms, soil pests and as a repellant against birds and rodents. The seed treatment for different field crops is given in chapter 15. 8.6 SOWING Sowing is the placing of a specific quantity of seeds in the soil for germination and growth while planting is the placing of plant propagules (may be seedlings, cuttings, rhizomes, clones, tubers etc.) in the soil to grow as plants. SEEDS AND SOWING 303 8.6.1 Methods of Sowing Seeds are sown directly in the field (seed bed) or in the nursery (nursery bed) where seedlings are raised and transplanted later. Direct seeding may be done by (a) Broadcasting (b) Dibbling (c) Drilling (d) Sowing behind the country plough",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "as plants. SEEDS AND SOWING 303 8.6.1 Methods of Sowing Seeds are sown directly in the field (seed bed) or in the nursery (nursery bed) where seedlings are raised and transplanted later. Direct seeding may be done by (a) Broadcasting (b) Dibbling (c) Drilling (d) Sowing behind the country plough (e) Planting (f) Transplanting (a) Broad casting Broad casting is the scattering or spreading of the seeds on the soil, which may or may not be incorporated into the soil. Broadcasting of seeds may be done by hand, mechanical spreader or aeroplane. Broadcasting is the easy, quick and cheap method of seeding. The difficulties observed in broadcasting are uneven distribution, improper placement of seeds and less soil cover and compaction. As all the seeds are not placed in uniform density and depth, there is no uniformity of germination, seedling vigour and establishment. It is mostly suited for closely spaced and small seeded crops. (b) Dibbling It is the placing of seeds in a hole or pit made at a predetermined spacing and depth with a dibbler or planter or very often by hand. Dibbling is laborious, time consuming and expensive compared to broadcasting, but it requires less seeds and, gives rapid and uniform germination with good seedling vigour. (c) Drilling It is a practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth, covered with soil and compacted. Sowing implements like seed drill or seed cum fertilizer drill are used. Manures, fertilizers, soil amendments, pesticides, etc. may be applied along with seeds. Seeds are drilled continuously or at regular intervals in rows. It requires more time, energy and cost, but maintains uniform population per unit area. Rows are set according to the requirements. (d) Sowing behind the country plough It is an operation in which seeds are placed in the plough furrow",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Seeds are drilled continuously or at regular intervals in rows. It requires more time, energy and cost, but maintains uniform population per unit area. Rows are set according to the requirements. (d) Sowing behind the country plough It is an operation in which seeds are placed in the plough furrow either continuously or at required spacing by a man working behind a plough. When the plough takes the next adjacent furrow, the seeds in the previous furrow are closed by the soil closing the furrow. Depth of sowing is adjusted by adjusting the depth of the plough furrow. e.g., ground nut sowing in dry land areas of Tamil Nadu. (e) Planting Placing seeds or seed material firmly in the soil to grow. (f) Transplanting Planting seedlings in the main field after pulling out from the nursery. It is done to reduce the main field duration of the crops facilitating to grow more number of crops in an year. It is easy to give extra care for tender seedlings. For small seeded crops like rice and ragi which require shallow sowing and frequent irrigation for proper germination, raising nursery is the easiest way. Pre-monsoon sowing Normally, sowing is taken up after receipt of sufficient amount of rainfall (20 mm) in the case of dry land farming. Since sowing is continued for two or three days after a soaking rain, certain amount of moisture is last during the period between the receipt of rainfall and sowing. In the case of heavy clay soils (black soils), sowing operation is difficult after the receipt of rain. To over come this difficulty, sowing is taken up in dry soil prepared with summer rains, 7-10 days before the anticipated receipt of sowing rains. The seeds germinate after the receipt of the rainfall. This method of sowing",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "soils (black soils), sowing operation is difficult after the receipt of rain. To over come this difficulty, sowing is taken up in dry soil prepared with summer rains, 7-10 days before the anticipated receipt of sowing rains. The seeds germinate after the receipt of the rainfall. This method of sowing is known as dry sowing or pre-monsoon sowing. By this method, the entire rainfall received is efficiently utilized. 8.6.2 Factors involved in Sowing Management This can be classified into two broad groups. 304 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1. Mechanical factors Factors such as depth of sowing, emergence habit, seed size and weight, seedbed texture, seed–soil contact, seedbed fertility, soil moisture etc. (i) Seed size and weight: Heavy and bold seeds produce vigorous seedlings. Application of fertilizer to bold seed tends to encourage the seedlings than the seedlings from small seeds. (ii) Depth of sowing: Optimum depth of sowing ranges from 2.5–3 cm. Depth of sowing depends on seed size and availability of soil moisture. Deeper sowing delays field emergence and thus delays crop duration. Deeper sowing sometimes ensures crop survival under adverse weather and soil conditions mostly in dry lands. (iii) Emergence habit: Hypogeal seedlings may emerge from a relatively deeper layer than epigeal seedlings of similar seed size. (iv) Seedbed texture: Soil texture should minimize crust formation and maximize aeration, which in turn influence the gases, temperature and water content of the soil. Very fine soil may not maintain adequate temperature and water holding capacity. (v) Seeds–Soil contact: Seeds require close contact with soil particles to ensure that water can be absorbed readily. A tilled soil makes the contact easier. Forming the soil around the seed (broadcasted seeds) after sowing improves the soil–seed contact. (vi) Seedbed fertility: Tillering crops like rice, ragi, bajra etc., should be sown thinly on",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "require close contact with soil particles to ensure that water can be absorbed readily. A tilled soil makes the contact easier. Forming the soil around the seed (broadcasted seeds) after sowing improves the soil–seed contact. (vi) Seedbed fertility: Tillering crops like rice, ragi, bajra etc., should be sown thinly on fertile soils and more densely on poor soils. Similarly high seed rate is used on poor soil for non-tillering crops. Although higher the seed rate grater the yield under conditions of low soil fertility, in some cases such as cotton, a lower seed rate gives better result than a higher seed rate. (vii) Soil moisture: Excess moisture in soil retards germination and induce rotting and damping off disease except in swamp (deep water) rice. Adjustment in depth is made according to moisture conditions, i.e., deeper sowing on dry soils and shallow sowing on wet soils. Sowing on ridges is usually recommended on poorly drained soils. 2. Biological factors Factors like companion crops, competition for light, soil microorganisms etc. (i) Companion crop: Companion crop is usually sown early to suppress weed growth and control soil erosion. In cassava + maize/yam cropping, cassava is planted later in yam or maize to minimize the effect of competition for light. In mixed cropping, all the crops are sown at the same time. (ii) Competition of light: In mixed stands, optimum spacing for each crop minimizes the competition of light. (iii) Soil microorganisms: The microorganisms present in the soil should favour seed germination and should not posses any harmful effect on seeds/emerging seedlings. Chapter 9 Plant Density and Crop Geometry Plant density is the number of plants per unit area in a cropped field. It indicates the size of the area available for individual plant. Crop geometry is the pattern of distribution of plant over",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "not posses any harmful effect on seeds/emerging seedlings. Chapter 9 Plant Density and Crop Geometry Plant density is the number of plants per unit area in a cropped field. It indicates the size of the area available for individual plant. Crop geometry is the pattern of distribution of plant over the ground or the shape of the area available to the individual plant, in a crop field. 9.1 IMPORTANCE Yield of a crop depends on the final plant density. The density depends on the germination percentage and the survival rate in the field. Establishment of required plant density is essential to get maximum yield. For example when a crop is raised on stored soil moisture under rainfed conditions, high density will deplete moisture before crop maturity. Where as, low density will leave moisture unutilized. Hence, optimum density will lead to effective utilization of soil moisture, nutrients, sunlight etc. When soil moisture and nutrients are not limited, higher density is necessary to utilize other growth factors (solar radiation) efficiency. When maximum yield per plant. On the contrary when the density is more, individual plant gets narrow space leading to competition for growth factors between plants resulting in reduction of yield per plant. Yield per plant decreases gradually as plant density per unit area is increased as shown in the. However, the yield per unit area is increased up to a certain level of plant density due to utilization of growth factors. Maximum yield per unit area can, therefore, be obtained when the plant density is optimum. (a) Plant Density and Yield Biological yield increases with increases in plant density up to a point and reaches a plateau with further increase in density, thus no additional biological yield can be obtained. On the other hand, the economic yield increases with increase in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the plant density is optimum. (a) Plant Density and Yield Biological yield increases with increases in plant density up to a point and reaches a plateau with further increase in density, thus no additional biological yield can be obtained. On the other hand, the economic yield increases with increase in plant density up to a point and subsequently decreases with increased in density. (b) Plant Density and Growth Plant height increase with increase in plant density due to competition for light. Dense plant stands leads to reduction in leaf thickness and alters leaf orientation. Dry matter production per unit area increase with increase in plant density up to a limit, as in biological yield. 9.2 FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT DENSITY Optimum plant density is necessary to obtain maximum yield. Optimum plant density depends on size 306 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY of the plant, elasticity, foraging area, nature of the plant, capacity to reach optimum leaf area at an early date and seed rate used. The factors affecting plant density are grouped into two as (a) genetic and (b) environment factors. A. Genetic Factors (plant or internal factors) (i) Size of plant The volume occupied by the plant at the time of flowering decides the spacing of the crop. Plants of red gram, cotton, sugarcane etc., occupy larger volume of space in the field compared to rice, wheat, ragi, etc. Even the varieties of the same crop differ in size of plant. (ii) Elasticity of the plant Variation in size or plant between the minimum size of the plant that can produce some economic yield to the maximum size of the plant that can reach under unlimited space and resources is the elasticity of the plant. The optimum plant density range is high in indeterminate plants. For example, in indeterminate red gram",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "between the minimum size of the plant that can produce some economic yield to the maximum size of the plant that can reach under unlimited space and resources is the elasticity of the plant. The optimum plant density range is high in indeterminate plants. For example, in indeterminate red gram varieties the optimum plant density ranges from 55 to 133 thousand plants/ha. The elasticity of plants is due to branching or tillering. For determinate plants like maize, sorghum etc., the elasticity is less and hence the optimum plant density range is small. The removal of auxiliary buds is done to get uniform and early maturity in castor. (iii) Foraging area or soil cover The crop should cover the soil as early as possible so as to intercept maximum sunlight. More interception of solar radiation leads to more dry matter production. Closely spaced plants intercept more radiation than widely spaced plants. Area of root spread also decides the density. (iv) Dry matter partitioning Dry matter production is related to the amount of solar radiation intercepted by the canopy, which depends on the plant density. As the plant density increases, the canopy expands more rapidly, more radiation is intercepted and more dry matter is produced. B. Environmental Factors (management factors) The primary management factor affecting the plant density of any crop varieties is the method of stand establishment/sowings like transplanting or broadcasting. For transplanting/direct drilling, the genetic factors are the deciding factors on the number of plants per unit area. For broadcasting, the factors are: (i) Time of sowing The crop is subjected to different weather conditions when sown at different periods. Among the weather factors, the most important factors that influence optimum plant density are day length and temperature. Photosensitive varieties respond to day length resulting in change in size of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the factors are: (i) Time of sowing The crop is subjected to different weather conditions when sown at different periods. Among the weather factors, the most important factors that influence optimum plant density are day length and temperature. Photosensitive varieties respond to day length resulting in change in size of the plant. As low temperature retards the growth, higher density is established for quicker ground cover. (ii) Rainfall/irrigation Plant density has to be less under rainfed than irrigated conditions. Under higher plant densities, more water is lost through transpiration. Under adequate irrigation or under evenly distributed rainfall conditions, higher plant density is recommended. (iii) Fertilizer application Higher plant density is necessary to fully utilize higher level of nutrients in the soil to realize higher yield. Nutrient uptake increases with increase in plant density. Higher density under low fertility conditions leads to development of nutrient deficiency symptoms. For example, rice does not respond to plant density without nitrogen application. (iv) Seed rate Quantity of seed sown/unit area, viability and establishment rate decides the plant density. 9.3 CROP GEOMETRY Crop geometry refers to the shape of the space available for individual plants. It influences crop yield PLANT DENSITY AND CROP GEOMETRY 307 through its influence on light interception, rooting pattern and moisture extraction pattern. Crop geometry is altered by changing inter and intra-row spacing (Planting pattern). • Wider spaced crops have advantage under this geometry • Plants which requires no restriction in all directions are given square geometry • Usually perennial vegetations like trees/shrubs are under this arrangements (i) Square planting Square arrangements of plants will be more efficient in the utilization of light, water and nutrients available to the individual plants than in a rectangular arrangement. (ii) Rectangular planting Sowing the crop with seed drill, wider inter-row and closer intra-row and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "like trees/shrubs are under this arrangements (i) Square planting Square arrangements of plants will be more efficient in the utilization of light, water and nutrients available to the individual plants than in a rectangular arrangement. (ii) Rectangular planting Sowing the crop with seed drill, wider inter-row and closer intra-row and closer intra-row spacing leads to rectangularity. Rectangular arrangement facilitates easy intercultivation. Rectangular planting mainly suits annual crops, crops with closer spacing etc., the wider section (row) is given for irrigation, intercultural operation etc. • It is an arrangement to restrict the endless growth habit in order to switch over from vegetation to the productive phase. • This method accommodate high density planting • It can facilitate intercropping also. (iii) Triangular planting It is a method to accommodate plant density under perennial/tree crops. (iv) Miscellaneous planting In rice and ragi transplanting is done either in rows or at random. Skipping of every alternate row is known as skip row planting. When one row is skipped the density is adjusted by decreasing inter-row spacing. When the inter row spacing is reduced between two rows and spacing between two such pair are increased then it is known as pairedrow planting. It is generally done to introduce an inter crop. 9.4 AFTER CULTIVATION It refers to the cultural operations like thinning, gap filling, harrowing, tilling and other operations carried out in a field after the crop has emerged. Thinning and gap filling are done to keep optimum density. (i) Thinning is done to reduce higher density due to over seed rate or more seeds/hole and uneven broadcasting. Gap filling is done to fill the gaps that exist due to (i) poor quality seed, (ii) soil crusting, (iii) very shallow or very deep placement of seeds, and (iv) poor moisture availability in dry land. Gap",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "higher density due to over seed rate or more seeds/hole and uneven broadcasting. Gap filling is done to fill the gaps that exist due to (i) poor quality seed, (ii) soil crusting, (iii) very shallow or very deep placement of seeds, and (iv) poor moisture availability in dry land. Gap filling is done to maintain density by replacing with seedlings reserved for this purpose or resowing with seeds. (ii) Gap filling is done reasonably early so that plants come to maturity along with other plants. Time may vary with duration of crops. For example, in sugarcane it may be done even 30 days after planting. But in short duration crops like maize, sorghum, rice etc., it should be done within about 10-15 days. 308 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Chapter 10 Weeds Science Weeds are plants “out of place” in cultivated fields, lawns and other places i.e., a plant growing where it is “not desired” or Weeds are unwanted and undesirable plant that interfere with utilization of land and water resources and thus adversely affect crop production and human welfare. Sometimes Agriculture also defined as a battle with weeds as they strongly compete with crop plants for growth factors. 10.1 ORIGIN Weeds are no strangers to man. They have been there ever since he started to cultivate crops about 10,000 B.C. and undoubtedly recognized as a problem from the beginning. To him, any plant in the field other than his crop became weed. Again the characters of certain weed species are very similar to that of wild plants in the region. Some of the crops for example including the wheat of today are the derivatives of wild grass. Man has further improved them to suit his own taste and fancy. Even today they are crossed with wild varieties to transfer the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "very similar to that of wild plants in the region. Some of the crops for example including the wheat of today are the derivatives of wild grass. Man has further improved them to suit his own taste and fancy. Even today they are crossed with wild varieties to transfer the desirable characters such as drought and disease resistance. So the weeds are to begin with essential components of native and naturalized flora but in course of time these plants are well placed in new environment by the conscious and unconscious efforts of man. Hence, it is considered that many weeds principally originated from two important and major arbitrarily defined groups. • By man’s conscious effort • By invasion of plants into man created habitats In the world, 30,000 species of weeds have been listed. Out of which nearly 18,000 species cause serious damage to agricultural production. Eighteen weeds are considered as the most serious in the world and about twenty six species have been listed as principal weeds in crop fields of India, and are listed in annexure V. Weeds compete with crops for water, soil nutrients, light and space (i.e., CO2) and thus reduce crop yields. 10.2 CHARACTERISTICS Weeds are highly competitive and are highly adaptable under varied adverse situations. Reproductive mechanism is far superior to crop plants particularly under unfavourable side; therefore, weeds are constantly invading the field and try to succeed over less adapted crop plants. Produces larger number of seeds compared to crops. Most of the weed seeds are small in size and contribute enormously to the seed reserves. Weed seeds germinate earlier and their seedlings grow faster. They flower earlier and WEEDS SCIENCE 309 mature ahead of the crop they infest. They have the capacity to germinate under varied conditions, but very characteristically, season bound.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "weed seeds are small in size and contribute enormously to the seed reserves. Weed seeds germinate earlier and their seedlings grow faster. They flower earlier and WEEDS SCIENCE 309 mature ahead of the crop they infest. They have the capacity to germinate under varied conditions, but very characteristically, season bound. The peak period of germination always takes place in certain seasons in regular succession year after year. Weed seeds possess the phenomenon of dormancy, which is an intrinsic physiological power of the seed to resist germination even under favourable conditions. Weed seeds do not lose their viability for years even under adverse conditions. Most of the weeds possess C4 type of photosynthesis, which is an added advantage during moisture stress. They possess extensive root system, which go deeper as well as of creeping type. A. Factors Favouring Weed Growth In modern agriculture, the crops grown are widely spaced, increasingly manured and irrigated, very slow growth of crops in initial stages (cotton, sorghum, castor, etc.) and are usually grown in pure stand. Thus, these factors favour for the easy and quick establishment of weeds in crop fields. B. Harmful Effects • Weeds compete with crop for space, light, moisture and soil nutrients thus causing reducing in yield. • Affect quality of farm produce, livestock products such as milk and skin. • Act as alternate host for many pest and diseases. • Cause health problems to human beings. e.g., Parthenium hysterophorus (congress weed). • Increase the cost of cultivation due to weeding operation. • Aquatic weeds transpire large quantity of water, obstruct flow of water; thus affecting fishing, swimming and recreation. • Reduce the land value (white horse nettle–Solanum elagenifolium and Parthenium hysterophorus). • Some weeds are poisonous to livestock–Lochnera pusilla and Abrus precatorius. • Weeds (Thorny) reduce the efficiency of human",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "operation. • Aquatic weeds transpire large quantity of water, obstruct flow of water; thus affecting fishing, swimming and recreation. • Reduce the land value (white horse nettle–Solanum elagenifolium and Parthenium hysterophorus). • Some weeds are poisonous to livestock–Lochnera pusilla and Abrus precatorius. • Weeds (Thorny) reduce the efficiency of human beings and affect movement of farm animals and workers. C. Losses 1. Reduction in crop yield Weeds compete with crop plants for nutrients, soil moisture, space and sunlight and in general an increase in one kilogram weed growth corresponds to reduction in one kilogram of crop growth. Hence, the crop is smothered and has a final say on crop yield. Depending on type of weed, intensity of infestation, period of infestation, the ability of crop to compete and climatic conditions the loss varies. The percentage range of yield loss due to weeds in some important field crops is given in Table 10.1. Table 10.1. Yield Losses due to Weeds in some Important Crops Crop Yield loss range (%) Crop Yield loss range (%) Rice 9.1 – 51.4 Sugarcane 14.1 – 71.7 Wheat 6.3 – 34.8 Linseed 30.9 – 39.1 Maize 29.5 – 74.0 Cotton 20.7 – 61.0 Millets 6.2 – 81.9 Carrot 70.2 – 78.0 Groundnut 29.7 – 32.9 Peas 25.3 – 35.5 Among the pests weeds account for 45% reduction in yield while the insects 30%, diseases 20% and other pests 5%. 310 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 2. Loss in crop quality If a crop contains weed seeds it is to be rejected, especially when the crop is grown for seed. For example, the wild oat weed seeds are similar in size and shape of the crops like barley, wheat, and its admixture may lead to rejection for seed purpose. Contamination by poisonous weed seeds is unacceptable and increases",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is to be rejected, especially when the crop is grown for seed. For example, the wild oat weed seeds are similar in size and shape of the crops like barley, wheat, and its admixture may lead to rejection for seed purpose. Contamination by poisonous weed seeds is unacceptable and increases costs of crop cleaning. The leafy vegetables much suffer due to weed problem as the leafy weed mixture spoil the economic value. 3. Weeds as reservoirs of pests and diseases Weeds form a part of community of organisms in a given area. Consequently, they are food sources for some animals, and are themselves susceptible to many pests and diseases. However, because of their close association with crop they may serve as important reservoirs or alternate host of pests and diseases. 4. Interference in crop handling Some weeds can make the operation of agricultural machinery more difficult, more costly and even impossible. Heavy infestation of Cynodon dactylon causes poor ploughing performance. 5. Reduction in land value Heavy infestation by perennial weeds could make the land unsuitable or less suitable for cultivation resulting in loss in its monetary value. Thousands of hectare of cultivable area in rice growing regions of India have been abandoned or not being regularly cultivated due to severe infestation of nut grass (Cyperus rotundus) and other perennial grasses. 6. Limitation of crop choice When certain weeds are heavily infested, it will limit the growth of a particular crop. The high infestation of parasitic weeds such as Striga lutea may limit the cultivation of sorghum or sugarcane. 7. Loss of human efficiency Weeds reduce human efficiency through physical discomfort caused by allergies and poisoning. Weeds such as congress weed (Parthenium hysterophorus) cause itching. Thorny weeds like Solanum sp. restrict movement of farm workers in carrying out farm practices such",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "may limit the cultivation of sorghum or sugarcane. 7. Loss of human efficiency Weeds reduce human efficiency through physical discomfort caused by allergies and poisoning. Weeds such as congress weed (Parthenium hysterophorus) cause itching. Thorny weeds like Solanum sp. restrict movement of farm workers in carrying out farm practices such as fertilizer application, insect and disease control measures, irrigation, harvesting, etc. 8. Problems due to aquatic weeds Aquatic weeds that grow along the irrigation canals, channels and water streams restrict the flow of water. Weed obstruction causes reduction in velocity of flow and increases stagnation of water and may lead to high siltation and reduced carrying capacity. Aquatic weeds form breeding grounds for obnoxious insects like mosquitoes. They reduce recreational value by interfering with fishing, swimming, boating, hunting and navigation on streams and canals. 9. Other problems Weeds are troublesome not only in crop plants but also in play grounds and road sides etc. Alternanthera echinata and Tribulus terresstris occur in many of the playgrounds causing annoyance to players and spectators. D. Beneficial Effects Weeds are indirectly responsible for crop cultivation, but for them cultivated crops may not receive much attention Weeds as fodder Useful as good fodder for milch animals. Most weeds are preferred by cattle and weeds like Rynchosia aurea, R. capitata and Clitoria terneata are very good fodder legumes and also Hariyali and filed bind weed (Convolvulus arvensis). Weeds as vegetables Used as green vegetables and weeds serve as human food e.g., Amaranthus viridis and Digera arvensis used as greens. Weed as soil binders Panicum repense is an excellent soil binder; keeps bunds in position and prevents soil erosion in high rainfall regions and hilly slopes. Hariyali, kikuyu grass, kollukattai grass (Cenchrus sp.) etc., can be used as soil binders. WEEDS SCIENCE 311 Weeds as manure When",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "used as greens. Weed as soil binders Panicum repense is an excellent soil binder; keeps bunds in position and prevents soil erosion in high rainfall regions and hilly slopes. Hariyali, kikuyu grass, kollukattai grass (Cenchrus sp.) etc., can be used as soil binders. WEEDS SCIENCE 311 Weeds as manure When weeds are ploughed in, they add to the soil plenty of humus. Excellent compost can be made out of many weed plants. E.g., Calotropis gigantea, Croton sparsiflorus and Tephrosia purpurea are used as green leaf manure for rice. In wetlands, weeds are said to form a sort of rotation with paddy and are valuable in preventing loss of nitrates. Datura sp. contains 3% N on dry weight basis, Kolingi (Tephrosia purpurea) fix N @ 50-75 kg/ha. Weed as fuel Prosopis juliflora very invasive in nature and notorious tree weed commonly used as fire wood. People make charcoal out of it and are marketed. Weeds have medicinal values Many weeds have great therapeutic properties and used as medicine. • Phyllanthus niruri – Jaundice • Eclipta alba – Scorpion sting • Centella asiatica – Improves memory • Cynodon dactylon – Asthma, piles • Cyperus rotundus – Stimulates milk secretion • Leucas aspera – Snake bite • Calotropis procera – Gastric trouble • Abutilon indicum – Piles Weed as mats and screens Stems of Cyperus pangorei and Cyperus corymbosus are used for mat making while Typha angustata is used for making screens. Weed as indicators Weeds are useful as indicators of good and bad soils. E. colonum occurs in rich soils while Cymbopogon denotes poor light soil and Sedges are found in ill-drained soils. Other economic uses • Useful in manufacturing of agarbattis) e.g., Cyperus rotundus • Cymbopogon citrates (Citronella oil) and C. martinii (Palmrosa) are used for manufacturing aromatic oil. • Argemone",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "bad soils. E. colonum occurs in rich soils while Cymbopogon denotes poor light soil and Sedges are found in ill-drained soils. Other economic uses • Useful in manufacturing of agarbattis) e.g., Cyperus rotundus • Cymbopogon citrates (Citronella oil) and C. martinii (Palmrosa) are used for manufacturing aromatic oil. • Argemone mexicana is used to reclaim alkali soils. • Ornamental flowers–Lantana camera is used for interior decoration. • Used for fencing purposes. Example–Cactus, Agave sp. Saccharum squarrosus, etc. 10.3 CLASSIFICATION Out of 2,50,000 plant species, weeds constitute about 250 species, which are prominent in agricultural and non-agricultural system. Under world conditions about 30,000 species is grouped as weeds. Weeds may be classified in the following ways. 10.3.1 Based on Morphology Based on the morphology of the plant, the weeds are also classified into three categories. This is the most widely used classification by the weed scientists. (a) Grasses All the weeds come under the family Poaceae are called as grasses which are characteristically having long narrow spiny leaves. The examples are Echinocloa colonum, Cynodon dactylon. 312 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (b) Sedges The weeds belonging to the family Cyperaceae come under this group. The leaves are mostly from the base having modified stem with or without tubers. The examples are Cyperus rotundus, Fimbrystylis miliaceae. (c) Broad leaved weeds This is the major group of weeds as all other family weeds come under this except that is discussed earlier. All dicotyledon weeds are broad leaved weeds. The examples are Flavaria australacica, Digera arvensis, Abutilon indicum. 10.3.2 Based on Life Span of Weeds Based on life span (Ontogeny), weeds are classified as Annual weeds, Biennial weeds and Perennial weeds. (a) Annual Weeds Those that live only for a season or year and complete their life cycle in that season or year is called",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "arvensis, Abutilon indicum. 10.3.2 Based on Life Span of Weeds Based on life span (Ontogeny), weeds are classified as Annual weeds, Biennial weeds and Perennial weeds. (a) Annual Weeds Those that live only for a season or year and complete their life cycle in that season or year is called annual. These are small herbs with shallow roots and weak stem. Produces seeds in profusion and the mode of propagation is commonly through seeds. After seeding the annuals die away and the seeds germinate and start the next generation in the next season or year following. Most common field weeds are annuals. The examples are: (a) Monsoon annual Commelina benghalensis, Boerhaavia erecta (b) Winter annual Chenopodium album (b) Biennials It completes the vegetative growth in the first season, flower and set seeds in the succeeding season and then dies. These are found mainly in non-cropped areas. e.g., Alternanthera echinata, Daucus carota (c) Perennials Perennials live for more than two years and may live almost indefinitely. They adapted to withstand adverse conditions. They propagate not only through seeds but also by underground stem, root, rhizomes, tubers etc. And hence they are further classified into Simple perennials: Plants propagated only by seeds. E.g., Sonchus arvensis. Bulbous perennials: Plants, which possess a modified stem with scales and reproduce mainly from bulbs and seeds. e.g., Allium sp. Corm perennials: Plants that possess a modified shoot and fleshy stem and reproduce through corm and seeds. e.g., Timothy sp. Creeping perennials: Reproduced through seeds as well as with one of the following. Rhizome: Plants having underground stem–Sorghum halapense Stolen: Plants having horizontal creeping stem above the ground–Cynodon dactylon Roots: Plants having enlarged root system with numerous buds–Convolvulus arvensis Tubers: Plants having modified rhizomes adapted for storage of food–Cyperus rotundus 10.3.3 Based on Ecological Affinities (a) Wetland",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "as with one of the following. Rhizome: Plants having underground stem–Sorghum halapense Stolen: Plants having horizontal creeping stem above the ground–Cynodon dactylon Roots: Plants having enlarged root system with numerous buds–Convolvulus arvensis Tubers: Plants having modified rhizomes adapted for storage of food–Cyperus rotundus 10.3.3 Based on Ecological Affinities (a) Wetland weeds They are tender annuals with semi-aquatic habit. They can thrive as well under waterlogged and in partially dry condition. Propagation is chiefly by seed. e.g., Ammania baccifera, Eclipta alba. (b) Garden land weeds These weeds neither require large quantities of water like wetland weeds nor can they successfully withstand extreme drought as dry land weeds. e.g., Trianthema portulacastrum, Digera arvensis. (c) Dry land weeds These are usually hardy plants with deep root system. They are adapted to withstand drought on account of mucilaginous nature of the stem and hairiness. E.g., Tribulus terrestris, Convolvulus arvensis. WEEDS SCIENCE 313 10.3.4 Based on Soil Type (Edaphic) (a) Weeds of black cotton soil: These are often closely allied to those that grow in dry condition. e.g., Aristolochia bracteata. (b) Weeds of red soils: They are like the weeds of garden lands consisting of various classes of plants. e.g., Commelina benghalensis. (c) Weeds of light, sandy or loamy soils: Weeds that occur in soils having good drainage. e.g. Leucas aspera. (d) Weeds of laterite soils: e.g., Lantana camara, Spergula arvensis. 10.3.5 Based on their Botanical Family Graminae – Cynodon dactylon Solanaceae – Solanum eleaegnifolium 10.3.6 Based on their Place of Occurrence (a) Weeds of crop lands: The majorities of weeds infest the cultivated lands and cause hindrance to the farmers for successful crop production. e.g., Phlaris minor in wheat. (b) Weeds of pasture lands: Weeds found in pasture/grazing grounds. e.g., Indigofera enneaphylla (c) Weeds of waste places: Corners of fields, margins of channels etc.,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "crop lands: The majorities of weeds infest the cultivated lands and cause hindrance to the farmers for successful crop production. e.g., Phlaris minor in wheat. (b) Weeds of pasture lands: Weeds found in pasture/grazing grounds. e.g., Indigofera enneaphylla (c) Weeds of waste places: Corners of fields, margins of channels etc., where weeds grow in profusion. e.g. Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Calotropis gigantea. (d) Weeds of playgrounds, road-sides: They are usually hardy, prostrate perennials, capable of withstanding any amount of trampling. e.g., Alternanthera echinata, Tribulus terestris. 10.3.7 Based on Cotyledon Number Based on number of cotyledons it possess it can be classified as dicots and monocots. (a) Monocots e.g., Panicum flavidum, Echinochloa colona. (b) Dicots e.g., Crotalaria verucosa, Indigofera viscosa. 10.3.8 Based on Soil pH Based on pH of the soil the weeds can be classified into three categories. (a) Acidophile: Acid soil weeds e.g. Rumex acetosella. (b) Basophile: Saline and alkaline soil weeds e.g. Taraxacum stricta. (c) Neutrophile: Weeds of neutral soils e.g. Acalypha indica. 10.3.9 Based on Origin (a) Indigenous weeds: All the native weeds of the country are coming under this group and most of the weeds are indigenous. e.g. Acalypha indica, Abutilon indicum. (b) Introduced or Exotic weeds: These are the weeds introduced from other countries. These weeds are normally troublesome and control becomes difficult. e.g., Parthenium hysterophorus, Philaris minor, Acanthospermum hispidum 10.3.10 Based on their Nature/on Specificity Besides the various classes of weeds, a few others deserve special attention due to their specificity. They are (a) poisonous weeds, (b) parasitic weeds, and (c) aquatic weeds. (a) Poisonous weeds The poisonous weeds cause ailment on livestock resulting in death and cause great loss. These weeds are harvested along with fodder or grass and fed to cattle or while 314 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY grazing, the cattle consumes these poisonous",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(b) parasitic weeds, and (c) aquatic weeds. (a) Poisonous weeds The poisonous weeds cause ailment on livestock resulting in death and cause great loss. These weeds are harvested along with fodder or grass and fed to cattle or while 314 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY grazing, the cattle consumes these poisonous plants. e.g., Datura fastuosa, D. stramonium and D. metel are poisonous to animals and human beings. The berries of Withania somnifera and seeds of Abrus precatorius are poisonous. (b) Parasitic weeds The parasite weeds are either total or partial which means, the weeds that depend completely on the host plant are termed as total parasites while the weeds that partially depend on host plant for minerals and capable of preparing its food from the green leaves are called as partial parasites. Those parasites that attack roots are termed as root parasites and those, which attack shoot of other plants, are called as stem parasites. The typical examples of different parasitic weeds are: 1. Total root parasite Orabanche cernua on Tobacco 2. Partial root parasite Striga lutea on sugarcane and sorghum 3. Total stem parasite Cuscuta chinensis on leucerne and onion 4. Partial stem parasite Cassytha filiformis on orange trees and Loranthus longiflorus on mango and other trees. (c) Aquatic weeds Unwanted plants, which grow in water and complete at least a part of their life cycle in water are called as aquatic weeds. They are further grouped into four categories as submersed, emersed, marginal and floating weeds. Submersed weeds These weeds are mostly vascular plants that produce all or most of their vegetative growth beneath the water surface, having true roots, stems and leaves. e.g., Utricularia stellaris, Ceratophyllum demersum. Emersed weeds These plants are rooted in the bottom mud, with aerial stems and leaves at or above the water surface.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "weeds are mostly vascular plants that produce all or most of their vegetative growth beneath the water surface, having true roots, stems and leaves. e.g., Utricularia stellaris, Ceratophyllum demersum. Emersed weeds These plants are rooted in the bottom mud, with aerial stems and leaves at or above the water surface. The leaves are broad in many plants and sometimes like grasses. These leaves do not rise and fall with water level as in the case of floating weeds. e.g., Nelumbium speciosum, Jussieua repens. Marginal weeds Most of these plants are emersed weeds that can grow in moist shoreline areas with a depth of 60 to 90 cm water. These weeds vary in size, shape and habitat. The important genera that come under this group are; Typha, Polygonum, Cephalanthus, Scirpus, etc. Floating weeds These weeds have leaves that float on the water surface either singly or in cluster. Some weeds are free floating and some rooted at the mud bottom and the leaves rise and fall as the water level increases or decreases. e.g., Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia, Nymphaea pubescens. 10.3.11 Based on Nature of Stem Based on development of bark tissues on their stems and branches, weeds are classified as woody, semiwoody and herbaceous species. Woody weeds: Weeds include shrubs and under shrubs and are collectively called brush weeds. e.g., Lantana camera, Prosopis juliflora. Semi-woody weeds: e.g., Croton sparsiflorus. Herbaceous weeds: Weeds have green, succulent stems are of most common occurrence around us. e.g., Amaranthus viridis. WEEDS SCIENCE 315 10.4 WEED DISSEMINATION (DISPERSAL OF WEEDS) Dispersal of mature seeds and live vegetative parts of weeds is nature’s way of providing non-competitive sites to new individuals. Had there been no way of natural dispersal of weeds, we would not have had them today in such widely spread and vigorous forms.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "10.4 WEED DISSEMINATION (DISPERSAL OF WEEDS) Dispersal of mature seeds and live vegetative parts of weeds is nature’s way of providing non-competitive sites to new individuals. Had there been no way of natural dispersal of weeds, we would not have had them today in such widely spread and vigorous forms. In the absence of proper means of their dispersal, weeds could not have moved from one country to another. “Weeds are good travelers”. An effective dispersal of weed seeds and fruits requires two essentials viz., a successful dispersing agent and an effective adaptation to the new environment. Common weed dispersal agents are: (a) wind, (b) water, (c) animals and (d) human. (a) Wind Weed seeds and fruits that disseminate through wind possess special organs to keep them afloat. Such organs are: Pappus It is a parachute like modification of persistent calyx into hairs. e.g., Asteraceae family weeds. e.g., Tridax procumbens. Comose Some weed seeds are covered with hairs, partially or fully e.g., Calotropis sp. Feathery, persistent styles Styles are persistent and feathery. e.g., Anemone sp. Baloon Modified papery calyx that encloses the fruits loosely along with entrapped air. e.g., Physalis minima. Wings One or more appendages that act as wings. e.g., Acer macrophyllum. (b) Water Aquatic weeds disperse largely through water. They may drift either as whole plants, plant fragments or as seeds with the water currents. Terrestrial weed seeds also disperse through irrigation and drainage water. (c) Animals Birds and animals eat many weed fruits. The ingested weed seeds are passed in viable form with animal excreta (0.2% in chicks, 9.6% in calves, 8.7% in horses and 6.4% in sheep), which is dropped wherever the animal moves. This mechanism of weed dispersal in called endozoochory e.g., Lantana seeds by birds. Loranthus seeds stick on beaks of birds. Farm animals",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "are passed in viable form with animal excreta (0.2% in chicks, 9.6% in calves, 8.7% in horses and 6.4% in sheep), which is dropped wherever the animal moves. This mechanism of weed dispersal in called endozoochory e.g., Lantana seeds by birds. Loranthus seeds stick on beaks of birds. Farm animals carry weed seeds and fruits on their skin, hair and hooves. This is aided by special appendages such as Hooks (Xanthium strumarium), Stiff hairs (Cenchrus sp.), Sharp spines (Tribulus terrestris) and Scarious bracts (Achyranthus aspera). Even ants carry a huge number of weed seeds. Donkeys eat Prosophis julifera pods. (d) Man Man disperses numerous weed seeds and fruits with raw agricultural produce. Weeds mature at the same time and height along with crop, due to their similar size and shape as that of crop seed man unknowingly harvest the weeds also, and aids in dispersal of weed seeds. Such weeds are called “Satellite weeds” e.g. Avena fatua, Phalaris minor. (e) Manure and silage Viable weed seeds are present in the dung of farm animals, which forms part of the FYM. Besides, addition of mature weeds to compost pit as farm waste also act as source. (f) Dispersal by machinery Machinery used for cultivation purposes like tractors can easily carries weed seeds, rhizomes and stolons when worked on infested fields and latter dropping them in other fields to start new infestation. (g) Intercontinental movement of weeds Introduction of weeds from one continent to another through 1. Crop seed, 2. Feed stock, 3. Packing material and 4. Nursery stock. e.g., Parthenium hysterophorus. 10.5 WEED ECOLOGY Knowing weed biology such as seed production capacity, germination dormancy and their ecological 316 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY adaptations will help in formulating suitable weed control measures. Ecology is the interrelationship between organisms and their environment. We",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "3. Packing material and 4. Nursery stock. e.g., Parthenium hysterophorus. 10.5 WEED ECOLOGY Knowing weed biology such as seed production capacity, germination dormancy and their ecological 316 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY adaptations will help in formulating suitable weed control measures. Ecology is the interrelationship between organisms and their environment. We concerned with growth characteristics and adaptations that enable weeds to survive the change in the environment. Man plays an important role in changing the environment by altering the crop husbandry practices and by maintaining weed free monocrop or multicrop culture. A. Survival Mechanism The seed is the primary means of survival mechanism of annual weeds while the vegetative parts such as buds, rhizomes tubers and bulbs offer on additional mechanism for perennial weeds. (a) Sexual reproduction Through sexual reproduction abundant and small seeds are produced. Annual and biennial weeds depend on seed production, as the sole means of propagation and survival of perennial weeds are less dependent on this mechanism. The seed production capacity of some of the weeds is given Table 10.2. Table 10.2. Seed Production Capacity of Weeds Ontogeny Seeds/plant Name of weed/crop Seeds/plant Perennials 16,629 Amaranthus retroflexus 1,96,405 Biennials 26,600 Solanum nigrum 1,78,000 Annuals 20,832 Chenopodium album 72,000 Trianthema portulacastrum 52,000 Wheat & Rice 90 to 100 A few weeds may produce seed through apomixis i.e., without fertilization. e.g., Ferns reproduce by spores. (b) Vegetative reproduction Vegetative structures normally rely upon parent for their plant nutrient conferring their competitive advantage but has disadvantage also owing to their genetically identical nature and as such may not well adapted to change in environment. The vegetative structures include stolons, rhizomes, tubers, bulb, corms and roots. B. Seed Dormancy as Survival Mechanism Weed seeds possess a variety of special germination mechanisms adapted to changes in temperature, moisture, aeration, exposure to light,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "genetically identical nature and as such may not well adapted to change in environment. The vegetative structures include stolons, rhizomes, tubers, bulb, corms and roots. B. Seed Dormancy as Survival Mechanism Weed seeds possess a variety of special germination mechanisms adapted to changes in temperature, moisture, aeration, exposure to light, depth of burial of seeds etc. When conditions are unfavourable for germination, they can remain dormant or delay germination. Conditions favourable for weeds seed germination are: • Seeds of many weeds require an exposure to light for germination. This is regulated by bluishgreen protein pigment called phytochrome. • Many weed seeds germinate under aerobic conditions while some require anaerobic condition. Soil turnover during ploughing and other operations exposes the seeds to light and induces germination. • Periodicity of germination is another specialized germination mechanism. Amaranthus sp. have a definite pattern of peaks of germination at regular intervals. • Summer annuals favour higher temperature and winter annuals germinate at lower temperatures some weeds germinate freely throughout the year. WEEDS SCIENCE 317 C. Seed Dormancy Dormancy is a state of seeds and buds in which they are alive but not germinated. If all weed seeds were to germinate at one time, their seedlings could be destroyed. Dormancy allows storage of millions of weed seeds in soil and enables them to grow in flushes over years. In this context, the old gardeners saying “One year Seeding seven years Weeding” is very appropriate. In fact, weed seeds have been found viable even after 20-80 years of burial in soil. Weed seeds exhibit three types of dormancy. 1. Enforced dormancy It is due to deep placement of weed seeds in soil during ploughing of the field. Weed seeds germinate readily when they are restored to top 3-5 cm. Enforced Dormancy is a non-specific character of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "years of burial in soil. Weed seeds exhibit three types of dormancy. 1. Enforced dormancy It is due to deep placement of weed seeds in soil during ploughing of the field. Weed seeds germinate readily when they are restored to top 3-5 cm. Enforced Dormancy is a non-specific character of seed. Cultivation encounters enforced dormancy by bringing the weeds to surface where they are exposed to light besides better aeration. High soil temperature and NO3 content of surface soil may further help in breaking seed dormancy. 2. Innate dormancy It is a genetically controlled character and it is a feature of specific weed seeds, which fail to germinate even if they are present in the top 3–5 cm soil, and adequate soil moisture and temperature provided to them. The possible reasons are the presence of (i) hard seed coats e.g., Setaria, Ipomoea, Xanthium spp. and (ii) immature embryos e.g., Polygonum. In certain weed seeds particularly of Xerophytic origin, presence of inhibitors is responsible for innate dormancy. It can be overcome with passage of time, or under the influence of some climatic pressure. 3. Induced dormancy Induced dormancy results from some sudden physiological change in normally non-dormant weed seeds under the impact of marked rise in temperature and or CO2 content of soil, low O2 pressure, water logging etc. Wild oat (Avena fatua) seeds exhibit all three kinds of dormancy. D. Persistence of Weeds (adaptation) Persistence is an adaptive potential of a weed that enables it to grow in any environment. In an agricultural situation, the cropping system with its (associated habitat) management practices, determines the persistence of weed species. It is largely influenced by climatic, edaphic (soil) and biotic factors, which affect its occurrence, abundance, range and distribution. Factors affecting persistence 1. Climatic factors Climate can effect variations in cuticle",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "In an agricultural situation, the cropping system with its (associated habitat) management practices, determines the persistence of weed species. It is largely influenced by climatic, edaphic (soil) and biotic factors, which affect its occurrence, abundance, range and distribution. Factors affecting persistence 1. Climatic factors Climate can effect variations in cuticle development, pubescence, vegetative growth, vigour, competitiveness etc. Climate thus has a profound effect on the persistence of weeds, which can adapt to a wide variety of climates. The important climatic factors are light, temperature, rainfall, wind and humidity. Light Light intensity, quality and duration are important in influencing the germination, growth, reproduction and distribution of weeds. Photoperiod governs flowering time, seed setting and maturation and on the evolution of various ecotypes within a weed species. Tolerance to shading is a major adaptation that enables weeds to persist. Temperature Temperature of atmosphere and soil affects the latitudinal and longitudinal distribution of weeds. Soil temperature affects seed germination and dormancy, which is a major survival mechanism of weeds. 318 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Rainfall Rainfall has a significant effect on weed persistence and distribution. More rainfall or less rainfall determines reproduction and survival. Wind Wind is a principal factor in the dissemination of weeds. 2. Soil factors Soil factors are soil water, aeration, temperature, pH and fertility level and cropping system. Some weed species are characteristically alkali plants, known as basophilic (pH 8.5) which can grow well in alkali soils and those grow in acidic soil is known as Acidophiles. Basophiles Acidophiles Neutophiles Alkaligrass – Puccinalia spp. Cynodon dactylon Common weed Quack grass – Agrophyron repens Digitaria sanguinalis Several weed species of compositae family grow well in saline soils. A shift in soil pH, towards acid side due to continuous use of Ammonium sulphate as a ‘N’ source could cause a shift",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Neutophiles Alkaligrass – Puccinalia spp. Cynodon dactylon Common weed Quack grass – Agrophyron repens Digitaria sanguinalis Several weed species of compositae family grow well in saline soils. A shift in soil pH, towards acid side due to continuous use of Ammonium sulphate as a ‘N’ source could cause a shift in the weed spectrum. Many weeds can grow well in soils of low fertility level however, can adapt well to soils of high fertility also. Weeds also has adaptation to moist soil, drought condition etc. 3. Biotic factors In a cropping situation, the major effects on weeds are those exerted by the crop as it competes for available resources. Once, a particular weed species is introduced, its persistence is determined by the degree of competition offered by the crop and also the agricultural practices associated with the growing of a crop may encourage or discourage specific weeds. E.g., Ponding of water – Cynodon dies Repeated cultivation – discourage nut sedge. Crops that serve as hosts to parasitic weeds, (Sorghum – Striga) crop-induced stimulants are examples of other biotic factors. 10.6 CROP-WEED INTERACTIONS Competition and allelopathy are the main interactions, which are of importance between crop and weed. Allelopathy is distinguished from competition because it depends on a chemical compound being added to the environment while competition involves removal or reduction of an essential factor or factors from the environment, which would have been otherwise utilized. I. Crop Weed Competition Weeds appear much more adapted to agro-ecosystems than our crop plants. Without interference by man, weeds would easily wipe out the crop plants. This is because of their competition for nutrients, moisture, light and space, which are the principle factors of production of crop. Generally, an increase in on kilogram of weed growth will decrease one kilogram of crop growth. 1.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Without interference by man, weeds would easily wipe out the crop plants. This is because of their competition for nutrients, moisture, light and space, which are the principle factors of production of crop. Generally, an increase in on kilogram of weed growth will decrease one kilogram of crop growth. 1. Competition for nutrients Weeds usually absorb mineral nutrients faster than many crop plants and accumulate them in their tissues in relatively larger amounts. • Amaranthus sp. accumulate over 3% N on dry weight basis and are termed as “nitrophills”. • Achyranthus aspera, a ‘P’ accumulator with over 1.5% P2O5. • Chenopodium sp. and Portulaca sp. are ‘K’ lovers with over 1.3% K2O in dry matter. WEEDS SCIENCE 319 Table 10.3. Mineral Composition (%) of certain common Weeds on Dry Matter Basis Sl. No. Species N P2O5 K2O 1. Achyranthus aspera 2.21 1.63 1.32 2. Amaranthus viridis 3.16 0.06 4.51 3. Chenapodium album 2.59 0.37 4.34 4. Cynodon dactylan 1.72 0.25 1.75 5. Cyperus rotundus 2.17 0.26 2.73 Crop plants 1. Rice 1.13 0.34 1.10 2. Sugarcane 0.33 0.19 0.67 3. Wheat 1.33 0.59 1.44 The associated weed is responsive to nitrogen and it utilizes more of the applied ‘N’ than the crop. e.g., the ‘N’ uptake by Echinochloa crusgalli is more than rice. Nutrient removal by weeds leads to huge loss of nutrients in each crop season, which is often twice that of crop plants. For instance at early stages of maize cultivation, the weeds found to remove 9 times more of N, 10 times more of P and 7 times more of K. 2. Competition for moisture In general, for producing equal amounts of dry matter, weeds transpire more water than do most of our crop plants. It becomes increasingly critical with increasing soil moisture stress, as found in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "more of N, 10 times more of P and 7 times more of K. 2. Competition for moisture In general, for producing equal amounts of dry matter, weeds transpire more water than do most of our crop plants. It becomes increasingly critical with increasing soil moisture stress, as found in arid and semi-arid areas. As a rule, C4 plants utilize water more efficiently resulting in more biomass per unit of water. Cynodon dactylon had almost twice as high transpiration rate as pearl millet. In weedy fields soil moisture may be exhausted by the time the crop reaches the fruiting stage, i.e., the peak consumptive use period of the crop, causing significant loss in crop yields. 3. Competition for light It may commence very early in the cop season if a dense weed growth smothers the crop seedlings. It becomes important element of crop-weed competition when moisture and nutrients are plentiful. In dry land agriculture in years of normal rainfall the cropweed competition is limited to nitrogen and light. Unlike competition for nutrients and moisture once weeds shade a crop plant, increased light intensity cannot benefit it. 4. Competition for space (CO2) Crop-weed competition for space is the requirement for CO2 and the competition may occur under extremely crowded plant community condition. A more efficient utilization of CO2 by C4 type weeds may contribute to their rapid growth over C3 type of crops. A. Weed Competition on Crop Growth and Yield Crop growth and yield is affected. Crop suffers from nutritional deficiency. Leaf area development is reduced. Yield attributes will be lowered. It reduces the water use by the crop and affects the dry matter production. It lowers the input response and causes yield reduction. Pest and disease incidence on crops will be more due to weeds. B. Factors affecting the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "deficiency. Leaf area development is reduced. Yield attributes will be lowered. It reduces the water use by the crop and affects the dry matter production. It lowers the input response and causes yield reduction. Pest and disease incidence on crops will be more due to weeds. B. Factors affecting the Competitive Ability of Crops Against Weeds (a) Density of weeds Increase in density of weed decrease in yield is a normal phenomena. However, it is not linear as few weeds do not affect the yields so much as other weed does and hence, it is a sigmoidal relationship. 320 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (b) Crop density Increase in plant population decreases weed growth and reduces competition until they are selfcompetitive. Crop density and rectangularity are very important in determining the quantum and quality of crop environment available for the growth of weeds. Wide row spacing with simultaneous high, intra-row crop plant population may induce dense weed growth. In this respect, square planting of crops in which there are equal row and plant spacing should be ideal in reducing intra-crop plant competition. (c) Type of weeds species The type of weeds that occur in a particular crop influences the competition. Occurrence of a particular species of weed greatly influences the competition between the crop and weed. For e.g., E. crusgalli in rice, Setaia viridis in corn and Xanthium sp. in soybean affects the crop yield. Flavaria australasica offers more competition than the grasses. (d) Type of crop species and their varieties Crops and their varieties differ in their competing ability with weeds e.g., the decreasing order of weed competing ability is as: barley, rye, wheat and oat. High tolerance of barley to competition from weeds is assigned to its ability to develop more roots that are extensive during initial three weeks",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Crops and their varieties differ in their competing ability with weeds e.g., the decreasing order of weed competing ability is as: barley, rye, wheat and oat. High tolerance of barley to competition from weeds is assigned to its ability to develop more roots that are extensive during initial three weeks growth period than the others. Fast canopy forming and tall crops suffer less from weed competition than the slow growing and short stature and crops. Dwarf and semi-dwarf varieties of crops are usually more susceptible to competition from weeds than the tall varieties became they grow slowly and initial stage. In addition, their short stature covers the weeds less effectively. When we compare the crop-weed competition between two varieties of groundnut TMV 2 (Bunch) and TMV 3 (Spreading). TMV 2 incurred a loss of over 30% pod yield under uncontrolled weed-crop competition while TMV 3 lost only about 15% in its yield. The main reason is due to the spreading nature of TMV 3, which smothered weeds. Longer duration cultivars of rice have been found more competitive to weeds than the short duration ones. (e) Soil factor Soil type, soil fertility, soil moisture and soil reaction influences the crop weed competition. Elevated soil fertility usually stimulates weeds more than the crop, reducing thus crop yields. Fertilizer application of weedy crop could increase crop yields to a much lower level than the yield increase obtained when a weed free crop is applied with fertilizer. Weeds are adapted to grow well and compete with crops, in both moisture stress and ample moisture conditions. Removal of an intense moisture stress may thus benefit crops more than the weeds leading to increased yields. If the weeds were already present at the time of irrigation, they would grow so luxuriantly as to completely over power",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "compete with crops, in both moisture stress and ample moisture conditions. Removal of an intense moisture stress may thus benefit crops more than the weeds leading to increased yields. If the weeds were already present at the time of irrigation, they would grow so luxuriantly as to completely over power the crops. If the crop in irrigated after it has grown 15 cm or more in a weed free environment irrigation could hasten closing in of crop rows, thus suppressing weeds. Abnormal soil reactions often aggravate weed competition. It is therefore specific weed species suited to different soil reactions exist with us, our crops grow best only in a specified range of soil pH. Weeds would offer more intense competition to crops on normal pH soils than on normal pH soils. (f) Climate Adverse weather condition, e.g., drought, excessive rains, extremes of temperature, will favour weeds since most of our crop plants are susceptible to climatic stresses. It is further intensified when crop cultivation is stratified over marginal lands. All such stresses weaken crops inherent capacity to fight weeds. (g) Time of germination In general, when the time of germination of crop coincides with the emergence of first flush of weeds, it leads to intense Crop-Weed interference. Sugarcane takes about one month to complete its germination phase while weeds require very less time to complete its germination. Weed seeds germinate most readily from 1.25 cm of soil. Few weeds even from 15 cm depth. Therefore, planting method that dries the top 3 to 5 cm of soil rapidly WEEDS SCIENCE 321 enough to deny weed seeds opportunity to absorb moisture for their germination usually postpones weed emergence until the first irrigation. By this time the crop plants are well established to compete with late germinating weeds. (h) Cropping practices Cropping",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "top 3 to 5 cm of soil rapidly WEEDS SCIENCE 321 enough to deny weed seeds opportunity to absorb moisture for their germination usually postpones weed emergence until the first irrigation. By this time the crop plants are well established to compete with late germinating weeds. (h) Cropping practices Cropping practices, such as method of planting crops, crop density and geometry and crop species and varieties have pronounced effects on Crop-Weed interference. (i) Crop maturity Maturity of the crop is yet another factor which affects competition between weeds and crop. As the age of the crop increases the competition for weeds decreases due to its good establishment. Timely weeding in the early growth stages of the crop enhances the yield significantly. C. Critical period of Weed Competition Critical period of weed competition is defined as the shortest time span during the crop growth when weeding results in highest Economic returns. The critical period of crop-weed competition is the period from the time of sowing up to, which the crop is to be maintained in a weed free environment to get the highest economical yield. The weed competition in crop field is invariably severe in early stages of crop than at later stages. Generally in a crop of 100 days duration, the first 35 days after sowing should be maintained in a weed free condition (Table 10.4). There is no need to attempt for a weed free condition throughout the life period of the crop, as it will entail unnecessary additional expenditure without proportionate increase in yield. Table 10.4. Critical period of Weed Competition for important Crops Sl.No. Crops Days from sowing 1. Rice (lowland) 35 2. Rice (upland) 60 3. Sorghum 30 4. Finger millet 15 5. Pearl millet 35 6. Maize 30 7. Cotton 35 8. Sugarcane 90 9.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "expenditure without proportionate increase in yield. Table 10.4. Critical period of Weed Competition for important Crops Sl.No. Crops Days from sowing 1. Rice (lowland) 35 2. Rice (upland) 60 3. Sorghum 30 4. Finger millet 15 5. Pearl millet 35 6. Maize 30 7. Cotton 35 8. Sugarcane 90 9. Groundnut 45 10. Soybean 45 11. Onion 60 12. Tomato 30 It becomes clear that weed free condition for 2-8 weeks in general are required for different crops and emphasizes the need for timely weed control without which the crop yield gets drastically educed. II. Allelopathy Allelopathy is the detrimental effects of chemicals or exudates produced by one (living) plant species on the germination, growth or development of another plant species (or even microorganisms) sharing the same habitat. Allelopathy does not form any aspect of crop-weed competition, rather, it causes Crop-Weed interference, it includes competition as well as possible allelopathy. Allelo-chemicals are produced by plants as end products, by-products and metabolites liberalized from the plants; they 322 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY belong to phenolic acids, flavanoides, and other aromatic compounds viz., terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids and organic cyanides. These allelochemical’s action is in interfering with cell elongation, photosynthesis, respiration, mineral ion uptake and protein and nucleic acid metabolism. Allelopathy technique can be applied in biological control of weeds by using cover crop for biological control and using alleopathic chemicals as bio-herbicides. Factors influencing allelopathy (a) Plant factors • Plant density: Higher the crop density the lesser will be reaction due to allelochemicals it. • Life cycle: If weed emerges later there will be less problem of allelochemicals. • Plant age: The release of allelochemicals occurs only at critical stage. For e.g., in case of Parthenium, allelopathy occurs during its rosette and flowering stage. • Plant habit: The allelopathic interference is higher",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "allelochemicals it. • Life cycle: If weed emerges later there will be less problem of allelochemicals. • Plant age: The release of allelochemicals occurs only at critical stage. For e.g., in case of Parthenium, allelopathy occurs during its rosette and flowering stage. • Plant habit: The allelopathic interference is higher in perennial weeds. • Plant habitat: Cultivated soil has higher values of allelopathy than uncultivated soil. • Climatic factors: The soil and air temperature as well as soil moisture influence the allelochemicals potential. • Soil factorsPhysico-chemical and biological properties influence the presence of allelochemicals. • Stress factorsAbiotic and biotic stresses may also influence the activity of allelochemicals. (i) Effect of weeds on crops Maize Leaves and inflorescence of Parthenium sp. affect the germination and seedling growth and tubers of Cyperus esculentus affect the dry matter production. Sorghum Stem of Solanum affects germination and seedling growth and leaves and inflorescence of Parthenium affect germination and seedling growth. Wheat Seeds of wild oat affect germination and early seedling growth; leaves of Parthenium affects general growth; tubers of C. rotundus affect dry matter production and green and dried leaves of Argemone mexicana affect germination and seedling growth. Sunflower Seeds of Datura sp. affect germination and growth. (ii) Effect of crop plants on weeds • Root exudation of maize inhibits the growth of Chenopodium album. • The cold water extracts of wheat straw when applied to weeds reduce germination and growth of Abutilon sp. (iii) Effect of weeds on weeds • Extract of leaf leachate of decaying leaves of Polygonum contains flavonoides which are toxic to germination, root and hypocotyls growth of weeds like Amaranthus spinosus. • Inhibitor secreted by decaying rhizomes of Sorghum halepense affect the growth of Digitaria sanguinalis and Amaranthus sp. 10.7 WEED CONTROL For designing any weed control programme in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "leachate of decaying leaves of Polygonum contains flavonoides which are toxic to germination, root and hypocotyls growth of weeds like Amaranthus spinosus. • Inhibitor secreted by decaying rhizomes of Sorghum halepense affect the growth of Digitaria sanguinalis and Amaranthus sp. 10.7 WEED CONTROL For designing any weed control programme in a given area, one must know the nature and habitat of the weeds in that area, how they react to environmental changes and how they respond to herbicides. Before selecting a method of weed control one, must have information on the number of viable seeds nature of dispersal of seeds, dormancy of seeds, longevity of buried seeds and ability to survive under WEEDS SCIENCE 323 adverse conditions, life span of the weed, soil textures moisture and (In case of soil applied volatile herbicides the herbicide will be successful only in sandy loam soil but not in clayey soil. Flooding as a method of weed control will be successful only in heavy soil and net in sandy soil) the area to be controlled. Weed management involves both preventive and control as well as eradication measures (curative) to combat weed problem. It has a broader concept than mere weed control. The prime objective of a weed management system is to maintain an environment that is as detrimental to weeds as possible by employing both preventive and curative measures through the use of mechanical, biological, cultural and chemical methods either alone or in combination. The principles of weed control are: • Prevention • Eradication • Control • Management A. Preventive Method The appearance of weeds in the cropped areas can be prevented by adopting the following measures for adoption wherever possible and practicable. It encompasses all measures taken to prevent the introduction and/or establishment and spread of weeds. Such areas may be local,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Eradication • Control • Management A. Preventive Method The appearance of weeds in the cropped areas can be prevented by adopting the following measures for adoption wherever possible and practicable. It encompasses all measures taken to prevent the introduction and/or establishment and spread of weeds. Such areas may be local, regional or national in size. No weed control programme is successful if adequate preventive measures are not taken to reduce weed infestation. It is a long term planning so that the weeds could be controlled or managed more effectively and economically than is possible where these are allowed to disperse freely. • Avoid using crop that are infested with weed seeds i.e., use of clean seeds for sowing. Weed free crop seeds may be produced by following the pre-cautionary measures. • Separating crop seeds from admixture of crop and weed seeds using physical differences like size, shape, colour, weight/texture and electrical properties. • Using air-screen cleaners and specific gravity separators, which differentiate seeds based on seed size, shape, surface area and specific gravity. • Through means of seed certification we can get certified seeds and can be used safely because the certified seeds contain no contaminant weed seeds. • Weed laws are helpful in reducing the spread of weed species and in the use of well adapted high quality seeds. They help in protecting the farmers from using mislabeled or contaminated seed and legally prohibiting seeds of noxious weeds from entering the country. • Quarantine laws enforce isolation of an area in which a severe weed has become established and prevent the movement of the weed into an uninfected area. • Use of pre-emergence herbicides also helpful in prevention because herbicides will not allow the germination of weeds. • Avoid feeding screenings and other material containing weed seeds to the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "area in which a severe weed has become established and prevent the movement of the weed into an uninfected area. • Use of pre-emergence herbicides also helpful in prevention because herbicides will not allow the germination of weeds. • Avoid feeding screenings and other material containing weed seeds to the farm animals. • Avoid adding weeds to the manure pits. • Avoid the use of raw dung as manure. • Pull out seedlings in nurseries carefully without wed seedlings. • Clean the farm machinery thoroughly before moving it from one field to another. This is particularly important for seed drills. • Avoid the use of gravel sand and soil from weed-infested. 324 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Inspect nursery stock for the presence of weed seedlings, tubers, rhizomes, etc. • Keep irrigation channels, fence-lines, bunds un-cropped areas and roads clean. • Use vigilance. Inspect your farm frequently for any strange looking weed seedlings. Destroy such patches of a new weed by digging deep and burning the weed along with its roots. Sterilize the spot with suitable chemical. • Quarantine regulations are available in almost all countries to deny the entry of weed seeds and other propagules into a country through airports and shipyards. B. Curative Methods These methods include eradication and control of weeds in the field. 1. Eradication Measures It is an ideal weed control method rarely achieved. It infers that a given weed species, its seed and vegetative part has been killed or completely removed from a given area and that weed will not reappear unless reintroduced to the area. Because of its difficulty and high cost, eradication is usually attempted only in smaller areas such as few ha., a few thousand m2 or less. Eradication is often used in high value areas such as green houses, ornamental",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "area and that weed will not reappear unless reintroduced to the area. Because of its difficulty and high cost, eradication is usually attempted only in smaller areas such as few ha., a few thousand m2 or less. Eradication is often used in high value areas such as green houses, ornamental plant beds and containers. This may be desirable and economical when the weed species is extremely noxious and persistent as to make cropping difficult and economical. Weeds are destroyed immediately before its multiplication, dispersion and acclimatization as and when a new weed species is found. It can be done by, • destroying the species at the initial stage of introduction and before it produces any propagule (at an early growth stage), and • degenerating the buried dormant viable seeds by fumigation, flooding, heating and other methods. 2. Control Measures In these method weeds are not eradicated but their growth is checked and the number of weeds (weed intensity) is minimized so that they do not affect crop yield or it encompasses those processes where by weed infestations are reduced but not necessarily eliminated. It is a matter of degree ranging from poor to excellent. In control methods, the weeds are seldom killed but their growth is severely restricted, the crop makes a normal yield. In general, the degree of weed control obtained is dependent on the characters of weeds involved and the effectiveness of the control method used. Methods of weed control Weed control aims at only putting down the weeds present by some kind of physical or chemical means while weed management is a system approach whereby whole land use planning is done in advance to minimize the very invasion of weeds in aggressive forms and give crop plants a strongly competitive advantage over the weeds. Weed control methods",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "weeds present by some kind of physical or chemical means while weed management is a system approach whereby whole land use planning is done in advance to minimize the very invasion of weeds in aggressive forms and give crop plants a strongly competitive advantage over the weeds. Weed control methods are grouped into cultural, physical, chemical and biological. Every method of weed control has its own advantages and disadvantages. No single method is successful under all weed situations. Many a time, a combination of these methods gives effective and economic control than a single method. (a) Mechanical methods This method aims to destroy weeds by cutting and removing or by desiccation and exhaustion of weeds by adopting several methods like hand hoeing, hand pulling, tillage, flooding, burning, mulching by non-living materials etc. However the choice of a method depends on location, extent and habitat of weeds. WEEDS SCIENCE 325 1. Tillage Tillage removes weeds from the soil resulting in their death. It may weaken plants through injury of root and stem pruning, reducing their competitiveness or regenerative capacity. Tillage also buries weeds. Tillage operation includes ploughing, disking, harrowing and leveling which is used to promote the germination of weeds through soil turnover and exposure of seeds to sunlight, which can be destroyed effectively later. In case of perennials, both top and underground growth is injured and destroyed by tillage. 2. Hoeing Hoe has been the most appropriate and widely used weeding tool for centuries. It is however, still a very useful implement to obtain results effectively and cheaply. It supplements the cultivator in row crops. Hoeing is particularly more effective on annuals and biennials as weed growth can be completely destroyed. In case of perennials, it destroyed the top growth with little effect on underground plant parts resulting in re-growth.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "useful implement to obtain results effectively and cheaply. It supplements the cultivator in row crops. Hoeing is particularly more effective on annuals and biennials as weed growth can be completely destroyed. In case of perennials, it destroyed the top growth with little effect on underground plant parts resulting in re-growth. 3. Hand pulling/ hand weeding It is done by physical removal or pulling out of weeds by hand or removal by implements called khurpi, which resembles sickle. It is probably the oldest method of controlling weeds and it is still a practical and efficient method of eliminating weeds in cropped and non-cropped lands. It is very effective against annuals, biennials and controls only upper portions of perennials. Hand pulling/hoeing is effective only when the weed infested area is small. Repeated hoeing and tillage is essential to control nut grass. 4. Digging Digging is very useful in the case of perennial weeds to remove the underground propagating parts of weeds from the deeper layer of the soil. 5. ChiselingIt is done by hand using a chisel hoe, similar to a spade with a long handle. It cuts and shapes the above ground weed growth. 6. Sickling and mowing Sickling is also done by hand with the help of sickle to remove the top growth of weeds to prevent seed production and to starve the underground parts. It is popular in sloppy areas where only the tall weed growth is sickled leaving the root system to hold the soil in place to prevent soil erosion. Mowing is a machine-operated practice mostly done on roadsides and in lawns. 7. Burning Burning or fire is often an economical and practical means of controlling weeds. Burning the weeds will control the weed problem in sugarcane widely spaced field crops and orchards. It is used to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "prevent soil erosion. Mowing is a machine-operated practice mostly done on roadsides and in lawns. 7. Burning Burning or fire is often an economical and practical means of controlling weeds. Burning the weeds will control the weed problem in sugarcane widely spaced field crops and orchards. It is used to (a) dispose of vegetation, (b) destroy dry tops of weeds that have matured, (c) kill green weed growth in situations where cultivations and other common methods are impracticable. 8. Flooding Flooding is successful against weed species sensitive to longer periods of submergence in water. Flooding kills plants by reducing oxygen availability for plant growth. The success of flooding depends upon complete submergence of weeds for longer periods. Flooding is done in rice fields to remove the regenerative parts of sedges. 9. Deep ploughing Perennial weeds like Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus sp. Convonvulus arvensis can be controlled by deep ploughing and flooding with 15-30 cm of water for 4-8 weeks. 10. Mulching can be done in cash crops like sugarcane, cotton and flowers to control weeds. Merits • Oldest, effective and economical method • Large area can be covered in shorter time • Safe method for environment 326 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Does not involve any skill • Weeding is possible in between plants • Deep rooted weeds can be controlled effectively Demerits • Labour consuming • Possibility of damaging crop • Requires ideal and optimum specific condition (b) Cultural methods or cropping methods and competitive methods Several cultural practices like tillage, planting, fertilizer application, irrigation etc., are employed for creating favourable condition for the crop. These practices if used properly, help in controlling weeds. Cultural methods, alone cannot control weeds, but help in reducing weed population. They should, therefore, be used in combination with other methods. In cultural methods, tillage,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "tillage, planting, fertilizer application, irrigation etc., are employed for creating favourable condition for the crop. These practices if used properly, help in controlling weeds. Cultural methods, alone cannot control weeds, but help in reducing weed population. They should, therefore, be used in combination with other methods. In cultural methods, tillage, fertilizer application, and irrigation are important. In addition, aspects like selection of variety, time of sowing, cropping system, cleanliness of the farm etc., is also useful in controlling weeds. 1. Field preparation The field has to be kept weed free. Flowering of weeds should not be allowed. This helps in prevention of build up of weed seed population. 2. Summer tillage The practice of summer tillage or off-season tillage is one of the effective cultural methods to check the growth of perennial weed population in crop cultivation. Initial tillage before cropping should encourage clod formation. These clods, which have the weed propagules, upon drying desiccate the same. Subsequent tillage operations should break the clods into small units to further expose the shriveled weeds to the hot sun. 3. Optimum plant population Lack of adequate plant population is prone to heavy weed infestation, which becomes, difficult to control later. Therefore, practices like selection of proper seed, right method of sowing, adequate seed rate protection of seed from soil borne pests and diseases etc., are very important to obtain proper and uniform crop stand capable of offering competition to the weeds. 4. Crop rotation The possibilities of a certain weed species or group of species occurring is greater if the same crop is grown year after year. In many instances, crop rotation can eliminate at least reduce difficult weed problems. The obnoxious weeds like Cyperus rotundus can be controlled effectively by including low land rice in crop rotation. Inclusion of smothering crop",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "group of species occurring is greater if the same crop is grown year after year. In many instances, crop rotation can eliminate at least reduce difficult weed problems. The obnoxious weeds like Cyperus rotundus can be controlled effectively by including low land rice in crop rotation. Inclusion of smothering crop or competitive crops like sunflower, sorghum, sweet, potato, fodder grasses in rotation will effectively control the weeds. The selected crops should grow thickly and develop dense canopy and shade to suppress the weeds. Competitive plantsParthenium hysterophorus can be effectively controlled by growing Cassia sericea Parthenium through allelopathic effect. Brachiaria mutica (Para grass) is highly competitive to the growth of Typha sp. in ditches. 5. Growing of intercrops Inter cropping suppresses weeds better than sole cropping and thus provides an opportunity to utilize crops themselves as tools of weed management. Many short duration pulses viz., green gram and soybean effectively smother weeds without causing reduction in the yield of main crop. 6. Mulching Mulch is a protective covering of material maintained on soil surface. Mulching has smothering effect on weed control by excluding light from the photosynthetic portions of a plant and thus inhibiting the top growth. It is very effective against annual weeds and some perennial weeds like Cynodon dactylon. Mulching is done by dry or green crop WEEDS SCIENCE 327 residues, plastic sheet or polythene film. To be effective the mulch should be thick enough to prevent light transmission and eliminate photosynthesis. 7. Solarisation This is another method of utilization of solar energy for the desiccation of weeds. In this method, the soil temperature is further raised by 5–10ºC by covering a presoaked fallow field with thin transparent plastic sheet. The plastic sheet checks the long wave back radiation from the soil and prevents loss of energy by hindering",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "utilization of solar energy for the desiccation of weeds. In this method, the soil temperature is further raised by 5–10ºC by covering a presoaked fallow field with thin transparent plastic sheet. The plastic sheet checks the long wave back radiation from the soil and prevents loss of energy by hindering moisture evaporation. 8. Stale seedbed A stale seedbed is one where initial one or two flushes of weeds are destroyed before planting of a crop. This is achieved by soaking a well-prepared field with either irrigation or rain and allowing the weeds to germinate. At this stage a shallow tillage or non-residual herbicide like paraquat may be used to destroy the dense flush of young weed seedlings. This may be followed immediately by sowing. This technique allows the crop to germinate in almost weed-free environment. 9. Blind tillage The tillage of the soil after sowing a crop before the crop plants emerge is known as blind tillage. It is extensively employed to minimize weed intensity in drill sowing crops where emergence of crop seedling is hindered by soil crust formed on receipt of rain or irrigation immediately after sowing. 10. Crop management practices Good crop management practices that play an important role in weed control are: • Vigorous and fast growing crop varieties are better competitors with weeds. • Proper placement of fertilizers ensures greater availability of nutrients to crop plants, thus keeping the weeds at a disadvantage. • Better irrigation practices to have a good head start over the weeds. • Proper crop rotation programme. • Higher plant population per unit area results in smothering effect on weed growth. Merits • Low cost for weed control • Easy to adopt • No residual problem • Technical skill is not involved • No damage to crops • Effective weed control",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "weeds. • Proper crop rotation programme. • Higher plant population per unit area results in smothering effect on weed growth. Merits • Low cost for weed control • Easy to adopt • No residual problem • Technical skill is not involved • No damage to crops • Effective weed control • Crop-weed ecosystem is maintained Demerits • Immediate and quick weed control is not possible • Weeds are kept under suppressed condition • Perennial and problematic weeds can not be controlled • Practical difficulty in adoption (c) Biological methods Bio control is defined as the use of living organisms to suppress a pest population, making it less abundant and thus less damaging than that it would otherwise be or Use of living organisms i.e., bioagents viz., insects, disease organisms, herbivorous fish, snails or even competitive plants for the control of weeds is called biological control. In biological control method, it is not possible to eradicate weeds but weed population can be reduced. This method is not useful to control all types of weeds. Introduced weeds are best targets for biological control. 328 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (i) Qualities of bio-agent The bio-agent must feed or affect only one host and not other useful plants. It must be free of predators or parasites. It must readily adapt to environment conditions. The bio-agent must be capable of seeking out itself to the host. It must be able to kill the weed or at least prevent its reproduction in some direct or indirect way. It must possess reproductive capacity sufficient to overtake the increase of its host species, without too much delay. (ii) Merits • Least harm to the environment • No residual effect • Relatively cheaper and comparatively long lasting effect • Will not affect non-targeted plants and safer in usage (iii)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "way. It must possess reproductive capacity sufficient to overtake the increase of its host species, without too much delay. (ii) Merits • Least harm to the environment • No residual effect • Relatively cheaper and comparatively long lasting effect • Will not affect non-targeted plants and safer in usage (iii) Demerits • Multiplication is costlier • Control is very slow • Success of control is very limited • Very few host specific bio-agents are available at present (iv) Mode of action • Differential growth habits, competitive ability of crops and varieties prevent weed establishment e.g., Groundnut, cowpea fast growing and so good weed suppresser. • Insects kill the plants by exhausting plant food reserves, defoliation, boring and weakening structure of the plant. • Pathogenic organisms damage the host plants through enzymatic degradation of cell constituents, production of toxins, disturbance of hormone systems, obstruction in the translocation of food materials and minerals and malfunctioning of physiological processes. Specific bio-agent will attack only one or two specific weeds. Non specific bioagent will feed upon variety of vegetation. Examples: • Eichhornia crassipes in controlled by using hyacinth moth (Neconchetina eichhorniae). • Water fern (Salvinia molesta) is controlled by using curculinoid weevil (Crytobagous sp.). • Zygogramma bicolorata, beetle feed on leaves of Parthenium during monsoon. • Larvae of Coctoblastis cactorum, a moth borer, control prickly pear Opuntia sp. The larvae tunnel through the plants and destroy it. In India it is controlled by cochinial insects Dactylopius indicus and D. tomentosus. • Lantana camara is controlled by larvae of Crocidosema lantana, a moth bores into the flower, stems, eat flowers and fruits. • Cuscuta spp. is controlled by Melanagromyza cuscutae. • Cyperus rotundus Bactra verutana a moth borer. • Ludiwigia parviflora is completely denuded by Altica cynanea (steel blue beetle). • Herbivorous fish Tilapia controls",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "controlled by larvae of Crocidosema lantana, a moth bores into the flower, stems, eat flowers and fruits. • Cuscuta spp. is controlled by Melanagromyza cuscutae. • Cyperus rotundus Bactra verutana a moth borer. • Ludiwigia parviflora is completely denuded by Altica cynanea (steel blue beetle). • Herbivorous fish Tilapia controls algae. Common carp, a non-herbivorous fish controls submerged aquatic weeds. It is apparently due to uprooting of plants while in search of food. Snails prefer submersed weeds. WEEDS SCIENCE 329 (v) Bioherbicides The use of plant pathogen, which are expected to kill the targeted weeds. Bioherbicides having pathogenic organisms like fungi, bacteria and virus are used as biocontrol agents. They are applied as chemicals. These are native pathogen, cultured artificially and sprayed just like post-emergence herbicides each season on target weed, particularly in crop areas. Fungal pathogens of weed have been used to a larger extent than bacterial, viral or nematode pathogens, because, bacteria and virus are unable to actively penetrate the host and require natural opening or vectors to initiate disease in plants. Here the specific fungal spores or their fermentation product is sprayed against the target weed. Some registered mycoherbicides in western countries are given in Table 10.5. (d) Chemical methods Chemicals, which can kill the weeds or control weed growth are known as herbicides. Using herbicides for the control of weeds is called chemical weed control. Table 10.5. Registered Mycoherbicides No. Product Content Target weed 1. Devine A liquid suspension of fungal spores of Strangle vine (Morrenia odorata) in Phytophthora palmivora causes root rot. citrus 2. Collego Wettable powder containing fungal spores Joint vetch (Aeschyomone virginica) of Colletotrichum gloeosporoides causes in rice, soybean stem and leaf blight 3. Bipolaris A suspension of fungal spores of Bipolaris Jhonson grass (Sorghum halepense) sorghicola 4. Biolophos A microbial toxin produced",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "odorata) in Phytophthora palmivora causes root rot. citrus 2. Collego Wettable powder containing fungal spores Joint vetch (Aeschyomone virginica) of Colletotrichum gloeosporoides causes in rice, soybean stem and leaf blight 3. Bipolaris A suspension of fungal spores of Bipolaris Jhonson grass (Sorghum halepense) sorghicola 4. Biolophos A microbial toxin produced as fermentation Non-specific, general vegetation product of Steptomyces hygroscopicus i. Principle The selectivity exhibited by certain chemicals to cultivated crops in controlling its associated weeds without affecting the crops forms basis for the chemical weed control. Such selectivity may be due to differences in the morphology, differential absorption, differential translocation, differential deactivation etc. ii. Merits Herbicides can be recommended for adverse soil and climatic conditions, as manual weeding is highly impossible during monsoon season. Herbicides can control weeds even before they emerge from the soil so that crops can germinate and grow in completely weed-free environment at early stages. It is usually not possible with physical weed comfort. Weeds, which resemble like crop in vegetative phase may escape in manual weeding. However, these weeds are controlled by herbicides. Herbicide is highly suitable for broadcasted and closely spaced crops. Herbicides controls the weeds without any injury to the root system of the associated standing crop especially in plantation crops like Tea and Coffee. It reduces the need for pre planting tillage and controls many perennial weed species, which cannot be controlled by other methods. Herbicides control the weed in the field itself or insitu controlling where as mechanical method may lead to dispersal of weed species through seed. It is profitable where labour is scarce and expensive. Herbicide application is well suited for minimum tillage concept and it provides early season/zero day weed control and its application is highly economical. 330 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY III. Demerits • Pollutes the environment",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to dispersal of weed species through seed. It is profitable where labour is scarce and expensive. Herbicide application is well suited for minimum tillage concept and it provides early season/zero day weed control and its application is highly economical. 330 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY III. Demerits • Pollutes the environment • Herbicides must be applied at proper time in each season • Excess herbicide residues in soils may affect succeeding crop • It requires certain minimum technical knowledge for selection and use of herbicides • Affects the soil microbes if the dose exceeds • Herbicide causes drift effect to the adjoining field • It requires certain amount of minimum technical knowledge for calibration • Leaves residual effects • Some herbicide is highly costlier • Suitable herbicides are not available for mixed and inter-cropping system. IV. Classification of herbicides 1. Based on method of application Soil applied herbicides: Herbicide act through root and other underground parts of weeds e.g., Fluchloralin. Foliage applied herbicides: Herbicide primarily active on the plant foliage e.g., Glyphosate, Paraquat. Factors influencing the methods of application are weed-crop situation, type of herbicides, mode of action and selectivity, environmental factors and cost and convenience of application. Based on method of application, herbicides can be grouped as below. Fig. 10.1 Selective herbicides will not affect the crop but will kill the weeds. Non-selective herbicides will kill all plants on which it is sprayed or applied. It is also known as total killer. Example–paraquat, glyphosate etc. Contact Selective (IPC, TCA, MCPA) Non-selective Selective (Arsenicals) Selective (Sodium arsenate, Thiocynates) Volatile (Carbon bisulphide) Nonvolatile (Sodium chlorate) Herbicides Sprayed over foliage Soil applied Translocated Non-selective Non-selective WEEDS SCIENCE 331 2. Based on target site Depending on the target site, the herbicides are classified into soil applied herbicides and foliage applied or foliar herbicides. Soil",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Non-selective Selective (Arsenicals) Selective (Sodium arsenate, Thiocynates) Volatile (Carbon bisulphide) Nonvolatile (Sodium chlorate) Herbicides Sprayed over foliage Soil applied Translocated Non-selective Non-selective WEEDS SCIENCE 331 2. Based on target site Depending on the target site, the herbicides are classified into soil applied herbicides and foliage applied or foliar herbicides. Soil application Foliar application (a) Surface (i) Blanket spray (b) Sub surface (ii) Directed spray (c) Band (iii) Protected spray (d) Fumigation (iv) Spot treatment (e) Herbigation Soil application (a) Surface application Soil active herbicides are applied uniformly on the surface of the soil either by spraying or by broadcasting. The applied herbicides are either left undisturbed or incorporated into the soil. Incorporation is done to prevent the volatilization and photo-decomposition of the herbicides. e.g., Fluchoralin–Left undisturbed under irrigated condition and incorporated under rainfed condition. (b) Subsurface application It is the application of herbicides in a concentrated band, about 7–10 cm below the soil surface for controlling perennial weeds. For this special type of nozzle is introduced below the soil under the cover of a sweep hood. e.g., Carbamate herbicides to control Cyperus rotundus and Nitralin herbicides to control Convolvulus arvensis. (c) Band application Application to a restricted band along the crop rows leaving an untreated band in the inter-rows. Later inter-rows are cultivated to remove the weeds. Saving in cost is possible here. For example when a 30 cm wide band of a herbicide applied over a crop rows that were spaced 90 cm apart, then two-third cost is saved. (d) Fumigation Application of volatile chemicals into confined spaces or into the soil to produce gas that will destroy weed seeds is called fumigation. Herbicides used for fumigation are called as fumigants. These are good for killing perennial weeds and as well for eliminating weed seeds. E.g., Methyl bromide, Metham,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(d) Fumigation Application of volatile chemicals into confined spaces or into the soil to produce gas that will destroy weed seeds is called fumigation. Herbicides used for fumigation are called as fumigants. These are good for killing perennial weeds and as well for eliminating weed seeds. E.g., Methyl bromide, Metham, etc. (e) Herbigation Application of herbicides with irrigation water both by surface and sprinkler systems. In India farmers apply fluchloralin for chillies and tomato, while in western countries application of EPTC with sprinkler irrigation water is very common in Lucerne. 1. Foliar application (i) Blanket spray Uniform application of herbicides to standing crops without considering the location of the crop. Only highly selective herbicides are used here. e.g., Spraying 2,4-Ethyl Ester to rice three weeks after transplanting (ii) Directed spray Application of herbicides on weeds in between rows of crops by directing the spray only on weeds avoiding the crop. This could be possible by use of protective shield or hood. For example, spraying glyphosate in between rows of tapioca using hood to control Cyperus rotundus. (iii) Protected spray Applying non-selective herbicides on weeds by covering the crops, which are wide spaced, with polyethylene covers etc. This is expensive and laborious. However, farmers are using this technique for spraying glyphosate to control weeds in jasmine, cassava, banana etc. 332 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (iv) Spot treatment It is usually done on small areas having serious weed infestation to kill it and to prevent its spread. Rope wick applicator and Herbicide glove are useful here. 2. Based on mode of action Selective herbicide A herbicide is considered as selective when in a mixed growth of plant species, it kills some species without injuring the others. e.g., Atrazine. Non-selective herbicide It destroys majority of treated vegetation e.g., Paraquat. 3. Based on mobility",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "glove are useful here. 2. Based on mode of action Selective herbicide A herbicide is considered as selective when in a mixed growth of plant species, it kills some species without injuring the others. e.g., Atrazine. Non-selective herbicide It destroys majority of treated vegetation e.g., Paraquat. 3. Based on mobility Contact herbicide A contact herbicide kills those plant parts with which it comes in direct contact e.g., Paraquat. Translocated herbicide Herbicide which tends to move from treated part to untreated areas through xylem/phloem depending on the nature of its molecule e.g., Glyphosate. 4. Based on time of application Pre-plant application (PPI): Application of herbicide before sowing or along with sowing. Either it is foliar applied or incorporated in soil soon after its application. Pre-plant foliar spraying of glyphosate to control perennial weeds like Cyperus rotundus and pre-plant soil incorporation of Fluchloralin to control weeds in ground nut. Pre-emergence: Herbicide is applied to soil soon after sowing a crop before emergence of weeds. e.g., Atrazine, Pendimethalin, Butachlor, Thiobencarb, Pretilachlor etc. Post-emergence: When herbicide is applied to kill young weeds standing in the crop plants or application after the emergence of weed and crop. e.g., Glyphosate, Paraquat, 2,4-D Na Salt. Early post emergence: Another application of herbicide in the slow growing crops like potato, sugarcane, 2-3 week after sowing is classified as early post emergence. 5. Based on molecular structure (a) Inorganic compounds (b) Organic compounds V. Formulations Herbicides in their natural state may be solid, liquid, volatile, non-volatile, soluble or insoluble. Hence, these have to be made in forms suitable and safe for their field use. An herbicide formulation is prepared by the manufacturer by blending the active ingredient with substances like solvents, inert carriers, surfactants, stickers, stabilizers etc. The objectives in herbicide formulations are as follows: • Ease of handling",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Hence, these have to be made in forms suitable and safe for their field use. An herbicide formulation is prepared by the manufacturer by blending the active ingredient with substances like solvents, inert carriers, surfactants, stickers, stabilizers etc. The objectives in herbicide formulations are as follows: • Ease of handling • High controlled activity on the target plants (a) Need To have a product with physical properties suitable for use in a variety of types of application equipment and conditions; to prepare a product, which is effective and economically feasible to use and to prepare a product, which is suitable for storage under local conditions? (b) Types of formulation (i) Emulsifiable concentrates (EC) A concentrated herbicide formulation containing organic solvent and adjuvants to facilitate emulsification with water e.g., Butachlor. WEEDS SCIENCE 333 (ii) Wettable powders (WP) A herbicide is absorbed by an inert carrier together with an added surface acting agent. The material is finely ground so that it may form a suspension when agitated with a required volume of water e.g., Atrazine. (iii) Granules (G) The inert material (carrier) is given a granular shape and the herbicide (active ingredient) is mixed with sand, clay, vermiculite, finely ground plant parts (ground corn cobs) as carrier material. e.g., Alachlor granules. (iv) Water soluble concentrates (WSC) e.g., paraquat. VI. Time of application of herbicides (i) Pre-planting Application of herbicides before the crop is planted or sown. Soil application as well as foliar application is done here. For example, fluchloralin can be applied to soil and incorporated before sowing rainfed groundnut while glyphosate can be applied on the foliage of perennial weeds like Cyperus rotundus before planting of any crop. (ii) Pre-emergence Application of herbicides before a crop or weed has emerged. In case of annual crops application is done after the sowing",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to soil and incorporated before sowing rainfed groundnut while glyphosate can be applied on the foliage of perennial weeds like Cyperus rotundus before planting of any crop. (ii) Pre-emergence Application of herbicides before a crop or weed has emerged. In case of annual crops application is done after the sowing of the crop but before the emergence of weeds and this is referred as pre-emergence to the crop while in the case perennial crops it can be said as pre-emergence to weeds. For example soil application by spraying of atrazine on 3rd DAT to sugarcane can be termed as pre-emergence to cane crop while soil application by spraying the same immediately after a rain to control a new flush of weeds in a inter-cultivated orchard can be specified as pre-emergence to weed. (iii) Post-emergence Herbicide application after the emergence of crop or weed is referred as postemergence application. When the weeds grow before the crop plants have emerged through the soil and are killed with a herbicide then it is called as early post-emergence. For example spraying 2,4-D Na salt to control parasitic weed striga in sugarcane is called as post-emergence while spraying of paraquat to control emerged weeds after 10-15 days after planting potato can be called as early post-emergence. VII. Selective herbicides The success of weed control programme depends on study of weed flora, selection of proper herbicide, use of correct dose, stage and time of application, method of application and calibration of sprayer. (a) Factors influencing choice of herbicides Crop factor Monocots and dicots show differential tolerance to a herbicide, accordingly depending on type of crop cultivated the choice of herbicides varies. e.g., Monocots like rice has tolerance to 2,4-D Na salt while dicots like soybean gets killed when used as post-emergence. Nature of weeds present Based",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of herbicides Crop factor Monocots and dicots show differential tolerance to a herbicide, accordingly depending on type of crop cultivated the choice of herbicides varies. e.g., Monocots like rice has tolerance to 2,4-D Na salt while dicots like soybean gets killed when used as post-emergence. Nature of weeds present Based on the type of major weeds present in a situation, the herbicides are suggested accordingly. For e.g., if more grassy weeds–fluzipop butyl is used while 2,4-D Na salt is used to control broad-leaved weeds. Site of application Soil applied herbicides–Atrazine, fluchloralin; Foliar applied herbicides– glyphosate. Time of application Pre-emergence herbicides–metolachlor ; Post-emergence herbicides–paraquat. Farming situation Wetland–water soluble herbicides butachlor; garden land–Wettable powders– Atrazine and water bodies–Diquat. Duration of weed control Short duration–less persistent herbicide-Anilofos; Long period –residual herbicides–atrazine. 334 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Cropping system • Maize + pulse combination–Isoproturon used and not atrazine • Maize followed by pulse use pendimethalin • Maize followed by cereal-Atrazine Cost In case of rice though butachlor, fluchloralin, pendimethalin etc., are recommended mostly butachlor is used because of it is cheaper than all other chemicals but not in control of weeds. (b) Herbicides for important crops The important herbicides for different crops are given in Table 10.6. Table 10.6. Herbicides for Important Crops Crop Herbicide Dose Trade name and Time of application (kg a.i./ha) formulation 1. Rice Butachlor 1.25 Machete 50% EC Pre-emergence Delchlor 50% EC Thiobencarb 1.25 Thunder 50% EC Pre-emergence Saturn 50% EC Anilophos 0.40 Arozin 30% EC Pre-emergence Aniloguard 30% EC Fluchloralin 0.90 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence Pendimethalin 0.90 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence 2,4-D Na salt 1.00 Fernoxone 80% SS Post-emergence 2. Rice (Upland Thiobencarb 1.25 Saturn 50% EC Pre-emergence direct sown) (8 DAS) Pretilachlor 0.45 Refit 50% EC Pre-emergence 3. Sorghum Atrazine 0.25 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence 4. Ragi Butachlor",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Fluchloralin 0.90 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence Pendimethalin 0.90 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence 2,4-D Na salt 1.00 Fernoxone 80% SS Post-emergence 2. Rice (Upland Thiobencarb 1.25 Saturn 50% EC Pre-emergence direct sown) (8 DAS) Pretilachlor 0.45 Refit 50% EC Pre-emergence 3. Sorghum Atrazine 0.25 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence 4. Ragi Butachlor 1.25 Machete 50% EC Pre-emergence (Transplanted) Pendimethalin 0.75 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence 5. Maize Atrazine 0.25 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence 6. Cumbu Atrazine 0.25 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence 7. Cotton Metolachlor 1.00 Dual 50% EC Pre-emergence Fluchloralin 1.00 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence Pendimethalin 1.00 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence Diuron 0.40 Karmex 50% WP Pre-emergence 8. Groundnut Metolachlor 1.00 Dual 50% EC Pre-emergence Fluchloralin 0.90 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence 9. Sunflower Fluchloralin 0.90 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence Pendimethalin 0.90 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence 10. Vegetables Fluchloralin 1.00 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence Pendimethalin 1.00 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence 11. Sugarcane Atrazine 1.00 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence (Contd.) WEEDS SCIENCE 335 Crop Herbicide Dose Trade name and Time of application (kg a.i./ha) formulation 12. Pulses Fluchloralin 0.70 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence Pendimethalin 0.60 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence 13. Wheat Isoproturon 0.60 Arelon 75% WP Pre-emergence Cropping Systems 1. Sorghum Pendimethalin 0.90 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence + Cowpea 2. Sugarcane Thiobencarb 1.25 Saturn 50% EC Pre-emergence + Pulses 3. Maize Pendimethalin 1.00 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence + Soybean Alachlor 2.00 Lasso 50% EC Pre-emergence *Subject to change. This recommendation is for Tamil Nadu conditions. 10.8 INTERACTION OF HERBICIDES WITH MOISTURE, FERTILIZERS, BIO FERTILIZERS, INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES Simultaneous or sequential application of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, antidotes, fertilizers etc. are followed in a single cropping season. These chemicals may undergo a change in physical and chemical characters, which could lead to enhancement or reduction in the efficacy of one or more compounds. The interaction effects were",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "AND FUNGICIDES Simultaneous or sequential application of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, antidotes, fertilizers etc. are followed in a single cropping season. These chemicals may undergo a change in physical and chemical characters, which could lead to enhancement or reduction in the efficacy of one or more compounds. The interaction effects were seen much later in the growing season or in the next season due to build up of persistent chemicals or their residues in the soil. Knowledge on the interactions of various chemicals can be helpful in the formulation and adoption of a sound and effective plant protection programme. It can also help to exploit the synergistic and antagonistic interactions between various pesticides for an effective eradication of weed and other pest problems. When two or more chemicals accumulate in the plant, they may interact and bring out responses. These responses are classified as additive, synergistic, antagonistic, independent and enhancement effects. A. Interaction Effects Additive effect It is the total effect of a combination, which is equal to the sum of the effects of the components taken independently. Synergistic effect The total effect of a combination is greater or more prolonged than the sum of the effects of the two taken independently. e.g., The mixture of 2,4-D and chlorpropham is synergistic on monocot species generally resistant to 2,4-D. Similarly, low rates of 2,4-D and picloram have synergistic response on Convolvulus arvensis. Atrazine and Alachlor combination, which shows synergism is widely used for an effective control in corn. Antagonistic effect The total effect of a combination is smaller than the effect of the most active component applied alone. e.g., combination of EPTC with 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T or dicamba has antagonistic responses in sorghum and giant foxtail. Similarly, chlorpropham and 2,4-D have antagonism. When simazine or atrazine is added to glyphosate solution and sprayed",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "effect of a combination is smaller than the effect of the most active component applied alone. e.g., combination of EPTC with 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T or dicamba has antagonistic responses in sorghum and giant foxtail. Similarly, chlorpropham and 2,4-D have antagonism. When simazine or atrazine is added to glyphosate solution and sprayed the glyphosate activity is reduced. This is due to the physical binding within the spray solution rather than from biological interactions within the plant. 336 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Independent effect The total effect of a combination is equal to the effect of the most active component applied alone. Enhancement effect The effect of a herbicide and non-toxic adjuvant applied in combination on a plant is said to have an enhancement effect if the response is greater than that obtained when the herbicide is used at the same rates without the adjuvant. e.g., mixing Ammonium sulphate with glyphosate. B. Herbicide-moisture Interaction Soil applied herbicides fail when there is a dry spell of 10-15 days after their application. Pre-emergence herbicides may be lost by photo-decomposition, volatilization and wind blowing while some amount of water is desirable to activate the soil applied herbicides, excess of it may leach the herbicide to the crop seed and root zone. This may injure the crops and on other side, result in poor weed control. Heavy showers may wash down herbicides from the foliage. Continuous wet weather may induce herbicide injury in certain crops by turning them highly succulent. e.g., maize plants are normally tolerant to Atrazine but they become susceptible in wet weather, particularly when air temperature is low. Extra succulence has been found to increase atrazine absorption and low temperature decrease its metabolism inside the plants. Quality of water used may also determine herbicide action. Dusty water reduces action of paraquat. Calcium chloride rich",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Atrazine but they become susceptible in wet weather, particularly when air temperature is low. Extra succulence has been found to increase atrazine absorption and low temperature decrease its metabolism inside the plants. Quality of water used may also determine herbicide action. Dusty water reduces action of paraquat. Calcium chloride rich water reduces glyphoste phytotoxicity. C. Herbicide-insecticide Interaction These chemicals are usually not harmful at recommended rates. The tolerance of plants to a herbicide may be altered in the presence of an insecticide and vice versa. The phyto-toxicity of monuron and diuron on cotton and oats is increased when applied with phorate. Phorate interacts antagonistically with trifluralin to increase cotton yield, by stimulating secondary roots in the zone of pesticide incorporation. Propanil interacts with certain carbamate and phosphate insecticides used as seed treatments on rice. But chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides as seed treatment have not interacted with propanil. When propanil is applied at intervals between 7 and 56 days after carbofuron treatment, it results in greater injury to rice vegetatively. D. Herbicide-pathogens/fungicides Interaction Herbicides interact with fungicides also. Dinoseb reduces the severity of stem rot in groundnut. In sterilized soil, chloroxuron is not causing any apparent injury to pea plants, while in the presence of Rhizoctonia solani in unsterilized soil it causes injury. Oxadiazon reduces the incidence of stem rot caused by the soil borne pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii L. in groundnut. Diuron and triazine, which inhibit photosynthesis, may make the plants more susceptible to tobacco mosaic virus. On the other hand, diuron may decrease the incidence of root rot in wheat. E. Herbicide-fertilizer Interaction Herbicides have been found to interact with fertilizers in fields. e.g., fast growing weeds that are getting ample nitrogen show great susceptibility to 2, 4-D, glyphosate than slow growing weeds on poor fertility lands. The activity of glyphosate",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "may decrease the incidence of root rot in wheat. E. Herbicide-fertilizer Interaction Herbicides have been found to interact with fertilizers in fields. e.g., fast growing weeds that are getting ample nitrogen show great susceptibility to 2, 4-D, glyphosate than slow growing weeds on poor fertility lands. The activity of glyphosate is increased when ammonium sulphate is tank mixed. Nitrogen invigorate (put life and energy into) the meristamatic activity in crops so much that they susceptible to herbicides. High rates of atrazine are more toxic to maize and sorghum when applied with high rates of phosphorus. F. Herbicide-microbes Interaction Microorganisms play a major role in the persistence behaviour of herbicides in the soil. The soil microorganisms have the capacity to detoxify and inactivate the herbicides present in the soil. Some WEEDS SCIENCE 337 groups of herbicides more easily degrade through microbes than others. The difference lies in the molecular configuration of the herbicide. The microorganisms involved in herbicide degradation include bacteria, fungi, algae, moulds etc. Of these, bacteria predominate and include the members of the genera Agrobacterium, Arthrobacter, Achromobacterium. Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Streptomyces, Flavobacterium, Rhizobium etc. The fungi include those of the genera Fusarium, Penicillium etc. 10.9 INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT (IWM) A. Definition Use of a judicial combination of mechanical, cultural, biological and chemical methods to achieve economic and effective weed control. It is a method whereby all economically, ecologically and toxicologically justifiable methods are employed to keep the harmful organisms below the threshold level of economic damage, keeping in the foreground the conscious employment of natural limiting factors. IWM is the rational use of direct and indirect control methods to provide cost-effective weed control. Such an approach is the most attractive alternative from agronomic, economic and ecological point of view. Among the commonly suggested indirect methods are land preparation, water management,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the conscious employment of natural limiting factors. IWM is the rational use of direct and indirect control methods to provide cost-effective weed control. Such an approach is the most attractive alternative from agronomic, economic and ecological point of view. Among the commonly suggested indirect methods are land preparation, water management, plant spacing, seed rate, cultivar use, and fertilizer application. Direct methods include manual, cultural, mechanical and chemical methods of weed control. The essential factor in any IWM programme is the number of indirect and direct methods that can be combined economically in a given situation. For example, increased frequency of ploughing and harrowing does not eliminate the need for direct weed control. It is, therefore, more cost-effective to use fewer pre-planting harrowing and combine them with direct weed control methods. There is experimental evidence that illustrates that better weed control is achieved if different weed control practices are used in combination rather than if they are applied separately. B. Why IWM • One method of weed control may be effective and economical in a situation and it may not be so in other situation. • No single herbicide is effective in controlling wide range of weed flora. • Continuous use of same herbicide creates resistance in escaped weed flora or causes shift in the flora. • Continuous use of only one practice may result in some undesirable effects. e.g., Rice–wheat cropping system–Philaris minor. • Only one method of weed control may lead to increase in population of particular weed. • Indiscriminate herbicide use and its effects on the environment and human health. C. Concept • Uses a variety of technologies in a single weed management with the objective to produce optimum crop yield at a minimum cost taking into consideration ecological and socio-economic constraints under a given agro-ecosystem. • A",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Indiscriminate herbicide use and its effects on the environment and human health. C. Concept • Uses a variety of technologies in a single weed management with the objective to produce optimum crop yield at a minimum cost taking into consideration ecological and socio-economic constraints under a given agro-ecosystem. • A system in which two or more methods are used to control a weed. These methods may include cultural practices, natural enemies and selective herbicides. D. Good IWM should be • Flexible enough to incorporate innovations and practical experiences of local farmers. 338 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Developed for the whole farm and not for just one or two fields and hence it should be extended to irrigation channels, road sides and other non-crop surroundings on the farm from where most weeds find their way into the crop fields. • Economically viable and practically feasible. E. Advantages of IWM • It shifts the crop-weed competition in favour of crop • Prevents weed shift towards perennial nature • Prevents resistance in weeds to herbicides • No danger of herbicide residue in soil or plant • Suitable for high cropping intensity IWM for different crops are given in the chapter 15. A Conceptional Model of IWM by Noda, K. (1977) Fig. 10.2 Preventive means Manual weeding Mechanical control Chemical control Cultural means Biological control Knowledge of weed science Integrated weed control Increase of productivity Safety on environment Increasing unit area yield Limit of weed present Increasing per man yield Method of systematization Labour saved Less input No or less toxic Co-existed with other technique Useful Agents WEEDS SCIENCE 339 10.10 HERBICIDE MIXTURES Involves mixing of two or more herbicides used for effective and economical weed control. A. Advantages • A mixture will broaden the spectrum of herbicidal action and kill a variety",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Labour saved Less input No or less toxic Co-existed with other technique Useful Agents WEEDS SCIENCE 339 10.10 HERBICIDE MIXTURES Involves mixing of two or more herbicides used for effective and economical weed control. A. Advantages • A mixture will broaden the spectrum of herbicidal action and kill a variety of weeds. • It may increase the effectiveness. • In a mixture one herbicide may prevent rapid degradation of the other and increase its efficacy. • A mixture offers the possibility of reducing the dose of each of the herbicide necessary for weed control leading to low residue. B. Two types of Mixtures (i) Tank mixtures made with the desired herbicides and rates before application e.g., Anilophos + 2,4-D EE–rice. (ii) Ready mix–formulated by the manufacturer. Ready mix available in the world market e.g., 2,4D+Glyphosate, Paraquat+2,4,-D, Atrazine+metolachlor, paraquat+oxyfluorfen. 10.11 HERBICIDE ROTATION The practice of following a systematic, rotational sequence of herbicide used in the same field to prevent or control formation of herbicide resistant weeds. In a rotational programme a soil-applied or foliage applied herbicide or both are used in a sequence to take care of annual as well as perennial weeds. The choice of herbicide depends on the tolerance of crops to particular herbicides, type of weed spectrum, intensity of weed infestation, soil and climatic factors etc. The best rotational programme will aim at maximum cumulative cost benefit ratio and least residual problems and least build-up of tolerant weeds. Advantages • Helps in preventing emergence of tolerant weed species (Herbicide is captured in vacuole and inactivated excluding the herbicide from site of action). • Reduces the quantities of herbicide required for optimum weed control over the years. • Provides most effective weed control for the duration of crop growth. • Reduces the building up of herbicide residue problems. •",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(Herbicide is captured in vacuole and inactivated excluding the herbicide from site of action). • Reduces the quantities of herbicide required for optimum weed control over the years. • Provides most effective weed control for the duration of crop growth. • Reduces the building up of herbicide residue problems. • It offers high cumulative cost-benefit ratio over the years. Weed survey and mapping may be done every year and if any shift in weed flora, appropriate changes in herbicide rotation should be made. 10.12 HERBICIDE TOLERANCE AND RESISTANCE A. Herbicide Resistance Naturally occurring inheritable ability of some weed biotypes within a population to survive a herbicide treatment that would, under conditions of use effectively control the weed population (Rubin, 1991). • Senecio vulgaris resistance to triazine group of herbicide was noticed during 1970 • Worldwide 183 weeds have developed resistance to herbicides till 1997 • In India the most common example is Philaris minor 340 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • The highest resistance in 61 weed species was recorded for atrazine • USA alone found to have 49 herbicide resistant weeds, the highest in the world. (i) Gross resistance When a weed biotype exhibits resistant to two or more herbicides due to the presence of a single herbicide mechanism. (ii) Multiple resistance It is a situation where resistant plants posses two or more distinct resistant mechanism to a single herbicide or groups of herbicides. Basic principles • Time, dose and method of application of herbicide variation • Variation in phenotypes of a population • Genetic variation by mutation or activation of pre existing genes Conditions favourable • Repeated use of same herbicide or use of herbicide with same mode of action due to the practices of monoculture • Areas where minimum/zero tillage is followed • Fields where farmers rely on",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of a population • Genetic variation by mutation or activation of pre existing genes Conditions favourable • Repeated use of same herbicide or use of herbicide with same mode of action due to the practices of monoculture • Areas where minimum/zero tillage is followed • Fields where farmers rely on only herbicides for high degree/level of weed control including nurseries, orchards • Non-crop situations like road sides, railway tracks etc., where herbicides are repeated used may be at higher doses than cropped situation Resistance was exhibited in crop is due to herbicide metabolism by crops making them inactive, absence of certain metabolic process in crops compared to weeds and thus tolerating the herbicides and crops couples the herbicide molecule. B. Tolerance The term tolerance refers to the partial resistance and presently the usage of the term is discouraged due to inconsistency in quantifying the degree of tolerance. 10.13 HERBICIDE ANTIDOTE Chemicals, which are used to inactivate the applied herbicides, are called as antidotes. e.g., Paraquat spray can be inactivated by spraying 1% ferric chloride. 10.14 SAFENERS/PROTECTANTS Substances used for protecting crop plants, which are otherwise susceptible or less tolerant to some herbicides at doses required for good weed control. e.g., Naphthalic anhydride (NA)–0.5 g/kg of seed for rice to protect against molinate and alachlor R–27788–soil application protects maize from alachlor and metolachlor Mode of Action: Safeners enter the target plants and compete there with herbicide molecules for a binding site on some native enzyme. 10.15 ADJUVANTS Adjuvants are chemicals employed to improve the herbicidal effects, sometimes making a difference between satisfactory and unsatisfactory weed control. Mode of Action: Adjuvants aid the herbicide availability at the action site in plants. WEEDS SCIENCE 341 Kinds of adjuvants 1. Surfactant (Surface active agents) • Aid in wetting the waxy leaf surface with aqueous",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to improve the herbicidal effects, sometimes making a difference between satisfactory and unsatisfactory weed control. Mode of Action: Adjuvants aid the herbicide availability at the action site in plants. WEEDS SCIENCE 341 Kinds of adjuvants 1. Surfactant (Surface active agents) • Aid in wetting the waxy leaf surface with aqueous herbicide sprays (wetting agents) • In spreading the hydrophilic herbicides uniformly over the foliage (spreaders) • In the penetration of herbicide into the target leaves and stems (penetrates) A water drop is held as a ball on a waxy leaf surface. (Take water in a beaker, if you dip a leaf of Cynodon dactylon and pull it back, you can see the leaf without wetting. But if you add a drop of surfactant you can readily wet the foliage.). With the addition of surfactant, the water drop flattens down to wet the leaf surface and let the herbicide act properly. 2. Stabilizing agents These include emulsifiers and dispersing agents. (i) Emulsifiers A substance which stabilizes (reduces the tendency to separate) a suspension of droplets of one liquid which otherwise would not mix with the first one. It substitutes for constant agitation of spray liquids during field operation. E.g., ABS, Solved, 15-5-3, 15-5-9. (ii) Dispersing agents They stabilize suspensions. They keep fine parricides of wettable powder in suspension in water even after initial vigorous agitation has been withdrawn. They act by increasing the hydration of fine particles of WP laden with the herbicides. 3. Coupling agents (Solvents and co-solvents) Chemical that is used to solubilize a herbicide in a concentrated form; the resulting solution is soluble with water in all proportions. e.g., 2,4-D is insoluble in water, but it can be dissolved in polyethylene glycol to make it water soluble. Common solvents: Benzene, acetone, petroleum ether, carbon tetrachloride. 4. Humicants (Hygroscopic",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is used to solubilize a herbicide in a concentrated form; the resulting solution is soluble with water in all proportions. e.g., 2,4-D is insoluble in water, but it can be dissolved in polyethylene glycol to make it water soluble. Common solvents: Benzene, acetone, petroleum ether, carbon tetrachloride. 4. Humicants (Hygroscopic agents) Humicants prevent rapid drying of herbicide sprays on the foliage, thus providing an extended opportunity of herbicide absorption e.g., glycerol. 5. Deposit builders (Stickers or filming agents) Chemicals added to herbicide concentrates to hold the toxicant in intimate contact with the plant surface. They also reduce washing off of the toxicant from the treated foliage by rain. e.g., several petroleum oils, Dupont spreader sticker, Citowett. 6. Compatibility agents Used to intimately mix fertilizers and pesticides in spray liquids e.g., Compex. 7. Activators (Synergists) Chemicals having cooperative action with herbicides that the resultant phytotoxicity is more than the effect of the two working independently. e.g., Paraffinic oils, Ammonium thiocyanate, Urea and Ammonium chloride to enhance 2,4–D phytotoxicity. 8. Drift control agents Herbicide spray drifts may pose serious hazards to non-target plants. e.g., 2,4–D on cotton. Solution is to spray herbicide liquids in large droplets. 9. Thickening agents e.g., (Decagin, Sodium alginate). 10.16 MANAGEMENT OF HERBICIDE RESIDUES IN SOIL An ideal soil applied herbicide should persist longenough to give an acceptable period of weed control but not so long that soil residues after crop harvest limit the nature of subsequent crops which can be grown. Various management techniques have been developed which can help to minimise the residue hazards in soil. 342 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Use of Optimum Dose of Herbicide Hazards from residues of herbicides can be minimized by the application of chemicals at the lowest dosage by which the desired weed control is achieved. Besides, applying herbicides",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "which can help to minimise the residue hazards in soil. 342 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Use of Optimum Dose of Herbicide Hazards from residues of herbicides can be minimized by the application of chemicals at the lowest dosage by which the desired weed control is achieved. Besides, applying herbicides in bands rather as broadcast will reduce the total amount of herbicide to be applied. This will be practicable in line sown crops or crops raised along ridges, such as cotton, sugarcane, sorghum, maize etc. B. Application of Farm Yard Manure Farmyard manure application is an effective method to mitigate the residual toxicity of herbicides. The herbicide molecules get adsorbed in their colloidal fraction and make them unavailable for crops and weeds. Besides, FYM enhances the microbial activity, which in turn degrades the herbicide at a faster rate. C. Ploughing/cultivating the Land Ploughing with disc plough or intercultivators reduces the herbicide toxicity, as the applied herbicide is mixed to a large volume of soil and gets diluted. In case of deep ploughing the herbicide layer is inverted and buried in deeper layers and thereby the residual toxicity got reduced. D. Crop Rotation Ragi–Cotton–Sorghum is the common crop rotation under irrigated field conditions of Coimbatore district. Fluchloralin 0.9 kg or butachlor 0.75 kg/ha + Hand weeding at 35 DAT for ragi + sunflower (border crop), pendimethalin 1.0 kg/ha + hand weeding on 35 DAS for cotton intercropped with onion and two manual weeding at 15 and 35 DAS for sorghum inter cropped with cowpea is the recommended weed control practice. The above weed management schedule did not show any residual effect in the cropping system because the herbicides are changed for every crop. E. Use of Non-Phyto-Toxic Oil Atrazine residual hazard could be reduced by mixing non-phyto-toxic oil, which would also",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cropped with cowpea is the recommended weed control practice. The above weed management schedule did not show any residual effect in the cropping system because the herbicides are changed for every crop. E. Use of Non-Phyto-Toxic Oil Atrazine residual hazard could be reduced by mixing non-phyto-toxic oil, which would also enhance the weed killing potency. F. Use of Activated Carbon Activated carbon has a high adsorptive capacity because of its tremendous surface area which vary from 600–1200 m2/g. Incorporation of 50 kg/ha of activated charcoal inactivated completely chlorsulfuron applied at 1.25 and 2.50 kg/ha and did not affect the yield of maize compared to untreated control. Application of charcoal at 5.0 kg/ha along the seed line reduced the residual toxicity of atrazine in soybean crop. G. Use of Safeners and Antidotes A new development in herbicide usage is the use of safeners and antidotes in order to protect the crop plant from possible damage by a herbicide. This means that it may be possible to use certain herbicides on crops that would normally be affected by herbicide. NA (1,8-naphthalic anhydride) has been used as a seed dressing on rice to protect the crop against molinate and alachlor. Another herbicide safener cyometrinil is used along with metolachlor in grain sorghum and other crop species. H. Leaching the Soil Leaching the herbicide by frequent irrigation is possible especially in case of water soluble herbicides. In this case, the herbicides are leached down to lower layers i.e., beyond the reach of the crop roots. Chapter 11 Irrigation and Water Management Plants and any form of living organisms cannot live without water, since water is the most important constituent of about 80-90% of most plant cell. Water is essential not only to meet agricultural needs but also for industrial purposes, power generation, live stock",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "roots. Chapter 11 Irrigation and Water Management Plants and any form of living organisms cannot live without water, since water is the most important constituent of about 80-90% of most plant cell. Water is essential not only to meet agricultural needs but also for industrial purposes, power generation, live stock maintenance, rural and domestic needs etc. But the resource is limited and cannot be created as we require. 11.1 IMPORTANCE OF WATER A. Physiological Importance • The plant system itself contains about 90% of water. • Amount of water varies in different parts of plant as follows. * Apical portion of root and shoot > 90%. * Stem, leaves and fruits 70–90% * Woods 50–60% * Matured parts 15–20% * Freshly harvested grains 15–20% • It acts as base material for all metabolic activities. All metabolic or biochemical reactions in plant system need water. • It plays an important role in respiration and transpiration. • It plays an important role in photosynthesis. • It activates germination and plays an important role in plant metabolism for vegetative and reproductive growth. • It serves as a solvent in soil for plant nutrients. • It also acts as a carrier of plant nutrients from soil to plant system. • It maintains plants temperature through transpiration. • It helps to keep the plant erect by maintaining plant’s turgidity. • It helps to transport metabolites from source to sink. B. Ecological Importance • It helps to maintain soil temperature. • It helps to maintain salt balance. • It reduces salinity and alkalinity. • It influences weed growth. • It influences atmospheric weather. 344 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • It helps the beneficial microbes. • It supports human and animal life. • It helps for land preparation like ploughing, puddling etc., weeding, fertilizer application etc., by",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "balance. • It reduces salinity and alkalinity. • It influences weed growth. • It influences atmospheric weather. 344 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • It helps the beneficial microbes. • It supports human and animal life. • It helps for land preparation like ploughing, puddling etc., weeding, fertilizer application etc., by providing optimum conditions. The multivarious uses of good quality water for the purpose of irrigation, industrial purpose, power generation, livestock use, and domestic use for urban and rural development are increasing the demand for water. Due to increasing cost of irrigation projects and limited supply of good quality water, it becomes a highly valuable commodity and hence it is stated as liquid Gold. As indicated by Sir. C.V. Raman, water is the ELIXIR of life which makes wonders on earth if it is used properly, efficiently, economically, environmentally safely, optimally and equitably. Further, historical evidences indicate that all civilization established on riverbanks due to proper management and disappear due to improper management of the same water base. All the superior varieties, organic manure, inorganic fertilizer, efficient labour saving implements, proper pest and diseases management techniques can be implemented only when sufficient water is applied to the crop. The diversified value of water can be quoted as follows. • Water as a source of sustenance • Water as an instrument of agriculture • Water as a community good • Water as a mean of transportation • Water as an industrial commodity • Water as a clean and pure resource • Water as a beauty • Water as a destructive force to be controlled • Water as a fuel for urban development • Water a place for recreation and wild life habitat. 11.2 IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT Irrigation is the artificial application of water made for supplementing the moisture in the soil",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "as a beauty • Water as a destructive force to be controlled • Water as a fuel for urban development • Water a place for recreation and wild life habitat. 11.2 IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT Irrigation is the artificial application of water made for supplementing the moisture in the soil that is deficient and does not meet the full requirements of growing crops. Irrigation is essentially a practice of supplementing the natural precipitation for increasing production of agricultural and horticultural crops. (a) Effective irrigation It is the controlled and uniform application of water to cropland in required amount at the required time, to produce optimum yields. The cost of irrigation must be kept minimum and irrigation should be done without any wastage of water, which may cause adverse effect on the soil in the form of soil salinity and water logging problems. Almost all major crops are grown under irrigated condition. The most important one is rice in Tamil Nadu, which constitutes 67.5% of the total area under irrigation. The crops irrigated with flow irrigation from rivers and tanks are mostly rice and sugarcane and to a smaller extent banana and turmeric. (b) Irrigation management Regulating the activities based on the various resources for its efficient use and better out put i.e., allocation of all the resources for maximum benefit and to achieve the objectives, without eroding the environment is called management. Otherwise, it can be stated as planning, executing, monitoring, evaluating and re-organizing the whole activities to achieve the target. Management of water based on the soil and crop environment to obtain better yield by efficient use of IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 345 water without any damage to the environment. Management of water, soil, plants, irrigation structure, irrigation reservoirs, environment, social set up and it’s inter liked relationship are",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "target. Management of water based on the soil and crop environment to obtain better yield by efficient use of IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 345 water without any damage to the environment. Management of water, soil, plants, irrigation structure, irrigation reservoirs, environment, social set up and it’s inter liked relationship are studied in the irrigation management. Knowledge on the following aspects is necessary to device proper irrigation management. • The soil physical and chemical properties, • Biology of crop plants, • Quantity of water available, • Time of application of water, • Method of application of water, • Climatological or meteorological influence on irrigation, and • Environment and its changes due to irrigation. Management of all the above said factors constitute Irrigation Agronomy: Management of irrigation structures, conveyances, reservoirs constitute Irrigation Engineering; and social set up, activities, standard of living, irrigation policies, irrigation association and farmer’s participation, cost of irrigation etc., constitute Socio-economic study. Irrigation management is a complex process of art and science involving application of water from source to crop field. The source may be a river or a well or a canal or a tank or a lake or a pond. Maintaining the irrigation channels without leakage and weed infestation, applying water to field by putting some local check structure like field inlet and boundaries for the area to be irrigated etc., need some skill. These practices are the art involving practices in irrigation management. Time of irrigation and quantity of water to be applied (when to irrigate? and how much to irrigate?) based on soil types, climatic parameters, crop, varieties, growth stages, season, quality of water, uptake pattern of water by plants, etc., and method of application (How best to irrigate) includes conveyance of water without seepage and percolation losses and water movement in soil, are the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and how much to irrigate?) based on soil types, climatic parameters, crop, varieties, growth stages, season, quality of water, uptake pattern of water by plants, etc., and method of application (How best to irrigate) includes conveyance of water without seepage and percolation losses and water movement in soil, are the process involving scientific irrigation management. Simply, it is a systematic approach of art and science involved in soil, plant and water by proper management of the resources (soil, plant and water) to achieve the goal of crop production. (c) Importance Irrigation management is very important • To the development of nation through proper management of water resources for the purpose of crop production and other activities such as industrialization, power generation etc., which in turn provides employment opportunities and good living condition of the people. • To store and regulate the water resources for further use or non-season use. • To allocate the water with proper proportion based on area and crop under cultivation. (Balanced equity in distribution). • To convey the water without much loss through percolation and seepage (Efficiency in use). • To apply sufficient quantity to field crops (Optimization of use). • To utilize the water considering cost-benefit (Economically viable management). • To distribute the available water without any social problem (Judicial distribution). • To meet the future requirement of agricultural and other sections (Resource conservation). • To protect the environment from over use or misuse of water (Environment safe use). (d) Impact of excess and insufficient irrigation water in crops Avoid excess or insufficient water to the crops. Excess irrigation leads to wastage of large amount of water, leaching of plant nutrients, destruction of beneficial microbes, increase of expenses on drainage, accumulation of salt leading to salinity and alkalinity, water-logging leading to physiological stress and yield",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "irrigation water in crops Avoid excess or insufficient water to the crops. Excess irrigation leads to wastage of large amount of water, leaching of plant nutrients, destruction of beneficial microbes, increase of expenses on drainage, accumulation of salt leading to salinity and alkalinity, water-logging leading to physiological stress and yield loss or crop failure. 346 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Insufficient irrigation leads to reduction in quality of food grains, loss in crop yield or crop failure, poor soil environment etc. Water becomes a limiting resource due to the multi-various demand from sectors like agriculture, livestock, industries, power generation and increased urban and rural domestic use. The increasing population increases the needs of industrial complexes and urbanization to meet the basic requirement and also to provide employment opportunities. So the demand for water is increasing day by day and hence, it is essential to study water potential and its contribution to agriculture, which in turn is going to feed the growing population. 11.2 SOURCES OF WATER Rainfall is the ultimate source of all kind of water. Based on its sources of availability, it can be classified as surface water and subsurface water. 11.2.1 Surface Water It includes (including rainfall and dew) water available from river, tank, pond, lake etc. Besides, snowfall could able to contribute some quantity of water in heavy snowfall areas like Jammu, Kashmir and Himalaya region. A. Rainfall (a) Characteristics • Quantity should be sufficient to replace the moisture depleted from the root zone. • Frequency should be so as to maintain the crop without any water stress before it starts to wilt. • Intensity should be low enough to suit the soil absorption capacity. Indian rainfall does not have the above good characteristics to maintain the crop through rainfall alone. The following are the characteristic features of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "so as to maintain the crop without any water stress before it starts to wilt. • Intensity should be low enough to suit the soil absorption capacity. Indian rainfall does not have the above good characteristics to maintain the crop through rainfall alone. The following are the characteristic features of Indian rainfall. • Annual average rainfall is 1190 mm. • There is wide variation in the quantity of rainfall received from place to place. Highly erratic, undependable, variation in seasonal rainfall either in excess or deficit is the nature of Indian rainfall. For example a place in Rajasthan receives practically nil rainfall at the same time Chirapunji about 3000 mm rainfall. • Rainfall is not uniformly distributed throughout the year. It is seasonal, major quantity is in the South West Monsoon, (SWM alone contributing 70% of total rainfall) i.e., in the month of June to September followed by North-East Monsoon (NEM) from October to December. In summer and winter the amount of rainfall is very little. • With in the season also the distribution is not uniform. A sudden heavy downpour followed by dry spell for a long period is common occurrence. • Rainfall distribution over a large number of days is more effective than heavy down pour in a short period, but it is in negative trend in India. • Late commencement of monsoon. • Early withdrawal of monsoon and liability to failure are the freakish behaviour of Indian rainfall. Timely and uniform distribution of rainfall is important for better crop planning and to sustain crop production. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 347 (b) Seasons The seasons of rainfall are discussed in detail in chapter IV. 11.2.2 Sub Surface Water It includes subsurface water contribution, underground water, well water, etc. 11.3 HISTORY AND STATISTICS Irrigation has been practiced since time",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "better crop planning and to sustain crop production. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 347 (b) Seasons The seasons of rainfall are discussed in detail in chapter IV. 11.2.2 Sub Surface Water It includes subsurface water contribution, underground water, well water, etc. 11.3 HISTORY AND STATISTICS Irrigation has been practiced since time immemorial, nobody knows when it was started but evidences say that it is the foundation for all civilization since great civilization were started in the river basins of Sind and Nile. This civilization came to an end when the irrigation system failed to maintain crop production. There are some evidences that during the Vedic period (400 B.C.) people used to irrigate their crops with dug well water. Irrigation was gradually developed and extended during the Hindus, Muslims and British periods. The Grand Anaicut (KALLANAI) constructed across the river Cauvery is an outstanding example for the irrigation work by a Chola king the great Karikala Cholan during second century. The Veeranarayanan Tank and Gangai Konda Cholapuram tank was constructed during 10th century in Tamil Nadu. Anantaraja Sagar in Andhra Pradesh was constructed during 13th century. Early Mauryan king Samudragupta and Ashoka took great interest in the construction of wells and tanks. Later Moghul kings or North India and Hindu kings of South India focused their attention, in the establishment of canals, dams, tanks etc. British Government initiated their work during 19th century in remodeling and renovation of the existing irrigation system. The Upper Ganga canal, Krishna and Godaveri delta system, Mettur and Periyar dams are the great irrigation structures built by the British rulers. After independence, Irrigation activities have been accelerated and number of multipurpose river valley projects like Bhakra-nangal in Punjab, Tungabhadra in Andhra Pradesh, Damodar Valley in Madhya Pradesh were established. A. Irrigation Development During Five Year Plans In",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Periyar dams are the great irrigation structures built by the British rulers. After independence, Irrigation activities have been accelerated and number of multipurpose river valley projects like Bhakra-nangal in Punjab, Tungabhadra in Andhra Pradesh, Damodar Valley in Madhya Pradesh were established. A. Irrigation Development During Five Year Plans In 1950-51, the gross irrigated area was 22.5 m.ha. After completion of 1st five-year plan, the gross irrigated area was enlarged to 26.2 m.ha. Further, it was gradually increased to 29, 35.5, 44.2, 53.5 and 55 m.ha respectively over the II, III, IV, V, VI and VII five years plans. The expected increase through VIII and IX five year plans area 95 and 105 m.ha. respectively. B. CLassification of Irrigation Work or Projects The irrigation projects can be classified as: (1) major, (2) medium (3) minor based on financial limits or expenditure involved in the scheme. Major–More than Rs. 50 million It covers cultural command area of more than 10,000 ha. Medium–Rs. 2.5-50 million It covers cultural command area of 2000–10,000 ha. Minor–less than Rs. 2.5 million It covers cultural command area of 2,000 hectares. The minor irrigation work consists of irrigation tanks, canals and diversion work for the welfare of small farmers. India has many perennial and seasonal rivers, which flow from outside and within the country. Among this, some important rivers of different states are given below. 348 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY C. Important Irrigation Projects in India State Project name Andhra Pradesh Godavari delta system, Krishna delta system, Nagarjuna sagar (Krishna) Bihar Gandaka Punjab Western Jamuna, Bhakranangal, Sutlej, Beas Gujarat Kakrapare–Tapti Narmada Madhya Pradesh Gandhi sagar (Chambal, Ranap setab, Sagar) Maharashtra Bhima Jayakwadi (Godavari) Kerala Kalada, Mullai Periyar Karnataka Ghataprabha, Malaprapha and Turga Orissa Hirkund and Mahanadi Uttar Pradesh Upper ganga canal, Ramaganga West Bengal Damodar Valley Rajasthan",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Nagarjuna sagar (Krishna) Bihar Gandaka Punjab Western Jamuna, Bhakranangal, Sutlej, Beas Gujarat Kakrapare–Tapti Narmada Madhya Pradesh Gandhi sagar (Chambal, Ranap setab, Sagar) Maharashtra Bhima Jayakwadi (Godavari) Kerala Kalada, Mullai Periyar Karnataka Ghataprabha, Malaprapha and Turga Orissa Hirkund and Mahanadi Uttar Pradesh Upper ganga canal, Ramaganga West Bengal Damodar Valley Rajasthan Rajasthan Canal (Sutlej) Tamil Nadu Mettur–Lower Bhavani Project Parambikulam Alliyar Project Periyar Vaigai, Cauvery delta Tamirabarani river basins D. India’s Water Budget Total geographical area = 328 m.ha. Average annual rainfall = 1190 mm In m.ha metre = 1190 × 328 = 392 m.ha.m Contribution from snowfall = 8 m.ha.m. Total = 400 m.ha.m. The rainfall below 2.5 mm is not considered for water budgeting, since it will immediately evaporate from surface soil without any contribution to surface water or ground water. When rainfall occurs, a portion of it immediately evaporates from the ground or transpires from vegetation, a portion infiltrates into the soil and the rest flows over surface as run off. There are on an average 130 rainy days in a year in the country out of which the rain during 75 rainy days considered as effective rain. The remaining 55 rainy days are very light and shallow which evaporates immediately without any contribution to surface or ground water recharge. Considering all these factors it is estimated that out of 400 m.ha. meter of annual rainfall 70 m.ha. meter is lost to atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration, about 115 m.ha. meter flows as surface run-off and remaining 215 m.ha. meter soaks or infiltrates into the soil profile. E. Surface run-off Surface run off consists of direct run off from rainfall, melting of snowfall and flow in streams generated from ground water. Total surface run-off has been estimated by Irrigation Commission of India in 1972 as follows: Total surface",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "m.ha. meter soaks or infiltrates into the soil profile. E. Surface run-off Surface run off consists of direct run off from rainfall, melting of snowfall and flow in streams generated from ground water. Total surface run-off has been estimated by Irrigation Commission of India in 1972 as follows: Total surface run off 180 m.ha.m IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 349 Rain fall contribution 115 m.ha.m Contribution from outside the country through steams and rivers 20 m.ha.m Contribution from regeneration from ground water in Stream and rivers 45 m.ha.m Disposal of surface run off The surface runoff is disposed in three ways viz., (a) stored in reservoirs, (b) disappears by means of percolation, seepage and evaporation, and (c) goes to sea as waste. The water stored in reservoirs is lost through evaporation and some amount through seepage. The rest is utilized for various purposes mainly for irrigation and drinking water. Total surface run off = 180 m.ha.m Stored in reservoir and tanks = 15 m.ha.m Flow in the river = 165 m.ha.m Utilization from the river by diversion tank and direct pumping = 15 m.ha.m Water goes to sea as waste = 150 m.ha.m On full development work expected utilization = 45 m.ha.m Water flows to sea = 105 m.ha.m F. Land Utilization Pattern of India Total geographical area = 328.00 m.ha. Net area reported = 307.47 m.ha. Area under forest = 65.90 m.ha. Area under non-agricultural use, barren and uncultivable waste = 100. 45 m.ha. Net area sown = 141.12 m.ha. Net area irrigated = 31.20 m.ha. Gross area sown = 164.00 m.ha. Gross area irrigated = 80.50 m.ha. G. Land Utilization Pattern in Tamil Nadu Total geographical area = 13.00 m.ha. Area under forest = 2.00 m.ha. Non agricultural area = 1.40 m.ha. Barren and uncultivated = 0.80 m.ha. Pastures",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Net area irrigated = 31.20 m.ha. Gross area sown = 164.00 m.ha. Gross area irrigated = 80.50 m.ha. G. Land Utilization Pattern in Tamil Nadu Total geographical area = 13.00 m.ha. Area under forest = 2.00 m.ha. Non agricultural area = 1.40 m.ha. Barren and uncultivated = 0.80 m.ha. Pastures = 0.20 m.ha. Tree = 0.20 m.ha. Culturable waste = 0.50 m.ha. Culturable fallow = 0.90 m.ha. Other fallow = 0.50 m.ha. Gross area under cultivation = 7.30 m.ha. Net area sown = 6.30 m.ha. Gross area irrigated = 3.50 m.ha. Net area irrigated = 2.70 m.ha. H. % Area depends upon Groundwater in various Parts of Tamil Nadu Salem = 83% Dharmapuri = 65.3% Coimbatore = 51.3% Madurai = 45.1% Trichy = 34.9% Tirunelveli = 35.0% 350 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY J. Water Resources in India and Tamil Nadu Table 11.1. Distribution of Irrigated Area in ‘000 hectares Canal Tanks Wells Other India 12,776 4,123 12,034 2,601 Tamil Nadu 931 924 820 35 Table 11.2. World Irrigation Statistics Sl.No. Countries Area irrigated (m.ha.) 1. Australia 1.150 2. Botswana 0.002 3. Brazil 0.141 4. Burma 0.753 5. Canada 0.627 6. Ethiopia 0.030 7. France 2.600 8. India 37.640 9. Indonesia 3.797 10. Iran 4.000 11. Iraq 3.107 12. Israel 0.153 13. Japan 3.390 14. Pakistan 11.970 15. Former USSR 9.900 16. USA 16.932 17. China 74.000 The ultimate irrigation potential of our country is 155 m.ha. out of 165 m.ha. of total cultivable area. So far the achievement has been made through more than 215 major irrigation projects, 900 medium irrigation projects and many number of minor irrigation projects which consume a yearly outlay of Rs. 25,000–Rs. 35,000 crores in the National budget. After the completion of VI five-year plan we could achieve irrigation potential at the rate of 2.2",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "made through more than 215 major irrigation projects, 900 medium irrigation projects and many number of minor irrigation projects which consume a yearly outlay of Rs. 25,000–Rs. 35,000 crores in the National budget. After the completion of VI five-year plan we could achieve irrigation potential at the rate of 2.2 m.ha. per annum. Now the rate of increase in irrigation potential is 13 m.ha. per year. Even though the irrigation potential has been increased, the gap between irrigation potential created and utilized is very wide. Hence, we are at the critical stage to narrow down this gap between created and utilized irrigation potential. More than 80 per cent area can IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 351 be brought under irrigation if the resources (which include surface and groundwater) are efficiently utilized mainly through scientifically improved irrigation scheduling. Tremendous national and international scientific efforts have been made on the problem of irrigation scheduling, but achievement has not yet been fulfilled. This is a challenging task to our Scientist, Engineers, Planners, Policy-makers and to the Farm managers. 11.4 CROP WATER REQUIREMENT Water requirement is defined as the quantity of water required by a crop or a diversified pattern of crops in a given period of time for its normal growth at a place under field conditions. The source of water may be anything like wells, tanks, artisan wells of canals of rivers. Water requirement Crop water requirement is the water required by the plants for its survival, growth, development and to produce economic parts. This requirement is applied either naturally by precipitation or artificially by irrigation. Hence the crop water requirement includes all losses like: • Transpiration loss through leaves (T). • Evaporation loss through soil surface in cropped area (E). • Amount of water used by plants (WP) for its metabolic activities,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "parts. This requirement is applied either naturally by precipitation or artificially by irrigation. Hence the crop water requirement includes all losses like: • Transpiration loss through leaves (T). • Evaporation loss through soil surface in cropped area (E). • Amount of water used by plants (WP) for its metabolic activities, which is, estimated as less than 1% of the total water absorption. These three components cannot be separated so easily. Hence, the ET loss is taken as crop water use or crop water consumptive use. • Other application losses are conveyance loss, percolation loss, runoff loss etc., (WL). • The water required for special purpose (WSP) like puddling operation, ploughing operation, land preparation, leaching requirement, for the purpose of weeding for dissolving fertilizers and chemicals etc. Hence, the water requirement is symbolically represented as: WR = T + E + WP + WL + WSP The other application losses and special purposes are mostly indented for wetland cultivation. Hence, for garden land crop, the ET loss alone is accounted for crop water requirement. The estimation of the water requirement of crop is one of the basic needs for crop planning in the farm and for the planning of any irrigation project. Water requirement includes the losses due to ET or CU and losses during the application of irrigation water and the quantity of water required for special purposes or operations such as land preparation, transplanting, leaching etc. Hence, it may be formulated as follows for demand point of view as; WR = ET or Cu + application loss + water for special needs. It can also be stated based on supply source as follows: WR = IR + ER + S Where, IR Irrigation requirement ER Effective rainfall S Contribution from groundwater table. Hence, the idea about crop water requirement",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "WR = ET or Cu + application loss + water for special needs. It can also be stated based on supply source as follows: WR = IR + ER + S Where, IR Irrigation requirement ER Effective rainfall S Contribution from groundwater table. Hence, the idea about crop water requirement is essential for farm planning with respect to total quantity of water needed and its efficient use of various cropping schemes of the farm or project area. This crop water requirement is also needed to decide the stream size and design the canal capacity. The combined loss of evaporation and transpiration from a cropped field is termed as evapotranspiration 352 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY which is otherwise known as consumptive use and denoted as ET and this is a part of water requirement. CU = E + T + WP Therefore, WR = CU + WL + WSP The crop water requirement can also be defined as water required to meet the evapotranspiration demand of the crop and special needs in case of wet land crop and which also includes other application losses both in the case of wet land and garden land crops. This is also known as crop water demand. 11.4.1 Evaporation Evaporation is defined as the process by which water moves out of the water surface or soil surface in the form of water vapour to atmosphere due to pressure gradient. Evaporation from natural surface such as open water, bare soil or vegetative cover is a diffusive process by which water in the form of vapour is transferred from the underlying surface to the atmosphere. The essential requirement for evaporation process are: • Source of heat energy to vaporize the irrigated water. • The presence of a concentration gradient of water vapour between the evaporating surface and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "process by which water in the form of vapour is transferred from the underlying surface to the atmosphere. The essential requirement for evaporation process are: • Source of heat energy to vaporize the irrigated water. • The presence of a concentration gradient of water vapour between the evaporating surface and surrounding air of atmosphere. Evaporation can occur only when vapour concentration of evaporating surface exceeds that of the surrounding air. The sources of heat energy are solar energy and wind energy. The energy required for evaporation is 590 calories per gram of water to evaporate at 20oC. The fundamental principle of evaporation from a free surface has indicated evaporation as the function of difference in the vapour pressure of water surface and the vapour pressure of air. Measurement of evaporation This can be made by the following methods. • Pan evaporimeter • Tin can evaporimeter • Pitche evaporimeter 1. Pan EvaporimeterEvaporimeter is an instrument which integrates the effect of all the different climatic elements and furnishes their combined effect. It is relatively simple, cheap and more useful in irrigation practices. 2. “U.S.W.B. Class A pan” Evaporimeter It is the standard type used globally. It is made of GI pan having a diameter of 120 cm with a depth of 25 cm. It is painted with white colour to reduce heat absorption and mounted on a wooden platform at a height of 15 cm from ground level to reduce the effect of soil temperature. The water level is measured by the Hook gauge or a fixed scale attached to a stilling well. The pan is covered with a mesh to prevent animals’ and bird’s disturbances to the water. Evaporation is recorded at a fixed time in the still well by adding water in the evaporimeter to compensate the daily loss of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Hook gauge or a fixed scale attached to a stilling well. The pan is covered with a mesh to prevent animals’ and bird’s disturbances to the water. Evaporation is recorded at a fixed time in the still well by adding water in the evaporimeter to compensate the daily loss of water by evaporation. Evaporimeter is to be cleaned periodically and tested for it’s leakage. Development of algae etc., should be avoided. 3. “Tin can” evaporimeter A small tin is fitted with a scale and water is filled in the tin and kept in the cropped field at different locations. The daily loss will be taken as evaporation. 4. “Pitche” evaporimeter It consists of a graduated tube of 30 cm with one open end and covered by a drier paper and is attached in a metallic stand. The tube is filled with water and turned upside down. The water slowly wets the paper and evaporates and the water loss in the tube is considered as a measurement of evaporation. Evaporation, transpiration and consumptive use are the important factors in estimating irrigation requirement and planning irrigation system. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 353 11.4.2 Transpiration This is the process by which water in plant body transfers to the atmosphere in the form of water vapour. Transpiration is the process by which water evaporates in the form of water vapour from living plant body especially from leaves to atmosphere. It involves a continuous movement of water from soil to atmosphere through root, stem and leaves. The rate of transpiration depends on: • Supply of energy to vapourise the water, and • The water vapour concentration gradient at atmosphere. It is further influenced by the climatic, soil and plant factors. Climatic factors Light intensity, temperature and wind. Soil factors Texture, infiltration rate, water holding capacity,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "leaves. The rate of transpiration depends on: • Supply of energy to vapourise the water, and • The water vapour concentration gradient at atmosphere. It is further influenced by the climatic, soil and plant factors. Climatic factors Light intensity, temperature and wind. Soil factors Texture, infiltration rate, water holding capacity, field capacity, moisture-releasing pattern etc. Plant factors Root system, leaf area, leaf arrangements, leaf structure, stomatal behaviour, etc. 11.4.3 Evapotranspiration or Consumptive Use It is very difficult to separate the losses due to evaporation and transpiration in a cropped field. Hence, these two processes are combined to a term called Evapo-Transpiration (ET). These two losses are considered as water used for plant growth and hence it can be considered as Consumptive Use (CU). The consumptive use includes all water consumed by the plants and the water evaporated from bare land and water surface in the area occupied by the crop plants. Factors affecting ET • Solar radiation which supplies energy for ET. • Wind, which removes the water vapour from cropped area and makes changes in water vapour concentration gradient. • Temperature which increases ET rate. • Relative humidity which changes the ET rate due to changes in water vapour gradient. All the above are interrelated with each other. • Stage of the crop. It has a considerable influence on ET rate. This is very particular in annual crops which has a distinctive stage of growth. These are: • Emergence and development ET or Consumptive use rate increase rapidly from low value and approaches its maximum. • Maximum Vegetative phase ET or CU rate is maximum if abundant soil moisture is available. • Maturity phase ET or CU rate begins to decrease. • Rooting characters of crop plants. • Environment. If the surrounding lands are barren, ET or CU will",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "low value and approaches its maximum. • Maximum Vegetative phase ET or CU rate is maximum if abundant soil moisture is available. • Maturity phase ET or CU rate begins to decrease. • Rooting characters of crop plants. • Environment. If the surrounding lands are barren, ET or CU will be more than the cropped area, which is covered with vegetation. Evapotranspiration or Consumptive use is the important phenomena in irrigation management since, it denotes the quantity of water transpired by plants during their growth or retained in the plant and the moisture vaporized from the surface of the soil under vegetation. 11.4.4 Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) It is the evapotranspiration from a large area fully covered with short vegetation with sufficient available 354 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY water. Or it can also be stated that ET from the fully covered vegetative area under unlimited water available at all the times. This concept was suggested by Thornthwait in 1948. Further, Jensen in 1968 assumed that PET is the upper limit of ET that would occur with a well-irrigated, well-grown agricultural crop, it is also known as reference evapotranspiration and denoted as ET0. It can be calculated by four empirical methods using different climatic components suggested by irrigation scientists. They are: (1) Blaney and Criddle, (2) Radiation method, (3) Pan evaporation method, (4) Modified pennman method. The reference crop evaporation (ET0) can be obtained from ET0 = Kp × Epan Where, Kp = Pan coefficient E pan = Mean evaporation in mm/day The Kp values for different agro climatic conditions have been already standardized (Refer-Table 18. From FAO Irrigation and Drainage paper 24). For our condition, 0.8 can be taken as Kp value. (a) Selection of crop coefficient for estimating ET The value of ET need to be adjusted for actual crop",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "The Kp values for different agro climatic conditions have been already standardized (Refer-Table 18. From FAO Irrigation and Drainage paper 24). For our condition, 0.8 can be taken as Kp value. (a) Selection of crop coefficient for estimating ET The value of ET need to be adjusted for actual crop ET, since under natural field condition PET rarely occurs in most of the irrigated field crops. Normally the PET will occur in low land rice and two to three days after irrigation or rain in garden land condition. For converting ET0 value into ET crop, suitable crop coefficients (denoted as Kc) should be evolved for different crops, soil, climate and different stages of crops. Crop coefficient is the ratio between ET crop and ET0. ET crop = Kc × Eto 0 Et crop Kc ET = This ratio is usually 0.2 during early growth stage and about 1.0 when the crop develops maximum canopy and root system. The ratio again gets reduced as the crop approaches maturity. Value of crop factors have to be worked out for local situation. (b) Seasonal consumptive use It is the total water requirement for the crop growing periods to meet the ET loss. Hence, it can be stated as the total water used in evapotranspiration by cropped area during the entire growing season, which is called as seasonal consumptive use. It is expressed as depth of water in cm. This value is used to evaluate and determine the seasonal irrigation water requirement. Seasonal consumptive use values are required to evaluate and determine the seasonal irrigation water supplies. (c) Peak period consumptive use The highest consumptive use for certain period in the growth season is called the peak period consumptive use. This value is used in the planning and designing of irrigation system. The peak",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "use values are required to evaluate and determine the seasonal irrigation water supplies. (c) Peak period consumptive use The highest consumptive use for certain period in the growth season is called the peak period consumptive use. This value is used in the planning and designing of irrigation system. The peak period consumptive use will vary from soil to soil and from crop to crop. In the irrigation project designs, this peak period CU will be accounted for proper planning and use of the available water effectively for different cropping pattern. This peak use rate also varies in different climatic conditions. The Table 11.3 given below indicates the peak rate of soil moisture removed by crops under different climatic conditions. (d) Measurement of evapotranspiration The methods adopted to measure the evapotranspiration or actual consumptive use are: • Lysimeter experiment • Filed Experimental plot method IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 355 Table 11.3. Maximum rates of Soil Moisture used by Crops under different Climatic Condition Climate Peak rate of soil moisture removed (mm/day) Cool humid 3 Cool dry 4 Moderate humid 4 Moderate dry 5 Hot humid 5 Hot dry 8 • Soil moisture depletion studies • Water balance method. 1. Lysimeter experiment It is otherwise known as evapotranspiration meter. It is nothing but growing the crop in big containers (filled with soil) under natural conditions of the field to determine the water gain and loss to work out the evaporation and transpiration. In this method, ET is measured directly to study the climatic factors. Fig. 11.1 Schematic diagram of mechanical weighing lysimeter 1. Retaining tank, 2. Lysimeter tank, 3. Perforated plate, 4. Platform, 5, 8, 9 Balance, 6. Dummy tank, 7. Pipe to remove percolated water, 10. Foundation) Important precautions The soil condition inside the lysimeter must be similar to that of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "climatic factors. Fig. 11.1 Schematic diagram of mechanical weighing lysimeter 1. Retaining tank, 2. Lysimeter tank, 3. Perforated plate, 4. Platform, 5, 8, 9 Balance, 6. Dummy tank, 7. Pipe to remove percolated water, 10. Foundation) Important precautions The soil condition inside the lysimeter must be similar to that of the outside field. The lysimeter must be surrounded by the same crop that is growing inside the lysimeter. The lysimeter should not be surrounded by sidewalls, path or gravel which will affect the reliability of data. The rim or border of the lysimeter should be as small as possible to reduce the difference in soil temperature in the lysimeter wall as in the fields. There are two types of lysimeter. Weighing type Here, the added water and water losses are weighed through the weighing balance fitted in the lysimeter. The weight difference is taken into account to measure the ET. Non-weighing type Here, the changes in the soil moisture at time intervals is measured by using neutron probe to work out the ET. In both the cases different sizes of lysimeter are available. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Soil 1.30 m 112.5 cm Hollow chamber Soil surface 356 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Disadvantages Reproduction of same physical condition as that of the field such as temperature, water table, soil texture, densities etc., within the lysimeter are very difficult. 2. Field experimental plot method In this method, seasonal water requirements are computed by adding measured quantities of irrigation water, the effective rainfall received during the season and the contribution of moisture from the soil. 1 100 n i Mbi Mei WR IR ER AiDi = − ⎡ ⎤ = + + ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ∑ Where, WR – Water requirement in mm. IR – Total",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of irrigation water, the effective rainfall received during the season and the contribution of moisture from the soil. 1 100 n i Mbi Mei WR IR ER AiDi = − ⎡ ⎤ = + + ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ∑ Where, WR – Water requirement in mm. IR – Total irrigation water applied in mm. ER – Seasonal effective rainfall contribution in mm. Mbi – Moisture content at the beginning of the season in the ith layer of soil. Mei – Moisture content at the end of the season at ith layer of soil. Ai – Apparent specific gravity of the soil at ith layer. Di – Depth of soil at ith layer unit. n – Number of layers in the soil. 3. Soil moisture depletion studies This method is applicable to the irrigated field crops in fairly uniform soil when the depth to the ground water is such that it will not influence the soil moisture fluctuation within the root zone. These studies involve measurements of soil moisture form various depths at a number of times throughout the growth period. Consumptive use (Cu) is calculated from the change in soil water content in successive samples from the following relationship. 1 100 n i Mbi Mei Cu AiDi = − ⎡ ⎤ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ∑ Where, CU – Consumptive use in mm. Mbi – Moisture content at the beginning of the season in the ith layer of soil. Mei – Moisture content at the end of the season at ith layer of soil. Ai – Apparent specific gravity of the soil at ith layer. Di – Depth of soil at ith layer unit. n – Number of layers in the soil. Disadvantages It does not provide information on intermediate soil moisture condition, short term use, deep percolation",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "season at ith layer of soil. Ai – Apparent specific gravity of the soil at ith layer. Di – Depth of soil at ith layer unit. n – Number of layers in the soil. Disadvantages It does not provide information on intermediate soil moisture condition, short term use, deep percolation losses and peak use rate of the crop. 4. Water balance method This is done at macro level. This is also called as the inflow-outflow method, which is suitable for larger areas (watersheds) over longer periods. Knowledge of the water balance is necessary to evaluate the possible methods to minimize loss and to maximize the gains and utilization of water, which is the limiting factor for crop production. The water balance of a field is comprehensive statement of all gains and losses of a given field within specified period of time. The task of monitoring and controlling of field water balance is important to the efficient management of water and soil. A gain of water in the field is generally due IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 357 to precipitation and irrigation and occasionally due to run off collection from higher tracts and from shallow ground water table. Losses of water includes: (a) surface run off, (b) transpiration from foliage, (c) evaporation from soil surface, (d) deep percolation out of the root zone etc. The change in storage of water in the field can occur in the soil as well as in the plants. The total change in storage must be equal to the difference between the sum of all gains and sum of all losses and is represented by the hydrological equation. Change in storage = Gain – loss (P + I + GW) – (ET + R + D) Where, P = Precipitation I = Irrigation GW = Ground water",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to the difference between the sum of all gains and sum of all losses and is represented by the hydrological equation. Change in storage = Gain – loss (P + I + GW) – (ET + R + D) Where, P = Precipitation I = Irrigation GW = Ground water contribution ET = Evapotranspiration R = Ruff off loss D = Deep percolation loss P = ET + O + D + ∆W Where, P = Précipitation ET = Evapotranspiration O = Surface runoff D = Subsurface drainage ∆W = Changes in soil water content (e) Factors affecting water requirement The crop water requirement varies from place to place, from crop to crop and depends on agro-ecological variation and crop characters. The following features which mainly influence the crop water requirement are: Crop factors Variety, growth stages, duration, plant population and crop growing season. Soil factors Structure, texture, depth, topography and soil chemical composition. Climatic factors Temperature, sunshine hours, relative humidity, wind velocity and rainfall. Agronomic management factors Irrigation methods used, frequency of irrigation and its efficiency and tillage and other cultural operations like weeding, mulching etc. Based on all these factors, average crop water requirement for various crops have been worked out and given below for tropical conditions. In general, this crop water requirement can be classified as: Low ranging from 300-450 mm green gram, black gram, sunflower, safflower, finger millet and minor millets. Medium ranging from 450-650 mm maize, sorghum, wheat, groundnut and sunflower. High ranging from 600-1000 mm cotton and perennial red gram. Very High ranging from 1000-2250 mm rice, sugarcane, banana and plantation crops. 358 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (f) WR range for different crops Crop WR (mm) Rice 1200–1400 Maize 400–550 Sorghum 400–550 Wheat 450–550 Ragi 350–550 Pulses 350–450 Groundnut 350–650 Sunflower 300–500 Cotton 600–850",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "mm cotton and perennial red gram. Very High ranging from 1000-2250 mm rice, sugarcane, banana and plantation crops. 358 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (f) WR range for different crops Crop WR (mm) Rice 1200–1400 Maize 400–550 Sorghum 400–550 Wheat 450–550 Ragi 350–550 Pulses 350–450 Groundnut 350–650 Sunflower 300–500 Cotton 600–850 Sugarcane 1400–2000 Banana 1650–2250 Plantation crop 1250–1850 11.5 IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT The field irrigation requirement of crops refers to water requirement of crops exclusive of effective rainfall and contribution from soil profile and it may be given as follows. IR = WR − (ER + S) Where, IR = irrigation requirement WR = water requirement ER = effective rainfall S = soil moisture contribution Irrigation requirement depends upon the (a) irrigation need of individual crop, (b) Area of crop, and (c) losses in the farm water distribution system etc. All the quantities are usually expressed in terms of water per unit of land area (cm/ha) or unit of depth (cm or mm). A. Net Irrigation Requirement It is the actual quantity of water required in terms of depth to bring the soil moisture to field capacity level to meet the ET demand of the crops. It is the water applied by irrigation in terms of depths to bring the field-to-field capacity level. To work out the net irrigation requirement, ground water contribution and other gains in soil moisture are to be excluded. It is the amount of irrigation water required to bring the soil moisture level in the effective root zone to field capacity, which in turn meet the ET demand of the crop. It is the difference between the F.C. and the soil moisture content in the root zone before starting irrigation. 1 100 n i Mfci Mbi d AiDi = − =∑ Where, IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 359 d",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to field capacity, which in turn meet the ET demand of the crop. It is the difference between the F.C. and the soil moisture content in the root zone before starting irrigation. 1 100 n i Mfci Mbi d AiDi = − =∑ Where, IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 359 d – Net irrigation water to be applied (cm) Mfci – Moisture content at FC in ith layer (%) Mbi – Moisture content before irrigation in ith layer (%) Ai – Bulk density (g/cc) at ith layer Di – depth (cm) of ith soil layer n – number of soil layers. B. Gross Irrigation Requirement The total quantity of water used for irrigation is termed as gross irrigation requirement. It includes net irrigation requirement and losses in water application and other losses. The gross irrigation requirement can be determined for a field, for a farm, for an outlet command area and for an irrigation project, depending on the need by considering the approximate losses at various stages of crop. Net irrigation requirement Gross irrigation requirement 100 Field efficiency of system = × C. Irrigation Frequency Irrigation frequency is the interval between two consecutive irrigations during crop periods. Irrigation frequency is the number of days between irrigations during crop periods without rainfall. It depends upon the rate of uptake of water by plants and soil moisture supply capacity to plant and soil moisture available in the root zone. Hence, it is a function of crop, soil and climate. Normally irrigation should be given at about 50 per cent and not over 60 per cent depletion of the available moisture from the effective root zone in which most of the roots are concentrated. In designing irrigation system, the irrigation frequency to be used is the time (days) between two irrigations in the period",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "given at about 50 per cent and not over 60 per cent depletion of the available moisture from the effective root zone in which most of the roots are concentrated. In designing irrigation system, the irrigation frequency to be used is the time (days) between two irrigations in the period of highest consumptive use of crop growth, i.e., peak consumptive use of crop. Design frequency (days) FC moisture content of the root zone prior to starting irrigation Peak period consumptive use rate of crop − = Irrigation period Irrigation period is the number of days that can be allowed for applying one irrigation to a given design area during peak consumptive use period of the crop. ( ) Net amount of moisture in soil at start of irrigation FC-PWP Irrigation period Peak period consumptive use of the crop = Growth duration Growth duration of different crops varies considerably. The growth duration of the irrigated dry crops (ID crops) like sorghum, maize, groundnut, pulses etc. is restricted to a single crops season and known as seasonal crops. The growth span of crops like cotton, red gram, chillies, etc. is spread over to two seasons and are known as biseasonal or two seasonal crops. Crops like sugarcane, and banana take more than a year and are referred as annual or biennial crops and plantation crops like coconut, tea, coffee etc., which take one to several years for their growth are referred to as perennial crops. The growth period of ID crops are broadly divided into three phases namely: Vegetative phase (a) Crop establishment (first two or three weeks) (b) Crop development (two to six weeks) 360 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Reproductive phase (a) Flowering stage (b) Fruiting stage Maturity phase (a) Enlargement (b) Ripening (c) Harvest The entire reproductive and flowering phase",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "broadly divided into three phases namely: Vegetative phase (a) Crop establishment (first two or three weeks) (b) Crop development (two to six weeks) 360 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Reproductive phase (a) Flowering stage (b) Fruiting stage Maturity phase (a) Enlargement (b) Ripening (c) Harvest The entire reproductive and flowering phase in most ID crops are highly sensitive growth periods. In this period, water stress or excess water condition should be avoided. Growth stages of cereals in relation to irrigation Stage Details Germination – the appearance of radicle Filleting – the formation of tillers Jointing – the stage when two nodes be seen i.e., beginning of shooting Shooting – the stage of elongation of internodes Booting – end of shooting stage and just prior to the emergence of ears Heading – emergence of ear head from the tube formed by the leaf sheath Flowering – the opening of flowers Grain formation – the period of grain development from fertilization to maturity. Further divided into Milk stage – Milky consistency Dough stage – Doughy consistency Dead ripe – Ripe for harvesting 11.6 EFFECTIVE RAINFALL ER means useful or utilizable rainfall. All the rainfall received are not used by the crops because of its erratic nature such as untimeliness, lesser or higher quantity etc. The useful portions of rainfall which is stored in soil and supplied to the crop for its consumptive use is called effective rainfall. The term effective rainfall has been interpreted differently by different specialists. To a canal engineer, the rain which reaches the storage reservoir is the effective portion. To a hydro electrical engineer, the rainfall which is useful for running the turbines that generate electricity is effective. To an agriculturist, the portion of total rainfall that directly satisfies crop water needs and also the surface run off which",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "rain which reaches the storage reservoir is the effective portion. To a hydro electrical engineer, the rainfall which is useful for running the turbines that generate electricity is effective. To an agriculturist, the portion of total rainfall that directly satisfies crop water needs and also the surface run off which can be stored and used for crop production is considered as effective rainfall. The rainwater which moves out of the field by surface runoff and deep percolation beyond the root zone of the crop are ineffective rainfall. A. Factors influencing ER Several factors influence the proportion of effective rainfall and these may act singly or collectively and interact with each other. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 361 Rainfall characteristics Large quantity as well as high intensity will reduce effectiveness because of excess run off and less infiltration rate. A well-distributed rainfall with some frequent light showers is more conducive to crop growth than downpour. Land slope Here, because of the slope very less infiltration opportunity time is available which results in rapid run off loss and less effective. Soil properties Properties like infiltration rate, retention capacity, releasing capability and movement of water influence the degree of effectiveness. High infiltration, high water holding capacity etc., increase effectiveness by avoiding run of losses. High moisture content, low infiltration rate, low water holding capacity reduces effectiveness. Ground water characteristics Shallow water table causes more run off and effectiveness is low. Deep water table causes more infiltration and percolation and effectiveness of rainfall is more. Management practices Bunding, terracing, contour tillage, ridging, mulching, etc., reduce the run off and increases the effectiveness of rainfall. Crop characteristics Crop with high water consumption creates greater deficits of moisture in the soil. The effective rainfall is directly proportional to the rate of water uptake by the plant. Carry",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Management practices Bunding, terracing, contour tillage, ridging, mulching, etc., reduce the run off and increases the effectiveness of rainfall. Crop characteristics Crop with high water consumption creates greater deficits of moisture in the soil. The effective rainfall is directly proportional to the rate of water uptake by the plant. Carry over soil moisture It is the moisture stored in the crop root zone depth between cropping seasons or before the crop is planted. This moisture is available to meet the consumptive water needs of the succeeding crop. The contribution of rain occurring just prior to sowing may be equivalent to one full irrigation. Seepage and percolation Surface and sub surface seepage and deep percolation below root zone will also influence effectiveness of rainfall. In drawing the seasonal or monthly irrigation requirement for a given crop or cropping pattern, the main variables composing the field water balance include. • Crop water requirement as determined by dominant crop characteristics. • Contribution from precipitation, ground water and carry over soil moisture. 11.7 METHODS OF IRRIGATION Application of irrigation water to cropped field by different types of layouts are called as irrigation methods. The methods of irrigation initially might have been started to check the over flow of water from one field to another. But today, it has become necessary to save the water by proper methods to arrest run-off loss, percolation loss, evaporation loss etc., and to optimize the crop water need. Hence, irrigation method can be defined as the way in which the water is applied to the cropped field without much application and other losses, with an objective of applying water effectively to facilitate better environment for crop growth. 11.7.1 Factors Influencing Irrigation Methods Soil type The soil physical properties such as texture, structure, porosity, infiltration rate, etc. influence the selection",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the water is applied to the cropped field without much application and other losses, with an objective of applying water effectively to facilitate better environment for crop growth. 11.7.1 Factors Influencing Irrigation Methods Soil type The soil physical properties such as texture, structure, porosity, infiltration rate, etc. influence the selection of irrigation methods. Heavy texture soil restricts water movement than light texture soil wherein water move freely to deeper sections due to high porosity. Single grain structure soil allows water freely to move downward compared to other structures Soil depth If soil is shallow which holds less water, leveling and forming bunds etc. to hold maximum water to increase the irrigation interval. Similarly if the soil is deep, it holds more water and needs longer irrigation interval. Accordingly, the irrigation methods can be selected. Topography of land In undulating topography, it is very difficult to adopt normal methods of irrigation. The slope of the land also decides the methods to be adopted. If the land is more sloppy, basin 362 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY method cannot be used. In this condition strip method can be used. For undulating topography instead of strip or basin method, sprinkler or drip methods can be used. Climate Rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind velocity, radiation, etc., influence the irrigation methods. For example, heavy wind affects sprinkler irrigation and temperature affects surface method of irrigation by high evaporation loss. Water sources The flow velocity, quantity and quality of available water are the other main factors, which decide the methods of irrigation to be adopted. Crops to be grown The value of the plant and geometry of the crop to be cultivated are the main criteria to decide the method of irrigation. For example, if the crop is a high value or cash crop or wide spaced crop,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the methods of irrigation to be adopted. Crops to be grown The value of the plant and geometry of the crop to be cultivated are the main criteria to decide the method of irrigation. For example, if the crop is a high value or cash crop or wide spaced crop, sprinkler or drip method of irrigation cab be adopted. Irrigation water can be applied to the land in the following general ways. By flooding (wetting all the land surface) By furrows (wetting only a part of the ground surface in which crops are grown) By sub irrigation (sub surface soil irrigation) By sprinkler (soil is wetted through sprinkling water) By drip irrigation (water is applied at the individual root zone of the plant). 11.7.2 Classification of Irrigation Methods The irrigation methods are broadly classified as: • Surface method or gravity method of irrigation • Sub surface or sub irrigation • Pressurized or micro irrigation Drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and rain gun irrigation. I. Surface or gravity irrigation It is the common method of irrigation practiced all over the world. In this method, water is applied directly to the surface by providing some checks to the water flow: Advantages • Easy to maintain • Low cost • Technical skill is not required. Prerequisites • Uniform soil • Smoothness of field surface or levelled surface • Adequate quantity of water. Classification 1. Border strip method The field is divided into number of long parallel strips by providing small parallel earthen bunds or levees or dykes along both sides of the strips. The end along the strip may or may not be closed, which is based on the length of the strips. If the length of the strip is very long, the end will be closed to have a uniform distribution and to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "levees or dykes along both sides of the strips. The end along the strip may or may not be closed, which is based on the length of the strips. If the length of the strip is very long, the end will be closed to have a uniform distribution and to avoid run off loss. Each strip is irrigated independently from upper end (turned on) and water flow as thin sheet and uniformly spread along the strips. The water is turned off when the required volume is delivered to the strip. The application efficiency of this system is 75–85%. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 363 (a) Suitability Soil Suitable to the soils having • Moderately low to moderately high infiltration rate. • To the field which is having 0-0.5% slope. • For dense, closer spaced crop it can be advocated up to 4% slope provided there should not be any erosion hazard. • Not suited for very sandy soil and very clayey soil as they have too high and low infiltration rate, respectively. Crop All closely spaced crops like pulses, wheat, barley, alfalfa, berseem, grasses, ragi, cumbu and small grains. (b) Dimensions The width of the strips depend upon the size of the stream and normally this varies from 3–15 m. The length varies according to the slope, stream size, soil type, etc. Length of the border strips and recommended safe limits of slopes for various types of soil are given below. Length Slope (%) Sandy and sandy loam soil 6.0–12.0 m 0.25 to 0.60 Medium loam soil 10.0–18.0 m 0.20 to 0.40 Clay loam to clay soil 15.0–30.0 m 0.05 to 0.20 (c) ClassificationIt can be further classified as: (1) Graded borders, (2) Level borders. Graded borders have slope ranging from 0.1–0.5% in the longitudinal directions and there is no or",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "0.25 to 0.60 Medium loam soil 10.0–18.0 m 0.20 to 0.40 Clay loam to clay soil 15.0–30.0 m 0.05 to 0.20 (c) ClassificationIt can be further classified as: (1) Graded borders, (2) Level borders. Graded borders have slope ranging from 0.1–0.5% in the longitudinal directions and there is no or very little slope across the strip. For level border, there is no slope in either direction. 2. Check basin method (beds and channel) It is the common and simple method of irrigation mainly adopted in levelled land surface. It is also known as Beds and channel method of irrigation. The land is divided into small basins/beds. The area of basin is surrounded by earthen bunds or levees or dykes. The applied water is kept within the basin and not allowed for run off. This is the most common method adopted for most of the crops. The size of the levees or ridges or bunds depend upon the depth of water to be impounded in the basin. The water is turned on the upper side and after applying the required quantity of water it is turned off. Fig. 11.2 Check basin method of irrigation 364 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (a) Suitability Soils • More efficient (more than 90%) in fine textured soil. This is due to the uniform rapid spread of water and more infiltration opportunity time for all areas and thereby depth of infiltration is uniform all along the basins. • The correct quantity of water can be applied as there is no run off. • Leaching of salt is possible by impounding water and giving more opportunity/time for infiltration, stagnation and drainage. • Suitable to lands with smooth, gentle and uniform slope with low to medium infiltration rate. Crops Cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds. (b) Disadvantages • It needs high",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "there is no run off. • Leaching of salt is possible by impounding water and giving more opportunity/time for infiltration, stagnation and drainage. • Suitable to lands with smooth, gentle and uniform slope with low to medium infiltration rate. Crops Cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds. (b) Disadvantages • It needs high degree of levelling for uniform distribution of water. • Within the basin, soil should be uniform. • It is not suitable for coarse textured soil with high infiltration rate. • The bunds should be strong enough to withstand ponding of water. • In fine textured soil with very low infiltration rate, precaution may be taken to avoid long time water stagnation. (c) Dimensions The basin area for different soil types, inflow rate and slope percentage are given below for reference. The size of the basin is also influenced by the depth (in mm) of irrigation water. If the required irrigation depth is large, the basin can be large. Similarly, if the required irrigation depth is small, then the basin should be small to obtain good water distribution. Table 11.4. Maximum Basin Areas (M2) for various Soil Types and Available Stream Sizes (L/Sec) (Lps) Stream size (L/Sec) Sand Sandy loam Clay loam Clay 5 35 100 200 350 10 65 200 400 650 15 100 300 600 1000 30 200 600 1200 2000 60 400 1200 2400 4000 90 600 1800 3600 6000 Check Basins should be small if the slope of the land is steep; soil is sandy, stream size to the basins is small, required depth of the irrigation application is small and field preparation is done by hand or animal drawn implements. Check Basins can be large if the slope of the land is gentle flat, soil is clayey, stream size is large, required depth of the irrigation",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to the basins is small, required depth of the irrigation application is small and field preparation is done by hand or animal drawn implements. Check Basins can be large if the slope of the land is gentle flat, soil is clayey, stream size is large, required depth of the irrigation application is large and field preparation is mechanized. Based on the shape of the basin, it can be classified as rectangular or square or irregular basin. Mostly, the rectangular shape is preferable for easiness in farming operations. 3. Basin method Basin method of irrigation is used in soil submergence method of irrigation in low land rice, bunded rainfed rice and forage grasses, where water is stagnated to the required IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 365 depth by providing bunds on all the sides to sufficient width and height. The optimum size for efficient water management to rice crop is 0.25-0.40 ha. The field is to be levelled thoroughly for uniform depth of water. Provision of separate irrigation and drainage channels is more efficient than field-to-field irrigation. Table 11.5. Average Width and Range of Width based on Slope Percentage Slope percentage Average Range 0.2 45 35–55 0.3 37 30–45 0.4 32 25–40 0.5 28 20–35 0.6 25 20–30 0.8 22 15–30 1.0 20 15–25 1.2 17 10–20 1.5 13 10–20 2.0 10 5–15 3.0 7 5–10 4.0 5 3–8 4. Ring basin This method is mostly adopted for wide spaced orchard crops. The rings are circular basins formed around the individual trees. The rings between trees are interlinked with main lead channel by sub channels to get water to the individual rings. As water is allowed in rings only, wastage of water spreading the whole interspaces of trees as in the usual flooding irrigation method is reduced. Weed growth in the interspaces",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "The rings between trees are interlinked with main lead channel by sub channels to get water to the individual rings. As water is allowed in rings only, wastage of water spreading the whole interspaces of trees as in the usual flooding irrigation method is reduced. Weed growth in the interspaces around the rings are discouraged. This method ensures sufficient moisture in the root zone and saves lot of irrigation water. 5. Furrow method of irrigation It is the common method adopted for row planted crops like cotton, maize, sugarcane, potato, beetroot, onion, sorghum, vegetable crops etc. In this method, small evenly spaced shallow furrows or channels are formed in the beds. Another method of furrow irrigation is forming alternate ridges and furrows to regulate water. The water is turned at the high end and conveyed through smaller channels. Water applied in furrows infiltrate slowly into the soil and spread laterally to wet the area between furrows. Fig. 11.3 Ring basin 366 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Dimensions Based on the soil slope and stream size, the length can be fixed. The furrow width or spacing varies from 60–120 cm, which depends upon the crop to be grown. The depth of furrow varies from 12.5 cm, which depends upon (a) soil type, (b) flow size, and (c) effective root zone depth of crop. B. Suitability This method is mostly suitable for medium to moderately fine textured soil which allows free water movement both horizontally and vertically. In sandy or coarse textured soil, this method is not suitable because here the water movement is primarily downward and very little in horizontal direction. Besides, the length of ridges or furrows to resist the velocity of flow is very low which in turn may lead to breaching of the structures. This method is adopted",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "soil, this method is not suitable because here the water movement is primarily downward and very little in horizontal direction. Besides, the length of ridges or furrows to resist the velocity of flow is very low which in turn may lead to breaching of the structures. This method is adopted for soils having the problem of surface crust or hardpan. The labour requirement to form the furrows is relatively higher than other surface methods of irrigation. C. Precautions While using the furrow method of irrigation, care must be taken in strengthening the furrow since erosion hazard on sloppy areas may damage the furrow. To work out the maximum non-erosive flow in the area, the below mentioned empirical formula can be used. 0.60 Q S = Where, Q = Maximum non-erosive stream in lps. 0.60 = Constant S = Slope of the furrow in percentage Irrigation furrows may be classified into two general types viz., straight furrow and contour furrow. Straight furrow Best suited to soils where land slope does not exceed 0.75%. Contour furrow This method is similar to graded and level furrow method. Furrow carries water across slopping field rather than downwards. They are designed to fit the topography of field. Furrows are given a gentle slope along its length as in graded furrow. Field supply channels run down the land slope to feed the contour furrow and are provided with erosion control structure. Successfully used in all irrigable soils. All row crops including grains, vegetables and cash crops are adapted to this method. Light soil can be irrigated successfully across slopes up to 5% slope. Up to 8-10% can be irrigated by contour furrow. Contour furrow may be used on all types of soil except in light sandy soil and soil that crack. Corrugation irrigation It consists of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "are adapted to this method. Light soil can be irrigated successfully across slopes up to 5% slope. Up to 8-10% can be irrigated by contour furrow. Contour furrow may be used on all types of soil except in light sandy soil and soil that crack. Corrugation irrigation It consists of running water in small furrows, which direct the flow down the slope commonly used for irrigation in non-cultivated close growing crops such as small grains, pasture on steep slopes. Corrugation can be made with a simple bamboo corrugation or cultivators equipped with small furrows. Corrugations are ‘V’ or ‘U’ shaped channels about 6-10 cm deep spaced 40-75 cm apart. This method is not recommended for saline soil or for saline water irrigation. The permissible length of corrugation varies from 15 cm within light textured soil with slopes of 2-4% to about 150 cm in heavy texture soil up to 2% slope. Furrow irrigation design consideration Efficient irrigation by furrow method is obtained by selection of proper combination of spacing, length and slope furrows. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 367 (i) Furrow spacing Furrows can be spaced to fit the crops grown and types of machines used for planting and cultivation. Crops like potato, maize, cotton, etc., are planted 60–90 cm apart and have furrow between all rows. Carrot, lettuce and onion are spaced 30–40 cm and often have two rows between furrows. Furrows should be close enough to ensure that water spreads to the sides of the ridge and the root zone of crop to replenish soil moisture immediately. (ii) Furrow length Optimum length furrow is usually the longest furrow that can be efficiently and safely irrigated. Long furrows are an advantage in inter cultivation. Proper furrow length depends largely on hydraulic conductivity of soil. It should be shorter in porous",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "zone of crop to replenish soil moisture immediately. (ii) Furrow length Optimum length furrow is usually the longest furrow that can be efficiently and safely irrigated. Long furrows are an advantage in inter cultivation. Proper furrow length depends largely on hydraulic conductivity of soil. It should be shorter in porous sandy soil than clayey soil. If only a small area is to be irrigated, the length of field may determine the length of furrow. In large area it may be desirable to have furrow length equal to an even fraction of the total length of the field. (iii) Furrow slope The slope or grade of furrow is important because it controls the speed at which water flows down the furrow. A minimum furrow gradient of 0.05% is needed to ensure Surface drainage. (iv) Furrow stream The size of the furrow stream is one factor which can be varied after furrow irrigation system can be installed. The size of furrow stream usually varies from 0.5-2.5 lit/sec. The max nonerosive low rate in furrow is estimated by following equation, qm = 0.6/S where, qm = maximum no-erosion stream (lit/sec) S = Slope of furrow (%) Average depth of irrigation water applied during irrigation can be calculated by the following relationship. D = (q × 360 × t)/(w × l) Where D = Average depth of water applied (cm) q = Stream size (lit/sec) t = duration of irrigation (hrs) l = Furrow length (m) w = Furrow width (m) 6. Surge irrigation Surge irrigation is a method of surface irrigation through furrows or border strips wherein water is applied intermittently in a series of relatively short on and off time periods during the irrigation (Humphrey, 1989). Water is let into a long furrows or border strips in an intermittent flow instead of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Surge irrigation is a method of surface irrigation through furrows or border strips wherein water is applied intermittently in a series of relatively short on and off time periods during the irrigation (Humphrey, 1989). Water is let into a long furrows or border strips in an intermittent flow instead of conventional continuous flow. Each flow is termed as a surge. Surge irrigation practiced under favourable conditions can improve the performance of surface irrigation system compared to the other methods of surface irrigation. Irrigation is given in an on-off cycle or by cut back method. The cycle time means the time from the beginning of one surge to the beginning of next surge. Cycle ratio is the ratio of flow time (continue) to the cycle time. Assuming the cycle time as 20 minutes and cycle ratio as 1:2 (0.5), the on-time is 10 minutes and off time is 10 minutes. This cycle ratio can also be the ratio of on-time and off-time as 1:1, if the on time is 10 minutes. Water is allowed for 10 minutes and stopped for 10 minutes. This 20 minutes is the surge time or cycle time. This surge is repeated until the water reaches the whole furrow or strip. 368 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY The first surge of water over a portion of dry furrow wets the soil surface at a slow advance rate and high infiltration rate. When the next surge is allowed to flow along the first surge length, water makes faster to the second surge length. Thus in surge flow, the advancing water along the furrow is faster resulting in uniform wetting from the head to the tail end of furrow. Under the conventional continuous flow, wetting is more in head end than at tail end. When more water is allowed to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the second surge length. Thus in surge flow, the advancing water along the furrow is faster resulting in uniform wetting from the head to the tail end of furrow. Under the conventional continuous flow, wetting is more in head end than at tail end. When more water is allowed to increase the wetting depth in the tail end, it leads to loss of water through tail end run off. This loss and the rate of infiltration along the whole length of flow distance are reduced in surge irrigation, in addition to saving time of irrigation. Fig. 11.6 Corrugated irrigation Fig. 11.4 Contour irrigation Fig. 11.5 Graded contour-furrow Irrigation Fig. 11.7 Graded or level-furrow irrigation: Different types of furrow irrigation IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 369 Advantages • Reduction in infiltration rate • Rapid advance of wetting front • Less difference in intake opportunity between upper and lower ends of furrow • More uniform distribution of water along the length • Improvement in application uniformity and irrigation efficiency • Reduces water requirement • Water reaches the furrow end much earlier than under continuous stream • It is a non erosive method, suitable for erodable soils • Useful for light textured soils with high infiltration rate • Saves irrigation time and the energy cost for lifting water • About 20% of land area is saved in cross channels with shorter furrow lengths • It offers scope for automation of surface irrigation. Limitations • Little or no advantage in clay or silty soils • Tail end water loss may increase if not managed properly • Lengthy furrows of more than 100 m are required • Ensuring proper gradient to such lengthy furrows is difficult • With progress in surge cycles and number of irrigations, the bulk density is increased due to soil consolidation •",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Tail end water loss may increase if not managed properly • Lengthy furrows of more than 100 m are required • Ensuring proper gradient to such lengthy furrows is difficult • With progress in surge cycles and number of irrigations, the bulk density is increased due to soil consolidation • More suited to shallow rooted crops only. II. Subsurface irrigation Water is applied below the ground surface through the network of pipes or some devices. The main aim of this type of irrigation is to reduce the evaporation loss and to maintain an artificial water table near the root zone of the crop. Suitability It is mainly suitable for the high temperature area where ET losses are very high wherein controlling and maintenance of surface water and application is very difficult. Pitcher pot irrigation method It is one way of applying water below the ground or soil surface. In this method, in a mud pot, some small holes are made and the holes are closed by either threads or material, which is able to conduct water very quickly. The pots are kept around the root zone in pits made for it. The pits are completely covered tightly with sand mulch mix. The pots are filled with water and closed. The water slowly penetrates to root zone through the holes and wet the root zone area. This method is mostly suitable for widely spaced tree crops under water scarce conditions. III. Pressurized irrigation methods It includes both sprinkler and drip irrigation methods where water is applied through network of pipelines by means of pressure devices. 1. Sprinkler irrigation system/point source method In this method the irrigation water is sprayed to the air and allowed to fall on-the ground surface more or less resembling rainfall. The sprinkling of water or spray of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "methods where water is applied through network of pipelines by means of pressure devices. 1. Sprinkler irrigation system/point source method In this method the irrigation water is sprayed to the air and allowed to fall on-the ground surface more or less resembling rainfall. The sprinkling of water or spray of water is made by pumping water under pressure through network of pipelines and allowing to eject out by means of small orifices or nozzles or holes. The water 370 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY required by the crop is applied in the form of spray by using some devices, wherein the water application rate should be somewhat lesser than the soil infiltration rate to avoid run off or stagnation of water in the filed. Suitability and advantages • It is highly suitable for sandy soil where infiltration rate is more. • For shallow soil where levelling operation is technically not possible. • For lands having undulating topography or steep slopes where levelling is economically not advisable. • Irrigation steam size is very small where surface flow is low. • It is almost suitable for all crops except crops like rice, which needs stagnation of water, but under water scarcity it can be tried for rice also. For cotton during reproductive phase sprinkler irrigation is not advisable. • Application of fertilizer (fertigation), pesticides (pestigation) and herbicides (herbigation) are possible through irrigation systems which reduce labour cost and increase the use efficiency of any chemical. • It controls crop canopy temperature. • In crust soil, it facilitates early germination and establishment by means of light and frequent irrigation. • Wastage of land for basin, ridges and furrows and irrigation channels are reduced. Sprinkler head Riser pipe End plug Second lateral position First lateral position Tee coupling Debris screen Pressure gauge Gate valve Diesel",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "crust soil, it facilitates early germination and establishment by means of light and frequent irrigation. • Wastage of land for basin, ridges and furrows and irrigation channels are reduced. Sprinkler head Riser pipe End plug Second lateral position First lateral position Tee coupling Debris screen Pressure gauge Gate valve Diesel engine mounted on trolley Band Centrifugal pump Suction pipe Water source Main line End plug Fig. 11.8 Components of a sprinkler irrigation system IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 371 Disadvantages In heavy windy areas the distribution efficiency is reduced due to drifting of water droplets. In saline water conditions, it causes leaf burns besides clogging and corrosion of the pipeline. Continuous power supply is required to operate the system to maintain pressure. It is very costly to install and to maintain. Uniformity of application is difficult due to over application or neglected corners in the field. Major components • Pump set • Network of pipelines (main, lateral, sub lateral, etc.) • Riser pipes with tripod stand • Sprinkler head Classification There are two types viz., (1) Rotation head system and (2) Perforated pipe system. Further it can be classified as: (a) Portable All components are portable and fixed (b) Semi portable (or) Semi Permanent Water source, pump set, main and sub mains are fixed. Only laterals are portable. (a) Rotating head system A special device to sprinkle the water called “Sprinkler Head” is used in this system. The sprinkler head consists of small nozzles and metal ring or vane with a spring. The water ejected through the nozzle strike the metal ring which changes its direction by the help of the spring attached to this which in turn causes the spray of water in all directions. The whole sprinkler Fig. 11.9 Twin nozzle rotating type sprinkler head Spring terminal Wear washer",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "spring. The water ejected through the nozzle strike the metal ring which changes its direction by the help of the spring attached to this which in turn causes the spray of water in all directions. The whole sprinkler Fig. 11.9 Twin nozzle rotating type sprinkler head Spring terminal Wear washer Oscillating arm spring Oscillating arm Deflector Deflector screw Driving nozzle Body Thrust washer Oscillating arm shaft Cotton pin Main nozzle Rectifier Thrust spring Bearing Stem 372 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY head system is fitted on the riser pipe, which is erected from lateral pipes at uniform intervals. Rotating sprinkler heads are of two types viz., single nozzle type and twin nozzle type (main nozzle and driving nozzle). (b) Perforated pipes system In this method, small holes are made in lateral pipes based on the nature of the crops to distribute water uniformly. Uniform distribution of water Irrigation efficiency of sprinklers depends upon the degree of uniformity of water applied. Uniformity coefficient is computed with field application. Open cans are placed at regular interval within sprinkled area. Depth of water collected in open cans is measured and the coefficient of uniformity is computed by Christiansen (1942) equation. Cu = 100 (1 − Σ X/m.n) Where, Cu = uniformity coefficient m = average value of all observations n = total number of observation points X = numerical deviation of individual observation from average application rate. A uniformity coefficient of 85% or more is considered to be satisfactory. The uniformity coefficient is affected by pressure–nozzle size relation, sprinkler spacing and wind condition. Sprinkler selection and spacing The choice depends on diameter of coverage required, pressure available and discharge of sprinkler. The data given in tables 1 and 2 may serve as guidance in selecting the pressure and spacing desired. Table 11.6. Maximum Spacing",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "by pressure–nozzle size relation, sprinkler spacing and wind condition. Sprinkler selection and spacing The choice depends on diameter of coverage required, pressure available and discharge of sprinkler. The data given in tables 1 and 2 may serve as guidance in selecting the pressure and spacing desired. Table 11.6. Maximum Spacing of Sprinklers under Windy Condition Average speed of wind Spacing No wind 65% of the diameter of the water spread area of sprinkler 0–6.5 km/hr 60% of the diameter of the water spread area of sprinkler 6.5–13 km/hr 50% of the diameter of the water spread area of sprinkler Above 13 km/hr 30% of the diameter of the water spread area of sprinkler The discharge of an individual sprinkler is calculated using the following formula q = (sl × sm × r)/360 where, q = required discharge of individual sprinkler (lit./sec) sl = Spacing of sprinkler along the laterals (meter) sm = Spacing of sprinkler along the main (meter) r = Optimum application rate (cm/hr) Height of sprinkler rise pipe Q = (2780 × A × D)/(F × H × E) Where, Q = Discharge capacity of pump (lit/sec) A = Area to be irrigated (ha) D = Net depth of water supplied (cm) F = Number of days allowed for completion of irrigation IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 373 H = Number of operating hours/day E = Water application efficiency (%) Table 11.7. Choice of Nozzle size, Spacing of Sprinkler and Sprinkler rotation to types of Sprinklers Types Gravity fed Normal Permanent Small over Low Inter High of under free under free over head head system pressure mediate pressure sprinkler sprinkler sprinkler system system pressure system system system system Pressure 0.7-1.0 1.0-2.5 3.5-4.5 2.5-4 1.5-2.5 2.5-5 5-10 range (kg/cm2) Sprinkler 0.06-0.25 0.06-0.25 0.2-0.6 0.6-2.0 0.3-10.0 2-10 10-50 discharge (lit./sec) Diameter",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Normal Permanent Small over Low Inter High of under free under free over head head system pressure mediate pressure sprinkler sprinkler sprinkler system system pressure system system system system Pressure 0.7-1.0 1.0-2.5 3.5-4.5 2.5-4 1.5-2.5 2.5-5 5-10 range (kg/cm2) Sprinkler 0.06-0.25 0.06-0.25 0.2-0.6 0.6-2.0 0.3-10.0 2-10 10-50 discharge (lit./sec) Diameter 1-6 mm 1.5-6 mm 3-6 mm 6-10 mm 3-6 mm 10-20 mm 20-40 mm of nozzles Diameter 10-14m 6-23 m 30-45 m 25-35 m 20-25 m 40-80 m 80-140 m of coverage Range of – – 18-30 m 9-24 m 9-18 m 24-54 m 54-100 m sprinkler spacing Recommended – 0.5-1 rpm 1 rpm 0.67-1 rpm 0.5-1 rpm 0.7 rpm 0.5 rpm speed of sprinkler rotation Rate of application Average rate of application is often called as precipitation intensity. It can be estimated by Ra = Q/(360 × a) Where, Ra = Rate of water application Q = Discharge rate of sprinkler (lit/sec) A = Wetted area of sprinkler (m2) Discharge of nozzle The discharge of water through the nozzle can be given by the following equation. Q ca 2 gh = − Where, Q = Nozzle discharge a = Cross-sectional area of nozzle h = pressure head at nozzle (mts.) Head of water = 10 × pressure (bar) Head of water foot = 2.31 × pressure (Pounds foot/inch 2) G = Acceleration due to gravity C = Discharge coefficient 374 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Water spread area of sprinkler The water-spread area of a sprinkler is given by the following equation R = 1.35 dh R = Radius of wetted area (m) d = Diameter of nozzle h = pressure head at nozzle (m) Design of sprinkler systems A sprinkler system is designed in order to achieve high efficiency in its performance and economy. The informations needed for designing",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "following equation R = 1.35 dh R = Radius of wetted area (m) d = Diameter of nozzle h = pressure head at nozzle (m) Design of sprinkler systems A sprinkler system is designed in order to achieve high efficiency in its performance and economy. The informations needed for designing sprinkler system are: • map of area • water source availability and dependability • climatic condition • depth of irrigation to be applied • irrigation interval • water application rate • sprinkler spray and power source Lay out of sprinkler system Sprinkler operates at a low time duration and pressure and can irrigate an area of 9–24 m wide and up to 300 m long at one setting. Application rate vary from 5–35 mm/hr. Layout of portable system It consists of a pump, mainline, lateral and rotary sprinkler spacer 9–24 m apart. The laterals remain in position until irrigation is completed. After irrigation is over, lateral is disconnected from main and is dismantled and moved to the next point of main line and reassembled. The lateral is gradually moved around the field until the whole field is irrigated. In this system, only laterals are moved. Sometimes the whole system including pump and mainline are moved from point to point (semi permanent). Permanent system When sufficient laterals and sprinklers are provided to cover the whole irrigated area so that no equipment needed to be removed. Then the system is called permanent system. This system requires less labour than portable system and large area can be irrigated by using few skilled operators. They are more expensive initially because of extra pipes, sprinklers and fittings required but, savings can be made because of reduced labour. It is suitable for automation irrigation system and areas where labour is difficult to obtain. Fertilizer application with",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "large area can be irrigated by using few skilled operators. They are more expensive initially because of extra pipes, sprinklers and fittings required but, savings can be made because of reduced labour. It is suitable for automation irrigation system and areas where labour is difficult to obtain. Fertilizer application with sprinkler system Suitable chemical fertilizers can be mixed into the sprinkler system and applied to crop. Quantity of fertilizer added to the system for each setting can be calculated by using the formula. wf = (Ds × Dl × Ns × Wf)/10,000 where, wf = Amount of fertilizer per setting Ds = Distance between sprinklers Ns = Number of sprinklers Wf = Recommended fertilizer dose Dl = Distance between laterals. 2. Drip or Trickle Irrigation System/line source irrigation Water is applied through network of pipelines and allowed to fall drop by drop at crop root zone by a special device called emitters or drippers. These drippers or emitters control the quantity of water to be IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 375 dropped out. In this system, the main principle is to apply the water at crop root zone based on the daily ET demand of the crop without any stress. Hence, the root zone is always maintained at field capacity level. Components • Overhead tank or pressure system (Motor pumps). • Main Lines To take water from source to field which is usually made of black poly alkathene pipes having an inner diameter of 50 mm Fig. 11.10 Drip Irrigation System Sub main If the area is larger, the sub mains are used to take water from main pipes to field which is normally having an inner diameter of 37 mm. Laterals These pipelines are normally having lesser diameter than mains and sub mains usually of 12 mm made of black",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Sub main If the area is larger, the sub mains are used to take water from main pipes to field which is normally having an inner diameter of 37 mm. Laterals These pipelines are normally having lesser diameter than mains and sub mains usually of 12 mm made of black poly alkathene pipes which deliver water from main or sub mains to crop root zone. The length of lateral depends upon the pressure created in pump as well as spacing of the crop and length of the field. Normally about 25 m length of lateral can be adopted to have a uniform distribution of water. Emitters Emitters control the water drops and the quantity of water to be delivered. Various designs of drippers with various discharge capacity are available (5, 7, 8, 10 and 20 lph, etc. Button types, spray type, tap type etc.). Instead of drippers micro tubes are inserted into the laterals and water is allowed to drip in the root zone of crops or trees. Advantages • Application of water in slow rates facilitates the easy infiltration into the soil. From pump or Pressure gage Check valve Gate valve Fertilizer solution tank Filters Pressure regulator Pressure control valve Submain Distributors Lateral Main line Emitters Porous pipe Multi-outlet distributors Laterals Lateral Gate valve 376 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • The required quantity of water is applied near the root zone alone which in turn save water. • The root zone is always maintained with field capacity level and hence plants do not suffer for want of water. • There is no seepage or percolation or evaporation losses. • Weed growth is restricted due to limited area of wetting zone. • Fertilizers (fertigation), chemical like pesticides (chemigation) and herbicide (herbigation) can be applied through irrigation. Hence, saving of input",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "hence plants do not suffer for want of water. • There is no seepage or percolation or evaporation losses. • Weed growth is restricted due to limited area of wetting zone. • Fertilizers (fertigation), chemical like pesticides (chemigation) and herbicide (herbigation) can be applied through irrigation. Hence, saving of input quantity and labour cost besides increase in their use efficiencies is possible. • Reduce the salt content near the root zone and dilute it in saline soil. • The saline water also can be put under use if irrigation is applied through drip irrigation. • It can be adopted for any type of topography. • Yield increases due to optimum maintenance of soil moisture at root zone. • More area can be maintained with little quantity of water. • It cab be used for widely spaced crops like cotton, sugarcane, tomato, brinjal, coconut and orchard crops. Disadvantages • Clogging in emitters due to salt content of water and other impurities like moss, dust etc. • Damage of pipe lines by rodents. • It is not economical for closely spaced crops which require more number of pipes and drippers per unit area. • Proper maintenance and periodical cleaning of drippers and pipelines (with 1% hydrochloric acid) are very important to maintain the system efficiency. 3. Rain gun Features of the raingun Raingun is a powerful mega sprinkler that throws a large amount of water (upto 500 liters per minute) to a good distance (radius of 90 feet and even more) as artificial rain. It offers a number of benefits to the farmer. It reduces water consumption by 50 per cent as compared to flood irrigation in achieving the same yield. As a result of the reduced water consumption with the raingun irrigation system, large savings accrue. Irrigation time comes down (60",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "artificial rain. It offers a number of benefits to the farmer. It reduces water consumption by 50 per cent as compared to flood irrigation in achieving the same yield. As a result of the reduced water consumption with the raingun irrigation system, large savings accrue. Irrigation time comes down (60 percent time is saved) and power consumption comes down. Also, raingun irrigation is less labour intensive than flood irrigation. It increases crop yield by 10 percent as sugarcane farmers have experienced. Fertilizers can also be applied with the raingun irrigation system, reducing consumption of fertilizers. Irrigation with the raingun washes away pests like aphids, white flies etc. The raingun irrigation systems supports the highly recommended practice of trash mulching in sugarcane, which is a process of converting trash into nutrient for the crop. As the cane grows, the trash is stripped from the cane so that the cane is protected from pests and diseases. At the same time, the trash is valuable as it has a lot of nutrients. However, farmers do not make ready use of this available nutrient and resort to clearing it or setting it on fire to manage the huge quantity of trash. Mulching is a practice whereby the trash is used as a soil cover to aid moisture retention, prevent proliferation of weeds and the trash itself is eventually converted into nutrition. The raingun irrigation system gives farmers the ability to practice trash mulching successfully. While the raingun has been developed with sugarcane in mind, it can also be applied with excellent results to a number of other crops such as groundnut, tapioca, onion, potato, maize and forage crops etc. Permanent system In permanent system of installation raingun riser stands are permanently fitted to solid set pipeline network. Riser can also be supported by cement",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "it can also be applied with excellent results to a number of other crops such as groundnut, tapioca, onion, potato, maize and forage crops etc. Permanent system In permanent system of installation raingun riser stands are permanently fitted to solid set pipeline network. Riser can also be supported by cement concrete block around the riser. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 377 Semi permanent system In semi permanent system pipeline network can be permanent and raingun riser stand or only raingun shifted from one location to other. Raingun fiser stand can be made detachable by using HDPE Quick-ConnectTM male connector at riser and Quick-ConnectTM female connector at pipe end. HDPE pipe in coil/hose of required size and length attached with G.I. insert joint on one end and Quick-ConnectTM female joint on the other end, can also serve as the pipe network. Alternatively, raingun alone can be shifted over permanently installed risers using quick release key and/or quick coupling valve. Shiftable system In shiftable system entire pipeline network along-with raingun riser stand and raingun can be shifted from one location to another. Easily detachable Quick-ConnectTM pipes are used for this purpose. Quick-ConnectTM pipes can be connected to raingun riser stand using male connector. Flexible HDPE coil/hose can also be used in shiftable system. Raingun trolly can be used for easy movement of raingun from one place to other. 11.8 IRRIGATION SYSTEMS In India, various types of irrigation systems are in practice. The following are some important system. • Gravity irrigation • Tank irrigation • Lift irrigation 11.8.1 Gravity Irrigation Here water is supplied to the land by gravitational flow. There are two types namely (i) Perennial, (ii) Inundation. (i) Perennial In this system, water is assured throughout the crop period from the reservoir. This may be either direct or indirect irrigation. In direct",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "• Lift irrigation 11.8.1 Gravity Irrigation Here water is supplied to the land by gravitational flow. There are two types namely (i) Perennial, (ii) Inundation. (i) Perennial In this system, water is assured throughout the crop period from the reservoir. This may be either direct or indirect irrigation. In direct irrigation, river water is directly directed to canal by constructing diversion weirs across the river without storing water at any point, where adequate perennial supply of water is assured to feed the canal during the cropping period. In indirect irrigation, during monsoon period water is stored in dam or any reservoirs and directed to flow during cropping season and hence also called as storage irrigations. This is adopted where the river flow is inadequate in cropping period. This has got significant importance than direct one. (ii) Inundation In this system, the water is directed to canal without any diversion work. It depends on the periodical rise in water levels of the river and supply is drawn through natural coarse or open which acts as Head. 11.8.2 Tank Irrigation It is the oldest irrigation system of India wherein water is stored by forming a big bund across the natural drainage to avoid the surface runoff loss through natural streams. The tank size varies according to the drainage capacity. It has irrigation capacity from 10–1000 ha. It is further classified as: (a) System tank The system tank receives allotted quantity of water from river system during the cropping period for its command. (b) Non-system tanks The Non-system tanks depend upon rainfall in their catchment area and do not have any link to river system to get water. 378 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 11.8.3 Lift Irrigation In this system, water is lifted from a reservoir or river or canal or well by using",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(b) Non-system tanks The Non-system tanks depend upon rainfall in their catchment area and do not have any link to river system to get water. 378 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 11.8.3 Lift Irrigation In this system, water is lifted from a reservoir or river or canal or well by using mechanical or electrical power to irrigate the field. Lift irrigation includes: (1) lift canal irrigation, (2) well irrigation, and (3) tube well irrigation. 11.9 MEASUREMENT OF IRRIGATION WATER Irrigation water is measured because it is a valuable resource and scarce commodity and measurement helps to reduce excessive use, wastage and allows optimum water use, uniform distribution, increases conveyance, distribution, application and usage efficiencies. Water measurement is essential in the operation and maintenance of any irrigation system, lay out of irrigation structures, layout and planning of irrigation projects and for drawing cropping programmes. 11.9.1 Methods Measurement of irrigation water may be done by • Volumetric method, • Velocity area method, • Direct discharge method, and • Tracer method. A. Volumetric method Materials required Plastic bucket, alkathene pipe and stop watch. Procedure A known volume of bucket or barrel (210 litre) is taken and placed under the delivery end of a pump or pipe. The time taken to fill the bucket/barrel is recorded using stopwatch. The rate of low of water in a water pipe or a pump set is worked out by using the formula. Volume of bucket (lit) Discharge rate (lit sec) Time taken to fill the bucket (sec) = B. Velocity area method This method is used to determine the discharge rate in a pipe or open channel by multiplying the crosssectional area of flow at right angles to the direction of flow by the average velocity of water. Rate of flow/Discharge rate = Area (a) × velocity (v)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "B. Velocity area method This method is used to determine the discharge rate in a pipe or open channel by multiplying the crosssectional area of flow at right angles to the direction of flow by the average velocity of water. Rate of flow/Discharge rate = Area (a) × velocity (v) (in m3/sec) a = Area of cross-section of a channel or pipe (m2) v = Velocity of flow (m/sec) There are important methods under the velocity area method to find out the velocity of flowing water. • Float method, • Using current meter, and • Water meters, IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 379 Fig. 11.11 Current Meter (a) Float method Here, the rate of movement of floating body over flowing water is equated to the velocity of running water with a co-efficient of 0.85. Materials required A rubber ball or a closed empty plastic bottle or a block of wood or any floating material, measuring tape, stop watch etc. Procedure Measure 40 m length in a straight channel and mark the upstream (A) and downstream (B) points. Allow the float to float on the running water at A, the upstream point. Note the time when it touches the upstream point and let this be the initial time. Also note the time when it reaches the down stream point (B) which will be the final time. Repeat the procedure several times and find out the mean time to travel this 40 m distance. The velocity is determined by the following relationship. Length of channel (m) Velocity 0.85 m sec Average time taken by float (sec) = × = The average velocity is calculated by multiplying a co-efficient factor (0.85) as above. The flow rate of the water is worked out using the formula Q = a × v Rate of flow (Q)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of channel (m) Velocity 0.85 m sec Average time taken by float (sec) = × = The average velocity is calculated by multiplying a co-efficient factor (0.85) as above. The flow rate of the water is worked out using the formula Q = a × v Rate of flow (Q) = average velocity × cross sectional area of the channel. (b) Using current meters It is a small instrument containing a revolving wheel or vane that is rotated by the movement of water. The number of revolutions of the wheel in a given time is noted and corresponding velocity is reckoned from a calibration table/graph. (c) Using water meters Water meters utilize a multiplied propeller made of metal, plastic or rubber, rotating in a vertical plane and geared to a totalizer, which totalizes the flow in any desired volumetric units. To use the water meter at all times accurately, the flow of water should Plan Cupped vane Suspension cable Mounting rod Elevation Directional vane Horizontal shaft Flow 380 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY be full and the rate of flow must exceed the minimum for the rated range. Meters are calibrated and no field adjustments are necessary. Care should be taken to avoid obstruction due to foreign materials in the propeller. C. Direct discharge methods In this method, the volume of flow of water is determined directly by installing certain devices of known dimensions at a desired point across the channel. The most commonly used devices for measuring the irrigation water are: (1) Weirs/notches, (2) flumes, (3) orifices, and (4) pipes and siphon tubes. These devices are used to measure the rate of flow commonly read, on a scale and computing the discharge of flow from standard formula or table. Water measuring devices (i) Weirs (ii) Flumes (iii) Orifices (iv) Pipes",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "are: (1) Weirs/notches, (2) flumes, (3) orifices, and (4) pipes and siphon tubes. These devices are used to measure the rate of flow commonly read, on a scale and computing the discharge of flow from standard formula or table. Water measuring devices (i) Weirs (ii) Flumes (iii) Orifices (iv) Pipes and Siphon tubes 1. Triangular 1. Parshall flume 1. Free flow 2. Rectangular 2. Cut throat 2. Submerged flow 3. Trapezoidal 3. Trapezoidal I. Weirs A weir is an opening provided in a structured bulkhead of timber or concrete through which water is made to flow. It is used to measure the flow in an irrigation channel or the device may be built as stationary structures or portable. Precautions • The weir should be set at the lower end of the long pool sufficiently wide and deep to give smooth flow of the stream. • The weir wall must be vertical and not leaning to the upstream or downstream. • The center line of the weir should be parallel to the direction of flow. • The crest of the weir should be levelled so that water passing over it will be of same depth at all points along the crest. • The notch should be a regular shape and its edges must be rigid and straight. • The crest of the weir is placed high enough so that water will fall freely leaving an air space under falling sheet of water. • The depth of water flowing over the rectangular weir should not be less than 5 mm and not more than two thirds of the crest width. • Measurement should be made using a scale located at a distance of about four times the head. Limitations • Not accurate unless measurements are properly maintained • Require considerable loss of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "weir should not be less than 5 mm and not more than two thirds of the crest width. • Measurement should be made using a scale located at a distance of about four times the head. Limitations • Not accurate unless measurements are properly maintained • Require considerable loss of head • Not easily combined with turn out (diversion) structures • Not suitable for water carrying silt. The general formula for determining the discharge through a weir Q = CLmH Where, Q = Discharge (lps) C = Co-efficient depending upon the nature of weir crest and channel approach conditions IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 381 L = Length of crest known as crest head causing flow m = The power value depending upon the shape of the notch H = Head on the crest Types of Weirs (a) Triangular weir (90 Degree ‘V’ Notch) ‘V’ Notch is commonly used to measure small and medium size streams. The advantage of the V notch is its ability to measure small flows accurately. Typical dimensions are given in figure. It is found to measure discharge up to 113 lps. The discharge through a ‘V’ notch may be computed by the formula. Q = 0.0138 H5/2 Where Q = Discharge in litre/sec H = Head in cm Fig. 11.12 Triangular weir (b) Rectangular weir The rectangular weirs are used to measure comparatively large discharge. It has horizontal crest and vertical sides. They may be (i) Contracted rectangular weirs or suppressed rectangular weirs. The discharge through rectangular weirs may be computed from the Francis formula Contracted rectangular weir Q = 0.0184 (L-0.1H)3/2 (one end contraction) Contracted rectangular weir Q = 0.0184 (L-0.2H)3/2 (two end contraction) Contracted rectangular weir Q = 0.0184 LH3/2 (no end contraction) Where, Q = Discharge (lit/sec) L = length of crest (cm)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "rectangular weirs may be computed from the Francis formula Contracted rectangular weir Q = 0.0184 (L-0.1H)3/2 (one end contraction) Contracted rectangular weir Q = 0.0184 (L-0.2H)3/2 (two end contraction) Contracted rectangular weir Q = 0.0184 LH3/2 (no end contraction) Where, Q = Discharge (lit/sec) L = length of crest (cm) H = Head over weir (cm) (c) Trapezoidal weir (Cipoletti weir) The cipoletti weir named after the inventor, is a special type of trapezoidal weir. Each side of the weir has a slope of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical. It is used to measure medium discharge. Since the discharge through the triangular portion balances the loss due to end contractions no correction is necessary for end contractions. The discharge through cipoletti weir is computed by the following formula. 15 to 20 cm 30 to cm 75 15 to 20 cm Straight edges sharpened from one side only 45° 90° 45° 60 to 11 cm 5 25 to 50 cm 16 gauge M.S. sheet 382 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Fig. 11.13 Rectangular weir Fig. 11.14 Sectional view of weir installation Q = 0.0186 LH3/2 Where, Q = Discharge (litre/sec) L = length of crest (cm) H = Head over the crest (cm) II. Flumes (a) Parshall flumes (venturi flume) This has been developed by Parshall (1950) and hence named after him. This parshall flume is an open channel type measuring device that operates with a small drop in head. It is a self-cleaning device and hence sand or silt in the flowing water does not affect operation or accuracy. It gives reasonably accurate measurement even when partially submerged. The flumes of 7.5, 15, 23 and 30 cm sizes are generally used in field measurements. 10 cm 30 cm 42 cm Straight edges Bevelled edge 12 Gauge M.S. sheet 45 to 60",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "flowing water does not affect operation or accuracy. It gives reasonably accurate measurement even when partially submerged. The flumes of 7.5, 15, 23 and 30 cm sizes are generally used in field measurements. 10 cm 30 cm 42 cm Straight edges Bevelled edge 12 Gauge M.S. sheet 45 to 60 cm 50 to 80 cm 6 mm dia. holes spaced 20 cm apart Elevation of weir crest Point to measure head Horiz. line Water surface Velocity head h = V/2g 2 Nappe This space must be vented to atmosphere Channel bottom 2 H Min H IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 383 Fig. 11.15 Parshall flume (b) Cut–throat flume There is an improvement in construction details over parshall flume. It is developed by Skogerboe et.al., (1967). The flume has a flat bottom, vertical walls and no throat section. The flume width ranges between 2.5 cm–1.8 m. The cut-throat flume may be used either in free flow or in submerged flow condition. It should be installed in a straight section of the channel and not near gate because of unstable and surging effects, which might result from the gate operation. However, it is better to have a flow-measuring device to operate under free flow condition. (c) Trapezoidal flume It is somewhat similar to rectangular flume and devised based on the study of Robinson Chamberlin (1958). The characteristics are listed as follows: • A large range of flows can be measured through the structure with a comparatively smaller change in head. • The flumes will operate under submergence than rectangular shaped ones without correction being necessary to determine the exact relationship. • Extreme approach conditions and sediments deposited in the approach does not affect the head discharge relationships. • The trapezoidal shape fits the common canal section more closely than the rectangular one. •",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "will operate under submergence than rectangular shaped ones without correction being necessary to determine the exact relationship. • Extreme approach conditions and sediments deposited in the approach does not affect the head discharge relationships. • The trapezoidal shape fits the common canal section more closely than the rectangular one. • Construction details such as transmission and frame work are simplified III. Orifices Orifices are the circular or rectangular openings in vertical bulkhead placed across the stream. They may operate under free flow or submerged flow conditions. Under free flow conditions the flow from the orifice discharges entirely into air forming a napple. If the orifice is fully submerged, the downstream water level is above the top of the opening and the flow is disturbed into the down stream water. A plastic scale is fixed on the upstream face of the orifice plate in such a way that zero of the scale coincides with the center of the orifice. 384 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Fig. 11.16 Head in submerged orifice The discharge is calculated by the formula Q = 0.61 × 10−3 a 2gh Where Q = discharge in litres/sec a = area of cross-section of the orifice in cm2 g = acceleration due to gravity in cm/sec h = depth of water over center of orifice in cm. In case of submerged flow orifice the difference in elevation between upstream and downstream is measured as ‘h’. IV. Pipes and Siphon tubes The trajectory of stream of water from a horizontal pipe can be used to estimate the discharge. Such a procedure is rapid, inexpensive and convenient. Measurement is made for the x and y coordinates, where x is measured parallel to the pipe and y is measured vertically. Horizontal measurement of the jet (x) is measured from the end of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "pipe can be used to estimate the discharge. Such a procedure is rapid, inexpensive and convenient. Measurement is made for the x and y coordinates, where x is measured parallel to the pipe and y is measured vertically. Horizontal measurement of the jet (x) is measured from the end of the pipe to the centre of the jet in cm distance from the centre of the pipe to the ground i.e., vertical coordinate is measured in cm (y). The discharge formula is obtained by combining the three equations. 0 61 a d2 Contraction of jet after passing through orifice Free flow orifice jet H v d 0 h1 h2 H = h2 h1 \u0001 D Y X Coordinates of full flowing pipe IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 385 2 1 2 Y gt X Vtq av = = = ( ) 2 V x g Y = ( ) 2 Q Ca g Y = × Where, Q = Discharge in lit/sec C = Coefficient of discharge g = Acceleration due to gravity a = Cross sectional area of water at end of pipe in cm2 coordinate of the point on the surface to the pipe measurement in cm. y = Vertical coordinate measured in cm x = Horizontal coordinate Vertical pipe When water flows vertically out of an open pipe, the height to which it will rise above the pipe is proportional to the flow. Lawrence and Brawnworth made careful measurements and found that the height of the jet was less than 0.37 dp., where dp is the inside diameter of the pipe, then flow is sub critical. When the jet height exceeds 1.4 dp, water discharges from the pipe with supercritical flow in jet flow. The discharge from a vertical pipe can be estimated using the equation given by",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "less than 0.37 dp., where dp is the inside diameter of the pipe, then flow is sub critical. When the jet height exceeds 1.4 dp, water discharges from the pipe with supercritical flow in jet flow. The discharge from a vertical pipe can be estimated using the equation given by Lawrence and Brawnworth in metric system as Q for hs < 0.37 dp = 5.47 dp 1.25 hs 1.35 Q for hs > 1.4 dp = 3.15 dp 1.99 hs 0.53 Q = 0.0195D2X/Y Where, Q = Discharge in lit/sec D = Diameter of the pipe X = Vertical coordinate (from pipe end to the top of the jet) y = Horizontal coordinate (from centre of pipe to the centre of nappe) Siphons Siphons are provided to deliver water from a ditch furrow of check dam. The rate of flow of water delivered by siphons may be measured by knowing the area of cross-section and head as given in the formula Q = 3 2 0.65 10 A gh − × − Where, Q = Discharge from siphon tube in lit/sec A = Cross-section in cm2 g = Acceleration due to gravity (cm2/sec) h = Head causing flow in cm For free flow, the head causing flow ‘h’ is the height of water in the ditch above the centre of the inlet end of siphon tube and when submerged, the differences in level between layers in the ditch and furrow is the ‘h’. 386 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY V. Tracer method Tracer methods of water measurement are independent of stream cross-section and are suitable for field measurements without installing fixed structures. In these methods, a tracer substance in concentrated form is introduced into the flowing water and allowed to mix thoroughly. The concentration of the tracer is measured at a",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "method Tracer methods of water measurement are independent of stream cross-section and are suitable for field measurements without installing fixed structures. In these methods, a tracer substance in concentrated form is introduced into the flowing water and allowed to mix thoroughly. The concentration of the tracer is measured at a downstream section. Since only the quantity of water necessarily to accomplish the dilution is involved, there is no necessary to measure velocity, depth, head, c.s. area etc. After assessing the amount of water to be applied to the soil and the type of water measuring device, the irrigator is to work out the time duration to supply water. This method is yet to become popular in India. 11.10 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING Irrigation scheduling is defined as the frequency with which water is to be applied based on needs of the crop and nature of the soil. Irrigation scheduling is nothing but number of irrigations and their frequency required to meet the crop water requirement. Irrigation scheduling may be defined as scientific management technique of allocating irrigation water based on the individual crop water requirement (ETc) under different soil and climatic condition, with an aim to achieve maximum crop production per unit of water applied over an unit area in unit time. Based on the above definition, the concept made is: “If we provide irrigation facility, the agricultural production and productivity will go up automatically”. Irrigation scheduling is a decision-making process repeated many times in each year involving when to irrigate and how much of water to apply? Both criteria influence the quantity and quality of the crop. It indicates how much of irrigation water to be used and how often, it has to be given. Excess irrigation is harmful because: • it wastes water below root zone • it results in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "how much of water to apply? Both criteria influence the quantity and quality of the crop. It indicates how much of irrigation water to be used and how often, it has to be given. Excess irrigation is harmful because: • it wastes water below root zone • it results in loss of fertilizers nutrients • it causes water stagnation and salinity • it causes poor aeration • ultimately it damages the crops However, irrigation scheduling has its own meaning and importance according to the nature of the work. For irrigation engineers Irrigation scheduling is important to cover more area with available quantity of water or to satisfy the whole command from head to tail reach in the canal or river system. For soil scientists It is important that the field should not be over irrigated or under irrigated as both will spoil the chemical and physical equilibrium of the soil. For Agronomists It is very much important to get higher yield per unit quantity of water in normal situations and to protect the crop to get as much as possible yield under drought situation by means of supplying water in optimum ratio and minimizing all field losses. A. Importance How much and how often water has to be given depends on the irrigation requirement of the crop. Irrigation requirement (IR) = Crop water requirement (CWR)-Effective rainfall (ERF) i.e., IR = WR ER in mm/day or mm/month. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 387 If the crop water requirement of a particular crop is 6 mm per day, it means every day we have to give 6 mm of water to the crop. Practically it is not possible since it is time consuming and laborious. Hence, it is necessary to schedule the water supply by means of some time intervals and quantity. For",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is 6 mm per day, it means every day we have to give 6 mm of water to the crop. Practically it is not possible since it is time consuming and laborious. Hence, it is necessary to schedule the water supply by means of some time intervals and quantity. For example the water requirement of 6 mm/day can be scheduled as 24 mm for every 4 days or 30 mm for every 5 days or 36 mm for every 6 days depending upon the soil type and climatic conditions prevailing in that particular place. While doing so, we must be very cautious that the interval should not allow the crop to suffer for want of water. B. Practical considerations Before scheduling irrigation in a farm or field or a command, the following criteria should be taken care for efficient scheduling. Crop factors • Sensitiveness to water shortage • Critical stages of the crop • Rooting depth • Economic value of the crop Water delivery system • Canal irrigation or tank irrigation (It is a public distribution system where scheduling is arranged based on the decision made by public based on the resource availability). • Well irrigation (Farmer’s decision is final). Type of soil • Sandy-needs short frequency of irrigation and less quantity of water • Clay-needs long frequency of irrigation and more quantity of water Salinity hazard To maintain favourable salt balance, excess water application may be required rather than ET requirement of the crop to leach the excess salt through deep percolation. Irrigation methods Basin method allows more infiltration through more wetting surface which in turn needs more water and long interval in irrigation frequency. Furrow method allows less infiltration due to less wetting surface which needs less water and short interval in irrigation frequency. Sprinkler method needs less",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "through deep percolation. Irrigation methods Basin method allows more infiltration through more wetting surface which in turn needs more water and long interval in irrigation frequency. Furrow method allows less infiltration due to less wetting surface which needs less water and short interval in irrigation frequency. Sprinkler method needs less water and more frequency. Drip method needs less water and more frequency. Irrigation interval The extension of irrigation interval does not always save water. The interval has to be optimized based on the agro climatic situation. Minimum spreadable depth We cannot reduce the depth based on the water requirement of the crop alone. The depth should be fixed based on the soil type, rooting nature of the crop and irrigation method followed. The minimum depth should be so as to achieve uniformity of application and to get uniform distribution over the entire field. C. Theoretical approaches I. Direct approach • Depth interval and yield approach • Soil moisture deficit and optimum moisture regime approach 388 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Sensitive crop approach • Plant observation method • Indicator plant technique • Micro plot technique II. Indirect or predictive approach • Critical stage or phenological stage approach • Meteorological or climatological approach III. Mathematical approach • Estimation method approach • Simple calculation method • Simulation approach-computing and modelling • Empirical approach IV. System as a whole approach • Rotational water supply schedule I. Direct approach (a) Depth interval and yield approach In this method, different depths of irrigation water at different time intervals fixed arbitrarily are tried without considering the soil and weather characters. The irrigation treatment which gives the maximum yield with minimum depth and extended interval is chosen as the best irrigation schedule. Earlier workers have adopted this practice to work out the duty of water for different",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "different time intervals fixed arbitrarily are tried without considering the soil and weather characters. The irrigation treatment which gives the maximum yield with minimum depth and extended interval is chosen as the best irrigation schedule. Earlier workers have adopted this practice to work out the duty of water for different crops in many irrigation projects. It is the rough irrigation schedule. Hence, many irrigation projects which have adopted this practice have failed to achieve the full efficiency. Disadvantages • Rainfall is not taken into account • Ground water contribution is not taken into account • Soil parameters are not taken for calculating irrigation requirement and hence this approach is not useful. (b) Soil moisture deficit and optimum moisture regime approach This approach considered soil moisture content in the root zone of the crop for fixing the schedule. When the soil moisture reaches a pre fixed value, may be 40% of Available Soil Moisture (ASM) or 50% ASM or 60% ASM, irrigation is given. The degree of depletion is measured through percentage of availability by using gravimetric, tensiometer, resistance block, neutron probe, etc. Disadvantages • Soil moisture alone is taken into account • Hence, it cannot be taken for all type of soil in particular region • It varies from soil to soil. (c) Sensitive crop approach The crops that are grown for their fresh leaves or fruits are more sensitive to water shortage than the crops, which are grown for their dry seeds or fruits. Based on their sensitivity, the crops can be indexed as: IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 389 Low Low to Medium Medium to high High cassava alfalfa beans banana millets cotton citrus cabbage red gram maize soybean fresh green vegetables groundnut wheat rice, sugarcane sunflower tomato (d) Plant observation method Normally in field condition, farmers use to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "crops can be indexed as: IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 389 Low Low to Medium Medium to high High cassava alfalfa beans banana millets cotton citrus cabbage red gram maize soybean fresh green vegetables groundnut wheat rice, sugarcane sunflower tomato (d) Plant observation method Normally in field condition, farmers use to adopt this practice for scheduling irrigation. The day-to-day change in plant physical character like colour of the plant, erect nature of plant leaves, wilting symptoms, etc., are closely and carefully observed on the whole and not for individual plant and then time of irrigation is fixed according to the crop symptoms. It needs more skill and experience about the crop as well as local circumstances like field condition, the rainy days of that tract etc. Disadvantage • No accuracy in finding the crop water need • Sometimes sensitive symptoms are evident only after reaching almost the wilting point. (e) Indicator plant technique Crops like sunflower and tomato are highly sensitive to water stress, which will show stress symptom earlier than other stress tolerating crops. Hence, to know the stress symptoms earlier such sensitive crops are planted at random in the field and based on the stress symptoms noticed in such plants, scheduling of irrigation can be made. This technique is called indicator plant technique. (f) Micro plot technique or indictor plot technique In this method, one cubic feet micro plot is made with coarse textured soil to have more infiltration, less water holding capacity and more evaporation than the actual main field. Normally the field soil is mixed with sand in 1:2 ratio and refilled in the micro plots made in the field. The seed of the same crop and variety is grown in micro plot with all similar cultural practice as that of the main crop. The crops in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "main field. Normally the field soil is mixed with sand in 1:2 ratio and refilled in the micro plots made in the field. The seed of the same crop and variety is grown in micro plot with all similar cultural practice as that of the main crop. The crops in micro plot show early stress symptoms than that of main field. Based on this, scheduling of irrigation can be made. II. Predictive approach or indirect approach (a) Critical stage or phenological stage approach The growth period of an annual crop can be divided into four growth stages. • Initial stage : From sowing to 10% ground cover. • Crop development stage : 10–70% ground cover. • Mid season stage : Flowering to grain setting stage. • Late season stage : Ripening and harvesting stage. The stage at which the water stress causes severe yield reduction is known as critical stage of water requirement. It is also known as moisture sensitive period. Moisture stress due to restricted supply of water during the moisture sensitive period or critical stage will irrevocably reduce the yield. Provision of adequate water and fertilizer at other growth stages will not even help in recovering the yield loss due to stress at critical periods. In general, the mid season stage is the most sensitive stage to water shortage 390 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY because the shortage during this period will be reflected significantly on yield. For most of the crops, the least sensitive stages are ripening and harvesting except for vegetables like Lettuce, Cabbage etc., which need water up to harvesting. Under scarce condition, in an irrigation project or in a farm, if mono cropping is followed with staggered sowing or planting, it is better to schedule irrigation to crop which has reached mid season stage since",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "harvesting except for vegetables like Lettuce, Cabbage etc., which need water up to harvesting. Under scarce condition, in an irrigation project or in a farm, if mono cropping is followed with staggered sowing or planting, it is better to schedule irrigation to crop which has reached mid season stage since it is the most critical stage. The sensitive stages vary from crop to crop as given below. Sensitive stages of different crops Crops Critical stages/ Sensitive stages Cereals and millets Rice – Active tillering, panicle initiation, heading and flowering Sorghum – Flowering and grain formation Maize – Tasselling, silking and milky stages Cumbu – Heading and flowering Ragi – Primordial initiation and flowering Wheat – Crown root initiation, tillering and booting Oil seeds Groundnut – Flowering, peg initiation and pod formation and pod development Sesame – Blooming to maturity Sunflower – Two weeks before and after flowering Soybean – Blooming and seed formation Safflower – From rosette to flowering Castor – Full growing period Cash crop Cotton – Flowering and Boll formation Sugarcane – Maximum vegetative stage Tobacco – Immediately after transplanting Vegetables Onion – Bulb formation to maturity Tomato – Flowering and fruit setting Chillies – Flowering and fruit setting Cabbage – Head formation to maturity Legumes Alfalfa – Immediately after cutting for hay and flowering for seed crops. Beans – Flowering and pod setting Peas – Flowering and pod formation Others Coconut – Nursery stage root-enlargement Potato – Tuber initiation and maturity Banana – Throughout the growth Citrus – Flowering, fruit setting and enlargement Mango – Flowering Coffee – Flowering and fruit development At critical stages, favourable water level should be ensured through timely irrigations. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 391 (b) Meteorological approach/Climatological approach The basic principles employed with this approach are estimation of daily potential evapotranspiration rates.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "– Flowering, fruit setting and enlargement Mango – Flowering Coffee – Flowering and fruit development At critical stages, favourable water level should be ensured through timely irrigations. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 391 (b) Meteorological approach/Climatological approach The basic principles employed with this approach are estimation of daily potential evapotranspiration rates. Hence, it requires knowledge on short term evapotranspiration rates at various stages of plant development, soil water retention characteristics, permissible soil water deficit in respect to evaporative demand and effective rooting depth of the crop grown. The irrigation scheduling is based on the cumulative pan evaporation and irrigation depth or Irrigation at ratio of irrigation water (IW) and cumulative pan evaporation (CPE). depth of water to be applied per IW irrigation (mm) R= CPE Cumulative pan evaporation for particular period (mm) = For example, for ten days cumulative pan evaporation at the rate of 10 mm per day equal to 100 mm (CPE). Irrigation depth to be given is 50 mm. Therefore IW/CPW ratio is IW 50 mm (depth) R 0.5 CPE 100 mm(CPE) = = = Like this, many ratios have to be tried and find the best yield-performing ratio, which can be adopted for scheduling irrigation. The irrigation depth (IW) for different crops are fixed based on the soil and climatic conditions. The ratio of IW/CPE that gives relatively best yield is fixed for each crop by doing experiment with different ratios, for different soil types and growth stages. The irrigation depths (IW) divided by the ratio (R) will give the cumulative pan evaporation value at which irrigation is to be made i.e., IW/R = CPE. For example, the irrigation depth (IW) needed is 50 mm and the ratio (R) to be tried is 0.5, therefore, the Cumulative Pan evaporation value needed to irrigate the field is, IW/R",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "will give the cumulative pan evaporation value at which irrigation is to be made i.e., IW/R = CPE. For example, the irrigation depth (IW) needed is 50 mm and the ratio (R) to be tried is 0.5, therefore, the Cumulative Pan evaporation value needed to irrigate the field is, IW/R = 50/0.5 = 100 mm If the 100 mm of CPE is attained in 10 days (pan evaporation @ 10 mm per day), once in 10 days irrigation is to be given. Advantages Gives best correlation, compared to other formulae where climatic parameters and soil parameters (depths) are considered. Disadvantages This approach is subject to marked influence by selecting pan site. For example, • U S W B class A open pan evaporimeter reading from June to December amounted to 130 cm when pan is sited on grass field, 150 cm when pan is sited on dry land with stretch of grass, 176 cm when pan is sited on dry land without stretch of grass • Pan readings generally over estimate ET during early stage and maturity stage. III. Mathematical approach A. Estimation method approach It is nothing but scientific prediction mainly based on the climate and soil type. Calculated crop water need and estimated root depths are taken into account in this. (a) Soil type: Soil types are classified as follows: • Sandy/shallow – Little water and more frequency • Loamy soil – More water and less frequency 392 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Clay soil – More water and less frequency (b) Climate: Climate is classified based on reference ET as follows: Reference ET 4-5 mm/day – Low 6-7 mm/day – Medium 8-9 mm/day – High Table 11.8. Reference ET (mm/day) for different Climatic Zones Climatic zone Mean daily temp. 15 oC 15–25oC > 25oC Low Medium High",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and less frequency (b) Climate: Climate is classified based on reference ET as follows: Reference ET 4-5 mm/day – Low 6-7 mm/day – Medium 8-9 mm/day – High Table 11.8. Reference ET (mm/day) for different Climatic Zones Climatic zone Mean daily temp. 15 oC 15–25oC > 25oC Low Medium High Desert/arid 4–6 7–8 9–10 Semi arid 4–5 6–7 8–9 Sub humid 3–4 5–6 7–8 Humid 1–2 3–4 5–6 The above table is based on the crop water needs during peak period. It is also assumed that there is no rainfall or little occurs during the growing season. Based on this method estimated irrigation schedule is given below for major field crops. Table 11.9. Estimated Irrigation Schedule for Major Field Crops in Peak Periods Intervals in days Sandy Loamy Clay Climate 1 2 3* Depth 1 2 3* Depth 1 2 3* Depth Banana 5 3 2 25 7 5 4 40 10 7 5 55 Cotton 9 6 5 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70 Sorghum 8 6 4 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70 G. nut 6 4 3 25 7 5 4 35 11 8 6 50 Maize 8 6 4 40 11 8 6 55 17 10 7 70 Peas 6 4 3 30 8 6 4 40 10 7 5 50 Soybean 8 6 4 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70 Sugarcane 8 6 4 40 10 7 5 55 13 9 7 70 Sunflower 8 6 4 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70 Wheat 8 6 4 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70 Tomato 6 4 3 30 8 6 4 40 10 7 5 50 1* – Low temperature of 15°C, 2* – Medium temperature of 15 – 25°C,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "4 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70 Wheat 8 6 4 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70 Tomato 6 4 3 30 8 6 4 40 10 7 5 50 1* – Low temperature of 15°C, 2* – Medium temperature of 15 – 25°C, 3* – High temperature of > 25°C IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 393 Adjustment in this method for Non peak periods In early growth stages The irrigation could be adjusted with little water and same frequency. But same water and less frequency is not advisable. In late growth stage Less frequency with same amount of water is advisable in this period. In rainy days The table schedule is to be adjusted when there is contribution from rainfall during crop growth period. This can be adjusted by giving longer interval (high frequency) with little water. For irrigation practice and soil characteristics For example, if a maize crop is grown on a clayey soil in a moderately warm climate, according to the table, the interval is 10 days and the depth is 70 mm per application. But based on the irrigation method practiced and soil type, the soil is unable to hold 70 mm of water per application. The soil could hold only 50 mm per application. In this situation instead of giving 70 mm for every 10 days, it is possible to give 63 mm for every 9 days or 56 mm for every 8 days or 49 mm for every 7 days or 42 mm for every 6 days. The 49 mm for every 7 days is the appropriate interval for local situation. Hence, this method of intervals for irrigation can be adopted. B. Simple calculation method It is based on the estimated depth of irrigation application and calculated irrigation need",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "days or 42 mm for every 6 days. The 49 mm for every 7 days is the appropriate interval for local situation. Hence, this method of intervals for irrigation can be adopted. B. Simple calculation method It is based on the estimated depth of irrigation application and calculated irrigation need of the crop over growing season. Hence, the influence of climate especially temperature and rainfall is taken for consideration. Hence, it is more accurate than that of the estimated method. It involves four steps viz., • Estimate the net and gross irrigation depth (d) in mm. • Calculate the irrigation water need (mm) over total growing season. • Calculate the number of irrigation over total growing season. • Calculate the irrigation interval. Calculation of irrigation water need for total growing season e.g. Tomato crop is planted in February 7th and harvested in June 30th. Water need mm/month February March April May June Total 67 110 166 195 180 718 Calculate the number of irrigation over total growing period Total water need Number of irrigation Depth = 718 18 40 = = ( ) Duration days Irrigation interval Number of irrigation = 394 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 150 8.3 18 = = (c) Simulation method approach This is noting but construction of mathematical models with essential features and behaviour of real system. Adoption of such models to get solution by computers and studying the property of such models in relation to those of prototype system is followed. In this, all the complex components like supply system, soil, climatic condition; crop, cultural practices, crop responses and plant nutrient level are considered to work out the model. (d) Empirical methods Many empirical methods have been developed to estimate Evapotranspiration values of the crop. Among this, modified Penman, Blaney and Griddle methods have much",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "complex components like supply system, soil, climatic condition; crop, cultural practices, crop responses and plant nutrient level are considered to work out the model. (d) Empirical methods Many empirical methods have been developed to estimate Evapotranspiration values of the crop. Among this, modified Penman, Blaney and Griddle methods have much acceptability among Researchers. The estimated values of ET crop by the different methods were compared with the actual values. The error of different methods are as follows: Method Error Value (%) Penman 14.2 Pan evaporation 10.3 Blaney and Griddle 11.9 1. Modified Penman method The form of the equation used in this method is: [ ] o (1 ) ( ) ( ) ET c W Rn w f u ea ed = ⋅ + − ⋅ ⋅ − (Radiation term) (Aerodynamic term) Where, ETo = reference crop Evapotranspiration in mm/day W = temperature–related weighting factor Rn = net radiation in equivalent evaporation in mm/day F (u) = wind related function (ea − ed) = difference between the saturation vapour pressure at mean air temperature and the mean actual vapour pressure of the air, both in mbar. c = adjustment factor to compensate for the effect of day and night weather conditions 2. Blaney and Criddle equation The relationship recommended, representing mean value over the given month, is expressed as: ( ) o ET c p 0.46T 8 mm day ⎡ ⎤ = + ⎣ ⎦ Where, ETo = reference crop Evapotranspiration in mm/day for the month considered T = mean daily temperature in oC over the month considered P = mean daily percentage of total annual daytime hours IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 395 obtained from Table 1 for a given month and latitude (Refer: “Crop Water Requirement, FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24”) c = adjustment factor which",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "mean daily temperature in oC over the month considered P = mean daily percentage of total annual daytime hours IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 395 obtained from Table 1 for a given month and latitude (Refer: “Crop Water Requirement, FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24”) c = adjustment factor which depends on minimum relative humidity, sunshine hours and daytime wind estimates. After determining ETo, ET crop can be predicted using the appropriate crop coefficient (kc), or ET crop = kc × ETo. 3. Hargreaves temperature method ETo = 0.0023 × RA(Tc M7.8) × TDO.5 ETo = PET RA = Extraterrestrial radiation (mm/day) max min T T in °C Tc 2 + = TD = Tmax – Tmin in °C. Pan evaporation method In this method, to work out the reference crop evaporation (ETo) the pan factor and the pan evaporation readings are taken into account. The empirically derived pan coefficient (Kp) for different agro climatic zones is multiplied with pan evaporation (E pan) to get Reference Crop Evaporation (ETo). ETo = E pan × Kp ETc = ETo × Kc = E pan × Kp × Kc Where, ETc = ET from cropped field ETo = reference crop ET Kc = Crop co-efficient E pan = pan evaporation reading Kp = Pan co-efficient Random equation for PET estimation PET = 0.6 Ep mm/day Where, Ep = Evaporation from USWB class A pan in mm/day. The empirical formulae are used to estimate the net amount of water requirement of the crop. With this value, the special water demand like pre plant irrigation, leaching requirement and economically unavoidable irrigation, application losses are to be added for scheduling irrigation. System as a whole approach Rotational water supply Rotational water supply is one of the techniques in irrigation water distribution management. It aims at",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "With this value, the special water demand like pre plant irrigation, leaching requirement and economically unavoidable irrigation, application losses are to be added for scheduling irrigation. System as a whole approach Rotational water supply Rotational water supply is one of the techniques in irrigation water distribution management. It aims at equi-distribution of irrigation water irrespective of location of the land in the command area by enforcing irrigation time schedules. Each 10 ha. block is divided into 3–4 sub 396 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY units (irrigation groups). According to the availability of irrigation water, stabilized field channels and group-wise irrigation requirement, time schedules are evolved. The irrigation will be done strictly in accordance with the group-wise time schedules by the block committees. Within the group, the time is to be shared by the farmers within the group by themselves. 11.11 IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT 1. Rice Total water requirement is 1100–1250 mm. The daily consumptive use of rice varies from 6-10 mm and total water ranges from 1100–1250 mm depending upon the agro climatic situation. Of the total water required for the crop, 3% or 40 mm is used for the nursery, 16% or 200 mm for the land preparation i.e., puddling and 81% or 1000 mm main field irrigation. The growth of rice plant in relation to water management can be divided into four periods viz., seedling, vegetative, reproductive and ripening. Less water is consumed during seeding stage. At the time of transplanting, shallow depth of 2 cm of submergence is necessary to facilitate development of new roots. The same water level is required for tiller production during the vegetative phase. At the beginning of the maximum tillering stage, the entire water in the field can be drained and left as such for one or two days which is termed as mid",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to facilitate development of new roots. The same water level is required for tiller production during the vegetative phase. At the beginning of the maximum tillering stage, the entire water in the field can be drained and left as such for one or two days which is termed as mid season drainage. This mid season drainage may improve the respiratory functions of the roots, stimulate vigorous growth of roots and checks the development of non-effective tillers. Any stress during the vegetative phase may affect the root growth and reduce the leaf area. During flowering phase 5 cm submergence should be maintained because it is a critical stage of water requirement. Stress during this phase will impair all yield components and cause severe reduction in yield. Excess water than 5 cm is also not necessary especially at booting stage, which may lead to delay in heading. Water requirement during ripening phase is less and water is not necessary after yellow ripening. Water can be gradually drained from the field 15–21 days ahead of harvest of crop. Whenever 5 cm submergence is recommended, the irrigation management may be done by irrigating to 5 cm submergence at saturation or one or two days after the disappearance of ponded water. This will result in 30% saving of irrigation water compared to the continuous submergence. 2. Groundnut Total water requirement is 500–550 mm. Evapotranspiration is low during the first 35 days after sowing and last 35 days before harvest and reaches a peak requirement between peg penetration and pod development stages. After the sowing irrigation, the second irrigation can be scheduled 25 days after sowing i.e., 4 or 6 days after first hand hoeing and thereafter irrigation interval of 15 days is maintained up to peak flowering. During the critical stages the interval may be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "peg penetration and pod development stages. After the sowing irrigation, the second irrigation can be scheduled 25 days after sowing i.e., 4 or 6 days after first hand hoeing and thereafter irrigation interval of 15 days is maintained up to peak flowering. During the critical stages the interval may be 7–10 days depending upon the soil and climate. During maturity period, the interval is 15 days. 3. Finger millet Total water requirement is 350 mm. Finger millet is a drought tolerant crop. Preplanting irrigation at 7 and 8 cm is given. Third day after transplanting life irrigation with small quantity of water is sufficient for uniform establishment. Water is then withheld for 10–15 days after the establishment of seedling for healthy and vigorous growth, subsequently three irrigations are essential at primordial initiation, flowering and grain filling stages. 4. Sugarcane Total water requirement is 1800–2200 mm. Formative phase (120 days from planting–germination and tillering phases) is the critical period for water demand. To ensure uniform emergence and optimum number of tillers per unit area, lesser quantity of water at more frequencies is preferable. The response for applied water is more during this critical phase during which the crop needs higher quantity of water comparing the other two phases. Water IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 397 requirement, number of irrigation etc., are higher during this period. As there is no secondary thickening of stem, elongation of stem as sink for storage of sugar it is desirable to maintain optimum level of moisture during grand growth period. Response for water is less in this stage and this will be still less in the ripening stage. During the ripening phase as harvest time approaches, soil moisture content should be allowed to decrease gradually so that growth of cane is checked and sucrose content is increased.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "grand growth period. Response for water is less in this stage and this will be still less in the ripening stage. During the ripening phase as harvest time approaches, soil moisture content should be allowed to decrease gradually so that growth of cane is checked and sucrose content is increased. 5. Maize Total water requirement is 500–600 mm. The water requirement of maize is higher but it is very efficient in water use. Growth stages of maize crop are sowing, four leaf stage, knee high, grand growth, tasselling, silking and early dough stages. Crop uniformly requires water in all these stages. Of this, tasselling, silking and early dough stages are critical periods. 6. Cotton Total water requirement is 550–600 mm. Cotton is sensitive to soil moisture conditions. Little water is used by plant with early part of the season and more is lost through evaporation than transpiration. As the plant grows, the use of water increases from 3 mm/day and reaching a peak of 10 mm a day when the plant is loaded with flowers and bolls. Water used during the emergence and early plant growth is only 10% of the total requirement. Ample moisture during flowering and boll development stages is essential. In the early stages as well as at the end the crop requires less water. Water requirement remains high till the boll development stage. If excess water is given in the stages other than critical stages it encourages the vegetative growth because it is a indeterminate plant thereby boll setting may be decreased. Irrigation is continued until the first boll of the last flush opens, and then irrigation is stopped. 7. Sorghum Total water requirement is 350–500 mm. The critical periods of water requirement are booting, flowering and dough stages. The crop will be irrigated immediately after",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "thereby boll setting may be decreased. Irrigation is continued until the first boll of the last flush opens, and then irrigation is stopped. 7. Sorghum Total water requirement is 350–500 mm. The critical periods of water requirement are booting, flowering and dough stages. The crop will be irrigated immediately after sowing. Next irrigation is given 15 days after sowing to encourage development of a strong secondary root system. Irrigation prior to heading and ten days after heading are essential for successful crop production. Table 11.10. Water Requirement of different Crops Sl.No. Crop Duration in days Water requirement (mm) Number of irrigations 1. rice 135 1250 18 2. groundnut 105 550 10 3. sorghum 100 350 6 4. maize 110 500 8 5. sugarcane 365 2000 24 6. ragi 100 350 6 7. cotton 165 550 11 8. pulses 65 350 4 11.12 ESTIMATION OF IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY Water use efficiency The water utilized by crop is evaluated in terms of Water Use Efficiency. This water use efficiency can be classified into: • Crop Water Use Efficiency • Field Water Use Efficiency 398 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Physiological Water Use Efficiency, and • Irrigation project efficiency (i) Crop water use efficiency It is the ratio of Crop yield (Y) to the amount of water used by the crop for evapotranspiration (ET). Y CWUE and expressed as kg/mm/ha ET = (ii) Field water use efficiency (FWUE) It is the ratio of crop yield (Y) to the total amount of water used in the filed (WR) Y FWUE and expressed as kg/mm/ha WR = (iii) Physiological water use efficiency (PWUE) The physiological WUE is calculated in terms of the amount of CO2 fixed per unit of water transpired Rate of photosynthesis PWUE . Rate of transpiration = (iv) Irrigation efficiencies of irrigation projects",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the filed (WR) Y FWUE and expressed as kg/mm/ha WR = (iii) Physiological water use efficiency (PWUE) The physiological WUE is calculated in terms of the amount of CO2 fixed per unit of water transpired Rate of photosynthesis PWUE . Rate of transpiration = (iv) Irrigation efficiencies of irrigation projects Many irrigation projects throughout the World operate with 25-40 per cent overall efficiency. Thus perhaps one third of the water released at the Project headwork is actually beneficially used for evapotranspiration by crops. In many areas increased irrigation efficiency would result in increased irrigation average and production as well as decreased problems with salinity and drainage. The decrease in efficiency can be attributed to losses occurring at various stages. Some of the reasons are: • Inadequate design of the project. • Inadequate design of the Farm Irrigation System. • Lack of maintenance. • Inadequate management of the system. A typical Irrigation System consists of • head works • main canals • field channels • farm A. Water application efficiency (Ea) The purpose of irrigation is to replenish the available moisture in the root zone depleted by evapotranspiration. Crop water requirement is defined by Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) as “The depth of water needed to meet the water loss through evapotranspiration of a disease free crop, growing in large fields under non-restricting soil conditions including soil water and fertility and achieving full production potential under the given growing environment”. The application of the least amount of water required to bring the root zone moisture content up to field capacity is considered as efficient irrigation. If on the other hand, the amount of water applied grossly exceeds that actually needed for replenishment; the irrigator application efficiency is very low. To illustrate, consider a field, which needs 9 cm depth of water to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "root zone moisture content up to field capacity is considered as efficient irrigation. If on the other hand, the amount of water applied grossly exceeds that actually needed for replenishment; the irrigator application efficiency is very low. To illustrate, consider a field, which needs 9 cm depth of water to bring the root zone to field capacity at the time of irrigation. To replace IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 399 this amount it is necessary to deliver a total or gross depth of 12 cm of water to the field. Then the efficiency of application will be 9/12 × 100 = 75% Water required to bring soil to FC level Application efficiency 100 Water received at field inlet Ea = = × Primary factors for low application efficiency are: • Improper Irrigation system design, construction. • Poor maintenance of system. • Inadequate farmers knowledge on crop water requirement. Field application efficiency varies with type of soil and method of irrigation. Some observed efficiencies are given below: Light soil 55% Medium soil 70% Heavy soil 60% Graded border irrigation 53% Basin irrigation 58% Furrow irrigation 57% Sprinkler irrigation 67% Drip irrigation 80% For rice cultivation, the efficiency is 32% B. Conveyance efficiency (Ec) Water received at inlet to a block of fields E 100 Water released at project head works = × Primary factors affecting conveyance losses are management aspects which cause fluctuations in the supply as well as physical factors such as seepage losses through canal banks and canal outlets. Some of the observed conveyance efficiencies are: Continuous supply with no substantial change in flow – 90% Rotational supply with no substantial change in rotation – 80%areas of 70–300 ha Rotational Supply in projects more than 7,000 ha and less than 10,000 ha without effective management and communication – 65%–70% network",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the observed conveyance efficiencies are: Continuous supply with no substantial change in flow – 90% Rotational supply with no substantial change in rotation – 80%areas of 70–300 ha Rotational Supply in projects more than 7,000 ha and less than 10,000 ha without effective management and communication – 65%–70% network C. Project efficiency (Ep) Water made directly available to the crop Ep Water released at head works = The overall project efficiency represents the efficiency of the entire operation between diversion of source of flow and the crop zone. Water delivery system improvements and farm irrigation improvements would significantly improve the ability of the farmer to apply more uniform and efficient irrigation. The Project Efficiency can be increased through 400 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Lining of canals in areas of high seepage losses, proper alignment and sectioning of field canals. • Maintenance of canals and drains, including an emphasis on farm drains. • Inducing scarcity of water by limiting available water per unit area. • Ensuring reliability of supply system down to farmer’s level. Farmers need to know when they can count on water and how much water much they can count on. • Design farm systems so that release flow can be handled efficiently by the farmer. • Install proper structures at outlets to maintain the flow constant. • Encourage efficient design and construction of such system as level basins, contour borders and contour furrows and general land levelling and shaping. 11.13 IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT UNDER LIMITED WATER SUPPLY Integration of all water resources like surface, ground water, wastewater, snow, dew etc., is most important to achieve maximum food production per unit quantity of water used to meet the demand from 1 billion population present. In this juncture, water resources itself become a constraint due to abnormality in distribution",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Integration of all water resources like surface, ground water, wastewater, snow, dew etc., is most important to achieve maximum food production per unit quantity of water used to meet the demand from 1 billion population present. In this juncture, water resources itself become a constraint due to abnormality in distribution and uncertainty it in the occurrence of rainfall. Hence, at present frequent droughts are very common. Under these circumstances, a new water saving strategy has to be adopted in irrigation management and in crop production activities. This part of the chapter discusses about water scarce conditions and the ways to overcome it with some drought alleviating methods. A. Water Scarcity Conditions Water scarcity is the term used for poor storage or non-availability of required quantity of water for the purpose of crop production and otherwise due to failure of monsoons. The scarcity will lead to inadequate supply of water to the cropped fields, which in turn create a stress in plant community. This degree of stress varies depending upon the frequency of irrigation, nature of the crop, type of soil etc. In this situation our primary aim is to produce the maximum possible yield per unit quantity of water. The following are some management techniques under stress periods. Assess resource potential Based on the water potential, optimize the water use by linear programming techniques. This type of exercise should be done by the concerned department especially irrigation and agriculture. Farmer’s attitude Farmer or user’s behaviours need considerable reorientation to enable them to realize that water is an economic input and conservation of water is their prime responsibility. Improvement in conveyance structure A large quantity is lost through conveyance from source to field. It is estimated that about 30-40% of water is lost in conveyance systems. Reducing or totally preventing such",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "them to realize that water is an economic input and conservation of water is their prime responsibility. Improvement in conveyance structure A large quantity is lost through conveyance from source to field. It is estimated that about 30-40% of water is lost in conveyance systems. Reducing or totally preventing such losses of water can be made by proper maintenance, lining the channels etc. Conveyance by pipes is often adopted for ground water resource. Such conveyance may be made even at small sluice level in command areas. Conjunctive use of water Integrating all water resources with water conservation methods is termed as conjunctive use. Optimum use of water from different source is the main aim of conjunctive use. For example, in canal irrigation system the utilization of rainfall and well water optimally to protect the crop without eroding a single resource of water is termed as conjunctive use of water. Contingent plant for rice Rice is a semi-aquatic plant, which needs submergence of water for its establishment and better yield. The experimental evidences clearly indicated that 5 cm depth of ponding one day after disappearance of previously provided water is superior to higher depths. This was attributed to better aeration and consequently improved root activities. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 401 Table 11.11. Yield under different Depth of Submergence in Rice Irrigation practice Water applied (mm) Grain yield (Kg/ha) Water applied (mm) Grain yield (kg/ha) Continuous submer1825 6300 1730 6000 gence of 5 cm 5 cm One day after 961 6500 1200 6050 disappearance Water saving 47% – 30% – This finding is helpful not only for micro level alone but also to change the water release pattern at macro level too and a turn system can be adopted in canal operation system. Further investigation reveals that 2 days dry spell in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "6050 disappearance Water saving 47% – 30% – This finding is helpful not only for micro level alone but also to change the water release pattern at macro level too and a turn system can be adopted in canal operation system. Further investigation reveals that 2 days dry spell in light textured soil and 2–3 days dry spell in heavy textured soil can be advocated without much yield reduction. If further scarcity arises, the next management techniques to save the rice crop is to adopt irrigation at critical stages. Different crop growth stages have different response to water stress. In rice crop the most sensitive periods for water stress are active tillering (AT), primordial initiation (PI), and flowering and milky stages. Dry spell during these periods will drastically reduce the yield. B. Other Management Techniques • Summer ploughing reduces runoff by increasing the infiltration and thereby reduces water needed for land preparation. • Dry nursery with seed hardening technique (1% KCl) can be made which in turn will enhance the drought tolerance capacity. • The short duration varieties like ADT 36, IR 36 and IR 50 can be chosen. • During transplanting, it is enough to irrigate to a depth of 2 cm of water in the field. After that, maintaining 2.5 cm of water up to 12 days is sufficient. • Application of herbicide within 3–5 days reduces the weed competition for water which in turn saves water considerably. • After 12 days of transplanting, irrigating 5 cm of water one day after the disappearance of ponded water can be adopted not only to save water but also to increase the yield to some extent. • Plastering field bunds and plugging of all crevices, rat and crab holes to avoid water loss through seepage. • Proper levelling of the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "water one day after the disappearance of ponded water can be adopted not only to save water but also to increase the yield to some extent. • Plastering field bunds and plugging of all crevices, rat and crab holes to avoid water loss through seepage. • Proper levelling of the field. • Water should be stopped 10–15 days before harvesting. • Semidry rice (direct down) saves 30–40% water. • Application of potassium in 3 split doses as 50% basal 25% at tillering and 25% at panicle initiation. • Application of cycocel at the rate of 1000 ppm. C. Drought Alleviating Methods for Irrigated Dry (ID) Crops In ID crops, the main objective is to irrigate the crops to meet the requirement of ET need of the crops. Normally the ID crops are irrigated at certain intervals and mostly they are cultivated where conjunctive use of well water is available. So, chances for acute drought are very common on complete failure of monsoon. In this situation, adopting irrigation at critical stages save the crops from yield loss. Further, some drought alleviating chemical spray also protects the crops from severe loss. 402 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1. Contingent plan for sugarcane • Deep planting of sets in 30 cm deep and 30 cm wide trenches. • Adopting irrigation at 0.75 and 0.5 IW/CPE ratio during tillering to grand growth and maturity phase, respectively i.e., 8 to 9 days interval during tillering to grand growth and 13 to 15 days interval at maturity phase. • Trash mulching to a thickness of 10 cm uniformly 3 days after planting to tide over drought by moisture conservation and to reduce weed incidence. • Application of 2 to 3 per cent kaolin spray to mitigate the water loss through transpiration. • Alternate furrow irrigation: Irrigate alternate",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "phase. • Trash mulching to a thickness of 10 cm uniformly 3 days after planting to tide over drought by moisture conservation and to reduce weed incidence. • Application of 2 to 3 per cent kaolin spray to mitigate the water loss through transpiration. • Alternate furrow irrigation: Irrigate alternate furrows in rotation for each irrigation. • Cultivating drought resistant varieties such as COC 85061, COC 8001, COC 671. 2. Contingent plan for groundnut • Regulate water based on growth stages like pegging, flowering and pod development. • Adopt the following schedule \u0001 Sowing or pre-sowing irrigation \u0001 Life irrigation 4-5 days after sowing \u0001 Irrigate 20 days after sowing \u0001 At flowering give two irrigations \u0001 At pegging give one or two irrigations \u0001 At pod development give 2 to 3 irrigations • Spray 0.5% potassium chloride during flowering and pod development stage to mitigate the illeffect of water stress. • Adopt sprinkler irrigation method wherever possible. 3. Contingent plan for cotton The following irrigation schedule can be adopted to overcome water stress. • Irrigate immediately after sowing. • Give life irrigation on 5th day of sowing. • Irrigate on 20th and 35th day at vegetative phase. • Irrigate copiously at 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 days after sowing which coincide with flowering and boll formation stages. • Control irrigation during maturity phase from 100 to 150 days after sowing. • Stop irrigation after 150th day. • Adopt alternate furrow irrigation. • Adopt drip irrigation method wherever possible. 4. Other management techniques • Summer ploughing has to be done in large scale which is not only a water conservation method but also checks weed growth, facilitate easy puddling etc. • Strengthening of field bunds to minimize the water loss through leakages and to impound rainwater to increase",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "possible. 4. Other management techniques • Summer ploughing has to be done in large scale which is not only a water conservation method but also checks weed growth, facilitate easy puddling etc. • Strengthening of field bunds to minimize the water loss through leakages and to impound rainwater to increase the infiltration and soil moisture storage. • Adoption of drip or sprinkler irrigation methods wherever it is possible. • Proper on-farm development works to reduce the water loss and in turn to increase the water application efficiency. • Turn and rotational system of water supply can be introduced. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 403 • Community system of nursery and mass mechanical ploughing can reduce water wastage. • Introducing new cropping pattern for effective utilization of available water. • Adoption of watershed method and in situ water conservation methods for efficient crop production. • Farmers organization and participation appraisal are important extension activities which make the farmers to realize the value of water. 11.14 WATER MANAGEMENT IN PROBLEM SOILS When rocks and minerals undergo weathering process, large quantities of soluble salts are formed. In humid regions, these salts are washed down to the ground water and to the sea. But in arid and semiarid regions they accumulate in the soil. Excessive irrigation and poor water management are the two chief causes of water logging and salt accumulation. Accumulation of salts in soil leads to unfavourable soil-water-air relationship and affect the crop production. A. Causes for Salt Accumulation The following are the main causes which lead to development of salty soils (Salinity or alkalinity). (i) Arid climate About 25% of earth surface is arid in which salt accumulation is a common problem. In India, about 25 m.ha are salt affected with different degrees of degradation. (ii) High subsoil water table When the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "main causes which lead to development of salty soils (Salinity or alkalinity). (i) Arid climate About 25% of earth surface is arid in which salt accumulation is a common problem. In India, about 25 m.ha are salt affected with different degrees of degradation. (ii) High subsoil water table When the water table is within the capillary range, the water containing soluble salts rises to surface. When the water evaporates the salts are deposited as encrustation. It is estimated that in Punjab, annually about 50,000 acres becomes saline because of raising water table. (iii) Poor drainage Due to poor drainage, accumulation of water leads to water logging condition, which leads to salt accumulation. B. Quality of Irrigation Water Irrigation water containing more than permissible quantities of soluble salts with sodium carbonate and bicarbonates make the soil salty. Inundation with sea water In coastal areas, periodical inundation of land by sea water during high tides makes soil salty. Besides, deep bore wells are also the reason for saline soils. Nature of parent rock minerals The saline nature of parent rock minerals leads to salt accumulation. Seepage from canals The continuous seepage leads to salt accumulation. C. Classification of Problem Soils The soil problems can also be divided into: (a) Chemical, (b) Physical. (i) Soil chemical problems The salt affected soils can be classified based on their ESP, pH and EC as follows: ESP (%) EC (m.mhos/cm) pH Saline < 15 > 4 < 8.5 Saline alkali > 15 > 4 > 8.5 Alkali/sodic > 15 < 4 > 8.5 404 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Reclamation of saline soil Leaching or flushing with good quality of water provided, there should be good drainage system should be there to flush water. Reclamation of alkali soil By converting exchangeable sodium into soluble salts by adding",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Alkali/sodic > 15 < 4 > 8.5 404 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Reclamation of saline soil Leaching or flushing with good quality of water provided, there should be good drainage system should be there to flush water. Reclamation of alkali soil By converting exchangeable sodium into soluble salts by adding the following amendments. • Calcium chloride • Calcium sulphate (gypsum) • Sulphuric acid • Ferrous sulphate • Aluminium sulphate Reclamation of saline alkali soil The reclamation of these soils is similar to that of alkali soils. First step is to remove the exchangeable sodium and then the excess salts and sodium are to be leached out. Commonly salt affected soils are referred as problem soils as indicated above. Further, based on pH value it can also be grouped as acid soils where the pH value is less than 7. Management practice for chemical problems of soil Reclamation of saline and alkali soils are not complete unless proper remedial measures are undertaken to restore the soil fertility and structure of the soil. The following are the important management practices to overcome these problems. • The saline soil can be easily improved with leaching of salts by using of good quality water and by providing good drainage system. • Application of gypsum would improve the permeability of soil by making good soil aggregates. • In acidic soil, lime application should be adequate and excessive leaching should be avoided. • Salt resistant or saline resistant species should be selected for cultivation. • Application of amendments viz., gypsum and press mud is found to suppress the sodium and chromium content in plant and soil. • Growing resistant crops like ragi, cotton, barley and rice can be advocated. • Growing green manure crops like sunnhemp, daincha and kolinji can be advocated. • Growing resistant varieties",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of amendments viz., gypsum and press mud is found to suppress the sodium and chromium content in plant and soil. • Growing resistant crops like ragi, cotton, barley and rice can be advocated. • Growing green manure crops like sunnhemp, daincha and kolinji can be advocated. • Growing resistant varieties like COC 771 in sugarcane and CO 43 in rice may be made. • Adoption of drip irrigation for possible crops is also recommended to overcome soil physical and chemical problems. • Liberal application of FYM. • Application of green manure. • Excess phosphorous application. • Proper drainage to keep the soil without adverse effect to plant system. (ii) Soil physical problems Fluffy soils, ill drained soils, soils with high infiltration rate, soils with shallow depth and encrustation in soil surface are the possible physical problems. Too frequent irrigation in clayey soils with very high water retention results in poor drainage, water logging and crop damage. Excess irrigation and heavy rain create hardening of soil surface in red lateritic soils with high Fe and Al hydroxides and low organic matter. This results in soil crusting. This leads to poor germination, restriction of shoot and root development and slow entry of water into the soil profile. Management In light soils, shallow depth of water with more frequency should be adopted. To increase the infiltration rate in clay soil, amending the soil by mixing with coarse textured soil or tank silt at the rate of 50 tones per hectare is advocated. Organic wastes like crop residue, farm waste, coir pith, filter cake etc., at the rate of 20 tones per hectare once in every year can be applied. Poorly drained clay soils can be improved by providing tile drains and trenches intermittently. To make the soil more IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 405",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "wastes like crop residue, farm waste, coir pith, filter cake etc., at the rate of 20 tones per hectare once in every year can be applied. Poorly drained clay soils can be improved by providing tile drains and trenches intermittently. To make the soil more IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 405 permeable and to overcome poor drainage, addition of organic wastes or sandy soil at the rate of 20–50 tones per ha, respectively is advocated. The encrustation problem could be alleviated by incorporating organic matter and adding montmorilonite clay containing silt. 11.15 MANAGEMENT OF POOR QUALITY WATER FOR IRRIGATION A. Quality of Irrigation Water Whatever may be the source of irrigation water viz., river, canal, tank, open well or tube well, some soluble salts are always dissolved in it. The main soluble constituents in water are Ca, Mg, Na and K as cations and chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate and carbonate as anions. However, ions of other elements such as lithium, silicon, bromine, iodine, copper, cobalt, fluorine, boron, titanium, vanadium, barium, arsenic, antimony, beryllium, chromium, manganese, lead, selenium, phosphate and organic matter are also present. Among the soluble constituents, calcium, sodium, sulphate, bicarbonate and boron are important in determining the quality of irrigation water and its suitability for irrigation purpose. However, other factors such as soil texture, permeability, drainage, types of crop etc., are equally important in determining the suitability of irrigation water. Following are the most common problems that result form using poor quality water. Salinity If the total quantity of salts in the irrigation water is high, the salts will accumulate in the crop root zone and affect the crop growth and yield. Excess salt condition reduces uptake of water due to high concentration of soil solution. Permeability Some specific salts reduce the rate of infiltration into the soil profile. Toxicity",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the irrigation water is high, the salts will accumulate in the crop root zone and affect the crop growth and yield. Excess salt condition reduces uptake of water due to high concentration of soil solution. Permeability Some specific salts reduce the rate of infiltration into the soil profile. Toxicity When certain constituents of water are taken up by plants, which accumulate in large quantities and result in toxicity and reduces yield. Miscellaneous Excessive Nitrogen in irrigation water causes excessive vegetative growth and leads to lodging and delayed crop maturity. White deposits on fruits or leaves may occur due to sprinkler irrigation with high bicarbonate water. Based on the characteristic features of majority of ground waters in use by the farmers in different agro-ecological regions of the country, the various indices which describe the nature of hazards on soils and crops, irrigation waters have been broadly grouped into good, saline and alkali waters. Depending on the degree of restrictions, the too poor quality waters have been further grouped into three homogenous sub groups as given in the Table 11.12. Table 11.12. Groups of Poor Quality Ground Waters for irrigation Water quality Ec (ds/m) SAR (m.mol/L) RSC (me/L) A. Good water < 2 < 10 < 2.5 B. Saline water Marginally saline 2-4 < 10 < 2.5 Saline > 4 < 10 < 2.5 High SAR Saline > 4 > 10 < 2.5 C. Alkali water Marginally alkali <4 < 10 2.5-4 Alkali < 4 < 10 > 4 Highly alkali Variable > 10 > 4 406 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Majority of natural ground waters have pH between 7.2 and 8.5 and are either in equilibrium or even super saturated in respect of calcite and dolomite. Water with pH less than 7.2 seems to be unsaturated in respect of calcite.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Variable > 10 > 4 406 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Majority of natural ground waters have pH between 7.2 and 8.5 and are either in equilibrium or even super saturated in respect of calcite and dolomite. Water with pH less than 7.2 seems to be unsaturated in respect of calcite. Water samples with pH > 8.4 invariably have SAR more than 10. High pH is associated with waters containing residual alkalinity and a high carbonate: bicarbonate ratio. Water having residual alkalinity contains carbonate and bicarbonate ions in varying proportions depending on pH. The ratio of CO3 ions in ground waters generally vary between 1:10 and 1:2, marginally saline waters have low SAR, the usual range being up to 20. Hardly 10-15 per cent of the total ground waters have both high SAR (>20) and high salinity. Based on some of the quality criteria like EC, pH, concentration of Na, Cl and SAR, suitability of irrigation water is classified into six grades. Table 11.13. Classification of Irrigation Water Quality Quality of EC pH Na Cl SAR water (m.mhos/cm) (ppm) (me./l) Excellent 0.5 6.5–7.5 30 2.5 1.0 Good 0.5–1.5 7.5–8.0 30–60 2.5–5.0 1.0–2.0 Fair 1.5–3.0 8.0–8.5 60–75 5.0–7.5 2.0–4.0 Poor 3.0–5.0 8.5–9.0 75–80 7.5–10 4.0–8.0 Very poor 5.0–6.0 9.0–10.0 80–90 10.0–12.5 8.0–15.0 Unsuitable 6.0 > 10 > 90 > 12.5 > 15 (SAR–Sodium Adsorption ratio) B. Factors affecting suitability of water for irrigation The suitability of particular water for irrigation is governed by the following factors. • Chemical composition of water (TSS, pH, CO3, HCO3, Cl, SO4, Ca, Mg, Na and B). • Total concentration of soluble salts or salinity (EC). • Concentration of sodium ions, in proportion to calcium and magnesium or sodicity (SAR). • Trace element boron may be toxic to plant growth, if present in limits beyond permissible. •",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "pH, CO3, HCO3, Cl, SO4, Ca, Mg, Na and B). • Total concentration of soluble salts or salinity (EC). • Concentration of sodium ions, in proportion to calcium and magnesium or sodicity (SAR). • Trace element boron may be toxic to plant growth, if present in limits beyond permissible. • The effect of salt on crop growth is of osmotic nature. If excessive quantities of soluble salts accumulate in the root zone the crop has extra difficulty in extracting enough water from salty solution, thereby affecting the yields adversely. • Besides this, total salinity depends on the extent to which exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of soil increase as a result of adsorption of sodium from water. This increase depends on sodium percentage. • Soil characteristics like structure, texture, organic matter, nature of clay minerals, topography etc. • Plant characteristics like tolerance of plant varies with different stages of growth. The germination and seedling stages are usually more sensitive to salinity. • Climatic factors can modify plant response to salinity. Tolerance to saline water irrigation is often greater in winter than in the summer. Rainfall is the most significant factor for the leaching of salts from the plant root zone. Temperature also plays a vital role. • Management practices also play great role. Wherever saline water is used for irrigation, adoption of management practices which allow minimum salt accumulation in the root zone of the soil is necessary. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 407 The primary parameters that have to be considered to ensure effective irrigation management for salt control are the water requirement of crop and quality of irrigation water. Correct irrigation should restore any soil water deficit to control salt levels. C. Use of poor quality water Besides the salinity and alkalinity hazard of water, some industrial effluents and sewage",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to ensure effective irrigation management for salt control are the water requirement of crop and quality of irrigation water. Correct irrigation should restore any soil water deficit to control salt levels. C. Use of poor quality water Besides the salinity and alkalinity hazard of water, some industrial effluents and sewage water are also problem waters that can be reused by proper treatment. The complex growth of industries and urbanization (Urban development) leads to massive increase in wastewater in the form of sewage and effluent. Waste water supplies not only nutrients but also some toxic elements such as total solids of chloride, carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, sodium, chromium, calcium, magnesium, etc., in high concentration. Besides this, the effluent or wastewater creates BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand). These wastewaters when used for irrigation lead to surface and sub surface source of pollution due to horizontal and vertical seepage. Points to be considered • Application of greater amounts of organic matter such as FYM, compost etc., to the soil to improve permeability and structure. • Increasing the proportion of calcium, through addition of gypsum (CaSO4) to the irrigation water in the channel, by keeping pebbles mixed gypsum bundles in the irrigation tank. • Mixing of good quality water with poor water in proper proportions so that both the sources of water are effectively used to maximum advantage. • Periodical application of organic matter and raising as well as incorporation of green manure crops in the soil. • Irrigation the land with small quantities of water at frequent intervals instead of large quantity at a time. • Application of fertilizer may be increased slightly more than the normally required and preferably ammonium sulphate for nitrogen, super phosphate and Di Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) for phosphorus application. • Drainage facilities must be improved. • Raising of salt tolerant",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "at frequent intervals instead of large quantity at a time. • Application of fertilizer may be increased slightly more than the normally required and preferably ammonium sulphate for nitrogen, super phosphate and Di Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) for phosphorus application. • Drainage facilities must be improved. • Raising of salt tolerant crops such as cotton, ragi, sugar beet, rice, groundnut, sorghum, corn, sunflower, chillies, tobacco, onion, tomato, garden beans, amaranthus and lucerne. Projected waste-water utilization It is estimated that 2,87,000 million m3 of waste water can be reusable. Hence, these waste waters can be properly treated as follows: • Dilute with good quality water in the ratio of 50:50 or 75:25. • Alternate irrigation with waste water and good quality water. • Treat the effluent water through fill and draw tanks, lime tank, equalization tank, settling tank, sludge removal tank, aerobic and anaerobic treatment tanks etc. 11.16 DRAINAGE For optimum growth and yield of field crops, proper balance between soil air and soil moisture is quite essential. Except rice many of the cultivated plants cannot withstand excess water in the soil. The ideal condition is that moisture and air occupy the pore spaces in equal proportions. When soil contains excess water than that can be accommodated in the pore spaces, it is said the field is water logged. 408 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Causes of Water Logging • Excessive use of water when the water is available in abundance or cheaply due to the belief that more water contributes better yield. • Improper selection of irrigation methods. • Percolation and seepage from lands, canals and reservoir located at nearby elevated places. • Improper lay out, lack of outlets. • Presence of impervious layer with profile impeding percolation. • Upward rise of water from shallow ground water table or aquifer. B.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "yield. • Improper selection of irrigation methods. • Percolation and seepage from lands, canals and reservoir located at nearby elevated places. • Improper lay out, lack of outlets. • Presence of impervious layer with profile impeding percolation. • Upward rise of water from shallow ground water table or aquifer. B. Effects of Water Logging (i) Direct effects Replacement of soil air, which is the main source of oxygen for the roots as well as soil microbes. Due to high amount of CO2 in soil air, high CO2 concentration under waterlogged conditions will kill plant roots. Sometimes superficial root system or air space in root system will develop. Due to poor aeration, intake of water and nutrient will be reduced. (ii) Indirect effects Nutrients are made unavailable due to leaching. Toxic elements will be formed under anaerobic conditions. Decomposition of organic matter under anaerobic condition results in production of organic acids like butyric acid, which is toxic to plants. • Reduce the availability of N, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mo • Reduces soil temperature • Reduces the activity of beneficial microbes • Destruct soil structure • Difficult for cultural operation, and • Incidence of pest, disease and weeds. Table 11.14. Changes for some Elements in Water Logged Condition Elements Normal form Reduced form in water logged soil Carbon Carbon dioxide Methane (CH4) complex aldehyde Nitrogen Nitrate (NO3) Nitrogen (N) and NH2 amides, ammonia Sulphur Sulphate (SO4) Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) C. Drainage – Meaning It is the process of removal of excess water as free or gravitational water from the surface and the sub surface of farm lands with a view to avoid water logging and creates favourable soil conditions for optimum plant growth. (i) Need It is generally assumed that in arid region drainage is not necessary and water logging is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "water as free or gravitational water from the surface and the sub surface of farm lands with a view to avoid water logging and creates favourable soil conditions for optimum plant growth. (i) Need It is generally assumed that in arid region drainage is not necessary and water logging is not a problem. Even in arid region, due to over irrigation and seepage from reservoirs, canals etc., and drainage becomes necessary. Irrigation and drainage are complementary practices in arid region to have optimum soil water balance. In humid region, drainage is of greater necessity mainly due to heavy precipitation. Drainage is required under the following conditions. • High water table. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 409 • Water ponding on the surface for longer periods. • Excessive soil moisture content above FC not draining easily as in clay soil. • Areas of salinity and alkalinity where annual evaporation exceeds rainfall and capillary rise of ground water occurs. • Humid region with continuous or intermittent heavy rainfall. • Flat land with fine textured soil. • Low lying flat areas surrounded by hills. (ii) Characteristics of good drainage system • It should be permanent. • It must have adequate capacity to drain the area completely. • There should be minimum interference with cultural operations. • There should be minimum loss of cultivable area. • It should intercept or collect water and remove it quickly within shorter period. (iii) Methods of drainage There are two methods; 1. surface method, and 2. sub surface method 1. Surface drainage This is designed primarily to remove excess water from the surface of soil profile. This can be done by developing slope in the land so that excess water drains by gravity. It is suitable for: • slowly permeable clay and shallow soil • region of high intensity",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1. Surface drainage This is designed primarily to remove excess water from the surface of soil profile. This can be done by developing slope in the land so that excess water drains by gravity. It is suitable for: • slowly permeable clay and shallow soil • region of high intensity rainfall • to fields where adequate outlets are not available • the land with less than 1.5% slope. It can be made by land smoothening and making field ditches. The surface drainage can be further classified as: • Lift drainage • Gravity drainage • Field surface drainage • Ditch drainage (a) Lift drainage To drain from low lying areas or areas having water due to embankment, lift drainage is used. Water to be drained is lifted normally by open devices, unscoops or by pumping or by mechanical means. This method is costly, cumbersome and time consuming. (b) Gravity drainage Water is allowed to drain from the areas under higher elevation to lower reaches through the regulated gravity flow through the outlet of various types. This system is practiced in wet land rice with gentle to moderate slopes. This method is less costly, easy and effective. However, the area to be drained should be leveled smooth and slightly elevated from the drainage source. (c) Field surface drainage The excess water received from the rain or irrigation is drained through this method. The irrigated basins or furrows are connected with the drainage under lower elevation, which is connected to the main out let and to the farm pond used for water harvesting. If the slope of the land is sufficient to drain excess water from the individual plot, this drain water 410 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY may be colleted and stored locally in reservoir for recycling for life saving irrigation. This drainage",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "let and to the farm pond used for water harvesting. If the slope of the land is sufficient to drain excess water from the individual plot, this drain water 410 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY may be colleted and stored locally in reservoir for recycling for life saving irrigation. This drainage method is cheap and effective but there is possibility of soil erosion and distribution of weed seeds along the flow of drainage water. (d) Ditch drainage Ditches of different dimensions are constructed at distances to drain the excess water accumulated on the surface and inside the soil up to the depth of ditch. Such ditches may be interceptors or relief drains. This method is adopted in nurseries, seed beds and rainfed crops. This is an effective and efficient method but requires smoothening of surface and construction of ditches. This involves cost and wastage of crop lands. Shifting of soil, restriction for the movement of farm machineries, reconstruction and renovation of ditches during the crop duration and harvesting of crops are the problems in this method. In flat land, bed or parallel field ditches may be constructed. The collector ditches should be across the field ditches. Advantages Disadvantages Low initial cost Low efficiency Easy for inspection Loss of cultivable land Interference to cultural operation High maintenance cost Effective in low permeability areas 2. Sub surface drainage system Sub surface drains are underground artificial channels through which excess water may flow to a suitable outlet. The purpose is to lower the ground water level below the root zone of the crop. The movement of water into subsurface drains is influenced by the hydraulic conductivity of soil, depth of drain below ground surface and the horizontal distance between individual drains. Underground drainage is mostly needed to the medium textured soil, high value crops",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "water level below the root zone of the crop. The movement of water into subsurface drains is influenced by the hydraulic conductivity of soil, depth of drain below ground surface and the horizontal distance between individual drains. Underground drainage is mostly needed to the medium textured soil, high value crops and high soil productivity. There are four types of sub surface drainage. • Tile drainage • Mole drainage • Vertical drainage • Well Drainage/or Drainage wells. Advantages • There is no loss of cultivable land • No interference for field operation • Maintenance cost is less • Effectively drains sub soil and creates better soil environments. Disadvantages • Initial cost is high • It requires constant attention • It is effective for soils having low permeability. 1. Tile drainage This consists of continuous line of tiles laid at a specific depth and grade so that the excess water enters through the tiles and flow out by gravity. Laterals collect water from soil IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 411 and drain into sub main and then to main and finally to the out let. The drains are made with clay and concrete. Tiles should be strong enough to withstand the pressure and also resistant to erosive action of chemicals in soil water. 2. Mole drainage Mole drains are unlined circular earthen channels formed within the soil by a mole plough. The mole plough has a long blade like shank to which a cylindrical bullet nosed plug is attached, known as mole. As the plough is drawn through the soil, the mole forms the cavity to a set depth. Mole drainage is not effective in the loose soil since the channels produced by the mole will collapse. This is also not suitable for heavy plastic soil where mole seals the soil to the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the plough is drawn through the soil, the mole forms the cavity to a set depth. Mole drainage is not effective in the loose soil since the channels produced by the mole will collapse. This is also not suitable for heavy plastic soil where mole seals the soil to the movement of water. 3. Vertical drainage Vertical drainage is the disposal of drainage water through well into porous layers of earth. Such a layer must be capable of taking large volume of water rapidly. Such layers are found in river-beds. 4. Drainage wells The wells are used for the drainage of agricultural lands especially in irrigated areas. D. Systems of Drainage There are four systems of drainage: 1. Random This is used where the wet areas are scattered and isolated from each other. The lines are laid more or less at random to drain these wet areas. The main is located in the largest natural depression while the sub mains and laterals extend to the individual wet areas. 2. Herringbone In this system, the mains are in a narrow depression and the laterals enter the main from both sides at an angle of 45° like the bones of a fish. 3. Gridiron The gridiron is similar to herringbone but the laterals enter the main only from one side at right angels. It is adopted in flat regularly shaped fields. This is an efficient drainage system. 4. Interceptor Ditches of different dimensions are constructed at distances to drain the excess water accumulated on the surface and inside the soil up to the depth of ditch. Such ditches may be interceptors or relief drains. This method is adopted in nurseries, seedbeds and rainfed crops. This is an effective and efficient method but requires smoothening of surface and construction of soil. Restriction for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "accumulated on the surface and inside the soil up to the depth of ditch. Such ditches may be interceptors or relief drains. This method is adopted in nurseries, seedbeds and rainfed crops. This is an effective and efficient method but requires smoothening of surface and construction of soil. Restriction for the movement of farm machineries, reconstruction and renovation of ditches during the crop duration and harvesting of crops are the problems in this method. In flat land, bed or parallel field ditches may be constructed. The collector ditches should be across the field ditches. 11.17 IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN COMMAND AREAS A. Irrigation Management Irrigation management (water management) encompasses the process of storage, diversion, conveyance, regulation, measurement, distribution, application of the optimum quantity to crop and removal of excess water from the root zone as drainage. In Indian states and in Tamil Nadu, most of the irrigation projects aim at to meet the need of crop production and power generation. In countries like USA, irrigation management planning includes water for recreation and environmental stability besides power generation and crop production. B. River Command Areas (a) Vastness Irrigation management involves large land areas which may cover few sovereign 412 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (independent) countries, few states within a country or few districts within a province (state). River Colorado of South-west of USA flows through seven auto states within USA (Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Navada, California) and Mexico, another nation. River Cauvery originates in Coorg of Karnataka state and irrigates Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry states. Altogether Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry states are involved in Cauvery river system. Usually many river systems are bigger in size (Ganges, Indus, Zambasi). Some of the river projects are meant only for power generation (Zambasi of Zambia and Zimbava). In India, most",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry states. Altogether Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry states are involved in Cauvery river system. Usually many river systems are bigger in size (Ganges, Indus, Zambasi). Some of the river projects are meant only for power generation (Zambasi of Zambia and Zimbava). In India, most of the projects are for power generation and irrigation purposes. In big river projects navigation (Ganges) also takes place. River commands are complex and complicated due to geographical, political and socio-economic scenario peculiar to every project. Hydro-politics (disputes) is a part of the river commands between provinces and countries. Cauvery command of Tamil Nadu is unique for historical social, political and economic reasons. During B.C. 1st Century (speculation up to A.D. 2nd century), King Karikala cholan built the Grand Anaicut to divert flood water to Cauvery by putting stone embankments in Coleron (Kollidam). This is considered to be the major accomplishment in water management at that time. The Cauvery system emanates from Kudagu, travels a distance of about 430 km before reaching Bay of Bengal. It is a very well developed delta at the coramandal coast (Cholamandalam coast) in the Tanjavur district of Tamil Nadu. Out of the total flow of Cauvery the following are the contributions from different states. Karnataka – 52.5 per cent Tamil Nadu – 39.3 per cent Kerala – 8.2 per cent Total – 100.0 per cent – Irrigated area in Karnataka, 2.72 lakh ha – Irrigated area in Tamil Nadu 11.28 lakh ha In Cauvery delta, River courses and branches : 36 Nos. Total length of above courses : 1000 Miles Canals created : 30000 Nos. Total length of channels : 15000 Miles A class channels : 1500 Nos. B class channels : 9750 Nos. C class channels : 110000 Nos. D class channels :",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "delta, River courses and branches : 36 Nos. Total length of above courses : 1000 Miles Canals created : 30000 Nos. Total length of channels : 15000 Miles A class channels : 1500 Nos. B class channels : 9750 Nos. C class channels : 110000 Nos. D class channels : 53000 Nos. Government maintains 36 river courses and branches and 138 A class channels and rest are maintained by the farmers. Cauvery system was once a system of sufficiency and now become a system of deficiency. The main crops grown are Rice, Banana, Sugarcane, Vegetables, Coconut and Sylviagronomy crops (tree crops in fields). There are also trans-basin systems like Periyar-Vaigai of Tamil Nadu. West flowing Periyar river in the Western Ghats has been diverted to Tamil Nadu in opposite direction through tunnels. It was accomplished in 1896 by the Royal Engineer Pennqiuik. This is an unique project in Tamil Nadu of India in which modernization has been taken up. (b) Need for modernization of river commands In order to increase the efficiency of the existing system to reduce water losses and to bring additional area under irrigation, earthen channels were lined with cement concrete on both bottom and sides. Granite stone masonry was also adopted for field IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 413 watercourses. After modernization of main canal and branch channels, efficiency of the water conveyance has increased from 45–75 per cent. C. Water Release and Water Distribution Water release is usually followed based on operational manuals and established procedures. Water release procedures were evolved based on historical and other considerations based on priorities and water availability. • Optimum water supply • Equity between big and small farmers • Locational equity (Head, reach, middle reach and tail end farmers) • Environmental stability • Less scope for malpractices. • Water distribution",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Water release procedures were evolved based on historical and other considerations based on priorities and water availability. • Optimum water supply • Equity between big and small farmers • Locational equity (Head, reach, middle reach and tail end farmers) • Environmental stability • Less scope for malpractices. • Water distribution methods 1. Flexible methods • On demand • Modified demand method • Continuous flow method (Rice growing systems) 2. Rigid method • Constant frequency – Constant amount • Constant frequency – Varied amount • Variable frequency – constant amount • Variable frequency – variable amount 3. General methods followed • Warabandhi of western India (Rigid system of constant frequency of constant amount). • Shejpali system of Maharashtra (Irrigation from the end at fixed intervals). • Ozarabandhi in Uttar Pradesh (Alternate sluices draw water at a time). • Continuous flow (during sufficiency for rice, banana, sugarcane) and turn system of Tamil Nadu (Scarcity, variable frequency and variable quantity). Irrigation system maintenance and operation involves co-operation of the irrigation department, agricultural engineering department, agricultural department, co-operative department and farmers. Farmers are the ultimate users of water. In fact many international, national and state agencies are involved in the form of funding technical input, technical training of different officials and farmers. Policy issues are also playing key role which need political, administrative and social will at different levels. 11.18 IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT UNDER LIMITED WATER SUPPLY As any scarce resource needs management for its optimal utility, the irrigation water also needs management to obtain optimum crop production with the available water resources. Water management is practiced in two stages viz., 1. Water distribution management, and 2. Water utilization management. The later is the crop water management at field level. 414 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Rotational water supply (RWS) RWS is one of the techniques",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "optimum crop production with the available water resources. Water management is practiced in two stages viz., 1. Water distribution management, and 2. Water utilization management. The later is the crop water management at field level. 414 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Rotational water supply (RWS) RWS is one of the techniques in irrigation water distribution management. It aims at equidistribution of irrigation water irrespective of location of the land in the command area by enforcing irrigation time schedules. Each 10 ha block is divided into 3–4 sub units (irrigation groups). According to the availability of irrigation water, stabilized field channels and group-wise irrigation requirement, time schedules are evolved. The irrigation will be done strictly in accordance with the group-wise time schedules by the block committees. Within the group, the time is to be shared by the farmers within the group by themselves. 11.19 WATER RELATIONS OF SOIL The mineral and organic compounds of soil from a solid (though not rigid) matrix, the interstices of which consists of irregularly shaped pores with a geometry defined by the boundaries of the matrix. The pore space, in general, is filled partly with soil air and liquid vapour and partly with the liquid phase of soil water. Soil moisture is one of the most important ingredients of the soil. It is also one of its most dynamic properties. Water affects intensely many physical and chemical reactions of the soil as well as plant growth. The properties of water can be explained by the structure of its molecule. Two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen combine to form a mole largely determined by that of the oxygen ion. The two hydrogen ions take up practically no space. Water molecules do not exist individually. The hydrogen in the water serves as a connecting link from",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "its molecule. Two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen combine to form a mole largely determined by that of the oxygen ion. The two hydrogen ions take up practically no space. Water molecules do not exist individually. The hydrogen in the water serves as a connecting link from one molecule to the other. Soil serves as the storage reservoir for water. Only the water stored in the root zone of a crop can be utilized by it for its transpiration and buildup of plant tissues. When ample water is in the root zone, plants can obtain their daily water requirements for proper growth and development. As the plants continue to use water, the available supply diminishes, and unless more water is added, the plants stop growing and finally die. Before the stage is reached when crop growth is adversely affected, it is necessary to irrigate again. The amount of water to be applied to each irrigation, and the frequency of irrigation are dependent on the properties of the soil and the crop to be irrigated. 11.20 MOVEMENT OF WATER INTO SOILS Immediately after irrigation or rainfall, the first action or process of water intake is called infiltration, then percolation and then seepage take place. The movement of water from the surface into the soil is called infiltration. The infiltration characteristics of the soil are one of the dominant variables influencing irrigation. Infiltration rate is the soil characteristic determining the maximum rate at which water can enter the soil under specific conditions, including the presence of excess water. It has the dimensions of velocity. The actual rate at which water is entering the soil at any given time is termed the Infiltration velocity. The infiltration rate decreases during irrigation. The rate of decrease is rapid initially and the infiltration",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "under specific conditions, including the presence of excess water. It has the dimensions of velocity. The actual rate at which water is entering the soil at any given time is termed the Infiltration velocity. The infiltration rate decreases during irrigation. The rate of decrease is rapid initially and the infiltration rate tends to approach a constant value. The nearly constant rate that develops after some time has elapsed from the start of irrigation is called the basic infiltration rate. Factors affecting infiltration rate The major factors affecting the infiltration of water into the soil are the initial moisture content, condition of the soil surface, hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile, texture, porosity, and degree of swelling of soil colloids and organic matter, vegetative cover, duration of irrigation or rainfall and viscosity of water. The antecedent soil moisture content has considerable influence on the initial rate and total amount of infiltration, both decreasing as the soil moisture content rises. The infiltration rate of any soil is limited by any restraint to the flow of water IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 415 into and through the soil profile. The soil layer with the lowest permeability, either at the surface or below it, usually determines the infiltration rate. Infiltration rates are also affected by the porosity of the soil, which is changed by cultivation or compaction. Cultivation influences the infiltration rate by increasing the porosity of the surface soil and breaking up the surface seals. The effect of tillage on infiltration usually lasts only until the soil settles back to its former condition of bulk density because of subsequent irrigations. Infiltration rates are generally lower in soils of heavy texture than on soils of light texture. The influence of water depth over soil on infiltration rate was investigated by many workers. It has been",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "until the soil settles back to its former condition of bulk density because of subsequent irrigations. Infiltration rates are generally lower in soils of heavy texture than on soils of light texture. The influence of water depth over soil on infiltration rate was investigated by many workers. It has been established that in surface irrigation, increased depth increases initial infiltration slightly but the head has negligible effect after prolonged irrigation. Infiltration rates are also influenced by the vegetal cover. Infiltration rate on grassland is substantially higher than bare uncultivated land. Additions of organic matter increase infiltration rate substantially. The hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile often change during infiltration, not only because of increasing moisture content, but also because of the puddling of the surface caused by reorientation of surface particles and washing of finger materials into the soil. Viscosity of water influences infiltration. The high rate of infiltration in the tropics under otherwise comparable soil conditions is due to the low viscosity of warm water. 11.20.1 Water Movement in Soil Profile Normally water will move from higher potential to lower potential area in soil profile. Generally the water movement within the soil profile takes place under three conditions. • Water moves through the water filled pore spaces due to gravity and Hydraulic conductivity or it can also be termed as water movement under saturated condition, i.e., when soil pore spaces are completely filled with water. • Film of water surrounding the soil particles moves due to the force of surface tension under unsaturated condition or it can be stated as capillary water movement along the potential gradient. • Water also diffuses as water vapour through the air filled pore spaces along the gradient of decreasing vapour pressure. Water movement in saturated conditions Saturated flow occurs when water is in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "surface tension under unsaturated condition or it can be stated as capillary water movement along the potential gradient. • Water also diffuses as water vapour through the air filled pore spaces along the gradient of decreasing vapour pressure. Water movement in saturated conditions Saturated flow occurs when water is in zero or smaller tension or at free water conditions. In this situation, all or most of the pore spaces are completely filled with water and the water moves downwards due to gravitational force. This saturated flow decreases as the soil pore space size decreases i.e., the saturated flow is high in coarse textured soil than fine textured soil. Generally the rate of flow of various texture soils is in the following sequence. Sand > loam > clay The theory of water movement in the soil is based on Darcy’s law or generalized form of Darcy’s law. Darcy’s law It states that the quantity (volume) of water passing through an unit cross-section of soil is proportional to the gradient of hydraulic head or hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic gradient It is the rate of change in hydraulic head with distance. Difference in hydraulic head Hg . ., Distance h i e I d = = where , Hg = Hydraulic gradient = I 416 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Generally, Darcy’s law is used to compute the velocity of flow of water through soil by using the formula. h V k ki d = = Where, V = velocity in cubic centimeter/second/centimeter h = hydraulic head in centimeters d = flow length or distance in centimeters. k = hydraulic conductivity or proportionality constant This formula can also be written as V = ki, (since h/d = I) Where, V = effective flow velocity k = hydraulic conductivity i = hydraulic gradient. Here, the value",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "hydraulic head in centimeters d = flow length or distance in centimeters. k = hydraulic conductivity or proportionality constant This formula can also be written as V = ki, (since h/d = I) Where, V = effective flow velocity k = hydraulic conductivity i = hydraulic gradient. Here, the value of ‘k’ depends upon the properties of fluid as well and those of soil. In mathematical expression Darcy’s law can be written as q = kia Where, q = volume of flow per unit time (cm3/sec) i = hydraulic gradient (dimensionless) a = cross-section of flow area (cm2) k = hydraulic conductivity (cm/sec) 11.20.2 Water Movement in Unsaturated Condition The unsaturated soil water movement is also called as capillary movement. In this condition the macro pores are filled with air and only micro pores are filled with water which is held relatively more tightly and water is able to move very slowly. When soil moisture decreases, a part of pore spaces is occupied by soil air and the cross-sectional area for water movement is reduced and three by hydraulic conductivity becomes low. In unsaturated conditions, the conductivity is more in fine soil than coarse textured soil. Hence, the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is the function of soil moisture content, number, size and continuity of soil pores etc. The rate of unsaturated flow in various soil texture is in the following order. Sand < loam < clay 11.21 WATER VAPOUR MOVEMENT It takes place within the soil as well as between soil and atmosphere under dry range. The vaporization under wet range is not taken into account in irrigation practices as it is in negligible range. The finer the soil pores higher is the moisture tension under which maximum water vapour occurs. In the coarse textured soil, at low tension the soil",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and atmosphere under dry range. The vaporization under wet range is not taken into account in irrigation practices as it is in negligible range. The finer the soil pores higher is the moisture tension under which maximum water vapour occurs. In the coarse textured soil, at low tension the soil pores become free of liquid water when soil dries out. There is little moisture left for vapour transfer. But fine textured soil retains substantial amount of moisture even at high tensions thus permitting vapour movement in soil occurs before it reaches PWP (Permanent Wilting Point). In this situation water vapour movement contribution is considered for the survival of plants. Distribution of water in sandy loam and clay loam type of soil is given in figure. In coarse textured sandy loam soil the water distribution is very narrow and it percolates down to 180 cm within IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 417 24 hours of time period. At the same time horizontally the water spread to the maximum of 30 cm width. But in clay soil, the water percolates down to a depth of 90-120 cm after 24 hours of irrigation. The water distribution is to a width of more than 60. cm horizontally during the same period. The figure clearly indicates that in finer texture soil, water movement is slow vertically and spread horizontally more than coarse textured soil. Fig. 11.17 Distance–cm from centre of furrow Fig. 11.18 Soil moisture distribution in clay loam and sandy loam soil 11.22 SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS Soil moisture constant is nothing but the status of the soil mass or changes occurring in the soil mass after the irrigation or rainfall. In real sense we cannot expect constants of soil moisture, since it is very dynamic and always tends to change due to potential gradient or",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "CONSTANTS Soil moisture constant is nothing but the status of the soil mass or changes occurring in the soil mass after the irrigation or rainfall. In real sense we cannot expect constants of soil moisture, since it is very dynamic and always tends to change due to potential gradient or pressure gradient. These phenomenon helps to find out the soil moisture status, the availability condition of soil moisture, time and quantity of irrigation water to be applied etc. The soil moisture constants are: 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 15 mm 40 mm 1 hour 24 hours 4 hours 24 hours 48 hours 30 15 0 15 30 75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 40 60 75 Depth cm from bottom of furrow Sandy loam Clay loam 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 Depth cm 45 30 15 0 45 60 30 0 60 75 Distance, cm Sandy loam Clay loam 15 min 40 min 1 hr 24 hr 4 hr 24 48 418 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Saturation or Maximum water holding capacity (MWHC) • Field capacity (FC) • Permanent wilting point (PWP) • Available soil moisture (ASM) • Moisture equivalent • Hygroscopic coefficient. 11.22.1 Saturation Immediately after surface irrigation or heavy downpour (or) good amount of rainfall, soil below the surface are completely filled up with water. At this stage, all the micro and macro pores are filled with water. This condition is said to be the saturation point or maximum water holding capacity of soil. In saturation point, water is held without any force or tension or the tension is almost zero. This is equal to free water surface. At this point, the gravitational force tends to pull some water or part of water, which moves downwards due to gravitational force. This",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "capacity of soil. In saturation point, water is held without any force or tension or the tension is almost zero. This is equal to free water surface. At this point, the gravitational force tends to pull some water or part of water, which moves downwards due to gravitational force. This water is known as gravitational water or free water. 11.22.2 Field Capacity This can be defined as the moisture content present in the soil after the drainage of water due to gravitational force is stopped or ceased or become very slow. Hence, it can also be stated as the moisture content retained against the gravitational force. It can also be defined as the moisture present in the micro pore or capillary pore, which cannot be drained off due to gravity. At this point, the moisture content in the soil is comparatively stable and each soil particle is completely surrounded with thick film of water. Hence, it is also known as capillary water. This soil moisture is held with some force or tension against the gravitational force. The force with which water is held is measured in terms of moisture tension. Normally it ranges from 1/10 atmosphere to 1/3 atmosphere for coarse and fine textured soils, respectively. The field capacity is the upper limit of available water to plants or maximum water available point to the plants. Hence, it is also known as Full point. The field capacity of soil is influenced by the soil texture or size of the particles, structure and amount of water applied. Immediately after irrigation or rainfall soil will reach saturation and its field capacity after two or three days depending upon the soil texture. The time required to reach field capacity condition is increased if soils are fine textured and rich in organic matter, which",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "structure and amount of water applied. Immediately after irrigation or rainfall soil will reach saturation and its field capacity after two or three days depending upon the soil texture. The time required to reach field capacity condition is increased if soils are fine textured and rich in organic matter, which restricts the downward movement of water. 11.22.3 Permanent Wilting Point It is the condition of soil moisture at which plant cannot extract water from soil due to its high tension. It is the soil moisture condition at which water is held so tightly by the soil particles and this water cannot be removed by the plant roots. The plants wilting cannot be changed by further addition of water (or) the plant cannot regain its turgidity even though water is made available to the plants. This condition is called permanent wilting point. At this point, soil moisture tension will reach very high i.e., the moisture held in soil particles with a tension of about 14 to 15 atmospheres. Wilting and drooping of leaves are the most common symptoms at PWP. Some highly drought resistant crops will not wilt but show the symptoms like stunted plant growth, drooping of leaves, change in appearance and leaf colour, drooping of flowers, fruits etc. 11.22.4 Available Soil Moisture This is the moisture content between the FC and the PWP level. After reaching PWP, the plant roots IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 419 Fig. 11.19 Soil moisture constants cannot extract water. It can be defined as the water available in the capillary pores after the cessation of gravitational movement of water and up to the limit of permanent wilting point. This available soil moisture is not only the function of soil physical properties like texture and structure but also the soil depth. Hence, it is expressed in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "water available in the capillary pores after the cessation of gravitational movement of water and up to the limit of permanent wilting point. This available soil moisture is not only the function of soil physical properties like texture and structure but also the soil depth. Hence, it is expressed in terms of depth dimension for the particular root zone depth and described as: FC PWP ASM 100 bd d − = × × Where, ASM = Available soil moisture in root zone FC = field capacity % PWP = permanent wilting point % bd = bulk density of soil (g/cc) d = depth of root zone in cm. In layered soil or at different depths the water storage capacity or available water capacity (AWC) is computed as the summation of capacity of different layers comprising the root zone as below. ( ) 1 FC PWP AWC 100 n i bdi di = − = × × ∑ Where, i = ith layer di = denotes depth of ith layer bdi = bulk density of the ith layer n = denotes the number of soil layers FC PWP Saturation Sandy soil Gravitational water Available water Unavailable water Clay soil Gravitational water Available water Gravitational drainage Gravitational drainage Saturation Unavailable water FC PWP 420 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Field capacity and PWP are not fixed points but represents a range because water is always dynamic in soil. Hence, this available soil water is influenced by Agro-climatic functions and soil factors. 11.22.5 Moisture Equivalent It is defined as the amount of water retained by the saturated soil sample after being centrifuged for 1000 times that of the gravitational force for definite period of time usually for half an hour. A small mass of soil sample is saturated with water and the same is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Equivalent It is defined as the amount of water retained by the saturated soil sample after being centrifuged for 1000 times that of the gravitational force for definite period of time usually for half an hour. A small mass of soil sample is saturated with water and the same is subjected to centrifugal force of 1000 times that of gravitational force for half an hour and the soil moisture percentage is worked out by gravimetric method. This moisture percentage is equal to field capacity. In light textured sandy soil it is less than FC, whereas in heavy textured clay soil it is more than FC. Hygroscopic coefficient It is the lower limit of soil moisture or very thin film of soil moisture around the soil particles. Simply it is expressed as the percentage of moisture in air–dry soil i.e., the moisture that remain in the soil after drying in air. At this point the moisture is held very tightly with soil particles with a tension of 10,000 atmosphere to 33 atmosphere. Hence, this water cannot be absorbed by the plants since, plant cannot exert this much of tension or force to remove the water. Hence, it is said to be the unavailable water. This water can be removed from soil particles by drying them in an oven at 105oC. Fig. 11.20 Soil moisture constants 11.22.6 Hydraulic Conductivity Hydraulic conductivity is the permeability of soil pores to the water movement under submerged condition. Hydraulic conductivity can be expressed as the proportionality factor of fluid properties (like its velocity, viscosity) and soil properties (such as infiltration, percolation and seepage) and soil influenced by soil structure and texture for water movement in soil profile. Simply it can be defined as the effective flow velocity at unit hydraulic gradient at saturated conditions and has",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "factor of fluid properties (like its velocity, viscosity) and soil properties (such as infiltration, percolation and seepage) and soil influenced by soil structure and texture for water movement in soil profile. Simply it can be defined as the effective flow velocity at unit hydraulic gradient at saturated conditions and has the dimension of velocity. It is the ratio of flow velocity to the driving force of the soil solution or viscous flow under saturated condition. ( ) ( ) Flow velocity V H.C. K Driving force of viscous flow i = (Here Driving force of viscous flow is nothing but the Hydraulic gradient (i)) (K = Proportionality constant in Darcy’s law) Therefore, V = Ki. Saturation Field capacity Wilting point Saturated soil Wilting coefficient Field capacity Hygroscopic coeff. 100 Air 100 g 40 ml 20 10 Air 100 8 100 Air IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 421 11.23 ESTIMATION OF SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS 1. Water holding capacity Water holding capacity is estimated with Keen and Razowaski cup. The soil is paced in this cup after fitting a filter paper at the bottom. Soil is soaked by capillary action. Weight is taken immediately after wiping the water on the sides of the cup and moisture is computed on oven dry basis. 2. Field capacity Field capacity is estimated directly in the field by ponding water in the plot covered all round by a bund. The test area may be 2 m2. After a copious rain or heavy irrigation, estimation may be taken up. Soil is allowed to drain the excess water. Surface is covered to prevent evaporation. This may be accomplished by spreading a polythene sheet or thick straw mulch on the ground surface. Soil sampling is to be done at 24, 36, 48 and 72 hours. Soil moisture content is estimated",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "up. Soil is allowed to drain the excess water. Surface is covered to prevent evaporation. This may be accomplished by spreading a polythene sheet or thick straw mulch on the ground surface. Soil sampling is to be done at 24, 36, 48 and 72 hours. Soil moisture content is estimated by gravimetric method after drying in an oven at 105°C for 6–9 hours till concordant weights are obtained. Moisture curves are to be drawn to locate the relatively stable values against time. For all soils except heavy clay soil, the sampling time may be 48 hours from irrigation. For experimental fields, field capacity may be estimated for few layers (0–15, 16–30, 30–45 and 45–60 cm) depending upon the rooting depth and information to be generated. Field capacity is also estimated with pressure plate apparatus by maintaining 1/3 atmosphere in disturbed soil sample. 3. Moisture equivalent Moisture equivalent is estimated in the disturbed and airdried soil sample. The soil is passed through 2.0 mm sieve. A porcelain buchner funnel of 5 × 2 cm is taken. A filter paper is slightly wet to enable to stick on the bottom. Air-dry soil is added to the funnel with gentle tapping against a smooth surface to ensure uniform packing. Soil is added to the full capacity of the buckner funnel and cut of the surface with the spatula. Soil sample in the funnel is left into water to enable the water to move by capillary action through the stem of the funnel. Soil in the funnel is left for 24 hours to be in equilibrium with water through capillary movement. After 24 hours, the funnel is removed from water column and fitted to a filter flask. The filter flask is connected to a vacuum pump (550 rpm) and subjected to suction for 15",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the funnel is left for 24 hours to be in equilibrium with water through capillary movement. After 24 hours, the funnel is removed from water column and fitted to a filter flask. The filter flask is connected to a vacuum pump (550 rpm) and subjected to suction for 15 minutes. During the process of suction, the soil is put into an aluminum cup without filter paper and moisture content is estimated by oven dry method. 4. Wilting point Estimation of wilting point moisture involves growing of sunflower as indicator plant in tin can. The tin can is closed with lid and the plant is allowed to grow through an opening in the lid. The plant is watered to grow for three to four weeks till three to four leaves develop. The plant is watered last and the space in the lid around the stem of the plant is plugged with cotton to control evaporation. The plant in the tin is allowed to wilt gradually. When the plant shows signs of loss of turgor, the can with plant is transferred to a dark humid cabinet to create high humidity. To reduce transpiration the humid cabinet is covered with a black polythene sheet. Inner sides of the cabinet are lined with gunny to retain moisture. The plant is allowed to extract moisture form the soil. If the plant is gaining turgidity, it is exposed to atmosphere for two hours and then transferred to humid cabinet. This process is repeated till the plant does not recover in the humid cabinet. At the stage the moisture content of the soil in the can is estimated to find out the wilting point of the soil. 5. Use of pressure plate apparatus for estimating soil moisture constants Soil moisture content values may be obtained by",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "plant does not recover in the humid cabinet. At the stage the moisture content of the soil in the can is estimated to find out the wilting point of the soil. 5. Use of pressure plate apparatus for estimating soil moisture constants Soil moisture content values may be obtained by the use of pressure plate apparatus or pressure membrane apparatus. The soil in test is placed in this layer in the cups of the pressure membrane apparatus. Desired pressure is applied to obtain the required soil moisture constant (FC 1/3 atm) and the moisture content of the soil sample is estimated. 422 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 11.24 MOISTURE EXTRACTION PATTERN OF CROPS Plant absorbs moisture from soil through their root system. The method and quantity of water absorption varies with crops and their rooting pattern. The moisture extraction pattern revels about how the moisture is extracted and how much quantity is extracted at different depth level in the root zone. The moisture extraction pattern shows the relative amount of moisture extracted from different depths within the crop root zone. The moisture extraction pattern of plant growing in a uniform soil without a restrictive layer and with adequate supply of available soil moisture throughout the zone is shown in Figure. It is seen from the following figure that about 40% of the total moisture is extracted from the first quarter of the root zone, 30% from second quarter, 20% from the third quarter and 10% from last fourth quarter. This indicates that in most of the crops the effective root zone will be available in the 1st quarter and it does not mean that the last quarter will not need any water. Hence, soil moisture measurements at different depths in the root zone have to be taken. • to estimate the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "that in most of the crops the effective root zone will be available in the 1st quarter and it does not mean that the last quarter will not need any water. Hence, soil moisture measurements at different depths in the root zone have to be taken. • to estimate the soil moisture status, and • to work out the irrigation quantity to be applied. A. Rooting Characteristics and Moisture Extraction Pattern The root system is extremely variable in different crop plants. The variability exists in rooting depth, root length and horizontal distribution of roots. These are further influenced by environmental factors and the genetic constitution. The roots of cereals apparently occupy more surface area of the soil than other crops. For example, it has been proved that cereals’ roots extend to 200–400 cm of soil surface area as against 15–200 cm/m2 for most graminaceous plants. The amount of soil moisture that is available to the plant is determined by the moisture characteristics of the soil depth and the density of the roots. The moisture characteristics of soil like FC and PWP cannot be altered so easily and greater possibilities lie in changing the rooting characteristics of plants system to go deeper and denser and more proliferation to tap water from deeper layer of soil as well as from the larger surface area. Plants vary genetically in their rooting characteristics. (Figures) vegetable crops like onion, potato, carrot etc., have very sparse rooting system and unable to use all the soil water in the root. Fig. 11.21 Moisture extraction pattern Root zone moisture-extraction depth-D D/4 40% 30% 20% 10% D/4 D/4 D/4 IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 423 Rice, grasses, sorghum, maize, sugarcane have very fibrous dense root system, which can extract much water from soil. Millets, groundnut, grams are moderately deep rooted.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the root. Fig. 11.21 Moisture extraction pattern Root zone moisture-extraction depth-D D/4 40% 30% 20% 10% D/4 D/4 D/4 IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 423 Rice, grasses, sorghum, maize, sugarcane have very fibrous dense root system, which can extract much water from soil. Millets, groundnut, grams are moderately deep rooted. Maize, sorghum, lucerne, cotton and other perennial plants have deep root system and can utilize effectively the moisture stored in root zone as well as in the unexploited deeper zones. Crops, which have dense and deep root system, like cotton, sorghum and red gram tolerate high reduction of soil water content. Shallow rooted crops like rice, potato, tomato tolerate low level of soil water reduction. Moderately deep-rooted crops like millets, groundnut, and grams tolerate medium level of soil water reduction. Rootzone moisture extraction pattern The root growth of the crop plants is affected by genetic nature, high water table, shallow nature of soil and permeability of soil layer, soil fertility and salt status of soil. B. Effective Root Zone Depth It is the depth in which active root proliferation occurs and where maximum water absorption is taking place. It is not necessary that entire root depth should be effective. Table 11.16. Effective Root Zone Depth of some Common Crops Shallow (60 cm) Medium to deep (90 cm ) Deep (120 cm) Very deep (180 cm) Rice Wheat Maize Sugarcane Potato Ground nut Cotton Citrus Cauliflower Carrots Sorghum Coffee Cabbage Soybean Pear millet Sunflower Lettuce Pea Sugar beet Onion Bean Chillies 11.25 WATER MOVEMENT IN SOIL-PLANT–ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEM The total quantity of water required for the essential physiological functions of the plant is usually less than 5 per cent of all the water absorbed. Most of the water entering the plant is lost in transpiration. But failure to replace the water loss",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "11.25 WATER MOVEMENT IN SOIL-PLANT–ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEM The total quantity of water required for the essential physiological functions of the plant is usually less than 5 per cent of all the water absorbed. Most of the water entering the plant is lost in transpiration. But failure to replace the water loss by transpiration results in the loss of turgidity, cessation of growth and death of plants due to dehydration. The following are the main areas of water movement in plant system: • Water absorption • Water adsorption • Water conduction and translocation • Water loss on transpiration The path of water movement may be divided into four sequential processes as follows: • The supply of liquid to root surface–Adsorption • The entry of water into the root–Absorption • The passage of water in the conducting tissues–(Xylem) Translocation or conduction. • Movement of water through and out of leaves–Transpiration or loss of water. 424 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY The rate of water movement is directly proportional to potential gradient i.e., higher potential to lower potential and inversely proportional to the resistance to flow. A. Mechanism of Water Absorption In plants, water is absorbed through root hairs, which are in contact with soil water. The wall of the root hairs are permeable and consists of pectic and cellulose substances which are strongly hydrophilic (water loving) in nature. There are two types of absorption viz., (a) Active absorption, and (b) Passive absorption. (a) Active absorption Here the process of osmosis plays an important role. The soil plant water movement can be effected due to forces of imbibition, diffusion and osmosis. Significance of Osmosis • Large quantities of water are absorbed by roots from soil by osmosis. • Cell to cell movement of water and other substances takes place through this process. • Opening and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "The soil plant water movement can be effected due to forces of imbibition, diffusion and osmosis. Significance of Osmosis • Large quantities of water are absorbed by roots from soil by osmosis. • Cell to cell movement of water and other substances takes place through this process. • Opening and closing of stomata depends upon the turgor pressure of guard cells. • Due to osmosis the turgidity is maintained and give a shape to the plants. (b) Passive absorption It is mainly due to transpiration and the root cells do not play active role. Passive absorption takes place when rate of transpiration is very high. Rapid evaporation from the leaves during transpiration creates a tension in water in the xylem of the leaves. These tension is transmitted to the water in xylem of roots through the xylem of stem. Due to this, water rises upward to reach the transpiring surface. As a result, soil water enters into the cortical cells through the root hairs to reach xylem of the roots to maintain the supply of water. The force for this entry of water is created in leaves due to rapid transpiration and hence the root cells remain passive during this process. It is otherwise known as transpiration pull. B. Factors Affecting Absorption of Water (i) Available soil water Capillary water is available to plants. Hygroscopic water and gravitational water are not available to plants. The capillary water is absorbed by the plants, which in turn reduces the soil water potential. Hence, the water from higher potential area tends to move to lower potential area and root will absorb this water. This is the chain of process involved in water uptake. (ii) Concentration of soil solutions High concentration affects the process of osmosis. (iii) Soil air Sufficient amount of O2 should",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Hence, the water from higher potential area tends to move to lower potential area and root will absorb this water. This is the chain of process involved in water uptake. (ii) Concentration of soil solutions High concentration affects the process of osmosis. (iii) Soil air Sufficient amount of O2 should be there and excess amount of CO2 affects the availability of water by root suffocation. (iv) Soil temperature Up to 30oC favours absorption. Very low and very high temperature affects absorption. (v) Soil texture Clay – Neither good nor bad Sand – Not good for absorption Loamy – Good for absorption C. Crop Response to Irrigation and Fertilizers The requirement regarding the number and their timings vary widely for different crops. It has been observed that water requirement of crops vary with the stages of its growth. When the water supply is IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 425 limited, it is necessary to take into account the critical stages of crop growth with respect to moisture. The critical stages of crop growth is commonly used to define the stage of growth. Certain critical stages at which if there is shortage of moisture, yield is reduced drastically. When there is shortage of water, it is better to take care of the critical stages first to obtain increased water use efficiency. (i) Water and fertilizer Water is the key factor in all the three mechanisms (mass flow, diffusion, transpiration pull) of nutrient uptake. Root intercepts more nutrient ions when growing in a moist soil than dry soil. In moist soil, the effective root zone area will be more and extensive which in turn absorbs more water and nutrients. This is especially important for calcium and magnesium. If the applied fertilizer uptake is more, it enhances the growth and increases the yield under irrigated",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "soil than dry soil. In moist soil, the effective root zone area will be more and extensive which in turn absorbs more water and nutrients. This is especially important for calcium and magnesium. If the applied fertilizer uptake is more, it enhances the growth and increases the yield under irrigated condition than dry condition which in turn increases the water use efficiency. Hence, it is concluded that there is a close relationship between soil moisture and nutrient uptake by plants. The application of fertilizer or nutrients without adequate moisture in root zone is not useful to plants. Similarly, mutual benefits are also obtained from fertilizer. For e.g., in drought situation balanced fertilized crops is able to withstand drought, than relatively low fertilized crop. Even well balanced fertilized crop may not show its normal growth and development unless adequate moisture is available. This is not only due to poor uptake, but also due to poor ET and which in turn reducing the use of absorbed nutrients for photosynthesis. (ii) Fertilizer use efficiency can be increased by : • Soil test to evaluate nutrient deficiency and use of proper quantity of the needed fertilizer. Applying fertilizer based on soil test values. • Placement of fertilizers rather than broadcasting. • Split does of application at suitable time interval rather than bulk application. • Controlled application of water to avoid leaching of fertilizers to deeper layers. In most cases there is significant correlation between soil moisture regime, fertilizer requirement and the availability of fertilizer for plant use. (a) Nitrogen Mineralization of nitrogen increases as the water content of soil increases from PWP to FC and to saturation. When the fertilizer is applied to the surface soil, its uptake is inhibited when the soil dries. (b) Phosphorus Increase in soil moisture to an optimum level",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for plant use. (a) Nitrogen Mineralization of nitrogen increases as the water content of soil increases from PWP to FC and to saturation. When the fertilizer is applied to the surface soil, its uptake is inhibited when the soil dries. (b) Phosphorus Increase in soil moisture to an optimum level is generally possible because of reduced aeration and root penetration or the increased activity of sesqioxide fraction on ‘P’ fixation under reduced condition. In dry areas ‘P’ applied close to the seed is more effective than the broadcast application. The availability and uptake of P is less in dry or rain fed condition. (c) Potassium Soil moisture content affects the level of exchangeable ‘K’ in the soil. In high soil moisture zone, availability of k is increased. The results of studies on fertilizer-irrigation relationship lead to the following conclusions. • Water use efficiency is raised by fertilizers by increased DMP (DRY matter production) and yield • The response of fertilizer is generally of a higher order under irrigated condition than under unirrigated condition. Response to frequent irrigation is generally enhanced by increased levels of fertilizer application, particularly crops grown for its vegetative plant parts. 426 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 11.26 SOIL MOISTURE ESTIMATION Moisture content of the soil is determined by using various methods, viz., gravimetric method and by using sophisticated instruments like Tensiometers, Resistance blocks and Neutron probe. 1. Tensiometer method Tensiometer is widely used for measuring soil water tension in the field and laboratory. A tensiometer consists of a 7.5 cm long porcelain cup filled with water, which is connected to water filled glass tube, a vacuum gauge and a hollow metallic tube holding all parts together (At the time of installation, system is filled with water through the opening at the top and closed with a rubber",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a 7.5 cm long porcelain cup filled with water, which is connected to water filled glass tube, a vacuum gauge and a hollow metallic tube holding all parts together (At the time of installation, system is filled with water through the opening at the top and closed with a rubber cork). Principle When installed in the soil at the required depth, water moves out through the porous cup till the surrounding soil is saturated. It creates a vacuum in the tube, which is measured in the vacuum gauge. When desired tension is reached, the field is irrigated. Merits • It is simple and easy to read soil moisture. • Useful to crops requiring frequent irrigation at low tensions. Limitations • Costly (costs about Rs.150/depending upon its length). • Sensitivity is only up to 0.85 atmospheric pressure. Fig. 11.22 Installation of tensiometer in the field Materials required Tube auger, hammer, tensiometer and coloured stakes. Procedure Select the spot for installation and bore the soil by driving a tube auger or a hallow pipe with sharp cutting edge which is driven into the soil by hammering it to the desired depth. Insert Plug (to fill with water) Transparent pipe Vacuum gauge Tube Ceramic cup Tensiometer IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 427 the tensiometer into the access hole. Compact the soil around the stem of the tensiometer to the original density of soil and make a small soil heap near the tube so that water will not stagnate near the tensiometer. Take the reading in the morning at 8. a.m. Record the reading frequently so that the difference between two consecutive readings is not more than 10 centibars. Plot the readings on a paper against the days. 11.26.1 Estimation of Soil Moisture by Gravimetric Method Moisture content in the soil is determined by (a)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the morning at 8. a.m. Record the reading frequently so that the difference between two consecutive readings is not more than 10 centibars. Plot the readings on a paper against the days. 11.26.1 Estimation of Soil Moisture by Gravimetric Method Moisture content in the soil is determined by (a) Weight basis and (b) Volume basis. (a) Weight basis This is otherwise called as gravimetric method. The method is extensively used for determination of moisture of the soil. In this method the soil moisture is expressed in oven dry weight basis. For example, when a soil is stated to contain 10% moisture on oven dry weight basis i.e., that 100 g dry soil holds 10 g water. This is expressed as gravimetric wetness and it is expressed on dry soil basis. Principle The moisture contained in a known quantity of fresh soil sample is removed by using hot air oven and this moisture is expressed in percentage on dry weight basis. Materials required Screw soil auger, screw aluminum sample bottles, polythene bag, weighing balance, hot air oven. Procedure The soil sample in which the moisture content to be determined is taken from the field using the screw auger. The sample is transferred to an aluminium or stainless steel soil sample container. The weight of the sample container along with the soil sample is noted. Then it is placed in a hot air oven for 24-28 hours at 105 degrees centigrade. The dry weight of the soil sample with container is again weighed. From the dry and wet weights of the soil, moisture content can be calculated. Fresh weight of soil sample with container = W1 grams Oven dry weight of soil sample with Container = W2 grams Empty weight of the container = W3 gram Moisture content of the Soil",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "again weighed. From the dry and wet weights of the soil, moisture content can be calculated. Fresh weight of soil sample with container = W1 grams Oven dry weight of soil sample with Container = W2 grams Empty weight of the container = W3 gram Moisture content of the Soil on dry weight basis ( ) Moisture lost from fresh sample 100 Dry weight sample = × ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 3 2 3 100 2 3 W W W W W W − − − = × − ( ) ( ) 1 2 100 2 3 W W W W − = × − (b) Volume basis Expression of moisture content in percentage on dry weight basis may not include the amount of water available to plant. The conversion from weight to volume units can be made by Moisture content % by volume = Moisture content % (by wt.) × Bulk density (gm/cm2) The percent by volume of moisture content obtained by the above relationship is numerically equal to the centimeter of water per meter depth of soil. Moisture content in a profile depth of soil can be obtained from moisture content on dry weight basis by multiplying it with bulk density and profile depth as = Moisture content (by wt) % × Bulk density (g/cm3) × profile depth (cm). Cautions • Sampling must be done maximum to the root zone of the crop. 428 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Sampling should be in between two plants or rows. • If continuous soil moisture are to be studied, the sampling must be done within a radius of 50 cm from center. • Do not unscrew the auger while taking out the sample. Instead, pull out the auger with the soil. • Use a",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in between two plants or rows. • If continuous soil moisture are to be studied, the sampling must be done within a radius of 50 cm from center. • Do not unscrew the auger while taking out the sample. Instead, pull out the auger with the soil. • Use a tube auger when the soil is dry to avoid spill out of sample. • Fresh weight of samples should be weighed without much lapse of time to avoid moisture loss during transport and lapse of time. Advantages • Direct and simple • More reliable • More accurate Limitations • Sampling, transporting and repeated weighing give room for errors. • Laborious and time consuming. • Needs costly equipments and technical know-how. 11.26.2 Resistance Block Gypsum bocks or plaster of paris resistance units are used for measurement of soil moisture in situ. Principle It works on the principle of conductivity of electricity. When two electrodes are placed parallel to each other in a medium and when electric current is passed, the resistance offered in between two electrodes for the flow of electricity is inversely proportional to the moisture content in the medium. Thus, when the block is wet, resistance is low (conductivity is high). The resistance at field capacity various from 400 to 600 ohms and at wilting point it varies from 50,000 to 75,000 ohms. The reading on resistance are taken with a portable resistance meter (Bouyoucos meter) operated by dry cells. Fig. 11.23 Installation of resistance block Material required Gypsum or nylon blocks, a post-hole auger, bouyoucos moisture meter. Procedure Make a bore (access hole) with a posthole auger to the desired depth. Place the block inside and fill back the bore in small depth by packing the soil with a metal red to the original density. Ensure and intimate",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "or nylon blocks, a post-hole auger, bouyoucos moisture meter. Procedure Make a bore (access hole) with a posthole auger to the desired depth. Place the block inside and fill back the bore in small depth by packing the soil with a metal red to the original density. Ensure and intimate contact of the blocks with the soil. There should not be any root pieces pebbles etc., near the blocks. Normally 3–5 blocks can be placed in one hole at a vertical interval of 30 cm for IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 429 experimental purpose. Heap the soil to a height of about 3 cm near the surface at the bore space to prevent any water stagnation. Irrigate the field and record the readings, check the resistance readings at the field capacity. In a wide spaced crop, install the block in between two rows of plants. Two or four units are enough for an acre of land for irrigation scheduling. Merits • Works at low moisture level up to wilting point. • Suitable for repeated measurement at a point. • Simple and easy method. 11.26.3 Neutron Probe Method The neutron probe is designed as a field instrument for measuring in situ moisture content of the soil. The measurements are made by means of a probe, which is lowered into access tube installed vertically in the soil profile. Soil moisture is determined at specific depths to provide a soil moisture profile. Principle The probe contains a sealed Americium-Beryllium radioactive source having fast neutrons. When this source come in contact with soil, it emits fast neutrons into the soil and they collide with the hydrogen atoms in soil water causing the neutrons to scatter. Thus slow neutrons generated within the soil around is a function of soil moisture content. It is measured by boron",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "When this source come in contact with soil, it emits fast neutrons into the soil and they collide with the hydrogen atoms in soil water causing the neutrons to scatter. Thus slow neutrons generated within the soil around is a function of soil moisture content. It is measured by boron trifluoride detector in the probe. This is amplified, displayed digitally as counts per second. The count rate is converted into soil moisture content by calibrations. Fig. 11.24 Installation of neutron probe • Probe Carrier: Cylindrical, made from tough PVC contains spherical polypropylene moderation shield for the fast neutron in its lower part. • Cable: This connects the rate scaler to the probe, normally 5 m length but permitted to record at the correct count rate to the rate scaler. • Rate Scaler: Cylindrical unit, attached to upper end of the carrier body; shows digitally the density of neutron cloud as counts per second. • The Probe: Consists of a stainless steel cylinder 38 mm diameter and 75 mm long overall. Probe contains Americium-Beryllium source of fast neutrons. Probe can be operated below soil surface to a depth not exceeding 10 m. Cable clamp Lead shield Soil surface Probe clamp Paraffin Probe lock Access tube Cable Amplifier Fast neutron source Sensitive volume 15 to 30 cm in radius Slow neutron detector 430 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • The Transport case: Serves as a store for the probe and the carrier. It contains compartments to cells, spare cable, field record books, and the charged neutrons. • The Access Tube: The access tube is made out from material having low cross-section of absorption for both fast and slow neutrons. Galvanized iron pipe of 50 mm diameter with be good. • Procedure The access tube is first inserted into the soil by drilling a",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the charged neutrons. • The Access Tube: The access tube is made out from material having low cross-section of absorption for both fast and slow neutrons. Galvanized iron pipe of 50 mm diameter with be good. • Procedure The access tube is first inserted into the soil by drilling a hole with the help of an auger. It is few centimeters above the soil and covered with an inverted case. The neutron probe is inserted into the access tube by carefully lowering down cable to the desired depth. Then the counting rates are determined. Initially the probe is to be adjusted and calibrated against volumetric determination of soil moisture content. Merits • More reliable. • Very rapid method. • Soil conditions are not disturbed. • Repeated measurements are possible in the same location. • Moisture contents at different depth at a smaller depth interval are possible in one stoke. Demerits • Costly (Rs. 2.0 lakhs) and not within the reach of farmers. • Needs technical skill to operate the instrument. • Radiation hazard may affect the device and soil. Periodic check up is needed. • Small change in soil moisture content cannot be detected. 11.27 SOIL MOISTURE STRESS Plant-water relations consist of a group of interrelated and interdependent processes. Thus, the internal water balance or degree of turgidity of a plant depends on the relative rates of water absorption and water loss, and is affected by the complex of atmospheric, soil and plant factors that modify the rates of absorption and transpiration. Water moves in response to a potential gradient. When the plant roots are in equilibrium with the soil water potential and the soil water potential gradients are near zero, a base level of leaf turgor or plant water potential is reached. Under the conditions of low evaporative demand",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and transpiration. Water moves in response to a potential gradient. When the plant roots are in equilibrium with the soil water potential and the soil water potential gradients are near zero, a base level of leaf turgor or plant water potential is reached. Under the conditions of low evaporative demand during the night and early morning (Prior to sunrise) the values of water potential are often or near this level. An increase in the rate of transpiration coincident with the increase in evaporation, during the day, causes a decrease in the turgor pressure of the upper leaves and the development of water potential gradients through the plant from the evaporating surface of the leaves to the absorbing surface of the roots. Conditions are of such that the rate of water loss exceeds the rate of water absorption, causing an internal water deficit to develop in the plant. It is the internal water deficit, through its influence on many of the physiological processes in the plant that is directly responsible for the growth and yield of a crop under the prevailing conditions. The yield of crop is the integrated result of a number of physiological processes. Water stress can affect photosynthesis and respiration. It can also affect growth and reproduction. Reduction in leaf area, cell size and inter-cellular volume are common under water stress. Dehydration of protoplasm may be responsible for decreasing several physiological processes. Water stress at certain critical stages of plant growth causes more injury than at other stages. For example, irrigation at the crown root initiation stage has been shown to be essential for increased yield of wheat crop. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 431 Drought Tolerance of Plants Plants survive the periods of water stress by various means. Short duration varieties that avoid extensive drought period may be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "For example, irrigation at the crown root initiation stage has been shown to be essential for increased yield of wheat crop. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT 431 Drought Tolerance of Plants Plants survive the periods of water stress by various means. Short duration varieties that avoid extensive drought period may be better drought resistant than other varieties. Researches on producing idiotype plants with leaf and stomatal characteristics suitable for drought resistance may result in developing suitable drought resistant varieties. Plants exhibit drought tolerance either because the plants are able to survive tissue desiccation. Drought-hardy plants usually have smaller cells than those living in moist habits. When desiccated, small cells undergo a much smaller proportionate reduction in volume than do large cells and therefore do not suffer large disturbances as the latter. In general, increased osmotic values are the characteristics of plants having superior drought hardiness. The higher osmotic values not only increases the ability of cells to retain water, but may also have an additional effect by increasing the resistance of the protoplasm to dehydration. One of the most effective safeguards against drought injury is a deep and wide-spreading root system as that of sorghum. Plants with shallow, sparsely branched root systems like potatoes, onions etc. Suffer sooner than deep-rooted species like Lucerne and maize. 432 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Chapter 12 Nutrient Management Growth is the development of a plant as a whole or of a specific organ. Besides the genetic factors, the environmental factors grouped as climatic factors and soil factors influence plant growth. The supply of mineral nutrient elements to the plants is discussed in this chapter. A complete analysis of plants detects large number of elements. But only certain elements are essential. An element is said to be essential if the plant cannot complete its life cycle",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "soil factors influence plant growth. The supply of mineral nutrient elements to the plants is discussed in this chapter. A complete analysis of plants detects large number of elements. But only certain elements are essential. An element is said to be essential if the plant cannot complete its life cycle without it, and if the malady (deficiency) that develops in plants in its absence can be remedied only by that element. Earlier 16 elements were considered as essential for plant growth. They are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, boron and chlorine. Recently, sodium, cobalt, vanadium, silicon, selenium, gallium, aluminium and iodine are added to the above list. One or the other of these elements (recently added) has been found to be essential for a particular group or species of plants. Carbon dioxide, water and molecular oxygen are the forms in which C, H and O are assimilated by plants. Others are taken up by plants from the soil. Nutrient uptake by plants accounts for about 10 percent of total dry weight of crops, the remaining percentage being water. The chemical symbol and the ionic forms in which the essential elements are absorbed by the plants are given in Table 12.1. Table 12.1. The Chemical Symbol and the Ionic Forms of essential Elements Element Symbol Form (s) of absorption by plants 1. Carbon C CO2 2. Hydrogen H H from H2O 3. Oxygen O Elemental O2 and O2 from H2O 4. Nitrogen N NH4 +, NO3 − also as organic CO ( NH2)2 and molecular nitrogen 5. Phosphorus P HPO4 2−, H2PO4 − also as Nucleic acid, Phytin 6. Potassium (Kalium) K K+ 7. Calcium Ca Ca++ 8. Magnesium Mg Mg++ 9. Sulphur S SO3 2−, SO4 2− (Contd.) NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 433",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "N NH4 +, NO3 − also as organic CO ( NH2)2 and molecular nitrogen 5. Phosphorus P HPO4 2−, H2PO4 − also as Nucleic acid, Phytin 6. Potassium (Kalium) K K+ 7. Calcium Ca Ca++ 8. Magnesium Mg Mg++ 9. Sulphur S SO3 2−, SO4 2− (Contd.) NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 433 10. Iron Fe Fe++, Fe+++ 11. Zinc Zn Zn++ 12. Manganese Mn Mn++ 13. Copper Cu Cu2 ++ 14. Boron B BO3 3− 15. Molybdenum Mo MoO4 2− 16. Chlorine Cl Cl− 17. Silicon Si Si(OH)4 18. Sodium Na Na2+ 19. Cobalt Co Co2+ 20. Vanadium V V+ 12.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS Essential elements needed for the crop growth are broadly classified: 12.1.1 Based on the relative Quantity that is normally present in Plants • Macro nutrients (Major Nutrients/primary nutrients): C, H, O, N, P, K • Secondary nutrients: Ca, Mg, S • Micro Nutrients (Minor/Tertiary/Trace elements): Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B, Cl, and Na, Se, Co, V, Ga, Al and I2. 12.1.2 Based on their Chemical Nature • Metals: K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Co and V etc. • Non-Metals: C, H, O, N, P, S, B, Mo, C1, Si, etc. • Cations: NH4 +K+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, Zn2+ • Anions: NO3 −, HPO4 2−, H2PO4 −, SO4 2−, BO3 3−, MoO4 2−, C1− etc. 12.1.3 Based on General Function • As a constituent of either organic or inorganic compounds–N, S, P, Ca, B, Fe and Mg. • As an activator, cofactor in prosthetic group of enzyme systems–K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Mo, Na and Cl. • As a charge carrier in oxidation–reduction reactions–P, S, Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo. • As an osmosis regulator and for electron chemical equilibrium in cells–K, Na and Cl. 12.1.4 Based on the Mobility in Plants",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "prosthetic group of enzyme systems–K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Mo, Na and Cl. • As a charge carrier in oxidation–reduction reactions–P, S, Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo. • As an osmosis regulator and for electron chemical equilibrium in cells–K, Na and Cl. 12.1.4 Based on the Mobility in Plants • Highly mobile : N, P, K • Moderately mobile : Zn • Less mobile : S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Cl, Mo • Immobile : Ca, B 434 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 12.2 NUTRIENTS–ROLE, DEFICIENCY, METHOD OF CONTROL AND TOXICITY The role of nutrients, deficiency, control of deficiency and toxicity are given in Table 12.2. Table 12.2. Role of Nutrients, Deficiency, Control of Deficiency and Toxicity Nutrient Role of nutrients Deficiency symptoms Control of Symptoms under (Element) of nutrients deficiency excess nutrients 1. Nitrogen (N) 1. It is constituent 1. Lower leaves turn 1. Use of nitrogen 1. Blackening around of chlorophyll. yellow fertilizer in the soil tips of older leaves 2. N makes plant 2. Growth of plant 2. Foliar spray of 2. Delays maturity dark green is stunted urea 3. It increases 3. Shedding of leaves 3. Encourages Lodging vegetative growth, and fruits 4. Makes plant more protein content and susceptible to pests and cation exchange diseases capacity in plant 5. Poor root growth roots 4. Encourage the formation of good quality foliage 2. Phosphorus 1. Stimulates root 1. Leaves become 1. Application of 1. Necrosis and tip (P) growth and smaller in size phosphatic fertilizers dieback formation 2. Leaves and stems in the soil, e.g., 2. Interveinal chlorosis 2. Helps in cell become purple super phosphate in younger leaves division 3. Delay in maturity 3. Marginal scorch of 3. Hasten maturity older leaves 4. Makes plant more 4. Growth is stunted tolerant to drought, cold, insects and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2. Leaves and stems in the soil, e.g., 2. Interveinal chlorosis 2. Helps in cell become purple super phosphate in younger leaves division 3. Delay in maturity 3. Marginal scorch of 3. Hasten maturity older leaves 4. Makes plant more 4. Growth is stunted tolerant to drought, cold, insects and diseases 5. Increase P and Ca in plants 6. Increase tillers and ratio of grain to straw in crop 3. Potassium (K) 1. K–helps in 1. Margin of leaves 1. Use of potassic Plants have luxury (Kalium) translocation turn brown and dry up fertilizer in the soil consumption hence not 2. Imparts, vigour 2. The older leaves e.g., muriate of toxic and growth to plants develop brown colour potash 3. Makes plant more 3. Stunted growth tolerant to drought, cold insects and diseases. 4. Reduces lodging 5. Increases the availability of N and P (Contd.) NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 435 Nutrient Role of nutrients Deficiency symptoms Control of Symptoms under (Element) of nutrients deficiency excess nutrients 6. Increases the size of root and tuber 4. Calcium (Ca) 1. Promotes early 1. Terminal bud dies 1. Use of calcium root growth 2. Leaves become carbonate or 2. Ca is constituent wrinkled calcium hydroxide of cell 3. new leaves shows in the soil 3. Increases stiffness symptoms 2. Use of gypsum of straw (stem) 4. Improves soil structure 5. Keeps soil neutral 5. Magnesium 1. Constituent of 1. Vein of leaves 1. Foliar application 1. May induce K (Mg) chlorophyll remain green and of magnesium deficiency 2. Increases inter-veinal chlorosis sulphate (Epsum) photosynthesis 2. Symptoms on 3. Regulates uptake older leaves of nutrients 4. Promotes the formation of oils and fats 6. Sulphur (S) 1. Helps in 1. The whole leaf 1. Foliar application 1. Reduction in leaf size chlorophyll in plant has light",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "magnesium deficiency 2. Increases inter-veinal chlorosis sulphate (Epsum) photosynthesis 2. Symptoms on 3. Regulates uptake older leaves of nutrients 4. Promotes the formation of oils and fats 6. Sulphur (S) 1. Helps in 1. The whole leaf 1. Foliar application 1. Reduction in leaf size chlorophyll in plant has light of sulphur or formation green colour sulphate 2. Stimulates root growth seed formation and nodule formation 3. Encourages plant growth 4. S is constituent of enzymes and proteins 7. Iron (Fe) 1. Helps in 1. Yellowing of new Spraying of 0.5% Bronzing of older leaves chlorophyll formation check leaves Ferrous sulphate is common in low land 2. Acts as an oxygen 2. Chlorosis on foliage rice grown under acid carrier soils 3. Helps in protein synthesis 8. Manganese 1. Acts as a catalyst 1. Brown patch 1. Soil or foliar 1. Spots on the veins (Mn) in oxidation on leaves application of of the leaf blade and reduction reaction 2. Reddening of manganese leaf sheath 2. Act as activator leaves in cotton sulphate 2. Stunted plant of many enzymes 3. Helps in chlorophyll synthesis (Contd.) 436 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Nutrient Role of nutrients Deficiency symptoms Control of Symptoms under (Element) of nutrients deficiency excess nutrients 9. Boron (B) 1. Helps in uptake 1. The leaves thicken 1. Foliar spray of 1. Inter veinal chlorosis and utilization of and margin roll boric acid or at the tips of the older calcium upward borax leaves along the 2. Helps in protein 2. Younger leaves 2. Use of boron margins synthesis are dwarf in soil 2. Leaves turn brown 3. Top-rot diseases and dry up of tobacco 10. Copper (Cu) 1. Helps in oxidation –reduction reaction contd. 11. Molybdenum 1. Helps in absorbing 1. Petiole of the leaves 1. Soil or foliar",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2. Younger leaves 2. Use of boron margins synthesis are dwarf in soil 2. Leaves turn brown 3. Top-rot diseases and dry up of tobacco 10. Copper (Cu) 1. Helps in oxidation –reduction reaction contd. 11. Molybdenum 1. Helps in absorbing 1. Petiole of the leaves 1. Soil or foliar Not common (Mo) atmospheric nitrogen remain intact but application of by nodule bacteria shedding of margin sodium molybdate in legume and other part of or ammonium 2. Helps in protein leaves molybdate synthesis 2. Curling of leaves 12. Chlorine (Cl) 1. Essential for 1. Yellowing of leaves 1. Potassium 1. Burning of leaf tips or photosynthesis (white plant) chloride application margins process in the soil 2. Reduce leaf size 2. Keeps osmotic pressure normal in cell sap 13. Zinc (Zn) 1. Constituent of a 1. White leaf become 1. Soil application 1. Induces iron chlorosis number of enzymes rusty-brown in colour of Zinc sulphate @ 2. Helps in formation 2. Stunted growth 25-50 Kg/ha. of growth hormones 2. Foliar application 3. Act as catalyst in of 0.5% zinc chlorophyll sulphate formation 12.3 NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS Plant symptoms can be grouped into five types as follows: Chlorosis: Yellowing, either uniform or interveinal of plant tissue due to reduction in the chlorophyll formation process. Necrosis: Refers to death of plant tissue leading to dead spots. Lack of new growth or terminal growth resulting in “rosetting”. Accumulation of anthocyanin and an appearance of a reddish colour. Stunting or reduced growth with either normal or dark green colour or yellowing. Nutrients are continuously removed from the soil by crops in addition to losses by leaching, volatilization and erosion. These nutrients are added to the soil by external sources to maintain soil fertility and sustainable production. Manure is the organic material derived form animal, human",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "or dark green colour or yellowing. Nutrients are continuously removed from the soil by crops in addition to losses by leaching, volatilization and erosion. These nutrients are added to the soil by external sources to maintain soil fertility and sustainable production. Manure is the organic material derived form animal, human and plant residues, which contains plant nutrients in complex organic forms. The major organic sources are manures are farm waste, cattle shed waste, human habitation waste, slaughter house waste, fish meal, NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 437 by-products of agro-industries etc. The manures are bulky, concentrated, green and green leaf manures depending on their volume and nutrient content. Of these two sources, most widely used all over the world, one is organic in nature–the organic manures simply called manures and the other comprises the synthetic or naturally occurring chemical fertilizers simply called fertilizers. 12.4 ORGANIC MANURES Organic manures include plant and animal by-products such as oil cakes fish manures and dried blood from slaughter houses. Before their organic nitrogen used by the crops it is converted through bacterial action into readily usable ammonical N and nitrate N. These manures are therefore, relatively slow acting, but they supply available N for a longer period. Advantages Organic manures supply plant nutrients including micronutrients. Organic manures improve physical properties of the soil, water holding capacity, hydraulic conductivity, infiltration capacity of the soil. CO2 released during decomposition combines with water and forms carbonic acid and act as CO2 fertilizer. Organic manures supply energy (food) for microbes and increase availability of nutrients and improve soil fertility. Green manures have the additional advantage of fixing atmospheric nitrogen leading to nitrogen economy in crop production and green manures draw nutrients from lower layers and concentrate them in the surface soil for the use of succeeding crop. Classification A. Bulky organic",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "increase availability of nutrients and improve soil fertility. Green manures have the additional advantage of fixing atmospheric nitrogen leading to nitrogen economy in crop production and green manures draw nutrients from lower layers and concentrate them in the surface soil for the use of succeeding crop. Classification A. Bulky organic manures (i) FYM: (a) Cattle manure, (b) Sheep manure, (c) Poultry manure (ii) Compost: (a) Village/rural compost from farm-wastes (b) Town/urban compost from town refuses (iii) Sewage and sludge B. Concentrated organic manures 1. Oil cakes (a) Edible oil cakes (i.e., used for cattle feeding) (i) Mustard cake, (ii) Groundnut cake, (iii) Sesame cake, (iv) Linseed cake (b) Non edible oil cakes (i.e., used as manures) (i) Castor cake, (ii) Neem cake, (iii) Sunflower cake, (iv) Mahua cake, (v) Karanja cake 2. Slaughter house wastes (i) Blood meal, and (ii) Bone meal 3. Fish meal 4. Guano Material obtained from the excreta and dead bodies of sea bird C. Green manures (a) Leguminous plant (example: Sunn hemp, Sesbania sp., mungbean, cowpea, guar, senji, berseem) (b) Non-leguminous plant (example: Sorghum, pearl millet, maize, sunflower) D. Green leaf manures Green leaves of trees like neem, pungam, glyricidia, vadhanarayana etc. 12.4.1 Bulky Organic Manures Bulky organic manures are those manures, which are generally bulk in quantities and poor in plant 438 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY nutrients (low quantities of plant nutrients). Example: Farm yard manure, compost, sewage and sludge etc. A. Farm Yard Manure (FYM) It is the manure produced in the farm which is made up of excreta (dung and urine) of farm animals, the bedding materials provided for them and miscellaneous farm and house hold wastes. Straw, peat and saw dust, dry leaves etc., are used as bedding material for farm animal and accounts to 3–4 kg per animal per day.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "which is made up of excreta (dung and urine) of farm animals, the bedding materials provided for them and miscellaneous farm and house hold wastes. Straw, peat and saw dust, dry leaves etc., are used as bedding material for farm animal and accounts to 3–4 kg per animal per day. The bedding material is called ‘litter’ and it absorbs urine voided by animals. It is not a standardized product and its value depends on the kind of feed fed to the animal, the amount of straw used and the manner of storage. In general FYM contains 0.8% N, 0.41% P2O5 and 0.74% K2O. The excreta of horses and sheep are drier than other and do not get compacted in the heap. There is considerable aeration, bacterial activity and rise in temperature in the manure. They are therefore called ‘hot manures’ in the temperate countries. Pig and cattle manure contain more moisture and compacted in the manure pit. Their decomposition is not as vigorous as that of hot manures and the rise of temperature is also low. Therefore pig and cattle manures are called “cold manures”. The decomposition of cattle manures may be slower comparatively under temperate regions but it is rapid enough under tropical condition. B. Compost It is a manure derived from decomposed plant residues usually made by fermenting waste plant materials heaped or put in a pit usually in alternate layers with a view to bring the plant nutrients in a more readily available form. Super compost: Compost fortified with super phosphate is called as super compost. Starters are the materials added to the composting organic wastes, which provide the decomposing organism. Pig dung slurry is a valuable starter and provides necessary organisms. Even cow dung slurry can be used as starter. Generally ammonium sulphate and super phosphate",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fortified with super phosphate is called as super compost. Starters are the materials added to the composting organic wastes, which provide the decomposing organism. Pig dung slurry is a valuable starter and provides necessary organisms. Even cow dung slurry can be used as starter. Generally ammonium sulphate and super phosphate are added to the layers at the time of furrowing the composting heap to enrich nitrogen and phosphorus status of compost respectively. Fertilizers accelerate and hasten the decomposition of organic matter or wastes. C. Sewage and Sludge In cities human excreta are flushed out with large quantities of water, which is known as sludge. It contains two components, one is solid portion called sludge and another is liquid portion called sewage water. In general, the sludges are rich in N and P, and low in K. The sewage water is used for irrigation after proper treatments. Table 12.3. Nutrient Content of the Bulky Organic Manures Manure Percentage composition of N P2O5 K2O Cattle dung 0.40 0.20 0.20 Cattle urine 1.00 – 1.35 Sheep and goat dung 0.75 0.50 0.45 Sheep and goat urine 1.35 0.05 2.10 Sheep and goat manure 3.00 1.00 2.00 (Contd.) NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 439 Manure Percentage composition N P2O5 K2O Poultry manure 3.03 2.63 1.40 Horse manure 2.00 1.50 1.50 Horse urine 1.35 – 1.25 Pig dung 0.60 0.50 0.40 Pig urine 1.10 0.10 0.45 Farm litter compost 0.50 0.15 0.50 Rural compost 1.22 1.08 1.47 Town compost 1.40 1.00 1.40 Water hyacinth compost 2.00 1.00 2.30 Vermicompost 3.00 1.00 1.50 Night soil 5.50 4.00 2.00 Paddy straw 1.50 1.34 3.37 Sugarcane trash 2.73 1.81 1.31 Sewage sludge 1.5-3.5 0.75-4.00 0.3-0.6 12.4.2 Concentrated Organic Manures Concentrated organic manures are those manures which are rich in particular nutrients (N) but relatively having low volume of organic materials. Example:",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Vermicompost 3.00 1.00 1.50 Night soil 5.50 4.00 2.00 Paddy straw 1.50 1.34 3.37 Sugarcane trash 2.73 1.81 1.31 Sewage sludge 1.5-3.5 0.75-4.00 0.3-0.6 12.4.2 Concentrated Organic Manures Concentrated organic manures are those manures which are rich in particular nutrients (N) but relatively having low volume of organic materials. Example: Oil cakes, blood and bone meal, fishmeal, press mud etc. A. Oil cakes Oil cake is the residue left after the oil is extracted from oil containing seed. The manurial values of oil cake lie mainly in its nitrogen contribution though it is in small quantities. The nitrogen content varies between 3% and 9% (Table 12.4). The C:N ratio is usually 3–15 for most of the oil cakes. Table 12.4. Nutrient Content of some Concentrated Organic Manures Manure Percentage composition N P2O5 K2O Castor cake 4.0-4.4 1.9 1.4 Groundnut cake 6.5-7.5 1.3 1.5 Cotton seed cake (decorticated) 6.9 3.1 1.6 Cotton seed cake (undecorticated) 3.6 2.5 1.6 Linseed cake 5.6 1.4 1.3 Coconut cake 3.4 1.9 1.9 Neem cake 5.2-5.6 1.1 1.5 Safflower cake (decorticated) 7.9 2.2 1.9 (Contd.) 440 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Manure Percentage composition N P2O5 K2O Safflower (undecorticated) 4.9 1.4 1.2 Sesamum cake 4.7-6.2 2.1 1.3 Mahua cake 2.5 0.8 1.9 Niger cake 4.7 1.8 1.3 Pungam cake 4.0 1.0 1.3 Raw bone meal 4.0 20-25 – Steamed bone meal 4.7 25-30 – Basic slag 4.0 1.0 1.3 Fish meal 4-10 3-9 1.5 Blood meal 10-12 1-2 1.0 Meat meal 9-11 3.5 – Horn and hoof meal 10-15 1 – Press mud 1-1.5 4-5 2-7 Guano (Peruvian bird) 11-16 8-12 2-3 12.4.3 Green Manure and Green Leaf Manure Green manuring is the act of growing of quick growing crop preferably legumes and ploughing in situ and incorporated into the soil. Whereas green leaf manuring is incorporation",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "meal 10-15 1 – Press mud 1-1.5 4-5 2-7 Guano (Peruvian bird) 11-16 8-12 2-3 12.4.3 Green Manure and Green Leaf Manure Green manuring is the act of growing of quick growing crop preferably legumes and ploughing in situ and incorporated into the soil. Whereas green leaf manuring is incorporation of green matter into the soil transported from elsewhere. The percentage N of some of the green/green leaf manures is given in Table 12.5. Table 12.5. Nutrient Content of Green Manure Crops and Green Leaf Manures Plant Scientific Name Nutrient content (%) on air dry basis N P2O5 K2O Green manure Sunn hemp Crotolaria juncea 2.30 0.50 1.30 Manila agathi Sesbania rostrata 3.30 0.60 1.20 Daincha Sesbania aculeata 3.20 0.60 1.20 Pillipesara Phaseolus trilobus 2.80 0.50 1.15 Sesbania Sesbania speciosa 2.71 0.53 2.21 Kolinji Tephrosia purpurea 3.10 0.52 1.18 Green Leaf manure Glyricidia Glyricidia sepium 2.76 0.28 4.60 Pongamia Pongamia glabra 3.31 0.44 2.39 Neem Azadiracta indica 2.83 0.28 0.35 Gulmohur Delonix regia 2.76 0.46 0.50 (Contd.) NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 441 Plant Scientific Name Nutrient content (%) on air dry basis N P2O5 K2O Vadanarayanan Delonix elata 3.51 0.31 0.43 Subabul Leucaena leucocephala 3.50 0.48 0.81 Peltophorum Peltophorum ferrugenium 2.63 0.37 0.50 Weeds Parthenium Parthenium hystorophorus 2.68 0.68 1.45 Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes 3.01 0.90 0.15 Sarannai Trianthema portulacastrum 2.64 0.43 1.30 Aduthoda Aduthoda vesica 1.32 0.38 0.15 Ipomea Ipomoea cornea 2.01 0.33 0.40 Calotrophis Calotrophis gigantean 2.06 0.54 0.31 Cassia Cassia fistula 1.60 0.24 1.20 Fig. 12.1 Raising Daincha Green Manure in rich field (a) Stem nodulating green manure Leguminous green manure plants produce root nodules and fix atmospheric N. Sesbania rostrata produces nodules on their stem besides root nodulation. This special feature adds their green manurial value. It is tropical legume of Senegal origin and thrives well under flooded",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Manure in rich field (a) Stem nodulating green manure Leguminous green manure plants produce root nodules and fix atmospheric N. Sesbania rostrata produces nodules on their stem besides root nodulation. This special feature adds their green manurial value. It is tropical legume of Senegal origin and thrives well under flooded and water logged conditions. It is capable of producing 22 tones of fresh biomass and could accumulate 150 kg N/ha in 45 days. It contains 3.3% N. 442 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Fig. 12.2 A view of Green Leaf Manure application in the main field (b) Daincha in reclamation of saline and alkali soils Green manuring practice in sodic soil has an unique importance since it adds acids in the reclamation process, besides improving the fertility status of the soil. Usually the fertility status of sodic soil is very poor because of its high pH and exchangeable sodium percentage. The soil organic matter content, a measure of available nitrogen, is very low i.e., 0.1-0.5% in sodic soil because sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate salts in solution dissolve the humus. Further the available nitrogen is much lower in the subsoil layers of the sodic soils. Reclamation of alkali soils basically involves replacing Na on the exchange complex with more favourable cations. The solubility of lime, which is always present in alkali soils in significant amounts, is very low, because the potassium content of alkali soil is high. There is an intimate relationship between soil pH, partial pressure of CO2 and calcium ion activity in calcareous alkali soils. Increase in CO2 production in the soil enables to increase the soluble Ca status of soils. This in turn, replaces exchangeable Na, resulting in the improvement of alkali soils. Soil incorporation of easily decomposable plant material results in increased and rapid production of CO2.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "ion activity in calcareous alkali soils. Increase in CO2 production in the soil enables to increase the soluble Ca status of soils. This in turn, replaces exchangeable Na, resulting in the improvement of alkali soils. Soil incorporation of easily decomposable plant material results in increased and rapid production of CO2. For this reason, green manuring has been suggested as an important management practice for the reclamation of alkali soils. Sesbania aculeata and Delonix elata are very effective green manures and green leaf manures respectively used for reclamation of sodic soils. Daincha (Sesbania aculeata) is highly resistant to both drought and water stagnation and salinity and alkalinity. It can be grown in soils with pH 4.5 to 9.5. It produces green matter of 20 t/ha in 90 days. Daincha contains 3.2% N and 34% Ca on dry weight basis which helps to replace Na from sodic soils. The acid juice (pH 4.0) and high seed protein content (58%) seems to be the cause of its resistance to sodicity stress. During the reclamation of sodic soils gypsum @ 50% of gypsum requirement (GR) has to be spread uniformly over the field. The surface soil is to be ploughed to mix the gypsum in the sodic soil. Irrigate the field with 10-15 cm depth of water and maintain the same water depth for 3-4 days. At this stage, the sodium content in clay particles are NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 443 replaced by the calcium ions from the gypsum, allowing the sodium to wash out of the field as Leachate. The field has to be kept with stagnant water for 3–4 times after each drainage process. Apply the vadanarayanan (Delonix elata) leaves and daincha @ 5 t/ha without allowing the soil to dry. After four to five days of incorporation of green leaves, the field crop",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the field as Leachate. The field has to be kept with stagnant water for 3–4 times after each drainage process. Apply the vadanarayanan (Delonix elata) leaves and daincha @ 5 t/ha without allowing the soil to dry. After four to five days of incorporation of green leaves, the field crop like rice with preferably a tolerant variety CO 43, TRY 1 etc. 12.5 FERTILIZERS Fertilizers are synthetic (commercially manufactured) or naturally occurring chemical compounds either dry solid or liquid that added to the soil to supply one or more plant nutrients for crop growth. 12.5.1 Classification The fertilizers are classified based on whether the fertilizer supplies a single or more than one nutrient, their chemical nature and commercial mode of supply as straight, compound, complex and mixed. 12.5.1.1 Straight Fertilizers When a fertilizer contains and is used for supplying a single nutrient, it is called a straight fertilizer. This is further classified as nitrogenous, phosphatic and potassic fertilizers depending on the specific macro nutrient present in the fertilizer. A. Nitrogenous fertilizers N fertilizers are those fertilizers containing N as major nutrient. It may be either a nitrate or ammonium or amide fertilizer depending on the form of nitrogen present. The nutrient composition of different N fertilizers are listed in Table 12.6. B. Phosphatic fertilizers They are classified into three groups, based on the solubility of phosphate contained in the fertilizer. Table 12.6. Nutrient Composition of different N Fertilizers Sources Nutrient content (Percent) available N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO S Cl Ammonium sulphate 20.6 24.0 NH4 + Ammonium chloride 25-26 66 ” Ammonium nitrate 33-34 NH4 and NO3 Ammonium sulphate nitrate 26.0 ” Anhydrous ammonia 82.0 ” Calcium ammonium nitrate 35 8.1 4.5 ” Calcium nitrate 15 34 NO3 Sodium nitrate 16 ” Urea 46 Amide Calcium cynamide 21 ” 444",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Ammonium sulphate 20.6 24.0 NH4 + Ammonium chloride 25-26 66 ” Ammonium nitrate 33-34 NH4 and NO3 Ammonium sulphate nitrate 26.0 ” Anhydrous ammonia 82.0 ” Calcium ammonium nitrate 35 8.1 4.5 ” Calcium nitrate 15 34 NO3 Sodium nitrate 16 ” Urea 46 Amide Calcium cynamide 21 ” 444 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (i) Water soluble phosphate (Mono calcium phosphate) Ca (H2PO4)2 Single super phosphate 16% Ca(H2PO4)2, H2O Double super phosphate 32% 2Ca (H2PO4)2, H2O Triple super phosphate 48% 3Ca (H2PO4)2, H2O (ii) Citric acid soluble phosphate (Di-calcium phosphate) Ca(H2PO4)2 Basic slag (CaO)3 P2O5SiO2 14-18% (by-product from steel industry) Di-Calcium Phosphate Ca2 (H2PO4)2 34-39% (iii) Insoluble phosphate (Tri-calcium phosphate)Ca3(PO4)2 Rock phosphate 20-40% Ca3(PO4)2 CaF2 Raw bone meal 20-25% Ca (PO4)3 CaF2 (2–4% N) Steamed bone meal 22%–30% (C) Potassic fertilizers Muriate of potash (KCI) 60% Sulphate of potash (K2SO4) 48–52% Potassium nitrate (KNO3) 48% (N-13%) Schoenite (K2SO4, MgSO4) 6H2O 22–24% 12.5.1.2 Compound Fertilizers Compound fertilizers are the commercial fertilizers in which two or more primary nutrients are chemically combined. For example: DAP. DAP contains 18% N and 46% P2O5. Table 12.7. Compound Fertilizers Fertilizer N P2O5 K2O Di ammonium phosphate (DAP) 18 46 Mono ammonium phosphate 11 48 Urea ammonium phosphate 28 28 Ammonium phosphate 16 20 12.5.1.3 Complex Fertilizers Complex fertilizers are the commercial fertilizers containing at least two or more of the primary essential nutrients at higher concentration in one compound. The nutrients in complex fertilizers are physically mixed. Table 12.8. Complex Fertilizers Fertilizer N P2O5 K2O Complex fertilizers 17 17 17 (MF) 14 28 14 (MF) 10 26 26 (IFFCO) 12 32 16 (IFFCO) 14 36 12 (IFFCO) Nitro-phosphate-potash 15 15 15 Gromor 14 35 14 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 445 12.5.1.4 Mixed Fertilizers/Fertilizers Mixtures They are physical mixtures of two or more straight fertilizers. Sometimes a complex",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Complex fertilizers 17 17 17 (MF) 14 28 14 (MF) 10 26 26 (IFFCO) 12 32 16 (IFFCO) 14 36 12 (IFFCO) Nitro-phosphate-potash 15 15 15 Gromor 14 35 14 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 445 12.5.1.4 Mixed Fertilizers/Fertilizers Mixtures They are physical mixtures of two or more straight fertilizers. Sometimes a complex fertilizer is also used as one of the ingredients. The mixing is done mechanically. The fertilizer mixtures are usually in powder form but techniques have been developed for granulation of mixtures so that each grain will contain all the nutrients mixed in the mixture. Table 12.9. Standard Fertilizer Mixtures for specific Crops Mixture No. Composition % Crops N P2O5 K2O 1. 14 7 0 Millets, rainfed cotton 2. 12 6 6 Fruit crops 3. 6 6 12 Fruit crops 4. 6 12 6 Potato, paddy 5. 9 9 9 Paddy, millets 6. 15 0 15 Top dressing for paddy, millets 7. 4 8 12 Groundnut 8. 6 6 18 Banana 9. 10 0 30 Banana 10. 15 5 5 Sugarcane 11. 16 4 4 Sugarcane 12. 16 0 12 Top dressing mixture 13. 10 10 0 Sorghum, pearl millet 14. 14 4 12 Coconut 15. 15 25 15 Paddy, millets, vegetables 16. 20 0 10 Sugarcane 17. 30 30 50 Tea 18. 17 17 17 Paddy (a) Salts containing secondary nutrients Calcium, sulphur and magnesium are termed as secondary nutrients since they are required comparatively less in quantity than primary nutrients (N, P, K) but more than micronutrients. They are added to the soil through some fertilizers, like ammonium sulphate, calcium ammonium nitrate and phosphatic fertilizers. Commercial fertilizers containing these secondary nutrients are: (i) Magnesium sulphate (Epsum) – 9.6% Mg and 13% S, and (ii) Calcium sulphate (Gypsum) – 9% Ca and 23% SO4. (b) Salts containing micronutrients Copper, zinc,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "added to the soil through some fertilizers, like ammonium sulphate, calcium ammonium nitrate and phosphatic fertilizers. Commercial fertilizers containing these secondary nutrients are: (i) Magnesium sulphate (Epsum) – 9.6% Mg and 13% S, and (ii) Calcium sulphate (Gypsum) – 9% Ca and 23% SO4. (b) Salts containing micronutrients Copper, zinc, boron, manganese, molybdenum, iron and chlorine are termed as micronutrients since they are required in micro quantities. They are added to the soil through some commercial fertilizers (Table 12.10). 446 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Table 12.10. Salts containing Micronutrients Sl.No. Salt Formula Nutrient content 1. Copper sulphate CuSO4 5H2O 25-35% Cu 2. Zinc sulphate ZnSO4 7H2O 22-35% Zn 3. Borax (sodium borate) Na2B4O710H2O 10.6% B 4. Manganese sulphate MnSO4 4H2O 23% Mn 5. Sodium molybdate Na2MoO42H2O 37-39% Mo 6. Ammonium molybdate (NH4)6 Mo O44H2O 54% Mo 7. Ferrous sulphate FeSO4 7H2O 20% Fe 12.6 BIO FERTILIZERS Bio fertilizers are the living organisms capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen or making native soil nutrients available to crops. Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed effectively by the microorganisms either in symbiotic association with plant system (Rhizobium, Azolla) or in associative symbiosis (Azospirillum) or in free living system (Azotobactor, phosphobacterium, blue green algae) or in micorhizal symbiosis (VAM fungi). (a) Rhizobium Rhizobium bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen symbiotically. They live in the nodules of host plants belonging to the family leguminoceae. The quantities of nitrogen fixed by Rhizobia differ with the rhizobial strain, the host plant and the environmental conditions under which the two develop. The species of the genus Rhizobium are numerous and require certain host plants. For example, the bacteria that live symbiotically with soybean will not do so with alfalfa. A list of common legumes and the rhizobial strains by which they are inoculated is given in the Table 12.11. Table 12.11. Classification",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "species of the genus Rhizobium are numerous and require certain host plants. For example, the bacteria that live symbiotically with soybean will not do so with alfalfa. A list of common legumes and the rhizobial strains by which they are inoculated is given in the Table 12.11. Table 12.11. Classification of Rhizobium–Legume Associations Rhizobium species Legumes 1. Rhizobium meliloti Alfalfa (Lucerne) 2. R. trifolii Clover 3. R. leguminosarum Peas 4. R. phaseoli Beans 5. R. lupine Lupine 6. R. japonicum Soybean 7. Rhizobium sp. Cowpea Fixation of nitrogen by the leguminous plants will be at maximum only when the level of available soil nitrogen is at the minimum. It is sometimes advisable to include a small amount of nitrogen in the fertilizer of legume crops at sowing time (as a starter dose) to ensure that the young seeding will have an adequate supply until the rhizobia can become established. Larger quantity of nitrogen or continued applications of nitrogen, however reduce the activity of the rhizobia and therefore they are generally NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 447 uneconomical. Rhizobial inoculation was found to fix 15-35 kg N per ha in a season on different pulse crops. Rhizobial inoculation can save up to 25% N fertilizer application to crops. (b) Azolla It is a small water fern of worldwide distribution under natural conditions. It contains the heterocystous blue green algae Anabaena azollae as a symbiont in an enclosed chamber in the dorsal leaf lobes. Azolla derives all its total nitrogen requirement by the symbiotic association with the algae. The Azolla–Anabaena system is agronomically most signification plant algal association and this is being employed as a nitrogen source for rice culture. There are six species of Azolla. They are Azolla caroliniana, Azolla filiculoides, Azolla mexicana, Azolla nilotica, Azolla microphylla and Azolla pinnata. Azolla contains 3.1-4.2% N;",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "with the algae. The Azolla–Anabaena system is agronomically most signification plant algal association and this is being employed as a nitrogen source for rice culture. There are six species of Azolla. They are Azolla caroliniana, Azolla filiculoides, Azolla mexicana, Azolla nilotica, Azolla microphylla and Azolla pinnata. Azolla contains 3.1-4.2% N; 0.16% P2O5 and 0.18% K2O on dry weight basis. (c) Azospirillum This bacterium is associated with cereals like rice, sorghum, maize, cumbu, ragi, tenai and other minor millets and also for cotton, sugarcane, oilseeds and fodder grasses. These bacteria colonizing in the roots not only remain on the root surface, but also a sizable proportion of them penetrates into the root tissues and lives in harmony with the plants. They do not, however, produce any visible nodules or out growth on the root tissue. In the absence of any plant, azospirillum live in the soil just like any other micro organism saprophytically, however, when a suitable crop is raised, they are attracted towards the root system, where they colonize and grow in almost a symbiotic manner. (d) Azatobacter The beneficial effects of Azatobacter on plants was associated (non-symbiotically) not only with the process of nitrogen fixation but also with the synthesis of complex of biologically active compounds such as nicotinic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, gibberellins and probably other compounds which stimulate the germination of seeds and accelerate plant growth. Azatobacter population in soil or near the root zone of crops (Rhizosphere) is very low when compared to other soil bacteria. The nitrogen fixation potential of this bacterium is also not very high and appreciable (20 to 30 kg of N per ha per year). A fairly high population is required for substantial nitrogen fixation. Enormous energy is required by Azatobacter for nitrogen fixation. The possible source of energy for Azatobacter is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "nitrogen fixation potential of this bacterium is also not very high and appreciable (20 to 30 kg of N per ha per year). A fairly high population is required for substantial nitrogen fixation. Enormous energy is required by Azatobacter for nitrogen fixation. The possible source of energy for Azatobacter is the soil organic matter. The energy generated during the utilization of organic matter is used for nitrogen fixation. (e) Blue green algae The blue green algae occur under a wide range of environmental conditions. They are completely auto tropic and require light, water, free nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and salts containing the essential mineral elements. They play a major role in the nitrogen economy of paddy soils in tropical countries. Different algal species available are: • Tolypothric tenuis, • Nostoc, • Plectonema, • Chlorococous, • Aulosira fertilization, • Anabaena, and • Chorococcum (f) Phosphobacterium In most of the acid and clayey soils, the applied phosphorus either as super phosphate or mussoriphos will not be available to crops due to fixation. It is essential to use the phosphobacteria (a free living bacteria in soils like Bacillus megatherium) for proper solubilisation of fixed P and release them in the available form for the crop to take-up for its growth. Dual inoculation of the phosphobacteria with rhizobium or azospirillum can provide both N and P to the crop. 448 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (g) Mycorrhizae (VAM) Vesicular Arbiscular Mycorrhiza is a fungi used as bio-fertilizer. The mycorhizal symbiosis is an intimate association between plant root system and certain group of soil fungi. The plant provides carbon as energy source to the fungus which in turn helps the plant in better uptake of nutrients (especially P). The VAM fungi form either a mantle of hyphae around the root or penetrate inside the roots",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "between plant root system and certain group of soil fungi. The plant provides carbon as energy source to the fungus which in turn helps the plant in better uptake of nutrients (especially P). The VAM fungi form either a mantle of hyphae around the root or penetrate inside the roots spreading intra or intercellularly in the cortical region. The fungal mycelium also extends several centimeter, away from the root in the soil. The area that the plant can explore for nutrients thus greatly increase due to colonization of plant roots by the mycorrhizal fungi. The development of mycorrhiza network is much more in soils with low fertility. In nutrient rich soils, there is very little extension of mycelial network. The mycelial growth is confined to the close proximity of roots. Mycorrhiza increases crop yield, protect against certain root pathogen, helps in uptake of P, Cu, Zn and B and increases tolerance to environmental stress. 12.7 FACTORS AFFECTING MANURES AND FERTILIZERS USE Major factors influencing the selection, quantity, time and method of application of manures and fertilizers are: Soil factors They most important factors are, soil physical condition (texture), soil fertility and soil reaction. • Poor physical condition of the soil leads to poor plant growth due to impeded drainage, restricted aeration and unfavourable soil temperature. In this condition nutrients will not be used efficiency. • Optimum soil moisture regime is essential for efficient use of fertilizers by crops. • The availability of nutrients is poor in coarse textured soil when compared to fine textured soils. The coarse textured soil needs more frequent application of fertilizers when compared to heavy textured soil. • The higher the fertility of soil, the lower is the response to manures and fertilizers. • When the organic matter of the soil is higher, the response to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "compared to fine textured soils. The coarse textured soil needs more frequent application of fertilizers when compared to heavy textured soil. • The higher the fertility of soil, the lower is the response to manures and fertilizers. • When the organic matter of the soil is higher, the response to fertilizer by crops is more. • Soil reaction is important for selection of right type of fertilizers Rock Phosphate is advantageous in acid soils. Crop factors • The response of crop to fertilizers varies with the nature of crop and variety of the crop. • The fertilizer responsiveness of a plant depends on the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the roots. The root CEC of dicotyledonous plants is much higher than that of monocotyledonous plants. Plants with higher CEC absorb more of divalent cations (Ca, Mg) whereas plants with low CEC absorb more of monovalent ions (K, Na). • The ability of the crop to absorb nutrients from the soil depends upon the size of the root system (root length and spread) and characteristics like root surface and root hair density etc. Large ramifying root system absorbs more nutrients. • The association of mycorrhizal fungi with the roots of plants grown under conditions of low soil fertility, increases the ability of plants to absorb nutrients such as P, K, Cu and Zn. Normally N, P and complete fertilizer application reduce the presence and activity of Mycorrhiza. Agronomic factors Fertilizer responsiveness of crops depends on timely sowing, proper spacing, proper dose, time and method of fertilizer application. NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 449 Other factors • Climatic factors Under drought and excess moisture condition, foliar spray can be recommended. In high rainfall area, split application of fertilizers and application of slow release nitrogenous fertilizers are recommended. • Yield goal The economic yield or potential",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "time and method of fertilizer application. NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 449 Other factors • Climatic factors Under drought and excess moisture condition, foliar spray can be recommended. In high rainfall area, split application of fertilizers and application of slow release nitrogenous fertilizers are recommended. • Yield goal The economic yield or potential yield or targeted yield decides the quantity of manures and fertilizers application. For higher crop yield optimum or maximum amount of fertilizers are to be applied. • Cost of fertilizers Not only the cost of fertilizers and manures but also the cost of together produce decide the quantity of manures and fertilizer to be applied i.e., depend on the profit from the crop. It may be maximum profit or maximum rate of return per rupee invested. • Availability of manures and fertilizers Timely availability of manures and fertilizers, transport facility and labour for application decides the quantity. Now-a-days, manures are not available to the required level due to various reasons. Slow release fertilizers are developed to prevent the loss of nutrients by leaching and nitrification. It releases nutrients slowly and uniformly and increases the fertilizer use efficiency. Examples: Neem coated Urea, Sulphur coated Urea, Lac coated Urea, Tar coated Urea, N-Serve, Isobutylidine di Urea (IBDU), Thiourea etc. 12.8 TIME OF APPLICATION • Before preparatory tillage: Bulky organic manures, green manures, soil amendments and soil conditions are applied before preparatory tillage for thorough mixing with the soil. • Basal dressing: Application of manures and fertilizers before last ploughing/puddling or before sowing or planting. • At sowing or planting: Concentrated organic manures, readily soluble and higher mobile fertilizers, slow release fertilizers, starter dose of N fertilizer to legume crops and fertilizer for specific nutrient deficient soil are applied during this time. • Top dressing: It is the application of manures and fertilizers",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "or planting. • At sowing or planting: Concentrated organic manures, readily soluble and higher mobile fertilizers, slow release fertilizers, starter dose of N fertilizer to legume crops and fertilizer for specific nutrient deficient soil are applied during this time. • Top dressing: It is the application of manures and fertilizers to the established crop within crop duration. Top dressing may be done to the soil or to the foliage. Split application of nitrogen and potassium is done throughout the cropping period to increase the fertilizer use efficiency. 12.8.1 Method of Application The choice of method and time of fertilizer application depends on the form and amount of fertilizer, convenience of the farmer, the efficiency and safety of fertilizer application. I. Solid Form 1. Broadcasting The manures and fertilizers are scattered uniformly over the field before planting the crop and are incorporated by tilling or cultivating. 2. Drilling and placement Fertilizers are placed in the soil furrows formed at the desired depth. Placement can be done by the following ways. (i) Plough sole placement In this method of fertilizers are applied or dropped in the plough sole, which will be covered by the plough during the opening of adjacent furrow. (ii) Deep placement Fertilizers or manures are placed at the bottom of the top soil at a depth of 10-12 cm, especially in the puddle rice soil. (iii) Sub soil application Fertilizers are applied in the subsoil especially for tree crops and orchard crops at a depth above 15 cm. 450 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 3. Location or spot application Fertilizers are placed in the root zone or the spot near the roots from which roots can absorb easily. (i) Contact of drill placement Fertilizers or manures are placed at the time of drilling for placing the seeds. Fertilizers or manures",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 3. Location or spot application Fertilizers are placed in the root zone or the spot near the roots from which roots can absorb easily. (i) Contact of drill placement Fertilizers or manures are placed at the time of drilling for placing the seeds. Fertilizers or manures will have good contact with the seeds or seedlings. (ii) Band placement This is the placement of manures or fertilizers or both in bands on the side or both sides of the row at about 5 cm away from the seed or plant in any direction. Such band placement is of three types. (a) Hill placement In widely spaced crops, like cotton, castor, cucurbits fertilizers or manures are applied on both sides of plants only but not continuously along the row. (b) Row placement In widely spaced crops between rows (Example–Sugarcane, maize, tobacco, potato) manures or fertilizers are placed on one or both sides of the row in continuous bands. (c) Circular placement Application of manures and fertilizers around the hill or the trunk of fruit tree crops in the active root zone. (iii) Pocket placement Application of fertilizers deep in soil to increase its efficiency Especially for the sugarcane pocket placement is done. Fertilizers are put in 2 to 3 pockets opened around every hill by means of a sharp stick. (iv) Side dressing It refers to hill and ring placement of manures or fertilizers. It consists of spreading the fertilizer between the rows or around the plants. (v) Pellet application Nitrogen fertilizers are pelleted like mud ball or urea super granules (USG) and placed deep (10 cm) into the saturated soils (reduced zone) of wet land rice to avoid nitrogen loss from applied fertilizers. Generally placement of fertilizer is done for three reasons. • Efficient use of plant",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Pellet application Nitrogen fertilizers are pelleted like mud ball or urea super granules (USG) and placed deep (10 cm) into the saturated soils (reduced zone) of wet land rice to avoid nitrogen loss from applied fertilizers. Generally placement of fertilizer is done for three reasons. • Efficient use of plant nutrients from plant emergence to maturity. • To avoid the fixation of phosphate in acid soils. • Convenience to the grower. II. Liquid form Foliar application: It refers to spraying of fertilizer solution on the foliage of plants for quick recovery from the deficiency (either N or S). Fertigation: It is the application of fertilizer dissolved in irrigation water in either open or closed system i.e., lined or unlined open ditches and sprinkler or trickle systems respectively. Starter solutions: They are solutions of fertilizers prepared in low concentrations which are used for soaking seeds, dipping roots, spraying on seedlings etc., nutrient deficient areas for early establishment and growth. Direct application to the soil: Liquid fertilizers like anhydrous ammonia are applied directly to the soil with special injecting equipments. Liquid manures such as urine, sewage water and cattle shed washing are directly let into the field. 12.9 INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT (INM) Judicious combination of inorganic, organic and bio-fertilizers which replenishes the soil nutrients removed by the crops is referred as integrated nutrient management system. A. Concept The concept of INM is to integrate the nutrient sources and methods of organic and inorganic nutrient NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 451 application to maintain soil fertility and productivity i.e., the complementary use of chemical fertilizers, organic manures and bio-fertilizers to solve the problems of nutrient supply, soil productivity and environment. Developing an INM system for a particular crop sequence to a specific location requires a thorough understanding of (i) the effects of previous crop, (ii) contribution",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and productivity i.e., the complementary use of chemical fertilizers, organic manures and bio-fertilizers to solve the problems of nutrient supply, soil productivity and environment. Developing an INM system for a particular crop sequence to a specific location requires a thorough understanding of (i) the effects of previous crop, (ii) contribution of legume in the cropping system, (iii) residual effect of fertilizers, and (iv) direct, residual and cumulative effect of organic manures for supplementing and complementing the use of chemical fertilizers. The main components of the N supply system are the organic manures green manures, crop residues, crop rotation and inter cropping involving legumes and cereals, bio-fertilizers including rhizobium, azotobacter, azospirillum, phosphorus solubilizing micro-organisms like mycorrhizal fungi, azolla, blue green algae and cyanobacteria. All these can serve as an important supplementary source of nutrients along with the chemical fertilizers. Thus, INM is environmentally non-degradable, technically appropriate economically viable and socially acceptable. Balanced nutrition for sustainable crop production The rate of growth of agriculture in its broad coverage of crop production is much below the national growth rate. If the economy of country is to be improved through agriculture, it has to strengthen its programmes in such a manner to better utilize the natural resources along with balanced use of chemical fertilizers and other inputs. For increasing the food production to fulfill the food requirements of the burgeoning population of the country, sustainability of agriculture and environmental safety are the priority issues. To avoid wastage of precious national resources and to minimize the environmental damage, there is need to develop and demonstrate balanced use of chemical fertilizer. This will not only improve the crop production in sustainable way but also economize the crop production. Higher food production needs higher amount of plant nutrients. As no single source is capable of supplying the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the environmental damage, there is need to develop and demonstrate balanced use of chemical fertilizer. This will not only improve the crop production in sustainable way but also economize the crop production. Higher food production needs higher amount of plant nutrients. As no single source is capable of supplying the required amount of nutrients, integrated use of all sources is a must to supply balanced nutrition to plants. What is balanced nutrition? Balanced fertilization does not mean a certain definite proportion of N, P and K or other nutrients to be added in the form of fertilizer, but it has to taken into account the availability of nutrients already present in the soil, crop requirement and other factors like crop removal of nutrients, the economics of fertilizers and profitability, farmers ability to invest, agro-techniques, soil moisture regime, weed control, plant protection, seed rate, sowing time, soil salinity, alkalinity, physical environment, microbiological condition of the soil, available nutrient status of soil, cropping sequence, etc. It is not a state but a dynamic concept. The balanced use of fertilizers should be mainly aimed at: (a) increasing crop yield, (b) increasing crop quality, (c) increasing farm income, (d) correction of inherent soil nutrient deficiencies, (e) maintaining or improving lasting soil fertility, (f) avoiding damage to the environment, and (g) restoring fertility and productivity of the land that has been degraded by wrong and exploitative activities in the past. Balanced use of plant nutrients corrects nutrient deficiency, improves soil fertility, increases nutrient and water use efficiency, enhances crop yields and farmer’s income, improves crop and environmental quality. To reap the benefits of balanced use of plant nutrients, it is important to have good quality seed, adequate moisture and better agronomic practices with greater emphasis on timeliness and precision in farm operations. Soil testing is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "use efficiency, enhances crop yields and farmer’s income, improves crop and environmental quality. To reap the benefits of balanced use of plant nutrients, it is important to have good quality seed, adequate moisture and better agronomic practices with greater emphasis on timeliness and precision in farm operations. Soil testing is one of the most important tools to practice balanced fertilization. Balanced fertilizer rates differ from area to area and also from crop to crop. Through soil testing, farmers can know how much and what kind of fertilizer to use for each crop. A further refinement in fertilizer dose is possible 452 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY on the basis of type of crop and its variety, water availability and its quality, availability of organic manures, crop residues, biofertilizers, etc. Since the initiation of green revolution in late sixties, India has made a remarkable progress in fertilizer nutrient use with the introduction of high yielding varieties of wheat and rice. Crop production under intensified agriculture over the years has resulted in large scale removal of nutrients from the soil, resulting in negative balance and declining soil fertility. Organic sources are undoubtedly an important source of nutrients but their amounts and available nutrient content and the release rate is woefully inadequate for meeting the demands of intensive and high yielding crop production. India is presently using 15 m.t. of nutrients in the form of chemical fertilizers. Supplying the same through organic sources would require more than a thousand m.t., which is an impossible task indeed. Such organic manures in monumental volumes are neither available nor can be generated. Thus organic sources of nutrients can only be relied upon on meeting parts of the nutrients needs of the crop. They should be added along with chemical fertilizers for ensuring stability and sustainability of food",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "task indeed. Such organic manures in monumental volumes are neither available nor can be generated. Thus organic sources of nutrients can only be relied upon on meeting parts of the nutrients needs of the crop. They should be added along with chemical fertilizers for ensuring stability and sustainability of food production. In India, fertilizer consumption increased from less than 50,000 t in 1950 to 15 m.t. in 2000 and the food grain production increased from 50 m.t. to 200 mt in the same period, indicating a direct relationship between the fertilizer use and yield increase. The green revolution or spectacular increase in production would not have been possible without many fold increase in use of fertilizers. The high yielding varieties became a catalyst for the conversion of chemical energy into biological productivity. The full potential of these varieties were not yet realized. Even the optimum potential of available technology remains mostly unrealized in most regions as nutrient input does not match the needs of the crop and soil. There are vast differences in consumption of fertilizers per ha of cropped area in different regions. The fertilizer consumption varies from 114, 103, 58, 47 kg (NPK) per ha cropped area in north, south, east and west respectively. Some states like Punjab are using more than 167 kg nutrients per ha as against some using less than 10 kg nutrients per ha. About 70–80 per cent fertilizer is used for growing rice and wheat. Besides these the major recipients of the remaining fertilizer use are sugarcane, cotton, potato, plantation and horticulture crops. The lowest fertilizer use is in rainfed farming, which covers nearly 66 per cent of the total cropped area in the country. It hardly needs to be stressed that in these rainfed areas more from deficiency than moisture inadequacy. But",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fertilizer use are sugarcane, cotton, potato, plantation and horticulture crops. The lowest fertilizer use is in rainfed farming, which covers nearly 66 per cent of the total cropped area in the country. It hardly needs to be stressed that in these rainfed areas more from deficiency than moisture inadequacy. But the later is more appreciated than the former. There are also wide differences in the consumption ratio of three major nutrients N:P2O5:K2O in different regions, crops and cropping systems. These differences also got magnified and showed aberrations due to adhoc changes in pricing policy of fertilizers during the recent years. This and the NPK ratio for India changed from 5.9:2.4:1.0 in 1991-92 to 9.7:2.9:1.0 in 1993-94. There is also divergence in ratios in different regions. While the ratio in 1995-96 was 41.4:8.5: 1.0 in northern states and 3.8:1.4:1.0 in southern states. Such divergence in new ratio is also due to the differences in the quality of land, inherent soil fertility, cropping systems and degree of exploitive agriculture. Soil test summarizes indicate that 98 per cent Indian soils have low to medium available P and 60 per cent medium K status whereas, N continues to be universally deficient. 47 per cent soils are deficient in Zn, 12 per cent Cu and 4 per cent in Mn. In some states and crops, the deficiency of B and Mo are also becoming limiting factors for crop production. In recent years, a phenomenal increase in S deficiency has been witnessed specially under intensive cropping system where high analysis fertilizers devoid of S are used. The S deficiency is more pronounced in crops like oil seeds, legumes and intensively fertilized rice and wheat. In fact, the spectrum of S deficiency is increasing so rapidly that in future, it will become one of the major yield",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "system where high analysis fertilizers devoid of S are used. The S deficiency is more pronounced in crops like oil seeds, legumes and intensively fertilized rice and wheat. In fact, the spectrum of S deficiency is increasing so rapidly that in future, it will become one of the major yield limiting factors. It is said that the planners are more concerned with the yield barriers of some high yielding varieties but do not seem to be concerned with NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 453 the rapidly changing scenario of plant nutrient deficiency and the pivotal role of fertilizers in food security. Thus in a situation where besides NPK, the nutrients such as Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu, B and S are also becoming limiting factors. It is unthinkable to have a sustained food security without balanced and integrated use of nutrients from external sources. The spectrum of nutrient deficiency is becoming more apparent under areas of intensive cropping systems which are the main contributors of National food stock of Food Corporation of India. There are signs of yield stagnation and low responses to fertilizers and other inputs because of imbalanced fertilizer use. Nitrogen no doubt is the most limiting factor for Indian agriculture, but nitrogen alone is not enough and fertilizer does not mean nitrogen fertilizers only. Lack of this appreciation has led to poor results in most cases. Improving N use efficiency is the major problem for improving economy of its use especially in rice growing areas. Green manuring with legumes and other means of biological nitrogen fixations such as through BGA, Azolla, etc., can contribute to some of the N needs of rice crop but there are numerous technological, economic and operational problems to their use. At best, they can be relied upon for 30-60 kg supply under good management. The efficiency",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "means of biological nitrogen fixations such as through BGA, Azolla, etc., can contribute to some of the N needs of rice crop but there are numerous technological, economic and operational problems to their use. At best, they can be relied upon for 30-60 kg supply under good management. The efficiency of use of biofertilizers is more crop specific, location specific and management specific and unless, there is a reliable system of quality control and a good system of storage, transportation and management in the field, the expected contribution will not be realized. No doubt the awareness of balanced use of fertilizers is growing, but enormously wide N:P:K ratio are a matter of great concern. It is amazing that NPK ratios in Haryana during 1995-96 was 186:42:1 as against 64:14:1 in Punjab and 1.9:0.6: 1 in Tamil Nadu as against 8.9:2.8:1 in whole of India. Bringing this ratio closer to the desirable ratio of 4:2:1 for cereals is essential for maximizing the efficiency of fertilizers. The situation of P and K is more worrisome in India. The declining use efficiency of fertilizers and of soil productivity is other matters of concern. This fatiguing effect is more prominent in frontier states of green revolution such as Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and other intensively cropped areas of the country. It has been estimated that annually we are robbing the soil of more nutrients in the form of biomass than returning to it in the form of fertilizer and manures. The annual negative balance seems to be of the order of about 10 m.t. of NPK. It will become manifold when we attempt doubling the productivity and production. If this nutrient drain continues, the sustained high productivity and sustainability of agriculture will be an impossible task. India is adding every year population to one",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "seems to be of the order of about 10 m.t. of NPK. It will become manifold when we attempt doubling the productivity and production. If this nutrient drain continues, the sustained high productivity and sustainability of agriculture will be an impossible task. India is adding every year population to one Australia and New Zealand and it is estimated that by 2025, the population of the country will touch 1.4 billion mark. For feeding such a large population, India may need about 300 million tones of food grains annually. It may require 35-45 m.t. of nutrients from both organic and inorganic sources of fertilizers. Besides these, it will also need thousand tones of Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and B. It is not only the huge amounts of fertilizer nutrients which matters but also the use efficiency and management system which will determine their economics or benefit/cost ratio is equally important. Thus the key to future national food security and national security lies in balanced and integrated supply and management system, and there is no alternative to it. Balanced fertilizer use is also necessary to improve the economics or profitability of fertilizer use which provides incentive to farmer for its efficient use. It also improves the quality of the produce which is very much in demand for the export market as well as for home market. It hardly needs to be stressed that many wrong notions about fertilizer use spoiling the soil quality are related to imbalanced and imprudent use of nitrogenous fertilizers only. No single source of plant nutrient, whether it is chemical fertilizer or organic manure or green manure or biofertilizer or crop residue is in a position to meet the growing crop nutrient need. Moreover, the right kind of nutrients required by the crop crops may not be achieved",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fertilizers only. No single source of plant nutrient, whether it is chemical fertilizer or organic manure or green manure or biofertilizer or crop residue is in a position to meet the growing crop nutrient need. Moreover, the right kind of nutrients required by the crop crops may not be achieved from a single source. For example, different chemical fertilizers can supply the nutrients like N, P, K, Zn and S; Green manuring use can meet a part of N requirement, one t organic manure can add about 12 kg NPK and also some 454 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY micronutrients; crop residue like rice straw is a good source of potassium and use of biofertilizers can supply nitrogen @ 20-25 kg/ha and mobilize soil phosphorus. This implies that integrated use of plant nutrients is essential mainly for two obvious reasons: (i) to increase nutrient supply, and (ii) practice balanced fertilization. In addition integrated use of different sources of plant nutrient helps to increase their efficiencies and also crop productivity. Efforts should be made to educate farmers to practice balanced use of fertilizers. Of late, some fertilizer companies and associations have come forward to educate the villagers, publication of literature in regional languages related to balanced use of fertilizers for higher crop yields in a sustainable way. The actual time has come; the farmers, researchers and other related communities should come forward and act in this respect. The chemical fertilizers should be used judiciously and use manures along with chemical fertilizers for improving the crop yield and soil productivity in a sustainable way. Chapter 13 Dry Land Agriculture 13.1 INTRODUCTION Growing of crops entirely under rainfed conditions is known as dry land agriculture. Depending on the amount of rainfall received, dry land agriculture can be grouped into three categories viz., 1. Dry",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "improving the crop yield and soil productivity in a sustainable way. Chapter 13 Dry Land Agriculture 13.1 INTRODUCTION Growing of crops entirely under rainfed conditions is known as dry land agriculture. Depending on the amount of rainfall received, dry land agriculture can be grouped into three categories viz., 1. Dry farming, 2. Dry land farming, and 3. Rainfed farming. Dry farming is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall of less than 750 mm. Crop failure is most common due to prolonged dry spells during the crop period. These are arid regions with a growing season (period of adequate soil moisture) of less than 75 days. Moisture conservation practices are necessary for crop production. Emphasis is on soil and water conservation, sustainable crop yields and limited fertilizer use according to soil moisture availability. Dry land farming is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall of more than 750 mm. In spite of prolonged dry spells, crop failure is relatively less frequent. These are semiarid tracts with a growing period between 75 and 120 days. Moisture conservation practices are necessary for crop production. However, adequate drainage is required especially for vertisols. Main emphasis is on soil and water conservation, sustainable crop yields and limited fertilizer use according to soil moisture availability. Rainfed farming is crop production in regions with annual rainfall of more than 1150 mm. Crops are not subjected to soil moisture stress during the crop period. These are humid regions with growing Table 13.1. Distinguishing Features of Dry Land Farming and Rainfed Farming Constituent Dry land farming Rainfed farming Rainfall (mm) <800 >800 Moisture availability to the crop Shortage Enough Growing season (days) <200 >200 Growing regions Arid and semiarid as well as uplands Humid and of sub-humid and humid region sub-humid regions Cropping system Single crop",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Dry Land Farming and Rainfed Farming Constituent Dry land farming Rainfed farming Rainfall (mm) <800 >800 Moisture availability to the crop Shortage Enough Growing season (days) <200 >200 Growing regions Arid and semiarid as well as uplands Humid and of sub-humid and humid region sub-humid regions Cropping system Single crop or intercropping Intercropping or double cropping Constraints Wind and water erosion Water erosion 456 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY period of more than 120 days. Emphasis is on disposal of excess water, maximum crop yield, high levels of inputs and control of water erosion. UNESCO for Asia and the Pacific distinguished dry land agriculture mainly into two categories: dry land and rainfed farming. The distinguishing features of these two types of farming are given in Table 13.1. The words “Arid” and “Semiarid” must be understood differentially from dry farming. All the dry farming areas are located in arid and semi arid regions only. But not all the arid and semiarid regions come under dry farming areas. When irrigation facilities are available, irrigated farming is practiced extensively in arid and semiarid regions also. Similarly the two words arid/semiarid and tropical/ temperate must be understood correctly. Arid or semiarid refers to moisture regimes where as tropical or temperate refers to thermal (temperature) regimes of an area. A. Arid Regions of the World The climate of arid region is characterized by very low rainfall, usually less than 200 mm per year, occurring in a very short period, rainless dry spells, may at times, stretch for more than a year. Depending on temperature regimes and location from the equator, the arid regions are classified into Arid Tropics with mean annual temperature exceeding 18ºC and Arid Temperate regions with mean annual temperature less than 18ºC. The following are the five arid zones in the world: 1.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for more than a year. Depending on temperature regimes and location from the equator, the arid regions are classified into Arid Tropics with mean annual temperature exceeding 18ºC and Arid Temperate regions with mean annual temperature less than 18ºC. The following are the five arid zones in the world: 1. North African Eurasian–Sahara and Tar desert 2. North American desert–Arizona in USA 3. South American desert–Peru 4. South African desert–Namibia 5. Australian desert–Central Australia B. Semi Arid Regions of the World Depending on distance from the equator and temperature regimes, semi arid regions are divided into Semi Arid Tropics, usually termed as SAT regions and semi arid temperate regions. (a) Semi arid tropics (SAT): This region lies between 10º and 30º N and S latitudes. It is spread over 48 countries in four continents of Asia, Australia, America and Africa. It covers many parts in Africa, India, Pakistan and North Eastern Burma in Asia, Northern Australia and Mexico, Paraguay, Bolivia and Venezuela in South America. The total area of SAT is estimated to be 18.9 million square kilometers. West Africa accounts for 24% of semi arid tropics, East Africa 18%, South Africa 20%, Latin America 17%, Australia 10% and South Asia 11%. A semi arid climate is essentially a mixed climate in which a fairly moist or rainy season alternates with a completely dry season. Hence, the climate is described as alternating wet and dry climate. Rainfall occurs during 2-7 months of the year. When number of wet months is 2.0-4.5, it is described as dry SAT and when rainy month ranges from 4.5 to 7.0, it is called as wet SAT. Rainfall quantity ranges from 400-750 mm per year, with a variability of 20-30%. But, the onset, closure and duration of rainy season exhibits wide variability between years. Distribution",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2.0-4.5, it is described as dry SAT and when rainy month ranges from 4.5 to 7.0, it is called as wet SAT. Rainfall quantity ranges from 400-750 mm per year, with a variability of 20-30%. But, the onset, closure and duration of rainy season exhibits wide variability between years. Distribution of rainfall within the season also exhibits wide fluctuations between years. A greater portion of rainfall is received in high intensity over a short duration, leading to run off. Mean annual temperature is more than 18ºC and during most months, PET is higher than precipitation. Soil moisture inadequacy is the major constraint for cropping. (b) Semi arid temperate region: It covers in Russia, North Western China, USA and Canada. Though annual rainfall is low, PET also is low during many months. Mean annual temperature is less than DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 457 18ºC. Maximum temperature during summer is 33ºC while minimum temperature may reach −26ºC during winter months. Temperature rather than moisture is the critical limiting factor for crop production. 13.2 INDIAN AGRICULTURE SCENARIO A. Location India, a tropical country is located between 8° and 36° N of the equator and between 68° and 96° E longitude. B. Temperature The tropic of cancer, which passes through the middle of the country, divides it into two distinct climates. The tropical climate in the South where all the 12 months of the year have mean daily temperature exceeding 20°C; and in the North where a sub-tropical climate prevails. In sub-tropics during the winter months, it is cool to cold. Frosts occur sometime during the months of December and January. Some areas in the Northern India have a temperate climate. Here, it snows during the winter months and freezing temperatures may extend to two months or more during the year. C. Rainfall Rainfall in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "months, it is cool to cold. Frosts occur sometime during the months of December and January. Some areas in the Northern India have a temperate climate. Here, it snows during the winter months and freezing temperatures may extend to two months or more during the year. C. Rainfall Rainfall in India varies considerably. In some parts of the Thar desert, located in Western Rajasthan, the annual rainfall is as low as 100 mm; while in the East, the annual rainfall may be as high as 10,000 mm or more. In some areas, it may rain for a month or two during the year, in others as many as 11 months may be rainy. Rainfall aberrations Deficit in the quantity of rainfall adversely affects crops growth through inadequate supply of moisture. It leads to lower yield and even complete crop failure. High intensity rainfall causes runoff and soil erosion. It reduces the storage of rainfall in the soil. Erratic distribution leads to long dry spells during crop growth and cause moisture stress. High variability in the onset of rainy season affects time of sowing. Delayed onset also affects crop choice. Early withdrawal or cessation of rainfall before the normal time of closure will lead to moisture stress at maturity and reduce crop yield. Dry spells during rainy season affect crop growth depending on length of dry spell, sage of occurrence and soil type. Dry spells over 3 weeks are usually harmful. Dry spell after sowing Germination and establishment affected At vegetative stage Stem elongation, leaf area expansion and affects dry matter accumulation. At flowering Very critical for pollination and affects grain setting. At ripening Affects grain development and yield. Rainfall on crop production: Primary source of water for the earth is precipitation. About 40% of food produced depends on rainfall. The",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "stage Stem elongation, leaf area expansion and affects dry matter accumulation. At flowering Very critical for pollination and affects grain setting. At ripening Affects grain development and yield. Rainfall on crop production: Primary source of water for the earth is precipitation. About 40% of food produced depends on rainfall. The choice of crop and variety depends on rainfall. The crops depend on rainfall for their moisture need. Though rivers, tanks and well can supplement the rainfall, these sources also depend on the rains ultimately. Deficient rains limits crop growth and heavy rains are even more harmful. Occurrence of drought and famines are mainly due to inadequate rainfall over a continuous period of time. D. Monsoon India is a monsoonal country. In the tropical and sub-tropical regions, almost 80% of the total annual 458 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY rainfall is received during the monsoon-rainy season. There are two types of monsoons received in India. During the main rainy season extending from June/July to September/October, the rains we receive are called as Southwest monsoons. They are called thus, because the rainy season sets in first in the South of India and rains progress gradually towards the West of the country. (i) Onset of monsoon: At Trivandrum in Kerala State, the south-west monsoon breaks around June 1; at Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh around June 5; at Mumbai around June 10; and at Jaipur or Jodhpur towards end of June or early July. The normal dates of onset are just averages, in actual terms there may be a week or 10 days delay or earliness. These are just guide dates for agricultural operations or crop calendars. The actual dates vary from year to year. North-east monsoons occur due to cyclonic disturbances in the Bay of Bengal. Their normal date of onset is between November",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "there may be a week or 10 days delay or earliness. These are just guide dates for agricultural operations or crop calendars. The actual dates vary from year to year. North-east monsoons occur due to cyclonic disturbances in the Bay of Bengal. Their normal date of onset is between November 1 and November 15. These rains withdraw by about end of January and occur in areas located below 10°N latitude in India. (ii) Rainfall distribution: The rainy season extends to about 2-4 months across most of agricultural regions in Northern and North-west India; it extends to 5 months in Peninsular India (e.g., Hyderabad), and is of a much longer duration in some Southern areas (e.g., Bangalore or Trivandrum). (iii) Rainfall climatology: Study of rainfall over a long period is called rainfall climatology. It reveals general pattern of rainfall of a particular place. It helps in understanding the amount, intensity, distribution and other rainfall characteristics. Rainfall analysis also helps in classification of climate. Suitable and efficient cropping systems can be developed by understanding the rainfall pattern. Rainfall analysis helps in taking decisions on time of sowing, scheduling irrigation, time of harvesting etc. It is necessary for designing farm ponds, tanks or irrigation projects. Amount, distribution and intensity of rainfall are the important aspects of rainfall that have considerable influence on crop production. Precipitation is water in liquid or solid forms, falling to the earth. It always precedes condensation or sublimation or a combination of the two and is primarily associated with raising air. In the same way, isotherms and isobars are used to show temperature and pressure distribution respectively, isohyets for rainfall distribution. An isohyet is a line connecting points with equal values of rainfall. Change of state from water vapour to liquid water is condensation. When moist air comes in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "raising air. In the same way, isotherms and isobars are used to show temperature and pressure distribution respectively, isohyets for rainfall distribution. An isohyet is a line connecting points with equal values of rainfall. Change of state from water vapour to liquid water is condensation. When moist air comes in contact with cool surfaces, it may be cooled to the point where its capacity to hold water vapour is exceeded by the actual amount in the air. Part of the water vapour then condenses into liquid form on the cool surface, produce dew. When this happens, the latent heat of vaporization, in this process, called the latent heat of condensation is released. At temperature below freezing, water may bypass the liquid form in its change of state. When dry air with a temperature well below freezing comes in contact with ice, molecules of ice (H2O) pass directly into the vapour state by the processes of sublimation. (iv) Forms of precipitation: Condensation forms of fog, dew and frost are not considered to be precipitation. The common precipitation forms are rain, drizzle, snow, sleet and hail. Of these, drizzle and light snow are the only forms likely to fall from clouds having little or no vertical development. Fog results when atmospheric water vapour condenses to water droplets or ice crystals, become visible and will have their base in contact with ground. (v) Types of rainfall based on distribution: In India, all areas located between 20°N of equator to 40°N, the rainfall is unimodal and almost all of the annual rainfall is received due to South-west monsoons. In South India, the areas located below 10°N, the rainfall is bimodal or it has two peaks–one peak during the South-west rainy season and the second peak in North-east monsoon. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 459 (vi) Rainfall",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "unimodal and almost all of the annual rainfall is received due to South-west monsoons. In South India, the areas located below 10°N, the rainfall is bimodal or it has two peaks–one peak during the South-west rainy season and the second peak in North-east monsoon. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 459 (vi) Rainfall quantity: Generally, yield levels are determined by the amount of precipitation above the basic minimum required to enable the crop to achieve maturity. Though rainfall has major influence on crops yield, yields are not always directly proportional to the amount of precipitation. Rainfall may also be in excess of the optimum and thereby cause reduced yields, which may appear paradoxical to semi-arid climates. When the rainfall is concentrated in 4-5 months of the year, there may be periods when the rate of precipitation exceeds the intake rate of soil. As a result, considerable runoff occurs, plant nutrients are leached out of the root zone and crops are adversely affected by anaerobic conditions (germination, establishment etc.), especially if the excess precipitation occurs during the cool season. It may uproot and wash away young seedlings, causes lodging of grown up crops and affect pollination and seed setting. Based on the average rainfall over years, the receipt of rainfall during a year is classified by IMD as below: −19 to + 19% = Normal +20 to + 59% = Excess > + 59% = Wet −20 to −59% = Deficit < −60% = Scanty (vii) Rainfall analysis 1. Intensity of rainfall: Intensity of rainfall mainly influences soil erosion. Study of rainfall intensity helps in probable period of floods, filling of irrigation tanks etc. If the intensity of rainfall exceeds the rate of soil infiltration, runoff starts. High intensity rainfall causes soil erosion. The runoff from hills and mountain slopes is collected in tanks.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "rainfall mainly influences soil erosion. Study of rainfall intensity helps in probable period of floods, filling of irrigation tanks etc. If the intensity of rainfall exceeds the rate of soil infiltration, runoff starts. High intensity rainfall causes soil erosion. The runoff from hills and mountain slopes is collected in tanks. The relationship between intensity of rainfall and runoff is given below: Less than 12.5 mm Runoff is rare 12.5–25.0 mm Runoff in 35% occasions 25.0–50.0 mm Runoff in 80% occasions Above 50.0 mm Runoff in 100% occasions 2. Distribution of rainfall: The amount of rainfall received at periodic intervals like weeks, months, seasons etc. indicates distribution. In addition, distribution of rainfall can be known by the length of dry spells, wet spells and rainy days. Distribution of rainfall is more important than total rainfall. It can be illustrated with following example taking rainfall related indices of Hyderabad and Sholapur. Index Hyderabad Sholapur Annual rainfall (mm) 764 742 Seasonal rainfall (mm) 580 556 Coefficient of variation (%) 26 28 Potential evapotranspiration (mm) 1757 1802 Growing season (days) 130 148 Soil Vertisol Vertisol It is apparent from the data that annual rainfall is fairly similar at both locations as seasonal rainfall. The rainfall is equally variable and the potential evapotranspiration is fairly similar at 460 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY the two locations. The growing season is slightly less at Hyderabad compared to Sholapur. From the above, one could probably anticipate that the production potentials are quite similar. However, rainy season crops are successful at Hyderabad and the annual yields range from 5,000 to 7,000 kg/ha while at Sholapur rainy season crops are risky and annual yields range from 1,000 to 2,000 kg/ha. Low grain yields at Sholapur are mainly due to discontinuous rainfall or long breaks in rainfall during the crop period.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "successful at Hyderabad and the annual yields range from 5,000 to 7,000 kg/ha while at Sholapur rainy season crops are risky and annual yields range from 1,000 to 2,000 kg/ha. Low grain yields at Sholapur are mainly due to discontinuous rainfall or long breaks in rainfall during the crop period. 3. Dependability/reliability of rainfall: Rainfall in dry farming regions is characterized by high variability and less reliability. The variability occurs in quantity of rainfall, onset and closure of rainy seasons, duration of rainfall and distribution within rainy season. The spatial variability refers to the variability of rainfall between two locations and the temporal variability refers to the variations over time i.e., between years, between seasons and within season. Variability of rainfall is the greatest hazard to crop production in the dry farming regions. The dependability can be estimated by 75 per cent probability rainfall and by coefficient of variation. It indicates that there is 75 per cent probability of receiving a particular amount of rainfall in three years out of four years. It can be estimated by arranging the amount of rainfall present at the three-fourth’s place in the descending order line is the 75 per cent probability rainfall. EXAMPLE Annual rainfall during different years Rainfall arranged in descending order Years Amount (mm) Amount (mm) Ascending order 1950 850 1020 1 1951 950 950 2 1952 1020 870 3 1953 625 850 4 1954 750 750 5 1955 550 725 6 1956 650 650 7 1957 475 631 8 1958 631 625 9 1959 725 550 10 1960 870 525 11 1962 525 475 12 Out of 12 years, 631 mm and above rainfall was received in eight years and it is the 75 per cent probability rainfall. Coefficient of Variation (CV%): By calculating coefficient of variation, the variation in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "631 625 9 1959 725 550 10 1960 870 525 11 1962 525 475 12 Out of 12 years, 631 mm and above rainfall was received in eight years and it is the 75 per cent probability rainfall. Coefficient of Variation (CV%): By calculating coefficient of variation, the variation in rainfall can be quantified. If the CV is more, it means that variation in rainfall from year to year or season-to-season is more. If the CV is less, the variation in rainfall is less and it is more dependable. Standard deviation Coefficient of variation 100 Mean = × DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 461 ( ) 2 2 SD 1 x x n n Σ −Σ = − Dependability of rainfall based on CV Period Dependable Not dependable Annual 25% > 25% Seasonal 50% > 50% Monthly 100% > 100% Weekly 150% > 150% Daily 250% > 250% 13.3 DRY FARMING IN INDIA About 70% of rural population lives in dry farming areas and their livelihood depend on success or failure of the crops. Much of the increase in food production in the recent past is estimated to be mainly due to irrigated areas. Since 1950, the extent of irrigated land in the world has increased from 94 m.ha to about 220 m.ha. During the 1980s, however, the rate of irrigation development has dropped materially and is presently less than 1 per cent per year, whereas the world population is increasing at 1.7 per cent per annum. Irrigated land accounts for 18 per cent of the cultivated land but produces 33 per cent of the food. The cost of irrigation and drainage development of new systems averages over $5,000 per ha and can be as high as $10,000. Therefore, it is inevitable that in future, the additional food has to come mainly",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "per cent of the cultivated land but produces 33 per cent of the food. The cost of irrigation and drainage development of new systems averages over $5,000 per ha and can be as high as $10,000. Therefore, it is inevitable that in future, the additional food has to come mainly from the dry lands. With the current pace of irrigation development, it is assumed that the gross irrigated area is likely to increase to 75 × 106 ha and more than 55 per cent of the gross cropped area will continue to be farmed under rainfed conditions. In India, nearly 43 m.ha out of 143 m.ha of the cultivated area was irrigated, leaving the remaining 100 m.ha as rainfed. According to experts, even when the ultimate irrigation potential is reached, 55 per cent of the net sown area will be still, rainfed. The contribution (production) of rainfed agriculture in India is about 45 per cent of the total food grain, 75 per cent of oilseeds, 90 per cent of pulses and about 70 per cent of cotton. In the 21st century, the contribution of dry lands will have to be 60 per cent if India is to provide adequate food to 1090 m people. Hence, tremendous efforts both in the development and research fronts are essential to achieve this target. More than 90 per cent of the area under sorghum, groundnut, and pulses is rainfed. In case of maize and chickpea, 82-85 per cent area is rainfed. Even 78 per cent of cotton area is rainfed. In case of rapeseed/mustard, about 66 per cent of the area is rainfed. Interestingly, but not surprisingly, 62, 44, and 35 per cent area under rice, barley and wheat, respectively, is rainfed. Although, India is blessed with average annual rainfall of about 1200 mm,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cent of cotton area is rainfed. In case of rapeseed/mustard, about 66 per cent of the area is rainfed. Interestingly, but not surprisingly, 62, 44, and 35 per cent area under rice, barley and wheat, respectively, is rainfed. Although, India is blessed with average annual rainfall of about 1200 mm, slightly above the global mean of 990 mm, the fate of dry land crops oscillates with the quantity, onset, and progress, spatial and temporal distribution of monsoon rains. Of the mean annual rainfall, 30 per cent of the country gets less than 750 mm and 40 per cent between 750 and 1250 mm. Only 20 per cent area is blessed with rainfall between 1250 and 2000 mm, leaving about 10 per cent area with annual rainfall over 2000 mm. A critical appraisal of the existing rainwater availability shows that: • India receives 400 M ha m of rain water annually, • About 160 M ha m falls on agricultural land, • Nearly 24 M ha m is available for harvesting in small scale water harvesting structures, 462 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • About 186 M ha m goes to rivers as runoff, and • Around one-fourth of the total annual rainfall is received before or after cropping season. At present, 3 ha of dry land crop produce cereal grain equivalent to that produced in 1 ha irrigated crop. There is a scope for doubling the average yield of dry land crops. Improvements in the productivity of dry land crops are largely indiscernible. With limited scope for increasing the area under plough, only option left is to increase the productivity with the modern technology and inputs, since the per capita land availability, which was 0.28 ha in 1990, is expected to decline 0.17–0.19 ha in 2010. The productivity of grains already",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "largely indiscernible. With limited scope for increasing the area under plough, only option left is to increase the productivity with the modern technology and inputs, since the per capita land availability, which was 0.28 ha in 1990, is expected to decline 0.17–0.19 ha in 2010. The productivity of grains already showed a plateau in irrigated agriculture due to problems related to nutrient exhaustion, salinity build up and raising water table. Therefore, the challenges of the present millennium would be to produce more from less of dry lands while ensuring conservation of existing resources. Hence, new strategies would have to be evolved which would make the fragile dry land ecosystems more productive as well as sustainable. In order to achieve evergreen revolution, we shall have to make grey areas (dry lands) as green through latest technological innovations. Dry land offers good scope for development of Agro forestry, Social forestry, Horti-Sylvi-pasture and such other similar systems which will not only supply food, fuel to the village people and fodder to the cattle but forms a suitable vegetative cover for ecological maintenance. A. Development 1920 Scarcity tract development given importance by the RCA 1923 Establishing Dry land Research Station at Manjri (Pune) Tamhane to Kanikar 1926 1933 Research Stations established at Bijapur and Solapur 1934 Research Stations established at Hagari and Raichur 1935 Research Stations established at Rohtak (Punjab) 1942 Bombay Land Development Act passed 1944 Monograph on dry farming in India by N.V. Kanitkar (Bombay, Hyderabad, Madras Dry Farming Practices) 1953 Establishment of Central Soil Conservation Board 1955 Dry Farming Demonstration Centres started 1970 Establishment of 23 Research Centres under AICRPDA 1972 Establishment of ICRISAT 1976 Establishment of Dry land Operational Research Projects 1983 Starting of 47 model watersheds under ICAR 1984 Initiation of World Bank Assisted Watershed Development Programmes in four",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Central Soil Conservation Board 1955 Dry Farming Demonstration Centres started 1970 Establishment of 23 Research Centres under AICRPDA 1972 Establishment of ICRISAT 1976 Establishment of Dry land Operational Research Projects 1983 Starting of 47 model watersheds under ICAR 1984 Initiation of World Bank Assisted Watershed Development Programmes in four states. Establishing Dry land Development Board in Karnataka 1985 Birth of Central Research Institute for Dry land Agriculture at Hyderabad 1986 Launching of NWDPRA programmes by Government of India in 15 states. B. Factors Affecting Dry Farming Most of the cropping in the arid and semi arid regions continues to be under rainfed conditions. A majority of the farmers are small farmers with meager resources. The poor resources base permits only DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 463 low input subsistence farming with low and unstable crop yields. The low productivity of agriculture in dry farming regions is due to the cumulative effect of many constraints for crop production. The constraints can be broadly grouped into: • Climatic constraints, • Soil related constraints, • Cultivation practices, and • Socio economic and political constraints. I. Climatic constraints • High atmospheric temperature • Low relative humidity • Hot dry winds • High atmospheric water demand (potential evapotranspiration) exceeding precipitation during most part of the year • Vagaries of monsoon. (i) Variable rainfall Annual rainfall varies greatly from year to year and naturally its coefficient of variation. Generally, higher the rainfall less is the coefficient of variation. In other words, crop failures due to uncertain rains are more frequent in regions with lesser rainfall. (ii) Intensity and distribution In general, more than 50 per cent of total rainfall is usually received in 3–5 rainy days. Such intensive rainfall results in substantial loss of water due to surface runoff. This process also accelerates soil erosion. Distribution of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "are more frequent in regions with lesser rainfall. (ii) Intensity and distribution In general, more than 50 per cent of total rainfall is usually received in 3–5 rainy days. Such intensive rainfall results in substantial loss of water due to surface runoff. This process also accelerates soil erosion. Distribution of rainfall during the crop-growing season is more important than total rainfall in dry land agriculture. (iii) Late onset of monsoon If the onset of monsoon is delayed, crops/varieties recommended to the region cannot be sown in time. Delayed sowing lead to uneconomical crop yields. (iv) Early withdrawal of monsoon This situation is equally or more dangerous than late onset of monsoon. Rainy season crops will be subjected to terminal stress leading to poor yields. Similarly, post-rainy season crops fail due to inadequate available soil moisture, especially during reproductive and maturity phases. (v) Prolonged dry spells Breaks of monsoon for 7–10 days may not be a serious concern. Breaks of more than 15 days duration especially at critical stages for soil moisture stress leads to reduction in yield. Drought due to break in monsoon may adversely affect the crops in shallow soils than in deep soils. II. Soil constraints The soil constraints are: 1. Inadequate soil moisture availability, 2. Poor organic matter content, 3. Poor soil fertility, and 4. Soil deterioration due to erosion (wind, water). III. Cultivation practices The existing management practices adopted by the farmers are evolved based on long-term experience by the farmers. The analysis of traditional system revealed that on one hand, the traditional system suffers due to the fact that yield levels are low and unstable, while on the other hand, it has strong points due to which it has stood the test of time. The traditional management practices are listed below: • Ploughing with country",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "revealed that on one hand, the traditional system suffers due to the fact that yield levels are low and unstable, while on the other hand, it has strong points due to which it has stood the test of time. The traditional management practices are listed below: • Ploughing with country plough which is replaced by tractor, ploughing just prior to sowing • Ploughing along the slope 464 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Broadcasting seeds/gorru sowing/sowing behind the country plough leading to poor as well as uneven plants stand • Selection of traditional varieties • Monsoon sowing • Choice of crop based on rainfall • Application FYM in limited quantity • Hand weeding • Mixed cropping • Use of conventional system of harvesting, and • Traditional storage system. Among the traditional management practices, the fallowing practices are technically sound and can be practiced (strength). • Monsoon sowing: This still holds good for crops like maize, red gram, bajra and karunganni cotton. • Choice of crop based on rainfall: Farmers take up coriander for late onset of monsoon. This traditional practice has been experimentally proved to be correct. • Hand weeding: It has proved to be as effective as herbicide application in terms of weed control and yield. • Mixed cropping: Farmers adopt many mixed cropping systems based on their experience. Groundnut and red gram are sown in 6:1 ratio. Sorghum black gram, green gram and Lab-Lab (mochai) crops are broadcasted. Cotton + black gram is sown in 6:1 ratio or black gram is sown in border. Even though the yield is less, there is some stability in yield due to mixed cropping and it is an insurance against risk of complete failure. • Traditional system of harvesting processing consumes more labourers, but it can be followed because of no loss in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "gram is sown in border. Even though the yield is less, there is some stability in yield due to mixed cropping and it is an insurance against risk of complete failure. • Traditional system of harvesting processing consumes more labourers, but it can be followed because of no loss in grain during the process of harvest. • Traditional storage is based on sound practical knowledge as well as it involves low cost technology • In certain pockets, pre monsoon sowing or early sowing of crops are taken. • Inter cultivation with plough in between crop rows is one of the best insitu soil moisture conservation techniques. Weakness in traditional system Most management practices are not aimed at soil moisture conservation. Traditional system does not build up nutrient status in the soil; on the contrary it depletes the fertility status. Genotypes/varieties used are poor yielders. Spatial and temporal variations are not effectively utilized in the mixed cropping adopted by the farmers. This results in no yield advantage. One of the most serious limitations due to traditional management practices is low plant population per unit area, which ultimately reduces yield. Run off is neither collected nor used efficiently. IV. Socio-economic contraints Arid and Semiarid Regions of India Total area under arid and semiarid regions in India extends over 135.8 m.ha. (Table 13.1). Temperature in arid and semiarid temperate region is maximum at 32ºC in July and minimum at −14ºC in January–February. Temperature in arid and semiarid tropics is maximum at 40–42ºC in May and minimum varies from 3–5ºC in Punjab and Haryana and 18–24ºC in Tamil Nadu. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 465 Table 13.1. Arid and Semiarid Regions of India Climate Area (m.ha) Regions Arid Tropics 31.7 Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Parts of Karnataka and Andhra Arid Temperate 7.0 Jammu and Kashmir Semiarid",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "May and minimum varies from 3–5ºC in Punjab and Haryana and 18–24ºC in Tamil Nadu. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 465 Table 13.1. Arid and Semiarid Regions of India Climate Area (m.ha) Regions Arid Tropics 31.7 Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Parts of Karnataka and Andhra Arid Temperate 7.0 Jammu and Kashmir Semiarid Tropics (SAT) 95.7 Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madya Pradesh Semiarid Temperate 1.4 Jammu and Kashmir Table 13.2. Moisture and ThermalRegime for different Climate Climate Moisture regime Thermal regime Constraints for cropping Arid Tropics Dry Above 18ºC Moisture Arid Temperate Dry Below 18ºC Moisture and Temperature Semiarid tropics Wet-Dry Above 18ºC Moisture Semiarid temperate Wet-Dry Below 18ºC Temperature The distribution of arid and semiarid regions of India is given in Table 13.3. Dry farming regions of India and Tamil Nadu are given in Table 13.4 and 13.5. Table 13.3. Distribution of Arid and Semiarid Regions of India State Arid Semiarid Area (Sq km) % to total area Area (sq. km) % to total in India area in India A. Tropics Rajasthan 196150 61 121020 13 Gujarat 62180 20 90520 9 Punjab 14510 5 31770 3 Haryana 12840 4 26880 3 Uttar Pradesh – – 64230 7 Madhya Pradesh – – 59470 6 Maharashtra 1290 0.4 189580 19 Karnataka 8570 3 139360 15 Andhra Pradesh 21550 7 138670 15 Tamil Nadu – 95250 10 All India 317090 956750 B. Temperate Jammu & Kashmir 70300 13780 466 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Table 13.4. Dry Farming Regions of India Region States Places Rainfall Monsoon Climate Soils Crops/Cropping systems Jhansi Uttar Pradesh Jhansi, Hamirpur, 930 Jun-Sep Semi arid Red black Sorghum-safflower/mustard cowpea Banda, Lalitpur, (196) /urd/moong,-gram safflower Jalaun rice-soybean-gram safflower Rajkot Gujarat Rajkot Surendranagar, 625 Jun-Sep Arid Medium Sorghum/bajra/cotton green gram/ Jamnagar, Junagadh (134) black black gram red",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of India Region States Places Rainfall Monsoon Climate Soils Crops/Cropping systems Jhansi Uttar Pradesh Jhansi, Hamirpur, 930 Jun-Sep Semi arid Red black Sorghum-safflower/mustard cowpea Banda, Lalitpur, (196) /urd/moong,-gram safflower Jalaun rice-soybean-gram safflower Rajkot Gujarat Rajkot Surendranagar, 625 Jun-Sep Arid Medium Sorghum/bajra/cotton green gram/ Jamnagar, Junagadh (134) black black gram red gram/cluster bean/ Bhavanagar, Amreli groundnut/sesamum/castor-safflower/ sunflower/green gram/mustard. Akola Maharashtra Akola, Amravati, 830 Jun-Sep Semi arid Medium and Green gram/sorghum/safflower/ Wardha, Yeotmal (196) deep black sunflower/cotton + green gram/ Parbhani, Buldana, groundnut-sorghum + green gram/ Khandesh, Adilabad, black gram/red gram groundnut Nizambad + sunflower Andhra Pradesh Sholapur Maharashtra Solapur, Ahmednagar, 722 May-Oct Semi arid Black Pear millet-Gram/Black gram-sorghum/ Nasik, Pune, Satara, (68) Pearl millet + Red gram/Horse gram/ Sangli, Dhule, Bhir, Red gram + setaria/Groundnut/ Osmanabad, Jalgaon, sunflower/Castor-Horse gram Buldhana Indore Madhya Pradesh Indore, Ratlam, Ujjain 990 May-Sep Semi arid Medium Maize-gram/safflower sorghum Dewar, Dhar, Khargaon (196) deep black + soybean-gram (safflower-maize Khandura + groundnut sorghum + red gram) Rewa Madhya Pradesh Sidlu, Rewa, Satna, 1080 Jun-Sep Sub humid Medium Sorghum + Red gram-gram/riceShadol, Panna, Jabalpur, (196) black mixed wheat/gram Black grim Damoh Chattarpur, red and black Green gram-wheat/rice-lentil Tikamgarh Bijapur Maharashtra Bijapur, Gulbarga 680 May-Oct Semi arid Medium and Green gram-sorghum/safflower-groundnut/ Belgraum, (105) deep black pearl millet + red gram. Bengal gram+ safflower/cotton Karnataka Raichur (Contd.) DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 467 Region States Places Rainfall Monsoon Climate Soils Crops/Cropping systems Udaipur Rajasthan Uddipur, Chittorgarh 635 Jun-Sep Semi arid Medium black Sorghum maize-safflower mustard Bhilwara, Ajmer, (196) /pearl millet/pearl millet + cowpea – Banswara, Dungarpur mustard/Sorghum-mustard. Red gram /green gram/groundnut/Sunflowerwheat/mustard Bellary Karnataka Chellakere, Chitradurga, 500 Sep-Oct Semi arid Medium and Sorghum/safflower/gram sorghum + Bellary, Raichur (105) deep black lablab Andhra Pradesh Anantapur, Kurnool, Mahboobnagar Kovilpatti Tamil Nadu Tirunelveli, 730 Sep-Dec Semi arid Deep black Sorghum + cowpea/Pearl millet/ Thoothukudi (135) Setaria/kudiraivali/black gram/green",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "– Banswara, Dungarpur mustard/Sorghum-mustard. Red gram /green gram/groundnut/Sunflowerwheat/mustard Bellary Karnataka Chellakere, Chitradurga, 500 Sep-Oct Semi arid Medium and Sorghum/safflower/gram sorghum + Bellary, Raichur (105) deep black lablab Andhra Pradesh Anantapur, Kurnool, Mahboobnagar Kovilpatti Tamil Nadu Tirunelveli, 730 Sep-Dec Semi arid Deep black Sorghum + cowpea/Pearl millet/ Thoothukudi (135) Setaria/kudiraivali/black gram/green gram/Red gram/lablab/cowpea/ cotton +black gram Sunflower/Senna Agra Uttar Pradesh Agra, Aligarh, 710 Jun-Sep Semi arid Deep alluvial Pearl millet/black gram/green gram/ Mathura, Etah, (187) sandy loam red gram/cluster bean/groundnut Manipuri safflower/mustard/pearl millet + red gram/black gram/green gram/ groundnut + castor Anantapur Andhra Pradesh Anantapur, Karnool, 570 May-Oct Arid Red loam Pearl millet/sorghum/setaria/castor/ Chithoor (120) Red gram/groundnut/mesta/groundnut + Red gram/castor/pearl millet + Red gram/castor Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh Rangareddy Nalgonda, 770 Jun-Oct Semi arid Shallow red Sorghum/pearl millet/castor/red gram/ Medak, Karimnagar, (208) sandy loam ragi/setaria/niger/horse gram/ Mahboobnagar, sorghum/maize + red gram-safflower Warangal 468 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Table 13.5. Dry farming regions of Tamil Nadu Region Taluk/District Annual Monsoon Climate Soils Crops/Cropping systems rainfall (mm) Northwest Dharmapuri Dt., 844 Jun-Oct Semiarid Red Groundnut + Red gram/Castor–Horse gram Taluks of Omalur, Attur, Rasipuram, 842 Jun-Oct Semiarid Red Cowpea sorghum/Sorghum + lablab red gram Sankagiri in Salem Dt. Perambalur Taluk Parts of Tirupattur 900 Jun-Oct Semiarid Red Ragi/pearl millet/Samai-horse gram and Vellore Taluks Western Palladam, Kangeyam, 711 Sep-Nov Semiarid Red Cotton/sorghum/pear millet/bengal gram/ Dharapuram Udumalpet, 717 Black coriander/sorghum + lablab/red gram Coimbatore taluks of Coimbatore and Erode Districts East central Parts of Tiruchy, 840 Sep-Nov Semiarid Black Red Cotton/sorghum/pearl millet/ Pudukkottai, Madurai 918 sesamum sorghum/pulses/pearl millet/ and Dindugal Dts. 876 groundnut +red gram/castor Southern Tirunelveli Dt. 940 Oct-Dec Semiarid Red Groundnut/cowpea/sesamum sorghum/ pearl millet/pulses castor Thoothukudi Dt. 677 Oct-Dec Semiarid Black Red Cotton/chillies/coriander/black gram/sorghum/ pearl millet/pulses. Virudunagar Dt. 817 Oct-Dec Semiarid Black Cotton/sunflower/maize/sorghum/pearl millet/ pulses/castor Ramanathapuram Dt. 819 Oct-Dec Semiarid Black Rice/cotton/sorghum/pulses/chillies Sivagangai Dt.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sorghum/pulses/pearl millet/ and Dindugal Dts. 876 groundnut +red gram/castor Southern Tirunelveli Dt. 940 Oct-Dec Semiarid Red Groundnut/cowpea/sesamum sorghum/ pearl millet/pulses castor Thoothukudi Dt. 677 Oct-Dec Semiarid Black Red Cotton/chillies/coriander/black gram/sorghum/ pearl millet/pulses. Virudunagar Dt. 817 Oct-Dec Semiarid Black Cotton/sunflower/maize/sorghum/pearl millet/ pulses/castor Ramanathapuram Dt. 819 Oct-Dec Semiarid Black Rice/cotton/sorghum/pulses/chillies Sivagangai Dt. 910 Oct-Dec Semiarid Red Groundnut/pearl millet/sesamum/ cowpea/redgram/castor DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 469 13.4 ARIDITY AND DROUGHT Low rainfall or failure of monsoon rain is a recurring feature in India. This has been responsible for droughts and famines. The word drought generally denotes scarcity of water in a region. Though, aridity and drought are due to insufficient water, aridity is a permanent climatic feature and is the culmination of a number of long-term processes. However, drought is a temporary condition that occurs for a short period due to deficient precipitation for vegetation, river flow, water supply and human consumption. Drought is due to anomaly in atmospheric circulation. The difference between aridity and drought is given in Table 13.6. Table 13.6. Aridity and Drought Particulars Aridity Drought Duration Permanent feature Temporary condition of scarcity of varying duration Factors Culmination of many long term processes Caused by deficient rainfall considers all climatic features Aspect described Description of climate Description of water availability A. Aridity Aridity refers to a condition of deficiency of water due to either insufficient precipitation or excess water loss over supply. The term “arid” is derived from a Latin word, “arere” which means ‘dry’. Assessment of the degree of aridity of a place is necessary to serve as a base for the application of technology, for the interpretation of resource assessment and for transfer of technology. It is also useful to analyze the climatic resources and to identify specific climatic constraints for planning agricultural development. The degree of aridity can be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a place is necessary to serve as a base for the application of technology, for the interpretation of resource assessment and for transfer of technology. It is also useful to analyze the climatic resources and to identify specific climatic constraints for planning agricultural development. The degree of aridity can be assessed from climatic parameters and plant criteria. Some important indices related to aridity are given below. Indices of Aridity: 1. Thornthwaite and Mather (1955): The classification of Thornthwaite (1948) was modified for the Moisture Index (Im) and is given below: Im = 100 [(P-PE)/PE] where, P = Precipitation, PE = Potential evapotranspiration Im Quantity Climate classification 100 and above Per humid 20−100 Humid 0–20 Moist sub humid −33.3−0 Dry sub humid −66.7 to −33.3 Semi arid −100 to −66.7 Arid 470 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 2. Troll (1965): Based on thermal and hygric variables and number of humid months, climate is classified and said to be of agricultural use. Humid month is one having mean rainfall exceeding the mean potential evapotranspiration. Humid months Climate classification 12.0–9.5 Tropical rainforest 9.5–7.0 Humid Savannah 7.0–4.5 Dry Savannah (Wet–dry SAT) 4.5–2.0 Thorn Savannah (Dry SAT) 2.0–1.0 Semi desert (Arid) 1.0–0.0 Desert (Arid) 3. Papadakis (1961): Moisture Index (H) based on precipitation, soil moisture storage and PET was developed. H = [P + W]/E Where, P = Monthly precipitation E = Monthly PET W = Water stored from previous rainfall H value Climate Less than 0.25 Arid 0.25 to 0.50 Dry 0.50 to 0.75 Intermediate 0.75 to 1.00 Intermediate humid 1.00 to 2.00 Humid More than 2.00 Wet 4. Hargreaves (1971): Moisture Availability Index (MAI) is used for the classification. It is the ratio of dependable precipitation to potential evapotranspiration. It is a measure of adequacy of precipitation in supplying crop water demand. ( )",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "0.75 to 1.00 Intermediate humid 1.00 to 2.00 Humid More than 2.00 Wet 4. Hargreaves (1971): Moisture Availability Index (MAI) is used for the classification. It is the ratio of dependable precipitation to potential evapotranspiration. It is a measure of adequacy of precipitation in supplying crop water demand. ( ) Dependable precipitation 75% probable rainfall MAI Potential evapotranspiration = MAI Climate classification 0.0–0.33 during all months Very arid More than 0.34 for 1–2 months Arid More than 0.34 for 3–4 consecutive months Semi arid 5. Steiner et al. (1988): Steiner et al. (1988) consider aridity index concept of the United Nations conference on Desertification based on the balance between precipitation (P) and evapotranspiration DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 471 (ETP) to be appropriate for wide scale adoption. According to this, the areas with P/ETP ratio between 0.03 and 0.2 are arid and areas with the ratio between 0.2 and 0.5 are semi-arid. 6. FAO classification: FAO classification is based on ‘growing period concept’ . Growing period is the number of days during a year when precipitation exceeds half the potential evapotranspiration, plus a period to use an assumed 100 mm of water from excess precipitation (or less, if not available) stored in the soil profile. Areas having a growing period between 1 and 74 days are classified as arid and those with a growing period between 75 and 119 days are semi-arid. 7. ICAR classification of agroclimatic zones: ICAR while establishing the dry land centers in different agroclimatic zones of the country in 1970, used the simple formula of Thornthwaite (1955) for estimating the moisture index. Moisture Index = 100 [(P-PE)/PE] Thornthwaite and Mathur (1955) classified only six categories, while the ICAR had eight moisture indices with eight moisture belt indicating eight zones in India. The scale adopted in defining climatic zones",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in 1970, used the simple formula of Thornthwaite (1955) for estimating the moisture index. Moisture Index = 100 [(P-PE)/PE] Thornthwaite and Mathur (1955) classified only six categories, while the ICAR had eight moisture indices with eight moisture belt indicating eight zones in India. The scale adopted in defining climatic zones in terms of moisture indices are; Zone Moisture index Moisture belt 1 < −80 Extremely dry 2 −60 to −80 Semi dry 3 −40 to −60 Dry 4 −20 to −40 Slightly dry 5 0 to −20 Slightly moist 6 0 to +50 Moist 7 +50 to +100 Wet 8 > +100 Extremely wet B. Drought I. Definition There is no universally accepted definition for drought. Early workers defined drought as prolonged period without rainfall. According to Ramdas (1960), drought is a situation when the actual seasonal rainfall is deficient by more than twice the mean deviation. American Meteorological Society defined drought as a period of abnormally dry weather sufficiently prolonged for lack of water to cause a severe hydrological imbalance in the area affected. Prolonged deficiencies of soil moisture adversely affect crop growth indicating incidence of agricultural drought. It is the result of imbalance between soil moisture and evapotranspiration needs of an area over a fairly long period as to cause damage to standing crops and to reduce the yields. The irrigation commission of India defines drought as a situation occurring in any area where the annual rainfall is less than 75% of normal rainfall. II. Classification Drought can be classified based on duration, nature of users, time of occurrence and using some specific terms. Demarcation between the classifications is not well defined and many times, overlapping of the cause and effect of one on the rest is seen. 472 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1. Based on duration (a)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "be classified based on duration, nature of users, time of occurrence and using some specific terms. Demarcation between the classifications is not well defined and many times, overlapping of the cause and effect of one on the rest is seen. 472 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1. Based on duration (a) Permanent drought This is characteristic of the desert climate where sparse vegetation growing is adapted to drought and agriculture is possible only by irrigation during entire crop season. (b) Seasonal drought This is found in climates with well-defined rainy and dry seasons. Most of the arid and semiarid zones fall in this category. Duration of the crop varieties and planting dates should be such that the growing season should fall within rainy season. (c) Contingent drought This involves an abnormal failure of rainfall. It may occur almost anywhere especially in most parts of humid or sub humid climates. It is usually brief, irregular and generally affects only a small area. (d) Invisible drought This can occur even when there is frequent rain in an area. When rainfall is inadequate to meet the evapotranspiration losses, the result is borderline water deficiency in soil resulting in less than the optimum yield. This occurs usually in humid regions. 2. Based on nature of the users (NCA, 1976) (a) Meteorological drought It is defined as a condition, where the annual precipitation is less than the normal over an area for prolonged period (month, season or year). (b) Atmospheric drought It is due to low air humidity, frequently accompanied by hot dry winds. It may occur even under conditions of adequate available soil moisture. It refers to a condition when plants show wilting symptoms during the hot part of the day, when transpiration exceeds absorption temporarily for a short period. When decreases, absorption keeps pace",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "air humidity, frequently accompanied by hot dry winds. It may occur even under conditions of adequate available soil moisture. It refers to a condition when plants show wilting symptoms during the hot part of the day, when transpiration exceeds absorption temporarily for a short period. When decreases, absorption keeps pace with transpiration and plants revive (mid day wilt). (c) Hydrological drought Meteorological drought, when prolonged results in hydrological drought with depletion of surface water and consequent drying of reservoirs, tanks etc. It results in deficiency of water for all sectors using water. This is based on water balance and how it affects irrigation as a whole for bringing crops to maturity. (d) Agricultural drought It is the result of soil moisture stress due to imbalance between available soil moisture and evapotranspiration of a crop. It is usually gradual and progressive. Plants can therefore, adjust at least partly, to the increased soil moisture stress. This situation arises as a consequence of scanty precipitation or its uneven distribution both in space and time. It is also usually referred as soil drought. Relevant definition of agricultural drought appears to be a period of dryness during the crop season, sufficiently prolonged to adversely affect the yield. The extent of yield loss depends on the crop growth stage and the degree of stress. It does not begin when the rain ceases, but actually commences only when the plant roots are not able to obtain the soil moisture rapidly enough to replace evapotranspiration losses. Important causes for agricultural drought are: • Inadequate precipitation, • Erratic distribution, • Long dry spells in the monsoon, • Late onset of monsoon, • Early withdrawal of monsoon, and • Lack of proper soil and crop management 3. Based on time of occurrence (a) Early season drought It occurs due to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for agricultural drought are: • Inadequate precipitation, • Erratic distribution, • Long dry spells in the monsoon, • Late onset of monsoon, • Early withdrawal of monsoon, and • Lack of proper soil and crop management 3. Based on time of occurrence (a) Early season drought It occurs due to delay in onset of monsoon or due to long dry spells after early sowing. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 473 (b) Mid season drought It occurs due to long gaps between two successive rains and stored moisture becoming insufficient during this long dry spell. (c) Late season drought It occurs due to early cessation of rainfall and crop water stress at maturity stage. 4. Other terms to describe drought (a) Apparent drought What is drought for one crop may not be drought for another crop; what is drought in red soil may not be drought in black soil. (b) Physiological drought It refers to a condition where crops are unable to absorb water from soil even when water is available, due to the high osmotic pressure of soil solution due to increased soil concentration, as in saline and alkaline soils. It is not due to deficit of water supply. III. Periodicity of drought: The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) examined the incidence of drought for the period from 1871 to 1967, utilizing the monthly rainfall of 306 stations in the country. It was seen that during 1877, 1899, 1918 and 1972, more than 40 per cent of the total area experienced drought. General observation on the periodicity of drought in respect of different meteorological subdivisions of India is given Table 13.7. Table 13.7. Periodicity of Drought in India Meteorological subdivisions Period of recurrence of drought Assam Very rare, once in 15 years West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Konkan, Once in 5 years Coastal Andhra",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "observation on the periodicity of drought in respect of different meteorological subdivisions of India is given Table 13.7. Table 13.7. Periodicity of Drought in India Meteorological subdivisions Period of recurrence of drought Assam Very rare, once in 15 years West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Konkan, Once in 5 years Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Bihar, Orissa South interior Karnataka, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Once in 3 years Gujarat, Vidharbha, Rajasthan, Western Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kashmir, Rayalaseema and Telangana Western Rajasthan Once in 2.5 years IV. Drought periods: (i) Beginning of drought: Droughts do not occur in Assam, South Kerala and eastern part of West Bengal. Severe drought begins on 1st October in the northwest arid zone and even much earlier in the western parts of the country. In the southern arid zone and adjoining interior portion of Maharashtra, the severe drought begins by the end of November. In most of the central portion of the country to the east of the line joining Delhi, Udaipur and Baroda, the commencement is only in the month of February or later. This is due to high water holding capacity of the black soil region. In the western coastal region of Maharashtra and Karnataka, the rainfall is very high. In spite of this, severe drought begins by December-January, probably because of the lower water holding capacity of the soil. Severe drought commences only after April in Gwalior, Guna, Jabalpur, Pendra, and Satna regions of Madhya Pradesh. (ii) Closure of drought: In general, severe drought ends outside the regions of east Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and southern Andhra Pradesh only by 1st May. In most of these regions, it ends after 15th May. In the arid zone of northwest India, severe drought ends normally during 474 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY the second fortnight of June, except in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the regions of east Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and southern Andhra Pradesh only by 1st May. In most of these regions, it ends after 15th May. In the arid zone of northwest India, severe drought ends normally during 474 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY the second fortnight of June, except in the Jaisalmer and Bikaner regions where normally cessation of severe drought is only by the first week of July. V. Drought on crop production: • Water relations: Drought alters the water status by its influence on absorption, translocation and transpiration. The lag in absorption behind transpiration results in loss of turgor as a result of increase in the atmospheric dryness. • Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is reduced by moisture stress due to reduction in photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll content, leaf area and increase in assimilates saturation in leaves (due to lack of translocation). • Respiration: Respiration increases with mild drought but more severe drought lowers water content and respiration. • Anatomical changes: Decrease in size of the cells and intercellular spaces, thicker cell wall and greater development of mechanical tissue are the anatomical changes. Stomata per unit leaf tend to increase. • Metabolic reaction: Almost, all metabolic reactions are affected by water deficits. • Hormonal relationships altered: The activity of growth promoting hormones like cytokinin, gibberlic acid and indole acetic acid decreases and growth regulating hormone like abscisic acid, ethylene etc. increases. • Nutrition: The fixation, uptake and assimilation of N is affected. Since dry matter production is considerably reduced, the uptake of NPK is reduced. • Growth and Development: Drought results in decrease in growth of leaves, stems and fruits. Maturity is delayed if drought occurs before flowering, while it advances if drought occurs after flowering. • Reproduction and grain growth: Drought at flowering and grain development determines the number of fruits",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "NPK is reduced. • Growth and Development: Drought results in decrease in growth of leaves, stems and fruits. Maturity is delayed if drought occurs before flowering, while it advances if drought occurs after flowering. • Reproduction and grain growth: Drought at flowering and grain development determines the number of fruits and individual grain weight, respectively. Panicle initiation in cereals is critical while drought at anthesis may lead to drying of pollen. Drought at grain development reduces yield while vegetative and grain-filling stages are less sensitive to moisture stress. • Yield: The effect on yield depends on what proportion of the total dry matter is considered as useful material to be harvested. If it is aerial and underground parts, effect of drought is as sensitive as total growth. When the yield consists of seeds as in cereals, moisture stress at flowering is detrimental. When the yield is fibre or chemicals where economic product is a small fraction of total dry matter, moderate stress on growth does not have adverse effect on yields. 13.5 SOIL MOISTURE CONSTRAINTS Inadequate soil moisture availability is the major constraint in dry farming. All the above factors directly and indirectly affect the soil moisture. Availability of soil moisture to crops is affected by rainfall behavior as well as by various soil properties. • Shallow soils, degraded soils, eroded soils, gravelly soils and coarse textured soils have poor water holding capacity and hence can not store much of rainfall. • Wind and water erosion remove the finer soil particles and expose the hard, impermeable subsoil causing less infiltration and less water storage. • Crusting of soil surface after rainfall reduces infiltration and storage of rainfall, due to high run off. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 475 • Compaction in surface and sub soil hardpans and poor soil structure affect infiltration",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "particles and expose the hard, impermeable subsoil causing less infiltration and less water storage. • Crusting of soil surface after rainfall reduces infiltration and storage of rainfall, due to high run off. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 475 • Compaction in surface and sub soil hardpans and poor soil structure affect infiltration and water storage. • Poor organic matter content adversely affects soil physical properties related to moisture storage. 13.5.1 Methods of Soil Moisture Conservation They are grouped as follows: I. By adapting proper tillage II. Control of run off water and soil erosion III. Recycling of rain water IV. Reducing loss of soil moisture by mulching and antitranspirants V. By increased rainfall use efficiency I. Tillage Tillage may be described as the practice of modifying the state of the soil in order to provide conditions favourable to crop growth. The objectives of tillage in dry lands are to: • develop desired soil structure for a seedbed, which allows rapid infiltration and good retention of rainfall. • minimize soil erosion by following practices as contour tillage, tillage across the slope etc. • control weeds and remove unwanted crop plants. • manage crop residues, through mixing of trash is desirable for achieving good tilth and decomposition of residues. However, the retention of trash on top layers is also useful in reducing erosion. On the other hand, complete coverage of residues sometimes necessitates control of insects or to prevent interference with precision planting operations. • obtain specific soil configurations for in situ moisture conservation, drainage, planting etc. • incorporate and mix manures, fertilizers, pesticides or soil amendments into the soil. • accomplish segregation by moving soil from one layer to another, removal of rocks or root harvesting. Hence, attention must be paid to the depth of tillage, time of tillage, direction of tillage and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "drainage, planting etc. • incorporate and mix manures, fertilizers, pesticides or soil amendments into the soil. • accomplish segregation by moving soil from one layer to another, removal of rocks or root harvesting. Hence, attention must be paid to the depth of tillage, time of tillage, direction of tillage and intensity of tillage. (a) Depth of tillage The depth of tillage depends on soil type, crop and time of tillage. Deep tillage of 25–30 cm is beneficial for deep heavy clay soils to improve permeability and to close cracks formed while drying. In soils with hard pans, deep tillage once in 2–3 years with chisel plough up to 35–45 cm depth at 60–120 cm interval will increase effective depth for rooting and moisture storage. Deep tillage is preferable for cotton, red gram and other deep-rooted crops. It is not recommended for shallow, gravelly, light textured soils. Medium deep tillage of 15–20 cm depth is generally sufficient for most soils and crops. It is recommended for medium deep soils, shallow rooted crops, soils with pan free horizon and for stubble incorporation. Shallow tillage up to 10 cm is followed in light textured soils, and shallow soils and in soils highly susceptible to erosion. In soils prone for surface crusting, shallow surface stirring or shallow harrowing is useful. (b) Time of tillage Early completion of tillage is often helpful to enable sowing immediately after rainfall and before the soil dries up. Summer tillage or off-season tillage done with preseason 476 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY rainfall causes more conservation of moisture and also enables early and timely sowing. It is particularly useful for pre-monsoon sowing. (c) Direction of tillage For moisture conservation, ploughing across slope or along contour is very effective. Plough furrows check the velocity of runoff, promote more infiltration when water",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "OF AGRONOMY rainfall causes more conservation of moisture and also enables early and timely sowing. It is particularly useful for pre-monsoon sowing. (c) Direction of tillage For moisture conservation, ploughing across slope or along contour is very effective. Plough furrows check the velocity of runoff, promote more infiltration when water stagnates in the depressions caused by plough furrows and improves soil moisture storage. (d) Intensity of tillage It refers to the number of times tillage is done. Frequent ploughing in shallow light textured soils will pulverize the soils into fine dust and increase the susceptibility to erosion. In heavy soils, leaving the land in a rough and cloddy stage prior to sowing is useful for more depression storage. The concept of minimal tillage is also practiced in dry lands. Here tillage is confined to seeding zone only and the inter-space is not tilled. It not only saves time, energy and cost but also helps moisture conservation. The practice of “set line cultivation” adopted in some dry regions is an example of minimum tillage. Here the seed row space is fixed and season after season, tillage is done only in this seeding strip. The intervening strip is not tilled. (e) Modern concept of tillage In dry lands, rainfall is received simultaneously over a large area. In order to ensure timely sowing before soil dries up, the interval between land preparations and sowing must be narrowed down. This calls for completion of tillage over a large area in quick time. Dependence on bullock power and traditional wooden plough may not help in this regard. Use of more efficient tillage implements and mechanization of tillage operations are warranted. Tillage in dry lands also encompasses land shaping for in situ soil moisture conservation. Implements that can carryout tillage and land shaping in one single",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "bullock power and traditional wooden plough may not help in this regard. Use of more efficient tillage implements and mechanization of tillage operations are warranted. Tillage in dry lands also encompasses land shaping for in situ soil moisture conservation. Implements that can carryout tillage and land shaping in one single operation will help in saving time and cost. If land preparation, land shaping and sowing can be done in one single operation it can save considerable time. This is termed as once over tillage, plough planting or conservation tillage. Suitable tractor drawn machinery like a broad bed former cum seeder, basin lister cum seeder, which can complete the land shaping and sowing simultaneously, can be used: 1. minimum/optimum/reduced tillage. 2. conservation/mulch tillage. 3. zero tillage. (i) Minimum/optimum/reduced tillage: The objectives of these systems include (a) reducing energy input and labour requirement for crop production, (b) conserving soil moisture and reducing erosion, (c) providing optimum seedbed rather than homogenizing the entire soil surface, and (d) keeping field compaction to minimum. (ii) Conservation/mulch tillage: The objectives are to achieve soil and water conservation and energy conservation through reduced tillage operations. Both systems usually leave crop residue on the surface and each operation is planned to maintain continuous soil coverage by residue or growing plants. The conservation tillage practices may advance some of the goals of alternative farming such as increasing organic matter in soil and reducing soil erosion, but some conservation tillage practices may increase the need for pesticides. Conservation tillage changes soil properties in ways that affect plant growth, and reduce water runoff from fields. The mulched soil is cooler and soil surface under the residue is moist, as a result many conservation tillage systems have been successful. (iii) Zero tillage or no-till system: Here, the crop residue is usually shredded",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "soil properties in ways that affect plant growth, and reduce water runoff from fields. The mulched soil is cooler and soil surface under the residue is moist, as a result many conservation tillage systems have been successful. (iii) Zero tillage or no-till system: Here, the crop residue is usually shredded and planting is done without pre tillage. No till planting has problem of adequate weed control. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 477 II. Soil erosion and runoff Detachment and transport of soil and soil material caused by water and wind are widely prevalent in dry farming regions. Erosion takes place in both red soils and black soils. Soil and water are the most critical basic resources, which must be conserved as effectively as possible. No phenomenon is more destructive than soil erosion through which fertile topsoil and rainwater are lost. Soil and water conservation is the only known way to protect the lands from degradation and conserving rainwater for improving the productivity of dry land crops. Runoff leads to wastage of rainfall. Under unchecked conditions, even up to 40% of rainfall may be lost as runoff. Even when moisture conservation practices are adopted, about 10-20% of rainfall may be lost as runoff because of high intensity rainfall. Erosion removes topsoil and exposes hard impermeable sub soil, increasing the chances of more run off. Erosion adversely affects soil physical properties such as loss of structure, reduced infiltration, soil depth and soil moisture storage capacity. Loss of topsoil through erosion leads to loss of plant nutrients and poor soil fertility. A. Soil erosion: Soil erosion is the process of detachment of soil particles from the topsoil and transportation of the detached soil particles by wind and/or water. The detaching agents are falling raindrop, channel flow and wind. The transporting agents are flowing water, rain",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "plant nutrients and poor soil fertility. A. Soil erosion: Soil erosion is the process of detachment of soil particles from the topsoil and transportation of the detached soil particles by wind and/or water. The detaching agents are falling raindrop, channel flow and wind. The transporting agents are flowing water, rain splash and wind. Out of 328 m.ha. of India’s geographical area, 175 m.ha. (53.3%) subject to soil erosion and all kind of land degradation. Out of which 104.6 m.ha. are cultivable. Recent estimates indicate that about 5,333 mt. (16.35 t/ha) of soil is detached annually (29% carried away by rivers to the sea, 10% deposited in reservoirs resulting 1–2% loss of storage capacity). Types of erosion (a) Geological erosion: It is said to be in equilibrium with the soil forming process. It takes place under natural vegetative cover completely undisturbed by biotic factors. This long time slow process has developed the present topographic features like stream channels, valleys, etc., through weather abnormalities such as intensive rainfall and biotic interference. (b) Accelerated erosion: It is due to disturbance in natural equilibrium by the activities of man and animals through land mismanagement, destruction of forests, overgrazing, etc. Soil loss through erosion is more than the soil formed due to soil forming process. (c) Water erosion: Water and wind are the main agencies responsible for soil erosion. Loss of soil from land surface by water, including runoff from melted snow and ice is usually referred to as water erosion. The major erosive agents in water erosion are impacting raindrops and runoff water flowing over the soil surface. Erosion and sedimentation embody the processes of detachment, transportation and deposition of soil particles. Detachment is dislodging of soil particles from soil mass by the erosive agents. Transportation is movement of detached soil particles (sediment) from",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in water erosion are impacting raindrops and runoff water flowing over the soil surface. Erosion and sedimentation embody the processes of detachment, transportation and deposition of soil particles. Detachment is dislodging of soil particles from soil mass by the erosive agents. Transportation is movement of detached soil particles (sediment) from their original location. The sediment moves along the stream and part of it may eventually reach the ocean. Some sediment is usually deposited at the base of the slopes, reservoirs and flood plains along the way. (i) Forms of water erosion: Sheet, Rill, gully, ravine, landslide and stream bank erosion. (ii) Factors affecting water erosion: • Rainfall – amount, intensity, duration and distribution 478 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Soils – primary particle size, distribution, organic matter, structure, Fe and Al oxides, initial moisture content • Topography – nature and length of slope • Soil surface cover – plant canopy or mulches • Biotic interference – disturbance of natural balance (iii) Losses due to erosion: The losses due to erosion are loss of fertile top soil, loss of rain water, nutrient losses, silting up of reservoirs, damage to forests, reduced ground water potential, damage to reservoirs and irrigation channels and adverse effect on public health. (iv) Water erosion control: Water erosion can be minimized by preventing the detachment of soil particles and their transportation. Principles of water erosion control are: • Maintenance of soil infiltration capacity • Soil protection from rainfall • Control of surface runoff • Safe disposal of surface runoff Control measures are grouped in to agronomic, mechanical and forestry measures Agronomic: Choice of crops, land preparation, contour cultivation, strip cropping, mulching, application of manures and fertilizers and appropriate cropping systems. Mechanical: Contour bunding, graded bunding, bench terracing, contour trenching, gully control and vegetative barriers. Forestry: Perennial trees",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "surface runoff Control measures are grouped in to agronomic, mechanical and forestry measures Agronomic: Choice of crops, land preparation, contour cultivation, strip cropping, mulching, application of manures and fertilizers and appropriate cropping systems. Mechanical: Contour bunding, graded bunding, bench terracing, contour trenching, gully control and vegetative barriers. Forestry: Perennial trees and grasses. (d) Wind erosion Erosion of soil by the action of wind is known as wind erosion. It is a serious problem on lands devoid of vegetation. It is more common in arid and semiarid region. It is essentially a dry weather phenomenon stimulated by soil moisture deficiency. The process of wind erosion consists of three phases: initiation of movement, transportation and deposition. About 33 m.ha in India is affected by wind erosion. It includes 23.9 m.ha of desert and about 6.5 m.ha of coastal sands. (i) Forms of wind erosion: Transportation of soil particles by wind takes place in three ways. Saltation: Movement of soil particles by a short series of bounces along the ground surface. Suspension: Movement of fine dust particles, smaller than 0.1mm dia floating in the air. Surface creep: Rolling and sliding of soil particles along the ground surface due to impact of particles descending and hitting during saltation is called surface creep. (ii) Factors affecting wind erosion: The factors are soil clodiness, surface roughness, water stable aggregates and surface crust (Mechanical stability), wind and soil moisture (surface is dry or slightly moist), field length, vegetative cover, organic matter (cementing), topography and soil type (sand erodes easily). (iii) Losses due to wind erosion: Fertile topsoil is lost. Fertile soils are converted into unproductive sandy soils drifting sand. Yield losses due to abrasive action of wind driven soil particles, especially on broad leaved crops. (iv) Wind erosion control: Greatest damage by wind erosion occurs during summer",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "erodes easily). (iii) Losses due to wind erosion: Fertile topsoil is lost. Fertile soils are converted into unproductive sandy soils drifting sand. Yield losses due to abrasive action of wind driven soil particles, especially on broad leaved crops. (iv) Wind erosion control: Greatest damage by wind erosion occurs during summer months in dry regions, where soil surface is bare and wind velocity is at its peak. Basic principles of wind erosion control are: • Reducing wind velocity at ground surface, sufficient to prevent it being able to pickup soil particles. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 479 • Increasing the size of soil aggregates or covering the soil with a non-erodable surface. • Trapping the saltating soil particles. • Keeping the soil moist so that soil particles moving by saltation loose their momentum at the surface. Practices such as stubble mulching and minimum tillage, cover crops, strip-cropping, crop rotation, wind barriers and shelterbelts and mulches can be practiced to minimize wind erosion. III. In situ moisture conservation techniques Storage of rainfall in soil at the place where it falls is termed as “in situ” soil moisture conservation. It aims at increasing infiltration of rainfall into the soil and reducing runoff loss of rainwater. In situ soil moisture conservation can be accomplished through. • Cultural/agronomic methods • Mechanical methods • Agrostological/biological methods Extent of soil moisture storage from rainfall is influenced quantity and intensity of rainfall, slope, soil properties such as texture, structure, depth, surface characters, presence of subsoil hard pans, rate of infiltration and permeability, water holding capacity, vegetative cover, etc. Cultural/agronomical Mechanical methods Agrostological/biological methods methods Addition of organic matter, Basin listing, Bunding, Ridges and Pasture, Strip cropping with Summer ploughing, mulching furrows, Tie ridging, Random tie grasses, Ley farming, Vegetative cultivation, strip cropping ridging, Broad bed furrow, Dead barriers furrow, Furrows",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and permeability, water holding capacity, vegetative cover, etc. Cultural/agronomical Mechanical methods Agrostological/biological methods methods Addition of organic matter, Basin listing, Bunding, Ridges and Pasture, Strip cropping with Summer ploughing, mulching furrows, Tie ridging, Random tie grasses, Ley farming, Vegetative cultivation, strip cropping ridging, Broad bed furrow, Dead barriers furrow, Furrows after crop establishment 1. Cultural /Agronomical methods (i) Addition of organic matter: By improving soil physical properties and water holding capacity. (ii) Off season/summer tillage: Plough furrows can hold water in the depressions and thereby increase the infiltration. When done across the slope, the plough furrows check runoff, reduce the velocity of runoff water and improve storage. Summer tillage is a traditional practice helps in the storage of pre-sowing rainfall. When ploughing is done along contour, it is termed as contour ploughing and is more helpful for in situ moisture conservation. Summer ploughing also helps in control of perennial weeds, pest control and enables early sowing with onset of rains. (iii) Contour farming: Ploughing along the contour and sowing reduce soil erosion and reduce runoff. For e.g., Jowar sown in the black soils on contour line restricts the run off to 13.7% of the total rainfall and soil loss to 2.4 t/ha/year. (iv) Cover crops: Erosion will be reduced if the land surface is fully covered with foliage. e.g., black gram, green gram, groundnut and fodder grasses like Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus glaucus, dinanath grass, marvel grass. Both contour cropping and cover cropping can be practiced when the slope is less than 2 per cent. (v) Mixed cropping (vi) Inter cropping (vii) Mulching 480 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (viii) Strip cropping: Strip intercropping involves erosion resistant crops and erosion permitting crops in alternate strips of 2–3 m width across slope and along the contour. Erosion resistant crops include grasses and legumes",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "than 2 per cent. (v) Mixed cropping (vi) Inter cropping (vii) Mulching 480 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (viii) Strip cropping: Strip intercropping involves erosion resistant crops and erosion permitting crops in alternate strips of 2–3 m width across slope and along the contour. Erosion resistant crops include grasses and legumes with rapid canopy development. For example, Cenchrus glaucus + Stylosanthes hamata. 2. Mechanical methods The basic principle are: (i) shaping the land surface manually or with implements in such a way as to reduce the velocity of runoff, (ii) to allow more time for rainfall to stand on soil surface, and (iii) to facilitate more infiltration of rainfall into soil layers. Choice of any particular method under a given situation is influenced by rainfall characters, soil type, crops, sowing methods and slope of land. (i) Basin listing: Formation of small depressions (basins) of 10–15 cm depth and 10–15 cm width at regular intervals using an implement called basin lister. The small basins collect rainfall and improve its storage. It is usually done before sowing. It is suitable for all soil types and crops. (ii) Bunding: Formation of narrow based or broad based bunds across slope at suitable intervals depending on slope of field. The bunds check the free flow of runoff water, impound the rainwater in the inter-bund space, increase its infiltration and improve soil moisture storage. Leveling of inter-bund space is essential to ensure uniform spread of water and avoid water stagnation in patches. It can be classified into three types: (a) Contour bunding: Bunds of 1 m basal width, 0.5 m top width and 0.5 m height are formed along the contour. The distance between two contour bunds depends on slope. The interbund surface is leveled and used for cropping. It is suitable for deep red soils with",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "three types: (a) Contour bunding: Bunds of 1 m basal width, 0.5 m top width and 0.5 m height are formed along the contour. The distance between two contour bunds depends on slope. The interbund surface is leveled and used for cropping. It is suitable for deep red soils with slope less than 1%. It is not suitable for heavy black soils with low infiltration where bunds tend to develop cracks on drying. Contour bunds are permanent structures and require technical assistance and heavy investment. (b) Graded/field bunding: Bunds of 30-45 cm basal width, and 15-20 cm height are formed across slope at suitable intervals of 20-30 m depending on slope. The inter-bund area is leveled and cropped. It is suitable for medium deep-to-deep red soils with slopes up to 1%. It is not suitable for black soils due to susceptibility to cracking and breaching. Bunds can be maintained for 2-3 seasons with reshaping as and when required. (c) Compartmental bunding: Small bunds of 15 cm width and 15 cm height are formed in both directions (along and across slope) to divide the field into small basins or compartments of 40 sq. m. size (8 × 5 m). It is suitable for red soils and black soils with a slope of 0.5-1%. The bunds can be formed before sowing or immediately after sowing with local wooden plough. It is highly suitable for broadcast sown crops. CRIDA has recommended this method as the best in situ soil moisture conservation measure for Kovilpatti region of Tamil Nadu. Maize, sunflower, sorghum performs well in this type of bunding. (iii) Ridges and furrows: Furrows of 30-45 cm width and 15-20 cm height are formed across slope. The furrows guide runoff water safely when rainfall intensity is high and avoid water stagnation. They collect and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Kovilpatti region of Tamil Nadu. Maize, sunflower, sorghum performs well in this type of bunding. (iii) Ridges and furrows: Furrows of 30-45 cm width and 15-20 cm height are formed across slope. The furrows guide runoff water safely when rainfall intensity is high and avoid water stagnation. They collect and store water when rainfall intensity is less. It is suitable for medium deep-todeep black soils and deep red soils. It can be practiced in wide row spaced crops like cotton, maize, chillies, tomato etc. It is not suitable for shallow red soils, shallow black soils and sandy/ gravelly soils. It is not suitable for broadcast sown crops and for crops sown at closer row spacing less than 30 cm. Since furrows are formed usually before sowing, sowing by dibbling DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 481 or planting alone is possible. Tie ridging is a modification of the above system of ridges and furrows where in the ridges are connected or tied by a small bund at 2–3 m interval along the furrows. Random tie ridging is another modification where discontinuous furrows of 20–25 cm width, 45–60 cm length and 15 cm depth are formed between clumps or hills of crops at the time of weeding. Yet another modification of ridges and furrows method is the practice of sowing in lines on flat beds and formation of furrows between crop rows at 25–30 DAS. This enables sowing behind plough or through seed drill. (iv) Broad Bed Furrow (BBF): Here beds of 1.5 m width, 15 cm height and convenient length are formed, separated by furrows of 30 cm width and 15 cm depth. Crops are sown on the beds at required intervals. It is suitable for heavy black soils and deep red soils. The furrows have a gradient of 0.6%. Broad bed furrow",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "width, 15 cm height and convenient length are formed, separated by furrows of 30 cm width and 15 cm depth. Crops are sown on the beds at required intervals. It is suitable for heavy black soils and deep red soils. The furrows have a gradient of 0.6%. Broad bed furrow has many advantages over other methods. • It can accommodate a wide range of crop geometry i.e., close as well as wide row spacing. • It is suitable for both sole cropping and intercropping systems. • Furrows serve to safely guide runoff water in the early part of rainy season and store rainwater in the later stages. • Sowing can be done with seed drills. • It can be formed by bullock drawn or tractor drawn implements. Bed former cum seed drill enables BBF formation and sowing simultaneously, thus reducing the delay between rainfall receipts and sowing. (v) Dead furrowAt the time of sowing or immediately after sowing, deep furrows of 20 cm depth are formed at intervals of 6–8 rows of crops. No crop is raised in the furrow. Sowing and furrowing are done across slope. It can be done with wooden plough in both black and red soils. 3. Agrostological methods The use of grasses to control soil erosion, reduce run off and improve soil moisture storage constitutes the agrostological method. Grasses with their close canopy cover over soil surface and profuse root system, which binds soil particles, provide excellent protection against runoff and erosion. The following are the various agrostological methods of in situ moisture conservation. (i) Pastures/grass lands: Raising perennial grasses to establish pastures or grass lands is recommended for shallow gravelly, eroded, degraded soils. Grass canopy intercepts rainfall, reduces splash erosion, checks runoff and improves soil moisture storage from rainfall. (ii) Strip cropping with grasses:",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the various agrostological methods of in situ moisture conservation. (i) Pastures/grass lands: Raising perennial grasses to establish pastures or grass lands is recommended for shallow gravelly, eroded, degraded soils. Grass canopy intercepts rainfall, reduces splash erosion, checks runoff and improves soil moisture storage from rainfall. (ii) Strip cropping with grasses: Alternate strips of grasses and annual field crops arranged across slope check runoff and erosion and help in increasing moisture storage in soil. (iii) Ley farming: It is the practice of growing fodder grasses and legumes and annual crops in rotation. Grasses and legumes like Cenchrus, stylo are grown for 3–5 years and followed by annual crops like sorghum for 2 year. When the field is under grasses or legumes, soil moisture conservation is improved. (iv) Vegetative barriers: Vegetative barrier consists of one or two rows of perennial grasses established at suitable interval across the slope and along the contour. It serves as a block to free runoff and soil transport. Vetiver, Cenchrus etc., are suitable grasses. Vetiver can be planted in rows at intervals of 40 m in 0.5% slope. Plough furrows are opened with disc plough first before commencement of monsoon. 5–8 cm deep holes are formed at 20 cm interval and two slips per hole are planted in the beginning of rainy season. The soil around the roots is compacted. Vetiver barriers check runoff and prevent soil erosion. While they retain the soil, they allow excess 482 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY runoff to flow through their canopy without soil loss. It is adapted to drought and requires less care for maintenance. It does not exhibit any border effect on crops in adjacent rows. It allows uniform spread of water to lower area in the field resulting in uniform plant stand thus increasing yield of a crop by",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "without soil loss. It is adapted to drought and requires less care for maintenance. It does not exhibit any border effect on crops in adjacent rows. It allows uniform spread of water to lower area in the field resulting in uniform plant stand thus increasing yield of a crop by 10–15%. It facilitates better storage of soil moisture. If fodder grasses like Cenchrus glaucus or marvel grass are used, fodder can also be harvested and given to the animal. Vegetative barriers are best suited for black soil. Unlike contour bunding, which gives way due to development of crack in summer in black soils, vegetative barriers do not allow such phenomenon in black soil. Hence, the vegetative barriers can be effectively maintained in black soil for 4–5 years. After 4–5 years, replanting material can also be had from the old barrier by ‘quartering’ IV. Recycling of rainwater Runoff is that portion of precipitation, which makes its ways towards stream, channel, lake or ocean as surface flow. Mostly runoff refers to surface flow only. Runoff from rainfall is inevitable and cannot be completely arrested. In dry farming areas, rainfall often occurs at high intensity, which exceeds the infiltration rate and causes runoff. Also, when quantity of rainfall exceeds the water holding capacity of soils, runoff has to take place. In certain instances, surface characteristics of soils also cause runoff. Usually, under unchecked conditions, about 40% of rainfall may be lost as runoff. Even if moisture conservation practices are adopted, about 10–15% of rainfall in black soils and about 20% of rainfall in red soils is lost as runoff. The amount of such runoff varies with rainfall intensity, soil physical properties, soil surface characters, slope, vegetation cover and cultural practices. Runoff water, if not checked, flows out and is wasted, causing soil erosion.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "rainfall in black soils and about 20% of rainfall in red soils is lost as runoff. The amount of such runoff varies with rainfall intensity, soil physical properties, soil surface characters, slope, vegetation cover and cultural practices. Runoff water, if not checked, flows out and is wasted, causing soil erosion. It can be guided, collected and recycled to augment water availability to rainfed crops. The collection, storage and recycling of runoff water constitute the process of water harvesting. Water harvesting can be viewed from two situations. First is a case of normal rainfall with high intensity on a few rainy days causing runoff. This runoff can be guided and collected in storage structures called farm ponds and reused for supplemental irrigation to crops suffering from moisture stress. This is termed as macro watershed approach or macro catchment water harvesting. In the second instance, total rainfall is less and soil storage is inadequate for supporting crop growth. Here part of the land is left barren and uncultivated. This is known as donor area and is treated in such a way as to increase runoff from rainfall. The runoff from the donor strip is directed towards the lower adjacent strip to increase soil moisture storage there. This strip is used for raising crops. This is called as micro watershed approach or micro catchment water harvesting. (i) Water harvesting through farm ponds: The collection of rainwater and storing in big farm ponds is not a new concept in India. It is in vogue since early days in the form of tanks. Farm ponds are small storage structures constructed at the lowest point of a farm to collect and store runoff water. Runoff from various parts of the catchment area is properly guided through grassed waterways into the farm pond. The following points need",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "since early days in the form of tanks. Farm ponds are small storage structures constructed at the lowest point of a farm to collect and store runoff water. Runoff from various parts of the catchment area is properly guided through grassed waterways into the farm pond. The following points need to be considered while constructing farm ponds. • Deep heavy soils with low permeability are better suited for farm pond technology than shallow light soils with high permeability. But, ironically, the usefulness of farm pond is more felt in light soils with low water storage capacity. • Farm pond has to be constructed at the lowest point of the farm to collect runoff water from the entire farm area. • Size of farm pond depends on rainfall quantity, soil type, area of catchment (farm size) and estimated runoff. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 483 • Provisions for arresting soil inflow into the pond at the inlet point and a weir, for draining excess water when pond is full have to be made. • Runoff has to be guided to the farm pond through grassed waterways. • Water loss through seepage and, evaporation has to be checked. Seepage loss, can be reduced by lining the sides and bottom with soil + sand + cement or soil + cow dung + straw, spraying sodium chloride or sodium carbonate on the surface. Evaporation loss can be reduced by floating materials to prevent direct exposure of water surface, changing the shape of the pond to provide more depth rather than surface area (circular instead of rectangular). Advantages Harvested water can be used for protective irrigation to crops at critical stages. Since runoff is properly guided through grassed waterways, erosion is checked. Earth excavated from ponds can be used for bunding and leveling of fields. Stored water",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "more depth rather than surface area (circular instead of rectangular). Advantages Harvested water can be used for protective irrigation to crops at critical stages. Since runoff is properly guided through grassed waterways, erosion is checked. Earth excavated from ponds can be used for bunding and leveling of fields. Stored water can be used as drinking water for humans and animals, for spraying operations and for fish rearing. High value tree crops can be raised near farm ponds with protective irrigation. A chain of farm ponds can recharge ground water in the region. (ii) Water harvesting under deficit rainfall: The situation here is that the seasonal rainfall quantity by itself is not sufficient to support a crop till maturity. Therefore, runoff of rainfall from a part of the land left uncultivated is directed to an adjacent strip, which alone is used for cropping. In this strip (run-on strip/recipient area), the rainfall falling on its surface is supplemented by runoff directed from the other strip of land (donor area/runoff strip) and total water supply available is increased to facilitate cropping. This can be accomplished by the following practices. A portion of the field in the upper reach is left uncultivated. It is shaped or treated to increase runoff. This can be accomplished by covering the surface with polythene films or by water proofing it by spraying sodium carbonate or water repellant materials like silicone/asphalt or by shaping the land into a sloping, clear, smooth, compact surface to increase runoff. Runoff from this donor strip is guided to a smaller, strip on the lower reach to increase soil storage and to raise crops. The proportion of ‘donor area’ to cropped area depends on rainfall quantity, duration of rainfall, soil properties and crop characters. In the cropped area, land is shaped to conserve moisture.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "donor strip is guided to a smaller, strip on the lower reach to increase soil storage and to raise crops. The proportion of ‘donor area’ to cropped area depends on rainfall quantity, duration of rainfall, soil properties and crop characters. In the cropped area, land is shaped to conserve moisture. Acceptability of this method is however limited in regions where pressure on land does not permit leaving a large area barren for runoff harvesting. Creating micro relief in cultivated field between seed rows to direct rainwater to crop root zone is another approach. Here, small alternate strips of land of suitable width are left without cropping. These un-cropped strips are ridged up and compacted or shaped to slope towards seed rows to increase runoff, which will flow towards cropped strip. The relative width of runoff strip and cropped strip varies from 2:1 to 4:1 depending on rainfall. Land shaping through raised ridges between crop rows, planting in shallow ditch or trench, formation of slopping beds towards tree trunk, saucer shaped basins around trees, semicircular or crescent shaped basins on the downward slope around trees etc., come under this category. The micro watershed methods are also termed as inter-row water harvesting or inter-plot water harvesting. V. Reduction of loss of stored soil moisture Rainfall infiltrates into the soil and permits downward and laterally and gets stored in soil profile. Part of it percolates down to ground water. Stored water is absorbed by plants and weeds. It is lost from the soil surface as evaporation and from crop and weed canopy as transpiration. The loss through evaporation from soil and transpiration by weeds can be checked to reduce loss of stored moisture. Excessive transpiration loss from crop plants can also be minimized. ET loss is by latent heat of vapourisation and is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "surface as evaporation and from crop and weed canopy as transpiration. The loss through evaporation from soil and transpiration by weeds can be checked to reduce loss of stored moisture. Excessive transpiration loss from crop plants can also be minimized. ET loss is by latent heat of vapourisation and is governed by energy, vapour pressure gradient and conductivity of medium. Evapotranspiration can be checked by: 484 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Minimizing the evaporative surface area • Minimizing the energy need to the evaporative site • Minimizing the diffusivity/conductivity of water movement from soil • Minimizing the driving force or potential that is responsible for upward movement of water. A. Reduction of evaporation loss Evaporation happens to maintain soil thermal regime and is governed by soil moisture content, vegetative cover on surface, soil type, temperature gradient between soil and atmosphere and atmospheric water demand. Higher soil moisture content, especially a wet surface soil increases evaporation rate. As the surface soil dries up, continuity of capillary pores is disrupted and moisture movement upwards from deeper layers is reduced. Soil surface that is exposed to radiation without any vegetative cover offers more scope for evaporation due to over heating. Evaporation loss in a cropped field is more in the early growth stage when canopy cover is less, especially in widely spaced crops and slow growing species. Vegetative cover prevents direct exposure of soil surface to radiation, reduces heating of soil layers and thus checks the necessity for evaporation. Black soils tend to absorb more heat and may evaporate more water. When cracks are formed during drying, evaporation takes place from the sides of the cracks also. With high temperature, low humidity and dry winds, atmospheric water demand increases the rate of evaporation. (a) Measures to reduce evaporation loss (i) Shallow surface tillage:",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "absorb more heat and may evaporate more water. When cracks are formed during drying, evaporation takes place from the sides of the cracks also. With high temperature, low humidity and dry winds, atmospheric water demand increases the rate of evaporation. (a) Measures to reduce evaporation loss (i) Shallow surface tillage: When surface soil is stirred by tillage, the continuity of capillary pores is broken and the rise of water through capillary movement is obstructed. Shallow tillage after summer showers is beneficial in this regard. This process is called dust mulching. Inter tillage between crop rows during early dry spells has a similar effect. (ii) Mulching: Mulching means covering the soil surface with any material such as organic wastes, plastic, polythene sheets etc. The organic wastes used for mulching include crop stubbles, straw, coir pith, groundnut shell, husk etc. These wastes at 5–10 t ha−1 are spread on the soil surface to a thickness of 5-10 cm. Mulching provides the following benefits: • reduces direct impact of rain drops on soil particles and controls splash erosion. • increases infiltration. • reduces velocity of runoff water. • controls erosion. • improves soil moisture storage from rainfall. • controls evaporation loss. • suppresses weed growth. • influences thermal regime of soil by reducing soil temperature. • improves microbial activity. • controls salinity development. • can be incorporated as manures later. Vertical mulching is a technique where in trenches of 40 cm wide, 15 cm deep are dug at 2–4 m interval across slope and filled with stubbles or organic wastes to a height of 10 cm above soil surface. Runoff is checked, collected in the shallow trenches and redistributed to adjoining soil layers. This method can be considered as precursor method to broad bed furrow method. Live mulching is the term used to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and filled with stubbles or organic wastes to a height of 10 cm above soil surface. Runoff is checked, collected in the shallow trenches and redistributed to adjoining soil layers. This method can be considered as precursor method to broad bed furrow method. Live mulching is the term used to describe the covering soil surface through the plant canopy in intercropping system. e.g., sorghum + forage cowpea, sorghum + sword bean. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 485 Dust mulching refers to the soil condition associated with tillage. When land is ploughed or stirred, the surface soil is disturbed and this breaks the continuity of capillary pores from subsoil to surface. As a result, evaporation is checked and soil moisture is conserved. Guntaka (Blade harrow)/Danti/hand hoe are the implements used for dust mulching. Stover mulch or straw mulch refers to covering the soil surface with cumbu/sorghum straw, sugarcane trash reduces the evaporation and increases soil moisture efficiency. Similarly mulching with organic waste, crop residues, plastic material can be done. Stubble mulch is referred to the stirring of the soil with implements that leave considerable part of the vegetative material or crop residues or vegetative litter on the surface as a protection against erosion and for conserving moisture by favouring infiltration and reducing evaporation. Stubble mulch is very effectively done in western countries, where crop residue or by products like straw, stover or haulms are not given to animals as fodder. Special farm implements are available to create minimum disturbance and leave large surface area undisturbed. It also acts as minimum tillage and conservation tillage. Pebble mulch where small pebbles like stone are placed on the soil surface. This mulching will be successful in dry land horticulture (fruit tree culture). The pebbles placed on the basins of trees not only reduce evaporation but also",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "area undisturbed. It also acts as minimum tillage and conservation tillage. Pebble mulch where small pebbles like stone are placed on the soil surface. This mulching will be successful in dry land horticulture (fruit tree culture). The pebbles placed on the basins of trees not only reduce evaporation but also facilitate infiltration of rainwater into the basin. Use of anti-evaporating chemicals: Chemicals like hexadecanol are used as anti-evaporants. When sprayed and mixed with soil surface, hexadecanol is reported to reduce evaporation by 43%. The treated surface layer dries up fast and creates a diffusional barrier for upward movement of water vapour. It is resistant to microbial activity and degradation. It remains in soil for more than a year. It also increased the soil aggregate stability. Evaporation from free water surface, farm ponds, lakes etc., can be reduced to 80% by wax emulsions, rubber/plastic boats or saw dust. Shelter belt: In arid and semiarid regions, the hot winds dry the surface soil and create vapour pressure gradient and continuous vapourisation takes place. This continuous vapourisation can be arrested by raising shelterbelt. It is a practice of growing one or multi rows of trees/shrubs or crop plants across the wind direction either in the field or field boundaries to reduce the wind effect and to reduce the wind velocity. Shelterbelt reduces the evaporation and increases soil moisture content by 3–5% and this will be useful to alleviate the terminal moisture stress in crops grown in adjoining area. The increase in soil moisture percentage is due to favourable microclimate created by shelterbelts. It can be used as resting place of livestock in dry lands. Due to reduction in wind velocity, the pollen drift in orchard crops is minimized, there by pollination percentage is increased and fruit setting is improved. Many trees in shelterbelt",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "percentage is due to favourable microclimate created by shelterbelts. It can be used as resting place of livestock in dry lands. Due to reduction in wind velocity, the pollen drift in orchard crops is minimized, there by pollination percentage is increased and fruit setting is improved. Many trees in shelterbelt are economically important. After long period of maintenance, the trees can be disposed off as timber and raw material for industrial use. Fruit trees grown in shelterbelt give fruits, which fetch higher economic returns. Windbreak is also a form of shelter belt, but only one row of tall trees having good leaf canopy are grown in North-South direction in order to reduce wind velocity and there by reduce soil erosion. Tall trees like eucalyptus, casuarinas, and wood apple are grown as wind breaks. After years of maintenance, these trees can be disposed of economically. (iii) Measures to reduce transpiration loss: Though transpiration is necessary and unavoidable evil, excessive transpiration has to be controlled especially when soil moisture stress develops during critical stages of crop growth. The rate of transpiration is governed by soil moisture potential, atmospheric water demand and plant canopy characters such as leaf area, leaf orientation, stomatal resistance, etc. Transpiration loss can be reduced by the use of antitranspirants and by some cultural methods also. A. Antitranspirants Antitranspirants are substances or chemicals applied on plant-foliage to control rate of transpiration. The important points to be considered in using antitranspirants are: 486 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (a) They should restrict water loss from leaf surface without restricting entry of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, and (b) Transpiration necessary for cooling of leaf surface should not be completely stopped by the application of antitranspirants leading to rise in leaf temperature. Based on their mechanism of action, antitranspirants are classified into various",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "restrict water loss from leaf surface without restricting entry of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, and (b) Transpiration necessary for cooling of leaf surface should not be completely stopped by the application of antitranspirants leading to rise in leaf temperature. Based on their mechanism of action, antitranspirants are classified into various types. Stomatal closing type: They cause partial or complete closure of stomata by inducing the guard cells to close. But complete closure of stomata adversely affects gas exchange and photosynthesis. These chemicals may also cause phyto-toxicity and are very expensive too. E.g., Phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA) and alkanyl succinic acid (ASA). Film forming type: They cover the stomata by forming a thin film over leaf surface. These substances are nontoxic, non-degradable and very easy to apply but they adversely affect photosynthesis. E.g., Paraffin and wax emulsions, folic 2%, and power oil 1%. Reflectant type: When sprayed on leaf surface, the reflectant type antitranspirants increase the leaf albedo or leaf reflectance of sunlight. As a result, heating is reduced, leaf temperature inside is low and need for transpiration is reduced. E.g., Kaolin and lime solution. Spraying kaolin at 3–6% concentration reduced leaf temperature by 3–4 °C and transpiration by 22–28%. These are less expensive, non phytotoxic and do not interfere with photosynthesis, since stomatal closure does not take place. Growth retardant type: Chemicals like cycocel (ccc-chloro choline chloride, chlor mequat) when sprayed on foliage, reduce leaf area and thereby reduce the transpiring area and transpiration. B. Cultural methods (a) Weed control: Most weeds have a high transpiration coefficient i.e., amount of water transpired to produce unit quantity of dry matter. Early weed control prevents unwanted transpiration loss through weeds. (b) Shelterbelts: Rows of trees grown across the direction of wind reduce air movement, reduce temperature of air and plant canopy, increase",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Most weeds have a high transpiration coefficient i.e., amount of water transpired to produce unit quantity of dry matter. Early weed control prevents unwanted transpiration loss through weeds. (b) Shelterbelts: Rows of trees grown across the direction of wind reduce air movement, reduce temperature of air and plant canopy, increase humidity in the protected strips and thereby reduce the atmospheric water demand and control transpiration in the inter space between shelterbelts. (c) Alley cropping: This practice refers to raising perennial shrubs or tall crops as hedge rows up to 1-2 m height at 48 m intervals and raising short stature annual crops in the alleys (inter space between hedge rows). A similar effect on reduction in atmospheric water demand and transpiration as described under shelterbelts is caused in alley cropping. This method is also called as hedgerow intercropping. e.g., Hedge row Intercrop Leucaena/Desmanthus Black gram/cowpea/sunflower/groundnut Agathi/castor/Perennial red gram/Casuarina Cotton/black gram (trained as bush)/ glyricidia/cowpea VI. Rainfall use efficiency (RUE) The rainfall use efficiency is defined in many ways. The most common definition is WUE. WUE = Dry weight produced/ET WUE as the ratio of water used (ET) to the water potentially available (Rainfall + stored moisture). DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 487 Any soil moisture conservation technique, which increases the RUE, will be considered as the best management technique for that area. RUE is the relationship between yield and rainfall. RUE = Yield/Rainfall Kg/mm A. Choice of crops Traditional cropping pattern in the dry farming areas is dominated by food grains viz., millets and pulses. In a predominantly subsistence type of farming system, such dominance of food crops is natural. The choice of crops for dry lands is affected by rainfall quantity and distribution, time of onset of monsoon, duration of monsoon, soil characters including amount of rainwater stored in the soil",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "millets and pulses. In a predominantly subsistence type of farming system, such dominance of food crops is natural. The choice of crops for dry lands is affected by rainfall quantity and distribution, time of onset of monsoon, duration of monsoon, soil characters including amount of rainwater stored in the soil and farmer’s requirements. The criteria for choice of crops comprise the following • tolerance to drought • fast growth during initial period to withstand harsh environment • genetic potential for high yield • short or medium duration to escape terminal drought • adaptability to wide climatic variations • response to fertilizers B. Selection of suitable varieties In dry farming regions, traditional local crop varieties still dominate. The preference for these local varieties is based on their pronounced drought tolerance. But they are usually longer in duration susceptible to moisture stress at maturity. They have low yield potential even under favourable rainfall. They do not respond significantly to improved management such as nutrient supply. The criteria now adopted for selection of crop varieties for dry lands include drought tolerance, short or medium duration, high yield potential, response to nutrient supply, high water use efficiency, moderate resistance to pest and diseases. C. Choice of cropping system Cropping system refers to the spatial and temporal association of crops in a farming system. Choice of suitable cropping system must aim at maximum and sustainable use of resources especially water and soil. Cropping systems depend on rainfall quantity, length of rainy reason and soil storage capacity. The broad guidelines in choosing a cropping system for dry lands based on rainfall and soil characters are given in Table 13.8. Table 13.8. Broad Guidelines in choosing Cropping System Rainfall Soil type Growing Season Profile storage Suggested cropping system (mm) (weeks) capacity (mm) 350-600 Alfisols, shallow vertisols 20",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "capacity. The broad guidelines in choosing a cropping system for dry lands based on rainfall and soil characters are given in Table 13.8. Table 13.8. Broad Guidelines in choosing Cropping System Rainfall Soil type Growing Season Profile storage Suggested cropping system (mm) (weeks) capacity (mm) 350-600 Alfisols, shallow vertisols 20 100 Single rainy season cropping sorghum/maize/soybean 350-600 Deep arid sols, Entisols 20 100 Single cropping sorghum/maize/ (alluvium) soybean in kharif/rabi 350-600 Deep vertisols 20 100 Single post rainy season cropping sorghum (Contd.) 488 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Rainfall Soil type Growing season Profile storage Suggested cropping system (mm) (weeks) capacity (mm) 600-750 Alfisols, vertisols, entisols 20-30 150 Intercropping 1. Sorghum + Pigeon pea 2. Cotton + Black gram 750-900 Entisols, deep vertisols, 30 200 Double cropping with deep alfisols, inceptisols monitoring 1. Maize–Safflower 2. Soybean–Chick peag 3. Groundnut–Horse gram > 900 As above > 30 > 200 Assured double cropping Maize–Chick pea, Soybean Safflower D. Intercropping Intercropping refers to growing two or more crops in the same field during the same season. Intercropping is widely practiced in dry farming since it offers many advantages. Intercropping is a risk minimization strategy and provides an insurance against complete crop failure due to rainfall abnormalities. This is made possible through the duration difference between component crops. It provides more yield and income per unit area per unit time than sole cropping. Stability in production is achieved. Multiple products for home consumption as well as for marketing are made available. When legumes are included in intercropping, soil fertility is enriched. Intercrop canopy suppresses weed growth. Some intercrop combinations provide biological control of pests and diseases (e.g.,) cotton + cluster bean cropping system. Intercrop cluster bean reduces jassid incidence in cotton. Resource use efficiency is increased viz., light, water and nutrients are efficiently used. However,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in intercropping, soil fertility is enriched. Intercrop canopy suppresses weed growth. Some intercrop combinations provide biological control of pests and diseases (e.g.,) cotton + cluster bean cropping system. Intercrop cluster bean reduces jassid incidence in cotton. Resource use efficiency is increased viz., light, water and nutrients are efficiently used. However, for success in intercropping, the competition between component crops must be minimized and the complimentary effects must be maximized. This can be accomplished by the following means; • Choice of suitable component crops differing in duration, rooting pattern, canopy architecture, nutrient requirement and occurrence of critical stages • Selection of genotypes in each component crop • Optimum population of component crops • Suitable crop geometry to provide adequate space for intercrops • Preference for leguminous crops as intercrops The important intercropping systems suitable for dry lands are given in Table 13.9. Table 13.9. Important Intercropping Systems suitable for Dry Lands Crops Geometry Base crop duration Intercrop duration Sorghum + Lablab 6-8:2 100-120 150-180 Sorghum + Red gram 6-8:1 100-120 180 Sorghum + Cowpea 2:1 100-120 80 (Contd.) DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 489 Crops Geometry Base crop duration Intercrop duration Cotton + Black gram 2:1 150-185 65-75 Groundnut + Red gram 6-8:1 105 180 Groundnut + Castor 6-8:1 105 150-180 Bengal gram + Coriander 4:1 100 80 Maize + Cowpea 2:1 100-110 75-80 Ragi + Cowpea + Red gram 6:1:1 100 75 + 180 E. Double cropping in dry lands Double cropping either by sequential cropping or relay cropping is possible in places with high rainfall (> 900 mm) extended rainy season and high soil moisture storage capacity. (a) Double cropping by relay cropping Groundnut/Ragi + Red gram Horse gram (June–Sep) (June–January) (September–January) Groundnut or ragi is sown with red gram as intercrop in 6:1 proportion in June. After harvest of groundnut",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "places with high rainfall (> 900 mm) extended rainy season and high soil moisture storage capacity. (a) Double cropping by relay cropping Groundnut/Ragi + Red gram Horse gram (June–Sep) (June–January) (September–January) Groundnut or ragi is sown with red gram as intercrop in 6:1 proportion in June. After harvest of groundnut in September, horse gram is relay sown in the space between red gram rows. (b) Double cropping by sequential cropping Pearl/ragi/samai (May–September) Horse gram (September–January) Groundnut/sesamum (May–September) Horse gram (September–January) Cowpea/green gram (June–September) Sorghum (October–January) Sorghum (July–October) Chickpea (October–February) (c) Efficient double cropping system for dry lands of India Soil type Region Water availability (days) Double cropping system Vertisols Madhya Pradesh 210-230 Maize–chickpea Soybean–wheat Maharashtra 190-210 Sorghum–safflower Karnataka 130-150 Cowpea–sorghum Green gram–safflower Inceptisols Uttar Pradesh 200-230 Rice–Chickpea 180-200 Pearl millet–chickpea Black gram–mustard Oxisols Bihar 160-180 Maize–chickpea Groundnut–barley Alfisols Karnataka 190-220 Cowpea–ragi Soybean–ragi Alfisols and aridisols < 120 No double cropping 490 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (d) Crop substitution It refers to the replacement of an existing low yielding crop with another crop, which is better adapted to the prevailing environment and is capable of giving higher yield under similar climatic conditions. For many dry farming regions of India, more suitable crops than existing ones have been identified. However, the acceptance and adoption of the practice of crop substitution by dry land farmers is poor, since in most instances, the new crops replace food crops. In vertisols of Tamil Nadu, sunflower and maize are substituting millets and senna substituting low value pulses. 13.6 CLIMATOLOGICAL APPROACH FOR CROP PLANNING Crops and varieties selected should match the length of growing season during which they are not subjected to soil moisture stress. Climatological analysis helps to identify cultivars suitable for different regions. Feasibility for intercropping, sequence cropping and double cropping can also be known",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "pulses. 13.6 CLIMATOLOGICAL APPROACH FOR CROP PLANNING Crops and varieties selected should match the length of growing season during which they are not subjected to soil moisture stress. Climatological analysis helps to identify cultivars suitable for different regions. Feasibility for intercropping, sequence cropping and double cropping can also be known from such analysis. For regions with cropping season less than 20 weeks, single crop during kharif or rabi is recommended. Regions with more than 30 weeks and above have no problem for double cropping. In regions with 20–30 weeks cropping season, double cropping may be risky. Such areas are ideal for intercropping. Table 13.10. Length of effective Cropping Season in different Areas of India Category Effective cropping season (weeks) in different areas Potential cropping system < 20 weeks Bellary (8) Jodhpur(11) Anantapur (13) Sole cropping Hissar (17) Rajkot (17) Bijapur (17) 20-30 weeks Jhansi (21) Kovilpatti (21) Hyderabad (22) Intercropping Udaipur (22) Solapur (23) Agra (24) Anand (25) Akola (27) > 30 weeks Bhubaneswar (32) Varanasi (32) Indore (36) Sequence cropping Bangalore (36) Hoshiarpur (35) Dehradun (44) Rewa (36) Ranchi (45) Samba (44) (Randhawa and Venkateswarulu, 1979) Water balance for different agroclimatic regions has been calculated and water availability periods worked out. Regions with 350–600 mm rainfall having 20 weeks effective growing season are suitable for single cropping in kharif (red and shallow black soils) or rabi (deep black soils). Intercropping is possible in regions receiving 600–750 mm rainfall and having 20–30 weeks of effective growing season. Areas with more than 750 mm rainfall or with more than 30 weeks are suitable for double cropping. Optimum population: Poor or suboptimal population is a major reason for low yields in rainfed crops. Establishment of an optimum population depends on seed treatment, sowing at optimum soil moisture, time of sowing, depth of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "than 750 mm rainfall or with more than 30 weeks are suitable for double cropping. Optimum population: Poor or suboptimal population is a major reason for low yields in rainfed crops. Establishment of an optimum population depends on seed treatment, sowing at optimum soil moisture, time of sowing, depth of sowing, method of sowing and crop geometry. (a) Seed treatment: Seed treatment is done for many purposes such as protection against pests and diseases, inoculation of bio-fertilizers and inducing drought tolerance. Seed treatment with insecticides and fungicides is a low cost technology for protection against pests and diseases. In dry lands, spraying of chemicals for pest control is difficult due to scarcity of water. Hence, a preventive measure through DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 491 seed treatment is very useful. Bio-fertilizers like azospirillum, rhizobium and phosphobacterium are applied through seed inoculation as a low cost technology for nutrient supply. Table 13.11. Suitable Cropping Systems based on Rainfall and Water Availability Period Rainfall Soils Water Availability Potential cropping system (mm) period (weeks) 350-600 Alfisols and Shallow vertisols 20 Single kharif cropping 350-600 Aridisols and Entisols 20 Single cropping either in kharif or rabi 350-600 Deep Vertisols 20 Single rabi cropping 600-750 Alfisols, Vertisols and Entisols 20-30 Intercropping 750-900 Entisols, Deep Vertisols, >30 Double cropping with monitoring Alfisols and Inceptisols >900 Entisols, Deep vertisols, >30 Assured double cropping Alfisols and Inceptisols (i) Seed hardening: It is done to induce drought tolerance in emerging seedlings. It is the process of soaking seeds in chemical solution and drying to induce tolerance to drought. Soil moisture stress immediately after sowing affects germination and establishment. Seed hardening enables seedlings to survive this early moisture stress. During seed hardening, seeds are subjected to partial hydration followed by dehydration before sowing. Seeds are soaked for specified time in chemical solutions",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and drying to induce tolerance to drought. Soil moisture stress immediately after sowing affects germination and establishment. Seed hardening enables seedlings to survive this early moisture stress. During seed hardening, seeds are subjected to partial hydration followed by dehydration before sowing. Seeds are soaked for specified time in chemical solutions of prescribed concentration. Soaked seeds are then dried in shade back to original moisture content. During soaking, seeds imbibe water and germination process is started but not completed. The hardened seeds are thus in a ready state for germination. When sown in moist soils, seeds germinate immediately. Such early germination helps in seedling emergence before surface soil dries up. The seed hardening ensures early germination by 2–3 days compared to untreated seeds and induces better root development, which enables absorption of more moisture. Germination and seedling emergence are completed before surface soil dries out. It induces drought tolerance by increasing the resistance to protoplasmic dehydration in young seedlings subjected to moisture stress. Hardened seeds can be sown immediately or within 30 days of treatment. The seed hardening is considered as low cost technology and is the most important requirement for pre-monsoon sowing. For success in seed hardening, attention must be paid in selection of right chemical, its concentration, time of soaking, volume of solution and drying under shade to original moisture content. The seed hardening for various crops is given in Table 13.12. For pulses (black gram/green gram), 4 kg of wood ash is collected, powdered thoroughly to which 30% Acacia gum is added and mixed thoroughly so that wood ash-gum paste is obtained. 8 kg of black gram or green gram seed is spread over the Acacia-wood ash paste and mixed thoroughly so that all the seeds are smeared with the paste. The treated seeds are shade dried for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Acacia gum is added and mixed thoroughly so that wood ash-gum paste is obtained. 8 kg of black gram or green gram seed is spread over the Acacia-wood ash paste and mixed thoroughly so that all the seeds are smeared with the paste. The treated seeds are shade dried for 5 hours and then can be sown. (b) Sowing at optimum soil moisture: An effective rainfall of 20–25 mm, which can wet a depth of 10–15 cm, is needed for sowing. Moisture stress at or immediately after sowing adversely affects germination and establishment of seedlings. To ensure adequate soil moisture at sowing, sowing has to be done as early as possible after soaking rainfall is received. Sowing methods and implements play a crucial role in this regard. (c) Time of sowing: Optimum time of sowing is indicated by adequate rainfall to wet seeding depth and continuity of rainfall after sowing. The probable sowing time in a rainfed area is the week which has 492 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY a rainfall of not less than 20 mm with coefficient of variability less than 100% and the probability of a wet week following wet week. Timely sowing ensures optimal yield besides it may also help pest avoidance. Table 13.12. Seed Hardening for various Crops Crop Chemical Concentration Soaking time Volume of solution per kg seed Rice Potassium chloride 1 % Water-10 hrs 1 litre chemical-10 hrs Sorghum Potassium di-hydrogen phosphate 2 % 6 hrs 350 ml Potassium chloride 1 % 5 hrs 1 litre Pearl millet Potassium chloride 2 % 16 hrs 1 litre Sodium chloride 3% Ragi Calcium chloride 0.5% Until visibility 1 litre of embryo growth Sunflower Zinc sulphate 2 % 12 hrs 1 litre Cotton CCC 1000 ppm 6 hrs 1 litre KCl 2% 5 hrs 1.6 litre DAP",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1 litre Pearl millet Potassium chloride 2 % 16 hrs 1 litre Sodium chloride 3% Ragi Calcium chloride 0.5% Until visibility 1 litre of embryo growth Sunflower Zinc sulphate 2 % 12 hrs 1 litre Cotton CCC 1000 ppm 6 hrs 1 litre KCl 2% 5 hrs 1.6 litre DAP 2% 5 hrs 1.6 litre Pre-monsoon dry seeding: In some regions, where heavy clay soils dominate, sowing after rains is impossible due to high stickiness of soil. Here, sowing is done in dry soil, 2–3 weeks before the onset of monsoon (pre-monsoon). Seeds will remain in soil and germinate only on receipt of optimum rainfall. The advantages of pre-monsoon dry seeding are early sowing, uniform germination and good establishment, utilization of first rainfall itself for germination instead of for land preparation in post monsoon sowing and early maturity before closure of monsoon and avoidance of stress at maturity. For sorghum in black soils, pre-monsoon dry seeding is recommended 1–2 weeks before onset of monsoon with depth of sowing at 5 cm and seed hardening with 2% potassium di-hydrogen phosphate or potassium chloride. For cotton in black soils, pre-monsoon dry seeding is recommended at 2–4 weeks before commencement of monsoon, with a sowing depth of 5 cm and seed hardening with CCC (500 ppm) or potassium chloride or DAP at 2% level. The success of pre-monsoon dry seeding depends on the following: • It is recommended for bold seeds like cotton and sorghum only and not for all crops. • Time of advance sowing must be fixed based on rainfall analysis for date of onset of monsoon and continuity of rainfall after sowing. • Seeds must be hardened to ensure quick germination and drought tolerance. • Seeding depth must be such that seeds will germinate only after receipt of rainfall to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of advance sowing must be fixed based on rainfall analysis for date of onset of monsoon and continuity of rainfall after sowing. • Seeds must be hardened to ensure quick germination and drought tolerance. • Seeding depth must be such that seeds will germinate only after receipt of rainfall to wet that depth is received. Surface sowing may lead to germination with less rainfall and death due to subsequent soil drying. • Off season tillage is necessary to enable sowing in dry soil before monsoon. • Seed damage by soil insects has to be prevented. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 493 (d) Optimum depth of sowing: When seeds are sown on surface or at very shallow depth, germination and seeding growth are affected when surface soil moisture dries up. Sowing at a depth where soil moisture availability is adequate, ensure early and uniform germination and seedling establishment. Optimum depth of sowing varies with crop, especially seed size and penetration power of plumule. For e.g., it is 1–2 cm for sesamum, 2–3 cm for pearl millet and minor millets, 3–5 cm for pulses, sorghum and sunflower, 5 cm for cotton and maize, and 7 cm for coriander. (e) Method of sowing: Sowing method is an important determinant of population. In dry lands, it is important to sow the seeds in moist soil layer to ensure proper germination and seedling emergence. It is therefore necessary to sow immediately after rainfall to avoid sowing in dry soil. It is also important to sow the seeds at correct depth, neither on the surface nor too deep. Establishment of an optimum population also depends on proper spacing between plants. The density, geometry, and depth of sowing are dependent on method of sowing. The sowing methods usually adopted in dry lands include broadcasting, sowing behind plough and sowing",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "at correct depth, neither on the surface nor too deep. Establishment of an optimum population also depends on proper spacing between plants. The density, geometry, and depth of sowing are dependent on method of sowing. The sowing methods usually adopted in dry lands include broadcasting, sowing behind plough and sowing by seed drills. Dibbling of seeds and planting of seedlings are also adopted for some crops (Cotton, tobacco and chillies). Each method has advantages as well as limitations. The choice of sowing method depends on seed size, soil condition time available, cropping system, crop geometry, sowing depth, source of power, cost of sowing, etc. The merits and limitations of sowing methods are given in Table 13.13. Table 13.13. Merits and Limitations of Sowing Methods Sowing method Merits Limitations Broadcasting Quick coverage for small seeds like ragi, Spacing and depth not ensured high sesamum, minor millets, medium sized seed seed rate-intercrop sown separately like sorghum pulses can also be broadcasted Sowing behind For medium and bold seeds cotton, sorghum, Low coverage spacing between plants plough maize, groundnut, pulses, castor, sunflower and depth of sowing not ensured. seeding requires wooden plough only. Easy Intercrop has to be sown separately. operation-row spacing can be ensured Only monsoon sowing is possible Local seed drill For medium and bold seeds wooden implement Spacing between plants is not uniform (gorru) easy maintenance, less cost, row spacing is and depends on experience of seed ensured, more coverage than broadcasting and dropper. Intercrop has to be sown sowing behind plough. Sowing depth and row separately. Cannot be used for spacing is uniform pre-monsoon sowing. Mechanized seed Large coverage, row and plant spacing ensured Initial cost is high, needs skill for drill (Bullock uniform depth of sowing. Base crop and operation and maintenance. drawn/tractor intercrop sown simultaneously, enables early",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "behind plough. Sowing depth and row separately. Cannot be used for spacing is uniform pre-monsoon sowing. Mechanized seed Large coverage, row and plant spacing ensured Initial cost is high, needs skill for drill (Bullock uniform depth of sowing. Base crop and operation and maintenance. drawn/tractor intercrop sown simultaneously, enables early drawn) sowing in large area, and saves cost and time. Pre-monsoon sowing is possible. (f) Crop geometry: It refers to the shape of land occupied by individual plants as decided by spacing between rows and between plants. It depends on the root spread and the canopy size of the crop and the cropping system. 494 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Crop Crop geometry (cm) Sole crop in solid row Intercropping Sorghum 45 × 15 (60 + 30) × 15 in paired row Pearl millet 30 × 15 Ragi 30 × 10 Small millets 30 × 10 Black gram, green gram, Soybean, horse gram 30 × 10 Red gram 60 × 30 Cowpea 30 × 15 Cotton 45 × 30 (60 + 30) × 15 in paired row Cotton (Arboreum) 45 × 15 Groundnut 30 × 10 Sesamum 30 × 30 Sunflower 45 × 15 Sunflower hybrids 45 × 20 Sunflower varieties 30 × 15 Coriander 30 × 15 Senna 45 × 15 Maize 45 × 30 Fig. 13.1 Seed cum fertilizer drill DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 495 Fig. 13.2 Ferti cum seed drill 13.7 SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT UNDER DRY FARMING “Dry land soils are not only thirsty, but also hungry.” Uncertainty of return from the investment on fertilizer use and the poor resource base are the reasons for not using fertilizer by the dry land farmers. The fertilizer use in dry land crops might vary between 5 and 40 kg/ha (N+P2O5+K2O). Soils are low in N and P, and Zn is the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "return from the investment on fertilizer use and the poor resource base are the reasons for not using fertilizer by the dry land farmers. The fertilizer use in dry land crops might vary between 5 and 40 kg/ha (N+P2O5+K2O). Soils are low in N and P, and Zn is the most limiting factor among micronutrient. The response for Ca, Mg and S has also been recorded. The reasons for poor soil fertility are slow weathering of minerals, low organic matter content, reduced microbial activity, erosion, very low addition of manures and fertilizers, soil salinity and alkalinity, and reduced mobility of nutrients and nutrient fixation. The following Tables 81 and 82 gives the quantity of nutrient removed by dry land crops and nutrient requirement by dry land crops. A. Beneficial Effect The beneficial effects of nutrient supply in dry lands are given below: • Deficiency in soil supply of nutrients required by crops is corrected. • Nutrient supply promotes root development, which enables higher uptake of soil moisture and 496 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY high water use efficiency. This positive relationship between nutrients and moisture is mutual. • Increased vigour of a fertilized crop enables it to survive drought better than an unfertilized crop. Table 13.14. Nutrient Removal by Dry Land Crops Crop kg/t of yield N P2O5 K2O Total Sorghum 22.4 13.3 34.0 69.7 Pearl millet 42.3 22.6 90.8 155.7 Groundnut 58.1 19.6 30.1 107.8 Cotton 44.5 28.3 74.7 147.5 Bengal gram 46.3 8.4 49.6 104.3 Soybean 66.8 17.7 44.4 128.9 Red gram 62.0 11.5 65.0 138.5 Table 13.15. Nutrient Requirement of Dry Land Crops Crop kg /q of produce N P2O5 K2O Total Pearl millet 3.73 0.99 4.89 9.61 Maize 2.00 0.92 3.00 5.92 Soybean 7.40 1.45 7.20 16.05 Red gram 6.20 1.15 6.50 13.85 Groundnut 6.65 2.12 4.39",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "128.9 Red gram 62.0 11.5 65.0 138.5 Table 13.15. Nutrient Requirement of Dry Land Crops Crop kg /q of produce N P2O5 K2O Total Pearl millet 3.73 0.99 4.89 9.61 Maize 2.00 0.92 3.00 5.92 Soybean 7.40 1.45 7.20 16.05 Red gram 6.20 1.15 6.50 13.85 Groundnut 6.65 2.12 4.39 13.16 Farmers in dry lands however do not apply sufficient quantity of nutrients since nutrient sources like manures and fertilizers are costly and risks to dependable crop production. The average consumption of inorganic fertilizers is less than 10 kg per ha in dry lands. Even this is confined to a few commercial crops like cotton, groundnut and chillies only. The reasons attributed by farmers for poor adoption of nutrient supply to rainfed crops include: • High cost, inadequate availability of fertilizers and inadequate availability plus high cost of transport of organic manures, fear of scorching due to inorganic fertilizer addition. • Low and uncertain yield, and income due to undependable rainfall behaviour. • Apprehension that a well fertilized crop growing vigorously would exhaust soil moisture supply early and subject to moisture stress at later stages. • Adoption of fertilizer non responsive varieties in large. Due to the above reasons, nutrient supply in dry lands is at a slow pace. In order to ensure adequate nutrient supply, care must be taken to understand the factors that influence nutrient use efficiency in dry crops and to evolve an integrated nutrient management system that will be efficient, economical and environmentally sustainable. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 497 B. Scope for Fertilizer Use • Introduction of new high yielding varieties/hybrids in different crops which are fertilizer responsive at a given adequate soil moisture storage level. • Development of new in situ soil moisture conservation methods enhances the duration time and depth of soil moisture availability. This",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "AGRICULTURE 497 B. Scope for Fertilizer Use • Introduction of new high yielding varieties/hybrids in different crops which are fertilizer responsive at a given adequate soil moisture storage level. • Development of new in situ soil moisture conservation methods enhances the duration time and depth of soil moisture availability. This will increase the fertilizer use efficiency. Hence, there is a good scope for fertilizer applications. • Use of integrated nutrient management in different crops, increases the fertilizer use efficiency and increases the yield. • Short duration/early duration varieties of crops utilize the fertilizers very efficiently than long duration varieties of the same crops. C. Factors Influencing NUE Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) refers to the yield per kg of nutrient applied. The response of rainfed crops to nutrient application depends on crop and variety, rainfall and soil moisture availability, soil properties, quantity, time and methods of nutrient application, cropping system adopted and management practices such as moisture conservation, timely weed control etc. The following Table 83 gives the response of rainfed crops to nutrients-nitrogen and phosphorus. Table 13.16. Response Rainfed Crops to Nutrients Crop kg grain/kg of Nutrient Nitrogen Phosphorus Sorghum 3.4–43.4 2.4–59.0 Pearl millet 2.1–24.8 1.7–14.3 Ragi 5.0–42.4 6.4–38.0 Maize 4.1–67.4 6.8–80.0 Thenai 5.9–17.9 – Sunflower 1.5–22.6 1.2–2.0 Groundnut 1.3–6.0 1.2–15.0 Sesamum 1.3–5.0 1.1–3.1 Green gram – 1.5–11.6 Black gram – 1.8–6.7 Red gram – 3.1–8.3 (a) Rainfall and soil moisture availability: Water and nutrients interact positively and exhibit a mutual complementary effect. Adequate and well-distributed rainfall enables higher nutrient uptake and response. This is accomplished through greater mobility of nutrients in a moist soil, improved microbial activity and better root growth. Under moisture stress, nutrient uptake suffers due to reduced mobility of nutrients, restricted root growth high salt concentration of soil solution, nutrient fixation and reduced microbial activity. Nutrient",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "uptake and response. This is accomplished through greater mobility of nutrients in a moist soil, improved microbial activity and better root growth. Under moisture stress, nutrient uptake suffers due to reduced mobility of nutrients, restricted root growth high salt concentration of soil solution, nutrient fixation and reduced microbial activity. Nutrient supply improves water use efficiency through extensive root growth, reduced evaporation loss through canopy coverage of soil and higher yield. Information about rainfall quantity, distribution and probability, are very useful to make decisions on soil fertility management. If a region is defined 498 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY as one having a dependable onset of monsoon and hence adequate soil moisture for crop establishment, then basal dressing of fertilizer would be safe. If continuity and assurance of rainfall in early growth stage is present, then top dressing would be beneficial. Since, high intensity of rainfall is common in dry lands, split application of N would be advantageous to prevent loss through leaching. Information on rainfall probability could be used in scheduling fertilizer application to suit moisture storage capacity of soil profile and progress of rainfall during cropping season. (b) Crop and variety: Crops and varieties vary in their ability to use applied nutrients. Hybrids and high yielding varieties (HYV) respond better than local varieties because of their high yield potential at the same level of resource supply. Among the crops, response to individual nutrients varies with species. Cereals and millets respond more to N, legumes to P2O5 and oilseeds to N, P2O5 and K2O. (c) Soil properties: Soil physical properties influence crop response mainly by affecting soil moisture availability. Soil nutrient status also has a significant effect on crop response. Dry lands are mostly deficient in N and so, there is universal response to N. Response to P2O5 depends on fixation",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "P2O5 and K2O. (c) Soil properties: Soil physical properties influence crop response mainly by affecting soil moisture availability. Soil nutrient status also has a significant effect on crop response. Dry lands are mostly deficient in N and so, there is universal response to N. Response to P2O5 depends on fixation in soil and to K on leaching loss. (d) Management practices: Nutrient management aspects such as quantity, time and method of application of nutrients, inclusion of legumes in cropping system, soil moisture conservation practices etc. also influence crop response to nutrients. D. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) The components of INM for rainfed crops are organic manures, inorganic fertilizers, biofertilizers and inclusion of legumes 1. Organic manures Organic matter content in dryland soils is low and its improvement is essential to promote soil moisture storage and nutrient supply. This can be accomplished through addition of FYM/compost, green manure/ green leaf manures and crop residues. Addition of FYM/compost at 12.5 t/ha is recommended. Incorporation of green manures/GLM before sowing or incorporation of intercropped legumes is useful. At Kovilpatti, Tamil Nadu, incorporation of sunn hemp not only reduced 50% N requirement but also sustained yield in cotton, sunflower and improved physico-chemical properties of soil. In Tamil Nadu, Kolinji and Aavarai (Cassia auriculata) are used as GLM in dry lands. Leaves of leguminous trees through lopping and prunings can serve as GLM e.g., Subabul, Vagai, Neem, Sisoo, Aacha. 2. Inorganic fertilizers Quantity: Great care is required in deciding on the quantity because of high cost. It depends on soil, crop variety and moisture availability Recommended dose of fertilizer application (kg ha−1) to dry land crops of Tamil Nadu Crop N P2O5 K2O Sorghum 40 20 070 Maize 135 62.5 50 Cumbu 70 35 35 Cotton 40 20 0 Sunflower 40 20 20 Pulses 12.5",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cost. It depends on soil, crop variety and moisture availability Recommended dose of fertilizer application (kg ha−1) to dry land crops of Tamil Nadu Crop N P2O5 K2O Sorghum 40 20 070 Maize 135 62.5 50 Cumbu 70 35 35 Cotton 40 20 0 Sunflower 40 20 20 Pulses 12.5 2.5 0 Groundnut 17.5 35 53 DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 499 Method of application must ensure application of nutrients in moist soil and prevention of loss. N can be applied basally at last ploughing and incorporated. Foliar application of N is useful when crops are reviving from stress. For P2O5 placement near root zone by basal incorporation or at 5–10 cm from seed rows is effective to prevent fixation and to ensure easy availability. To avoid fixation of applied P, application as enriched FYM is recommended. Deep placement is important for post rainy season crops grown on stored moisture. K is applied basally at last ploughing and incorporated. Micronutrients are applied after sowing but not incorporated. Use of seed cum fertilizer drill is very useful for placement of fertilizers Time of application should be such to suit crop requirement and moisture availability. Since adequate moisture is always available at sowing, basal application is effective. N can be top-dressed at 25–30 DAS depending on rainfall. This enables skipping fertilizer if rainfall is not adequate and save the cost. For millets and cotton ½ N and full P and K are applied basally and ½ N is top-dressed. For other crops, full NPK is applied basally. For pre-monsoon sown crops like cotton and sorghum, entire P can be applied basally as enriched FYM. In case of sorghum, entire N can be applied at 30-35 DAS and for cotton, N can be applied in two equal splits at 20–25 and 40–45 DAS depending upon",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is applied basally. For pre-monsoon sown crops like cotton and sorghum, entire P can be applied basally as enriched FYM. In case of sorghum, entire N can be applied at 30-35 DAS and for cotton, N can be applied in two equal splits at 20–25 and 40–45 DAS depending upon the receipt of rainfall during the corresponding period. 3. Legumes in cropping system Legume intercropping is very common in dry lands. When a short duration legume is intercropped with a long duration non-legume, the legume haulms after picking pods can be incorporated to benefit the non-legume by current transfer of legume fixed N. In Sequential cropping, short duration legumes grown for grain/fodder as first crop, enrich the soil and the residual effect benefits the succeeding crop. 4. Biofertilisers Seed inoculation of legumes with rhizobium, and seed inoculation and soil application with azospirillum for cereals, millets, cotton, sunflower and sesamum is recommended. Besides N fixation, azospirillum improves root growth through the exudation of growth promoting substances. Use of phosphobacteria as seed inoculation and soil application for solubilising native P is also recommended. VA mycorrhizae is found to play a crucial role in P nutrition of dry land crops especially soybean, sorghum and pearl millet. Biofertilizers constitute a low cost technology in nutrient management. Management practices such as moisture conservation techniques, raising responsive varieties, timely weed control and emphasis on low cost and no cost technologies also play a vital role in nutrient management for dry land crops. 5. Low cost technology and non-monetary inputs in soil fertility management Fertilizer is a costly input, compared with other components of dry land technology package. Considering the uncertainty and low level of returns in dry lands during years of abnormal rainfall, low cost technologies and non-monetary inputs relevant to soil fertility management must be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and non-monetary inputs in soil fertility management Fertilizer is a costly input, compared with other components of dry land technology package. Considering the uncertainty and low level of returns in dry lands during years of abnormal rainfall, low cost technologies and non-monetary inputs relevant to soil fertility management must be given due importance. Seed inoculation and soil application of biofertilizers, use of enriched FYM, split application of N fertilizer, suitable method of application, choice of responsive cultivars and inclusion of legumes in intercropping are useful technologies in this regard. 13.8 CONTINGENCY CROP PLANNING FOR DIFFERENT ABERRANT WEATHER SITUATIONS Rainfall behaviour in dry farming areas is erratic and uncertain. The deviations in rainfall behaviour include delayed onset, early withdrawal, intermediary dry spells during rainy season. The adverse effect 500 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY of these rainfall aberrations on crop growth vary with the degree of deviation and the crop growth stage at which such deviations occur. Suitable manipulations in crop management practices are needed to minimize such adverse effects of abnormal rainfall behaviour. These management decisions constitute contingency planning. Such management practices done after crop establishment and in the middle of growth are called midterm corrections. Rainfall aberration Effect on crops Delay in onset of rainfall Length of cropping season or cropping duration is reduced crop sowing is delayed Early withdrawal or cessation of rainfall Moisture stress at maturity grain filling is affected (terminal stress) Intermediate dry spells (a) Immediately after sowing Germination is affected and population is reduced (b) At vegetative phase Affects stem elongation, leaf area expansion and branching or tillering (c) At flowering Affects anthesis and pollination, and grain/pod number is reduced (d) At ripening Grain filling and size is reduced Contingency plan and midterm corrections vary with the type and time of occurrence of rainfall observation. Rainfall",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "vegetative phase Affects stem elongation, leaf area expansion and branching or tillering (c) At flowering Affects anthesis and pollination, and grain/pod number is reduced (d) At ripening Grain filling and size is reduced Contingency plan and midterm corrections vary with the type and time of occurrence of rainfall observation. Rainfall abnormality Contingency plan and midterm correction 1. Delayed onset of rainfall (a) Delay exceeding 3–4 weeks Alternate crops of short duration to be sown Delay in Southwest monsoon Normal–June Groundnut Delay–July Ragi/pearl millet Delay–August Samai/Cowpea Delay in Southwest monsoon Normal–October Cotton/Sorghum Delay–Early November Sunflower/Pearl millet/Ragi Delay–Late November Coriander/Senna (b) Delay of 1–2 weeks Alternate varieties of short duration of same crop e.g., Sorghum–for CO19 (150 days), CO 25 (110 days); Red gram–for local (180 days), CO 5 (130 days) 2. Early withdrawal of rainfall Antitranspirant spray, harvesting for fodder (millets) and harvesting at physiological maturity 3. Intermediary dry spell (a) Immediately after sowing Gap filling with subsequent rains if stand reduction is less than 20%. Re-sowing if stand reduction is more than 20%, mulching between crop rows. Stirring soil surface to create dust mulch to reduce evaporation (Contd.) DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 501 Rainfall abnormality Contingency plan and midterm correction (b) At vegetative phase Mulching, antitranspirant spray, spraying potassium chloride, thinning of 33–50% population (c) At flowering Antitranspirant spray, harvesting for fodder and ratooning with subsequent rains in millets (e.g.) sorghum (d) At ripening Antitranspirant spray, harvesting for fodder, harvesting at physiological maturity A contingent crop plan-model for dry lands of Aruppukottai and Kovilpatti of Tamil Nadu is furnished below. Rainfall period Aruppukottai Kovilpatti Rain fall 810 mm 730 mm On set of monsoon 37th standard week 41st standard week (2nd week of September) (2nd week of October) Soil Shallow vertisol Deep vertisol Premonsoon 35th standard week 39th standard week Sowing",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Aruppukottai and Kovilpatti of Tamil Nadu is furnished below. Rainfall period Aruppukottai Kovilpatti Rain fall 810 mm 730 mm On set of monsoon 37th standard week 41st standard week (2nd week of September) (2nd week of October) Soil Shallow vertisol Deep vertisol Premonsoon 35th standard week 39th standard week Sowing Last week of August Last week of September Crops Cotton, Sorghum Hirsutum cotton, Sorghum (K8), Fodder sorghum (K3) Monsoon sowing 37th standard week 41st standard week Choice of Crops Cotton, Sorghum, Maize, Cotton (Hirsutum and, arboreum sp), Red gram, Black gram maize, black gram, sorghum 2 Weeks delayed 39th standard week 43rd standard week (last week of (last week of September) October) Sunflower, coriander Maize, bajra 4 Weeks delayed 41st standard week 45th standard week (2nd week of (2nd week of October) November) Coriander, gingelly, Senna 6 Weeks delayed 43rd standard week 47th standard week (last week of (last week of October) Coriander November)Senna is possible if heavy rainfall is received 13.9 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE Soil and water are two naturally available resources need to be managed efficiently in dry land agriculture. Under given ecological limitation, it is the rainfall variation that causes fluctuation in productivity from year to year. The following technologies may be followed for resource management. • Effective utilization of stored soil moisture is important and hence crops and varieties having high moisture use efficiency (MUE) need to be used. • Crop planning as per length of cropping season: Select the crop of proper duration to match the length of growing season for stabilizing in crop production. 502 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Dry Land Horticulture Fruit trees with drought tolerance potential can substitute annual crops in many dry land tracts. The criteria for selection of fruit trees for dry lands are drought tolerance, adaptability",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to match the length of growing season for stabilizing in crop production. 502 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Dry Land Horticulture Fruit trees with drought tolerance potential can substitute annual crops in many dry land tracts. The criteria for selection of fruit trees for dry lands are drought tolerance, adaptability to varying soil conditions, flowering and fruiting during period of adequate moisture availability, quick regeneration after pruning and rapid recovery after stress is removed. The Table 13.17 gives an idea to go for fruit trees under different rainfall and soil type conditions. Successful dry land horticulture depends on many cultural requirements viz., selection of trees suitable for rainfall and soil, planting during monsoon season in one m3 pits, pot watering during hot months in the early establishment period of 2–3 years, pruning to reduce canopy during dry season and moisture conservation through vegetative barriers, large basins sloping towards tree trunk, crescent or saucer shape basins, mulching with dry leaves, straw or crop waste. Table 13.17. Fruit Trees under different Rainfall and Soil Type Conditions Rainfall (mm) Fruit trees suitable 560–700 Ber, pomegranate, cashew sapota, pomegranate, jamun, amla 700–900 Mango, cashew, custard apple, guava, fig. Soil type Black soils Ber, sapota, pomegranate, jamun, amla, wood apple Red soils Mango, cashew, custard apple (Annona), pomegranate, sapota, amla. Inclusion of fruit trees in dry land farming systems can be done through: (a) Pure horticulture: Plantations of mango, cashew, guava etc. (b) Agri horticulture: Annual crops intercropped in between fruit trees. E.g.: Mango + Groundnut/ samai/horse gram, ber + cowpea/green gram. (c) Hortipasture: Growing pasture grasses and legumes between fruit trees. E.g.: Ber/guava + Cenchrus cilliaris + Stylosanthes. B. Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) Integrated farming system (IFS) refers to the adoption of allied agricultural enterprises along with crop production in a mutually beneficial manner",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Groundnut/ samai/horse gram, ber + cowpea/green gram. (c) Hortipasture: Growing pasture grasses and legumes between fruit trees. E.g.: Ber/guava + Cenchrus cilliaris + Stylosanthes. B. Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) Integrated farming system (IFS) refers to the adoption of allied agricultural enterprises along with crop production in a mutually beneficial manner in the same farm holding. E.g., Crop + sheep/goat, crop/ sericulture, Crop + poultry, crop/tree + forage + livestock. IFS offers many advantages compared with annual cropping alone by increased farm income, stability in farm income, increased employment opportunities, balanced food to farm family, efficient use of resources and recycling of farm wastes. Case studies in dry land IFS (i) Black soils of Kovilpatti, Tamil Nadu IFS Crop + Live stock (a) Crop (0.5 ha) Cotton, sun flower, sorghum (b) Fodder crops (0.5 ha) Cenchrus cilaris, fodder cumbu, fodder sorghum (c) Livestock 2 Jersey milch cows DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 503 System Net income (Rs./Year) 1. Crop 1636 2. Additional income from milch animal 2519 3. Organic matter recycled 1.2 t per year (ii) Black soils of Aruppukottai, Tamil Nadu IFS Crop + trees + goat Crop Sorghum + cowpea, cotton + black gram Fodder Cenchrus grass + desmanthus Fruit trees Ber, custard apple, amla Livestock Tellicherry goats (5 female + one male) System Net income Per day income Employment Generation (Rs/ha/Year) (Rs/day) (man days /year) Crop alone 3228 9 35 IFS 10417 29 131 (iii) Black soils of Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu System Crop + trees + goat in one ha Crop Sorghum + cowpea for fodder 0.2 ha; Leucaena + Cenchrus 0.2 ha Trees Acacia senegal 0.2 ha; Prosophis cineraria 0.2 ha Livestock Goats in deep litter system (5 females + one male) Crop alone IFS Net income (Rs/ha/ Year) 1919 5666 Additional income – 3749 Employment (man day/year) 40",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Crop Sorghum + cowpea for fodder 0.2 ha; Leucaena + Cenchrus 0.2 ha Trees Acacia senegal 0.2 ha; Prosophis cineraria 0.2 ha Livestock Goats in deep litter system (5 females + one male) Crop alone IFS Net income (Rs/ha/ Year) 1919 5666 Additional income – 3749 Employment (man day/year) 40 153 Per day profit (Rs.) 2.26 15.52 (iv) Red soils of Paiyur, Tamil Nadu System Crop + dairy Crop Ragi/samai /pulses Livestock 3 Cows System Per day income (Rs/day) Crop alone Rs. 2.38 Crop + Dairy Rs. 8.10 More details are given in the chapter cropping and farming system. C. Integrated Dry Land Technology and its Components A single technology in isolation will not give desired results. Adoption of all related technologies as an integrated dry land technology package alone will provide a synergistic effect and improve the crop productivity in dry regions. The various components of such an integrated dry land technology (IDLT) are the following: 504 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • In situ soil moisture conservation • choice of suitable crops and crop substitution • selection of high yielding drought tolerant varieties • cropping system to suit rainfall quantity, duration of rainy season and soil moisture storage • tillage to conserve moisture • establishment of optimum population • soil fertility management • crop protection against weeds, pests and diseases. 13.10 ALTERNATE LAND USE SYSTEM Uncertain rainfall, poor soil conditions and low level of management has made annual cropping of field crops a non-remunerative enterprise in many pockets of dry lands. In some instances, cropping has been given up altogether and lands remain fallow and become wastelands overgrown with unwanted vegetation. To arrest this trend and to bring back the land under economically useful vegetation, alternate land use systems such as grasslands/pastures, agroforestry and horticulture are recommended. This has",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "dry lands. In some instances, cropping has been given up altogether and lands remain fallow and become wastelands overgrown with unwanted vegetation. To arrest this trend and to bring back the land under economically useful vegetation, alternate land use systems such as grasslands/pastures, agroforestry and horticulture are recommended. This has become necessary for the following reasons: • Annual field crop production is nonviable and uneconomical in many years. • Yield of field crops is low and fluctuates widely between years affecting stability and income. • Continued use of the eroded and degraded lands under the present system of annual cropping may ecologically degrade the lands further affecting sustainability of the fragile eco-system in the dry lands, leading to the creation of wastelands. • Alternate land use systems such as grasslands and tree culture are less risky, more productive and remunerative in these marginal lands. They will provide stability and sustainability. The choice of an alternate land use system depends on the land capability. Most of the lands under dry farming tracts come under the land capability classes of III and above. Land capability class Alternate land use recommended Class II Dry land horticulture Class III and IV Agro-forestry/ley farming Class V Pastures/silvipasture/tree farming Class VI Range lands/wood lots A. Pastures and Grasslands Forage crops play an important role in dry land economy. They help to promote livestock husbandry to improve and stabilize income. Forage grasses and legumes are best suited for marginal lands and sub marginal lands, sloppy lands, eroded and degraded lands for soil and moisture conservation and for reclamation of wastelands. B. Forage Crops Forage crops for dry lands include: Annual cereals Sorghum, maize, pearl millet Annual legumes Cowpea, cluster beans (guar) DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 505 Perennial grasses Cenchrus ciliaris (Anjan or Kolukkattai grass) Cenchrus setigerus (black kolukkattai)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and degraded lands for soil and moisture conservation and for reclamation of wastelands. B. Forage Crops Forage crops for dry lands include: Annual cereals Sorghum, maize, pearl millet Annual legumes Cowpea, cluster beans (guar) DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 505 Perennial grasses Cenchrus ciliaris (Anjan or Kolukkattai grass) Cenchrus setigerus (black kolukkattai) Cenchrus glaucus (blue buffel) Dichanthium annulatum (marvel grass) Chloris gayana (Rhodes grass) Heteropogon contortus (spear grass) Annual grass Pennisetum pedicellatum (Deenanath grass) Perennial legumes Stylosanthes hamata, Stylosanthes scabra (Stylo or muyal masal) Macroptilium atropurpureum (siratro) Clitoria ternatea (sangupuspham) Desmanthus virgatus (Hedge lucerne/velimassal) Leuceana leucocephala (subabul), berseem. Forage crops can be introduced into the dry land farming system through any of the following ways: • Grasslands or pasture with perennial grasses and legumes for grazing by livestock, cutting and stall feeding (cut and carry system) and hay or silage making. • Strip cropping with alternate strips of grasses/legumes and annual crops. • Ley farming where in perennial forage crops are grown in rotation with annual crops in 4–5 year cycle e.g., Stylosanthes hamata (3 years)–sorghum (1 year)–castor (1 year). C. Ley Farming Ley farming offers the following advantages: • Provision of fodder for cattle, • Low risk system, • Soil and moisture conservation, • Enrichment of soil fertility, • Prevention of soil compaction, and • Control of perennial weeds. D. Silviculture Silviculture refers to the raising of trees. When trees are introduced into farms along with field crops, it is known agrisilviculture or agroforestry system. Tress provides many benefits to mankind. They play protective role by making available a variety of products for human consumption, for livestock and for industrial raw material needs. E.g., fruits, nuts, fuel, fodder, timber, wood, wax, resin, etc. They also play a protective role through soil and moisture conservation, enrichment of soil fertility through nutrient recycling",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "They play protective role by making available a variety of products for human consumption, for livestock and for industrial raw material needs. E.g., fruits, nuts, fuel, fodder, timber, wood, wax, resin, etc. They also play a protective role through soil and moisture conservation, enrichment of soil fertility through nutrient recycling and protection of environment. (i) Methods of tree cultivation Block culture: Large area is planted with selected species of tress suitable for fuel, timber, wood or industrial use (multipurpose tree species). It is also known as wood lots or energy plantations when planted for fuel. e.g., Eucalyptus, Acacia, Prosophis. 506 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Staggered planting: Trees are grown scattered in the field with annual crops raised in the interspaces. Multipurpose tree species suitable for fuel, fodder, wood and timber can be planted at 20–50 trees per ha. E.g., Acacia + fodder sorghum, Neem + pulses/sorghum. Border trees: Trees can be grown along farm boundaries and field borders for economic use as well as boundary markers. E.g., Palmyrah, Neem, Tamarind, Eucalyptus. (ii) Different systems of tree culture 1. Agrisilviculture (Agroforestry): Trees and annual crops are raised in an intercropping system in the same field. Trees are planted at 5-8 m spacing and field crops are sown in the interspaces during rainy reason. E.g., Leucaena + sorghum/pearl millet/castor/pulses, neem/vagai + fodder sorghum/pulses. 2. Silvipasture: Leguminous fodder trees are raised with fodder grasses and legumes as intercrops. E.g., acacia + cenchrus + stylosanthes, vagai/sisoo + cenchrus + stylosanthes. 3. Alley cropping or hedgerow intercropping: Annual field crops are grown in alleys formed by hedgerows of trees and shrubs. The trees or shrubs in hedge rows are cut back to short height (0.5–1.0 m) at sowing of annual crops with onset of rains and kept pruned during crop growing season to reduce shade",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "hedgerow intercropping: Annual field crops are grown in alleys formed by hedgerows of trees and shrubs. The trees or shrubs in hedge rows are cut back to short height (0.5–1.0 m) at sowing of annual crops with onset of rains and kept pruned during crop growing season to reduce shade effect and competition with field crops. The width of alley (space between hedges) is about 4–6 m. e.g., leucaena or desmanthus as hedge row with sorghum, maize, pigeon pea and sunflower as intercrop. Alley cropping offers many benefits. • Green fodder from hedgerows during dry season, and food and dry fodder from annual crops during rainy season. • Off season rainfall is utilized by hedgerow trees or shrubs. • Hedge rows check runoff and erosion when formed along contour or across slope. • Loppings and prunings from hedgerows can be used as fodder, fuel wood or for mulching. • Yield of crops raised in the alleys is improved due to better microclimate through reduction in temperature and wind speed, increase in humidity and reduction in evapotranspiration loss. Success in alley cropping depends on alley width and height of hedgerows. Alley width of 5–6 m has been found to be effective. Low height of 45–50 cm is desirable. Usually one cutting of hedgerow shrubs at the time of sowing of annual crops and subsequent prunings at monthly interval during cropping season are optimal. During dry season, cutting is done depending on fodder requirement. 4. Timber-Fibre system (TIMFIB system): It involves growing trees and perennial fibre crops together. E.g., Leucaena + agave. (iii) Choice of trees for dry lands Trees suitable for dry lands must have the characters like multipurpose tree species (fodder, fuel, timber, wood), adaptable to wide variations in soil and climate, rapid growth and withstanding against severe pruning. 13.11",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "trees and perennial fibre crops together. E.g., Leucaena + agave. (iii) Choice of trees for dry lands Trees suitable for dry lands must have the characters like multipurpose tree species (fodder, fuel, timber, wood), adaptable to wide variations in soil and climate, rapid growth and withstanding against severe pruning. 13.11 WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT Watershed is defined as a natural hydrological unit that covers a specific land surface area from which runoff passes through a common outlet. In simple terms, it implies a catchment or drainage basin from which water drains towards a single channel. It may extend over a few acres only or may cover thousands of acres. Watershed development approach aims at developing the entire area in the watershed DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 507 Soil Rainfall (mm) Trees suitable Black soil 730–830 Euclayptus viridis, Acacia nilotica, Leucaena leucocephala Black soil 510–760 Acacia nilotica, Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia indica, Acacia planifrons, Leucaena leucocephala, Azadirachta indica, Ailanthus excelsa Red soil 570–830 Leucaena leucocephala, Eucalyptus cameldulensis, Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal, Acacia holoserecia, Acacia tortilis, Albizzia lebbeck, Prosophis cineraria, Hardwickia binata, Dalbergia sisoo, Azadirachta indica Red soil 380–500 Prosophis cineraia, Albizzia lebbeck, Acacia nilotica Red soil Less than 300 Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal, Acacia tortilis, Zizijphus jujuba including the cultivated and uncultivated area. It is therefore different from individual farm as unit for development. Watershed management is the integration of technology within the natural boundaries of a drainage area for optimum development of land water and plant resources to meet the basic minimum needs of the people in a sustained manner. It is also defined as the development and management of watershed resources in such a manner as to achieve optimum production without deterioration of resources base or disturbing the ecological balance. It is termed as “Resource centered technology” since it helps in assessment",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the people in a sustained manner. It is also defined as the development and management of watershed resources in such a manner as to achieve optimum production without deterioration of resources base or disturbing the ecological balance. It is termed as “Resource centered technology” since it helps in assessment augmentation and optimal utilization of all the natural resources of land water and vegetation, it prevents deterioration of resources and at the same time, ensures sustained productivity of land to meet basic needs of people. A. Need and Advantages Watershed is an acceptable basic hydrological unit of planning for optimum use and conservation of soil and water resources. Here, development is not confined to agricultural land alone but covers the whole land area starting from the highest point of the watershed (ridge line) to the lower most point of outlet into the natural drainage stream at the bottom of the slope. It means every part of land including barren, sloppy and marginal lands being treated according to its capability. By adopting watershed as unit for development, different measures are adopted and executed in each of the topo-sequence according to its capability, providing an integrated treatment of arable and non-arable lands. e.g., Ridge line Tree culture Marginal land Agroforestry, pasture Arable land Integrated soil and moisture conservation and cropping It aims at comprehensive development of all resources in the watershed i.e., holistic. It starts from the most important resources viz., soil and water and extends to other resources like crops trees, livestock etc. Some of the resource conservation measures may have to be carried out cutting across field boundaries E.g., Contour bunding, contour vegetative barriers, shelterbelts, drainage channel. For this, watershed is more ideal unit. It is a multidisciplinary approach involving scientists from all related disciplines of Agronomy, Engineering, Horticulture, Forestry,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "livestock etc. Some of the resource conservation measures may have to be carried out cutting across field boundaries E.g., Contour bunding, contour vegetative barriers, shelterbelts, drainage channel. For this, watershed is more ideal unit. It is a multidisciplinary approach involving scientists from all related disciplines of Agronomy, Engineering, Horticulture, Forestry, Soil Science, Extension, Economics, etc. It provides for involvement of farmers in planning execution and monitoring of the development. B. Principles The main principles of watershed management based on resource conservation, resource generation and resource utilization, are: 508 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Utilizing the land according to its capability; • Protecting productive top soil; • Reducing siltation hazards in storage tanks and reservoirs and lower fertile lands; • Maintaining adequate vegetation cover on soil surface throughout the year, in situ conservation of rain water; • Safe diversion of excess water to storage points through vegetative waterways; • Stabilization of gullies by providing checks at specified intervals and thereby increasing ground water recharge; • Increasing cropping intensity and land equivalent ratio through intercropping and sequence cropping; • Safe utilization of marginal lands through alternate land use systems with agriculture, horticulture, forestry, pasture systems with varied options and combinations; • Water harvesting for supplemental and off-season irrigation; • Maximizing agricultural productivity per unit area per unit time and per unit of water; • Ensuring sustainability of the ecosystem befitting the man, animal, plant, water complex; • Maximizing the combined income from the interrelated and dynamic crop, livestock, tree, labour complex over years; • Stabilizing total income and to cut down risks during aberrant weather situations; • Improving infrastructural facilities with regard to storage, transportation and marketing of the agricultural produce; • Setting up of small scale agro industries; and • Improving the socioeconomic status of the farmers. Objectives Watershed management is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "years; • Stabilizing total income and to cut down risks during aberrant weather situations; • Improving infrastructural facilities with regard to storage, transportation and marketing of the agricultural produce; • Setting up of small scale agro industries; and • Improving the socioeconomic status of the farmers. Objectives Watershed management is enshrined with the concept of sustainability meeting the needs of present population without compromising the interests of future generations. It is multipronged approach for steady uplift of masses living in the area. The main objectives of this multipurpose programme can be described in symbolic form by the expression ‘POWER’. Here the letters symbolize the following: P— Production of food-fodder-fuel-fruit-fibre-fish-milk combine on a sustained basis; Pollution control; Prevention of floods O— Over-exploitation of resources to be minimized by controlling excessive biotic interference like overgrazing; Operational practicability of all on-farm operations and follow-up programmes including easy approachability to different locations in watershed W—Water storage at convenient locations for different purposes; Wild animal and indigenous plant life conservation at selected places E— Erosion control; Eco-system safety; Economic stability; Employment generation R— Recharge of ground water; Reduction of drought hazards; Reduction of siltation in multi-purpose reservoirs; Recreation C. Components • Water-resource improvement • Soil and moisture conservation in cultivated lands DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 509 Hardware Software Permanent/Semi-permanent Temporary/Recurring Contour builds Compartmental bunding Bench terracing Ridging after crop establishment Conservation ditches Contour cultivation Land levelling Mulching Runoff collection structures Vegetative barriers • Land treatment in non-arable lands • Improved cropping • Alternate land use system and integration of livestock in farming system. D. Aims • Increased land productivity through improved technology • Sustaining the resource base thorough improved conservation measures • Augmentation of resource base viz., soil productivity and water availability E. Action Plan (Steps in watershed development) Step 1. Identification and selection of watershed",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and integration of livestock in farming system. D. Aims • Increased land productivity through improved technology • Sustaining the resource base thorough improved conservation measures • Augmentation of resource base viz., soil productivity and water availability E. Action Plan (Steps in watershed development) Step 1. Identification and selection of watershed The boundary of the watershed has to be marked by field survey starting from the lowest point of the water course and proceeding upwards to the ridge line. The area may vary as low as 100 ha to as high as 10,000 ha. Step 2. Description of watershed Basic information has to be collected on— • Location • Area, shape and slope • Climate • Soil—geology, hydrology, physical, chemical and biological properties, erosion level • Vegetation—native and cultivated species • Land capability • Present land use pattern • Crop pattern, cropping system and management • Farming system adopted • Economics of farming Manpower resource Socio economic data Infrastructural and institutional facilities Step 3. Analysis of problems and identification of available solutions Step 4. Designing the technology components • Soil and moisture conservation measures • Run off collection, storage and recycling 510 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Optimal land use and cropping system • Alternate land use system and farming system • Other land treatment measures • Development of livestock and other allied activities • Ground water recharge and augmentation Step 5 Preparation of base maps of watershed incorporating all features of geology, hydrology, physiography, soil and proposed development measures for each part of watershed. Step 6 Cost-benefit analysis to indicate estimated cost of each component activity, total cost of project and expected benefit. Step 7 Fixing the time frame to show time of start, duration of project, time frame for completion of each component activity along with the department/agency to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "each part of watershed. Step 6 Cost-benefit analysis to indicate estimated cost of each component activity, total cost of project and expected benefit. Step 7 Fixing the time frame to show time of start, duration of project, time frame for completion of each component activity along with the department/agency to be involved in each component activity Step 8 Monitoring and evaluation to assess the progress of the project and to suggest modification if any Step 9 On-farm research to identify solutions for site-specific problems. F. Organizational requirement • Water shed development agency with multidisciplinary staff • Training to personnel • Training to farmers • Credit institution • Farmers forum/village association • Non governmental organization (NGO) Chapter 14 Harvesting and Post Harvest Technology Harvesting assumes considerable importance because the crop has to be harvested as early as possible to make way for another crop. Sometimes, harvesting time may also coincide with heavy rainfall or severe cyclone and floods. In view of these situations suitable technology is, therefore, necessary for reducing the harvesting time and safe storage at farm level. The post-harvest losses are estimated to be about 25 per cent. Post-harvest operations are assuming importance due to higher yields and increased cropping intensity. Due to introduction of modern technology, yield levels have substantially increased resulting in a marketable surplus, which has to be stored till prices are favorable for sale. With increase in irrigation facilities and easy availability of fertilizers, intensive cropping is being practiced. A recent estimate by the Ministry of Food and Civil supplies put the total preventable post-harvest losses of food grains at about 20 million tons a year, which was nearly 10 per cent of the total production. The principal adviser, planning commission stated that food grains wasted during post-harvest period could have fed up 117 million",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Food and Civil supplies put the total preventable post-harvest losses of food grains at about 20 million tons a year, which was nearly 10 per cent of the total production. The principal adviser, planning commission stated that food grains wasted during post-harvest period could have fed up 117 million people for a year. Out of the total food grain production, more than 70 per cent is with the farmer and rest is stored by governmental organizations like central Warehousing Corporation and Food Corporation of India and Traders. The godowns are the most common structures for above ground bag storage. The godowns have all the facilities for fumigation, providing aeration and rat proof. Each of the godown can hold 5000 t of bagged food grains. Grain is also stored in bulk using large silos. For want of required storage space in godowns, food grains are also stored in the open and this method of storage is known as CAP storage. Cap stands for cover and plinth. Open spaces in warehouses and elsewhere are used for storing produce. Crates are placed on floor, mats are spread on the crates and finally bags are placed over the crates. The stacks are built in the farm of domes. As protection against rain and sun the stacks are covered with thick (600 to 1000 guage) black polythene sheets and the cover is tied to the stack with the help of plastic ropes. 14.1 HARVESTING Removal of entire plant or economic parts after maturity from the field is called harvesting. It includes the operation of cutting, picking, plucking or digging or a combination of these for removing the useful part or economic part from the plants/crops. The portion of the stem that is left in the field after harvest is called as stubble. The economic",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the field is called harvesting. It includes the operation of cutting, picking, plucking or digging or a combination of these for removing the useful part or economic part from the plants/crops. The portion of the stem that is left in the field after harvest is called as stubble. The economic product may be grain, seed, leaf, root or entire plant. 512 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Harvest Index (H.I) It is the ratio of the economic yield to the total biological yield expressed as percentage. H.I = (Economic yield/Biological yield) × 100 B. Time of Harvesting If the crop is harvested early, the produce contains high moisture and more immature ill filled and shriveled grains. High moisture leads to pest attack and reduction in germination percentage and impairs the grain quality. Late harvesting results in shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting during rainy season and breakage during processing. Losses due to late harvesting Percentage of loss Harvesting at physiological maturity 0.71 Harvesting at harvest maturity 3.50 Harvesting one week after maturity 5.63 Harvesting two week after maturity 8.64 Harvesting three week after maturity 14.70 Harvesting four week after maturity 16.40 Hence, harvesting at correct time is essential to get good quality grains and higher yield. Time of harvesting can be assessed by (i) calculating the growing degree days (GDD), and (ii) assessing maturity from the duration of crop. (i) Growing Degree Days: A degree day or a heat unit is the mean temperature above base temperature, max min GDD 2 n b i i T T T = + ⎡ ⎤ ⎣ ⎦ = − ∑ where Tmax is maximum temperature, Tmin is minimum temperature. Tb is the lowest temperature at which there is no growth (base temperature). For example–base temperature of rice, maize and cumbu is 10°C whereas",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2 n b i i T T T = + ⎡ ⎤ ⎣ ⎦ = − ∑ where Tmax is maximum temperature, Tmin is minimum temperature. Tb is the lowest temperature at which there is no growth (base temperature). For example–base temperature of rice, maize and cumbu is 10°C whereas it is 4.5°C for wheat. Degree days are useful for predicting the time of harvest by calendaring the required photo thermal units (PTU) to complete each growth stage of the crop. ( ) PTU GDD Length of day for long day plant or night for short day plant n i i = = × ∑ (ii) Assessing Maturity: Crops can be harvested by assessing the maturity i.e., at physiological maturity or at harvest maturity. (a) Physiological maturity refers to a development stage after which no further increases in dry matter occurs in the economic part. Crop is considered to be at physiological maturity when the translocation of photosynthesis to the economic part is stopped. (b) Harvest maturity generally occurs seven days after physiological maturity. The important processes during this period is loss of moisture from the plants. C. External Symptoms of Physiological Maturity The major symptoms of physiological maturity of some field crops are as follows: HARVESTING AND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY 513 • Wheat and Barely–Complete loss of green colour from the glumes. • Maize and Sorghum–Black layer in the placental region of grain • Pearl millet–Appearance of bleached peduncle • Soybean–Loss of the green colour from leaves. • Redgram–Green pods turning brown about 25 days after flowering. D. Harvest Maturity Symptoms The harvest maturity symptoms of some important crops are as follows: • Rice–Hard and yellow coloured grains. • Wheat–Yellowing of spikelets. • Sorghum, Pearl millet, foxtail millet–Yellow coloured ears with hard grains. • Ragi–Brown coloured ears with hard",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "pods turning brown about 25 days after flowering. D. Harvest Maturity Symptoms The harvest maturity symptoms of some important crops are as follows: • Rice–Hard and yellow coloured grains. • Wheat–Yellowing of spikelets. • Sorghum, Pearl millet, foxtail millet–Yellow coloured ears with hard grains. • Ragi–Brown coloured ears with hard grains • Pulses–Brown coloured pods with hard seeds inside the pods. • Groundnut–Inner side of the pods turn dark from light color. • Sugarcane–Leaves turn yellow. • Tobacco–leaves slightly turn yellow in colour and specks appear on the leaves. E. Criteria for Harvesting of Crops The criteria for harvesting of crops is given in Table 14.1. Table 14.1. Criteria for Harvesting of Crops Crop Criteria for harvesting Rice 32 days after flowering, Green grains not more than 4-9% Wheat About 15% moisture in grain, Grain in hard dough stage. Maize 25–30 days after tasselling, Seed moisture content is at 34% Sorghum 40 days after flowering Cumbu 28–35 days after flowering Redgram 35–40 days after flowering Black/Green gram Pod turn brown/black Rapeseed/mustard 75% of the silique turn yellow, Seed moisture at 30% Sunflower Back of heads turns to lemon yellow Groundnut Yellowing of leaves and shedding Development of purple colour of the testa Cotton Bolls fully opened Jute 50% pod stage (120–150 days) Sugarcane Brix 18–20%, Sucrose 15% Determination of harvesting date is easier for determinate crops and difficult for indeterminate crops because at a given time, the indeterminate plants contain flowers, immature and mature pods or fruits. If the harvesting is delayed for the sake of immature pods, mature pods may shatter, if harvested earlier, yield is less due to several immature pods. This problem can be overcome by, • harvesting pods or ears when 75% of them are mature (or) 514 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • periodical harvesting or",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is delayed for the sake of immature pods, mature pods may shatter, if harvested earlier, yield is less due to several immature pods. This problem can be overcome by, • harvesting pods or ears when 75% of them are mature (or) 514 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • periodical harvesting or picking of pods • inducing uniform maturity by spraying Paraquat or 2, 4-D sodium salt. In fodder crops, toxins present in the crop, nutritive value, purpose of harvest (whether for stall feeding or for storage) and single or multi cut are also to be considered during harvest. Example–HCN toxin content in sorghum is high up to 30–45 DAS. F. Methods of Harvesting Harvesting is done either manually or by mechanical means. (i) Manual: Sickle is the important tool used for harvesting. The sickle has to be sharp, curved and serrated for efficient harvesting. Knife is used for harvesting of plants with thick and woody stems. Now-a-days improved type of sickle is available which reduce the drudgery of harvesting labourers. (ii) Mechanical: Harvesting with the use of implements or machines. G. Implements/Machinery used for Threshing and Drying For harvesting: Power tiller operator paddy harvester, combine harvester, guntaka etc. are used. (i) Paddy harvester: It is used for non-lodging varieties. During operation, the nose of the harvester first enters into the standing crop and movement brings the crop between star projection of the wheel, then it cuts the standing crop. Capacity of this machine is one hectare per day. The width of the coverage for one movement will be 0.75 m. The power requirement is 3 H.P. The present cost of the unit will be Rs. 30,000 and operation cost is Rs. 260/ha including cost of two labourers. (ii) Combine harvester: It is possible to harvest and thresh the produce simultaneously using",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the coverage for one movement will be 0.75 m. The power requirement is 3 H.P. The present cost of the unit will be Rs. 30,000 and operation cost is Rs. 260/ha including cost of two labourers. (ii) Combine harvester: It is possible to harvest and thresh the produce simultaneously using combine harvester. It cuts the crop, separates the grain from straw, cleans it from chaff and dust and stores the grains in the storage tank. The combine harvester reaps 2–9 rows at a time depending on its size and is equipped with 8 to 10 H.P engine. The cutting operation is done by a reciprocating type of cutter bar with a speed of 800–900 strokes per minute. The cut portion is transferred to conveyor belt or plant form with the help of wheel. Threshing cylinders operating at a peripheral speed of 800–1200 stroked per minute are used for threshing. Grain and chaff are separated with the help of blowers. (iii) Guntaka: Ground nut is harvested using heavy blade harrows called Guntakas–R.E. Guntaka. For threshing: (i) Olpad thresher, (ii) Japanese rotary paddy thresher; (iii) multi crop thresher, (iv) rollers etc. are used. (i) Olpad thresher: It is used for wheat, barley, oats etc. It consists of 20 circular discs each 45 cm in diameter and 3 mm in thickness placed 15 cm apart in three rows run by pair of bullocks over the dried crop spread circularly on the threshing floor. (ii) Japanese paddy thresher: It consist of a threshing drum, driving mechanism and a supporting frame. Main parts are wooden drum with peg-teeth all around its circumference. The diameter of the drum is about 43 cm to 76 cm. The thresher is operated by a single person with the help of a pedal. Threshing of paddy is done by holding",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "driving mechanism and a supporting frame. Main parts are wooden drum with peg-teeth all around its circumference. The diameter of the drum is about 43 cm to 76 cm. The thresher is operated by a single person with the help of a pedal. Threshing of paddy is done by holding the bundle of harvested material against the teeth of revolving drum. (iii) Multi-crop threshers: Mechanical thresher commonly used for threshing major cereals, oil seeds and pulses. It is operated by an electric motor or oil engine. These threshers have provision HARVESTING AND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY 515 to control concave clearance and threshing drum and blower speed independently so as to reduce grain breakage and improve cleaning. Sunflower and safflower, which are difficult to thresh with traditional methods, can also be threshed by the multi-crop thresher. (iv) Rollers: Rollers made of stone are used to thresh grains from ears of millets like ragi, sorghum and cumbu. Ear heads are spread to a thickness of 20 cm in a circular fashion on a threshing floor and rollers are drawn over it by a pair of bullocks. Drying is done either by using solar energy or by artificial heating (mechanical drying) of air and circulating it as in driers. Storage Harvesting of crop is seasonal, but consumption of food grain is continuous. The market value of the produce is generally low at harvesting time. So the grower need storage facility to hold a portion of produce to meet the feed and seed requirements in addition of selling surplus produce when the marketing price is favourable. Traders and Co-operatives at market centres need storage structures to hold grains when the transport facility is inadequate. The government also needs storage structures to maintain buffer reserves to offset the effects produced by the vagaries of nature.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in addition of selling surplus produce when the marketing price is favourable. Traders and Co-operatives at market centres need storage structures to hold grains when the transport facility is inadequate. The government also needs storage structures to maintain buffer reserves to offset the effects produced by the vagaries of nature. Hence, there is necessity to store the produce for different periods primarily for commercial reasons. The growers, processors, transporters and warehouse men have to develop storage facilities for proper storage of food grains, oilseeds, commercial crops like Chillies, vegetables and fruits etc., and seeds intended for sowing in the following seasons. An ideal storage facility should satisfy the following requirements: • It should provide maximum possible protection from ground moisture, rains, insect pests, moulds, rodents, birds, fire, etc. • It should provide the necessary facility for inspection, disinfection, loading, unloading, cleaning and reconditioning. • It should protect grain from excessive moisture and temperature favourable to both insect and mould development. • It should be economical and suitable for a particular situation. H. Post Harvest Processing Post harvest processing encompasses an array of handling and processing system from the stage of maturation till consumption of the produce and includes threshing, cleaning, grading, drying, parboiling, curing, milling, preservation, storage, processing, packaging, transportation, marketing and consumption systems. The most important factor deciding the storability of the produce is moisture content of the produce. High moisture content invites pest and disease and induce pre-germination. Moisture content for safe storage of grains of most crops is about 14% (raw rice), 15% for parboiled rice, 12% for wheat, barley, other millets and pulses, 10% for coriander, chillies and 6% for groundnut, rapeseed and mustard. I. Objectives • To minimize post harvest losses which is around 10–25% in cereals and 20–30% in perishables. • To get good",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is about 14% (raw rice), 15% for parboiled rice, 12% for wheat, barley, other millets and pulses, 10% for coriander, chillies and 6% for groundnut, rapeseed and mustard. I. Objectives • To minimize post harvest losses which is around 10–25% in cereals and 20–30% in perishables. • To get good quality products. • To get maximum quantity of materials by way of proper PHT. • To get value added products by way of processing. • For proper utilization of water from food industries. • To create employment opportunities. • To eliminate or minimize the pollution. 516 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY II. Principles Involved-Rice (i) Threshing: Involves the detachment of grains from the panicle. (ii) Drying: Reduction of 12–14% or 8% by evaporation. i.e., it involves heat and mass transfer operations simultaneously. (iii) Parboiling: Is a hydrothermal treatment followed by drying before milling for the production of milled parboiled grain. The most important change during parboiling is the gelatinization of starch and disintegration of protein bodies in the endosperm. (iv) Milling: Refers to the size reduction and separation operations used for processing of food grains into edible form by removing and separating the inedible and undesirable portions from them, Milling may involve cleaning/separating husk (dehusking), sorting, whitening, polishing, grinding etc. (v) Storage: Proper storage in storage structures is necessary to prevent the grains from storage pest and to maintain the quality of seeds. III. Methods involved in Post Harvest Technology The quantitative losses encountered at various stages are 1 to 3%, during harvest, 2 to 6% during threshing, 1 to 5% during drying 2 to 7% during handling 2 to 10% during milling and 2 to 6% during handling 2 to 10% during milling and 2 to 6% during storage. To overcome these losses the following improved practices can be adopted.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "during harvest, 2 to 6% during threshing, 1 to 5% during drying 2 to 7% during handling 2 to 10% during milling and 2 to 6% during handling 2 to 10% during milling and 2 to 6% during storage. To overcome these losses the following improved practices can be adopted. (i) Harvesting: Paddy if not harvested at the optimum time, results in loss of quality and quantity. To reduce these losses, machines like combines and reapers are being introduced to harvest paddy at an appropriate stage. (ii) Threshing: Threshing, done by bullocks, tractors and by hand, result in poor drying, storage and milling. The multicrop threshers have been developed to reduce these losses. (iii) Transport: Poor transport facilities result in losses to the farmers, millers, and eventually food grain to the country, sometimes as much as 2–3 per cent. Good transport facilities should be used to minimize these losses. When once the grain is threshed and dried, it will be transported from the field to store houses by bullock carts, or tractors by the growers. Sometimes if the market price is favourable, the produce is disposed to the traders soon after drying. The disposal of the produce, either at the village or at the market yard is, however often closely connected with financial needs of the growers and sometimes indebtedness. The traders on purchasing, transport the produce to go-down, or shops for sale to the consumers. This transport mainly uses trucks i.e., lorries. Government agencies like Food Corporation of India etc., transport the produce from one place to another place either by road or rail (waggons) for long-term storage and sometimes to export to other countries by sea (cargo). If the produce is not properly bagged and handled there will be some loss during transport. (iv) Drying: Sun drying methods",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "etc., transport the produce from one place to another place either by road or rail (waggons) for long-term storage and sometimes to export to other countries by sea (cargo). If the produce is not properly bagged and handled there will be some loss during transport. (iv) Drying: Sun drying methods cause more breakage of grain than other factor, resulting in low head yields and low milling yields. Moist paddy in storage deteriorates rapidly. With the introduction of heated air dryers, the losses can be reduced considerably. (v) Storage: Uncleaned wet paddy accounts for the largest losses during storage. This is followed by losses due to rodents, birds, mould, fungus, insects and pilferage. These losses can be minimized by storing in good storage structures. HARVESTING AND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY 517 Table 14.2. Moisture Content of Grains for Safe Storage Crop Moisture content in % Paddy and raw rice 14 Parboiled rice 15 Wheat, barley, maize, millets, and pulses 12 Coriander, chillies, fenugreek 10 Groundnut pods, rape and mustard 6 A. Types of storage Holding grain in bulk in underground is an age-old method of rural storage. Wheat, rice, sorghum, finger millet, etc., can be stored underground for a period of 2 years. These structures are simple underground dig-outs upto a depth of 5 m varying in sizes to hold from a small quantity upto 50 t. The pits are lined with brick or concrete so that moisture from walls and bottom does not damage the grain. At the time of filling a layer of straw is placed on all sides. After the pit is filled, straw is spread over the grain and then topped with a layer of soil. Insect infestation is less in the underground storage and it is cheaper over above ground storage structures. This underground structure is not",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a layer of straw is placed on all sides. After the pit is filled, straw is spread over the grain and then topped with a layer of soil. Insect infestation is less in the underground storage and it is cheaper over above ground storage structures. This underground structure is not suitable for high rainfall and high water-table areas. Further the grain stored underground has poor appearance and musty smell. Several types of above ground storage structures mentioned below are also in use in our country, (i) Mud Bins: The mud bins are made of unburnt clay mixed with straw with 1-3 inch thick wall and are oval, rectangular or circular. A small hole is provided at the base for taking out the grain and a larger hole is provided at the top for filling it with grain. Both the inlet and outlet holes are plugged while grain is stored. (ii) Straw bins: For storing paddy in humid zones, dried plants are used for making temporary structures, which after being filled with grain are further reinforced from outside by winding paddy straw ropes around the whole structure. Each structure holds 2-6 quintals of grain. (iii) Bukhari bins: This is a cylindrical structure and is made of mud and split bamboo’s. The bin is always placed on a wooden or a massonary plat form to prevent its contact with the ground. The capacity may vary from 3–10 t. (iv) Kothar type bins: These bins are very much similar to a timber box placed on a raised plat form, which is generally supported on pillars. Both the floor and walls are made of wooden planks, where the tiled or thatched roof is placed over it as a protection against sun and rains. The capacity may vary from 9–35 t. (v) Metal bins: Bins",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "placed on a raised plat form, which is generally supported on pillars. Both the floor and walls are made of wooden planks, where the tiled or thatched roof is placed over it as a protection against sun and rains. The capacity may vary from 9–35 t. (v) Metal bins: Bins made of steel, alluminium R.C.C. are used for storage of grains outside the house. These bins are fire and moisture proof. The bins have long durability and produced on commercial scale. The capacity ranges from 1 to 10 t. Silos are huge bins made with either steel, alluminium or concrete. Usually steel and alluminium bins are circular in shape. The capacity of silo ranges from 500 to 4000 t. A silo has facilities for loading and unloading grains. The storage structures in rural areas are not ideal from scientific-storage point of view, as substantial losses occur during storage of grain from insect pests, moulds, rodents, etc.; keeping the requirements of the farmers in view the Indian grain storage institute (IGSI), Hapur with its branch at Ludhiana 518 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY and Hyderabad have developed several metal bins of different capacities for scientific storage of grain in rural areas. B. Methods of storage The grains are stored at three different levels, viz., at the producer’s level (rural storage) trader’s level and urban organizational storage. The urban organization uses modern facilities and structures like silos, warehouses and also undertaken periodical inspection, processing and treatment of grains for ensuring their quality during storage. Generally, there are two ways of storing grains i.e., Storage in bags and loose or bulk storage. In the tropical regions, the grain is stored in bags. Storage in bags requires considerable labour, but the minimum investment is enough on permanent structures and equipment. The storage in bags has",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "storage. Generally, there are two ways of storing grains i.e., Storage in bags and loose or bulk storage. In the tropical regions, the grain is stored in bags. Storage in bags requires considerable labour, but the minimum investment is enough on permanent structures and equipment. The storage in bags has the advantage of being short-term storage. Bag storage can be done under a roof of Galvanized Iron sheets, a plastic covering where grain is intended for very early onward movement. Usually no control measures against insects are needed for short-term storage. If bag storage produce is intended for long time, the control measures have to be taken against insect pests. The bulk storage has an advantage of greater storage capacity per unit volume of space. Less labour is involved in loading and unloading and there is no need of investment in purchasing gunny bags. In bulk storage the insect infestation is also lower over bag storage. The grain can be kept for several years in bulk storage. (vi) Parboiling: It is done by soaking the grain in large concrete tanks and steaming it in small kettles or Soaking and steaming grain in large metal tanks with a boiler. The old traditional methods of parboiling incur physical losses and excessive cost of operation. Modern parboiling technologies have been developed and widely accepted by millers with good success leading reduction in losses. (vii) Milling: Traditional milling equipment has the lowest milling recovery. With modernization of rice milling industry and by replacing hullers with modern mills, the milling losses can be reduced. The qualitative losses like change in colour, odour, vitamins, texture are due to over exposure to sun, fungal growth and insect attack. These losses can also be controlled by proper handling, drying and storage after harvest. (viii) Marketing: In general most",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "with modern mills, the milling losses can be reduced. The qualitative losses like change in colour, odour, vitamins, texture are due to over exposure to sun, fungal growth and insect attack. These losses can also be controlled by proper handling, drying and storage after harvest. (viii) Marketing: In general most of the producers sell the grains at their door steps in villages, to avoid transport. At village level defective measures and weights are used by traders and also the prices paid to farmers are much lower than regulated market rates. Now-a-days farmers are encouraged to sell their produce in near by regulated markets, though some labour is involved in transport. In regulated markets some amenities are provided for sellers and the growers can secure maximum value for their produce. In market yards several methods like cover system, open system and auction system are adopted depending on the type of produce sold. Since the rural banking system is improved the farmers to a large extent they are out of clutches of greedy private money lenders who exert pressure to dispose produce for lower price. At present in some places the cold storage facilities are also available. Farmers can utilize these cold storage facilities for stocking their produce on payment of rent and the produce can be disposed when there is remunerative price in the market. Though several measures are taken by government the marketing of agricultural produce is facing problems and growers are not getting the reasonable price for their produce. If production exceeds demand, price declines until the market is cleared. Prices raise when production fell short. Responses to lower or higher prices occur in the next production cycle. Therefore, the acreage for a particular crop based on demand and the supporting prices for each commodity need to be monitored",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "If production exceeds demand, price declines until the market is cleared. Prices raise when production fell short. Responses to lower or higher prices occur in the next production cycle. Therefore, the acreage for a particular crop based on demand and the supporting prices for each commodity need to be monitored by the rulers based on demand and supply HARVESTING AND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY 519 studies. The government has to bring buyers and sellers together, develop price information systems, establish consistent grades and product quality standards for better marketing of agricultural produce at all times. IV. Low Cost Post Harvest Technology These are some of the technologies suitable for small farmers: 1. Solar Dryers: Drying is the cheapest mode of preservation of fruits, vegetables and other items like fish. Solar drying is practiced by mankind since times in memorable. This method of drying with solar energy is ideally practiced by many grape growers in Maharashtra to make Kishmish/ Manuka/Bedana from grapes. 2. Zero energy cold storage: Many farmers cultivate fruits and vegetables, which are seasonal in nature. Produce of all the farmers come to the market yard at one go. As a result prices fall. There is a good technology catching up. This is Zero energy cold storage. Everybody knows water becomes cool in an earthen pot. The water oozing out of the pot gets evaporated. While this evaporation occurs, water inside the pot becomes cold this principle is called as evaporate cooling. This principle is used for zero energy cold storage. Just make a double walled room. Keep sand between the outer and inner wall. Keep the sand wet by watering. And your produce kept inside the inner room will be preserved longer. Government is giving subsidy to popularize this concept. 3. Pickles: Pickling is one of the cheapest process",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "storage. Just make a double walled room. Keep sand between the outer and inner wall. Keep the sand wet by watering. And your produce kept inside the inner room will be preserved longer. Government is giving subsidy to popularize this concept. 3. Pickles: Pickling is one of the cheapest process of preservation of fruits and vegetables. Common salt and spices are used in conventional pickles. The process of pickling does not need energy. The process is so efficient that many people make pickles in their houses, which last even two to three years. And that too without any chemical preservatives. Pickled items are preserved because of fermentation. 4. Fruit juices: We can make juice from various fruits like Mango, Pineapple, Grapes, Lemons, tomatoes and many types of local specialties like Kokam, Jamun etc. Even Banana and Guava juice can be made. Banana, which is considered as poor man’s fruit in India is considered as rich man’s fancy in countries like Korea and Japan. We can make pulps out of he juices and use in off-season. 5. Preservations in salt solutions: Keeping in salt solutions can preserve vegetables. This process can be used to prolong the shelf life of various vegetables like cabbage, okra, spinach etc. In this process vegetables are kept in salt solutions and bottled. While using, just wash the vegetables in water to remove salt solutions. Shelf life will vary according to various factors but you can prolong shelf life at least by one month in this process. Calcutta University has done considerable research in this field. 6. Small-scale industry in farm: Farmers cannot get price for their produce because they have to depend upon middlemen for marketing. There is a solution to the problem. You can start manufacturing ketchups, sauces of various types and also Paste of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Calcutta University has done considerable research in this field. 6. Small-scale industry in farm: Farmers cannot get price for their produce because they have to depend upon middlemen for marketing. There is a solution to the problem. You can start manufacturing ketchups, sauces of various types and also Paste of Garlic, Ginger, Chilly etc. With a small investment in machinery and building, a unit can work profitably. The unit may give employment to others with a small investment of only 10 lakhs. It can be stated with more confidence that such low cost technologies are more successful because there is more involvement of entrepreneurs in their projects. 520 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Chapter 15 Agronomy of Field Crops and Biofuel Plants The statistical data for field crops (area, production and productivity in India from 1950–2006; area, production and productivity of crops in major states) is given in the Annexure. We recommend the readers to refer annexure. 15.1 CEREALS–MAJOR I. RICE (Oryza sativa) It is the staple food crop for more than 60 per cent of the world people. In some countries, attractive ready to eat products, which have, long shelf life e.g. popped and puffed rice, instant or rice flakes, canned rice and fermented products are produced. Protein is present in aleuron and endosperm (6–9%) and average is 7.5%. Rice straw is used as cattle feed, used for thatching roof and in cottage industry for preparation of hats, mats, ropes, sound absorbing straw board and used as litter material. Rice husk is used as animal feed, for papermaking and as fuel source. Rice bran is used as cattle and poultry feed and defatted bran, which is rich in protein, can be used in the preparation of biscuits. Rice bran oil is used in soap industry. Refined oil can be used",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "husk is used as animal feed, for papermaking and as fuel source. Rice bran is used as cattle and poultry feed and defatted bran, which is rich in protein, can be used in the preparation of biscuits. Rice bran oil is used in soap industry. Refined oil can be used as a cooling medium like cotton seed oil/corn oil. Rice bran wax, a byproduct of rice bran oil is used in industries. Rice bran oil is available in the market in the name of Porna for edible purpose (no cholesterol). A. Origin De Candolle (1886) and Watt (1862) thought that South India was the place where cultivated rice is originated. Vavilov (1926) suggested that India and Burma should be the origin of cultivated crop. B. Species Rice belongs to genus Oryza and family Poaceae. The genus includes 24 species of which O. sativa and O. glaberrima are cultivated. O. sativa has three sub species viz., Indica, Japanica and Javanica. 1. Indica: Indigenous to India. It is adapted to subtropical-tropical regions. In India, the varieties are very tall, photosensitive, lodging, poor fertilizer responsive, moderate filling and late maturing. The morphological differences between the varieties are very wide and awnless. 2. Japanica: It is confined to subtropical temperate regions (Japan, China, and Korea). Varieties are very dwarf, erect, non-lodging, photo insensitive, early maturing, high yielding and fertilizer AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 521 responsive. The morphological difference between the varieties is very narrow and awnless. Hence, crosses were made between Indica and Japanica—first cross was ADT 27 during 1964. 3. Javanica: It is a wild form of rice and is cultivated in some parts of Indonesia. Varieties are the tallest, erect, poor filling and awned. C. Distribution It grows from the tropics to subtropical and warm temperate countries up to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Indica and Japanica—first cross was ADT 27 during 1964. 3. Javanica: It is a wild form of rice and is cultivated in some parts of Indonesia. Varieties are the tallest, erect, poor filling and awned. C. Distribution It grows from the tropics to subtropical and warm temperate countries up to 40°S and 50°N of the equator. Most of the rice area lies between equator and 40° N and 70° –140° E Longitude. Highest yield was recorded between 30° and 45°N of the equator. The average yield ranges from 2.0–5.7 t/ha in India, China and Egypt lying between 21° and 30° N. The countries near the equator show an average yield of 0.8–1.4 t/ha. D. Area, Production and Productivity In terms of area and production, rice is second to wheat. Maximum area under rice is in Asia (90%). Among the rice growing countries, India has the largest area (42.5 m.ha) followed by China, Bangladesh and Thailand. The area, production, productivity of rice for the world (continent wise) and some of the important countries is given in Tables 15.1 and 15.2. Table 15.1. Area, Production and Productivity of Rice—continent wise (2004) Continent Area (m.ha) Production (m.t) Yield (kg/ha) Remarks World 153.26 608.50 3.97 The area under cultivation is high in Europe 0.59 3.38 5.69 Asia South America 5.80 23.17 4.00 North central 2.03 12.17 6.27 The production is high in Asia America Africa 10.22 19.22 1.88 Asia 134.54 549.46 4.08 The productivity is high in North Central America Source: www.irri.org Table 15.2. Area, Production and Productivity of Rice—important countrywise (2004) Countries Area (m.ha) Production (m.t) Yield (kg/ha) Remarks India 42.50 124.40 2.93 The area under cultivation is high China 29.42 186.73 6.35 in India. Indonesia 11.75 53.60 4.52 Myanmar 6.00 23.00 3.83 The production and productivity Pakistan 2.21 7.57 3.43 is high",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Area, Production and Productivity of Rice—important countrywise (2004) Countries Area (m.ha) Production (m.t) Yield (kg/ha) Remarks India 42.50 124.40 2.93 The area under cultivation is high China 29.42 186.73 6.35 in India. Indonesia 11.75 53.60 4.52 Myanmar 6.00 23.00 3.83 The production and productivity Pakistan 2.21 7.57 3.43 is high in China Thailand 9.80 25.20 2.57 522 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY In India, rice accounts for about 22% of the total cropped area under cereals and about 31% of total area under food grains. It forms 41% of India’s total output of the grain and forms roughly 46% of total output of the cereal. Projection of India’s rice Production target for 2025 A.D. is 140 m.t which can be achieved by increasing the rice production by over 2.0 m.t/yr in the coming decade. The productivity has to be pushed up to 3.2 t/ha from the present level. India’s position in production and productivity of major crops in the world is given in Table 15.3. Table 15.3 India’s share (%) India’s rank Productivity Crop Area Production Area Production t/ha Rank Wheat 11.2 11.4 2 2 2.5 32 Rice 28.5 21.4 1 2 2.8 35 Pulses 36.6 26.0 1 1 0.6 118 Groundnut 35.2 28.6 2 1 1.0 50 Cane 20.0 22.6 2 2 65.9 34 Cotton 20.7 14.0 1 3 0.9 57 Rice growing areas in India can be grouped into 5 regions. 1. Northeastern region: This region comprises of Assam, West Bengal, South Bihar and Orissa. Rice is grown in the basins of Brahmaputra, Ganga and Mahanadhi rivers (known for the highest intensity of cultivation in the country). This region enjoys heavy rainfall and mostly rice is grown mainly under rainfed conditions. 2. Southern region: This region comprises of deltaic tracts of Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Tambraparani rivers and non-deltaic",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the basins of Brahmaputra, Ganga and Mahanadhi rivers (known for the highest intensity of cultivation in the country). This region enjoys heavy rainfall and mostly rice is grown mainly under rainfed conditions. 2. Southern region: This region comprises of deltaic tracts of Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Tambraparani rivers and non-deltaic rainfed areas of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Rice is grown under irrigated conditions in the deltaic regions. 3. West coast region: This region comprises of Kerala and the coastal districts of Karnataka and Maharashtra. There is heavy rainfall during the monsoon period. Rice is grown under rainfed conditions. 4. Central region: This region comprises of Madhya Pradesh, Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh and parts of Karnataka. Rice is grown as rainfed crop by broadcasting in this region, except in Andhra Pradesh. 5. Northern region: This region comprises of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and North Bihar. These areas have low winter temperature and only a single crop of rice is raised from May-June to September-October. Acreage : WB > UP > MP > Bihar > Orissa > AP Total Production : WB > UP > AP > Punjab > TN Average Yield : Punjab (3.39 t/ha) > Haryana(2.96 t/ha) > Tamil Nadu (2.69 t/ha) The area, production and productivity of rice in different states of India are given in annexure. In Tamil Nadu, rice research is being carried out in the following research stations of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. • Paddy Breeding Station (PBS), Coimbatore AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 523 • Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute (TRRI), Aduthurai • Agricultural College and Research Institutes at Madurai, Trichy and Killikulam • Rice Research Stations at Tirur and Ambasamudram • Agricultural Research Stations at Paramakudi, Ramanathapuram and Thirupathisaram From these Research Stations, more than 150 varieties and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 523 • Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute (TRRI), Aduthurai • Agricultural College and Research Institutes at Madurai, Trichy and Killikulam • Rice Research Stations at Tirur and Ambasamudram • Agricultural Research Stations at Paramakudi, Ramanathapuram and Thirupathisaram From these Research Stations, more than 150 varieties and 3 hybrids were released. The Tamil Nadu district wise area, production and productivity of rice is given in appendix. E. Climate and Soil Rice can be grown in different locations under a variety of climate. The Indica varieties are widely grown in tropical regions. Japonicas, which are adapted to cooler areas, are largely grown in temperate countries. Both Indica and Japanica rice varieties are grown in subtropical regions. However, the crosses between Indica and Japanica are grown through out the world. Rice needs hot and humid climate. It is best suited to regions, which have high humidity, prolonged sunshine and an assured supply of water. Temperature, solar radiation and rainfall influence rice yield by directly affecting the physiological processes involved in grain production and indirectly through diseases and pests. (a) Temperature: Extreme temperatures are destructive to plant growth and hence depended on the environment under which the life cycle of the rice plant can be completed. The critical low and high temperatures for rice are normally below 20°C and above 30°C respectively, which vary from one growth stage to another. Temperature affects the grain yield by affecting tillering, spikelet formation and ripening and it influences the growth rate just after germination and increases almost linearly with increasing temperature within a range of 22–31°C. At later stages, it slightly affects tillering rate and the relative growth rate. During reproductive stage, the spikelet number per plant increases as the temperature drops. The critical temperatures for different growth stages of rice are given",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "germination and increases almost linearly with increasing temperature within a range of 22–31°C. At later stages, it slightly affects tillering rate and the relative growth rate. During reproductive stage, the spikelet number per plant increases as the temperature drops. The critical temperatures for different growth stages of rice are given in Table 15.4. Table 15.4. Temperature Requirement for different Stages of Rice Crop Growth stage Temperature °C Low Medium High Germination 10 45 20–35 Seedling and emergence 12–13 35 20–30 Rooting 16 35 25–28 Leaf elongation 7–12 35 31 Tillering 9–16 33 25–31 Panicle initiation 15 – – Anthesis 22 35 30–33 Ripening 12–18 30 20–25 (b) Solar radiation: The solar radiation requirements of rice crop differ from one growth stage to another. Shading during vegetative stage slightly affects yield and yield components. Shading during reproductive stage has a pronounced effect on spikelet number. During ripening, it reduces grain yield considerably because of decrease in the percentage of filled spikelets. Solar radiation at the reproductive stage has the greatest effect on grain yield. The minimum requirement of solar radiation is 300 cal/cm2/day. 524 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (c) Day length: Rice is a short day plant. Long day prevents or delays flowering. E.g., GEB 24 is a photosensitive and season bound variety. However the latest varieties released are photo insensitive. (d) Rainfall: Under rainfed rice culture, rainfall is the most limiting factor in rice cultivation. When irrigation is provided, the growth and yield is determined by temperature and solar radiation. Water stress at any growth stage may reduce the yield. The rice plant is most sensitive to water deficit from the reduction division stage to heading. (e) Wind: Moderate wind is beneficial for crop growth. High wind at maturity may cause lodging of the crop. (f) Soils: Rice is a",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Water stress at any growth stage may reduce the yield. The rice plant is most sensitive to water deficit from the reduction division stage to heading. (e) Wind: Moderate wind is beneficial for crop growth. High wind at maturity may cause lodging of the crop. (f) Soils: Rice is a semi aquatic plant and grows best under low land condition. In India, it grows in all most all type of soils; alluvial, red, lateritic, laterite, black, saline and alkali, peaty and marshy soils, and in acid soils. But the soil having good retention capacity with good amount of clay and organic matter is ideal for rice cultivation. Clay and clay loam soils are most suited. It tolerates a wide range of soil reaction from 4.5–8.0. It grows well in soils having pH range of 5.5–6.5. It can be grown on alkali soil after treating them with gypsum or pyrites. F. Rice Ecosystems Based on land and water management practices, rice lands are classified as low land (wet land) and upland (dry land). In India, the principal systems of rice growing are 1. Dry system (upland) 2. Semi-dry system 3. Wet system (lowland) 1. Dry System or Upland Rice: In India, it is normally grown in eastern part of India i.e., Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and central part of India (Madhya Pradesh, part of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra). This system is called Aus in West Bengal, aus/ahu in Assam, beali in Orissa, bhadi or Kuari in Uttar Pradesh. In Tamil Nadu, it is mainly grown in Chengleput, Virudhunagar, Sivaganga, Nagapatinam, Thiruvallur, Kanchipuram, Pudukkottai and Kanyakumari districts. It is grown in areas where the rainfall is more than 850 mm and it is well distributed. In North India, it is mainly grown in SWM seasons and in Tamil Nadu,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "In Tamil Nadu, it is mainly grown in Chengleput, Virudhunagar, Sivaganga, Nagapatinam, Thiruvallur, Kanchipuram, Pudukkottai and Kanyakumari districts. It is grown in areas where the rainfall is more than 850 mm and it is well distributed. In North India, it is mainly grown in SWM seasons and in Tamil Nadu, it is grown during NEM seasons/bimodal rainfall areas of Kanyakumari districts. (a) Field preparation: The field is ploughed and harrowed to fine tilth taking advantage of summer rains and early monsoon showers. Application of gypsum at 1.0 t/ha is recommended whenever soil crusting and soil hardening problem exists. During the last ploughing, organic manures like FYM or compost at 12.5 t/ha is applied and incorporated. (b) Season: May-June in SWM area August-September in NEM dominant area. (c) Varieties: Varieties having 90-110 days are recommended. • TKM 9: red rice, 100–105 days, short, bold grain, 5 t/ha. • TPS 1: red rice, 110–115 days, short bold grain, 4.8 t/ha • TPS 2: 125 days, non-lodging, 5 t/ha, suitable for kumbapu season • TPS 3: 135 days, non-lodging, 5.3 t/ha, suitable for kumbapu season. • MDU 5: 95–110 days, 5 t/ha, multiple resistant to pest and diseases. • PKM 1: 110–115 days, dull white rice, pigmented, coarse grain and high protein, 3.2 t/ha. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 525 (d) Seed rate and seed treatment: The seed rate is 75–100 kg/ha. The seeds are treated with fungicide like Bavistin or Thiram @ 2 g/kg of seeds, 24 hours before sowing and the seeds are treated with Azospirillum at 3 pockets (600 g) per ha of seeds. (e) Sowing: Broadcasting: The seeds are sown by broadcasting when the moisture is at the optimum level and the surface soil is compacted by a light roller for compacting the seeds with moist soil.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and the seeds are treated with Azospirillum at 3 pockets (600 g) per ha of seeds. (e) Sowing: Broadcasting: The seeds are sown by broadcasting when the moisture is at the optimum level and the surface soil is compacted by a light roller for compacting the seeds with moist soil. Line sowing: Line sowing is better than broadcasting. Sowing/dibbling behind the country plough or using seed drill to ensure optimum population, reduce the seed rate and for early intercultivation. (f) After cultivation: Thinning and gap filling should be done 10–12 DAS, taking advantage of immediate rains. (g) Manuring: In Tamil Nadu, P is applied at 25 kg/ha as enriched FYM at the time of last ploughing. N at 50 kg/ha and K2O at 25 kg/ha should be applied in two splits viz. 20–25 DAS and the second at 40–45 DAS. (h) Weed management: Under upland condition, weeds reduce the yield to the extent of 50%. First weeding should be done at 15–20 DAS and second weeding may be done on 45 DAS. Application of Thiobencarb at 2.5 l/ha or Pendimethalin at 3.0 l/ha on 8 DAS as sand mix may be done, if adequate moisture is available followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 DAS. (i) Intercropping: Raising one row of black gram for every four rows of rice may be followed. (j) Special types: A primitive type of shifting cultivation called Punam cultivation in Malabar, Kumari in South Kanara, Podu in Circars, Jhum in Assam hills is being done in scrub jungles on small scale. The bushes are cut and burnt. The land is ploughed with pre monsoon showers and rice is sown as pure or mixed crop. The land is abandoned after the harvest of rice and allowed to recoup its fertility. Fresh jungle land is broken up",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in scrub jungles on small scale. The bushes are cut and burnt. The land is ploughed with pre monsoon showers and rice is sown as pure or mixed crop. The land is abandoned after the harvest of rice and allowed to recoup its fertility. Fresh jungle land is broken up for cultivation every year. 2. Semidry Rice: It is practiced in the districts of Chengleput, Ramnad, Kanyakumari and Pudukottai district of Tamil Nadu. (a) Season: July–August — Chengleput and Kanyakumari districts August — Thanjavur and Pudukottai districts September–October — Ramanathapuram district (b) Varieties: Chengleput — TKM 9, IR 20, PMK 1, PMK 2, TKM 10 and TKM 11 Pudukottai — ADT36, PMK-1, PMK-2, TKM 9 Kanyakumari — TKM 9, ADT 36, ASD 17, TPS 1, TPS 2, TPS 3 Ramnad — TKM9, ADT 36, PMK 1, PMK 2, MDU 5. (c) Field preparation: On the receipt of shower during the month of May-June, repeated ploughing should be carried out so as to conserve soil moisture, destroy weeds and break the clods. Application of FYM at 12.5 t/ha is recommended. Application of 750 kg of FYM enriched with 50 kg P2O5 can be applied as basal in clay soils. (d) Seed rate: The seed rate is 80–100 kg ha−1 and as in the case of upland rice, the seeds are treated with fungicide like Bavistin or Thiram @ 2 g/kg of seeds, 24 hours before sowing and the seeds are treated with Azospirillum at 3 pockets (600 g) per ha of seeds. (e) Sowing: The sowing is done by broadcasting as dry crop and compacting with Gundaka or by drilling (sowing by seed drill at 20 cm row spacing). Whenever water is available after monsoon, it is 526 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY treated as wet paddy usually in July–August. When SWM",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "seeds. (e) Sowing: The sowing is done by broadcasting as dry crop and compacting with Gundaka or by drilling (sowing by seed drill at 20 cm row spacing). Whenever water is available after monsoon, it is 526 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY treated as wet paddy usually in July–August. When SWM is active, the rainwater is impounded in the fields. In command areas, anticipating the release of water, rice crop can be raised under semi dry condition up to a maximum of 45 days. Then the crop is converted into wet condition on receipt of water. In Chengelpat and Ramnad districts of Tamil Nadu, the crop is irrigated from 30–35 days onwards after impounding water in tanks. (f) After cultivation: Thinning and gap filling should be done on 25–30th day after receipt of sufficient rain or impounding water in the field from the adjoining tanks. (g) Manuring: Application of 100:50:50 kg N:P2O5 :K2O ha is recommended. P2O5 at 50 kg/ha is applied as basal as enriched FYM. N is applied in three splits (50% N at basal, 25% at maximum tillering stage and remaining 25% at panicle initiation stage). K2O is applied at 50 kg/ha as basal. The first top dressing should be done immediately after the receipt of sufficient rain or canal water. (h) Weed management: Pre-emergence application of Thiobencarb (Saturn 50 EC) at 3.0 lit/ha (1.5 kg a.i./ha) or Pendimethalin 4.0 lit/ha (stomp 30 EC) on the 8 DAS as sand mix is recommended if adequate moisture is available, followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 DAS. (i) Harvest: Timely harvest ensures good quality grain and prevents different losses. Harvest is done by using sickle, threshed and dried in the sun for 3–4 days up to 10–12% moisture for storage. 3. Wet system or low land rice: In India,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 DAS. (i) Harvest: Timely harvest ensures good quality grain and prevents different losses. Harvest is done by using sickle, threshed and dried in the sun for 3–4 days up to 10–12% moisture for storage. 3. Wet system or low land rice: In India, low land rice is established by transplanting the seedlings in which separate nursery is raised (or) direct seeding of sprouted seeds in the puddled soil. For transplanting, the seedlings are raised in wet nursery, dapog nursery and dry nursery. I. Transplanted rice Wet nursery: The seed rate of 60 kg/ha is recommended for short duration, 40 kg/ha for medium duration and 30 kg/ha for long duration varieties. A. Pre-treatment of seeds (before sowing) (a) Dry seed treatment: Mix any one the fungicide at 2 g/kg of seed (Thiram, Captan, Carboxin or Carbendazim). Treat the seeds at least 24 hrs prior to soaking for sprouting. The seeds can be stored for 30 days without any loss in viability. B. Treatment of seeds at the time of soaking the seeds for sprouting (a) Wet seed treatment: Treat the seeds in Carbendazim or Pyroquilon or Tricyclozole solution at 2g/lit of water for 1 kg of seed. Soak the seeds in the solution for 2 hrs. Drain the solution, sprout the seeds and sow in the nursery bed. It gives protection to the seedlings up to 40 days from seedlings disease such as blast and it is better than dry seed treatment. (b) Seed treatment with Azospirillum: Three packets (600 g/ha) of Azospirillum culture are to the mixed with sufficient water wherein seeds are soaked over night before sowing in the nursery bed. The bacterial suspension after decanting may be poured over the nursery area itself. (c) Seed treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescence: Three packets",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "treatment with Azospirillum: Three packets (600 g/ha) of Azospirillum culture are to the mixed with sufficient water wherein seeds are soaked over night before sowing in the nursery bed. The bacterial suspension after decanting may be poured over the nursery area itself. (c) Seed treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescence: Three packets (600 g/ha) of Pseudomonas culture should be added in water wherein seeds are soaked over night before sowing in the nursery bed. It can be mixed with Azospirillum culture, as it is not inhibitory to Azospirillum. C. Soaking and sprouting the seeds The seeds are soaked for 10 hrs. Drain the excess water. The seeds should not be soaked in running water, which removes the minerals and nutrients. Keep the soaked seeds in gunny bag in dark room and cover with extra gunnies for 24 hrs for sprouting. The seeds should not be covered with thick material, which develops heat and reduces the aeration. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 527 D. Preparation of nursery for sowing About 20 cents (800 m2) for planting one ha is required. Raise the nursery near the water source. Apply 1 t of FYM or compost to 20 cents of nursery and spread the manure uniformly. Before ploughing, allow water to a depth of 2.5 cm. Before last puddling, apply 40 kg of DAP @ 2 kg/cent. Basal application of DAP is recommended when the seedlings are to be pulled out in 20–25 DAS. If the seedlings are to be pulled out after 25 days, application of DAP is to be done 10 days prior to pulling out. In clayey soils, where root snapping is a problem, DAP has to be applied at 1 kg/cent 10 DAS. Mark out plots, 2.5 m broad with channels, 30 cm wide in between. Collect the mud",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "25 days, application of DAP is to be done 10 days prior to pulling out. In clayey soils, where root snapping is a problem, DAP has to be applied at 1 kg/cent 10 DAS. Mark out plots, 2.5 m broad with channels, 30 cm wide in between. Collect the mud from the channel and spread on the seedbed and level the surface of seedbed so that water drains into the channel. Having a thin film of water in the nursery, sow the sprouted seeds uniformly on the seedbed. E. Water management For water management in nursery, first drain the water 18–24 hrs after sowing and allow enough water to saturate the soil from 3–5th day. From 5th day onwards, increase the quantity of water to a depth of 1.5 cm depending on the height of seedlings. Afterwards, maintain 2.5 cm depth of water. F. Weed management Apply any one of the pre-emergence herbicide like Butachlor or Thiobencarb at 2.0 lit/ha or Pendimethalin at 2.5 lit/ha or Anilophos at 1.25 lit/ha on 8 DAS to control weeds in the nursery. Keep thin film of water at the time of herbicide application and should not drain the water after application. G. Top dressing with fertilizers If the seedlings show the symptoms of ‘N’ deficiency and if the growth is not satisfactory, apply urea at 500 g/cent of nursery, 7–10 days prior to pulling. If DAP is applied 10 days prior to pulling, urea application is not necessary. H. Optimum age of seedlings for transplanting Short duration varieties : 18–22 days Medium duration varieties : 25–30 days Long duration varieties : 35–40 days I. Main field preparation for transplanted rice Wet rice requires a well puddled soil. Ploughing under submerged soil condition is called puddling. The land is ploughed repeatedly 3 or 4",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for transplanting Short duration varieties : 18–22 days Medium duration varieties : 25–30 days Long duration varieties : 35–40 days I. Main field preparation for transplanted rice Wet rice requires a well puddled soil. Ploughing under submerged soil condition is called puddling. The land is ploughed repeatedly 3 or 4 times with an interval of about 4 days between each puddling by country plough or mould board plough or tractor drawn cage wheel or by using power tiller with a standing water of 3–5 cm. Optimum depth of puddling is 10 cm for clay and clay loam soils. J. Application of organic manures Apply 12.5 t of FYM or compost/ha and spread the manure uniformly on the dry soil before applying the water. If FYM or compost is not available, apply green manure/green leaf manure at 6.25 t/ha. Compute the green matter using the formula. Yield/m2 in kg × 10,000. The yield of green manure is 10–15 t/ha for daincha, 8–15 t/ha for sunnhemp and 6–7.5 t/ha for Kolingi. 528 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Fig. 15.1 Puddling rice field with power tiller K. Incorporation of green manure Stem nodulating S. rostrata can be grown during MarchApril. Adopt a seed rate of 50-60 kg/ha. Treat the seeds with rhizobial culture. Cut the crop at 45–60th day to have maximum green matter (25–30 t/ha). Plough or incorporate the green manure or green leaf manure directly into the soil using mould board or tractor. Then, maintain 2.5 cm of water in the field. Incorporate the green manure to a depth of 15 cm using Burmese Saturn and allow to decompose for 7 days. When the green manure is applied, rock phosphate can be used as cheaper source of ‘P’. It also harnesses the decomposition of stubbles in the second crop. Finally level the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Incorporate the green manure to a depth of 15 cm using Burmese Saturn and allow to decompose for 7 days. When the green manure is applied, rock phosphate can be used as cheaper source of ‘P’. It also harnesses the decomposition of stubbles in the second crop. Finally level the field using levelling board. L. Transplanting Puddle and level the fields after applying basal fertilizers. Seedlings are dibbled at desired spacing and depth. Plant density and geometry varies with soil fertility, genotypes and soils. To exploit the full potential of any genotype, optimum plant population is to be adopted. The depth of planting is 5–6 cm for clay soil and 2.5–3.0 cm for shallow soil. Varietal Low and medium Spacing High fertility Spacing duration fertility (Plants/ha) (cm) (Plants/ha) (cm) Short 8.0 lakhs 12.5 × 10 5.0 lakhs 20 × 10 Medium 5.0 lakhs 20 × 10 3.3 lakhs 20 × 15 Long 3.3 lakhs 20 × 15 2.5 lakhs 20 × 20 AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 529 Number of seedlings/hill for wet nursery are 3–4 and it is 6–8 for dapog and 4–6 for saline soil. To manage aged seedlings, increasing basal N by 25% and the number of seedlings/hill is recommended. It is better to adopt closer spacing (80 hills/m2). Fig. 15.2 Manual rice transplanter Fig. 15.3 Rice manual random transplanting Transplanting shock It occurs when the seedlings are pulled out from the nursery and planted in the new environment. For recovery from shock, it will take minimum of 5–7 days under tropics. 530 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Shallow planting reduces the period. • Mild temperature after transplanting also reduces the period. • Hot weather period delays recovery. • Very cold weather period also delays recovery. • Best temperature: < 30°C maximum and > 20°C",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "take minimum of 5–7 days under tropics. 530 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Shallow planting reduces the period. • Mild temperature after transplanting also reduces the period. • Hot weather period delays recovery. • Very cold weather period also delays recovery. • Best temperature: < 30°C maximum and > 20°C minimum. Fig. 15.4 Manual rice line transplanting N. Root dipping In rice, root nematode is a problem. Dip the seedlings roots in the phosphomidon at 0.02% solution for 20 minutes prior to planting to avoid nematode problem. For saline soils, use of saline tolerant variety is good. About 25 days old seedling instead of 18–22 days with 4–6 seedlings/hill can be planted. Apply 25% more ‘N’ than recommended dose and apply ZnSO4 at 32.5 kg/ha (25% extra) at the time of planting. O. Application of biofertilizer 1. Azolla is a water fern which is used as a biofertilizer for rice. Blue green algae, Anabaena azolla lives in the dorsal cavity of azollae which fixes ‘N’. It is also able to reduce the ‘N’ bill to the extent of 25–30 kg/ha. It is raised as a dual crop and also applied as green manure. 2. Blue green algae: Broadcast at 10 kg/ha of powdered blue green algae flakes 10 days after transplanting. Maintain thin film of water. BGA multiplies well from March to September and can be used for any rice variety raised during that period. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 531 Fig. 15.5 Self propelled rice transplanter Fig. 15.6 Nursery for rice transplanter 532 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Fig. 15.7 Row rice transplanter 3. Dipping roots in Azospirillum slurry: Prepare the slurry with 5 pockets (1000 g/ha of Azospirillum inoculant) in 40 lit of water and dip the root portion of the seedling for 15–30 minutes in bacterial",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "15.6 Nursery for rice transplanter 532 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Fig. 15.7 Row rice transplanter 3. Dipping roots in Azospirillum slurry: Prepare the slurry with 5 pockets (1000 g/ha of Azospirillum inoculant) in 40 lit of water and dip the root portion of the seedling for 15–30 minutes in bacterial suspension and transplant the seedlings. 4. Soil application of Azospirillum: Mix 10 pockets (2000 g/ha of Azospirillum inoculant with 25 kg FYM and 25 kg of soil and broadcast the mixture uniformly in the main field before transplanting. P. Water management Among the cereal crops, the productivity per mm of water used is very low in rice, which is about 3-7 kg/ha mm of water. Total water requirement for rice is 1200–1500 mm which depends on the duration of crop, soil type and climate. At the time of transplanting, shallow depth of 2 cm is adequate, since higher depth of water results in reduction in tillering. Up to 7 days, maintain 2.0 cm of water. At establishment stage, 5.0 cm submergence of water has to be continued through out the crop growth period. For loamy soil, irrigation at one day disappearance of ponded water during summer, and 3 days after disappearance during winter may be done. For clay soil, immediately after disappearance during summer, and 1–2 days after disappearance during winter may be done. Critical stages for water requirement are: 1. Primordial initiation 2. Booting 3. Heading 4. Flowering stages. At boot leaf stage, excess water leads to delay in heading and reduction in growth of panicle. Stop irrigation 15 days ahead of harvest. Q. Nutrient management As for as possible, apply fertilizer as per soil test recommendation. If it is not followed, adopt blanket recommendation as follows in Tamil Nadu. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 533 Varieties",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "heading and reduction in growth of panicle. Stop irrigation 15 days ahead of harvest. Q. Nutrient management As for as possible, apply fertilizer as per soil test recommendation. If it is not followed, adopt blanket recommendation as follows in Tamil Nadu. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 533 Varieties N P2O5 K2O Short duration 120 38 38 kg/ha Medium and long duration 150 50 50 kg/ha All P2O5 and K2O should be applied as basal at the time of puddling as quartering method only in course textured (low CEC), K may be applied in two splits 50% at basal and 50% at maximum tillering stage or panicle initiation stage. In clay soil, ‘N’ should be applied in three splits viz., 50% basal + 25% at max. tillering + 25% at panicle initiation stage. Application 25 kg of ZnSO4 at the time of sowing is recommended and it should not be incorporated. (a) Nitrogen: N will be lost by different ways; 1. Denitrification loss, 2. Fixation by microbes, 3. Leaching loss, 4. Volatilization loss, 5. Run-off, 6. Ammonium fixation, and 7. Crop uptake. Among the losses, denitrification and leaching losses are more in paddy soil under submerged due to low redox potential. To increase N use efficiency, the following methods may be followed: • Choice of fertilizer: The choice of fertilizers is Ammonium Sulphate > Ammonium chloride > Ammonium sulphate nitrate > Urea > CAN. In India, 85% of production is urea due to less unit cost and most of the farmers are using urea. • Split application of ‘N’: Application of N in 3–4 splits depending on soil type wil increase NUE. If green manure is applied, skip basal application of N. Under this situation, ‘N’ as top dressing in 3 splits at 10 days interval between 15 and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the farmers are using urea. • Split application of ‘N’: Application of N in 3–4 splits depending on soil type wil increase NUE. If green manure is applied, skip basal application of N. Under this situation, ‘N’ as top dressing in 3 splits at 10 days interval between 15 and 45 days after transplanting is recommended for short and medium duration varieties. • Slow release fertilizer: Use of chemically manufactured slow release N fertilizers to increase the NUE. e.g., IBDU-Isobutylidene di urea and UF-Urea formaldehyde. Slow release by Coated urea with physical/mechanical means. E.g., (a) sulphur coated urea, (b) neem coated urea, (c) gypsum coated urea, (d) mud ball urea etc. • Placement of urea super granules: Bigger size urea super granules are placed directly into the reduced zone (below 10 cm depth) to avoid loss of N. • Use of nitrification inhibitors: To control the conversion of NH4 to NO3 inhibiting the activity of nitrosomonas and nitrobacter. E.g., AM, N-Serve etc., but these are not available in India. (b) Phosphorus: It is essential for root growth, for early ripening, production of efficient and early tillers. Upland rice responds to more ‘P’ than low land rice, since submergence increases the availability of different forms of fixed ‘P’ in the soil. Nearly 80–90% of P is absorbed up to flowering: • Sources Single super phosphate (SSP) is the best source for normal and saline soils. Rock phosphate is the best source for acid soil. • Time and method of application: Since ‘P’ is an immobile element and crop needs ‘P’ especially in the early stage, basal application at the time of puddling is superior than top dressing. • Rate of application: 50 kg/ha for medium and long duration varieties and 38 kg/ha for short duration varieties is recommended. ‘P’ use efficiency",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "‘P’ is an immobile element and crop needs ‘P’ especially in the early stage, basal application at the time of puddling is superior than top dressing. • Rate of application: 50 kg/ha for medium and long duration varieties and 38 kg/ha for short duration varieties is recommended. ‘P’ use efficiency can be increased with green manuring with addition of rock phosphate. When DAP is applied in the nursery, 1/3rd of recommended dose of ‘P’ can be applied to main field (c) Potassium: Compared to N and P, rice absorbs more K. Potassium absorption is up to dough stage. Nearly 50-60% of K is absorbed from seedling to jointing stage (20–25 days). So, entire ‘K’ is applied as basal in clay soil. In light soils, K is applied in two splits viz. 50% basal and 50% at maximum tillering or panicle initiation stage. In some cases, K is applied with N in splits. 534 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Source of K: K2SO4 is more effective, but unit cost is very high. Hence KCl is recommended. (d) Zinc: It is more important for rice next to N, P and K. The deficiency occurs in sodic soils, alkaline soils, sandy soils and during continuous submergence. High amount of Ca and Mg reduces Zn uptake. Zn deficiency causes the physiological disorders like (1) Khaira disease and (2) Akagare –Type II. Akiochi disease is due toxicity of H2S when high organic matter is present along with Fe toxicity. Zn deficiency can be corrected by dipping rice roots in 1% ZnO (Zinc oxide) or by basal application of ZnSO4 at 25 kg/ha (only surface application and no incorporation). If basal application is not done, it is better to apply as 0.5% foliar spray at 20, 30 and 40 DAP for short duration varieties and at 30,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "rice roots in 1% ZnO (Zinc oxide) or by basal application of ZnSO4 at 25 kg/ha (only surface application and no incorporation). If basal application is not done, it is better to apply as 0.5% foliar spray at 20, 30 and 40 DAP for short duration varieties and at 30, 40 and 50 DAP for medium and long duration varieties. R. Weed management The weeds reduce the yield of transplanted rice by 15–20%. Crop weed competition is up to 20–30 days for short duration varieties and 30–40 days for long duration varieties after transplanting. (a) Weed control measures • Through land preparation: Summer ploughing and puddling reduce weed population. • Straight row planting: It is more effective to operate rotary weeder or wheel hoe in between rows of crop. Now IRRI has developed single and double row Conoweeder, which can uproot and burry the weeds and are faster. • Flooding paddy at effective root depth: Proper water management of 6–8 weeks submergence controls the weeds effectively. Aquatic and broad leaved weeds are not affected by this method. • Hand pulling/weeding: It is laborious and is not economical. • Weed control by Chemicals is quicker and less laborious. Large area can be covered in a short time with a limited amount of labour and it is cheaper. The disadvantages are 1. No herbicide will kill all the species of weeds, 2. Initial cost is higher. (b) Integrated Weed Management (IWM) • Use Butachlor 2.5 l/ha or Thiobencarb 2.5 lit/ha or Pendimethalin 3 lit/ha or Anilophos 1.25 lit/ha as pre-emergence application on 3 DAT as sand mix (50 kg of sand) followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 days after planting (or) • Use herbicide mixture: Pre-emergence herbicide mixture viz., Butachlor 1.20 l/ha + 2,4 DEE 1.5 lit/ha (or) Thiobencarb 1.20 l",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "3 lit/ha or Anilophos 1.25 lit/ha as pre-emergence application on 3 DAT as sand mix (50 kg of sand) followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 days after planting (or) • Use herbicide mixture: Pre-emergence herbicide mixture viz., Butachlor 1.20 l/ha + 2,4 DEE 1.5 lit/ha (or) Thiobencarb 1.20 l + 2,4 DEE 1.5 lit/ha (or) Pendimethalin 1.5 l + 2,4 DEE 1.5 lit/ha as sand mix (or) Anilophos + 2, 4 DEE ready mix at 1.25 l/ha followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 DAT as sand mix will have a broad spectrum of weed control in transplanted rice. • Maintain 2.5 cm of water at the time of herbicide application. Water should not be drained for 2 days (or) fresh irrigation should not be given. • If pre-emergence herbicides are not used, 2,4 D sodium salt (Fernoxone 80% WP) at 1.25 kg/ha dissolved in 625 lit of water, is sprayed 3 weeks after transplanting using high volume sprayer. S. Harvest and post harvest technology (a) Harvesting: Harvesting is to be done at optimum time in the tropics, otherwise, there is loss of grain shedding, scattering, lodging and also damage by birds, over maturity and lodging. Timely harvesting AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 535 ensures good grain quality, a high market value and improved consumer preference/acceptance. In India, harvesting between 27 and 39 days after flowering gave maximum head rice recovery. The moisture content at the time of harvest is 18–20%. Taking the average duration of crops as an indication, drain the water from the field 7–10 days before the expected harvest as the drainage hastens the maturity and improves harvesting conditions. When 80% of the panicles turn straw colour (or) most of the grains at base of the panicle in the selected tillers are in hard",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "as an indication, drain the water from the field 7–10 days before the expected harvest as the drainage hastens the maturity and improves harvesting conditions. When 80% of the panicles turn straw colour (or) most of the grains at base of the panicle in the selected tillers are in hard dough stage, the crop is ready for harvest. Maturity may be hastened by 3–4 days by spraying 20% NaCl a week before harvest to escape monsoon rains. (b) Method of harvest: Rice straw is usually cut with a sickle at 15–25 cm above the ground. In Indonesia and Philippines, only panicles are removed. Now, self propelled harvesters, reapers etc. are used for harvesting and combined harvester is available for harvesting, threshing, winnowing and cleaning the seeds. (c) Post harvest technology: Post harvest technology encompasses an array of handling and processing system from the stage of maturation till consumption of the produce and includes threshing, cleaning, grading, drying, parboiling, curing, milling, preservation, storage, processing, packing, transportation, marketing and consumption system: 1. Threshing: The methods are generally classified as manual, animal or mechanical. The common method of separating grains from panicle is hand beating (hand threshing or using mechanical thresher (small or big thresher). A loss under manual threshing is 8%. IRRI designed a portable thresher. Most of the farmers are using mechanical thresher in the areas where labour availability is a problem. Fig. 15.8 Paddy thresher 2. Drying: It is the process that removes moisture from the grain mass for safe storage and preservation of quality, viability and nutritive value. Drying should begin within 12 hours but not later than 24 hours after harvesting. Rice is normally harvested at moisture content of 20% or 536 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY more. If the moisture content is not reduced to below 14% shortly",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "storage and preservation of quality, viability and nutritive value. Drying should begin within 12 hours but not later than 24 hours after harvesting. Rice is normally harvested at moisture content of 20% or 536 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY more. If the moisture content is not reduced to below 14% shortly after threshing, the grain quality is deteriorated because of microbial activities and insect damage. The grains should be dried to 12–14% moisture level. In general, 4–5 days of seed drying are required. Fig. 15.9 Manual threshing-rice Fig. 15.10 Combine harvester AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 537 3. Winnowing and cleaning: Presence of impurities like foreign seeds and trashes is more likely to deteriorate in storage and reduce milling recovery rate. Cleaning is mostly done by hand winnower, which takes advantage of wind for removing impurities. Now mechanical winnower is available. Combine harvester is a multipurpose one, which is useful for harvesting, threshing, winnowing and cleaning in one operation. It is highly profitable and economical. Fig. 15.11 Tractor mounted conveyor reaper 4. Grading: The grains are graded for uniformity in size, shape and colour. Seed cleaner cum graders are also available for effective cleaning and grading. 5. Storage: Low temperature and low moisture are necessary for long-term storage of rice for seed. Rice seed of 10–14% moisture content can be stored in good condition at 18°C for more than 2 years. (d) Rice processing: 1. Parboiling: In this process, rough rice is soaked, steamed and redried before milling. The advantages of parboiling are: 1. Easy dehusking, 2. low incidence of pests and diseases 3. by milling of raw rice, 80% of fat and18% of crude protein are lost, but starch increases by 5%. 2. Curing: The new rice has low swelling capacity and has the tendency to yield a",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "advantages of parboiling are: 1. Easy dehusking, 2. low incidence of pests and diseases 3. by milling of raw rice, 80% of fat and18% of crude protein are lost, but starch increases by 5%. 2. Curing: The new rice has low swelling capacity and has the tendency to yield a thick viscous gruel during cooking. To overcome the above defect in newly harvested paddy, methods have been developed to hasten the ageing in fresh rice and such process is called as curing. Steaming for 15–20 minutes is sufficient to bring satisfactory curing effect. 3. Milling: Rice milling involves the removal of husks and bran from rough rice to produce polished rice. Time of harvest and season may affect the milling yield of rice. 4. Polishing: Removal of very fine bran (often called whitening) 2–3 times. II. Wet seeded rice/Direct seeding The varieties recommended for different seasons, main field preparation—puddling, application of organic manure/green manure, seed treatment and sprouting of seeds are similar to that of transplanted wet rice. (a) Seeds and sowing: The seed rate is 75 kg/ha. Sprouted seeds are sown in lines using drum seeder. It is more economical and labour saving. Cost of drum seeder is Rs. 2000/-. Maintain thin film of water at the time of sowing. 538 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Fig. 15.12 Direct rice seeder Fig. 15.13 Rice cum daincha seeder (b) Nutrient management (kg/ha): Application of 100: 50: 50 kg of N,P2O5 and K2O respectively is recommended for the short duration crops raised in Kar/Kuruvai sornavari seasons. 50% N should be applied at 20 DAS and the remaining 25% N each at maximum tillering and panicle initiation stage. ZnSO4 at 25 kg/ha is applied as basal. Application of Azolla at 1.0 t/ha at 15 DAS and then incorporation on 3rd week after application",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in Kar/Kuruvai sornavari seasons. 50% N should be applied at 20 DAS and the remaining 25% N each at maximum tillering and panicle initiation stage. ZnSO4 at 25 kg/ha is applied as basal. Application of Azolla at 1.0 t/ha at 15 DAS and then incorporation on 3rd week after application is recommended. For light soils, AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 539 potassium can be applied in two splits viz., 50% basal and 50% at tilling/panicle initiation. In general, P and K are applied as basal. (c) Water management: Maintain thin film of water at the time of sowing. Drain the water, where the water is stagnating. Allow enough water to saturate the soil from 3 to 5 days. From the 5th day onwards, increase depth of water to 1.5 cm. Then afterwards, maintain 2.5 cm of water up to tillering. Then, maintain 5.0 cm of water throughout the crop growth. Stop irrigation 10 days before harvest. (d) Weed management: The most critical period is 15-30 DAS. Conventional method is hand weeding thrice at 20, 40 and 60 DAS. For effective weed control, IWM is recommended. Pre-emergence application of Pretilachlor at 0.45 kg a.i./ha (Sofit 50 EC) or Thiobencarb at 1.25 kg a.i./ha (2.5 lit of commercial product–saturn 50 EC) on 6–8 DAS followed by one late hand weeding on 40th day. Pre-emergence application of pretilachlor 0.3 kg a.i./ha + safner is more effective for control of weeds in wet seeded rice followed by one hand weeding. Butachlor 1.25 kg a.i./ha + Safener + one hand weeding may also be followed. T. Hybrid rice With an advent of cytoplasmic male sterile lines, China released first hybrid during 1976. More than 100 hybrids have been released in China. But out of 33.0 m.ha, only 17.6 m.ha is under hybrid rice.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "kg a.i./ha + Safener + one hand weeding may also be followed. T. Hybrid rice With an advent of cytoplasmic male sterile lines, China released first hybrid during 1976. More than 100 hybrids have been released in China. But out of 33.0 m.ha, only 17.6 m.ha is under hybrid rice. From 33.0 m.ha, China produces about 197 m.t. of rice. India so far produced 9 rice hybrids and the details are given in the Table 15.5. Table 15.5. Rice Hybrids S.No. Hybrid Year of release Duration (days) Average yield (t/ha) 1. CORH 1 1994 110-115 6.08 2. APRH 1 1994 130-135 7.14 3. APRH 2 1994 120-125 6.02 4. KRH 1 1994 125-130 7.49 5 CNRH 3 1995 125-130 7.49 6. KRRH 1 1996 125-130 7.30 7. KRH 2 1996 130-135 7.40 8. ADRH 1 1998 110-115 6.43 9. CORH 2 1998 120-125 6.07 Hybrids recorded additional yield ranges from 0.85 to 2.3 t/ha compared to check. Private companies viz., Boro, Agro, Pioneer etc., released 8 hybrids. The success of hybrid rice cultivation in India depends on the success of seed production. The seed production programme should be efficient and economic. So far, India could achieve seed yield of 1.5-2.0 t/ha as against China which recorded higher average yield of 2-3 t/ha for Indian hybrid and 3.6 t/ha for Japonica hybrid. Tamil Nadu Hybrids Hybrids: CORH 1, CORH 2 and ADTRH 1. Season: CORH 1 and ADTRH 1 : Kar, Kuruvai, Sornavari; CORH 2: Samba, Late Samba, Navarai. Seed rate: All hybrids : 20 kg/ha (1 kg/cent). 540 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Seed treatment: Carbendazim at 2 g/kg of seed. Seed treatment with Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria each 3 pockets (600 g/ha) may also be done. Nursery: FYM/compost at 1 t/20 cents or 500 kg green manure, DAP 2 kg/cent at",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "All hybrids : 20 kg/ha (1 kg/cent). 540 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Seed treatment: Carbendazim at 2 g/kg of seed. Seed treatment with Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria each 3 pockets (600 g/ha) may also be done. Nursery: FYM/compost at 1 t/20 cents or 500 kg green manure, DAP 2 kg/cent at last ploughing is applied. To control weeds in the nursery, Butachlor/Thiobencarb at 200 ml/20 cent or Anilophos 100 ml/20 cent 8 DAS as sand mix is recommended. The seedling age is 25 days for CORH 1 and ADTRH 1 and 25-30 days for CORH 2. Main field preparations and weed management techniques are similar to that of wet transplanted rice. For planting, one seedling/hill is planted with a spacing of 20 × 10 cm (50 plants/m2). The planting depth is 2-3 cm. Fertilizer schedule: For CORH 1 and ADTRH 1, application of 150: 50: 50 kg of N, P2O5, K2O kg/ha is recommended. Apply 50% N, and 100% P and 50% of K as basal. Remaining 50% N should be applied in 3 splits viz. 15, 30 and 45 DAT and remaining 50% of K should be applied at 30 DAT. For CORH 2, application of 150:60:60 kg of N, P2O5, K2O kg/ha is recommended. Apply 50% N, 100% P and 50% K as basal, Remaining 50% N should be applied in 3 splits viz., 15, 40 and 60 DAT and remaining 50% of K at 40 DAT. Application of ZnSO4 at 25 kg/ha as basal is recommended for the both the hybrids. Irrigation: Irrigate at 5 cm depth of irrigation. Stop irrigation 10 days before harvest. Critical stages: Panicle initiation (50 days) and heading (75-80 days). Harvest: Harvest when 80% of panicles turn yellow. Yield: The expected yield for ADTRH 1 is 6.4 t/ha and for CORH 2, it",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "both the hybrids. Irrigation: Irrigate at 5 cm depth of irrigation. Stop irrigation 10 days before harvest. Critical stages: Panicle initiation (50 days) and heading (75-80 days). Harvest: Harvest when 80% of panicles turn yellow. Yield: The expected yield for ADTRH 1 is 6.4 t/ha and for CORH 2, it is 6.1 t/ha. U. Super rice Super rice is a plant type to raise the harvest index to around 0.6 and the biomass to 22 t/ha. Such a plant type is expected to have a yield potential of 13 t/ha. To achieve these objectives, the new plant type should have lower tillering capacity of producing 3–4 tillers when direct seeded and 8–10 tillers when transplanted and all other should be ear bearing. Each panicle should have 200–250 grains and plants with sturdy stem should grow to the height of 90–100 cm. It should have multiple disease and insect resistance and produce grain of acceptable quality. V. Rice based cropping systems In North Eastern part of India, rice is grown under rainfed condition. The different rice based intercropping systems followed under rainfed condition are given below: Rice + Pigeon pea Rice + green gram (moong bean) at 3:1 or 4:1 ratio Rice + Black gram (urd bean) In Tamil Nadu, Rice + Black gram at 3:1 ratio is followed W. Ratooning in Rice Ratooning is the cultivation of crop regrowth. Rice ratooning is common in USA, but not in India. Varieties suitable 1. Bhavani : 4.0 t/ha. It yields 58% of main crop yield. 2. Other varieties : CO 37, ACM 8, ACM 10, ADT 36, ASD 16, PMK 1. Stubble height: 20 cm stubble height. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 541 Nutrient response: Ratoon crop responds well up to 120–150 kg N/ha. Application of complete basal fertilizer immediately",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "main crop yield. 2. Other varieties : CO 37, ACM 8, ACM 10, ADT 36, ASD 16, PMK 1. Stubble height: 20 cm stubble height. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 541 Nutrient response: Ratoon crop responds well up to 120–150 kg N/ha. Application of complete basal fertilizer immediately after harvest of plant crop registered higher yield than split application. X. Aerobic rice Water in irrigated rice production has been taken for granted for centuries, but the “looming water crisis” may change the way of rice production in the future. Water saving irrigation technologies that were investigated in the early 1970s, such as saturated soil culture and alternate wetting and drying, are receiving renewed attention from researchers. These technologies reduce water input, though mostly at the expense of some yield loss. Farmers in Asia who confront scarcity or high costs of water have already started to adopt these technologies. Aerobic rice is a new concept to further decrease water requirements in rice production. It is commercially grown in Brazil and is being pioneered by farmers in northern China. In the heart of the rice-wheat belt in India (Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh), innovative farmers have begun to grow rice aerobically under furrow irrigation in raised bed systems. Over the centuries, lowland rice has proven to be a remarkably anaerobic character. The shift from anaerobic to aerobic systems will have major consequences for weed, disease and pest management, nutrient and soil organic mater dynamics, and green house gas emission and sequestration. Weed control is an especially crucial issue in most water-saving irrigation technologies. Concept: A fundamental approach to reduce water inputs in rice is to grow the crop like an irrigated upland crop such as wheat or maize. Instead of trying to reduce water input in lowland fields, the concept",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sequestration. Weed control is an especially crucial issue in most water-saving irrigation technologies. Concept: A fundamental approach to reduce water inputs in rice is to grow the crop like an irrigated upland crop such as wheat or maize. Instead of trying to reduce water input in lowland fields, the concept of having the field flooded or saturated is abandoned altogether. Upland crops are grown in non-puddled aerobic soil without standing water. Irrigation is applied to bring the soil water content in the root zone up to field capacity after it has reached a certain lower threshold (e.g., halfway between field capacity and wilting point). Since it is not possible to apply irrigation water to the root zone only, some of it is lost by deep percolation and is unavailable for uptake by the crop. Typical field application efficiencies vary from 60-70% using surface irrigation (e.g., flash or furrow irrigation) to more than 90% using sprinkler or drip irrigation. Evaporation can also be reduced with this technique, since there is no continuous standing water layer. Areas to be grown under aerobic rice The aerobic rice can be raised in the areas: • Where rainfall is insufficient to sustain lowland rice production (estimated to require 1,200–1,500 mm) but thought to be sufficient for aerobic rice (estimated to require some 800 mm). Here, maize is the dominant crop and rice is an attractive alternative through the benefits of crop diversification. • In pump-irrigated areas where water has becomes so expensive that lowland rice production was abandoned. • Where water is scarce during the first part of the growing season (necessitating irrigation), but floods occur in the second part, upland crops such as maize and soybean cannot withstand flooding, but aerobic rice can. Y. System of rice intensification (SRI) SRI involves the use of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "production was abandoned. • Where water is scarce during the first part of the growing season (necessitating irrigation), but floods occur in the second part, upland crops such as maize and soybean cannot withstand flooding, but aerobic rice can. Y. System of rice intensification (SRI) SRI involves the use of certain management practices, which together provide better growing conditions for rice plants, particularly in the root zone, than those plants grown under traditional practices. SRI was developed in Madagascar in the early 1980s by Father Henri de Lauhanie, a Jesuit priest. In 542 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1990, Association Tefy Saina (ATS) was formed as a Malagasy NGO to promote SRI. It has since been tested in China, India, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh with positive results. Most rice farmers plant fairly mature seedlings (20-30 days old), in clumps, fairly close together with standing water maintained in the field for as much of the season as possible. These practices seem to reduce the risk of crop failure. It seems logical that more mature plants should survive better, that planting in clumps will ensure, that some seedlings should result in more yield; and that planting in standing water means the plants will never lack water and weeds will have little opportunity to grow. There are six practices in SRI. 1. Young seedlings: Seedlings are transplanted early. Rice seedlings are transplanted when only the first two leaves have emerged from the initial tiller or stalk, usually when they are between 8 and 15 days old. Seedlings should be grown in a nursery in which the soil is kept moist but not flooded. The seed sac should be kept attached to the infant root, because it is an important energy source for the young seedlings. The young seedlings should be planted so",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and 15 days old. Seedlings should be grown in a nursery in which the soil is kept moist but not flooded. The seed sac should be kept attached to the infant root, because it is an important energy source for the young seedlings. The young seedlings should be planted so carefully that the root tip is not left pointing upward. 2. Single seedling: Seedlings are planted singly rather than clumps of two or three or more. This means that individual plants have room to spread and to send down roots. They do not compete as much with other rice plants for space, light and nutrients in the soil. 3. Wider spacing: Seedlings are planted in a square pattern with plenty of space between them in all directions. Usually, they are spaced at least 22.5 cm × 22.5 cm. It helps for vigorous root growth and more tillering. The square pattern facilitates in situ incorporation of weeds by Conoweeder. 4. Lesser seed rate: SRI method requires much lower seed rate (5–8 kg/ha) than traditional methods (75–100 kg/ha). Fig. 15.14 SRI–Using conoweeder 5. Moist but unflooded soil conditions: Rice has traditionally been grown in water under submerged condition. In SRI method, soil is kept moist but not flooded during the vegetative period, ensuring that more oxygen is available in the soil for the roots, occasionally the soil should be allowed to dry to a point of cracking except in saline soils. This will allow oxygen to enter the soil and also induce the roots to grow and search for water. In SRI method, unflooded condition AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 543 is only maintained during vegetative period and from flowering to harvest, 1-3 cm of water is kept in the field as is done in the traditional method. 6. Conoweeding:",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the roots to grow and search for water. In SRI method, unflooded condition AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 543 is only maintained during vegetative period and from flowering to harvest, 1-3 cm of water is kept in the field as is done in the traditional method. 6. Conoweeding: Weeding can be done by conoweeder. The cost of conoweeder will be around Rs. 800–1500/depending upon the type and materials used. First weeding should be done on 14 DAT and this should be continued up to 40 days at 7–10 days interval. At least two or three weeding is recommended. This practice seems to improve the soil structure and increases the soil aeration. Thus, the incorporation of weed biomass into the soil results in enrichment of CO2 near to root zone, increases the biological activities, increases soil microbes population and activities, results in better nutrient availability in soil and uptake by plants. If conoweeder is not available, rotary weeder can be used. 2. WHEAT (Triticum aestivum or T. Vulgare) Wheat is world’s most widely cultivated food crop. It is a rabi (winter) season crop. In India it is the second important staple cereal food. It is mostly eaten in the form of chapaties. Wheat is also used for manufacturing bread, flakes, cakes, biscuits etc. Wheat straw is a good source of feed for cattle. Wheat contains more protein (8–15%) than in other cereals. Wheat proteins are of special significance. The protein contained in wheat includes albumins, globulins, glutinous and gliadines. Albumins dissolve in water. The other protein forms are insoluble in water and are called gluten. The gluten content in wheat is the highest (16–50%). Because of gluten, wheat flour is used for baking bread. A. Origin De candolle—Euphrates and Tigris and spread from there to China, Egypt and other",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Albumins dissolve in water. The other protein forms are insoluble in water and are called gluten. The gluten content in wheat is the highest (16–50%). Because of gluten, wheat flour is used for baking bread. A. Origin De candolle—Euphrates and Tigris and spread from there to China, Egypt and other parts of the world. Vavilov—Abyssinia and the whole group of soft wheat originated in the region of Pakistan, Southwestern Afghanistan and the southern parts of mountainous Bokhara. B. Area and Distribution Area (m.ha) Production (m.t.) Productivity q/ha World–2003–04 217.2 2.84 161.9 India–2003–2004 26.6 (12%) 2.71 72.1 India–2004–2005 25.5 2.76 73.03 At present, India produces more than 72 m.t. of wheat, which is 11 times higher relative to the same during 1950–51. Productivity is almost equal to that of global. In India, it is cultivated in Uttar Pradesh (25.6 m.t.), Punjab (14.5 m.t.), Haryana (9.1 m.t.), Madhya Pradesh (7.2 m.t.), Rajasthan and Bihar. The productivity is high in Punjab and Haryana (4–4.2 t/ha). India is expected to produce 109 m.t. of wheat by 2020 A.D. with annual rate of increase in production of about 2.2% while present rate of increase is about 1.0 per cent. C. Classification of Wheat 1. Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) It is grown in Spain, Italy, Germany and Russia. It was developed from T. diccoides koru., a wild form. In India, it is grown in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. 2. Macaroni wheat (Triticum durum) It is grown in Italy, USA, Canada, and Russia. They are descended from emmer wheat. It is drought tolerant and cultivated in Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, West Bengal and Himachal Pradesh. It is used for suji preparation. 544 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 3. Common bread wheat (Triticum vulgare) It is a typical wheat of alluvial soils of Indo Gangetic",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "from emmer wheat. It is drought tolerant and cultivated in Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, West Bengal and Himachal Pradesh. It is used for suji preparation. 544 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 3. Common bread wheat (Triticum vulgare) It is a typical wheat of alluvial soils of Indo Gangetic plains i.e., Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and parts of Rajasthan. Bulk of Indian crop consists of this type. 4. Indian dwarf wheat (Triticum spherococcum) This is found in limited areas of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh of India and in Pakistan. They are characterized by very short and compact heads having shorter grains. This belongs to the club wheat of western countries. 5. Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum) This is the type presently grown in India in almost all the wheat-growing zones. It is introduced in India by Dr. N.E. Borlaug of Mexico and called as Mexican dwarf wheat. It is the bread wheat. D. Growth Stages 1. Pre establishment stage: (a) Pre-emergence: Sprouting of seeds by giving rise to seminal roots and coleoptiles. (b) Emergence: Appearance of coleoptiles from germinating seeds above the soil surface. 2. Vegetative stage: (a) Seedling: The young plants establish larger root systems in this stage. The stage may be further differentiated as one leaf, two leaf, three leaf and four leaf stages. (b) Crown root stage: This coincides with three or four leaf stage in which the crown roots appear. (c) Tillering: Plants develop crown and branch out into tillers from their base at soil surface. (d) Jointing: This is the stage at which the plants start elongating when the nodes start developing above the crown node. 3. Reproductive stage: (a) Booting: In this stage, the uppermost leaf swells out into flag holding the spike into it. (b) Heading: The spikes start emerging out from the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(d) Jointing: This is the stage at which the plants start elongating when the nodes start developing above the crown node. 3. Reproductive stage: (a) Booting: In this stage, the uppermost leaf swells out into flag holding the spike into it. (b) Heading: The spikes start emerging out from the leaf sheath at this stage. (c) Flowering: Anthesis of florets and fertilization of ovaries takes place at this stage. 4. Post anthesis stage: (a) Filling: The ovaries after fertilization start elongating into seeds and pass through milk, soft dough and hard dough stages. (b) Maturity: Colour of the glumes changes and kernels become fairly hard at this stage. E. Important Varieties Sonora 64 is dwarf variety introduced to India from Mexico. It is early ripening, resistant to lodging, grown well in late crop rotation with sugarcane or sweet potato. Its grain contains 12.4–14.4% protein. When irrigated, it yields 6–7 t/ha. Lerma Rojo is a semi dwarf variety, strongly tillering. The period from blossoming until ripening is short. The resistance to rust is high. Sowing time is late. The yields are high (7 t/ha under optimal conditions). Kalyan Sona is a dwarf variety of Indian selection. Bushy, late ripening, very productive under favourable conditions (up to 8 t/ha). Sonalika is a short stem, medium bushy, early ripening and high yielding variety (up to 7 t/ha). F. Soil Wheat is grown in a variety of soils in India. Well drained loam and clay loams are good for wheat. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 545 However, good crop of wheat is raised in sandy loams and black soils also. Soils should be neutral in reaction. Heavy soils with good drainage are suitable for wheat cultivation under dry condition. In India, wheat growing areas can be divided into 5 soil divisions. •",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 545 However, good crop of wheat is raised in sandy loams and black soils also. Soils should be neutral in reaction. Heavy soils with good drainage are suitable for wheat cultivation under dry condition. In India, wheat growing areas can be divided into 5 soil divisions. • The Gangetic alluvium of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, • The Indus alluvium of the Punjab and Haryana, • The black soil regions of central and southern India comprising Madhya Pradesh and parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka, • The hilly regions of the Himalayas and elsewhere, and • The desert soils of Rajasthan. G. Climate Wheat has wide adaptability. It can be grown not only in tropical and sub tropical zones but also in temperate zones and the cold tracts of the far north. It can tolerate severe cold and snow. It can be cultivated from sea level to as high as 3300 m. The optimum temperature range for ideal germination of wheat seed is 20–25°C, though the seed can germinate in the temperature range of 3.5–35°C. It can be grown in regions where rainfall varies from 25–150 cm/year. The wheat plants require medium (50–60%) humidity for their growth. But at the time of maturity, crop requires less humidity and warm season. At the time of maturity, the plants require 14–15°C. H. Season and Varieties Zone Irrigated Rainfed Timely sown Late sown Timely sown up Late sown 15–30, November up to 25th Dec. to 15th Nov. Hilly zone Girija, HB 208, Sonalika, Kalyanasona, HD UP 1109 Sonalika, Shailaja UP 1109 2204, Ridley NW Plain Sonalika, Arjun Sonalika, Swati, Kundan, Pratap, – zone Jairaj, HD 2204 HD 2270 Mukta, Sujata NE Plain zone HD 2402, Janak Sonalika, Sonali Pratap,WL 410 K 8962, HDR 77 Central zone HD 2381, HD 4530, HD 2327,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Sonalika, Kalyanasona, HD UP 1109 Sonalika, Shailaja UP 1109 2204, Ridley NW Plain Sonalika, Arjun Sonalika, Swati, Kundan, Pratap, – zone Jairaj, HD 2204 HD 2270 Mukta, Sujata NE Plain zone HD 2402, Janak Sonalika, Sonali Pratap,WL 410 K 8962, HDR 77 Central zone HD 2381, HD 4530, HD 2327, Sonalika, Sujata, Meghdoot, – Jairaj, LOK-1 LOK-1, Swati Kalyansona Peninsular zone HD 2189, DWR 39 HD 2610, DWR 195 Meghdoot, Mukta – Southern hills zone HW 741, HW 972 NP 200 NP 200, HW 517 – Saline soils KRL 1–4, Raj 3077 – – – I. Time of Sowing Temperature during growing season and at grain filling is one of the several factors deciding the sowing time. However, ideal temperature requirement varies from plant type and stages of growth. Wheat plants are very sensitive to very cold and frost injury at any stage of growth particularly at reproductive stage if temperature is below 15°C. The dwarf varieties require the following temperature for their growth and development. 546 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Growth stages Temperature requirement Germination 20–25°C Tillering 16–20°C Accelerated growth 20–23°C Proper grain filling 23–25°C The sowing dates for wheat varieties is given below. Under unavoidable circumstances sowing may be delayed up to first fortnight of December beyond which it is not advisable. Indigenous wheat : Last week of October Long duration dwarf wheat like Kalyan sona, Arjun etc. : 1st fortnight of November Short duration dwarf wheats like Sonalika, Raj 821 etc. : 2nd fortnight of November Late sown condition : 1st week of December J. Systems of Wheat culture 1. Irrigated wheat 2. Rainfed wheat I. Irrigated wheat Land preparation: In general, wheat requires a well-pulverized, but compact seedbed for good and uniform germination. In irrigated areas, wheat is sown after kharif crops, hence the field is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sown condition : 1st week of December J. Systems of Wheat culture 1. Irrigated wheat 2. Rainfed wheat I. Irrigated wheat Land preparation: In general, wheat requires a well-pulverized, but compact seedbed for good and uniform germination. In irrigated areas, wheat is sown after kharif crops, hence the field is ploughed with disc or mould board plough followed by 2–3 harrowing and 2–3 planking should be given. One pre sowing irrigation 7–10 days before seeding is necessary to ensure good germination. Seed rateNormal sowing : 100 kg/ha Bold seed/later sown condition : 125 kg/ha Seed treatment: Treat the seeds with any one of the fungicides like captan or thiram at 2 g/kg of seeds 24 hours before sowing. Spacing: For normal sown crop : 20–22.5 cm between the rows For delayed sowing : 15–18 cm. Depth of sowing: Since the coleoptiles length is 5 cm, depth of sowing should not more than 5 cm and the optimum depth of sowing is 2.5–5.0 cm. Method of sowing (a) Broadcast sowing: Seeds are broadcasted and then worked in by harrowing to cover the seeds. In this method, germination is very poor and plant stand is often irregular, since the seeds are not placed in the moist zone. (b) Sowing behind the country plough: A majority of farmers use this method. The seed is dropped in furrows by hand and it is called as ‘Kera method’ and when it is dropped through a ‘pora’, a special set of attachment with local plough, it is called “Pora method”. In this method, seeds are dropped at 5–6 cm depth. (c) Drilling: Seeds are sown by seed drill or fertiseed drill. It ensures uniform depth of sowing, proper placement of fertilizers and good germination. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 547 (d) Dibbling: This method",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is called “Pora method”. In this method, seeds are dropped at 5–6 cm depth. (c) Drilling: Seeds are sown by seed drill or fertiseed drill. It ensures uniform depth of sowing, proper placement of fertilizers and good germination. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 547 (d) Dibbling: This method is used in the case where supply of seeds is limited, using the implement is called “Dibbler”. It is not a common method, because it is time consuming. (e) Transplanting: It is not a common practice. When the sowing delays beyond 1st week of December, seedlings are raised in the nursery and transplanted on 25 DAS at 2–3 seedling/hill at a spacing of 15 cm × 5–7.5 cm. The varieties Kalyansona and Sonalika are best for transplanting. Manures and Fertilizer: Application of FYM or compost at 12.5 t/ha at the time of last ploughing is recommended. Fertilizer application should be made based on the soil test recommendation. If it is not done, blanket recommendation may be followed as given below: Condition Recommended dose Time and method of application (kg/ha) N : P2O5 : K2O Timely sown 120:40:40 50% N and 100% P and K drilled at 5 cm and the remaining 50% ‘N’ at first irrigation. Late sown 80:40:40 50% N and 100% P and K drilled at 5 cm below the seed and the remaining 50% ‘N’ at first irrigation. Irrigated if followed 80:40:40 50% N and 100% P and K drilled at 5 cm below the by legume crop seed and the remaining 50% ‘N’ at first irrigation. In light soil, ‘N’ should be applied in 3 equal splits viz., 1/3 as basal, 1/3 at 1st irrigation and 1/3 at 2nd irrigation. Weed Management: The critical weed free period is up to 30 DAS. Post emergence application of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "crop seed and the remaining 50% ‘N’ at first irrigation. In light soil, ‘N’ should be applied in 3 equal splits viz., 1/3 as basal, 1/3 at 1st irrigation and 1/3 at 2nd irrigation. Weed Management: The critical weed free period is up to 30 DAS. Post emergence application of Isoproturon (Tolkan 50% WP or Arelon 50% WP) on 30–35 DAS at 1.0 kg a.i./ha followed by one hand weeding or combined application of Isoproturon at 0.75 kg a.i./ha + 2,4–D at 0.5 kg a.i./ha on 30–35 DAS is more effective for the control of monocot and dicot weeds or pre emergence application of pendimethalin at 1.0 kg a.i./ha followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 DAS is more efficient and economical method. Water Management: Wheat requires 440–460 mm of water. Irrigation at 50% available soil moisture or 50% depletion of available soil moisture is optimum. The critical stages of crop for irrigation 1. Crown root initiation-CRI (21–25 days) 2. Tillering (45–60 days) 3. Jointing (60–70 days) 4. Flowering (90–95 days) 5. Milky stage (100–108 days) 6. Dough stage (120–125 days) Of these, irrigation at CRI stage is the most important and delay of every day results in reduction of 1.4% grain yield/day. It has also been noticed that if any of following irrigation is delayed or missed, the yield is reduced to the extent of 5-10 kg/ha. 548 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Number of irrigation One Two Three Four Five CRI CRI CRI CRI CRI Boot leaf Tillering Tillering Tillering Boot leaf Boot leaf Jointing Milky stage Flowering Milky stage Cropping system: The following cropping systems are being followed in northern India. Wheat + sugarcane (4–5: 1), Wheat + pea (4:2), Wheat + gram (1:1), Wheat + chick pea (4:2), Wheat + lentil (4:2), Wheat + mustard (8:2) ,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Tillering Boot leaf Boot leaf Jointing Milky stage Flowering Milky stage Cropping system: The following cropping systems are being followed in northern India. Wheat + sugarcane (4–5: 1), Wheat + pea (4:2), Wheat + gram (1:1), Wheat + chick pea (4:2), Wheat + lentil (4:2), Wheat + mustard (8:2) , Wheat + linseed (4:2). Wheat may be grown as relay crop in potato after earthing up especially in case of early crop of potato. Harvesting and threshing: Harvest when the leaves and stems turn yellow and becomes fairly dry. Harvest when there is about 20–25% moisture content. Harvesting is done by using sickle or bullock driven reapers or by using combine harvester. After threshing and cleaning, the grain is dried in the sun for 3–4 days for getting 10–12% moisture for storing. The best time for harvest in hilly zone is May to June, North-western plain zoneMid April, North-eastern plains zone—March to April, Central zone— February to March and Peninsular zone—February. Yield: The yield varies from 4.5–5.5 t/ha. Post Harvest Technology: Wheat is usually ground into flour before used as food. Earlier days stone grinding was done. Now-a-days steel roller mills are available for grinding. Process of milling: Before milling, wheat is tempered by adding water about 24–48 hours earlier to milling so that the moisture of grains comes around 14%. This allows better separation of bran from the endosperm. Wheat is eaten as atta in the north and west, in the south and east as maida and suji. Rava is consumed mainly in the south. Pasta is a mixture of flour and salt. Pasta products comprise vermicelli, noodles, macaroni and spaghetti. Storage: If the moisture content of grain is more than 12%, they are eaten up by storage pests. There is marked deterioration in weight, taste, nutrients or nutritive",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is consumed mainly in the south. Pasta is a mixture of flour and salt. Pasta products comprise vermicelli, noodles, macaroni and spaghetti. Storage: If the moisture content of grain is more than 12%, they are eaten up by storage pests. There is marked deterioration in weight, taste, nutrients or nutritive value and germination of wheat grains when they are stored. Safe storage means ensuring that the stored grains retain their original weight, taste, nutritive value and germination. 3. MAIZE (Zea mays.L) Maize is one of the important cereal crops in the world’s agricultural economy both as food for men and feed for animals. Because of its higher yield potential compared to other cereals, it is called as “Queen of Cereals”. Several food dishes viz., chapatti are prepared from maize flour. Green cobs are roasted and eaten by the people. Popcorn is used for popped form; green cob for table purpose. Corn has low fibre content, more carbohydrate and most palatable. It is widely used in preparation of cattle feed and poultry feed. It can be used as green fodder and has no HCN content. It can be preserved as silage. Food products like corn meal, corn flakes etc., can be prepared. It is used in making industrial products like alcohol, corn starch (dextrose), glucose, corn oil, corn syrup etc., and used in canning industry, production of polymer, making paper, paper boards, bread etc., Maize grain contains proteins (10%), carbohydrates (70%), oil (4%), albuminoides (10.4%), crude fibre (2.3%) and ash (1.4%). Maize grain has significant AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 549 quantity of vitamin A, nicotinic acid, riboflavin and vitamin E. Maize is low in calcium, but fairly high in ‘P. Maize protein ‘Zein’ is deficient in two essential amino acids viz., Lysine and ‘Tryptophane’. A. Classification Classification is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Maize grain has significant AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 549 quantity of vitamin A, nicotinic acid, riboflavin and vitamin E. Maize is low in calcium, but fairly high in ‘P. Maize protein ‘Zein’ is deficient in two essential amino acids viz., Lysine and ‘Tryptophane’. A. Classification Classification is largely based on the character of the kernels. It is classified into seven groups (Kipps, 1959). 1. Flint corn (Zea mays indurate): Starchy endosperm enclosed with hard hammy endosperm. Kernel size is large with flat bottom and round at the top.High proportion of starch. Colour may be white or yellow. This is the type mostly grown in India. 2. Dent corn (Z. mays indentata): Because of formation of dent on the top of kernel having white or yellow, it is called as dent corn. Maize kernels have both soft and hard starches. The hard starch extends on the sides and the soft starch is in the centre and extends to the top of the kernel. Depression or dent in the crown on the seed is the result of drying and shrinkage of soft starch. This type is widely grown in USA. 3. Pop corn (Z. mays averta): Kernel size is small. Hard and corneous endosperm is present. 4. Sweet corn (Z.mays saccharata): The sugar and starch make the major component of the endosperm that results in sweet taste of kernels. It is mainly grown in Northern half of USA. The cobs are picked up green for canning and table purpose. 5. Flour corn (Z. mays amylaceae): It resembles to the flint corn in appearance and ear characteristics. The grains are composed of soft starch and have little or no dent (called as “soft corn”). It is widely grown in USA and South Africa. 6. Pod corn (Z. mays tunicata): Each",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "5. Flour corn (Z. mays amylaceae): It resembles to the flint corn in appearance and ear characteristics. The grains are composed of soft starch and have little or no dent (called as “soft corn”). It is widely grown in USA and South Africa. 6. Pod corn (Z. mays tunicata): Each kernel is enclosed in a pod or husk in an ear, which enclosed in husks, like other types of corn. 7. Waxy corn (Z. mays cerabina)The kernel looks to have waxy appearance and gummy starch in them, because of amylopectin. Starch is similar to that of tapioca starch for making adhesive. B. Origin Mexico and Central America. C. Area and Production It is cultivated in an area of 130 m.ha with a production of 580 m.t. It is grown in USA, China, Brazil, Mexico and India. USA ranks first in area, production and productivity (6865 kg/ha). India occupies 5th place in area and 11th place in production. In India, it is cultivated in area of 6.25 m.ha with a production of 10.61 m.t. Average productivity is 1698 kg/ha. In India, it is cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Bihar. The production level is in the order of Uttar Pradesh > Bihar > Karnataka. Karnataka recorded the highest average yield of 3379 kg/ha. In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in an area of 81,800 ha with a production of 1,32,900 t and productivity of 1625 kg/ha. It is mainly cultivated in Coimbatore, Erode, Salem, Madurai, Trichy, Thanjavur and Pudukottai districts. It is cultivated in southern districts, Dindugul and Perambalur districts under rainfed condition. D. Climate It is essentially a tropical crop. It is a C4 short day plant. Though it is a tropical crop, it has got high adaptability to wider climate (55°N–45°S). It can be grown up",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Pudukottai districts. It is cultivated in southern districts, Dindugul and Perambalur districts under rainfed condition. D. Climate It is essentially a tropical crop. It is a C4 short day plant. Though it is a tropical crop, it has got high adaptability to wider climate (55°N–45°S). It can be grown up to 2500 m above MSL. This crop is not suitable when night temperature drops below 15.6°C. Maize requires moist and warm weather from germination to flowering. Most suitable temperature for germination is 21°C and for growth is 32°C. 550 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Extremely high temperature and low RH at flowering desiccate the pollen resulting in poor pollen grain formation. Temperature more than 35°C reduces the pollen germination. Temperature < 15°C delays silking and tasseling. Rainfall of 500–750 mm of well distributed rain is required for growth. E. Soil Maize is best adapted to well-drained sandy loam to silty loam soil. Water stagnation is extremely harmful to the crop, therefore proper drainage is must. Maize cannot thrive on heavy soils especially on low lands. pH ranges from 5.5–7.5. The alluvial soils of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Punjab are very suitable for growing maize crop. Salinity and water logging are harmful at seeding stage. Continuous water logging for 3 days reduce the yield by 40–45%. F. Growth Stages • Seedling stage : 1–14 days (from sprouting to 2–4 leaves ) • Vegetative phase : 15–39 days (30–35 days is knee high stage) • Flowering phase : 40–65 days • Maturity stage : 66–95 days (including soft and hard dough stage) • Ripening : 96–105 days G. Varieties Hybrids: The duration of hybrids is 100-105 days. Some of the important hybrids are Deccan, Ganga Safed, Ganga-2, Ganga-4, Ganga-5, Ganga-7,9, Histarch and Sangam, In Tamil Nadu, CoH1, CoH2 and CoH3 Hybrids are also",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": ": 66–95 days (including soft and hard dough stage) • Ripening : 96–105 days G. Varieties Hybrids: The duration of hybrids is 100-105 days. Some of the important hybrids are Deccan, Ganga Safed, Ganga-2, Ganga-4, Ganga-5, Ganga-7,9, Histarch and Sangam, In Tamil Nadu, CoH1, CoH2 and CoH3 Hybrids are also cultivated (5.5–6.0 t/ha). Promising Composites: The duration of composites is 100-105 days. E.g., Amber, Vijay, Kisan, Sona, Vikram, Jawahar (5.0–5.5 t/ha). Short duration composites are K1(80–85 days) and Co1 (105 days). H. Cropping System Some of the important cropping systems in India are maize-potato, maizeberseem, maize–chickpea/ safflower (rainfed) and maize–potato–wheat. Tamil Nadu, the maize is cultivated with green gram, onion and cotton in cropping system. The important rainfed intercropping are maize + green gram, maize + groundnut, maize + soybean, maize + cowpea and maize + red gram. In North India, short duration maize varieties like Kathri and Sathi (65–75 days) is grown as intercrop in sugarcane in Uttar Pradesh. I. Time of Sowing In India, it is grown in 3 seasons. Yield of maize is more during rabi and spring season. It is cultivated in 85% of rainfed area during kharif (June–July). During rabi, it is cultivated in peninsular India and Bihar and during spring season, it is cultivated in north India under irrigated condition. In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in winter/rabi (end of December-1st week of January (Thaipattam)), Kharif (first fortnight of June or first fortnight of August (Adipattam) and rainfed condition (end of September-October 1st week (Purattasi pattam)). J. System of Maize Cultivation I. Irrigated maize It is cultivated in 22% of the total area under maize cultivation. Field preparation: The crop does not require fine tilth. Field is ploughed to a depth of 25–30 cm using mould board plough, followed by 3–4 ploughing with desi",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(Purattasi pattam)). J. System of Maize Cultivation I. Irrigated maize It is cultivated in 22% of the total area under maize cultivation. Field preparation: The crop does not require fine tilth. Field is ploughed to a depth of 25–30 cm using mould board plough, followed by 3–4 ploughing with desi plough or harrow. In clay soils, the AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 551 main problem is the formation of hardpan. Chiseling reduces the hardpan formation and there is increase in yield of 25–30%. Varieties: • Co1-Composite,105–110 days, suited for Coimbatore, Erode, Pudukottai and Thanjavur. • K1-Composite, 80–85 days, highly tolerant to drought, suited for Pudukottai district. Hybrids: • CoH1 : 90–95 days duration, suited for all locations and highly drought tolerant and resistant to downy mildew. • CoH2 : 100–105 days, suited for all locations. It is resistant to downy mildew. • CoH3 : 90–95 days • CoBC1 : 55–65 days, for dessert and canning, suited for all areas of Tamil Nadu, green fodder yield up to 32 t/ha. (Multiple cobs 2–3, 7 pickings at interval of 2 days). Land shaping: Formation of ridges and furrow system (at 60 cm interval) is good due to good drainage and less water logging. Method of sowing: Mostly direct seeding is adopted. Sowing/dibbling behind country plough is also adopted. Transplanting is adopted in problem areas like Dharmapuri and Pudukottai, where red ferrugenious and laterite soils exist. Pai Nursery technique is advocated. Raised bed is formed and above the seedbed, spread compost and S and at 1:1 ratio and dibble the seeds. Cover it; sprinkle the water for 3–4 days. Pull out the seedling on 5th day. Seed treatment: The seed treatment is done with any fungicide followed by Azospirillum (3 pockets). Seed treatment with 3 pockets of Azospirillum followed by soil",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and S and at 1:1 ratio and dibble the seeds. Cover it; sprinkle the water for 3–4 days. Pull out the seedling on 5th day. Seed treatment: The seed treatment is done with any fungicide followed by Azospirillum (3 pockets). Seed treatment with 3 pockets of Azospirillum followed by soil application of Azospirillum @10 pockets (2 kg/ha) with FYM at 50 kg/ha can be followed. Seed rate: The seed rate for composite is 20 kg/ha and for hybrids, it is 15 kg/ha. Spacing: 60 × 20 cm (83,333 plants/ha). For getting maximum yield of irrigated crop adopt 1.1 lakh plants (60 × 15 cm) with 200:100:80 kg NPK/ha (N and K application in 3 splits) + 25 kg ZnSO4/ha. Fertilizer management: Among the cereals, it requires huge amount of fertilizers. If there is no soil test recommendation, a blanket recommendation of NPK at 135:62.5:50 kg/ha is recommended for irrigated maize, besides application of 12.5 t of FYM/ha and 12.5 kg micronutrient mixture. Apply fertilizer 5 cm below the soil and 10 cm away from the root zone. 100% P and K should be applied as basal. ‘N’ should be applied in 3 splits viz., 25% basal, 50% on 25 DAS and 25% on 45 DAS. In all the cereal crops, there is two peak stages of uptake, where as in maize, there are three peak stages of uptake. For transplanted crop, ‘N’ should be applied at 50% basal and 25% each at knee high stage and taselling stages. Ist peak 30–35 days (Knee high stage) IInd peak 50–60 days (Tasselling) IIIrd peak 70–80 days (dough stage). ZnSO4: Zn’ deficiency cause “White bud” in Maize. Apply ZnSO4 at 25 kg/ha at the time of sowing. If not possible, foliar spray of 0.5% ZnSO4 at critical stages is recommended. Water management: It",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "30–35 days (Knee high stage) IInd peak 50–60 days (Tasselling) IIIrd peak 70–80 days (dough stage). ZnSO4: Zn’ deficiency cause “White bud” in Maize. Apply ZnSO4 at 25 kg/ha at the time of sowing. If not possible, foliar spray of 0.5% ZnSO4 at critical stages is recommended. Water management: It requires 500–600 mm of water. Critical stages for irrigation are taselling 552 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY and silking. Peak consumption of water also occurs during this period (taselling and silking). In Clay/clay loam soils, totally 8 irrigations are required. For light soils, two more irrigations are needed. Germination phase : Two irrigations 1st after sowing, 2nd as life irrigation 4th day) Vegetative phase : Three irrigations at 12th day, 25th day and 36th DAS. Flowering phase : Two irrigation on 48th and 60th day Maturity phase : 1 irrigation on 72nd day Weed management: The crop—weed competition is upto 45 days. Application of pre emergence herbicides like Simazine and Atrazine at 0.25 kg/ha, followed by one hand hoeing and weeding on 30–35 DAS is recommended. For intercropping systems, atrazine should not be used. For maize + pulse intercropping system, pre-emergence application of pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i./ha followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 DAS is recommended. Spraying should be done within 3 days. There should be adequate soil moisture. The soil should not disturbed immediately after application. It is better to use high volume sprayer fitted with deflected type or flat fan nozzle. If pre-emergence herbicide is not applied, post emergence application of 2,4 D Na salt (Fernoxone 80 WP) at 1.0 kg a.i./ha on 2 or 3rd leaf stage for sole crop of maize is recommended. For maize + soybean/pulse intercropping system, pre-emergence application of alachlor at 2.0 kg a.i./ha (Lasso 50% EC), followed by one hand weeding is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "emergence application of 2,4 D Na salt (Fernoxone 80 WP) at 1.0 kg a.i./ha on 2 or 3rd leaf stage for sole crop of maize is recommended. For maize + soybean/pulse intercropping system, pre-emergence application of alachlor at 2.0 kg a.i./ha (Lasso 50% EC), followed by one hand weeding is recommended. Thinning and gap filling: Thinning is done by keeping one healthy seeding/hill on 7–8 DAS. Gap filling is done where seedlings are not germinated (dibble 2 seeds/hill) and immediately pot water it. The crop should be earthed up after application fertilizer at 30–35 DAS to prevent lodging. Harvesting and grain shelling: The grain cob is harvested, when cob sheath turns brownish and grains become hard. They do not contains more then 20% moisture and they are piled up for 24 hours and then dried in the sun for 5–6 days to reduce the moisture to 10–12%. The green stalks are harvested separately and used as fodder. Shelling: Hand shelling is a common practice, but efficiency is very poor. Now, corn sheller of greater efficiency, which is manually driven, tractor drawn, electricity operated is available. The left over plants are used as green fodder or straw. 15.2 MINOR CEREALS 1. BARLEY (Hordeum vulgare L. emend, Lam .) Barley is a rabi cereal crop. It is the major source of food for large number of peoples in cooler semiarid parts of the world. It is the staple food in Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. In European countries, it is used only as break fast food. Barley contains protein (11.5%), carbohydrates (74%), fat (1.3%), crude fibre (3.9%) and ash (1.5%). Flour is used for making ‘Chapatti’ along with wheat flour or gram flour and used as “Missi rotti”. It is used for preparation of malt, beer, whisky and industrial alcohol, vinegar and it",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "break fast food. Barley contains protein (11.5%), carbohydrates (74%), fat (1.3%), crude fibre (3.9%) and ash (1.5%). Flour is used for making ‘Chapatti’ along with wheat flour or gram flour and used as “Missi rotti”. It is used for preparation of malt, beer, whisky and industrial alcohol, vinegar and it is also used in malt and brewing industries and biscuit making. Grain is broken and roughly ground into pearl barley to be used in soup. Excess grain is used as cattle feed and horse feed. Origin: Abyssinia as the centre of origin for hulled, awned type and South-East Asia particularly, China, Tibet and Nepal as centre of origin for hullless six rowed varieties. Classification: Cultivated barley varieties are classified based on number of rows of grain and their arrangement. Of these, six rowed barley is the most commonly cultivated type. 1. Six rowed barley : Hordeum vulgare 2. Two rowed barley : Hordeum distichum 3. Irregular barley : Hordeum irregular AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 553 Area and distribution: It is grown in many countries viz., Russia, Canada, Germany, France, China, USA, Turkey, India, Australia, Spain etc. Former USSR ranks first in acreage and production. It is cultivated in area of 76.2 m.ha. with a production of 171.9 m.t. and productivity of 2.26 t/ha. In India, it is cultivated in area of 8.84 l.ha. with a production of 16.54 l.t. and productivity of 1.87 t/ha. Of the total area, 61.0% area is under irrigated condition and 39% is under rain fed condition. In India, it is cultivated in Uttar Pradesh (50% of the area), Rajasthan (20% of the area), Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. In Tamil Nadu, it is grown in a smaller area in Nilgris and Palani hills. Climate: Climatic requirement is similar to Wheat. It is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "under rain fed condition. In India, it is cultivated in Uttar Pradesh (50% of the area), Rajasthan (20% of the area), Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. In Tamil Nadu, it is grown in a smaller area in Nilgris and Palani hills. Climate: Climatic requirement is similar to Wheat. It is an important food crop in higher altitude. In very high altitude of 2000 m above MSL, it is grown only as summer crop. It comes up well in cool climate. Warm and moist conditions are not conducive. It requires around 12–15°C during growing period and around 30°C during maturity. It cannot tolerate frost. Frost and hailstorms at flowering are detrimental. Rain at ripening phase causes discolouration of grain and it is not good for malting or seeding. The crop possesses high degree of tolerance to drought and sodic condition. Soil: Sandy to moderately heavy loam soil of Indo-gangetic plains having neutral to saline in reaction and medium fertility are most suited for barley. Being a salt tolerant crop, it is the best substitute for sodic soils and also for saline coastal soils in West Bengal and black soils of Karnataka. A higher spot with efficient drainage would be best location for barley. The soil should not be very fertile which causes lodging and reduce the yield. Acidic soils are not suitable. Season: The season is given below: Rainfed crop : Before end of October or 1st week of November Irrigated : 1st or 2nd week of November Late sown : Up to December Hilly zones (2000 m) : 1st week of November Seed rate: The seed rate for irrigated crop is 75–100 kg/ha and it is 80–100 kg/ha for rainfed crop and 100 kg/ha for crops raised in saline soil. Spacing: The spacing for irrigated crop is 23 cm row",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Up to December Hilly zones (2000 m) : 1st week of November Seed rate: The seed rate for irrigated crop is 75–100 kg/ha and it is 80–100 kg/ha for rainfed crop and 100 kg/ha for crops raised in saline soil. Spacing: The spacing for irrigated crop is 23 cm row spacing and for rainfed crop, row spacing of 23–25 cm is followed. The depth of sowing for irrigated crops is 5 cm and for rainfed crop, it is 6–8 cm depth. Varieties: There are two type of varieties viz., (i) Huskless and (ii) Hulled barley. I. Suited for Hilly Areas (Northern hills) Himami: Developed at Simla, medium to lower hills, 140–145 days, 3.2–3.6 t/ha. Dolma: Medium to high elevation, 140-150 days, resistant to yellow rust, 3.5–4.0 t/ha. Kailash: Six-row hulled variety, medium to lower elevation, 145–150 days, resistant to yellow rust, 4.0 t/ha. II. Rainfed Areas Ratna: Developed at IARI, six rowed hulled variety, 125–130 days, 2.5–3.0 t/ha–It is grown in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar. Vijay: Developed at Kanpur, 120–125 days, 3.0–3.5 t/ha, suited for cultivation in Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab. Azad: Developed at Kanpur, resistant to yellow rust, 115–120 days, 3.5–3.8 t/ha. Ameru: Developed from Kanpur, 130–133 days, 2.5–3.0 t/ha, best for production of Malt and for brewing. 554 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY III. Irrigated Areas Jyoti: Six rowed hulled variety, developed from Kanpur, 120–125 days, 3.5 t/ha. Ranjit: Six rowed, semi dwarf, non-lodging, 125–130 days, 3.0–3.5 t/ha, recommended for commercial cultivation. Clipper: Two row barley variety, 135–140 days, 28–30 q/ha, best for malt production and brewing purpose. Karan 18 and 19: 5.0–5.6 t/ha. IV. Dual Purpose Varieties (Fodder and Grain) Ratna, Karan 2, Karan 5 and Karan 10. Land preparation: Barley being a shallow rooted crop, responds well to light textured, fine seedbed. One ploughing",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "variety, 135–140 days, 28–30 q/ha, best for malt production and brewing purpose. Karan 18 and 19: 5.0–5.6 t/ha. IV. Dual Purpose Varieties (Fodder and Grain) Ratna, Karan 2, Karan 5 and Karan 10. Land preparation: Barley being a shallow rooted crop, responds well to light textured, fine seedbed. One ploughing with soil turning plough followed by 2–3 ploughing with desi plough or 2–3 harrowing by tractor or bullock power is done. In areas where termite is a problem, mixing the soil with BHC 10% at 20–25 kg/ha or aldrin 5% dust at 10–15 kg/ha is recommended. Seed treatment: The seeds are treated with either Captan/Thiram/Bavistin @ 2 g/kg of seeds. In the case of saline and rainfed areas, sowing of overnight soaked seeds is recommended for quick germination and also ensures better stand. Nutrient management: Application of FYM at 12.5 t/ha during last ploughing is recommended. The fertilizer schedule for different conditions is given below: Condition Recommended N: P2O5: K2 O Irrigated crop 60: 30: 20 Malt production 30: 20: 20 Rainfed crop 40: 20: 20 Application of 50% N and 100% P and K as basal and the remaining 50% N at 30 DAS (1st irrigation) is recommended. In rainfed and saline soils, entire fertilizer should be drilled below 8–10 cm depth as basal. In light textured soil, N should be applied in three splits viz., 50% as basal, 25% during first irrigation, 25% during second irrigation. Method of sowing: The method of sowing is similar to wheat i.e., either by broadcasting or Pora and Kera method. Water management: It requires 200–250 mm water. 2–3 irrigations are adequate. Light soil requires 4 irrigations. The critical growth stages are 1. seedling or sprouting stage, 2. active tillering stage (30–35 DAS), 3. flag leaf and 4. milling stage or soft dough",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "either by broadcasting or Pora and Kera method. Water management: It requires 200–250 mm water. 2–3 irrigations are adequate. Light soil requires 4 irrigations. The critical growth stages are 1. seedling or sprouting stage, 2. active tillering stage (30–35 DAS), 3. flag leaf and 4. milling stage or soft dough stage. Of these, active tillering stage around 30–35 DAS and grain filling (60–65 DAS) are most critical. Weed management: The critical period is upto 30 days. Post emergence application of Isoproturan 0.75 kg/ha + 0.5 kg/ha of 2,4-D combination followed by one hand weeding on 35–40 DAS (3–5 leaf stage) is recommended for effective control both dicot and monocot weeds. Application of Pendimethalin (pre-emergence) 1.0 kg/ha, followed by one hand weeding is also recommended. Barley based cropping system: Barley is grown mixed with crops like chickpea, mustard, pea, linseed and lentil. Barley being a short duration crop is more suitable for rotation than wheat. The following are the common rotations. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 555 Paddy barley Cotton barley Jowar barley Maize barley Bajra barley Urdbean barley Harvest: Harvesting is similar to that of wheat. Timely harvest ensures quality grain and prevents different losses. Threshing is done either by using animal or mechanical threshers. Then winnowing and cleaning is done. Storage of grains at 10–12% moisture level is good. The yield is 3.0–3.5 t/ha (grain) and 4.0–5.0 t/ha (straw). 2. OATS (Avena sativa) It is one of the most important rabi/winter cereal fodder crops of India. It is used as green fodder, straw, hay or silage. Oat grains make a good balanced concentrate in the rations for poultry, cattle, sheep and horse. Green fodder contains about 10–12% protein and 30–35% dry matter. It is fed to animals mixed with berseem or lucerne green fodder. Its fodder and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is used as green fodder, straw, hay or silage. Oat grains make a good balanced concentrate in the rations for poultry, cattle, sheep and horse. Green fodder contains about 10–12% protein and 30–35% dry matter. It is fed to animals mixed with berseem or lucerne green fodder. Its fodder and grains are highly nutritious and preferred by milch cattle and draft animals. Very small portion of oat grain is processed into food in the form of “rolled oats and oat meal” for human consumption. Origin: Perhaps originated in Asia Minor. Area: The leading oat producing countries are former USSR, USA, Canada, Poland, China, France and Australia. It is cultivated in an area of 26.8 m.ha. with a production of 40.3 m.t. In India, it is cultivated on large scale in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and a limited area in certain part of Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar and West Bengal. In Tamil Nadu, it is grown in Nilgris. Classification: According to their chromosome number, the oats are grouped into three groups. Group I: A. brevis: Short oats are grown in Southern Europe for green fodder and hay. Group II: A. abyssinica: “Abyssinian oat” is grown in several parts of North Africa for fodder. Group III: A. sativa: “Common Oat”. It occupies 80% of total acreage under oat. A. byzantina: “Red oat” is grown around Mediterranean region, Europe and North Asia and warmer sub tropical area for both grains and fodder. It is also cultivated in India, next to A. sativa. It is a heat tolerant crop. A. chirensis: Chinese naked oat extensively is grown in hilly parts of China for grain. A. strigosa: Called “sand oat”. Dual purpose (Grain and fodder): Grown in Mediterranean region. Of this, 80% of area is under A. sativa and the remaining area",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "A. sativa. It is a heat tolerant crop. A. chirensis: Chinese naked oat extensively is grown in hilly parts of China for grain. A. strigosa: Called “sand oat”. Dual purpose (Grain and fodder): Grown in Mediterranean region. Of this, 80% of area is under A. sativa and the remaining area is under by A. byzantina. Climate: It requires cool temperature during germination, tillering, booting and heading stages. High temperature at blooming increases empty spikelets and reduces the seed yield. Oat requires about 15–25º C for its optimum growth. Oat requires more moisture to produce a given unit of dry matter than any other cereal except rice. Rainfall should not exceed 760 mm and should be well distributed. Soil: It can be grown on all types of soils except the alkaline water logged soils. Oats generally make their best growth on loamy soils, but produce satisfactory yield on heavy or light soil. Varieties: Kent: Introduced from Australia, mid late variety, resistant to blight, rust and lodging, dual purpose, fodder yield of 60–65 t/ha, grain yield of 3–3.5 t/ha. Algerian: For irrigated areas, slow growing, 145–150 days duration, green fodder yield of 40–45 t/ha. Bunker 10: Mid season variety, suitable for moisture shortage condition, resistant to loose smut, green fodder yield of 40 t/ha. 556 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Coachman: Introduced from USA, erect habit, green fodder yield of 50 t/ha. HFO 114: Erect type, multicut variety, green fodder yield of 50–55 t/ha, grain yield of 2.5 t/ha, suitable for Haryana. UPO 50: Medium late and semi erect variety released from Pantnagar, resistant to rust, blight and lodging, fodder yield of 45–50 t/ha, suitable for cultivation in Uttar Pradesh. This crop is rotated with other crops. 1. Jowar–Oat–Maize, 2. Maize–Oat–Maize, 3. Cowpea–Oat +Mustard–Maize + Cowpea, 4. Jowar + Cowpea–Oat + Lucerne. Time",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "50: Medium late and semi erect variety released from Pantnagar, resistant to rust, blight and lodging, fodder yield of 45–50 t/ha, suitable for cultivation in Uttar Pradesh. This crop is rotated with other crops. 1. Jowar–Oat–Maize, 2. Maize–Oat–Maize, 3. Cowpea–Oat +Mustard–Maize + Cowpea, 4. Jowar + Cowpea–Oat + Lucerne. Time of sowing: Optimum time of sowing is from middle of October to middle of November. Middle of October for fodder production and middle of November for seed production is recommended. Seed rate: The seed rate is 100 kg/ha. Drill sowing is better than broadcasting. Field preparation: The field should be thoroughly prepared to get a fine and firm seedbed, for which one deep ploughing followed by 3–4 harrowings and plankings are done. Long narrow beds may be laid out across the field so that only single irrigation channel along the upper side of the field may serve the purpose. Spacing: The spacing is 20–23 cm for fodder and 23–25 cm for grain. Manuring: Application of organic manures like FYM or compost at 15.0–20.0 t/ha is recommended. Application of NPK at 80:40:0 kg ha is done. Apply entire ‘P’ as basal and ‘N’ should be applied in three splits viz., 60 kg N/ha as basal, 10 kg N/ha at 1st irrigation (25–30 DAS) and 10 kg N/ha after 1st cutting. Water management: It requires high amount of water and it is irrigated once in 20–25 days and 4–5 irrigations are needed. Generally irrigation is necessary after each cutting. Critical stage is tillering stage. Weed control: Usually one weeding after 3–4 weeks of sowing is enough. Harvesting: The crop needs about 120–150 days to mature. It is common practice to take 2 or 3 cuttings of fodder and then to allow the crop to grow for seed. But normally, only two cuttings",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "tillering stage. Weed control: Usually one weeding after 3–4 weeks of sowing is enough. Harvesting: The crop needs about 120–150 days to mature. It is common practice to take 2 or 3 cuttings of fodder and then to allow the crop to grow for seed. But normally, only two cuttings are taken from the seed or grain crop. Of these two cuttings, first is taken after 60–65 days and second after 90 days of sowing or at the flowering stage of the crop. Then, plants are allowed to grow and set seeds. Yield: If it has given two cuts, green fodder yield is 50–60 t/ha and grain yield is 200–400 kg/ha. If the crop is allowed after 1st cut for seed set, the fodder yield is 25–30 t/ha with seed yield of 3–3.5 t/ha. The straw yield is 2.5–3 t/ha. Threshing, winnowing and cleaning of the grain will be followed as done for wheat. 3. RYE (Secale cereale) It is a minor rabi cereal. It is mainly used as green fodder crop, pasture crop, green manure crop and cover crop. The flour of rye is mixed with wheat flour for making bread. The straw is used for bedding and packing material. Origin: Western Asia and Southern former USSR. Area and distribution: In the world, it is cultivated in an area of 16.3 m.ha. with a productivity of 40.7 m.t. About 60% of area is in former USSR, followed by Germany, Austria, Hungary, USA, Canada, Poland, Turkey etc. In India, it is grown in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Climate: It can withstand all adverse weather conditions except heat. It is commonly called as “winter hardy cereal”. Soil: It is the only one rabi cereal best suited for sandy soil. Season: The best seasons are winter and spring seasons. AGRONOMY oF",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is grown in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Climate: It can withstand all adverse weather conditions except heat. It is commonly called as “winter hardy cereal”. Soil: It is the only one rabi cereal best suited for sandy soil. Season: The best seasons are winter and spring seasons. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 557 Varieties: For winter season, the varieties like Athens and Abruzzes for Forage type, the varieties like Rosen, Dakold and Balba for grain type are recommended. For spring season, the varieties like Prolific and Merced are recommended for grain type. Time of sowing: The time of sowing is October for forage crop, November for grain crop and August for pasture or green manure or cover crop. Seed rate: The seed rate is 75–95 kg/ha for forage and 55–65 kg/ha for grain crop. Land preparation: Summer ploughing is recommended. Stubble mulching is recommended to over come the erosion. Method of sowing is either by broadcasting or drill sowing. Depth of the sowing is 2.5 cm. Row spacing is 20–25 cm. Fertilizers: It responds to 30–90 kg N, 35–55 kg P2O5 and 65 kg K2O. ‘N’ is applied in two splits. Application of BHC 10% or Aldrin 5% at 15–20 kg/ha for termite control is recommended. Water management: Irrigations are recommended for six stages viz., sowing irrigation, 20–25 DAS (CRI), 40–45 DAS (Tillering), 70–75 DAS (late jointing stage), flowering stage and dough stage (115th day). CRI and heading are the critical stages. If only one irrigation is available, irrigation at CRI is to be done. If two irrigations are available, irrigation at CRI and flowering stages are to be given. If 3 irrigations are available, irrigations at CRI, Late jointing and flowering stages are to be given. Harvest: For forage crops, two harvests at 50–55th day and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "available, irrigation at CRI is to be done. If two irrigations are available, irrigation at CRI and flowering stages are to be given. If 3 irrigations are available, irrigations at CRI, Late jointing and flowering stages are to be given. Harvest: For forage crops, two harvests at 50–55th day and at dough stage are done. For forage cum grain crop, harvesting at 50–55th day is done and then it is allowed for seed set. Yield: If it is for fodder purpose, the fodder yield is 50–55 t/ha. If it is for dual crop, the yield will be 25–t/ha fodder, 2.5 t/ha grain and 2.5 t/ha straw. 4. TRITICALE Rye, a member of the Poaceae family, is popularly grown as fodder in foreign countries and the same is found on the North Indian hills. It has characteristic feature of growing very profuse with exceptionally more number of tillers per plant under poor fertility status of soil having marginal or no irrigation facilities. Breeders took rye for crossing with wheat and the resultant offspring was named as man made cereal or rye wheat scientifically known as triticale. This was done with a view to reduce the required input in wheat production and to increase the unit area. Besides these, triticale has about 20% protein and a very high biological value, but the greatest drawback is that the grain colour is dark-red, seeds are very wrinkled with low viability and the plants have a very high degree of sterility. The grains are also susceptible to store grain pests. In the present day breeding, these points are being taken into active consideration and probably in near future the farmers would be having a good number of triticale varieties for the cultivation. 15.3 MILLETS 1. JOWAR OR SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor) It belongs to family Poaceae",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "susceptible to store grain pests. In the present day breeding, these points are being taken into active consideration and probably in near future the farmers would be having a good number of triticale varieties for the cultivation. 15.3 MILLETS 1. JOWAR OR SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor) It belongs to family Poaceae and genus sorghum. Sorghum is one of the major food crops of the world, particularly Africa and Asia. In India, it ranks third in major food crop, especially central and peninsular India. It is used in various forms, similar to rice as cooked food, malted, flour for dosai and making chapatti or rotti, popped, semolina etc. It is a very good dry and green fodder and a good concentrate feed for cattle and poultry. Raw material is used for starch Industries. It is used in production of alcohol similar to corn and used for preparation of sorghum syrup (20–25% sugar) from sweet sorghum varieties. It is also used for production of Jaggery. It contains high amount of aconitic acid, which prevents the crystallization of sugar. It contains 72.6% carbohydrate, 10–12% protein, 3% fat, 1.6% mineral and 558 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY contains more of fibre. It has the capacity to withstand drought or excess moisture (92% of sorghum is grown under rainfed). It comes up well even in marginal soil under moisture stress. It does well in low rainfall areas. It makes comparatively quick growth than maize. It is dormant during stress condition and it resumes its growth, when optimum condition occurs. Undesirable qualities: It contains high amount of Niacin, which interface with the synthesis of Tryptophane, which is the precursor for synthesis of IAA. “Pellagara” is nutritional disorder due to presence of high amount of Leucine: iso-leucine ratio (3.4). When it is reduced, yield is also reduced. This disease",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "condition occurs. Undesirable qualities: It contains high amount of Niacin, which interface with the synthesis of Tryptophane, which is the precursor for synthesis of IAA. “Pellagara” is nutritional disorder due to presence of high amount of Leucine: iso-leucine ratio (3.4). When it is reduced, yield is also reduced. This disease is common in Africa. It contains considerable amount of oxalic acid, which interface with absorption of Ca and metabolism of Ca. Phytin ‘P’ is not utilized due to high oxalic acid. Oxalic acid also affects the Fe uptake. Low digestibility and low palatability is due to presence of phenolic compounds and glycosides, tannin and lignin. Sorghum contains “cynogenic glucoside” called ‘Dhurin’. This glucoside is converted into HCN in the stomach of ruminants. It causes bloating and reduce the transfer of O2 to the blood steam and causes death of the animal. It is called “sorghum poisoning”/(sorghum effect). HCN content is more than 100 ppm in the early stage. Critical level is 50 ppm. It (50 ppm) normally occurs during 60-65 DAS or at heading stage. If it is harvested earlier, it should be dried and fed to cattle. “Sorghum injury”—Sorghum stubbles/roots have high C:N ratio (50:1), i.e., it contains low amount of ‘N’. Hence, microbes take the soil ‘N’ for decomposition than from the decomposed stubble, which causes temporary immobilization of soil ‘N’. Hence, succeeding crop after sorghum is affected due to N deficiency in the early stage called sorghum injury. Succeeding crops need higher N. Origin: Warth (1937): Africa and Decandolle (1984): Abyssinia. Classification: Harlen and De-Wet (1971), gave a modified and simple classification based on spikelet type. (a) Basic races: 1. Bicolor, 2. Guinea, 3. Caudatum, 4. Kafir, 5. Durra. Now cultivated sorghum is Sorghum biclor. (b) Hybrid races: Guinea bicolor, Caudatum bicolor etc. Climate: It is a",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Decandolle (1984): Abyssinia. Classification: Harlen and De-Wet (1971), gave a modified and simple classification based on spikelet type. (a) Basic races: 1. Bicolor, 2. Guinea, 3. Caudatum, 4. Kafir, 5. Durra. Now cultivated sorghum is Sorghum biclor. (b) Hybrid races: Guinea bicolor, Caudatum bicolor etc. Climate: It is a short day C4 plant. Long day condition delays flowering and maturity. It is a warm weather plant and is grown even in 1500 m from MSL. It can tolerate high temperature throughout their life cycle, better than any other cereal. It is highly resistant to desiccation. It can tolerate water logging. Low temperature at flowering affects the seed set. Rainfall at maturity affects the quality of grain. Low temperature with cloudy weather at flowering induces sugary disease. Soil: It is grown under variety of soil. Soil with clay loam or loamy texture having good water retention is best suited. It does not thrive in sandy soils, but does better in heavier soils. It does well in pH range of 6.0–8.5 as it tolerates considerable salinity and alkalinity. The black cotton soils of Central India are very good for its cultivation. In Tamil Nadu, 60% of soil is alfisol, where sorghum is grown. Area, Production and Productivity: The World production is 147 m.t. and it is cultivated in USA, Brazil, Argentina, China and India. In India, it is staple food crop of north Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. In India, it is cultivated in an area of 11.5 m.ha. with a production of 11.08 m.t. and a productivity of 950 kg/ha. In India, 92.0% of the area is under rainfed. It is mainly grown as kharif crop and smaller extent as rabi crop in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. In Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "11.5 m.ha. with a production of 11.08 m.t. and a productivity of 950 kg/ha. In India, 92.0% of the area is under rainfed. It is mainly grown as kharif crop and smaller extent as rabi crop in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. In Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, sorghum is grown in both kharif and rabi. The area under cultivation is high in Maharashtra followed by Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. At present, Maharashtra has the largest area accounting 43% of Indian area under sorghum and 51% of total production. In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in an area of 5.06 lakh ha with a production of 4.86 lakh t and productivity AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 559 of 960 kg/ha and it is largely grown in Trichy, Coimbatore, Salem, Dharmapuri, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Vellore and Erode districts. In Tamil Nadu, 85% of area is under rainfed and 15% is irrigated. I. Rainfed Sorghum Rainfall: Average and well distributed rainfall of 250–300 mm is optimum for rainfed sorghum. Distribution:Madurai, Dindugul, Theni, Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi, Virudhunagar, Sivagangai, Trichy, Erode, Salem, Namakkal, Coimbatore and Dharmapuri districts. Season: There are three seasons. • SWM: Entire north India, it is grown as “Kharif crop” (June-July)—Salem and Dharmapuri in Tamil Nadu. • NEM: All the districts except Salem in Tamil Nadu (September-October to December–January) • Rabi: North India (October) and Dharmapuri in Tamil Nadu. Field preparation: Field has to be prepared well in advance taking advantage of early showers. FYM @) 12.5 t/ha is applied at last ploughing. Chiselling is recommended to break hardpan once in three years. Depending on the rainfall and soil type, different land shaping methods may be adopted for conservation of the moisture. Black soil having high rainfall areas, formation of broad bed and furrow",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "FYM @) 12.5 t/ha is applied at last ploughing. Chiselling is recommended to break hardpan once in three years. Depending on the rainfall and soil type, different land shaping methods may be adopted for conservation of the moisture. Black soil having high rainfall areas, formation of broad bed and furrow is recommended. In black soils having low rainfall, form compartmental bunding or sow the seeds in flat bed and form furrows between crops during inter cultivation or during third week after sowing for both the soil types or form dead furrow at 3 m interval. Varieties: All India Co-ordinated sorghum Improvement Project (AICSIP) developed 15 sorghum varieties (CSV 1 to CSV 15) and 18 hybrids (CSH 1 to CSH 18 R). CSH 1, CSH 6 and CSH 9 are best for kharif season. CSH 15 R and 18 R is best for rabi season. The hybrids and varieties recommended for different parts of rainfed region in India are given in Table 15.6. Table 15.6. Hybrids /Varieties Recommended Hybrids/Varieties Season Grain yield (t/ha) Dry fodder yield Duration (days) (t/ha) Hybrids CSH-1 3.0 7.5 95–100 CSH-6 3.4 8.1 95–100 CSH-9 Kharif (June-July) 3.9 9.8 105–110 CSH-11 4.1 9.2 105–110 CSH-13 3.9 14.4 105–110 CSH-16 4.2 9.1 110 CSH-17 4.2 10.4 103 CSH-18 4.1 13.1 112 Varieties CSV 11 3.2 9.6 110–115 SPV 462–CO 26 Kharif (June-July) 3.3 9.7 110–115 CSV 15 3.6 12.1 107–112 (Contd.) 560 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Hybrids CSH 13R Rabi (October3.2 5.4 113 CSH 15R November) 3.2 5.6 110 Varieties CSV 14R Rabi 2.3 5.5 117 CSV 8R (OctoberNovember) 2.2 4.8 120 Swati 2.2 5.3 117 In Tamil Nadu, the important varieties are CO 26,COH 3 (105–110), K 8,CO 19(145), K10, Paiyur1 (140–145), Paiyur-2 (Sencholam) (90–95 days), APK 1, and BSR1. In southern districts, a traditional variety Irungu",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "110 Varieties CSV 14R Rabi 2.3 5.5 117 CSV 8R (OctoberNovember) 2.2 4.8 120 Swati 2.2 5.3 117 In Tamil Nadu, the important varieties are CO 26,COH 3 (105–110), K 8,CO 19(145), K10, Paiyur1 (140–145), Paiyur-2 (Sencholam) (90–95 days), APK 1, and BSR1. In southern districts, a traditional variety Irungu cholam is cultivated and in northern districts, the varieties like K.Tall, COH 3 , COH 4, CO 25, CO 26 and BSR 1 are cultivated. The varietal details are given in Table 15.7. Table 15.7. Variety Details Variety Duration (days) Grain yield (t/ha) Fodder yield (t/ha) CO 26 105–110 4.5 14.00 K10 110–115 1.6 16.00 CO 25 115–120 3.68 13.25 K tall 90 3.75 11.25 K 8 85 2.4 7.30 APK 1 105–110 2.60 8.00 BSR 1 105–110 3.00 7.20 Seed rate: The seed rate is 15 kg/ha. Seed treatment: For seed hardening, the seeds are soaked in 2% KH2PO4 or 500 ppm of CCC/cycocel for six hours and shade dried for 5 hrs. Using 350 ml of solution is sufficient for soaking 1 kg of seed. It is a method by which drought tolerance is induced in plants by soaking the seeds in weak electrolytes or salt solution. Seed treatment is done with Azospirillum and phosphobacteria each 3 pockets (600 gm). In main field, application of 2 kg of Azospirillum and 2 kg of phosphobacteria with 25 kg of FYM + 25 kg of soil is recommended. Then, the seeds are treated with Thiram/Bavistin @ 2 g/kg of seeds. If possible, the seed is palletized with 15 g of chlorpyriphos in 150 ml of gum before sowing and seeds are dried. Sowing: The seeds are sown before onset of monsoon at 5 cm depth with seed cum fertilizer drill or by seed drill or by country plough. Pre monsoon",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "If possible, the seed is palletized with 15 g of chlorpyriphos in 150 ml of gum before sowing and seeds are dried. Sowing: The seeds are sown before onset of monsoon at 5 cm depth with seed cum fertilizer drill or by seed drill or by country plough. Pre monsoon sowing/dry seeding i.e., sowing a week or 2 weeks before on set of monsoon is followed: District Optimum period Coimbatore 37–38th week (2nd–3rd week of September) Erode 38th week (3rd week of September) Sivagangai and Ramnad 40th week (1st week of October) Thoothukudi, Tirunelveli 39–40th (Last week of September to 1st week of October) AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 561 Spacing: The spacing for sole crop of sorghum is 45 × 15/10 cm (1,80,000 plants/ha) and 60/30 × 15 cm for intercropping and paired row system. Manuring: Application of FYM or compost at 12.5 t/ha during last ploughing is recommended. Application of NPK at 40:20:0 kg/ha is recommended. ‘P and K’ is applied basally as enriched FYM. ‘N’ may be applied in two splits viz., 50% basal and 50% at 25 DAS depending upon the rainfall. In high rainfall areas of north India where sorghum is grown during SWM (kharif season), the recommended NPK is: 80:40:40 kg/ha where 50% N, and entire P and K should be applied as basal, remaining 50% N as top dressing at 25–30 DAS depending on the rainfall. During rabi season, the recommended application of NPK is 40:20:0 kg/ha. Entire fertilizer is applied as basal by drilling method. Growth stages: There are five growth stages. 1. Seedling stage : 1–15 days 2. Vegetative stage (Grand growth (30–40)) : 16–40 days 3. Flowering/Reproductive stage : 41–65 days 4. Maturity : 66–95 days 5. Ripening : 96–105 days Weed management: Keeping the sorghum fields free",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "as basal by drilling method. Growth stages: There are five growth stages. 1. Seedling stage : 1–15 days 2. Vegetative stage (Grand growth (30–40)) : 16–40 days 3. Flowering/Reproductive stage : 41–65 days 4. Maturity : 66–95 days 5. Ripening : 96–105 days Weed management: Keeping the sorghum fields free of weeds from 2nd week after germination till 5th week is good. If sufficient moisture is available, spraying atrazine @ 500 g/ha (atrazine 0.25 kg/ha) as pre-emergence within three days after receipt of soaking rain followed by one late hand weeding/inter cultural operation may be done. For sorghum based intercropping system with pulses, pre-emergence application of pendimethalin (Stomp 30 EC) at 3.0 lit/ha followed by one hand weeding at 35 DAS is recommended. Striga: There are three species of striga viz., Striga asiatica, S. lutea, S. hermonthica (witch weed). It is a semi-root parasite in sorghum and reduces the yield markedly. The control measures for striga in sorghum are as follows: • Post emergence application of 2,4-D Na salt at 2.0 kg/ha at 25–30 DAS • Intercropping with red gram • Crop rotation with trap crops like cotton, sunflower, groundnut, cowpea, etc., which induce germination of weed seeds, but they are not themselves parasitized • Heavy application of N and FYM and flooding the field • Spraying Urea 10% solution on 25–30 DAS • Using germination stimulants like Strigol and ethylene gas Cropping system: The important intercropping systems in Tamil Nadu are given below: Southern districts Sorghum + cowpea (2:1); sorghum + black gram (2:1) Coimbatore Sorghum + green gram (4:2); sorghum + sunflower (4:2) Aruppukottai Sorghum + fodder cowpea (1:1) Dharmapuri Sorghum + lab-lab (4:1); sorghum + red gram (3:1) In north India, the important systems during kharif season (SWM) are given below: Sorghum + red gram at 3:1",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sorghum + black gram (2:1) Coimbatore Sorghum + green gram (4:2); sorghum + sunflower (4:2) Aruppukottai Sorghum + fodder cowpea (1:1) Dharmapuri Sorghum + lab-lab (4:1); sorghum + red gram (3:1) In north India, the important systems during kharif season (SWM) are given below: Sorghum + red gram at 3:1 ratio Sorghum + soybean at 4:2 ratio Sorghum + green gram at 4:2 ratio. 562 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY The important double cropping systems in rainfed areas are given below: North India: Sorghum–chickpea/safflower Grain legumes–rabi sorghum (green gram/red gram) Tamil Nadu: Sorghum–horse gram (Dharmapuri areas) Groundnut–fodder sorghum (Pollachi tract) Thinning: Thinning should be completed 10–15 days after emergence leaving one plant per hill. Harvesting and threshing: Most of the high yielding varieties and hybrids mature in about 100–115 days. The right stage for harvest is, when the grain becomes hard having less than 25% moisture. Do not wait for stubble and leaves to dry, because hybrid sorghum appears green even after the crop is matured. Harvest may be done at physiological maturity. Harvesting is done by cutting the entire plant or removing the ear heads first and cutting down the plants later and is allowed to dry for 2–5 days. Threshing is done with the help of thresher or beating the ear heads. The threshed grain is dried in the sun for a week to bring the moisture content to 10–12% for safe storage. Yield: The grain yield varies from 2–3 t/ha under rainfed conditions and the dry stover yield varies from 8–10 t/ha. II. Irrigated Sorghum It is raised by either direct seeding or transplanting. Irrigated transplanted crop has advantages like main field duration is reduced by 10 days; shoot fly attacks will be economically controlled in the nursery; seedlings which show chlorotic and downy mildew symptoms can be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "varies from 8–10 t/ha. II. Irrigated Sorghum It is raised by either direct seeding or transplanting. Irrigated transplanted crop has advantages like main field duration is reduced by 10 days; shoot fly attacks will be economically controlled in the nursery; seedlings which show chlorotic and downy mildew symptoms can be eliminated; optimum population can be maintained as only healthy seedlings are used and seed rate is reduced by 2.5 kg/ha. Varieties: CO 25 (115–120 days, grain yield of 6.0 t/ha, straw yield of 17.5 t/ha), CO 26 (105–110 days, grain yield of 6.0 t/ha, straw yield of 19.0 t/ha), BSR 1 (105–110 days, grain yield of 6–6.5 t/ha, straw yield of 9.6 t/ha). Hybrids: CSH 5 (100 days, grain yield of 4.5 t/ha, straw yield of 12.5 t/ha), COH 4 (105–110 days, grain yield of 6.5 t/ha, straw yield of 20.0 t/ha), COH 5 (100 days, grain yield of 6.8 t/ha, straw yield of 19.0 t/ha). Season: In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in two seasons viz., January-February (Thaipattam) and April–May (Chithiraipattam). Seed rate: The seed rate for direct sowing is 10 kg/ha and 7.5 kg/ha for transplanting. Nursery (i) Preparation: For planting one ha, about 7.5 cent (300 m2) nursery area is required, near the water source. Application of 750 kg of FYM or compost for 7.5 cent nursery is done and another 500 kg for covering the seeds after sowing is used. Forming raised beds of 2 m × 1.5 m with 30 cm spacing to a depth of 15 cm is done. Pre treatment of seeds for both direct seeded crop and raising in the nursery is must. The seeds are treated 24 hours before sowing with carbendazim/ captan/thiram @ 2 g/kg of seed. And then, the seeds are treated with 2% KH2PO4 for 6 hours and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of 15 cm is done. Pre treatment of seeds for both direct seeded crop and raising in the nursery is must. The seeds are treated 24 hours before sowing with carbendazim/ captan/thiram @ 2 g/kg of seed. And then, the seeds are treated with 2% KH2PO4 for 6 hours and shade dried for 5 hours. The seeds are treated with 3 pockets of Azospirillum (600 g/ha) using rice kanji as binder. (ii) Sowing: Forming rills using fingers, broad casting the seeds and covering with 500 kg of FYM is done. (iii) Irrigation: Irrigations are given immediately after sowing, 3rd day, 7thday, 12th day and 17th day (Totally five irrigations). AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 563 (iv) Transplanting: Age of seedling is 15-18 days. The seedlings are dipped in Azospirillum solution (5 pockets -1000 g) dissolved in 40 lit. of water) for 15-30 minutes. Planting at 45 × 15 cm spacing at a depth of 3–5 cm with one seedling per hill on the side of ridge is done. Main field preparation (direct seeded and transplanted crop: Sorghum does not require fine tilth. The field is ploughed with an iron plough once and twice with a country plough. To over come the sub soil hard pan in Alfisol, chiseling the field at 0.5 m interval to a depth of 40 cm on both the direction of the field followed by disc ploughing once and cultivator ploughing twice is done. Application of 12.5 t FYM or compost/ha with 2 kg of Azospirillum (10 pockets/ha) is recommended. Ridges and furrows are formed at 45 cm apart using ridge plough. Fertilizer management Transplanted crop: If soil test recommendation is not available, the blanket recommendation of 90:45:45 kg NPK/ha is recommended. 50% N and entire P and K should be applied basally before",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Azospirillum (10 pockets/ha) is recommended. Ridges and furrows are formed at 45 cm apart using ridge plough. Fertilizer management Transplanted crop: If soil test recommendation is not available, the blanket recommendation of 90:45:45 kg NPK/ha is recommended. 50% N and entire P and K should be applied basally before planting and remaining 50%N is applied on 15 DAS. Direct seeded crop: Blanket recommendation of 90:45:45 kg NPK/ha is followed. Application of 50% N, and entire P and K should be applied basally and the remaining 50% N on 25–30 DAS. Micronutrient: For Zn deficient soils, 25 kg ZnSO4/ha is applied at the time of sowing/transplanting. If ZnSO4 is not applied basally and if Zn deficiency is noticed, ZnSO4 at 0.5% concentration is sprayed. For Fe deficient soils, 50 kg FeSO4 is applied at sowing or at planting. If FeSO4 is not applied basally, FeSO4 1% concentration at 2 or 3 stages is sprayed. Spacing: The spacing is 45 × 15 cm (1,48,000 plants/ha) for both direct and transplanted crop. For raising intercrop and paired row system, a spacing of 60/30 × 15 cm may be adopted. Raising one row of pulses in between 60 cm row spacing is common. Thinning and gap filling: In the direct sown crop, thinning one seeding per hill and gap filling the thinned out seedlings is done on 10–15 DAS, maintaining a spacing of 15 cm between plants. Weed management: Sorghum is slow growing in the early stage and is adversely affected by weed competition. Keeping the fields free of weeds up to 45 days is good. Pre-emergence herbicide Atrazine 50 WP at 500 g/ha (atrazine 0.25 kg/ha) on 3 DAS using high volume sprayer followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 DAS is recommended. If pulse crop is raised as intercrop, do not",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "competition. Keeping the fields free of weeds up to 45 days is good. Pre-emergence herbicide Atrazine 50 WP at 500 g/ha (atrazine 0.25 kg/ha) on 3 DAS using high volume sprayer followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 DAS is recommended. If pulse crop is raised as intercrop, do not use atrazine. If herbicide is not used, for transplanted crop, two hoeing and weeding on 10 and 30–35 DAS should be done. In the case of direct seeded crop, two hand weeding on 15–20 DAS and 35–40 DAS should be done. Water management: Total water requirement is 450–500 mm. Irrigation at 50% depletion of available soil moisture or 0.6 IW/CPE ratio is sufficient. There are four critical stages viz., (1) seedling, (2) vegetative, (3) flowering, (4) dough stages. Stress at one week before and one week after flowering is very critical. Under moisture stress condition, 5 irrigations are sufficient. For normal condition, 8 irrigations are to be given i.e. on 1st day, 4th day, 15th, 28th, 40th, 53th, 64th, 76th and 88th days. Irrigation should be stopped after 88–90 DAS. As contingent plan, spraying 3% Kaolin (30 g in one litre of water) during periods of stress will mitigate the ill effects. Harvesting and processing: When the crop matures, leaves turn yellow and the grains are hard and firm and moisture content will be less than 25%. At this stage, the earheads are cut separately and dried for 2–3 days and threshing using mechanical thresher is done and the grain is dried to 12% moisture for safe storage. The straw is cut after a week and allowed it to dry and then stacked for fodder. 564 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Cropping system In Tamil Nadu, the following cropping systems are being followed: Sorghum–Ragi, Sorghum–Cotton, Sorghum–Onion, Sorghum–Green gram. Intercropping The sorghum",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is dried to 12% moisture for safe storage. The straw is cut after a week and allowed it to dry and then stacked for fodder. 564 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Cropping system In Tamil Nadu, the following cropping systems are being followed: Sorghum–Ragi, Sorghum–Cotton, Sorghum–Onion, Sorghum–Green gram. Intercropping The sorghum crop is intercropped with Cowpea and Green gram. III. Ratoon Sorghum It is highly amenable for ratooning. The varieties suited for ratooning are CO 25, CO 26, CSH 5 and K.Tall. Ratooning technique: The main crop is harvested leaving 15 cm stubble in the field and first formed two sprouts are removed from the main crop and allowed only the latter formed two sprouts to grow. Two tillers per hill are allowed. Hoeing and weeding: The weeds are removed immediately after harvest of main crop. Hoeing and weeding is done on 15th and 30th day after cutting. Application of fertilizers: Application of 100:50:0 kg NPK/ha is recommended. N is applied in two splits doses viz., 1st dose on 15th day after cutting and second on 45th day after cutting. P2O5 is applied along with first application of N. Pest and disease management: Since the ratoon crop invites pests and diseases in early stages, plant protection measures have to be resorted to. Water management: Irrigation is given immediately after cutting the main crop. Irrigation should not be delayed for more than 24 hours after cutting. Then, irrigation is given 3rd or 4th day after cutting and subsequent irrigations are given once in 7–10 days. Irrigation is stopped 70–80 days after ratooning. Harvest: Similar to sown crop but duration is 10–15 days lesser than main crop. Yield: Yield is equal or slightly higher than sown crop. 2. FINGER MILLET (RAGI, MANDUA) Eleusine coracana L. Gaertn. It is cultivated mainly in Asia and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in 7–10 days. Irrigation is stopped 70–80 days after ratooning. Harvest: Similar to sown crop but duration is 10–15 days lesser than main crop. Yield: Yield is equal or slightly higher than sown crop. 2. FINGER MILLET (RAGI, MANDUA) Eleusine coracana L. Gaertn. It is cultivated mainly in Asia and Africa. It is staple food crop in many hilly regions of the country and it is grown both for grain and forage. In Northern hills, grains are eaten in the form of chapaties and in South India, grain flour is used for preparing gruel, cakes or unleavened bread, puddings, porridges, sweets etc. Germinating grains are malted and fed to infants and good for pregnant woman. It is considered as nutritive food for adults of different ages. Grains contain 9.2% protein, 1.29% fat, 76.32% carbohydrates, 2.24% minerals 3% ash and 0.33% Ca. It also contains vitamins A and B with small amount of P. It is good for persons suffering from diabetes. Green straw is suitable for making silage. Origin: India. It is cultivated in India, Africa, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, China and Japan. Area and Production: In India, it is cultivated in an area of 19.1 lakh ha with a production 27.62 lakh t and productivity of 1440 kg/ha. It is predominantly grown in the peninsular Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The production is high in Karnataka, followed by Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. The average productivity is high Tamil Nadu, followed by Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 565 Soil and Climate: It is grown in wide variety of soils and it thrives well in well-drained loam or clay loam. It tolerates salinity better than other cereals. It is a tropical and sub-tropical crop, grows",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "followed by Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 565 Soil and Climate: It is grown in wide variety of soils and it thrives well in well-drained loam or clay loam. It tolerates salinity better than other cereals. It is a tropical and sub-tropical crop, grows from sea level to 2100 m on hill slopes and it is grown in areas having average rainfall 50–100 cm. In higher rainfall areas, it is raised as transplanted crop. Seasons: It is cultivated in three seasons namely kharif, rabi and summer. Kharif and Rabi crops are rainfed, while summer crop is irrigated. In Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, it is grown in rabi (September-October) as irrigated crop. Varieties: Varieties cultivated are Godavari, Indaf 5, Sarada, PR 202, BR 407, EC 4840, CO 7, CO 11, CO 12. Table 15.8. Variety Particulars Particulars Indaf 5 CO 11 CO 12 CO 13 Duration (days) 105–100 90–95 110–120 95–100 Grain yield (kg/ha) Irrigated 4000 4750 4750 3600 Rainfed 2500 3250 3250 2300 Straw yield (kg/ha) Irrigated 7500 8750 8750 10000 Rainfed 5200 6250 6250 7500 Growth stages 80 days crop 100 days crop 120 days crop Vegetative phase 1–16 1–18 1–20 (nursery) Vegetative phase 1–18 1–20 1–22 (main field) Flowering 19–40 21–55 23–69 Maturity Beyond 40 Beyond 55 Beyond 69 Package of practices for Tamil Nadu Seasons (Irrigated) Marghazipattam (December-January)–CO11, K7, CO 13 Chithiraipattam (April-May)–CO 11, K 7, CO 13 Rainfed Adipattam (June-July)–Co 11, K 7, Paiyur-1 Purattasi pattam (September-October)–CO 11, K 7, CO 12 (a) Irrigation for nursery: The following is the schedule for water management in nursery. No. of irrigations Red soil Heavy soil 1st Immediately after sowing Immediately after sowing 2nd 3 DAS 4 DAS 3rd 7 DAS 9 DAS 4th 12 DAS 16 DAS 5th 17 DAS",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "K 7, CO 12 (a) Irrigation for nursery: The following is the schedule for water management in nursery. No. of irrigations Red soil Heavy soil 1st Immediately after sowing Immediately after sowing 2nd 3 DAS 4 DAS 3rd 7 DAS 9 DAS 4th 12 DAS 16 DAS 5th 17 DAS 566 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (b) Pulling out seedling: Pull out the seedlings on 17–20 DAS for planting. Main field preparation and planting: The field is ploughed thoroughly to get a fine tilth with mould board plough. FYM or compost or composted coir pith at 12.5 t/ha is incorporated. Application of NPK is done as per soil test or a blanket recommendation of 60:30:30 of NPK kg/ha is recommended. Half N and full P and K are applied basally. Application of 10 packets of azospirillum/ha by mixing with 25 kg sand and 25 kg FYM before transplanting is done or root dipping is done for 15–30 minutes with Azospirillum 5 packets (1000 g) in 40 lit water. Beds of 10–20 m2 are formed with suitable irrigation channels. Application of 12.5 kg micronutrient mixture with enough sand is done and the mixture should not be incorporated. Let water in to the bed and level the bed. Planting 18–20 days seedlings at 2/hill at a depth of 3 cm with a spacing of 15 × 15 cm is done. The remaining half N is top dressed in two equal splits on 15th and 30th day after transplanting coinciding the weeding. In the case of aged seedlings beyond 21 days, the number of seedlings is increased to 3/hill and N by 25% is increased to reduce the loss. Water management: Generally, in heavy and light soils, totally 9 irrigations are required. Depending upon the duration of the crop (80, 100 and 120 days)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "case of aged seedlings beyond 21 days, the number of seedlings is increased to 3/hill and N by 25% is increased to reduce the loss. Water management: Generally, in heavy and light soils, totally 9 irrigations are required. Depending upon the duration of the crop (80, 100 and 120 days) and stage of the crop, one or two or three irrigations may be skipped or given. The critical stages are tillering and preflowering stages. Weed management: Application of Butachlor 2.5 l/ha or Fluchloralin 2 l/ha or pendimethalin 2.5 l/ha as pre-emergence with 900 l of water is done and if sufficient moisture is not available, irrigation is done immediately. If pre-emergence herbicide is not applied, hoeing and hand weeding is done on 15th and 30th day after transplanting. For rainfed directed seeded crop, application of post emergence herbicide like 2,4-DEE or 2,4-D Na salt at 0.5 kg/ha is done on 10th day after sowing depending on moisture availability. Cropping system: It is intercropped with legumes like field beans, cowpea, and fodder sorghum or occasionally with other millets. About 4–5 rows of ragi with a row of field bean is very common in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Ragi is sequenced with groundnut, horse gram, cotton, tobacco or sesame. Pest and disease management: To control mosaic virus, spraying Monocrotophos 36 WSC 0.05% is recommended. To control blast, spraying of carbendazim 250 g/ha is recommended. If needed, 2nd and 3rd spray may be given at 15 days interval after 1st spray. To control root aphids, dimethioate at 3 ml is mixed with 1 of water and drenching is done. Harvesting: It does not mature uniformly and hence harvest is done in two stages. 1st harvest is done when ear head of main shoot and 50% of ear heads turn brown. Cutting and drying",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "root aphids, dimethioate at 3 ml is mixed with 1 of water and drenching is done. Harvesting: It does not mature uniformly and hence harvest is done in two stages. 1st harvest is done when ear head of main shoot and 50% of ear heads turn brown. Cutting and drying the ear heads is done. Then, threshing and cleaning is done. Second harvest is done seven days after first harvest. All the ear heads including green ones are cut with sickles first then the straw is harvested. Curing is done by heaping the harvested ear heads in shade for one day without drying to make greener ear heads to mature. Then drying, threshing and cleaning are done. Harvested heads are threshed using conventional beating with sticks and treading under the feet of animals. Machine threshing is also common in some areas. 3. PEARL MILLET (OR) BAJRA (OR) CUMBU IN TAMIL (P. glaucum) It is a stable food crop of about 100 million peoples in rural areas of India and Sub Saharan Africa. Roti or Chapatti, which are unleaved flat breads prepared using pearl millet flour are common in Asia. Porridges and cooked grains are also used. In northern India, it is prepared during winter while wheat becomes common in summer diet. It is also used for fried preparations, foods such as fermented products and beer. Varieties of pancakes are prepared using pearl millet flour in Africa and pearl millet beer is used throughout Africa. Fura or cheese is the traditional African snacks prepared using steamed AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 567 pearl millet flour and cream. It is used as fodder in Africa and Asia. Oxalic acid content is very high. So it is not relished by cattle. It is rich in protein (12.6%) and fat (5%), fibre",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "African snacks prepared using steamed AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 567 pearl millet flour and cream. It is used as fodder in Africa and Asia. Oxalic acid content is very high. So it is not relished by cattle. It is rich in protein (12.6%) and fat (5%), fibre (1.2%) and 60–70% of Carbohydrate. It is normally rich in Ca, Vitamin Riboflavin and Carotenoides. In Central America, it is mainly cultivated for forage purpose. It is also grown as pasture grass. Of the 150 sps of Pennesitum, P. glaucum is the cultivated species for grain and P. purpurea is the forage species. Origin-Africa Area, Production and Distribution: It is largely grown in India. The important pearl millet producing countries are India, Africa, Pakistan, China, Sudan and Egypt. In India, it is cultivated in an area of 10 m.ha with a production of 7.9 m.t and productivity of 791 kg/ha. Area under cultivation is high in Rajasthan, followed by Maharashtra, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh. The production is more in Rajasthan, followed by Maharastra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in an area of 2.3 l.ha with production of 2.5 l.ton and productivity of 1226 kg/ha. In Tamil Nadu, it is grown in all the districts, except Kanchipuram, Tiruvallur and Nilgris. Stages: There are four crop stages namely seedling stage (1–18 days), Tillering stage (19–35 days), Flowering phase (36–55 days) and Maturity phase (56–85 days) Climate: It is a rapid growing, warm weather crop and it has resistance for drought. The best temperature is between 20 and 28°C. It can withstand even desiccation. It is highly suitable for the areas having rainfall ranges from 400–750 mm. Even 150 mm of rainfall is sufficient. Rainfall during vegetative phase is highly favourable, while rainfall at flowering is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "it has resistance for drought. The best temperature is between 20 and 28°C. It can withstand even desiccation. It is highly suitable for the areas having rainfall ranges from 400–750 mm. Even 150 mm of rainfall is sufficient. Rainfall during vegetative phase is highly favourable, while rainfall at flowering is not conducive, as it washes off the pollen and there is a poor seed setting. The crop grows better in light showers followed by bright sunshine. Usually bajra is grown, where it is not possible to grow sorghum because of high temperature and low rainfall. It is grown as kharif crop in Northern India, while in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Punjab, it is grown under irrigated condition during summer. Soil: It is grown in a wide variety of soils, but being sensitive to water logging. It grows well in well drained sandy loams. It is sensitive to acidic soil. It is grown successfully in black cotton soil, alluvial soils and red soils of India. Time of sowing: In India, it is grown in three seasons viz., kharif (rainfed-June–October), winter (rainfed–November-February) and summer (rain fed–March-June). During summer, it is grown in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Punjab and Gujarat as an irrigated crop. Hybrids: Under All India Co-ordinated Research project, many hybrids have been developed. Using Cytoplasmic male sterile line (CMS line), five hybrids have been developed. Among them, HB-3 is the best. But all hybrids are susceptible to downy mildew. To overcome the downy mildew, CMS line MS.5071 was used and five New Hybrid bajra were developed. Among them, NHB.5 is the best for disease resistance and wide adaptability besides giving higher yield. In Tamil Nadu, using CMS line MS 5141 A, two hybrids X 6 and X 7 were evolved and are recommended for cultivation. X6: 90–100 days, irrigated crop yields",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "New Hybrid bajra were developed. Among them, NHB.5 is the best for disease resistance and wide adaptability besides giving higher yield. In Tamil Nadu, using CMS line MS 5141 A, two hybrids X 6 and X 7 were evolved and are recommended for cultivation. X6: 90–100 days, irrigated crop yields 3236 kg/ha and rainfed crop yields 2394 kg/ha. It is resistant to downy mildew. X7: 90 days, irrigated crop yields 3295 kg/ha and rainfed crop yields 2513 kg/ha. It is resistant to downy mildew. Composite: WCC 75 (World Cumbu Composite developed at ICRISAT, Hyderabad) is suited for both irrigated and rainfed. Duration is 95 days. Irrigated crop yields 3.0 t and rainfed crop yields 2.0 t/ha. Variety: CO 7–90–100 days duration. Rainfed crop yields 2.5 t/ha and irrigated crop yields 3.5 t/ha. It is resistant to downy mildew. K3: 85 days duration. 568 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Package of practices for Tamil Nadu A. Variety and Hybrids I. Irrigated Crop 1. March–April (Chithiraipattam) – WCC 75, K 3, CO 7, X 6, X 7 (All district except Kanchipuram, Tiruvallur and Nilgris) 2. January–February (Masipattam) – WCC 75, CO 7, X 6, X 7. (except Kanchipuram, Tiruvallur and Nilgris) II. Rainfed 1. June–July (Adipattam) WCC 75, K 3, CO 7, X 6, X 7 2. Sept–Oct (Purattasipattam) WCC 75, K 3, CO 7, X 6, X 7, B. Method of Raising Irrigated condition: (a) Raising seedling in the Nursery and transplanting. (b) Direct sowing. Rainfed crop: Direct seeding either broadcasting or sowing behind country plough. C. Seed Rate and Seed Treatment The seed rate for direct sowing is 5 kg/ha and for transplanting, it is 3.75 kg/ha. Ergot affected seeds are removed using salt solution (1 kg of NaCl in 10 lit of water), to prevent primary infections and shade dried.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sowing behind country plough. C. Seed Rate and Seed Treatment The seed rate for direct sowing is 5 kg/ha and for transplanting, it is 3.75 kg/ha. Ergot affected seeds are removed using salt solution (1 kg of NaCl in 10 lit of water), to prevent primary infections and shade dried. Seed treatment is done with fungicides-captan or thiram 2 g/kg of seed, followed by Azospirillum seed treatment (3 pockets or 600 g/ha seed rate). D. Transplanted Crop Nursery preparation: Nursery area required is 7.5 cents (300 m2 ) for one ha. The land is ploughed in such a way to bring fine tilth. Application of 750 kg of FYM or compost is done and incorporated. Raised beds of 3.0 m × 1.5m with 30 cm channel are formed. Small rills not deeper than 1 cm on the raised bed are opened. About 3.75 kg of seeds is sown in 7.5 cents at 0.5 kg/cent and 500 kg of FYM or compost is used for sprinkling for covering the seeds. Irrigation Light soil Heavy soil 1st immediately after sowing immediately after sowing 2nd 3rd DAS 3rd DAS 3rd 7th day 9th day 4th 12th day 16th day 5th 17th day Field preparation for both irrigated and rainfed crop: Deep ploughing with Iron plough and country plough is to be done twice to bring fine tilth. If there is hard pan, chisel ploughing is done. About 12.5 t/ha of FYM or compost is applied during last ploughing. Application of Azospirillum to the soil is done @ 10 packets/ha (2 kg). Land Shaping: For irrigated crop (transplanting), either ridges and furrows at 45 cm apart or beds of convenient size depending upon the water availability are formed. For rainfed crop, flat sowing is followed. For rainfed crop, Pora method of sowing is better",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "soil is done @ 10 packets/ha (2 kg). Land Shaping: For irrigated crop (transplanting), either ridges and furrows at 45 cm apart or beds of convenient size depending upon the water availability are formed. For rainfed crop, flat sowing is followed. For rainfed crop, Pora method of sowing is better than Kera method. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 569 Transplanting: Pull out of the seedlings is recommended when age of seedling is 15–18 days. A spacing of 45 × 15 cm for all the varieties except CO 7 is adopted. For CO 7, spacing is 35 × 15 cm (similar row spacing is adopted for rainfed crop also). Dipping the roots in bio-fertilizer Slurry (dissolve 5 pockets of Azospirillum in 40 lit. of water) for 15–30 minutes may be done. Planting one seedling/hill to a depth of 3–5 cm is recommended. Direct sown crop: Soaking the seed in 2% potassium chloride or 3% NaCl for 6 hours followed by shade drying for 5 hours is done. As in transplanted crop, a spacing of 45 × 15 cm for all varieties except CO 7 and for CO 7, 35 × 15 cm row spacing is adopted. If pulse is intercropped, a spacing of 35 × 15 cm for cumbu and 30 × 10 cm for cowpea and other pulses is adopted. Seed rate is 5 kg/ha. Fertilizer management: If soil test recommendation is not available, the blanket recommendation is followed as given below: Irrigated crop: Hybrids 80 : 40 : 40 kg N : P2 O5 : K2O/ha. Varieties 70 : 35 : 35 kg N : P2 O5 : K2O/ha. Rainfed crop: 40 : 20 : 0 kg N : P2O5 : K2O/ha. Application of 50% N and 100% P and K is recommended as basal at 5",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": ": 40 kg N : P2 O5 : K2O/ha. Varieties 70 : 35 : 35 kg N : P2 O5 : K2O/ha. Rainfed crop: 40 : 20 : 0 kg N : P2O5 : K2O/ha. Application of 50% N and 100% P and K is recommended as basal at 5 cm depth and the remaining 50% N at 15 days after planting for transplanted crop and 30 DAS for direct sown crop is applied. It removes about 90 kg N, 20–25 kg, P2 O5 and 160 kg K2O. For Zn deficient soil, application of ZnSO4 at 25 kg/ha is done. Iron deficiency occurs in saline and calcareous soil. Based on the level of deficiency, 12.5–25 kg of FeSO4 is recommended. If it is not applied basally, foliar application of 1% FeSO4 at vegetative phase is recommended. Water management: It is a highly drought tolerant crop and water requirement is 300–350 mm. Irrigation at available soil moisture of 50% or optimum IW/CPE ratio 0.4 is sufficient. The critical stages are tillering and flowering. Normally 5 irrigations are recommended for the stages viz., tillering, panicle initiation, flag leaf, flowering, dough stages in addition to sowing irrigation. Under limited moisture conditions, three irrigations can be recommended for panicle initiation, flag leaf and flowering in addition to sowing irrigation. Thinning and gap filling: In the direct sown crop, after 1st weeding at the time of irrigation, gap filling and thinning is done to a spacing of 15 cm between plants. In rainfed crop, thinning should be done 10-15 DAS. Weed management: Weed reduces the yield by 50%. Crop weed competition is up to 35 days. Pre-emergence application of atrazine at 500 g/ha followed by hand weeding on 30–35 days after transplanting or sowing. If the herbicide is not used, weeding is done on 15th",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "should be done 10-15 DAS. Weed management: Weed reduces the yield by 50%. Crop weed competition is up to 35 days. Pre-emergence application of atrazine at 500 g/ha followed by hand weeding on 30–35 days after transplanting or sowing. If the herbicide is not used, weeding is done on 15th day and again between 30 and 35 days after transplanting. For direct sown crop, hoeing and weeding may be done on 20–25 DAS and second weeding on 35–40 DAS. Atrazine should not be used for intercropping systems. Cropping system: Some of the important crop rotations are: 1. Bajra – Barley Intercropping system in North India 2. Bajra – Wheat Bajra + Groundnut 3. Bajra – Gram Bajra + Black gram 4. Bajra – Pea Bajra + Green gram 5. Bajra – Potato Bajra + Castor Bajra + Cowpea Harvesting and Threshing: When the leaves turned yellow colour and when the seeds become hardened and having 20% moisture, harvesting is done by removing the earheads first and cutting down 570 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY the plants latter on. The ear heads after harvesting should be dried well in sun before threshing. The grains are separated either by beating the ear heads by sticks or by trampling by bullocks. If mechanical thresher is available, thresh it or spread it and drag a stoneroller over it. The threshed grain should be cleaned and dried in the sun to bring the moisture to 12–14% for safe storage. Yield Grain yield (t/ha) Stover yield (t/ha) Irrigated 3.0–3.5 10.0 Rainfed 1.2–1.5 7–7.5 15.4 SMALL/MINOR MILLETS The small millets or minor millets have potentiality to grow even under adverse ecological condition and very poor agro-climate regions where main food crops cannot be grown. The five small millets are: 1. Italian millet (Thenai, Kakun, Fox tail) : Setaria",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Irrigated 3.0–3.5 10.0 Rainfed 1.2–1.5 7–7.5 15.4 SMALL/MINOR MILLETS The small millets or minor millets have potentiality to grow even under adverse ecological condition and very poor agro-climate regions where main food crops cannot be grown. The five small millets are: 1. Italian millet (Thenai, Kakun, Fox tail) : Setaria italica 2. Kodo millet (Varagu) : Paspalum scrobiculatum 3. Common millet (Panivaragu, Cheena) : Panicum millaceum 4. Little millet (Samai) : Panicum milliare 5. Barnyard millet (Kudiraivali, Sawan) : Echinochloa frumentacea 1. ITALIAN MILLET (Thenai, Kakun, Fox tail) It is generally grown as rainfed crop. Grains are cooked like rice and it contains 12.3% protein, 4.7% fat, 60.6% carbohydrates and 3.2% ash. Grain flour is used in the form of chapaties. Grains are fed to cage birds. Straw is thin stemmed and is liked by cattle (not good for horses). In China, it is important next to rice and wheat and provides approximately 15–17% of the total food consumed in China. Origin: China Area and distribution: It is cultivated in India, China, Eastern Europe, Southern parts of former USSR and some extent in African and American countries. In India, it is cultivated in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Soil and climate: It can grow in poor soils but requires fairly fertile soils for good yields. Light soils including red loams, alluvial and black cotton soils are all suitable for its cultivation but it thrives best on rich, well-drained loam soils. It is cultivated in tropical and temperate regions up to 2000 m altitude. It requires moderate temperature and grows successfully with 50–75 cm rainfall. Although water requirement is less, it has no capacity to recover after long spell of drought 2. KODO MILLET (Varagu) It is a highly drought tolerant crop and it can be grown in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "regions up to 2000 m altitude. It requires moderate temperature and grows successfully with 50–75 cm rainfall. Although water requirement is less, it has no capacity to recover after long spell of drought 2. KODO MILLET (Varagu) It is a highly drought tolerant crop and it can be grown in areas where rainfall is scanty and erratic. It has coarsest food grains covered with horny seed coat, which should be removed before cooking. Immature and molded grains are poisonous. It can be easily preserved and it proves as good famine reserve and recommended as a substitute for rice to patients suffering from diabetes. Grain contains 8.3% protein, 1.4% fat, 65.6% carbohydrates and 2.9% ash. Origin: India Area and distribution: It is grown mostly in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. Soil and climate: It is grown from gravelly and stony upland poor soils to loam soils and it comes well under adverse conditions and even in poor soils, some yield can be obtained. It thrives best on well AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 571 drained sandy loam to loamy soils. It makes rapid growth in warm and dry climate and requires rainfall of 400–500 mm. 3. COMMON MILLET (Panivaragu, Cheena, Proso millet) The common millet offers better prospects for intensive cultivation in dry land areas and evades drought by its quick maturity. Grain contains 12.5% protein, 1.1% fat, 68.9% carbohydrate, 2.2% crude fibre and 3.4% ash. It is rich in lysine (4.6%), which is inadequate in most cereals. It is used as cooked grain, flour for making chapaties, perched grains etc. It makes good poultry feed and straw is a good fodder. Origin: India Area and Distribution: It is grown extensively in India, Japan, China, Egypt, Arabia and Western Europe. In India, it is largely",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in most cereals. It is used as cooked grain, flour for making chapaties, perched grains etc. It makes good poultry feed and straw is a good fodder. Origin: India Area and Distribution: It is grown extensively in India, Japan, China, Egypt, Arabia and Western Europe. In India, it is largely grown in Madhya Pradesh, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Soil and Climate: Well drained loam or sandy loam, free of kankar and rich in organic matter is ideal for cultivation of common millet. It can be grown both in rich and poor soils having variable texture ranging between sandy loam and clays of black cotton soils. It is a warm climate crop grown extensively in warm regions of the world and it is a highly drought resistant and can be grown in areas where there is scanty rainfall. It can withstand water stagnation to certain extent. 4. BARNYARD MILLET (Kudiraivali, Sawan) It is a very drought resistant crop and also capable of withstanding water logging condition. Grains are consumed just like rice and used in making rice pudding. Grain contains 6.2% protein, 9.8% crude fibre, 65.5% carbohydrates and 4.4% ash. It is mostly eaten by poor class people and sometime brewed for beer. It is used as feed for cage birds and straw makes good fodder for cattle. Origin: India Table 15.9. Packages of Practices for Small Millets Particulars Italian millet Kodo millet Common millet Little millet Barnyard millet Season and June-July K1, CO 3, APK 1 PV196 and 162, CO 2, CO 3 IP 149, VL 1 varieties CO 5, K 3, CO 6 Niwas1, Pali K1, CO 2, CO 3, K 1, CO 3 CO 1, K 1, PT 8, CO 4 and K 2 IPI 49 (Rainfed) Sep.–Oct. CO4, CO5, CO6,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "3, APK 1 PV196 and 162, CO 2, CO 3 IP 149, VL 1 varieties CO 5, K 3, CO 6 Niwas1, Pali K1, CO 2, CO 3, K 1, CO 3 CO 1, K 1, PT 8, CO 4 and K 2 IPI 49 (Rainfed) Sep.–Oct. CO4, CO5, CO6, K2 Seed rate (kg/ha) Line planting Line planting –10 and –10 and broadcastingbroadcasting 12.5 – 12.5 Seed drill Gorru seed drill is recommended Seed treatment 2 g thiram or carbendazim FYM (t/ha) 12.5 Nitrogen (kg/ha) 44 (basal) Phosphorus (kg/ha) 22 (basal) (Contd.) 572 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Particulars Italian millet Kodo millet Common millet Little millet Barnyard millet Spacing (cm) 22 × 10 45 × 10 25 × 10 25 × 10 25 × 10 Weeding 15 DAS1st weeding 40th DAS2nd weeding Thinning 20 DAS Yield (kg/ha) 1200–1800 1500–1800 1200–1500 700–1300 1250–1750 Harvesting The whole plant or ear head is sickled, staked and dried and threshed with stone roller or trampling under feet of bullocks Area and Distribution: It is cultivated in India, China, Japan, Malaysia and Wast Indies and to some extent in Africa and USA. In India, it is grown in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Bihar. Soil and climate: It can be grown in soils of marginal fertility and partially water logged condition. It thrives well in sandy loam to loamy soils. It can be grown from sea level to 2000 m msl. Warm and moderately humid climate is good. Cultivation of small millets: The packages of practices for small millets are given in Table 15.9. 5. SAMAI Samai It is cultivated in Dharmapuri, Vellore, Tiruvanamalai, Erode, Salem, Namakkal, Coimbatore, Madurai, Dindugul, Theni, Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi. Seasons Variety Duration (Days) (a) June-July (Hill slopes of Coimbatore and Erode Districts) CO 2,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of small millets: The packages of practices for small millets are given in Table 15.9. 5. SAMAI Samai It is cultivated in Dharmapuri, Vellore, Tiruvanamalai, Erode, Salem, Namakkal, Coimbatore, Madurai, Dindugul, Theni, Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi. Seasons Variety Duration (Days) (a) June-July (Hill slopes of Coimbatore and Erode Districts) CO 2, CO 3, CO 6 55, 85–95 July–August (Dharmapuri) Paiyur 1, CO 3 55, 90 and 80–95 September–0ctober K 1, CO 3 100, 80–85 September–October CO 5, CO 6 90, 85–90 CO 3 for all samai growing areas of Tamil Nadu. The variety particulars are given below: Particulars Samai K 1 Samai CO 2 Samai Paiyur 1 Samai CO 3 Parentage Reselection from Selection Pureline Selection from germ PM 368 Ananthapur plasm bank Duration (days) 90 80–85 105–110 80–85 Pigmentation Green Green – – Tillering ability Moderate Moderate Moderate High Panicles Loose, Open Well branched Semi compact – open & loose Long Grain Character Buff Colour Brown & small Brown Brown (Contd.) AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 573 Particulars Samai K 1 Samai CO 2 Samai Paiyur 1 Samai CO 3 Grain Yield (kg/ha) 1300 700 870 1066 Rainfed Special features – – – Bold grain, Non lodging suits for early and late sowing Seeds and sowing: The seed rate for line planting is 10 kg/ha and 12.5 kg/ha for broadcasting. Use of Gorru or seed drill is recommended. Seed treatment: The seeds are treated with 2 g Thiram or Carbendazim/kg of seeds. Field preparation: Plough the field thoroughly 2 or 3 times using a small iron plough or country plough to fine tilth. Fertilizer application: Application of 12.5 t/ha FYM/Compost , 44 kg N/ha and 22 kg P2O5/ha as basal is recommended. The spacing for line planting is 25 × 10 cm. Weeding: First weeding is done on",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2 or 3 times using a small iron plough or country plough to fine tilth. Fertilizer application: Application of 12.5 t/ha FYM/Compost , 44 kg N/ha and 22 kg P2O5/ha as basal is recommended. The spacing for line planting is 25 × 10 cm. Weeding: First weeding is done on the 15th DAS and the second weeding on 40th DAS. Thinning: Thinning is done soon after weeding or before 20 DAS. Plant protection: Usually no major problem of pests and diseases. 15.5 PULSES India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses. Dried edible seed of a cultivated legume is known as pulse. Legume derived from Latin “legere” means “to gather”. It constitutes 10–12% of Indian diet. WHO recommends 80 g/day/person, whereas ICMR recorded 47 g but actual is 30–35 g. Pulses are used as fodder, food crops, green manure, cover crop and catch crop. N fixation by legumes improves soil fertility. The protein content ranges from 17–25% (Soybean = 40–43%). It provides thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B and ascorbic acid. Early maturity, relative thermo and photo insensitivity and better canopy structure (non-spreading) makes the pulses to include them in multiple cropping. Area and distribution: India accounts 33% area under pulses and 22% production of world. It is mostly grown as rainfed and only 8% of pulse area is irrigated in India. Pulses are cultivated in an area of 22.47 m.ha with 13.38 m.t production (2004–05). The pulse yield potential in India is 2500–3500 kg/ha but the productivity is 550–625 kg/ha as against 1600 kg in USA, 1400 kg in China and world average is 900 kg/ha. Causes for low production of pulses (a) Ecological factors: Pulses are grown mostly under rain fed conditions and only 8% of the area is irrigated and it depends on residual soil moisture. Pulses",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "kg/ha as against 1600 kg in USA, 1400 kg in China and world average is 900 kg/ha. Causes for low production of pulses (a) Ecological factors: Pulses are grown mostly under rain fed conditions and only 8% of the area is irrigated and it depends on residual soil moisture. Pulses are sensitive to excess soil moisture, salinity, alkalinity and acidity. (b) Lack of agronomic management: It is grown with poor management and lack of HYV (HI-0.1–0.2 and but, for wheat, it is 0.5). Improper sowing time, inadequate seed rate and defective method of sowing are few examples. (c) Basic research factors: Break through in production is possible if HYV/hybrid is developed with synchronous flowering, multiple resistance to pests and diseases and response to inputs. 574 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (d) Socio-economic constraints: It is grown by resource poor farmers often as catch crop or mixed crop or in rotation with commercial or high yielding cereal crop. Unassured market is a reason for low production. (e) Constraints in post harvest technology: 1. RED GRAM (Cajanus cajan) It is the second most important pulse crop, next to gram. There are two species viz., C. cajan var. flavous–Tur (Early), C. cajan var bicolour–Arhar (late). It is primarily used as dal, while the tender green seeds are consumed as vegetable, crushed dried seeds as animal feed and green leaves as fodder. Stem is used as fuel wood and to make huts and baskets, used for paper pulp. Leaves can be used to feed silkworm and plants are used to culture lac insect. It serves as windbreak and live fence. Venezuela local soft drink known as ‘Chicha’ is made and canned for export by freezing. It accounts for 12% pulse area, 17% pulse production and 90% world production. Origin: India Area and distribution: It is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and plants are used to culture lac insect. It serves as windbreak and live fence. Venezuela local soft drink known as ‘Chicha’ is made and canned for export by freezing. It accounts for 12% pulse area, 17% pulse production and 90% world production. Origin: India Area and distribution: It is cultivated in Africa, West Indies, Sri Lanka, Australia and Malaya, India, Indo China. In India, it is cultivated in an area of 3.61 m.ha with a production of 2.7 m.t. and productivity of 747 kg/ha. Major growing states are Maharashtra (16.5 lha), Uttar Pradesh (5.0 lha),Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh. Production is very high in Maharashtra, followed by Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh where as the productivity is high in Haryana and Bihar. In Tamil Nadu, the area under cultivation is 1.40 l.ha with a production of 1.20 l.t and productivity of 864 kg/ha. Soil and Climate: It is grown in wide range of soil from sandy loam to clay loams. Best soils are fertile, well drained loamy soils, Suitable pH range is 5–8. It grows up to 1500 m msl and well distributed rainfall of 500–900 mm in tropics and subtropics is sufficient. It requires temperature range of 10–40°C and the optimum temperature is 20–28°C. Season and Varieties: It is grown in kharif (June-August) and rabi (September-November). CO 5, CO 6, Vamban 1, Vamban 2 – Resistant to sterility mosaic BSR 1, SA1 and CO 4 – Suitable for bund planting. Hybrids: ICPH 8 from ICRISAT – yield is 4 t/ha. COH 1, COH 2 Spacing: The depth of seeding is 5 cm. The seed rate is 20–30 kg/ha. For bund planting, the seed requirement is 50 g/100 m row. In vertisols, broad bed furrows (BBF) are best with 90 cm beds and 60 cm shallow furrow. Long",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is 4 t/ha. COH 1, COH 2 Spacing: The depth of seeding is 5 cm. The seed rate is 20–30 kg/ha. For bund planting, the seed requirement is 50 g/100 m row. In vertisols, broad bed furrows (BBF) are best with 90 cm beds and 60 cm shallow furrow. Long and medium duration varieties : 75 × 30 cm Short duration : 45 × 30 cm Rain fed : 90 × 30 cm Seed treatment: The seeds are treated with Carbendazim or Thiram @ 2 g/kg seed 24 hours before sowing (or) Trichoderma virdie @ 4 g/kg of seed (or) Pseudomonas fluorescence @ 10 g/kg. Fungicide treated seeds should be again treated with 3 pockets bacterial culture 15 minutes before sowing Fertilizer application: For a production level of 2 t grain and 6 t stalks, red gram removes 132 kg AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 575 N, 20 kg P2O5 and 53 kg K2O per ha. Phosphorus is the most limiting nutrient and response is about 6–10 kg grain/kg of applied P. Application of 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P2O5/ha basally before sowing under rain fed conditions and 25 kg N + 50 kg P2O5/ha under irrigated conditions id recommended. Soil application of 25 kg DAP/ha and foliar application of 25 kg DAP/ha with 25 kg S as gypsum (110 kg/ha) or 2% urea in two sprays at flower commencement and 15 days after may be given for getting higher yield. Weed management: Application of Fluchloralin at 1.5 l/ha (or) pendimethalin 2 at 1/ha on 3 DAS, followed by one hand weeding may be given on 30–35 DAS. If no herbicide is applied, two hand weedings on 15 and 35 DAS are recommended. Water management: Water use efficiency of legumes is 500 kg water/kg DMP, while for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1.5 l/ha (or) pendimethalin 2 at 1/ha on 3 DAS, followed by one hand weeding may be given on 30–35 DAS. If no herbicide is applied, two hand weedings on 15 and 35 DAS are recommended. Water management: Water use efficiency of legumes is 500 kg water/kg DMP, while for cereals, it is 300–350 kg water/kg DMP. Water requirement of red gram is 500–600 mm. To produce 1 t of grain, 200–250 mm water is used. Irrigation should be given for the stages viz., immediately after sowing, 3rd DAS, bud initiation, 50% flowering and pod development stages. Water stagnation at any stage should be avoided. Cropping Systems Intercropping: The important cropping systems are sorghum + red gram, ragi + red gram, red gram + urd and red gram + groundnut at 1:6 ratio. Crop rotation: This crop is rotated with maize/rice-red gram, red gram-wheat. Harvesting: Harvesting is done the plants when 80% of the pods are matured. Then, the plants are stacked for a few days. The pods are separated with sticks and grains are separated from husk and dried to optimum moisture level (10–12%). Yield: Yield ranges from 2 to 4 t/ha. 2. BENGAL GRAM (Gram, Chickpea) (Cicer arietinum) It is the most important pulse crop of India, which constitutes 37% area, and 50% production of pulses and nearly 75% in acreage and production. It is predominantly consumed as dhal or for preparing variety of snack foods, sweets and condiments. Fresh gram serves as vegetable and eaten raw. Bhusa is used as cattle feed. Husk and split beans are useful as livestock feed. It contains 17–21% protein, 4.5% fat and 61.0% carbohydrate. An acidic liquid from glandular hairs of the plant are collected at night, which contain 94% maleic acid and 6% oxalic acid that has medicinal value and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is used as cattle feed. Husk and split beans are useful as livestock feed. It contains 17–21% protein, 4.5% fat and 61.0% carbohydrate. An acidic liquid from glandular hairs of the plant are collected at night, which contain 94% maleic acid and 6% oxalic acid that has medicinal value and used in preparation of vinegar. Origin: South-west Asia, probably Afghanistan and/or Persia. Distribution: It is cultivated in India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Ethiopia and Turkey. In India, it is cultivated in Bihar, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Types: There are two types of Bengal gram. 1. Kabuli types: Constitutes 15% production and the seeds are large (> 26 g/100 g seeds), more or less rounded and pale cream colour. 2. Desi types: Constitutes 85% production and the seeds are smaller in size (17–26 g/100 seeds), irregular shapes and various colours. Soil and climate: It is grown on wide range of soils from medium to heavy black soils, mixed red and black soils or in alluvial soils but requires well drained loam or sandy loam. It is generally grown in areas, which receive annual rainfall of 800 mm and altitude of 1800 m from sea level. The pH range 576 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY is between 5.5 and 8.6, and optimum pH range is 5.7–7.2. It does not withstand water logging and saline alkaline conditions. It is a long day plant and optimum temperature requirement is 24°–32°C . Field preparation: The land is prepared to get fine tilth and beds and channels are formed. To tide over surface soil crusting, application of lime @ 2t/ha along with FYM at 12.5 t/ha or composted coir pith to get additional yield of 15–20%. Season and varietiesMid October-early November is the optimum time of sowing in India. Desi varieties: Radhey,G-24, BR-78, RS-11,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "beds and channels are formed. To tide over surface soil crusting, application of lime @ 2t/ha along with FYM at 12.5 t/ha or composted coir pith to get additional yield of 15–20%. Season and varietiesMid October-early November is the optimum time of sowing in India. Desi varieties: Radhey,G-24, BR-78, RS-11, Ujjain-24, Chaffa, CO-2, CO-3, CO-4 Kabuli varieties: HC-3, K-5, C-104, L-550, L-144 Seed treatment: Chemical seed treatment with carbendazim or thiram @ 2 g/kg of seed is done and then, after interval of 24 hours, the seeds are treated with 3 packets (600 g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertiliser with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing. Instead of chemical treatment, the seeds can be treated with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence @ 10 g/kg followed by biofertilizer. Seeds are soaked in 1% KH2 PO4 for 4 hours and then shade dried before sowing. Seed rate: The seed rate for kabuli type is 80-100 kg/ha and for desi type, it is 60–75 kg/ha. Fertilizer application: Application of fertilizers is done basally before sowing. The recommended fertilizer dose is given below. Rainfed: 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P2O5/ha Irrigated: 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P2O5/ha Sowing: The spacing for Kabuli type is 45 × 10 cm and 30 × 10 cm for desi type. Depth of sowing is 10 cm. Pora method is better than broadcast and furrow covering should be followed with plank. Water management: It is grown mostly as rainfed crop. Flowering and pod filling stages are critical stages. Avoid water stagnation at all stages of crop growth. Weed management: Application of fluchloralin 1.5 l/ha or pendimethalin 2.0 l/ha as pre-emergence on 3 DAS followed by one hand weeding on 30 DAS is recommended. If herbicides are not applied, two hand weeding on 15th and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "stages are critical stages. Avoid water stagnation at all stages of crop growth. Weed management: Application of fluchloralin 1.5 l/ha or pendimethalin 2.0 l/ha as pre-emergence on 3 DAS followed by one hand weeding on 30 DAS is recommended. If herbicides are not applied, two hand weeding on 15th and 30th DAS is recommended. Cropping systems: In Tamil Nadu, paired row planting of one or two rows of coriander gives higher net return. It is also intercropped with cotton, wheat barley and sunflower. The common crop rotations are rice-chickpea, maize-chickpea, groundnut-chickpea, green gram-chickpea, sesame-chickpea and black gram-chickpea. Harvesting: The plants are harvested when all the pods are matured. Stack and thresh the pods and extract seeds. The average yield is 0.7 t/ha. A good crop of desi variety can yield 1.5–2.0t/ha while Kabuli varieties can yield 2.5–3.0 t/ha. The average yield in Tamil Nadu is 1.0 t/ha. 3. GREEN GRAM (Vigna radiata) (Moong, Mung, Golden gram) It is relished for easy digestibility as dhal or split seeds and green pods are used as vegetables. Haulms are used as fodder. Husk and split beans are useful as livestock feed. It makes a good cover crop and soil binder. It is excellent green manure (1.5% N and easily decomposed when incorporated). It contains 24% protein, 1.15% fat and 62.6% carbohydrate. Seeds are boiled and used in soups, made into porridge with rice or wheat. Sprouted seeds are consumed as salad, which are rich in vitamins. Flour is used in cakes and deserts and starch is used in making noodles. The low content of oligosaccharides results in low flatulence. Being a short duration crop, it is well fitted in many intensive crop rotations. Origin: India and Central Asia. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 577 Distribution: It is cultivated in India (45%",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and starch is used in making noodles. The low content of oligosaccharides results in low flatulence. Being a short duration crop, it is well fitted in many intensive crop rotations. Origin: India and Central Asia. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 577 Distribution: It is cultivated in India (45% world production), Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Indo-China, Indonesia and China. In India, it is cultivated in Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar and Gujarat. Soil and climate: Ideal soils are well drained loam or sandy loam and saline alkali soils are not suitable. Optimum pH range is 6.5–7.5. An annual rainfall of 600-750 cm is sufficient for the crop growth. It is grown from sea level to 2000 m. Optimum temperature requirement is 28°–30°C. It is a short day plant. Field preparation: The land is prepared to get fine tilth and beds and channels are formed. To tide over surface soil crusting, application of lime @ 2t/ha along with FYM at 12.5 t/ha or composted coir pith is practiced to get additional yield of 15–20%. Season and varieties: It is grown as kharif and summer crop in north India, but in South and South West India, it is grown as rabi crop. The important varieties cultivated in India are Type 44, Pusa Baisakti, Jawahar-45, K-851, Sheela, PS-16, Pant Mung-1 and Mohini (S8). The season and varieties recommended for Tamil Nadu is given Table 15.10. Table 15.10. Season and Varieties Season Month Varieties Kharif (Adipattam) June–July CO 4, CO 5, KM 2, T 9, VBN 1, Paiyur 1 Rabi (Purattasipattam) SeptemberOctober K 1, CO 5, KM 2, VBN 1, Paiyur 1 Rice fallows January February ADT 2, ADT 3 Summer February March CO 4, KM 2, Paiyur 1 Seeds and seed treatment: Seed rate is 20 kg/ha for pure",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "5, KM 2, T 9, VBN 1, Paiyur 1 Rabi (Purattasipattam) SeptemberOctober K 1, CO 5, KM 2, VBN 1, Paiyur 1 Rice fallows January February ADT 2, ADT 3 Summer February March CO 4, KM 2, Paiyur 1 Seeds and seed treatment: Seed rate is 20 kg/ha for pure crop, 10 kg/ha for mixed crop, 25 kg/ha for rice fallows and 50 g/100 m length for bund sowing. The seeds are treated with carbendazim or thiram @ 2 g/kg of seed, then after interval of 24 hours, treated with 3 packets (600 g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertiliser with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing. Instead of chemical, the seeds are treated with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence @ 10 g/kg followed by biofertilizer. Fertilizer application: In general, 1 t of green gram removes 43 kg N, 3–4 kg P and 10–12 kg K. Application of fertilizers is done basally before sowing as below: Rainfed: 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P2O5/ha Irrigated: 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P2O5/ha For rice fallow crop, 2% DAP at the time of first appearance of flower and 15 days later or spray 40 ppm NAA at the time of first appearance of flower and 15 days later is recommended. Sowing: Dibbling the seeds is done adopting spacing of 30 × 10 cm (for line sown crop). Broadcasting may be done in the standing crop 5–10 days before the harvest uniformly at optimum moisture condition (seeds should get embedded in the waxy mire) under rice fallow condition. Dibbling is done at 30 cm spacing on wetland bunds as bund crop. Water management: For line sown pure crop, irrigation is given immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the 3rd day and then, at interval of 10–15 days depending",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the waxy mire) under rice fallow condition. Dibbling is done at 30 cm spacing on wetland bunds as bund crop. Water management: For line sown pure crop, irrigation is given immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the 3rd day and then, at interval of 10–15 days depending on soil moisture conditions. For wetland bund crop, pot watering is done daily for a week after sowing. Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods. Water stagnation should be avoided at all stages. In some places, sprinkler irrigation is followed especially for summer crop. 578 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Weed management: Application of fluchloralin 1.5 l/ha or pendimethalin 2.0 l/ha as pre-emergence (3 DAS) followed by one hand weeding on 30 DAS is recommended. If herbicides are not applied, two hand weeding on 15th and 30th DAS is recommended. Cropping systems: Intercropping is common practice where one or two rows of green gram with maize, pearl millet, sorghum, pigeon pea, cotton and sugarcane. It is rotated with wheat and potato in India. Harvesting: The plants are harvested when 80% of the pods are matured and the plants are stacked for few days before threshing. Yield: The average yield is 700–900 kg/ha for rain fed condition, 1500 kg/ha for irrigated and 500 kg/ha for rice fallow condition. 4. BLACK GRAM (URD) (Vigna mungo) Being a short duration crop, it fits well in many intensive crop rotations. It is also used as green manure crop. It is mainly consumed as dhal or split seeds (husked and unhusked) and husked dal is ground into a fine paste and allowed to ferment with rice flour to make ‘dosa’ and ‘Idli’ ( a south Indian favourite food). The peculiarity of black gram is when ground with water develops mucilaginous character giving additional body to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "or split seeds (husked and unhusked) and husked dal is ground into a fine paste and allowed to ferment with rice flour to make ‘dosa’ and ‘Idli’ ( a south Indian favourite food). The peculiarity of black gram is when ground with water develops mucilaginous character giving additional body to the mass. It contains 25% protein, 1.83% fat, 61.0% carbohydrate. It is a chief constituent of ‘papad’. Haulms are used as fodder. Husk and split beans are useful as livestock feed. It possesses deep root system, which binds soil particles and prevents erosion. Origin: India. Distribution: It is cultivated in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Sri Lanka. In India, it is cultivated in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. Soil and climate: Ideal soils are well drained loam or sandy loam. Optimum pH range is 5.5–7.5 It is generally grown in areas which receive annual rainfall of 800 mm and areas of 1800 m msl. Field preparation: The land is prepared to get fine tilth using disc plough and country plough and beds and channels are formed. To tide over surface soil crusting, application of lime @ 2 t/ha along with 12.5 t/ha FYM or composted coir pith is done to get additional yield of 15–20%. Season and varieties: It is grown as kharif and summer crop in north India, but in South and South west India, it is also grown as rabi crop. The important varieties cultivated in India are Type-9, Type-27, Type-56, Pusa-1, Mosh-48, Pant-430, Gwalior-2, Khargone-3, Ujjain-4, Naveen, Krishna, Sarla and UG218 Season Month Varieties Kharif (Adipattam) June–July CO 4, CO 5, KM 2, T 9, VBN 1, VBN 2 Rabi (Purattasipattam) September–October K1, CO 5, KM 2, VBN 1, VBN 2 Rice fallows January–February ADT 2, ADT 3, ADT 4, ADT",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Mosh-48, Pant-430, Gwalior-2, Khargone-3, Ujjain-4, Naveen, Krishna, Sarla and UG218 Season Month Varieties Kharif (Adipattam) June–July CO 4, CO 5, KM 2, T 9, VBN 1, VBN 2 Rabi (Purattasipattam) September–October K1, CO 5, KM 2, VBN 1, VBN 2 Rice fallows January–February ADT 2, ADT 3, ADT 4, ADT 5, TMV 1 Summer February–March CO 4, CO 5, KM 2, T 9, TMV 1, ADT 5 Seed treatment: Seed rate is 20 kg/ha for pure crop, 10 kg/ha for mixed crop, 25 kg/ha for rice fallows and 50 g/100m length for bund sowing. Chemical seed treatment is done with carbendazim or thiram @ 2 g/kg of seed then after interval of 24 hours, the seeds are treated with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertiliser with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing. Instead of chemical, the seeds are treated with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence @ 10 g/kg followed by biofertilizer. For Pre-monsoon sowing, the seeds are treated with paste made of ash (500 g/kg of seeds) + 3% gum and drying is recommended for 5 hours. Fertilizer application: Application of 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P2O5/ha for rainfed crop and 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P2O5/ha for irrigated crop as basally before sowing is recommended. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 579 Sowing: as in the case of green gram. Water management: Irrigation is given as in the case of green gram. In some places, sprinkler irrigation is followed especially for summer crop. Application of 0.5% KCl as foliar during vegetative stage, if there is moisture/water stress. Weed management: As in green gram crop. Cropping systems: Intercropping is common practice where one or two rows of black gram with maize, pearl millet, sorghum, pigeon pea, cotton and sugarcane. This crop is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "summer crop. Application of 0.5% KCl as foliar during vegetative stage, if there is moisture/water stress. Weed management: As in green gram crop. Cropping systems: Intercropping is common practice where one or two rows of black gram with maize, pearl millet, sorghum, pigeon pea, cotton and sugarcane. This crop is rotated with maize–wheaturd, maize-potato-urd, rice-wheat-urd in north India. Harvesting: The plants are harvested when 80% of the pods are matured and the plants are stacked for few days before threshing. Yield: The average yield is 600-700 kg/ha for rain fed condition, 1000–1300 kg/ha for irrigated and 500 kg/ha for rice fallow condition. 5. HORSE GRAM (KULTHI, KOLLU) (Macrotyloma uniflorum) The crop is predominantly a South Indian crop and termed as poor man’s legume. It serves the farmer excellently under subsistence farming conditions and it is suited to marginally poor soils and those deficient in N. It is rich in protein and used for human consumption. Cooked seeds possess an earthy flavour and the soups are nutritious. Roasted grains are salted and consumed as confectionary items. It is used as animal feed particularly horse and cattle (boiled, salted and fed). Freshly cut plants are excellent fodder source in South India. It contains 22% protein, 1.0% fat and 62.0% carbohydrate. Origin: India. Distribution: Horse gram, South-east Asian crop, is predominantly grown in South India. It is cultivated in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. It is less frequently grown in central states and in the hilly slopes of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Soil and climate: Horse gram has excellent adaptability to drought and harsher environments prevailing in semi arid and it is grown in scanty rainfall (less than 750 mm) areas. It is grown on wide range of soils such as sandy, loamy or even deep vertisols and as first crop",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Pradesh. Soil and climate: Horse gram has excellent adaptability to drought and harsher environments prevailing in semi arid and it is grown in scanty rainfall (less than 750 mm) areas. It is grown on wide range of soils such as sandy, loamy or even deep vertisols and as first crop on marginal lateritic soils. Field preparation: The land is prepared to get fine tilth. Season and varieties: The best season is October–November. The important varieties in Tamil Nadu are CO-1, Paiyur-1 and Paiyur-2. The varieties in other states are Hebbal Hurali-2, HPK-2, VZM-2, PGH-9 and BGM-1. Seeds and seed treatment: Chemical seed treatment is done with carbendazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed, then after interval of 24 hours, the seeds are treated with 3 packets (600 g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertilizer with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing. The seed rate is 20–25 kg/ha and if grown primarily for fodder, seed rate of 40 kg/ha is recommended. Fertilizer application: Application of 12.5 t/ha of compost or FYM and 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P2 O5/ha basally before sowing is recommended. Sowing: The spacing is 30 × 10 cm. The seeds are dibbled at 30 cm row spacing and thinning is done to10 cm in the row. Weed management: One hand weeding and hoeing is done between 20 and 25 DAS is recommended. Harvesting: Matured pods suitable for harvest are slightly brittle and straw coloured. Plants are uprooted at harvest, stacked for few days to dry, later threshed by beating to separate the grains by winnowing. Green fodder yield is 10 t/ha. Grain yield ranges from 0.5 to 0.8 t/ha. 6. COWPEA (VIGNA UNGUICULATA) (Lobia, Black eyed pea, China pea) Cowpea grains are used for human consumption and green pods as vegetables. Being rich in protein and 580",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "by beating to separate the grains by winnowing. Green fodder yield is 10 t/ha. Grain yield ranges from 0.5 to 0.8 t/ha. 6. COWPEA (VIGNA UNGUICULATA) (Lobia, Black eyed pea, China pea) Cowpea grains are used for human consumption and green pods as vegetables. Being rich in protein and 580 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY other nutrients, it is known as vegetable meat. It makes a good cover crop and there by prevents soil erosion. The leaves and haulms are rich sources of fodder and hay is more digestible than alfalfa. It is an excellent green manure. It contains 23.4% protein, 1.8% fat and 60.3% carbohydrate (also rich in Ca and Fe). It is an alternate pulse crop for dry land farming. Origin: Africa (Nigeria). Distribution: It is mainly grown in Africa (90%) and Nigeria is the world’s largest producer. It is also cultivated through out Sub-Saharan Africa, South-east Asia, Latin America, Australia and USA. In India, it is mainly grown in central and peninsular India and in Northern India, it is grown in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Delhi and Haryana. In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated as an intercrop in few places. Soil and climate: Ideal soils are well drained loam or sandy loam and saline alkali soils are not suitable and optimum pH range is 6.0–7.5. The crop thrives best between temperature of 27° and 35°C. It can withstand drought to certain extent. Field preparation: The land is prepared to get fine tilth and beds and channels are formed. Season and varieties: It is grown in kharif, rabi and summer seasons. The important varieties grown in India are C-152, Pusa Sawani, Gujarat Cowpea 1 and 2, PTB 1 (Kanakamani) and PTB 2 (Krishnamani). Highly valued vegetable cowpea is ‘Pusa Baisaki’. In Tamil Nadu, the varieties are cultivated in different seasons,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and varieties: It is grown in kharif, rabi and summer seasons. The important varieties grown in India are C-152, Pusa Sawani, Gujarat Cowpea 1 and 2, PTB 1 (Kanakamani) and PTB 2 (Krishnamani). Highly valued vegetable cowpea is ‘Pusa Baisaki’. In Tamil Nadu, the varieties are cultivated in different seasons, which is given in Table 15.11. Table 15.11. Seasons and Varieties Season Month Varieties Kharif (Adipattam) June–July CO 2, CO 3, CO 4, CO 6, KM 1, Paiyur 1 Rabi (Purattasipattam) September–October CO 2, CO 3, CO 4, CO 6, KM 1, Paiyur 1, VBN 1, VBN 2 Summer February–March CO 4, CO 2, VBN 2 Seed rate and seed treatment: Seed rate is 20 kg/ha for pure crop, 10 kg/ha for mixed crop and 40 kg/ha for fodder and green manure crop. The seed treatment is done with carbendazim or thiram @ 2 g/kg of seed and then, after interval of 24 hours, the seeds are treated with 3 packets (600 g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertilizer with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing. Instead of chemical treatment, the seeds are treated with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence @ 10 g/kg followed by biofertilizer. Fertilizer application: Application of fertilizers basally before sowing for rainfed crops @12.5 kg N + 25 kg P2O5/ha and for irrigated crops at 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P2O5/ha is recommended. Application of 20 kg K2O/ha is beneficial for lateritic soils in increasing the yield. For rice fallow crops, 2% DAP spray at the time of first appearance of flower and 15 days later or 40 ppm NAA (Planofix) at the time of first appearance of flower and 15 days later is given. Sowing: The seeds are dibbled adopting a spacing of 30 × 15 cm or 45 × 15 cm",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "spray at the time of first appearance of flower and 15 days later or 40 ppm NAA (Planofix) at the time of first appearance of flower and 15 days later is given. Sowing: The seeds are dibbled adopting a spacing of 30 × 15 cm or 45 × 15 cm depending on variety. Water management: Irrigation is given immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the 3rd day and then, at interval of 10–15 days depending on soil moisture conditions. For wetland bund crops, pot watering is to be given daily for a week after sowing. Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation. Weed management: Fluchloralin at 1.5 l/ha or pendimethalin at 2.0 l/ha as pre-emergence (3 DAS) followed by one hand weeding on 30 DAS is recommended. If herbicides are not applied, two hand weeding on 15th and 30th DAS are recommended. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 581 Cropping systems: It is usually mixed with maize, sorghum, millets and cassava. The crop rotations are maize-wheat-cowpea, rice-wheat-cowpea, cowpea-wheat-cheena and jowar + cowpea-berseemmaize + cowpea. Harvesting: The plants are harvested when 80% of the pods are matured and threshing is done after drying. The grain yield is 1000–1500 kg/ha and if it is raised for fodder, green fodder yield is 25–35 t/ha. 7. GARDEN LABLAB (Avarai) (Lab lab purpureus var. typicus) The green pods are mostly used as vegetables. Grains are used for human consumption. The leaves and haulms are also used as fodder. It is suggested by villagers in Tamil Nadu that the green pods are good for the persons having diabetics and high blood pressure. Soil and climate: Ideal soils are well drained loam or sandy loam and saline alkali soils are not suitable. Optimum pH range is 6.0–7.5. The crop thrives best",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is suggested by villagers in Tamil Nadu that the green pods are good for the persons having diabetics and high blood pressure. Soil and climate: Ideal soils are well drained loam or sandy loam and saline alkali soils are not suitable. Optimum pH range is 6.0–7.5. The crop thrives best between temperature of 27° and 35°C. Field preparation: The land is prepared to get fine tilth and beds and channels are formed for bushy types and pits of one cubic foot for Pandal types. In Tamil Nadu, it is grown as pandal crop in all villages and even in town areas. Season and varieties Season Month Varieties Kharif (Adipattam) June–July CO 3, CO 4, CO 5, CO 6, CO 8, CO 9, CO 10, CO 11, CO 12, CO13, Rabi (Purattasipattam) September–October CO 3, CO 4, CO 5, CO 6, CO 7, CO 8, CO 9, CO 10, CO 11, CO 12, CO 13, Summer February–March CO 3, CO 4, CO 5, CO 6, CO 8, CO 9, CO 10, CO 11, CO 12, CO 13, CO 7 Seeds and seed treatment: The seed rate for CO 3, CO 4, CO 5, CO 6, CO 7 and CO 8 varieties is 4 kg/ha. Seed rate for CO 9, CO 11 and CO 12 is 20 kg/ha and for CO 10 and CO 13, it is 25 kg/ha for pure crop and 12.5 kg for mixed crop. The seed treatment is done with carbendazim or thiram @ 2 g/kg of seed and then, after interval of 24 hours, the seeds are treated with 3 packets (600 g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertilizer with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing. Fertilizer application: Application of fertilizers basally before sowing for rainfed crops @12.5 kg N + 25 kg P2O5/ha and for irrigated crops",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and then, after interval of 24 hours, the seeds are treated with 3 packets (600 g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertilizer with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing. Fertilizer application: Application of fertilizers basally before sowing for rainfed crops @12.5 kg N + 25 kg P2O5/ha and for irrigated crops at 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P2O5/ha is recommended. For pandal varieties, 115 g each in Ammonium sulphate and super phosphate may be applied. Sowing: The seeds are dibbled adopting a spacing 90 × 90 cm (Climber) for CO 3, CO 4 and CO 5 varieties, 45 × 15 cm for CO 6, CO 7, CO 8, CO 9, CO 10, CO 11 and CO 12 varieties, and 45 × 30 cm for CO 13. Water management: Irrigation is given immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on 3rd day and then, at interval of 10–15 days depending on soil moisture conditions. Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation Weed management: Two hand weeding may be done (first between 20 and 25 DAS and second at 45 DAS). Pruning technique: Spacing of 10 feet between lines and four feet between plants is adopted. Pits are dug (one cubic foot) and 2–3 seeds are sown in the middle of the pit. One healthy seedling is allowed to grow and rest will be removed. The vine is propped with a stick. When the vine reaches the 582 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY pandal, the terminal bud is nipped. Allow the branches to trail over the pandal. Each branch may be pruned at three feet length so that pandal is covered with vines. Branches arising on the main vine below the pandal are removed. When flowering starts, prune the tip of the branches bearing the inflorescence having three nodes from",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the branches to trail over the pandal. Each branch may be pruned at three feet length so that pandal is covered with vines. Branches arising on the main vine below the pandal are removed. When flowering starts, prune the tip of the branches bearing the inflorescence having three nodes from the productive axils. Continue the procedure throughout the reproductive phase. Harvesting: The pods are picked when they are completely dry. The pods are threshed and cleaned the beans. The tender pods are picked once in a week for vegetable use and grain yield is 5–7.5 t/ha and green pod yield is 10–15 t/ha. 8. FIELD LABLAB (Lab lab purpureus var. lignosus) (Mochai) Grains are used for human consumption and found to supply all the amino acids required for disease resistance. The leaves and haulms are also used as fodder. Soil and climate: Ideal soils are well drained loam or sandy loam and saline alkali soils are not suitable. Field preparation: The land is prepared to get fine tilth. Season and varieties Season Month Varieties Kharif (Adipattam) June–July CO1 and CO2 Rabi (Purattasipattam) September–October CO2 Summer February–March CO2 Seeds and seed treatment: The seed rate for CO1 is 20 kg/ha for pure crop and 10 kg/ha for mixed crop. Seed rate for CO2 is 25 kg/ha for pure crop and 12.5 kg/ha for mixed crop. The seed treatment is done with carbendazim or thiram @ 2 g/kg of seed and then, after interval of 24 hours, the seeds are treated with 3 packets (600 g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertilizer with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing. Fertilizer application: Application of fertilizers basally before sowing for rainfed crops @12.5 kg N + 25 kg P2O5/ha and for irrigated crops at 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P2O5/ha is recommended. Sowing: The",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "3 packets (600 g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertilizer with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing. Fertilizer application: Application of fertilizers basally before sowing for rainfed crops @12.5 kg N + 25 kg P2O5/ha and for irrigated crops at 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P2O5/ha is recommended. Sowing: The seeds are dibbled adopting a spacing 90 × 30 cm pure crop and 200 × 30 cm–mixed crop for CO1 and 45 × 15 cm-pure crop and 200 × 15 cm–mixed crop for CO2. Water management: Irrigation is given immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on 3rd day and then, at interval of 10-15 days depending on soil moisture conditions. Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation. Weed management: Two hand weeding may be done (first between 20 and 25 DAS and second at 45 DAS). Harvesting: Dry pods are collected for grain purpose. Green matured pods are collected and extracted grains for vegetable purpose. 9. SOYBEAN (Bhat, Ramkulti) Glycine max Soybean is the richest, cheapest and easiest source of best quality protein and fat and having a vast multiplicity of uses as food and industrial products and hence called as wonder crop. Soybean serves as an important fat and protein source for large population residing in Asia and American continents. It contains 20% oil and 40% high quality protein. Large number of Indian and western dishes are prepared using soybean. It is used for making high protein food for children. Soybean oil is used for AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 583 making vanaspathi and several other industrial products like antibiotics. The crop builds up soil fertility by N fixation (as high as 160 kg N/ha and an average of 100 kg N/ha). It can be used as fodder and forage can be made",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 583 making vanaspathi and several other industrial products like antibiotics. The crop builds up soil fertility by N fixation (as high as 160 kg N/ha and an average of 100 kg N/ha). It can be used as fodder and forage can be made into hay and silage. Cakes are excellent nutritive foods for livestock and poultry. Origin: Eastern Asia or China. Distribution: It is grown in USA, China, Brazil, Mexico and former USSR countries. China and USA together contributes 60% of world production. In India, it is cultivated in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharastra, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. The production of soybean in our country is 78,62,000 t and with a productivity of 1210 kg/ha. Soil and climate: The best soil is well drained fertile loam soils with a pH of 6.0–7.5. Saline and sodic soils inhibit germination while acidic soils require lime application. It can be cultivated in these soils with proper reclamation methods. Water logging is injurious. Optimum temperature requirement is 26.5°–30oC but it is grown in wide range of temperature (5°–40°C ). It grows well in warm and moist climate. Field preparation: The land is prepared well to get fine tilth. Season and varieties: In north India, soybean can be planted from third week of June to first fortnight of July. It is grown in kharif, rabi and summer seasons in Tamil Nadu. In delta areas, it is grown as rice fallow crop during middle of January to middle of March. Season Month Varieties Kharif (Adipattam) June–July CO1 and CO 2 Rabi (Purattasipattam) September–October CO 1 (irrigated ), CO 2 Summer February–March CO 1, CO 2, ADT 1 Rice fallow January–February UGM 21, UGM 37, ADT 1 Seeds and seed treatment: The seed rate for CO1 is 80 kg/ha",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of March. Season Month Varieties Kharif (Adipattam) June–July CO1 and CO 2 Rabi (Purattasipattam) September–October CO 1 (irrigated ), CO 2 Summer February–March CO 1, CO 2, ADT 1 Rice fallow January–February UGM 21, UGM 37, ADT 1 Seeds and seed treatment: The seed rate for CO1 is 80 kg/ha and 60–70 kg/ha for CO2. The seed treatment is done with carbendazim or thiram @ 2 g/kg of seed and then, after interval of 24 hours, the seeds are treated with 3 packets (600 g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertilizer with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing. The seed coating is done with ZnSO4 @ 300 mg/kg using 10% maida solution as adhesive (250 ml/kg) or gruel and arappu leaf powder (250 g/kg) as carrier to increase the field stand. Fertilizer application: Application of 20 kg N, 80 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O along with 40 kg of S as gypsum (220 kg/ha) per ha is recommended as basal under irrigated conditions. 2% DAP foliar spray is given on 40 DAS. Salicylic acid at 100 ppm as foliar spray on 30th and 45th day is also recommended to increase the yield. For rainfed crops, application of 20:40:20 NPK kg/ha is recommended as basal. For Zn deficient soils, application of 25 kg ZnSO4 along with 12.5 t FYM is done basally. For Mn deficient soils, application of 25 kg MnSO4 along with 12.5 t FYM is done basally and if basal application is not given, 1% MnSO4 spray may be given on 20–30 DAS and 40 DAS. Sowing: The seeds are dibbled adopting a spacing of 30 × 5 cm for irrigated crop and 30 × 10 cm for rainfed crop. Depth of sowing is 2–3 cm. Water management: Irrigation is given immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "given on 20–30 DAS and 40 DAS. Sowing: The seeds are dibbled adopting a spacing of 30 × 5 cm for irrigated crop and 30 × 10 cm for rainfed crop. Depth of sowing is 2–3 cm. Water management: Irrigation is given immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on 3rd day and then, at interval of 7–10 days during summer and 10–15 days in winter days depending on soil moisture conditions. The crop should not suffer due to water stress from flowering to maturity. To alleviate moisture stress, spraying of Kaolin 3% or liquid paraffin 1% on the foliage is recommended. Weed management: Pre-emergence application of Fluchloralin at 2.0 lit/ha or pendimethalin at 3.3 lit/ha followed by one hand weeding on 30 DAS is recommended. If herbicide is not applied, two hand weeding (first at 20 DAS and second at 35 DAS) is done. 584 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Cropping system: Soybean is recommended for intercropping with sugarcane, maize, sorghum and cotton. It is generally rotated with wheat–potato–gram–tobacco and potato–wheat. Harvesting: Yellowing of leafs and shedding indicates the maturity. The entire plant is cut when most of the pods have turned yellow. The pods are dried adequately in sun and threshed with sticks to separate the grain. Hand threshing is done for seeds purpose and dried to 8% moisture. The seeds are treated with Thiram @ 2 g/kg and packed in 300 gauge thick poly lined gunny bag or ordinary gunny bag to maintain germination of 70% for 8 months. 10. MOTH BEAN (Dew gram) (Phaseolus aconitifolius) Moth bean is an important pulse crop in desert region and drought tolerant. It is suited to arid and semiarid regions. It is grown for fodder, green manure and cover crop and it improves soil fertility. Origin: India. Distribution: It is cultivated",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "months. 10. MOTH BEAN (Dew gram) (Phaseolus aconitifolius) Moth bean is an important pulse crop in desert region and drought tolerant. It is suited to arid and semiarid regions. It is grown for fodder, green manure and cover crop and it improves soil fertility. Origin: India. Distribution: It is cultivated in India, Thailand, China, Africa and Southern USA. In India, the important growing states are Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat. Season: July. Varieties: Most of the varieties are local and have spreading habit, indeterminate, Viny and late maturing. They are prone to shattering and susceptible to yellow mosaic. Rajasthan : Jadia Gujarat : Baleswar 12, Mevi Fodder type : J 3, RMO 40 Soil and climate: Sandy loam with neutral pH is ideal for dew gram. Saline and alkali soils are not suited. It is a warm weather crop and can be grown in summer season. Field preparation: The crop needs minimum land preparation. Pre-sowing irrigation for proper germination is must. Seed rate: Seed treatment may be done as per other pulses. It can be sown behind the country plough with depth of 4–5 cm. The seed rate for pure crop is 12–15 kg/ha and the spacing between rows is 40–50 cm. The seed rate for mixed crop is 4–5 kg/ha with a spacing of 10–15 cm between plants. The seed rate for fodder crop is 20–25 kg/ha. Manures and fertilizers: Application of FYM at 8–10 t/ha, 15–20 kg N and 40–45 kg P2O5/ha as basal is recommended. For saline soils, application of 15–20 kg ZnSO4/ha may be done once in 3 years. Weed management: Application of Fluchloralin @ 1kg a.i./ha as pre-emergence herbicide or hand weeding twice on 20–25 and 30–35 DAS may be followed. Crop rotation: The common crop rotations are given below: Rainfed Irrigated Sorghum–moth bean–barley Moth bean–potato–wheat",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "application of 15–20 kg ZnSO4/ha may be done once in 3 years. Weed management: Application of Fluchloralin @ 1kg a.i./ha as pre-emergence herbicide or hand weeding twice on 20–25 and 30–35 DAS may be followed. Crop rotation: The common crop rotations are given below: Rainfed Irrigated Sorghum–moth bean–barley Moth bean–potato–wheat Moth bean–pearl millet–mustard Moth bean–radish–wheat Moth bean–gram Moth bean–toria–potato Moth bean–mustard Yield: The yield ranges from 600 to 800 kg/ha. 11. PEAS (Garden pea and Field pea) (Pisum sativum) There are two types: AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 585 1. Garden pea (P. sativum var. hortense): It is also known as table pea. The crop is harvested in immature condition and used for cooking as green vegetables. Seeds are bold and wrinkled with yellowish, whitish or bluish green in colour. The flowers are white in colour. 2. Field pea (P. sativum var. arvense): It is mainly grown as forage crop for cattle; as green manure crop for soil improvement and as cover crop to reduce soil erosion. Matured seeds are used as whole or split. Flowers are coloured. Seeds are rounded and little angular with grayish to brown/ green/yellow in colour. Origin: Mediterranean region of Southern Europe and Western Asia. Distribution: Peas are cultivated in China (ranks first), former USSR, Ethiopia and USA. In India, it is cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana. Soil and climate: Well-drained soil with pH range of 6.0–7.5 is ideal for peas cultivation. It is highly sensitive to water logging. It requires cool growing season with moderate temperature and it can be successfully grown in temperate and semi-arid zones. Season and varieties: It is a rabi season crop in North India. Field pea : Second fort night of October Garden peas : First fortnight of November Table varieties :",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "logging. It requires cool growing season with moderate temperature and it can be successfully grown in temperate and semi-arid zones. Season and varieties: It is a rabi season crop in North India. Field pea : Second fort night of October Garden peas : First fortnight of November Table varieties : Arkel, Bonnville. Early Badger, Early December Filed pea varieties : Type 163, PG 3, Aparna, Hans, Swarna Rekha Field preparation: The land is prepared as a well pulverized seed bed. Seed rate and spacing: Pea type Varieties Seed rate (kg/ha) Row spacing Field peas All 60–80 30 cm Garden peas Early maturing and dwarf 100–125 20 cm Late maturing and tall 75–80 30 cm Weed management: Application of Fluchloralin at 0.75 kg a.i./ha or hand weeding twice is recommended. Cropping systems: Peas are mixed with wheat, barley, oats, rape seed and mustard in north India. It is rotated after maize, paddy, cotton, jowar and bajra. Yield: The green pods yield is 10–12.5 t/ha and 2–3 t/ha for field pea. 12. LENTIL (Lens culinaris) It is an important rabi pulse and is one of the oldest and most nutritious pulse. Whole pulse is known as Malka masoor. It has the potential to cover the risk of rainfed farming. It is used as a cover crop to check soil erosion in dry land areas. It is eaten as dal. The split dal is deep orange (or) orange yellow in colour. It contains protein (25.0%), carbohydrate (60.0%) and fat (1.8%). It is rich in calcium, iron and niacin. Being a leguminous crop, it fixes atmospheric nitrogen and improves soil fertility. Origin: Eastern Mediterranean consists of Asia Minor, Greece and Egypt. Distribution: It is cultivated in India, Turkey, Syria, Pakistan, Spain, and Bangladesh. India ranks first in area and production, followed by Turkey. In",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in calcium, iron and niacin. Being a leguminous crop, it fixes atmospheric nitrogen and improves soil fertility. Origin: Eastern Mediterranean consists of Asia Minor, Greece and Egypt. Distribution: It is cultivated in India, Turkey, Syria, Pakistan, Spain, and Bangladesh. India ranks first in area and production, followed by Turkey. In India, it is mostly grown in central and eastern parts of India (Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal). 586 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Classification: There are two groups: 1. Small seeded group sub sp. microspermae (masuri) 2. Bold seeded group sub sp macrospermae (malkamasur) Soil and climate: It requires cold climate and can be cultivated up to 3000 m above MSL. Lentil is not affected by rain at any stage. It can be raised with moisture conserved during monsoon period. It is a very hardy plant and it can tolerate frost and severe winter. It requires cold temperature during vegetative growth and warm temperature at the time of maturity. Optimum temperature for growth is 18–30°C. Lentil is cultivated in north India (light loams and alluvial soils), Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra (well drained, moderately deep, light black soils) and Punjab (undulated lands). The crop can withstand moderate amount of alkalinity and acid soils are not suitable. Varieties Pusa varieties Punjab varieties Uttar Pradesh varieties Pusa 1 (100–140 days) L 912, LL 56 (150–160 days) Type 8 (120–125 days) Pusa 4 (130–140 days) Type 36 (130–140 days) Pusa 6 (130–135 days) Land preparation: Soil should be made friable. Seed rate and sowing: For normal sown, the seed rate is 30–40 kg/ha and 50–60 kg/ha for late sown. Seed treatment with fungicide and bacterial culture may be given. Best time of sowing is second fortnight of October. Delayed sowing results in heavy yield reduction (after 15th November). Yield reduction can be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and sowing: For normal sown, the seed rate is 30–40 kg/ha and 50–60 kg/ha for late sown. Seed treatment with fungicide and bacterial culture may be given. Best time of sowing is second fortnight of October. Delayed sowing results in heavy yield reduction (after 15th November). Yield reduction can be minimized by closer spacing and higher seed rate. Method of sowing Line sowing : 30 cm row spacing (behind country plough) Broad casing : just like rice fallow pulses Late sown condition : 20 cm spacing Depth of sowing : 2–3 cm Water management: The crop needs 1–2 irrigation i.e., first irrigation on 40 DAS and second irrigation at flowering (or) pod formation. Nutrient management: N at 20–25 kg/ha and P at 50–60 kg/ha is applied. Whenever it is cultivated after rice, 0.5% ZnSO4 foliar spray may be given. Weed management: Application of Fluchloralin at 0.75 kg a.i./ha as pre-planting spray (or) hand weeding twice at 30 DAS and 60 DAS is recommended. Harvesting: When the plants dry up, pods mature and moisture reaches 12%, harvesting is done. Yield: The yield varies from 1.8-2.0 t/ha. 15.6 OIL SEED CROPS The production of oilseeds grew at the rate of 2.84% per year along with productivity growth of 1.95% during 1986-2004, and the area growth of 0.84%. The present productivity is just around 1 t/ha, which needs to be increased to at least 1.3–1.6 t by 2010 and 2015 respectively, if the country has to achieve self-sufficiency in edible oils. Annual oil seed production in the country is faced with high degree of AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 587 variation, as nearly 76% of the oil seed areas are rainfed. It is cultivated in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan West Bengal, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat etc. For the country as a whole,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "seed production in the country is faced with high degree of AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 587 variation, as nearly 76% of the oil seed areas are rainfed. It is cultivated in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan West Bengal, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat etc. For the country as a whole, oil seeds production between 1985–86 and 2003–04 increased by 66.7% due to 19.8% increase in oilseeds area and 38.2% increase in productivity. It is possible to reach 33–35 m. ha under oilseeds by 2015, if efforts are made in all potential areas with appropriate policy back up along with scientific adjustments in cropping systems and patterns. The productivity during 2003–04 is 1067 kg/ha. In 2003–2004, the production is 252.88 m.t. and in 2004–05, it is 248.42 m.t. Major oil seeds 1. GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogaea) A. Origin There are two school of thoughts about its origin-one, it had originated in Africa and the other tracing its origin to Brazil in South America (De Gandolle,1825). Its introduction in India is considered to be through Jesuit Fathers (Missionaries) who followed Vasco De Gama in the first half of the 16th century. The production during 2003–04 was 81.82 m.t. with a productivity of 1364 kg/ha. But the production was 64.76 m.t. during 2004–05. B. Climate and Soil Groundnut is a tropical crop, which requires a long and warm growing season while high rainfall, drought and cold weathers are extremely detrimental for better crop growth. Normally it needs about 70-90°F temperature during its growing period with cold nights at maturity. It can be grown well in tracts, which receive an annual well distributed rainfall of 500–1250 mm. The best type of soil for groundnut cultivation is well drained, light coloured, loose, friable, sandy loam, well supplied with calcium and moderate amount of organic matter. Soils",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "with cold nights at maturity. It can be grown well in tracts, which receive an annual well distributed rainfall of 500–1250 mm. The best type of soil for groundnut cultivation is well drained, light coloured, loose, friable, sandy loam, well supplied with calcium and moderate amount of organic matter. Soils with poor drainage high acidity or alkalinity must be avoided for groundnut cultivation. A soil pH over 5.0 or below 8.5 is supposed to be an ideal for groundnut production. In Uttar Pradesh, it is grown in alluvial sandy to loam soil while in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, the crop is taken in black cotton and red soils. Heavy clay is not fit for groundnut production because soil becomes very hard during drought, which restricts pod formation and development. Even peg penetration becomes difficult. C. Land Preparation For good germination and higher pod yields, it is essential to get a weed free well pulverized, open and aerated seed-bed for sowing. The field must be thoroughly leveled to avoid water logging in any part of the field. A required tilth may be obtained by ploughing twice with country plough or disc plough/ mould board plough followed by two harrowings and planking. If the field is infested with white grubs, chemicals like Heptachlor or Chlordane should be drilled at 25 kg/ha before the final harrowing. To break hardpan, ploughing with chisel plough at 0.5 m interval is done once in 3 years. D. Manuring Groundnut, being a leguminous crop, does not require very high doses of nutrients. Organic manures like FYM or compost at 6.25 t under rainfed and 12.5 t/ha under irrigated conditions, if to be applied, should be spread and mixed well in the soil at least 15–20 days before sowing. In general, it needs about",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "crop, does not require very high doses of nutrients. Organic manures like FYM or compost at 6.25 t under rainfed and 12.5 t/ha under irrigated conditions, if to be applied, should be spread and mixed well in the soil at least 15–20 days before sowing. In general, it needs about 10–20 kg N, 40 kg each of P2O5 and K2O/ha under rain fed conditions while under irrigated conditions, an application of about 20–40 kg N, 40–90 kg P2O5 and 20–40 K2O/ha is sufficient. It is always better to apply N in the form of ammonium sulphate/calcium ammonium nitrate, P as single super phosphate 588 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY and K as muriate of potash. In case of very light soils, the N should be applied in two splits i.e., half at sowing and half (top dressing as band placed) 30 DAS or at the time of last intercultivation. It is observed that Andhra Pradesh soils are deficient in B and Mo whereas north Indian soils are deficient in S, Zn and Ca. These deficiencies may be corrected by application of 5 kg Borax, 1.0 kg Ammonium molybdate, 15–20 kg of Zinc sulphate and 200–500 kg of gypsum/ha. Of these, Borax and Ammonium molybdate should be applied as basal while gypsum should be band placed near roots 30 DAS. These nutrients should be applied in the zone of pod development as they are directly absorbed by the developing pods. To tide over surface crusting, application of lime at 2 t/ha along with FYM or coir pith at 12.5 t/ha is recommended. In Tamil Nadu, if the soil test is done, a blanket fertilizer recommendation of 10:10:45 kg of NPK for rainfed crop and 17:34:54 kg of NPK for irrigated crop is recommended. E. Seed Quality To ensure good stand, uniform maturity,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "with FYM or coir pith at 12.5 t/ha is recommended. In Tamil Nadu, if the soil test is done, a blanket fertilizer recommendation of 10:10:45 kg of NPK for rainfed crop and 17:34:54 kg of NPK for irrigated crop is recommended. E. Seed Quality To ensure good stand, uniform maturity, high yield and better quality produce, one has to be careful about the seed quality. The seed must be pure, viable, uniform in size and free from the seed bone diseases. The seeds should not be broken or damaged by any means. It is better to use hand shelled kernels but if large area is to be sown, groundnut sheller may be used. The germination of the seed should be checked and the seed not having over 90 per cent germination should be selected for sowing. It is observed that the germination in case of bunch type is always higher (90–95 per cent) than the spreading type (85–90 per cent). To ensure the freedom of seed from seed borne diseases, the kernels must be treated with captan or Thiram (Slurry made by mixing 125 g Thiram/100 kg kernel in 500 ml of water). It is observed that some of spreading varieties have a dormancy of 60–75 days before they germinate. Therefore, in case of the freshly harvested kernels are to be used for sowing within the dormancy period, the kernels should be treated with some germination promoting hormones like GA etc. Seed treatment: It is advised that, when groundnut is to be introduced in some new areas where it was never grown, the kernels should be treated with Rhizobium culture for better nodulation, growth and development of the crop. For 50 kg of kernels, prepare 10% solution of gum Arabic in water, add gur (Jaggary) to make a solution of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to be introduced in some new areas where it was never grown, the kernels should be treated with Rhizobium culture for better nodulation, growth and development of the crop. For 50 kg of kernels, prepare 10% solution of gum Arabic in water, add gur (Jaggary) to make a solution of 5%. When it is dissolved, add 2–3 packets (200 g each) of peat based culture, pour the groundnut kernels and agitate the content to make a slurry. When all the kernels have had an uniform coating of the slurry, spread them out on newspaper sheets in the shade. Reject the left over slurry after use and sow the seeds when they have dried completely. In Tamil Nadu, the seeds are treated with Trichoderma at 4 g/kg of seeds (or) with Thiram at 4 g/kg of seeds. F. Sowing (i) Time of sowing: In north India, groundnut is grown during kharif (April-July under irrigated conditions and between June 20 and July 31 under rain fed conditions). In Tamil Nadu, the crop is sown from May to July where as in Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat, it is sown between January and March. The season and varieties for Tamil Nadu conditions are given below: Rain fed Chittirai pattam (April–May) VRI 2, 3, JL24, CO2, TMV2 Early Adipattam (June–July) TMV2, VRI3, VRI4 Late Adipattam (July–Aug) JL 24, VRI2 Aippasipattam (Oct) JL24, VRI2. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 589 Irrigated Summer (AprilJuly) VRI2, VRI3, BSR1 Margazhi pattam (Dec-Jan) VRI2, VRI3, BSR1. Masi pattam (Feb-Mar) VRI2, VRI3, BSR1, JL24 (ii) Seed rate: The seed rate depends upon boldness, spacing and germination percentage of seeds. On an average, the seed rate of spreading type comes to 60-70 kg/ha while for bunch type, it is about 85–90 kg/ha. In Tamil Nadu, the seed rate for irrigated",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(Feb-Mar) VRI2, VRI3, BSR1, JL24 (ii) Seed rate: The seed rate depends upon boldness, spacing and germination percentage of seeds. On an average, the seed rate of spreading type comes to 60-70 kg/ha while for bunch type, it is about 85–90 kg/ha. In Tamil Nadu, the seed rate for irrigated crop is 125 kg of Kernels/ha and it is 140 kg of Kernels/ha for rainfed crop. (iii) Method of sowing: It is sown either by dibbling the seeds behind the plough or by using a seed drill. In case of irrigated crop, it is better to prepare ridges and furrows and dibble the seeds on ridges. In case of rainfed light soils, the crop is sown in flat beds. Form 10 m2–20 m2 beds depending upon the avail of water, slope and soil type. Bed former may also be engaged. The groundnut seeds should be sown at a depth of 5–8 cm in light soils and 4-6 cm in case of moderate to heavy soil types. To ensure a good and proper germination a light covering with soil is required over the seed. Sometimes rodents and crows are noticed to take away the seeds from the field, therefore, use of some repellants like pine tar and kerosene for seed treatment are recommended, but care should be taken to avoid any injury to the kernels. (iv) Spacing: It varies according to irrigation facilities and type of seed. In bunch type and rainfed crop, the spacing of 20–30 × 8–10 cm is followed. The spacing for semi-spreading and spreading types with irrigation facilities is 30–40 cm × 10–15 cm and 50 cm × 15–20 cm respectively. The spacing for ground nut in Tamil Nadu is 30 × 10 cm. G. Irrigation Generally groundnut is grown as a rainfed crop during kharif season",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "followed. The spacing for semi-spreading and spreading types with irrigation facilities is 30–40 cm × 10–15 cm and 50 cm × 15–20 cm respectively. The spacing for ground nut in Tamil Nadu is 30 × 10 cm. G. Irrigation Generally groundnut is grown as a rainfed crop during kharif season though its water requirement varies from 500–700 mm but if crop is caught in a long spell of drought, especially at the pod formation stage, supplemental irrigation is given. In case of irrigated crop, the frequency of irrigation depends upon soil texture and the interval between the irrigations ranges between 8–12 days. The critical stage for irrigation is flowering pegging and pod formation. Giving two irrigations during flowering, two irrigations during pegging and 2–3 irrigations during pod development stages is done. There should be sufficient moisture at the sowing time in the field, thus if the crop is to be sown before onset of monsoon the field should be given one light pre-sowing irrigation for better germination, followed by life irrigation on 4–5 DAS. The winter and summer crops are always grown under assured irrigation. The irrigation must be stopped about 20–25 days prior to maturity. H. Weed Management Weeds may cause reduction in the yield to the extent of 20–40% based on nature of weed infestations in the field. To kept the soil loose and friable and the field free from weeds, the crop should be given a hand weeding 20–25 DAS and one or two hoeing—the first at the time of weeding and second about a fortnight later. The intercultural operations should be stopped after the pegs have started going into the soil. The bunch and semi spreading types should be given a light earthing to facilitate the maximum penetration of the pegs into the soil. For weed",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the time of weeding and second about a fortnight later. The intercultural operations should be stopped after the pegs have started going into the soil. The bunch and semi spreading types should be given a light earthing to facilitate the maximum penetration of the pegs into the soil. For weed control problem, application of TOK-E-25 or Lasso at 5 l of commercial material dissolved in 500 litres of water as pre-emergence soil spray within 2–3 DAS is done. In Tamil Nadu, pre sowing or pre emergence application of Fluchloralin at 2.0 litre/ha followed by one hand weeding on 35–45 DAS is recommended. If herbicides are not applied, two hand hoeing on 20 and 40 DAS is recommended. 590 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY I. Mixed Cropping It is growing with several erect growing crops like bajra, arhar, castor, sesame, cotton, maize, sunflower etc. The number of groundnut rows between two rows of any of the said crops depends upon their interrow spacing and type groundnut, i.e., bunch, semi-spreading or spreading to be grown. Gypsum application: Gypsum should be applied at 400 kg/ha on 40–45 DAS for intercropping and 40–70 DAS depending upon moisture. Hoeing and incorporating it is done, followed by earthing up. Gypsum encourages pod formation and better filling of up of the pods. J. Use of Hormones Use of hormone was not very much practical in the past but with the advancement of the production technology now application of certain hormones has become a common practice. Seeding the growth behaviour of the crop we find that groundnut usually suffers from two drawbacks—the first is that the crop being non-determinate keeps on flowering and production of pegs simultaneously until maturity and the second is that the pods start germinating at once after reaching physiological maturity, if they get water. As",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "behaviour of the crop we find that groundnut usually suffers from two drawbacks—the first is that the crop being non-determinate keeps on flowering and production of pegs simultaneously until maturity and the second is that the pods start germinating at once after reaching physiological maturity, if they get water. As a result and effective pods germinate if there is rain or irrigation. Thus both the conditions lead to very poor yield and quality of the crop. Application of L-NAA in the form of planofix and Vaardhak at 20 ppm at the time of flowering is done to reduce the excessive vegetative growth and flowering period which ultimately increases the number of effective pods/plant, test weight and the yield/unit area. It has also been observed that their two applications at lower concentration are better than one application at higher concentration. The most ideal time for application is 40–80 DAS. Application of MH (Maleic hydrozide) near maturity results in inducing dormancy in the pods for about 20–30 days which checks the germination of matured pods even if they get water. However, the chemical being very expensive is not commonly applied. K. Harvesting Yellowing of leaves is the prominent symptom of maturity. The leaf yellowing is associated with leaf shedding (particularly, the older ones), development of proper colour of shell and a dark tint on the inner side of the shells. It is better to observe the crop duration. Usually the crop takes about 120–140 days time to mature depending upon the variety and the harvesting is done in the month of OctoberNovember accordingly. At maturity, the crop is badly damaged by crows, jackals, pigs etc. which need vigilance. After maturity, the bunch and semi-spreading types are generally harvested by hand pulling at an appropriate soil moisture, while the spreading types are harvested",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and the harvesting is done in the month of OctoberNovember accordingly. At maturity, the crop is badly damaged by crows, jackals, pigs etc. which need vigilance. After maturity, the bunch and semi-spreading types are generally harvested by hand pulling at an appropriate soil moisture, while the spreading types are harvested by digging out the plants with the help of khurpi, spade or by ploughing the field. The left out pods in the soil are collected by hand, later. The pulled out plants are stacked in a safe place for a few days to dry and are stripped afterwards. The stripped pods are cleaned nicely and dried to a safe moisture content of not more than 5% before they are stored because dampness will cause fermentation of pods and allow to develop the poisonous moulds like Aspergillus flavus in the kernel. These moulds lead to contamination with afflotoxin which create a health hazard to both human and cattle who consume the kernels. Ground strippers are also used for separating pods from the plant. L. Yield The pod yield is controlled by several factors like climate, soil and varietal potentiality. In general, the irrigated groundnut crop produces about 30–35 q pods/ha and rain fed about 15–20 q pods/ha. The yield of haulms is usually two to two and half times of pods’ yield. The shelling percentage ranges between 70-75% and the kernels have on an average 45–50% oil in them. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 591 Fig. 15.15 Groundnut stripper M. Post Harvest Technology Drying: Generally, moisture in pods is found to be around or excess of 40% (on wet basis) depending upon stage of maturity at harvest. The pods must be dried to 5-10% moisture for safe storage and for preventing molding and other forms of deterioration. It helps",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "M. Post Harvest Technology Drying: Generally, moisture in pods is found to be around or excess of 40% (on wet basis) depending upon stage of maturity at harvest. The pods must be dried to 5-10% moisture for safe storage and for preventing molding and other forms of deterioration. It helps in maintenance of the desirable flavour, texture, germination and viability of kernels etc. Storage: All the damaged or injured pods must be sorted out before they are stored. Well cleaned and dried pods to 5% moisture level should be stored after filling in gunny bags. The bags are stacked in a store room in tiers comprising not more than ten bags in each tier. The tiers must be staked on wooden planks in such a way that the air keeps on circulating to avoid damage from dampness, rate etc. The room should be inspected periodically and proper control measures of rats and pests should be taken. The store should be fumigated, if needed and made airtight. The groundnut should be stored in the form of pods rather than kernels but the broken and damaged pods must be taken out and discarded. Apart from this the undersized/underdeveloped and unfilled pods (pop-pods) should also be discarded because their presence reduces the market price. 2. SESAME (Sesamum indicum) Sesame production in India during 2003–04 was 8.03 m.t. with a productivity 453 kg/ha, but during 2004–05, the production was 6.48 m.t. Sesame is mostly grown in rainfed areas receiving an annual rainfall of 500–700 mm but it cannot stand frost, continued rain or prolonged drought. The crop may be grown on a variety of soil types ranging from sandy loam to heavy black soils, with a pH ranging from 5.5 to 8.2. In north India, the crop is mostly grown during kharif and in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "mm but it cannot stand frost, continued rain or prolonged drought. The crop may be grown on a variety of soil types ranging from sandy loam to heavy black soils, with a pH ranging from 5.5 to 8.2. In north India, the crop is mostly grown during kharif and in some places during summer season, but in central parts of India, it is grown in kharif, rabi and summer. Kharif and semirabi crops are completely rain fed but summer crop is grown under assured irrigation for which it is sown in May/June, August-September and February–March respectively. 592 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Varieties Andhra Pradesh : Gowri (C. 1036), T 85 Gujarat : Mrug-1, Purva-1, Patan-64, Patan-65 Madhya Pradesh : G-5, T-4, G-35, N0-128, N-32 Maharashtra : D. 7-11-1, N. 58-2, N.128, T. 85 and Chanda-8. Orissa : Vinayka, Kalika, Kanak Rajasthan : Pratap (C-50), T. 13 Uttar Pradesh : T. 4, T. 10, T. 12, T. 13, T 22 Bihar : Kanke white, M-3-1, M-2-3, M-3-3. Season and varieties for Tamil Nadu Rain fed Adipattam (Jun-July) – CO 1, TMV 3, 5, VRI 1, 2 Karthigai pattam (OctoberNovember) – CO 1, TMV 3, 5, VRI 1, 2 Summer season (Masipattam) (FebruaryMarch) – CO 1, TMV 3, 5, VRI 1, 2 Irrigated Masi pattam (Feb-March) – TMV 3, TMV 4, VRI 2 Rice fallows – VRI 1 Characteristic features of some important varieties Type-4: It matures in 100 days and yields 6–7 q/ha. It has reddish white flowers, seeds are white and have 52% oil. Type-10: It matures in 80–90 days. Seeds are white and have 50–52% oil. It s a selection from Varanasi local. Kalika: It is improved from Vinayak and recommended for kharif and zaid sowing. It may produce 8–9 q/ha during kharif and 13–14 q/ha during summer",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "white and have 52% oil. Type-10: It matures in 80–90 days. Seeds are white and have 50–52% oil. It s a selection from Varanasi local. Kalika: It is improved from Vinayak and recommended for kharif and zaid sowing. It may produce 8–9 q/ha during kharif and 13–14 q/ha during summer season. Kanak: It is selection from Vinayak and T. 4 and has grey seeds. The variety is recommended for Orissa. Kankie white: This has white seeds, matures in 120 days and can produce 4–6 q/ha. The oil content is 50%. M-3-1: It is recommended for Bihar, it has black seeds, matures in 142–150 days and can produce 3-6 q seeds/ha. Pratap: It is recommended for Rajasthan. This variety matures in 95–100 days and has white seeds and can produce 5–10 q/ha. The oil content is about 48%. Rt-46: 75 days duration, white seeded, resistant to diseases. It produces about 6 q/ha and is found suitable for Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh. Improved Selection 5: 80–85 days duration, seeds are reddish brown in colour, it is resistant to stem rot, bacterial leaf blight, tolerant to leaf spot, phyllody and powdery mildew. It produces 6–7 q/ha and is recommended for West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and western Uttar Pradesh. B. Field Preparation The field is ploughed 3–5 times with country plough or thrice with mould board plough. To break hard AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 593 pan, ploughing with chisel plough at 0.5 m depth is done. For irrigated gingelly, beds of 10 m2 or 20 m2 are formed depending upon the water availability. In rice fallows, the field is ploughed once with optimum moisture and seed is sown immediately and covered with one more ploughing. Application of FYM/compost/composted coir pith at",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "0.5 m depth is done. For irrigated gingelly, beds of 10 m2 or 20 m2 are formed depending upon the water availability. In rice fallows, the field is ploughed once with optimum moisture and seed is sown immediately and covered with one more ploughing. Application of FYM/compost/composted coir pith at 12.5 t/ha as basal is recommended. The blanket fertilizer recommendation for Tamil Nadu is as follows: Rainfed crop – 23: 13: 13/17: 13: 13 + 3 packets of Azospirillum Irrigated crop – 35: 23: 23/21: 23: 23 + 3 packets of Azospirillum Full dose of NPK should be applied basally and 5 kg of manganese sulphate/ha is added. Two sprays of 1% DAP should be given at the time of first flowering and 10 days after first spray. C. Seed Rate The seed rate varies from 3–5 kg/ha which is mixed with sand (four times volume of dry seed) for proper distribution and drilled to 3 cm depth in lines at a row to row spacing of 25–35 cm during summer but during kharif season a spacing of 35–45 cm × 12–15 cm is followed. In Tamil Nadu, the spacing for rice fallows is 30 × 30 cm in rice fallow and seeds are broadcasted and thinned to maintain 11 plants/m2. D. Seed Treatment The seeds are treated with Captan or Thiram at 3 g/kg of seed to control fungal diseases. In Tamil Nadu, the seeds are treated with Trichoderma at 4 g/kg of seeds. E. After Cultivation Thinning is done on 15 DAS by 15 cm spacing and 30 DAS by 30 cm spacing. Hand weeding on 20 DAS is done or a pre-emergence application of Lasso at 3 l/ha is recommended. In Tamil Nadu, application of Alachor at 1.25 kg a.i./ha on 20 DAS is recommended and irrigate",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "done on 15 DAS by 15 cm spacing and 30 DAS by 30 cm spacing. Hand weeding on 20 DAS is done or a pre-emergence application of Lasso at 3 l/ha is recommended. In Tamil Nadu, application of Alachor at 1.25 kg a.i./ha on 20 DAS is recommended and irrigate immediately or weed and hoe on 15 and 35 DAS. F. Water Management Normally the crop is grown as rainfed during kharif but the rabi and summer crop need irrigation. The crop should be irrigated twice in rabi season (at flowering and grain filling) whereas summer crop needs 3 irrigations. In Tamil Nadu, irrigation at sowing, life irrigation on 7 DAS (depending on the soil and climatic condition), pre-flowering irrigation (25 days) (one at flowering and 1–2 at pod setting) is recommended. G. Harvest The physiological maturity symptoms are; 25% of bottom leaves from bottom are shed, the top leaves, stem and capsules colour will turn yellow; before the bottom capsules turn brown and observe the crop duration and examine 10th capsule from the bottom by opening. The physiologically matured crop having leaves still green should be harvested by cutting the plants with sickles, which are carried to threshing floor and stacked for a week (one over the other in a circle with the stems pointing out and the top position positing inside) by covering the top with straw and cure it for 3 days. Later, the plants are well shaken by holding upside down (75% of seeds will fall off) or by beating with stick to take out the seeds. The plants are dried again for one more day and again the plants are shaked. The seeds are winnowed, dried in sun for 3 days and stored in gunnies. 594 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY H. Plant Protection To control",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "off) or by beating with stick to take out the seeds. The plants are dried again for one more day and again the plants are shaked. The seeds are winnowed, dried in sun for 3 days and stored in gunnies. 594 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY H. Plant Protection To control leaf-eating caterpillar and gall-fly, spraying of Carbaryl 0.2% or Endosulfan (0.5 kg a.i./ha) on 40 and 60 DAS. Three sprayings of 100 ppm Agrimycin at 15 days interval control the bacterial leaf spot disease. Spraying of 0.05% of any Phosphomidon or Dimethioate kills the insect vectors responsible for spread of phyllody and leaf-curl in sesamum. I. Yield A Good kharif crop gives about 200–500 kg seed yield/ha while rabi and summer crop yield about 300–600 kg seed/ha. 3. SUNFLOWER (Helianthus annuus L.) Sunflower production in India during 2003–04, was 991000 t with a productivity of 496 kg/ha, but during 2004–05, the production was 12.41 m.t. Sunflower has three sub-species viz., H. annus var. macrocarpus (DC), H. annus var. lenticularis (Dough) and H. annus var. jaegeri (Heiser) which are cultivated ones. The wild species are H. anomalus, H. orgophllus, H. bolanderi, H. deblis sp. Bedlis, H. deserticola, H. neglectus, H. riveus sp. Conesceus, H. paradoxus, H. periolasis, H. praccex sp. (hirtus, praecox, runyonii), H. mutalli (All having no. = 17 chromosomes) and H. tuberosus (51 chromosomes). Sunflower cultivars vary greatly in plant height, time of maturity, number, diameter and colour of heads; size, shape, colour, oil and husk content of seeds and suitability for different climates. Thus, the cultivars may be divided into following types: 1. Giant types: 180–420 cm tall, late maturing, heads 30–35 cm in diameter, seeds large, white or grey with lower oil content, variety–‘Mammoth Russian’. 2. Semi Dwarf types: 130–180 cm tall, early maturing, heads 18–24 cm",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and suitability for different climates. Thus, the cultivars may be divided into following types: 1. Giant types: 180–420 cm tall, late maturing, heads 30–35 cm in diameter, seeds large, white or grey with lower oil content, variety–‘Mammoth Russian’. 2. Semi Dwarf types: 130–180 cm tall, early maturing, heads 18–24 cm in diameter; seeds smaller, black/grey, higher oil content, variety–‘Pole Star’, Jupiter. 3. Dwarf types: 60–130 cm tall, early maturing, heads 12–17 cm in diameter, seeds small, highest oil content, variety–‘advance’, ‘sunrise’ etc. A. Varietal Improvement In India, heterosis breeding was initiated in early seventies over better parents for yield and yield components involving CMS lines and restorers Hybrid 1 (BSH 1) and BSH 2 evolved at Bangalore showed yield stability under various agro climatic zones of the country. Subsequently 1980 BSH 1 was released for commercial cultivation. The hybrids have following advantage over open pollinated varieties: • Hybrids have high yield potential and are responsive to higher inputs. • They are superior in their seed filling ability and are comparatively more self fertile. • They are more tolerant to diseases and pests and have higher drought tolerance. B. Seed Dormancy and Viability The sunflower seeds (achenes) remain dormant up to 40–45 days of harvesting however, the dehusked seeds may germinate from 10th day after harvest. Exogenous application of ethrel, benzyl adevine and GA promotes germination of achenes. Pre-soaking of dormant seeds with ethrel solution (25 ppm) equivalent to 40% by volume of seeds has been found to be optimum. The soaking period may vary from 6 to 24 hrs. The achenes should be dried in shade and then may be sown directly. Usually sunflower seeds remain viable for 10–12 months but under hot humid conditions, the seeds lose viabil AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 595 ity quickly. At",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "soaking period may vary from 6 to 24 hrs. The achenes should be dried in shade and then may be sown directly. Usually sunflower seeds remain viable for 10–12 months but under hot humid conditions, the seeds lose viabil AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 595 ity quickly. At 50–85% relative humidity, seeds lose viability even under high humidity conditions. Short-terms seed hardening treatment given to 6 month old seeds extends viability up to 10 months. C. Advantages of Sunflower Cultivation Being a short duration, it can be well suited as catch crop. It is a drought, frost and salt tolerant crop. There is very slow degeneration in seed quality hence the same seed can be sued for sowing up to 4–5 years. Being thermo and photo insensitive, it can be grown any time in the age, year, in any part of the country and under any type of cropping system. Sunflower is a useful crop for apiculture (bee keeping) as it attracts the bees and provides them nectar. The rainy season sunflower is mostly grown as rain fed crop in which few crops like groundnut (2:6), ragi (2:5), cowpea or black gram (2:3) may be successfully intercropped. D. Season Sunflower, being photo and thermo non-sensitive, can be grown thrice in a year i.e., rabi (October/ November), zaid (January/February) and kharif (June/July). The season and varieties for Tamil Nadu condition are given below: Rain fed Adipattam (June-July) K1, K2, CO1, CO2, EC 68415 Karthigai pattam (October–November) K1, K2, CO1, CO2, Modern Irrigated April–May K1, K2, CO1, CO2, EC 68415, Modern December January K1, K2, CO1, CO2, EC 68415, Modern E. Seed Treatment The seeds are treated with Captan or Dithane or Thiram or Brasicol @ 2 g/kg of seed before sowing. F. Field Preparation Generally sunflower is grown as",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "CO2, Modern Irrigated April–May K1, K2, CO1, CO2, EC 68415, Modern December January K1, K2, CO1, CO2, EC 68415, Modern E. Seed Treatment The seeds are treated with Captan or Dithane or Thiram or Brasicol @ 2 g/kg of seed before sowing. F. Field Preparation Generally sunflower is grown as a rain fed crop in kharif, hence to make use of rain water, it is necessary to plough the land once by a mould-board plough followed by harrowing soon after the onset of the rains. The crop prefers deep fertile soil adequately supplied with moisture without producing water logged conditions that adversely affects the germination of seed. In Tamil Nadu, the sunflower is raised in ridges and furrows of 6 m long and the seeds are placed at 3 cm depth (two seeds per hole) along the furrows in which the fertilizer mixture is placed and the soil is covered. G. Sowing and Seed Rate Seeds having over 70% germination and 80 g test weight (of 1,000 seeds) would be sown at 8–10 kg/ ha rate in spacing of 45–60 cm × 20–25 cm. In Tamil Nadu, the seed rate for varieties is 15 kg/ha and for CO 1, it is 30 kg/ha. In order to have a stand of 80,000 healthy plants/ha thinning or gap filling is required during early stage of crop growth. H. Manuring After leveling the land, fertilizer @60:40:20 kg/ha of NPK respectively for low fertility and 40:30:20 kg/ha of NPK respectively for high fertility soils should be applied and mixed properly with the soil. The IARI however, recommends 40:60:20 kg/ha NPK respectively. To increase the efficiency of nitrogen, 60% of nitrogen may be applied as basal and the remaining top dressed on 40 DAS. Increase in 596 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY yield and oil content",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "should be applied and mixed properly with the soil. The IARI however, recommends 40:60:20 kg/ha NPK respectively. To increase the efficiency of nitrogen, 60% of nitrogen may be applied as basal and the remaining top dressed on 40 DAS. Increase in 596 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY yield and oil content have been reported by application of gypsum and sulphur especially in saline and alkaline soils. In Tamil Nadu, the following is the manuring schedule: • Application of 12.5 t/ha of FYM or compost or composted coir pith evenly on the field before the last ploughing. • Basal application of 40:20:20 kg NPK/ha for both irrigated and rain fed crops. • Soil application of Azospirillum (10 packet -2000 g/ha) with 25 kg FYM or soil after sowing. • Application of micronutrient at 12.5 kg/ha with enough sand to make a total quantity of 50 kg/ha on the furrows. I. Weed Management The crop should be kept weed free upto 45 days of sowing. Mechanical weeding twice at 20–25 and at 30–35 DAS are recommended for effective control of weeds. In labour scarcity areas, pre-emergence application of TOK-E-25 @ 1.5–2 kg a.i./ha or Prometryne @ 1.0 kg a.i/ha or Alachlor @ 1.5 kg a.i/ha may be done for economical and efficient control of weeds. In Tamil Nadu, application of Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha or pendimethalin at 2.5 lit/ha as pre-emergence spray followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 DAS is recommended. J. Irrigation The crop being drought resistant, may very well be grown under rain fed conditions. However, under irrigated conditions, one or two irrigations are required to increase the yield, although germination, flowering and dough stages are critical for irrigation. In Tamil Nadu, Irrigation is given immediately after sowing, followed by an irrigation on 4th–5th DAS and later at intervals of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "grown under rain fed conditions. However, under irrigated conditions, one or two irrigations are required to increase the yield, although germination, flowering and dough stages are critical for irrigation. In Tamil Nadu, Irrigation is given immediately after sowing, followed by an irrigation on 4th–5th DAS and later at intervals of 7–8 days. K. Plant Protection The crop does not have serious insect-pest and disease problems. To control leaf caterpillars, leaf weevils, Heliothis and thrips, spraying Endosulfan (35 EC) or phosalone (35 EC) at 1000 ml/ha is recommended. The attack of grass hoppers at seedling stage and green bug at flowering stage can be controlled by dusting 10% BHC @ 30 kg/ha. Spraying Mancozeb 1 kg/ha for the control of alternaria leaf spot and spot drenching of carbendazium at 5 g/10 lit. of water for the control of charcoal rot is recommended. Sunflower is essentially a cross-pollinated crop. So, selection of suitable insecticide that is not harmful to pollination may be selected. Birds are a menace during seed formation stage and constant vigilance to scare them away is necessary. L. Hand-pollination Sunflower is a self-incompatible and depends on insects (mainly bees) for cross-pollination and seedset, therefore, it is essential that adequate pollinators are present in the field, for pollen movement and seed-set. Otherwise the heads bear chaffy and partially filled seeds resulting into drastic reduction in yield and quality of the produce. Keeping bee hives at 5/ha in the field increases crop yield. Handpollination gives an increase in the crop yield to the extent of 18–25%. Hand-pollination could be done by gentle rubbing of the sunflower heads with palm or with soft muslin clothes during flowing period between 7 and 11 am on alternate days for about two weeks. M. Harvesting At maturity, the back of the floral heads and outer",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to the extent of 18–25%. Hand-pollination could be done by gentle rubbing of the sunflower heads with palm or with soft muslin clothes during flowing period between 7 and 11 am on alternate days for about two weeks. M. Harvesting At maturity, the back of the floral heads and outer bracts turn yellow and then to brown colour respectively. The heads (capitula) harvested from the plants are dried for 3 days by spreading the heads in thin layer and turning them once in 3 hours and after the drying, threshing and cleaning is done to separate AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 597 the seeds. Seeds when harvested at 8–10% moisture level, have better keeping quality and higher oil content. The stalks may be used as fuel or for making high quality compost. One ha should yield 20–25 q sunflower seed. The seeds should be bagged at 6% moisture level for better keeping quality and germination. The oil must be extracted within 90 days of harvesting, otherwise it becomes bitter in taste especially when stored under damp conditions. Such seeds also lose their viability. N. Problems in Growing Sunflower • Greater menace of the birds especially of crows and parrots. • Poor filling of seeds especially of disc florets. • Unavailability of ideo-types and their superior seeds. • Poor viability and lesser keeping quality of seeds. • Poor market and acceptability of raw and fresh oil by the customers. • Oil becomes bitter if not extracted within 90 days of harvesting. • Plant protection (chemicals cannot be used as they kill the pollinators). • Rains at maturity destroy the seed quality. 4. RAPE AND MUSTARD (Brassica Sp.) Rape seed and mustard production in India during 2003–04 was 61.98 m.t. with productivity of 1151 kg/ha, but during 2003–04, the production",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of harvesting. • Plant protection (chemicals cannot be used as they kill the pollinators). • Rains at maturity destroy the seed quality. 4. RAPE AND MUSTARD (Brassica Sp.) Rape seed and mustard production in India during 2003–04 was 61.98 m.t. with productivity of 1151 kg/ha, but during 2003–04, the production was 75.39 m.t. A. Climate and Soil In India, rape and mustard is grown during winter season and it is observed that the crop needs about 18°C–25°C temperature, low humidity, practically no rain especially at the time of flowering. Rainfall, high humidity practically no rain especially at the time of flowering. Rainfall, high humidity and cloudy weather are not good for the crop during winter as it invites aphids and the crop gets spoiled completely. However, under rain fed conditions, one to two pre-flowering rains help in boosting the grain yield. Excessive cold and frost are harmful to the crop. Generally the rape and mustards thrive best in medium or heavy loam soils. Though the crop is grown during winter seasons and there is very little chance of water logging but still due to heavy winter rains, the water may get accumulated and cause a temporary water logging. Very light soils usually cause a serious moisture stress and a poor crop growth is observed. Saline and alkaline soils are often not fit for the crop though it has good tolerance to such conditions. B. Preparation of Land It requires a fine, firm, moist seedbed so that a reliable moisture supply is assured for germinating seeds and young seedlings. For this, the field should be given one pre-sowing irrigation if there is less moisture in the field. The field should be given a deep ploughing soon after the kharif crop is harvested in middle of September. Thereafter, it may be ploughed",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is assured for germinating seeds and young seedlings. For this, the field should be given one pre-sowing irrigation if there is less moisture in the field. The field should be given a deep ploughing soon after the kharif crop is harvested in middle of September. Thereafter, it may be ploughed for 3–4 times with desi plough and planking after each ploughing. The crop and weed stubbles along with established weeds should be picked up and thrown out of the field. In dry land areas where pre-sowing irrigation is not possible, the seed may be spread in damp place at night and next morning it should be sown. It increases the germination percentage of the seeds. C. Time of Sowing Sowing time is very important as the attack of aphids and the extent of damage can be reduced considerably by sowing the crop earlier or before middle of November. Toria must be sown between mid and 598 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY last week of September as the crop suffers badly from cold if sown late and the crop duration is increased without any additional yield due to slow growth that occurs due to lower temperature. D. Seed Rate A pure crop of mustard and rape seed needs about 6–7.5 kg/ha and toria needs 4–5 kg/ha, while mixed or intercrop of mustard requires about 2.5–3 kg seed/ha however, seed rate in case of mixed crop depends on its proportionate area to the main crop. The depth of seeding should not exceed 3 cm and the seeds are treated with thiram or captan @ 2.5 g/kg before sowing. E. Method of Sowing Line sowing is better than broadcasting, although broadcasting in case of high moisture conditions is common especially for ‘toria’ crop. Thus, it may be sown in shallow furrows behind desi plough",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cm and the seeds are treated with thiram or captan @ 2.5 g/kg before sowing. E. Method of Sowing Line sowing is better than broadcasting, although broadcasting in case of high moisture conditions is common especially for ‘toria’ crop. Thus, it may be sown in shallow furrows behind desi plough or through seed drill or ‘mala basa’. F. Spacing A spacing of 40–45 cm × 15 cm is recommended for rai and lotani sarson but 30 cm × 10–15 cm is recommended for yellow sarson and tora brown sarson. Sowing mustard in parallel rows 150–200 cm apart alternating with the main crop is recommended as a mixed crop with wheat. However, broadcasting of mixed seed is still in practice but it gives a poor seed yield. G. Manuring It is grown with nominal use or no use of fertilizers under rainfed condition. It is better that the soil of the selected field should be analyzed and application be made accordingly. If it is not done, application of only basal dose of 50–60 kg N/ha is sufficient for the rainfed crop. Indian mustard varieties of B. napus and B. juncea have a very short growing season and, therefore, their N requirement is very low, however, the mustard, sarson have shown better response up to 100–150 kg N/ha. It is advisable to apply about half at sowing time and rest at about 30 days after sowing, when thinning, weeding and first irrigation are over. A dose 60–100 kg N, 40–60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O per hectare may be recommended for long duration varieties. Regarding the mode of application it has been found that half of nitrogen with entire dose of phosphate and potash should be basal placed about 5–7 cm below the seed or by the side of the seed",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and 40 kg K2O per hectare may be recommended for long duration varieties. Regarding the mode of application it has been found that half of nitrogen with entire dose of phosphate and potash should be basal placed about 5–7 cm below the seed or by the side of the seed and remaining half of the nitrogen should be top-dressed about 30–35 DAS, while for ‘toria’ or short duration varieties 40–60 kg N, 20–30 kg P2O5 and 20 kg K2O/ha has been found to be good dose which should be basal placed. Variety Nutrients in kg/ha Method of application N P K Early Torai/Lahi 30–50 25 – All basal Mustard/Sarson(irrigated) 80–150 60 – Half basal + half top-dressing at 30–35 DAS Mustard/Sarson (Rain fed) 40–60 25 20 All basal placed Taramire (Rain fed) 30–40 20 – All basal In general, the following doses are found to be optimum: Rain fed: An amount of 40 kg/ha N along with 15 kg of P and K both for all rapeseed and mustard crops. Irrigated: An amount of 40, 60 and 80 kg/ha N are considered optimum for ‘toria’, ‘sarson’ and AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 599 ‘raya’ respectively, however, for taramira, 20 kg N/ha is found to be the best dose. Phosphate and potash have not given any positive response; hence they are not needed until the soil is deficient in them. H. Water Management Mustard requires about 310–400 mm of water which should be provided by giving two irrigations —first at flowering/branching stage and second at pod (siliqua) formation stage (first at 30 DAS and second at 60–65 DAS) in a crop of 110–120 days duration. I. Weed Management Manual weeding once about 25–30 DAS is recommended. Orabanche may be controlled by hand pulling and growing mustard after 2–3 years.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "at flowering/branching stage and second at pod (siliqua) formation stage (first at 30 DAS and second at 60–65 DAS) in a crop of 110–120 days duration. I. Weed Management Manual weeding once about 25–30 DAS is recommended. Orabanche may be controlled by hand pulling and growing mustard after 2–3 years. J. Plant Protection Application of Dithane M–45 at 1.5 kg/ha or 2–3 applications of Bordeaux mixture is done to control alternaria blight and rust. Aphids may be controlled by spraying of Methyl Demeton. Aldrin/Heptachlor/Chlordane @ 25kg/ha controls cutworms and BHC 25 kg/ha controls sawfly. K. Harvesting The crop should be harvested as the pods turn to yellow colour. ‘Toria’ takes about 75–90 days and ‘Rai’ needs 110–180 days for maturity. Yellow sarson needs 130–160 days and Brown sarson needs 105–145 days. The crop is harvested with sickles and the threshing is done by beating the pods with wooden sticks or by trampling the plants by bullocks. The winnowing is done with the help of natural air current but the wind velocity should not be very high as the seeds, being very small, are blown with the air. L. Yield Toria : Average of 5 Q/ha and highest of 8–10 Q/ha. Yellow mustard : Average of 10–12 Q/ha and highest of 30 Q/ha Rai : Average of 12-15 Q/ha and highest of 25–35 Q/ha. 15.7 OIL SEEDS–MINOR 1. CASTOR (Ricinus communis L.) Castor contains 35–58% oil. The oil acts as the best lubricant for high speed engines, aeroplanes, manufacturing soaps, transparent papers, printing-inks, varnishes, linoleum and plasticizers etc. Its green leaves are fed to eri silkworms for producing eri silk. Castor occupies 4.4. lakh ha and produces about 1.4 lakh t of seed in India. Its production in India during 2003–04 was 8.01 m.t with productivity of 1094 kg/ha. The main",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "papers, printing-inks, varnishes, linoleum and plasticizers etc. Its green leaves are fed to eri silkworms for producing eri silk. Castor occupies 4.4. lakh ha and produces about 1.4 lakh t of seed in India. Its production in India during 2003–04 was 8.01 m.t with productivity of 1094 kg/ha. The main castor producing states include Andhra Pradesh (67.2% area), Gujarat (12.7%), Karnataka (7.1%) and Orissa (5.8%) while rest 10% area is shared by other states. A. Origin Believed to be originated in Eastern Africa, probably in Ethiopia. B. Season and Varieties The crop is sown during June/July. In Tamil Nadu, it is grown as Rainfed (JuneJuly) crop. It is cultivated as a border crop under garden land conditions (TMV 4). In intercropping, one row of caster for every six rows of groundnut is raised. In case of late receipt of monsoon, black gram + caster at 6:1 600 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ratio is recommended. The castor varieties cultivated in different states are given below: Andhra Pradesh HC-6, HC-8, Aruna, Bhagya, Sowbhagya Bihar E.B. 16 A Gujarat GCH-3, J-1, GAUC-1, GAUCH-1 Haryana Punjab Castor No.1 Karnataka Rosy, MC-1 Tamil Nadu TMV-1, TMV-2, TMV-3, TMV-5, SA-1, SA-2 Uttar Pradesh T-3, Tarai-4, Kalpi-6 West Bengal B-1 C. Sowing and Seed Rate The seed rate is about 8–10 kg seed/ha and the seeds are treated with thiram @ 3 g/kg. The seeds are soaked in water for 20 hours before sowing. It is sown in furrow (drilling) or dibbled at 90–120 cm × 45–60 cm spacing. The seeds are placed at a depth of 4–6 cm and one seed in each hole. The spacing adopted for Tamil Nadu varieties is given below: Varieties Spacing Long duration SA1 90 × 90 cm Short duration SA2 60 × 45 cm TMV4, TMV5 60 × 30 CM",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cm spacing. The seeds are placed at a depth of 4–6 cm and one seed in each hole. The spacing adopted for Tamil Nadu varieties is given below: Varieties Spacing Long duration SA1 90 × 90 cm Short duration SA2 60 × 45 cm TMV4, TMV5 60 × 30 CM D. Manuring In general, application of 40:40:20 kg of NPK is recommended. In Tamil Nadu, application of 12.5 t/ ha of FYM or compost before last ploughing and NPK at 30:12:12 kg/ha is followed. E. Weed Management Hoeing and hand weeding on 20 DAS and 40 DAS is recommended. Weeds should be taken out before earthing the crop. F. Plant Protection To control semilooper and other pests in castor, application of Endosulfan 4D at 25kg/ha or neem seed kennel extract at 3% or neem seed oil at 2% is recommended. G. Harvesting The crop requires 150–180 days to mature and produces around 400–950 kg seeds/ha depending upon variety and production technology. At maturity, one or more capsules show signs of drying. The matured racemes are cut without damaging the secondaries and the capsules are dried in the sun without heaping it in the shade. Castor Sheller is used to separate the seeds or beating the dried capsule with wooden planks is done. Then the seeds are winnowed and cleaned. 2. SAFFLOWER (Carthomus tinctorius L.) Safflower is grown for seed to extract oil or to be eaten after roasting. It contains 24-36% oil and is used for culinary purposes or for making soap. In India, it occupies about 0.59 m.ha and produces about 0.13 m.t. The productivity during 2003–04 was 367 kg/ha. Around 98% of the total cropped area lies in Maharashtra (64.4%), Karnataka (26.0%) and Andhra Pradesh (8.0%) while about 2% area is in Uttar AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "making soap. In India, it occupies about 0.59 m.ha and produces about 0.13 m.t. The productivity during 2003–04 was 367 kg/ha. Around 98% of the total cropped area lies in Maharashtra (64.4%), Karnataka (26.0%) and Andhra Pradesh (8.0%) while about 2% area is in Uttar AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 601 Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and part of Bihar. Safflower is grown mixed with wheat barley, gram and rabi jowar (after every 9–12 rows of main crop). It acts as guard crop, as it protects main crop against cattle trespass. Sometimes, it is grown as a pure crop in marginally fertile soils. The crop is sown in September/October by using 5 and 12 kg seeds/ha under mixed crop or pure respectively at 45 cm spacing between the rows if grown as pure crop. A good crop can be raised by applying 20–40 kg N/ha. Crop needs topping when plants have developed apical flower to promote branching, flowering and seed yield. It takes about 120–150 days to mature and produces 400–500 kg seed/ha when taken as a pure crop where as 100–150 kg/ha when grown mixed. A. Origin Originated in India, Afghanistan and Ethiopia (Vavilov) or Arabia (Decandole). B. Varieties Karanataka A-1, A-300 Madhyar Pradesh No. 7 Maharashtra N. 62-8, Nag. 7, Tara Tamil Nadu K 1 Andhra Pradesh Manjira (C-438) 3. LINSEED (Linum usitatissimum) In India, the linseed production was 211,000 t with a productivity of 403 kg/ha. A. Climate It is grown during rabi season in India. The oil seed crop needs about 25–30°C during germination and about 15–20°C during seed formation but the fibre crop (flax) requires still lower temperature and high humidity. It is fairly resistant to drought and grows well in areas receiving an annual rainfall of about 450–750 mm. High rainfall and cloudy weather",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "oil seed crop needs about 25–30°C during germination and about 15–20°C during seed formation but the fibre crop (flax) requires still lower temperature and high humidity. It is fairly resistant to drought and grows well in areas receiving an annual rainfall of about 450–750 mm. High rainfall and cloudy weather during growing period is very harmful for the crop. It requires high temperature, low moisture and fairly dry weather during its maturity. B. Varieties (A) Improved varieties: Uttar Pradesh – Neelam, Hira, Mukta, T 397 and K-2 Punjab & Haryana – LC-185, K-2, Himalini Madhya Pradesh – JLS(J)-1, Jawahar-17, Jawahar-552, Jawahar-7, Jawahar-18, T 397 Bihar – T397, Mukta Rajasthan – T 397, Himalini, Chambal Himachal Pradesh – Himalini, K-2, LC-185 (B) Characteristic features of the improved varieties K-2: It is resistant to rust and powdery mildew. It matures in 140–170 days and produces 10–12 q/ha. The variety is suited to rainfed conditions. L.C.54: It is resistant to rust, wilt and powdery mildew. It matures in 155–160 days and the crop produces 12–15 q/ha. It needs irrigation. Himalini: The variety is resistant to all the diseases. It matures in 150–175 days and produces 12–15 q/ha. 602 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Jawahar-7: It is resistant to rust but susceptible to wilt and can be grown rain fed. It matures in 115–125 days, bears blue flowers and produces 8-10 q seeds/ha. Jawahar-7: It is resistant to rust but susceptible to wilt. It matures in 128 days, and produces 7–8 q/ha. It can be grown as rain fed crop. Chambal: It is moderately tolerant to rust, wilt and powdery mildew. It may be grown as rain fed crop. It matures in 130 days and produces 8–9 q/ha. Neelam: It is resistant to rust and wilt diseases. It matures within 125–150 days and produces 15–20",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "grown as rain fed crop. Chambal: It is moderately tolerant to rust, wilt and powdery mildew. It may be grown as rain fed crop. It matures in 130 days and produces 8–9 q/ha. Neelam: It is resistant to rust and wilt diseases. It matures within 125–150 days and produces 15–20 q/ha. The oil content is 43%. It is well adapted in Uttar Pradesh under both irrigated and rain fed. Mukta: It is recommended for Uttar Pradesh. It matures within 130 days and produces 15–18 q/ha. The oil content is 45%. Hira: It is resistant to rust and wilt diseases. It matures in 135–140 days and produces 15–18 q/ha. The seeds contain about 45% oil. T-397: It is fairly resistant to rust but moderately resistant to wilt. It matures in 145 days and produces 12–18 q/ha. The seeds contain 43% oil. LC-185: It is resistant to wilt, rust and also tolerant to frost. It matures in 170 days and produces 10–18 q/ha. The oil content is 46% oil. C. Soil and Land Preparation It may be grown on a variety of soil types, however, deep cotton soils of central India and alluvial loam soils of north India are highly preferred. The soil must be well drained and nearly free from soluble salts, though it may tolerate moderate acidity and salinity. It needs a weed free and fine textured seed bed. Termites and cutworms usually attack the crop, therefore, Aldrin or Chlordane 5% dust should be mixed in the soil at 25–30 kg/ha at the time of last ploughing. D. Seed and Sowing In rain fed areas, the crop is sown earlier in last week of September or mid of October when the rains have stopped so that best use of residual moisture of rains be made but in case of irrigated",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "kg/ha at the time of last ploughing. D. Seed and Sowing In rain fed areas, the crop is sown earlier in last week of September or mid of October when the rains have stopped so that best use of residual moisture of rains be made but in case of irrigated areas, the crop may be sown little later in October-November by giving one light pre-sowing irrigation. Broadcasting of the seeds should be avoided and it should be sown in lines either behind the country plough in shallow furrows or by the seed drill. In Bihar and eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh, the linseed is broadcasted in standing rice crop as relay crop during September-October. (This system of sowing is called as paira or Utera cropping) which occupies nearly 25% of total area under linseed crop but in case of mixed cropping of linseed with wheat, gram and barley, it is sown in rows after every few lines of aforesaid crops. In case of pure crop of linseed, a row to row spacing of 20–30 cm is given and a seed rate of 20–30 kg/ha in case of line sowing and 35–40 kg/ha in case of broadcasting is required. E. Seed Treatment The seeds are treated with Bavistin/Topsin @ 2 g/kg seed or Agrosan GN or Thiram @ 3g/kg of seed before sowing. F. Fertilizer Application Normally, the rainfed crop is grown under unfertilized condition of residual fertility or under very poor fertilizer doses. But, in case of rain fed crop, the placement of 20–30 kg each of N and P2O5 but in case of irrigated crop, a dose of 30–40 kg of each of N and P2O5 per ha is recommended. When linseed is to be sown as relay cropping in standing rice crop, top dressing with only 10–15 kg",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the placement of 20–30 kg each of N and P2O5 but in case of irrigated crop, a dose of 30–40 kg of each of N and P2O5 per ha is recommended. When linseed is to be sown as relay cropping in standing rice crop, top dressing with only 10–15 kg N/ha would be enough. In irrigated condition, top dressing with half of the required N is more beneficial. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 603 G. Weed Control The crop suffers from a very severe weed competition up to 25 DAS. Two hand weedings—first after 21 DAS and second after 35–40 DAS are recommended. H. Irrigation Under irrigated conditions the crop should be given two light irrigations—first 35 DAS and second 65 DAS. I. Plant Protection Gall midge is controlled by spraying 0.3 % Metasystox or Dimecron or Rogor. The spraying should be done two-three times at 10 days interval starting from appearance of the insect in the crop. To manage diseases like wilt and rust, the resistant varieties like R-552, K-2, LC-54, LC-185 as wilt resistant and R-7, R-17, R-552, LC-54, K-2, LC-185 as rust resistant should be selected and grown. Early sowing of short duration varieties and seed-treatment can reduce the incidence of insect-pest and diseases. The powdery mildew and alternaria blight may be controlled by spraying of sulphur (0.3%) or Karathane (0.2%) or aulfex (0.2%). J. Harvesting, Yield and Storage The crop should be harvested at red ripe stage but when fibre and grains both are to be taken from the same crop then harvesting at physiological maturity or pod maturity should be done when the plants are little green. The crop is traditionally harvested by sickles and threshing is done by beating the plants with wooden mallets or by trampling them under bullock’s feet. It",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to be taken from the same crop then harvesting at physiological maturity or pod maturity should be done when the plants are little green. The crop is traditionally harvested by sickles and threshing is done by beating the plants with wooden mallets or by trampling them under bullock’s feet. It usually produces about 4–5 q/ha under mixed cropping but the yield is about 10–12 q/ha when grown as pure crop. The seeds contain 36–42% oil and they may be stored at 10–12% moisture. 4. NIGER (Guizotia abyssinica L.f. Cass) The crop is grown to yield oil ranging between 37 and 43%. The oil is used for culinary purposes and manufacturing paints, soft soaps etc. In India, it is grown in about 4.8 lakh ha which produces about 1.11 lakh t of seeds. The productivity during 2003–04 was 253 kg/ha. It is grown in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tamil Nadu and partly in Uttar Pradesh also. The Niger is a kharif crop, which should be grown at 30 cm × 10–15 cm. The seed rate is about 7–8 kg seed/ha. It requires about 20 kg of both N and P2O5/ha. Niger matures in November/December and produces about 100–200 kg seed/ha under mixed cropping and 500–700 kg/ha when grown as a pure crop. A. Origin Tropical Africa probably in Ethiopia. B. Varieties Karnataka – No. 16, No. 24 Madhya Pradesh – Ootacamund No. 5, N. 87 Maharashtra – Niger B Orissa – GA.2, GA.10 5. OIL PALM (Elaeis guinensis) A. Climate Oil palm is considered as a humid tropical crop. It requires evenly distributed annual rainfall of 2000 604 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY mm without a defined dry season, since it is continuously growing and yielding all through the year. Though the crop can with stand 3–4 months of dry",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Climate Oil palm is considered as a humid tropical crop. It requires evenly distributed annual rainfall of 2000 604 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY mm without a defined dry season, since it is continuously growing and yielding all through the year. Though the crop can with stand 3–4 months of dry period, continued moisture stress affects the yield adversely unless augmented with copious irrigation. Best oil palm yields are obtained in places where a maximum average temperature of 29–33°C and minimum average temperature of 22–24°C. Higher diurnal temperature variation causes floral abortion in regions with a dry season. Constant sunlight of at least 5 hrs/day is required for better oil palm yield and it grows well on moist, deep and well drained medium textured soils rich in humus content. B. Nursery Potting mixture is made by mixing topsoil, sand and well decomposed cattle manure in equal propositions. Poly bags of 500 gauge and 40 × 40 cm size preferably black colour are used for raising primary nurseries. A healthy germinated sprout is placed at the center at 2.5 cm depth. On the lower half of the bag, perforations are made at an interval of 7.5 cm for drainage. It is important to provide shade until seedling attains two leaf stage. The water requirement for different stages of growth of seedling is as follows. 0–2 months at 4 mm/day 2–4 months at 5 mm/day 4–6 months at 7 mm/day 6–8 months at 10 mm/day A well developed tenera seedling with a height of 1–1.3 m from base and more than 13 functional leaves of 12–14 months of age is selected, since this seedling is found to maintain higher leaf production, bear earlier, produce heavy bunches, give higher fruit/bunch ratio and a higher oil to mesocarp in the first year of harvest. C.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of 1–1.3 m from base and more than 13 functional leaves of 12–14 months of age is selected, since this seedling is found to maintain higher leaf production, bear earlier, produce heavy bunches, give higher fruit/bunch ratio and a higher oil to mesocarp in the first year of harvest. C. Transplanting Most suitable time for transplanting seedling in main field in India is with the onset of monsoon. Optimum plant population recommended is 140 seedlings/ha with a spacing 9 m × 9 m × 9 m in Triangular system of planting. Pits of 60 cm are taken prior to planting and filled with surrounding top soil and allowed to settle. In the refilled and root zone soil, a depression sufficient to cover the ball of earth is made at the time of planting. Rock phosphate is applied at 200 g/pit. N and K are usually applied 4–6 weeks after planting. Replanting is carried out during the onset of next monsoon. These palms are to be given special care so that they can catch up with the rest of the plantation. D. Ablation The bunches produced initially will be very small and have low oil content. Removal of such inflorescence is called ablation or castration. Ablation is done at monthly interval by pulling out the young inflorescence using gloves or with the help of devices such as narrow bladed chisels. Ablation improves drought resistance capacity of young palms by improving shoot and root growth especially in low production areas where dry condition exist. E. Pruning of Leaves In oil palm, two leaves are produced per month. Therefore, it becomes necessary to prune excess leaves so as to gain access to bunches for harvest. Severe priming will adversely affect both growth and yield of palm, cause abortion of female flowers and also",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "condition exist. E. Pruning of Leaves In oil palm, two leaves are produced per month. Therefore, it becomes necessary to prune excess leaves so as to gain access to bunches for harvest. Severe priming will adversely affect both growth and yield of palm, cause abortion of female flowers and also reduce the size of the leaves. Pruning is carried out in India using chisels, preferably at the end of the rainy season and low crop season when labourers are also available. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 605 F. Weed Management The basin area of oil palm is kept free of weed growth through ring weeding. It is more important for young palms, roots of which are to be kept free from competition from weed. Depending on the extent of weed growth and rainfall, hand weeding is carried out even up to 4 times in a year during early years of plantation, which is progressively reduced to two times a year. G. Water Management Oil palm needs 1200–1500 mm of water to meet its monthly evapotranspiration needs. In areas where perennial water source is available, basin irrigation is possible. But where Terrain is undulating and water is scare during summer months, drip irrigation is recommended to keep four drippers/palm in the weeded palm circle to supply at least 90 litres of water/palm/day during summer months. H. Fertilizer Management Supply of sufficient quantity of green leaves or compost is advantageous especially where the soil is poor in organic matter content. The fertilizer schedule is given below: Nutrients (gram/palm/year) Age N P K First year 400 200 400 Second year 800 400 800 Third year onwards 1200 600 1200 The fertilizers are preferably applied in two equal split doses during May-June and SeptemberOctober by uniformly spreading them within a 2 m",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "The fertilizer schedule is given below: Nutrients (gram/palm/year) Age N P K First year 400 200 400 Second year 800 400 800 Third year onwards 1200 600 1200 The fertilizers are preferably applied in two equal split doses during May-June and SeptemberOctober by uniformly spreading them within a 2 m circle around the base of the palm and incorporate them into the soil. I. Pest Management To control rhinoceros beetle, Sevin 10% D at the 200 g admixed with equal quantity of sand is to be applied at the leaf base. Placing 3-4 naphthalene balls in the youngest spear axils at weekly intervals may be done. J. Harvesting Proper and timely harvesting of fruit bunches is an important operation which determine the quality of oil. The yield is expressed as fresh fruit bunches (FFB) in kg/ha/year or as oil/ha/year. The bunches usually ripen in six month after anthesis. Unripe fruits contain high water and carbohydrate and very little oil. As the fruit ripens, oil content increased to 80–85% in mesocarp. Ripeness of the fruit is determined by the degree of detachment of the fruit from branches, change in colour and change in texture of the fruit. 6. COCONUT (Cocos nucifera) Coconut in grown in 93 countries in the world. Indonesia (32.20%) ranks first among the major coconut producing countries followed by Philippines (26.65%) and India (15.91%). India, Indonesia, Philippines and Sri Lanka together account for 78.27% of global coconut production. During 2004–05, in India, the production was 12160 million nuts (19.88% of world) and the productivity was 6337 nuts/ha (1st in the world). 606 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Soil: Red sandy loam, laterite and alluvial soils are suitable. Only heavy soil, lacking drainage facilities is unsuitable. Planting seasons: June-July, December-January. Varieties: Coconut hybrids—VHC-2, VHC-3 (yielding starts from 3.5–4 years); ECT–for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(19.88% of world) and the productivity was 6337 nuts/ha (1st in the world). 606 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Soil: Red sandy loam, laterite and alluvial soils are suitable. Only heavy soil, lacking drainage facilities is unsuitable. Planting seasons: June-July, December-January. Varieties: Coconut hybrids—VHC-2, VHC-3 (yielding starts from 3.5–4 years); ECT–for Tanjore, Thiruvarur and Nagai belts–yielding starts from 7.5 years; WCT–for Kanyakumari and Coimbatore areas–yielding starts from 7.5 years. Spacing: Adopt a spacing of 25' × 25' with 175 plants/ha. For planting in field border as a single row, 20' spacing between plants may be adopted. Planting: Pit size should be 3' × 3' × 3'. In the pits, Lindane 10% dust may be sprinkled to prevent white ant damage. The pit should be filled to a height of one foot with FYM, red earth and sand mixed in equal proportions. At the centre, the seedling should be planted after removing all the roots. The soil around the nut should be pressed well and the seedling should be provided with shade by using plaited coconut leaves or palmyra leaves. Water management: In the first year, irrigation is given on alternate days and from the second year, till the time of maturity, irrigation should be given twice a week and afterwards once in 10 days. During summer months and also whenever there is no rain, irrigation is a must, depending upon soil moisture. Coconut requires about 100 l/day/tree through drip irrigation for matured plantation. The coconut husks at about 30 cm depth around the coconut trees at a radius of 1 m and covering it up with earth will conserve soil moisture in light textured soil. Use of coir waste as soil mulch around the tree to a thickness of about 3 cm is also advantageous to conserve soil moisture especially under",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "around the coconut trees at a radius of 1 m and covering it up with earth will conserve soil moisture in light textured soil. Use of coir waste as soil mulch around the tree to a thickness of about 3 cm is also advantageous to conserve soil moisture especially under scarcity condition. Drip irrigation is the best method of irrigation for coconut. Pitcher irrigation under severe water scarce condition (4 pitcher/tree) may be followed. Manuring: For a five year old palm, 50 kg compost or FYM or green leaves, 1.3 kg urea (560 g N), 2 kg super phosphate (320 g P2O5) and 2 kg muriate of potash (1200 g K2O) should be applied in 1.8 m circular basin, incorporated in soil and the basin is irrigated. Fertilizers may be applied in two doses, once in June July and the second in DecemberJanuary. Basal application of FYM (10 kg) + top dressing of NaCl (1 kg) 3 months after planting nuts or FYM + composted coir pith (10 kg) both as basal application is effective for the good growth of seedlings of East Coast Tall Variety. For 2, 3 and 4 years old seedlings, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4 doses of the above fertilizer schedule should be applied. Any one of the green manure crops like sunnhemp, wild indigo, calapagonium or daincha may be sown and ploughed in situ at the time of flowering as a substitute to compost applied in trenches. Manuring should be done when there is moisture in the field. The root activity is maximum around a radius of 1.5 m–2 m from the base of the tree. Application of fertilizer to the entire area around the palm is recommended and the fertilizer is forked in. Sufficient moisture should be present when manuring. Inter-cultural operation: The inter-space in the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "field. The root activity is maximum around a radius of 1.5 m–2 m from the base of the tree. Application of fertilizer to the entire area around the palm is recommended and the fertilizer is forked in. Sufficient moisture should be present when manuring. Inter-cultural operation: The inter-space in the coconut garden has to be ploughed twice in a year in June-July and December-January. Intercultural operation is essential to keep weed population under check; to ensure the utilization of the applied plant nutrients by the coconut trees; to facilitate proper aeration to the roots of coconut and to induce fresh root growth. Application of 0.5 kg N, 0.5 kg P2O5 and 0.75 kg K2O/palm (Urea 1.1 kg, single super phosphate 3.1 kg, muriate of potash 1.2 kg/palm/year) is found economical for East coast Tall variety. Inter cropping: During the first five years, groundnut, sesamum, sunflower, tapioca and turmeric can be grown as inter crops. In the shade of the well grown up plantation, cocoa, pineapple, banana and forage crops like desmodium and desmanthus can be raised. In multistoreyed cropping system, banana and pineapple combination with coconut gives higher net returns per unit area. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 607 Pests and Diseases (i) Rhinoceros beetle • Remove and burn all dead coconut trees in the garden (which are likely to serve as good breeding ground) to maintain good sanitation. Collect and destroy the various bio-stages of the beetle from the manure pits (breeding ground of the pest) whenever manure is lifted from the pits. Incorporate the entomopathogen i.e., fungus (Metarhizium anisopliae) in manure pits to check the perpetuation of the pest. • Soak castor cake at 1 kg in 5 l of water in small mud pots and keep them in the coconut gardens to attract and kill",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "manure is lifted from the pits. Incorporate the entomopathogen i.e., fungus (Metarhizium anisopliae) in manure pits to check the perpetuation of the pest. • Soak castor cake at 1 kg in 5 l of water in small mud pots and keep them in the coconut gardens to attract and kill the adults. • Treat the longitudinally split tender coconut stem and green petiole of fronds with fresh toddy and keep them in the garden to attract and trap the beetles. Examine the crowns of tree at every harvest and hook out and kill the adults. • For seedlings, apply 3 number of naphthalene balls/palm weighing 3.5 g each) at the base of interspace in leaf sheath in the 3 inner most leaves of the crown once in 45 days. • Set up light traps following the first rains in summer and monsoon period to attract and kill the adult beetles. • Field release of Baculovirus inoculated adult rhinoceros beetle reduces the leaf and crown damage caused by this beetle. • Mixture of either neem seed powder + sand (1:2) @150 g per palm or Neem Seed Kernel powder + Sand (1:2) @150 g per palm applied in the base of the 3 inner most leaves in the crown effectively controlled rhinoceros beetle damage. Special Problems in Coconut 1. Rejuvenation of existing garden: The low yield in vast majority of gardens is due to thick population, lack of manuring and irrigation. These gardens could be improved if the following measures are taken. (i) Thinning of thickly populated gardens: In the farmer’s holdings, 41 per cent of the trees give a yield of less than 20 nuts/palm/year. By cutting and removal of these trees, the yield could be increased by 1750 nuts/ha. Besides, there is saving in the cost of cultivation and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "taken. (i) Thinning of thickly populated gardens: In the farmer’s holdings, 41 per cent of the trees give a yield of less than 20 nuts/palm/year. By cutting and removal of these trees, the yield could be increased by 1750 nuts/ha. Besides, there is saving in the cost of cultivation and increase in net profit to the tune of Rs. 2000/ha. After removal of low yielding trees, the populations should be maintained at 175–200 palms/ha. (ii) Ensuring adequate manuring and irrigation: Research results have shown that the yield of coconut palms could be increased by 23 nuts/palms/year by applying the manurial schedule of 50 kg of FYM or green leaf plus NPK at 560, 320, 1200 g/palm. When irrigation at 10 days interval is also given during summer months in addition to manuring, the yield increase was 44 nuts/palm and when all these were combined (manuring + irrigation + cultural practices), the yield increase was 67 nuts/tree over control. 2. Button shedding: Shedding of buttons and premature nuts may be due to any one of the following reasons: • Excess acidity or alkalinity • Lack of drainage • Severe drought • Genetic causes 608 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Lack of nutrients • Lack of pollination • Hormone deficiency • Pests and diseases The following remedial measures are suggested: (a) Rectification of soil pH: Excess acidity or alkalinity of soil may cause button shedding. If the soil pH is less than 5.5, it is an indication of excess acidity. This could be rectified by adding lime. Increase in alkalinity is indicated by soil pH higher than 8.0. This situation could be rectified by adding gypsum. (b) Providing adequate drainage facilities: Lack of drainage results in the roots of coconut trees getting suffocated for want of aeration. Shedding of buttons occur under",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "be rectified by adding lime. Increase in alkalinity is indicated by soil pH higher than 8.0. This situation could be rectified by adding gypsum. (b) Providing adequate drainage facilities: Lack of drainage results in the roots of coconut trees getting suffocated for want of aeration. Shedding of buttons occur under such condition. Drainage channels have to be dug along the contours to drain the excess water during rainy season. (c) Burial of coconut husk or coir waste: Severe drought condition and lack of irrigation during summer result in button shedding. To rectify the situation coconut husks may be buried @ 100 husks with concave surface facing upwards or 25 kg of coir waste in semi circular trenches, dug to one foot width and two feet depth at 1.5 m radius. This may be applied at the bottom and the usual manures and fertilizers applied above this layer, when there is moisture in the soil. The monsoon rains are preserved by the soaking of the coconut husk or coir waste as the case may be. Besides decomposition, of these materials provide addition of potash to the coconut. (d) Genetic causes: In some trees, button shedding may persist even after ensuring adequate crop pest and disease management. This is an indication of inherent defect of the mother palm from which the seed material was obtained. This underlines the need for proper choice of superior mother palm for harvesting seed coconut to ensure uniformly good yielding trees. (e) Lack of nutrition: Button shedding occurs due to inadequate or lack of manuring. The recommended dose of manurial schedules and proper time of application are important to minimize the button shedding. Apply extra 2 kg of K2O with 200 g of Borax/palm over and above the usual dosage of fertilizer to correct the barren nuts",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "occurs due to inadequate or lack of manuring. The recommended dose of manurial schedules and proper time of application are important to minimize the button shedding. Apply extra 2 kg of K2O with 200 g of Borax/palm over and above the usual dosage of fertilizer to correct the barren nuts in coconut. (f) Lack of pollination: Button shedding also occurs due to lack of pollination. Setting up of bee hives at 15 units per ha may increase the cross-pollination in the garden. Further the additional income obtained through honey, increases the net profit per unit area. (g) Hormone deficiency: The fertilized female flowers shed in some cases. By spraying 2–4 D at 30 ppm, the setting percentage could be increased to 32.5 per cent as against 25 per cent in the control. The chemical 2–4 D may be mixed at 30 mg per litre of water and sprayed one month after opening of the spathe using micro sprayer. (h) Pests: Button shedding may happen due to the attack of bug. Spraying of systemic insecticides like Methyldemeton 0.025% or Dimethoate 0.03% may reduce the occurrence. IPM for red palm weevil: The dead palm has to be disposed off and the stump burnt. The garden should be kept clean. Root feeding of Monocrotophos @ 10 ml + 10 ml of water/palm given with due precaution, viz., (i) Harvest and nuts before root feeding and subsequent harvests done 45 days after root feeding and (ii) irrigation has to be given to root fed palms only after a week (or) Apply 1–2 Aluminium phosphide tablets in the bore holes and plug it immediately with moist cement and Fytolan. (i) Diseases: Button shedding also occurs due to disease incidence such as Thanjavur wilt. Adoption of control measures suggested for the disease reduces not only spread",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "palms only after a week (or) Apply 1–2 Aluminium phosphide tablets in the bore holes and plug it immediately with moist cement and Fytolan. (i) Diseases: Button shedding also occurs due to disease incidence such as Thanjavur wilt. Adoption of control measures suggested for the disease reduces not only spread of the disease but also prevents shedding of buttons. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 609 Management of thanjavur wilt of coconut: The management practices for the disease will be effective, only if they are adopted in the early stage of the disease i.e., as soon as bleeding symptoms are noticed. In sandy soil, organic matter status of the soil has to be improved. For this, green manure crops may be raised and ploughed in situ or well-decomposed farm yard manure at 50 kg per palm has to be applied every year. Only if organic manures are applied, the fungicides will be effective. Bordeaux mixture (1%) drenching should not be done in summer months especially during March, April, and May. When Bordeaux mixture drenching and root feeding of Calixin or Aureofungin-sol + Copper sulphate are done, the palms should be irrigated only after 4–5 days. For Bordeaux mixture drenching, the soil should be completely dry. Then only 40 litres solution will be required to drench at least 4–5\" depth of soil. Latest method of application for Aureofungin-sol is root feeding (2 g Aureofungin sol + 1 g copper sulphate in 100 ml of water) and not stem injection. Neem cake (5 kg) also should be applied to diseased trees every year. Neem cake application should not be combined with Bordeaux mixture drenching. There should be at least one-month interval between neem cake application and Bordeaux mixture drenching. If the above precautions are carefully followed and the integrated control measure",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cake (5 kg) also should be applied to diseased trees every year. Neem cake application should not be combined with Bordeaux mixture drenching. There should be at least one-month interval between neem cake application and Bordeaux mixture drenching. If the above precautions are carefully followed and the integrated control measure of organic manure application, cultural practices (summer irrigation) and fungicides application are adopted Thanjavur wilt in coconut can be kept under check. Coconut nursery management: The seed for collecting seed materials from high yielding coconut palms can hardly be over emphasized in a perennial crop like coconut. The following points may be remembered: • Select seed gardens, which contain large proportion of high yielding trees with uniformity in yielding ability. • High yielding mother palms giving not less than 100 nuts/palm/annum should be chosen for collecting seed nuts. Alternate bearers should be avoided. The age of the palm chosen be middle age i.e., from 25 to 40 years. Even trees with 15 years age can be selected, if it is high yielding and has stabilized yield. 15.8 SUGAR CROPS 1. SUGARCANE (Saccharum officinarum) The world sugar is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Sakkara’ or Sarkara. Sugarcane is the main source of sugar in India and holds a prominent position as a cash crop. India has the largest area under sugarcane in the world and also ranks first in sugar production. Sugarcane juice is used for making white crystal sugar, brown Kandasari sugar and Jaggery (Gur). By products are bagasse and molasses. Bagasse is used for manufacturing ethyl alcohol, butyl alcohol and citric acid. Green tops are used as fodder. Press mud is used as organic manure. The average cane productivity of sub-tropical north zones (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, and Uttaranchal) is 55.2 t/ha in comparison to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "molasses. Bagasse is used for manufacturing ethyl alcohol, butyl alcohol and citric acid. Green tops are used as fodder. Press mud is used as organic manure. The average cane productivity of sub-tropical north zones (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, and Uttaranchal) is 55.2 t/ha in comparison to 75.3 t/ha of tropical south zone (Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu). To get maximum possible yield of sugarcane, about 180-200 ‘000 millable canes/ha, each of 2 kg wt are required. A. Origin India B. Classification Sugarcane belongs to the genus Saccharum, Graminae family. Cultivated cane is classified into 3 species. 610 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Saccharum officinarum: These are thick juicy canes and good for chewing. • Saccharum sinensis : This species is in northern India and has long and thin stalks with low to medium sucrose. • Saccharum barberi: It is indigenous to north-eastern India and has thin stalks with medium sucrose–early maturing. Wild species are: (a) Saccharum spontaneum, and (b) Saccharum robustum. C. Climate It is a tropical plant. It can grow in subtropical climates like north India. It is being cultivated within 35°S and 35°N of the equator in tropical regions. Temperature above 50°C and below 20°C slows down the growth. Average of 26–32°C is suited for cane growth. D. Soil All types of soil from sandy loam to clay loam soils are suited. Well-drained loamy soils are highly preferred. 1. SUGARCANE – PLANT CROP (main crop) (a) Season: Main season: There are three main seasons. • Early season – December–January • Mid season – February–March • Late season – April–May Special season – June–July (b) Varieties: COC 671, COC 771, COC 772, COC 773, COC 800 (C 66191), COC 774, COC 775, COC 776, COC 777, COC 778, COC 779, COC 419,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "three main seasons. • Early season – December–January • Mid season – February–March • Late season – April–May Special season – June–July (b) Varieties: COC 671, COC 771, COC 772, COC 773, COC 800 (C 66191), COC 774, COC 775, COC 776, COC 777, COC 778, COC 779, COC 419, CO 6304, COC 8001, COC 85061, COC 86062, COC 86071, COC 90063, CO 8021, COC 91061, CO 8362, COG 93076, CO 8362, COG 93076, CO 8208, COG 94077. For jaggery production: COG 95076, CO 85019, COSI 95071, COSI 96071, CO 8610, COC 98061, COSI 98071, CO 86249. In parts of Trichy, Salem and Coimbatore districts of Tamil Nadu, the varieties noted below are susceptible to sever incidence of disease and should be replaced by new introductions: Variety Diseases CO 419, CO 740 Smut CO 62198 Grassy shoot. (c) Field preparation: Wet land (Heavy soils): The field is ploughed with disc plough and country plough. Ridges and furrows are formed with a spacing of 80 cm between rows with mammutti/spade. Digging with hand hoes in the furrows and stirring the furrows is done. The soil is allowed to weather for 4–5 days. Garden lands and medium and light soils: Deep ploughing with tractor is done using disc plough and cultivator and fine tilth is obtained. Ridges and furrows are formed at 80 cm apart with the help of victory plough. The depth of the furrow must be 20 cm. Irrigation channels are formed at 30 cm depth at intervals of 10 m. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 611 (d) Preparation of setts: Seed materials are taken from a short crop (6–8 months nursery cane) free from pest and diseases. • Detrashing the cane with hand is done. A sharp knife is used to prepare setts without splits. • Setts",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "m. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 611 (d) Preparation of setts: Seed materials are taken from a short crop (6–8 months nursery cane) free from pest and diseases. • Detrashing the cane with hand is done. A sharp knife is used to prepare setts without splits. • Setts with splits, damaged buds, sprouted buds etc. are removed. • Sett treatment with Azospirillum (Prepare the slurry with 10 packets (2000 g/ha) of Azospirillum inoculums with sufficient, water and soak the setts in the slurry for 10–15 minutes before planting) is done. (e) Seed rate: About 75,000 two budded or 50,000 three budded or 1,87,500 single budded setts/ha (for single and direct planting) are needed. (f) Planting: Irrigation is given first in the furrows to form a slurry. • The sets are placed end to end in the center of the furrows keeping the buds in the lateral position and press the setts just to the ground level in the furrow. • Avoid exposure of setts to sunlight. • Plant extra setts near the channel for gap filling later. • Fill up gaps, if any within 20 days after planting with sprouted setts. • Maintain adequate moisture for 3 weeks for proper establishment of setts. (g) Trash mulching: Mulch the ridge with cane trash may be done to a thickness of 10 cm uniformly three days after planting to tide over drought and as moisture conservation, weed control and minimizing shoot borer incidence. Mulching the field with trash is done only after 21 days in the case of heavy soil and wetland condition. Trash mulching should be avoided in areas where incidence of termites is noticed. (h) Growing intercrops: In areas of adequate irrigation, one row of soybean, black gram or green gram along the center of the ridge on",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "only after 21 days in the case of heavy soil and wetland condition. Trash mulching should be avoided in areas where incidence of termites is noticed. (h) Growing intercrops: In areas of adequate irrigation, one row of soybean, black gram or green gram along the center of the ridge on the 3rd day of planting is done. In some areas, sunnhemp is raised and will be incorporated at the time of partial earthing up on 45 DAS. Fig. 15.16 Intercropping-sugarcane + sunnhemp 612 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (i) Weed management: Spraying of atrazine 2 kg or oxyflurofen at 750 ml/ha mixed in 900 litre of water as pre-emergence herbicide on the 3rd day of planting using deflector or fan type nozzle. If herbicide is not applied, the junior hoe is used along the ridges on 25, 55 and 85 days after planting for removal of weeds and proper stirring. The weeds along the furrow are removed with hand hoe. (j) Earthing up: On 45th DAP, a partial earthing up is given after application of 3rd dose of fertilizer (90days) and it is repeated on 150 DAP. (k) Detrashing: The dried leaves are removed alone on 150th and 210th DAP. (l) Propping: Double line propping is done with trash twist at the age of 210 DAP. (m) Top dressing with Fertilizers: Soil application: Super phosphate (375 kg/ha) is applied along with furrows and incorporated with hand hoe. Ensured water supply areas (costal 275 kg N and 112.5 kg K2O/ha in 3 equal splits and Flow irrigation belts around 30, 60 and 90 DAP Lift Irrigation belt (Water scarcity area) 225 kg N and 112.5 kg K2O/ha in 3 equal splits around 30, 60 and 90 DAP For Jaggery area 175 kg N and 112.5 kg K2O/ha in 3 equal splits around",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "equal splits and Flow irrigation belts around 30, 60 and 90 DAP Lift Irrigation belt (Water scarcity area) 225 kg N and 112.5 kg K2O/ha in 3 equal splits around 30, 60 and 90 DAP For Jaggery area 175 kg N and 112.5 kg K2O/ha in 3 equal splits around 30, 60 and 90 DAP Foliar application: N application may be done by the following method: Foliar spray 1st Dose—Apply 55 kg N/ha to soil on 30th DAP. 2nd Dose—Apply 55 kg N/ha to soil on 60th DAP. 3rd Dose—Foliar spray of urea by dissolving 62.5 kg of urea in 850 litres of water (For high volume spray) or 312 litres of water (for low volume spray on 90th DAP). It is repeated on the 110th DAP. By this method 37.5 kg of N can be saved. (n) Water management: Days of irrigation interval Stages Sandy Clay Germination phase (0–35 days) 6 8 Tillering phase (36–700 days) 8 10 Grand growth phase (101–270 days) 8 10 Maturity phase (271–harvest) 10 14 (o) Harvesting: The age for harvest is decided in relation to varieties and time of planting. • Early varieties to be harvested when 10–11 month old and mid season varieties when 11–12 months old. • Harvest the cane at peak maturity; cut the cane to ground level for both planted and ratoon crop. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 613 Fig. 15.17 Drip fertigation unit–sugarcane 2. SUGARCANE – RATOON CROP (a) Management of the field after harvest of the plant crop: Follow the operations within 10 days of harvest of planted crop to obtain better establishment and uniform sprouting of shoots. The following steps are to be taken: • Remove the trash but do not burn it. Irrigate the field copiously. • Fallow stubble shaving with sharp spade",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the plant crop: Follow the operations within 10 days of harvest of planted crop to obtain better establishment and uniform sprouting of shoots. The following steps are to be taken: • Remove the trash but do not burn it. Irrigate the field copiously. • Fallow stubble shaving with sharp spade to a depth of 4–6 cm along the ridges. • Fill in gaps with sprouted stubbles or settling or setts. • Apply basal dose of organic manure and super phosphate along the sides. (b) Management of the crop: Different operations similar to planted crop are followed: • Spray Ferrous sulphate at 2.5 kg/ha in 150 litres of water on the 15th day. If chlorotic condition persist, repeat twice further at 15 days interval and add urea 12.5 kg/ha in the last spray. • Hoeing and weeding on 20th day and 40th–50th day • First top dressing on 25th day, 2nd on 45th–50th day • Final manuring as 70th–75th day. • Partial earthing up on 50th day. If Junior hoe is work two or three times up to 90th day, partial earthing up is not necessary. • Final earthing up on 90th day • Detrashing between 120th and 180th day • Trash twist propping on 180th day • Harvest after 11 months. 614 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 3. SHORT CROP (Nursery crop) Selection of proper planting months for raising nursery crop in relation to main field planting is very important. Six to eight months old nursery crop is raised in relation to main field planting in the following lines. Raise nursery crop during To transplant during June December–January (Early season) July February–March (Mid Season) August April–May (Late Season) December June–July (Special Season) Pest management (a) Shoot borer: Carbofuran 3G 33 Kg (Soil application) or monocrotophos at 1000 ml is used. (b)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to main field planting in the following lines. Raise nursery crop during To transplant during June December–January (Early season) July February–March (Mid Season) August April–May (Late Season) December June–July (Special Season) Pest management (a) Shoot borer: Carbofuran 3G 33 Kg (Soil application) or monocrotophos at 1000 ml is used. (b) Internode borer: Egg parasite Trichogramma chilonis at 2.5 cc/release/ha is released. Six releases for every sixteenth day starting from fourth months onwards will be necessary. Detrashing is done at 150th and 210th DAP. Disease management (a) Grassy shoot disease: The grassy shoot disease is appearing in several tracts. The setts are treated with aerated steam at 50°C for 1 hr to control primary infection of shoot disease. The infected plants are roughed out in the secondary and commercial seed nursery. Seed canes are selected from the middle of the field. (b) Rust: Spraying Mancozeb at 2.0 kg/ha is followed. 15.9 NARCOTICS 1. TOBACCO (Nicotiana sp.) Tobacco is an important cash crop. The tobacco crop is grown for its leaves, which are used as a cured product. India ranks third in the world tobacco production and second in flue cured tobacco exports. This crop occupies a pride of place with an export earnings of Rs. 1320 crores and excise revenue of Rs. 72470 crores anuually. The crop offers significant employment opportunities in rural India and provides livelihood to 36 million people annually in cultivation, curing, grading, factories and cottage industries, but also earns billions of dollars through trade and business. An industrial product of considerable importance is nicotine sulphate, which is prepared from tobacco for use as an insecticide and for the preparation of tobacco cessation products, drugs and the ameliorative effect on different diseases. At present, nearly 270 tonnes of 40% nicotine sulphate valued at Rs. 38 million are being",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "industrial product of considerable importance is nicotine sulphate, which is prepared from tobacco for use as an insecticide and for the preparation of tobacco cessation products, drugs and the ameliorative effect on different diseases. At present, nearly 270 tonnes of 40% nicotine sulphate valued at Rs. 38 million are being exported from India. Solanesol is a naturally occurring tri-sesquiterpene alcohol present in tobacco and it is very in the pharmaceutical industry. A. Origin Tobacco originated in the Western hemisphere, and the types of tobacco presently being cultivated evolved in Mexico and Central America. In India, tobacco was introduced during the early part of the 17th century by the Portuguese. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 615 B. Area and Distribution In tobacco production, India ranks third after China and Brazil and 5th largest exporter after Brazil, China, USA and Malwi. It accounts for about 10 per cent of the area and 8 per cent of production in the world. It is cultivated in 4 lakh ha of area and accounts for 0.27% of the total cultivable area in the country. India’s production is 700 million kilograms. The principal tobacco growing states in the country are Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar, Maharastra and Uttar Pradesh. C. Classification Indian tobaccos are classified into two species namely N. tobaccum and N. rustica. I. N. tobaccum: • The plants of this species are usually taller attaining a height of 1.5–2.5 m. • The leaves are larger but rather narrow. • They may be sessile or petiolate. • The colour of the flower is reddish, pinkish or white. • It is used extensively for smoking and chewing purposes. • It is used in manufacturing cigarettes, cigars, cheroots, bidi, chewing and snuff purpose. II. N. rustica: • The plants of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "narrow. • They may be sessile or petiolate. • The colour of the flower is reddish, pinkish or white. • It is used extensively for smoking and chewing purposes. • It is used in manufacturing cigarettes, cigars, cheroots, bidi, chewing and snuff purpose. II. N. rustica: • The plants of this species are stocky, more bushy in nature and also shorter in height, usually not more than 0.9–1.2 m in height. • The leaves are large and broad and ovate in shape and always possess a petiole. • Flowers occur in cluster and are of dull greenish yellow colour. • It is used extensively for hookah, chewing and snuff purposes. D. Climate Although tobacco is a tropical crop, it can be grown in a wide range of environments. In India, tobacco is grown from 8°N latitude to 34°N latitude. Tobacco seeds require about 21°C temperature for germination. Temperature between 27°C and 32°C are desirable for rapid and uniform germination. E. Soil Quality of tobacco is greatly influenced by the soil conditions. Tobacco is adopted to moderately acidic soils with a pH ranging from 5.5–6.5. Tobacco will not do well in water logged soils as it is sensitive to water logging and impeded drainage. F. Improved Varieties under Different Tobacco Types Type Improved varieties Flue cured Kanakaprabha, CTRI, Special, Jayasri, Line 1494, Line 2359, Virginia gold. Natu Prabhat, DG.3, DG.4 Burley Momi-2, Burley-24, Ky 58, Ky 21, Ky 16. Cigar wrapper S.5, Dixie shade, Rangpur Sumatra Cigar filter Olor-10, Havana, Swanbileshman, Maryland (Contd.) 616 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Type Improved varieties Cheroot Ok.1, Bhavani special, DR-1, Line 2331 Chewing Bhagyalakshmi, Thangam, Vairam, Sona, Gandak Bahar Hookah and chewing DD.413, 414, 415, 417, 417, Dp 401, HD 65–40. Bidi tobacco Anand 3, Anand 23, Akolgund, Bhjgund, Annekevi. G. Field Preparation A clean",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Maryland (Contd.) 616 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Type Improved varieties Cheroot Ok.1, Bhavani special, DR-1, Line 2331 Chewing Bhagyalakshmi, Thangam, Vairam, Sona, Gandak Bahar Hookah and chewing DD.413, 414, 415, 417, 417, Dp 401, HD 65–40. Bidi tobacco Anand 3, Anand 23, Akolgund, Bhjgund, Annekevi. G. Field Preparation A clean and well pulverized seed bed of good tilth is needed for transplanting tobacco seedlings. Land should be well prepared first and by deep ploughing with mould board plough followed by 3-4 cross harrowings. Each harrowing should be followed by planking so that the soil is well pulverized and levelled. Care should be taken to see the weeds, stubbles etc are well removed from the field. Red sandy loam soils are preferred for nursery. H. Seed and Sowing Tobacco seeds are very small and so are not sown directly in the field but are raised in a nursery. Tobacco seedlings are raised in specially prepared raised seed beds (1.25 m width × 10 m length). Usually, at least 6–8 weeks are required to obtain transplantable seedlings. I. Raising Seedlings Application of FYM or compost at 12.5 kg + 80 g of super/2.5m2 as a layer on the top of the beds is found to be highly beneficial in giving higher number of seedlings. The optimum time for sowing the nursery is the second fortnight of August. A seed rate of 200–300 g per ha is quite sufficient. As the size of the seed is very small, it should be mixed with sufficient quantity of sand and evenly distributed over the bed by sowing twice. Watering of nursery beds should be done carefully. The beds should always be kept moist but not wet. In the initial stages, on a sunny day 5–6 watering will be needed. Rose cane is used for watering.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sufficient quantity of sand and evenly distributed over the bed by sowing twice. Watering of nursery beds should be done carefully. The beds should always be kept moist but not wet. In the initial stages, on a sunny day 5–6 watering will be needed. Rose cane is used for watering. Under favourable conditions, germination starts from 5th day and completed (5–12 days) by 12th day. If the seedlings are over–crowded in some places, they can be thinned out, when three weeks old. Normally, the seedlings will be ready for transplanting in 6–8 weeks time (42–56 days). J. Transplanting and Manuring The field for transplanting tobacco seedlings should be well prepared. A few hours before transplanting, nursery beds should be well watered to facilitate easy removal of seedlings without root damage. Fifteen cm height seedlings with 5–7 leaves are good for cigarette tobacco, but bidi tobacco requires smaller seedlings. Seedlings should be transplanted immediately after pulling. Transplanting should be done in the late afternoon to avoid heat injury. Optimum time of planting and spacing vary with the type of Tobacco as given below: Flue cured (black soil) : 80 × 60 cm Flue cured (light soil) : 100 × 60 cm Cheroot : 60 × 45 cm Natu (rain fed) : 90 × 90 cm. Transplanting is usually done in the month of October–November in case of winter crop while at the end of March or in the beginning of April for the second or summer crop. Immediately after AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 617 transplanting light, irrigation should be done. Plants, which have not established well, should be replaced with fresh seedlings within a week of transplanting. N P K kg/ha Flue cured (Black soil) Flue cured (light soil) : 100 100 50 NP & K in equal",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 617 transplanting light, irrigation should be done. Plants, which have not established well, should be replaced with fresh seedlings within a week of transplanting. N P K kg/ha Flue cured (Black soil) Flue cured (light soil) : 100 100 50 NP & K in equal splits On 45 and 60th DAP Cheroot : 50 50 100 Natu (rain fed) : 40 kg N alone In addition to the inorganic fertilizers, application of organic manure in the form of FYM or compost at 25 t/ha or Neem cakes at 250 kg/ha may be done. K. Water Management Water requirement of tobacco crop depends upon the type of tobacco and the region where it is grown. In case of cigar and cheroot tobaccos, more frequent light irrigations are needed. In Tamil Nadu, about 20–22 irrigations at 48 hours intervals starting after seedling establishment for chewing and cigar filter tobaccos are required. Up to 45 days, irrigation is given once in 3–4 days interval and at maturity stage, it is given once in 4–5 days intervals. L. Weed Control Intercultural operations should start after 10–15 DAT, when the seedlings are well established. Orabanche, which is a root parasite and is a menace to the tobacco crop is kept down by hand pulling. The only way to control this weed is to collect and destroy it before seed formation. Trap cropping of green gram or gingerly or sorghum reduces the infestation. One hand weeding at three weeks after transplanting (or) application of pre-emergence herbicide Fluchoralin at 1 lit/ha or oxyflourfen at 0.5 lit/ha one week prior to planting is recommended. M. Topping When flower heads begin to show, the plants are topped by removing off the top of the plant. Topping means removal of the terminal bud. This practice",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(or) application of pre-emergence herbicide Fluchoralin at 1 lit/ha or oxyflourfen at 0.5 lit/ha one week prior to planting is recommended. M. Topping When flower heads begin to show, the plants are topped by removing off the top of the plant. Topping means removal of the terminal bud. This practice stimulated the development of the remaining leaves. It is a very important operation for the quality of tobacco leaf. It gives an uniform quality product leaving 10 leaves on the plant, besides 2 end leaves. N. Desuckering Removal of these suckers is called desuckering. Manual removal of suckers by hand 4–5 times at weekly intervals is done. The main aim of topping and de-suckering operations is to divert the energy and nutrients of the plant from flower head to leaves, which influence the yield and quality of tobacco. O. Harvesting The right stage for harvesting the crop is when the leaves are matured i.e., when the normal 1. green colour changes to yellowish green or slightly yellowish, 2. become thick, spotted and sticky to touch, 3. appearance of brown spots on the leaves, and 4. bulging of interveinal portions on the leaves. If such leaves are bent under thumb, a cracking sound is produced. There are two methods of harvesting tobacco. (i) Priming: Harvesting is done by removing few leaves as and when they mature from bottom to top. 618 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (ii) Stalk cut method: In this method, the entire plant is cut close to the ground with sickle and left over night in the field for wilting. P. Curing Curing is a process by which harvested tobacco leaf is made ready for the market. There are four common methods of curing. 1. Flue Curing: The harvested leaves are strung on sticks, which are then stacked in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "with sickle and left over night in the field for wilting. P. Curing Curing is a process by which harvested tobacco leaf is made ready for the market. There are four common methods of curing. 1. Flue Curing: The harvested leaves are strung on sticks, which are then stacked in a flue curing barn. The barn is artificially heated. The curing process consists of 3 stages. (i) Yellowing: During yellowing, leaf is kept at a low temperature (32–35°C) and high humidity for about (30–40 hrs) till it attains a bright lemon yellow colour. (ii) Fixing colour: After yellowing, the temperature is raised gradually and humidity of barn is lowered by opening the ventilators with rapid rise in temperature when the leaf is still wet results in a bluish-black discolouration called scalding. It takes about 16–24 hrs. (iii) Drying: The ventilators are closed and temperature is again gradually raised to 160°F to dry the veins and mid ribs of leaves. This takes about 28–42 hrs. Then, ventilators are opened to cool down the barn. The leaves are left in barn overnight for observing moisture to come to normal condition for handling and storage. 2. Air curing: The leaves are divided into groups according to their sizes and are strung on the string secured on a bamboo stick. These sticks are taken to barn with closed sides and roof. The leaves are cured under atmospheric temperature and relative humidity of 70–80% is maintained by sprinkling water inside the barn. The entire process is over in about five to six weeks. 3. Fire curing: The leaves are harvested in such way that a small portion of stem remains attached to the leaves. The leaves are wilted for a few hours in the field, then tied into bundles and hung in a smoke hut.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is over in about five to six weeks. 3. Fire curing: The leaves are harvested in such way that a small portion of stem remains attached to the leaves. The leaves are wilted for a few hours in the field, then tied into bundles and hung in a smoke hut. They are smoked for about 12 hours by burning dried leaves of trees locally available. After smoke treatment, the leaf is fermented in bulks for about 3–4 weeks. The fermented leaves are given treatment with salt water or jaggery solution. 4. Suncuring: Sun curing is done in three ways. (i) Curing whole plants on racks: After initial wilting in the field, the plants are strung on bamboo poles and cured in sun. Entire process takes about 15–20 days. (ii) Curing leaves with pieces of stems or racks: Here, racks are not exposed to direct sun, therefore it takes longer period (6–8 weeks). (iii) Curing whole plant on the ground: Here, leaves are allowed to dry in sun on the ground and are turned over twice a day. This process continues for about a week and then heaps are made which are opened on the next day and reheaped. This process of heaping, opening the heaps, spreading and reheaping is continued for about 10–15 days. By the end of this period, leaves becomes completely cured. For reducing the cost, stringing can be done on wire at 15–22 cm distance. By the process of turning, the plants on poles could completely be eliminated. 15.10 FIBRE CROPS-MAJOR 1. COTTON (Gossypium Sp.) Cotton plays a key role in Indian national economy in terms of both employment generation and foreign exchange earnings (more than Rs. 50,000 crores). It generates employment for about 60 million people either directly or indirectly involved in the agricultural and industrial",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "eliminated. 15.10 FIBRE CROPS-MAJOR 1. COTTON (Gossypium Sp.) Cotton plays a key role in Indian national economy in terms of both employment generation and foreign exchange earnings (more than Rs. 50,000 crores). It generates employment for about 60 million people either directly or indirectly involved in the agricultural and industrial sector of cotton production, processing, textile and related activities. It is the oldest among the commercial crops of the world. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 619 Cotton is chiefly grown for its use in the manufacture of cotton for the mankind. It is also used for making the reads, for mixing with other fibres and extraction of oil from cottonseed. Oil content ranges from 15–25% depending upon the varieties. Cottonseed cake after oil extraction is a good organic manure and contains about 6% N, 3% P and 2% K. Cottonseed, cotton linters and pulp are good cattle feeds. A. Origin Cotton has been used as a fibre in India from time immemorial. It has been cultivated for more than 5000 years in Indus valley. The cultivation of cotton spread from India to Egypt and then to Spain and Italy. Every evidence shows that India is the origin. B. Area and Distribution India is the largest cotton growing country in the world. It ranks third in production next to China and U.S (with a share of 12% at global production). In the world, Cotton is cultivated in 33 m.ha with a total production 42 m. t. of seed cotton. Important cotton growing countries are India, USA, Russia, China, Brazil, Egypt, Pakistan, Turkey, Mexico and Sudan. These countries nearly account for 85% of total cotton production. Cotton is cultivated in India from sub-Himalayan region of Punjab in north to Kerala in south and from dry regions of Kutch to high",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Important cotton growing countries are India, USA, Russia, China, Brazil, Egypt, Pakistan, Turkey, Mexico and Sudan. These countries nearly account for 85% of total cotton production. Cotton is cultivated in India from sub-Himalayan region of Punjab in north to Kerala in south and from dry regions of Kutch to high rainfall areas of Manipur in east. Among the cotton growing countries, India occupies the foremost position in area and the area under cotton is 8.5–9.0 m.ha (more than 65% of cotton in rainfed). The productivity is 462 kg lint/ha during 2004–05. Production is 24.3 million bales. The world average productivity is 642 kg lint/ha. The Indian area accounts 25% of the world cotton acreage, but production is only 9% of the total world seed cotton output. Gujarat is the largest producer of cotton followed by Punjab, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. C. Classification Cotton belongs to the Malvaceae family and the genus Gossypium. According to Hutchison (1947), the following four cultivated species are popular in India. Gossypium arboreum (n = 13) Gossypium herbaceum (n = 13) Desi cotton. Gossypium hirsutum (n = 26) Gossypium barbadense (n = 26) American cotton G. Arboreum: Plant height is 1.5–2 m, leaves have seven lobes, leaves and twigs are pubescent, fibres are coarse and short with 1.25–2.10 cm length. It covers 29% of cotton area in the country. G. Herbaceum: Plant height is 1–1.5 m. Leaves and twigs sparsely hairy. Leaves have 3–6 lobes. Fibre length is 1.25–2.30 cm. It covers 21% of the cotton area. G. hirsutum: It is commonly called as “American cotton” and plants are 1.5 m tall. Leaves and twigs are densely hairy. Leaves have 3–5 lobes. Fibre length is 1.8–3.1 cm. It covers about 50% of the cotton area. G. Barbadense: It is commonly called",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "covers 21% of the cotton area. G. hirsutum: It is commonly called as “American cotton” and plants are 1.5 m tall. Leaves and twigs are densely hairy. Leaves have 3–5 lobes. Fibre length is 1.8–3.1 cm. It covers about 50% of the cotton area. G. Barbadense: It is commonly called as ‘Sea Island Cottons”. Plants are about 2.5 m tall. Leaves are deeply lobed with 3–5 lobes and fibre length is 3.6–5.0 cm. Lint is readily detachable from the seeds. Area is only few thousand ha. D. Climate Cotton is a warm season crop. A daily minimum 16°C required for germination and 21–27°C for proper 620 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY vegetative growth. It can tolerate as high as 43°C but does not do well if the temperature falls below 21°C. During fruiting, day temp ranging from 27–32°C and cool nights are required. Abundant sunshine during the period of ball maturation and harvesting is essential for obtaining good quality produce. Cotton cannot with stand frost and its cultivation is restricted up to 1000 m. altitude. E. Soils Cotton can be successfully grown on all soils except the sandy, saline and water logged soils. It is grown in sandy loam, clay loam, loam, alluvial soil, black cotton soil and in red sandy loam soils. Cotton needs a soil with good moisture holding capacity. Good drainage and aeration are also essential as it cannot withstand water logging. F. Season and Varieties The seasons and varieties of cotton are given below: • Winter irrigated (August–September) in Coimbatore, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri and Villupuram areas of Tamil Nadu—MCU-5, MCU-9, MCU-11, Suvin, HB-224, Jayalakshmi, TCHB 213 etc. • Summer irrigated (February–March) in Erode, Madurai, Ramnad and Tirunelveli areas of Tamil Nadu—MCU 5, MCU 9, LRA 5166, SVPR 1 etc. • Short duration (January–February) in Erode, Madurai, Trichy,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(August–September) in Coimbatore, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri and Villupuram areas of Tamil Nadu—MCU-5, MCU-9, MCU-11, Suvin, HB-224, Jayalakshmi, TCHB 213 etc. • Summer irrigated (February–March) in Erode, Madurai, Ramnad and Tirunelveli areas of Tamil Nadu—MCU 5, MCU 9, LRA 5166, SVPR 1 etc. • Short duration (January–February) in Erode, Madurai, Trichy, Tanjore and Villupuram areas of Tamil Nadu—MCU 7. • Medium duration (January–February) in Trichy, Tanjore, Villupuram and Erode areas of Tamil Nadu—LRA 5166. • Rain fed (September–October)—Madurai, Ramnad, Virudhu Nagar, Dindugal and Dharmapuri areas of Tamil Nadu—MCU.10 LRA 5166, K.10, K.11, Paiyur1, K 9. • Rice fallow (February–March) in Tanjore, Trichy and Villupuram areas of Tamil Nadu— ADT 1, MCU 7. G. Land Preparation The field is ploughed and prepared to a fine tilth. Application of 12.5 t FYM/ha is recommended as basal. Ridges and furrows are formed at 10 m long with spacing depending upon the variety by using ridge plough or bund former. MCU 5, MCU 9, MCU11. LRA 5166 75 × 30 cm MCU 7, MCU 10, K. 10, SVPR1 60 × 30 cm Jayalakshmi, TCHB 213, HB 224 120 × 60 cm Suvin 90 × 45 cm H. Seed Rate Quantity of seed (kg/ha) Seed with Delinted Naked Fuzz seeds seeds MCU 5, MCU 9, MCU 7, MCU 11 15 7.50 – Suvin – – 6.0 Jayalakshmi, HB 224 3.75 2.50 – TCHB 213 1.00 – – AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 621 I. Acid Delinting The following procedure may be followed for acid delinting of cotton: • Chose plastic basket for acid delinting. Don’t use earthenware and metal vessels. • Put the required quantity of seeds in the container and add commercial concentrated H2SO4 at 100 ml/ha of fuzzy seeds. • Stir vigorously and continuously with wooden stick for 2–3 minutes still the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "delinting of cotton: • Chose plastic basket for acid delinting. Don’t use earthenware and metal vessels. • Put the required quantity of seeds in the container and add commercial concentrated H2SO4 at 100 ml/ha of fuzzy seeds. • Stir vigorously and continuously with wooden stick for 2–3 minutes still the fuzzy sticking to the seeds is completely digested and the seed coat attain a dark brown colour of coffee seeds after roasting. • Add water to fill container, drain the acid water and repeat the washing 4–5 times to remove the acid completely. • Remove the ill filled and floating seeds while the healthy and good seeds remain in the bottom. • Drain the water completely and dry the delinted seeds in shade. Advantages • Eliminates some externally seed borne pathogenic organisms. • Kills eggs, larvae and pupae of pink boll worm. • Helps to remove immature, ill filled and damaged seeds. • Makes seed dressing more effective and easy. • Facilitates easy sowing. After acid delinting, the seeds are treated with carbendazim or captan or thiram at 2 g/kg of seeds. J. Sowing The seeds are dibbled at a depth of 3 cm in furrows and covered with soil. Fuzzy seeds Delinted seeds Jayalakshmi, TCHB 213 2 1 All other varieties 3 2 K. Fertilizer Application Seed treatment with azospirillum 3 packets and soil application of 2 kg with 25 kg FYM is recommended. The fertilizer schedule for Tamil Nadu varieties is given below: MCU7, ADT1 60 30 30 kg NPK/ha. MCU 5, MCU 9, MCU 11, Suvin 80 40 40 kg NPK/ha. Jayalakshmi TCHB 213, HB 224 120 60 60 kg NPK/ha. 50% of N and full dose of P and K is applied basally and the remaining 50% N is applied at squaring stage. Application of 12.5",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "kg NPK/ha. MCU 5, MCU 9, MCU 11, Suvin 80 40 40 kg NPK/ha. Jayalakshmi TCHB 213, HB 224 120 60 60 kg NPK/ha. 50% of N and full dose of P and K is applied basally and the remaining 50% N is applied at squaring stage. Application of 12.5 kg of micro nutrient mixture is also recommended. L. Weed Management Application of pre-emergence herbicide fluchoralin at 2 l/ha or pendimethalin at 3.3 l/ha followed by a hand weeding on 35–40 DAS is recommended. The field is irrigated immediately after herbicide application. Gap filling at 10 days after sowing and thinning at 15 DAS allowing one seedlings per hole is followed. The ridges and furrows are reformed after first top dressing in such a way that the plants 622 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY are on the top of the ridges and well supported by soils. Spraying of NAA at 40 ppm is done to prevent early shedding of buds and squares at square formation and repeated the spray at one month after first spraying. M. Nipping To arrest the excessive vegetative growth, the terminal portions are nipped. For the varieties MCU 5, MCU 9 and MCU 11, nipping is done beyond 15th node at 70–80 DAS. For the varieties Suvin, Jayalakshmi and TCHB 213, nipping is done beyond 20th nodes at 90 DAS. N. Pest Management For managing white fly, tolerant varieties LPS 141 and Supriya may be tried. The other techniques are as follows: • Adopting crop-rotation with non-preferred hosts such as sorghum, ragi and maize. • NSKE—Neem seed kernel extract 5% or neem oil at 5 ml/l or monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.25 l/ha. To control Thrips, Aphids, Leaf hopper – Monocrotophos 1000 ml/ha To control Bollworms and pink boll worm – Endosulfan 0.07% and Triazophos 0.1%. To control",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "hosts such as sorghum, ragi and maize. • NSKE—Neem seed kernel extract 5% or neem oil at 5 ml/l or monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.25 l/ha. To control Thrips, Aphids, Leaf hopper – Monocrotophos 1000 ml/ha To control Bollworms and pink boll worm – Endosulfan 0.07% and Triazophos 0.1%. To control Tobacco cut worm – Chlorpyriphos 20EC 2.0 l/ha O. Disease Management To control bacterial leaf blight – Copper oxy chloride 2.5 kg/ha To control alternaria leaf spot – Mancozeb 1.0 kg/ha To control boll rot – Carbendazim 500 gm To control root rot – Spot application of Carbendazim at 1 g/l P. Irrigation Management Irrigation management may be followed as given below: Stages Period Irrigation at DAS after dibbling Germination 1 to 15 Irrigate immediately at 5 DA sowing Vegetative 16 to 44 Irrigate at 20 DAS and 3 DAY after 1st hoeing. Light Soil Heavy Soil Flowering 45 to 100 48th 55th 60th 70th 72nd 85th 84th 100th 96th — Maturity phase beyond 100 once in 20 days. S. Harvesting The kapas are picked only from well burst bolls in the morning up to 10–11 A.M. Harvesting is done at 7 days interval. The kapas are sorted out from stained, discolored and insect attacked kapas. Then they are dried in shade and the kapas are kept over sand placed as a thin layer. 2. JUTE (Corchorus Sp.) Jute and mesta (together called Raw jute) are cultivated in about 9.00 lakh ha with production of 95.39 AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 623 lakh bales annually. Productivity is 9.55 bales or 19.12 q/ha when jute and mesta are taken together. It is cultivated in 0.8 m.ha in seven states (eastern and north-eastern states). About 4 million farmers, 0.25 million industrial workers and 0.5 million trader find gainful employment in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 623 lakh bales annually. Productivity is 9.55 bales or 19.12 q/ha when jute and mesta are taken together. It is cultivated in 0.8 m.ha in seven states (eastern and north-eastern states). About 4 million farmers, 0.25 million industrial workers and 0.5 million trader find gainful employment in jute sector. Jute can be grown in the areas where assured supply of irrigation water is available for cultivation and retting and extraction of fibre. In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in Coimbatore, Villupuram, Vellore, Chengalpet, parts of Tanjore and Trichy districts. A. Soil Alluvial sandy loam and clay loam soils are highly preferred. Capsularis jute can grow even in standing water but Olitorius will not thrive in standing water. B. Season The best season is February–May. C. Manuring Application of 5 t FYM and 20:20:20 kg of NPK as basal is recommended. Top dressing of N is done at 10 kg each at 20–25 days and 35–40 days after sowing. D. Varieties Capsularis Jute : JRC 212, JRC 321, JRC 7447 Olitorius Jute : JRO 524, JRO 878, JRO 7835 I. Corchorus capsularis (White Jute) 1. Sabuj sona (JRC 212): It is a full green variety suitable for sowing during first week of March to middle April. Optimum time of harvest is 125–135 days. It is resistant to lodging and the expected yield will be 30-35 q fibre/ha. Area : West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Tripura and Eastern Uttar Pradesh 2. Sonali (JRC 321): It is a copper red pigmented variety selected from local material Hewti. Time of sowing is last week of February–mid March. The duration is 150–160 days and yield is 20–25 q fibre/ha. Area :North Bengal, Assam, eastern Uttar Pradesh. 3. Shyamali (JRC 7447): It is a full green variety with pigmentation. Optimum sowing time is Ist",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "variety selected from local material Hewti. Time of sowing is last week of February–mid March. The duration is 150–160 days and yield is 20–25 q fibre/ha. Area :North Bengal, Assam, eastern Uttar Pradesh. 3. Shyamali (JRC 7447): It is a full green variety with pigmentation. Optimum sowing time is Ist week of March–Mid April. Duration is 180 days and yield potential is 35–40 q of fibre/ha. Area: Gangetic West Bengal, Orissa & Bihar. II. Corchorus olitorius (Tossa Jute) 1. Chaitali Tossa (JRO 878): The variety has red pigment on stem. It is a cross between JRO 620 (red pigmented) and sudan green. It has non-shattering pod. The sowing is done during 1st week of March. Duration is 150–170 days and the expected yield will be 22–32 q/ha. Area: West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Tripura and Eastern Uttar pradesh. 2. Basudev (JRO 7835): It has green pigment on stem. Cross between sudan green × JRO 632 (green). Non shattering variety. Sowing is done during March and late sowing in May. Duration is 120–135 days and the expected yield is 28–38q/ha. Area: West Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. 3. Navin (JRO 524): It is a high yielder than JRO 878 and JRO 7835 and quick in retting. Pods are non shattering: Plants have pigmented stem. 624 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY E. Seed and Sowing Line sowing Broadcasting Spacing Olitorius jute 5 kg/ha 7 kg 25 × 5 cm Capsularis jute 7 kg 10 kg 30 × 5 cm F. Weed Management Hand weeding twice at 20–25 and 35–40 DAS (or) application of pre-emergence herbicide Fluchloralin at 1.5 kg/ha followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 DAS is recommended. G. Water Management Water requirement is 500 mm. First irrigation immediately after sowing and second life irrigation is given. Then, subsequent irrigations are",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Hand weeding twice at 20–25 and 35–40 DAS (or) application of pre-emergence herbicide Fluchloralin at 1.5 kg/ha followed by one hand weeding on 30–35 DAS is recommended. G. Water Management Water requirement is 500 mm. First irrigation immediately after sowing and second life irrigation is given. Then, subsequent irrigations are given once in 15 days. H. Harvest Harvesting is done from 100–110 DAS and also extended to 120–135 DAS. Jute plants are left in the field for 3–4 days for leaf shedding. I. Yield Fibre yield of 20–25q/ha is expected from green plant weight of 45–50 t/ha. J. Retting It is a process by which the fibres in the bark get loosened and separated from the woody stalk. It is a microbial process affected by various aerobic and anaerobic micro flora. The harvested bundles should be kept standing in deep water for 3–4 days before the entire bundle is steeped; later bundles should be placed side by side usually 2–3 layers and tied together and covered with aquatic weeds. The float is then weighed down with seasoned logs or kept submerged at least 10 cm below the surface of water. Retting is best done at 34°C. At the end of the 8th day onwards, reeds (stems) are to be examined. Fibre should be extracted from the retted stalks gently, keeping the stalks in water. Extraction should be done from each reed (stem) separately. Wood sticks should be avoided. The extracted fibre should be dried in mid sun over a bamboo frame for 2–3 days. 15.11 FIBRE CROPS–MINOR 1. SUNNHEMP (Crotalaria juncea) It is grown mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Orissa. It has gained importance because of increasing demand of a particular grade of fibre for manufacturing tissue paper and paper for currency as it contains high",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "frame for 2–3 days. 15.11 FIBRE CROPS–MINOR 1. SUNNHEMP (Crotalaria juncea) It is grown mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Orissa. It has gained importance because of increasing demand of a particular grade of fibre for manufacturing tissue paper and paper for currency as it contains high percentage of cellulose and low amount of lignin. It is indigenous to India and found throughout the plains of India. Soil : Well drained loamy soils are best. Season : In North India, it is grown in Kharif season and in South India, it is grown in both Kharif and rabi seasons. Seed and sowing : 20–25 kg/ha. Time of sowing is May–June. Manuring : 50 kg P2O5/ha as basal application is recommended. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 625 Varieties : K12, M.19, M.35, Nalanda Sanni, ST-55. Weed management : One weeding in early stage is enough because it grows very fast and smothers all weeds. Water management : When crop sown in early month (May–June), 1–2 irrigations are given before rain start. Harvesting : Harvesting is done at pod formation stage. Yield : Fibre yield 8–10 q/ha. 2. Mesta (Hibiscus Cannabinus) Mesta is the plant from which the fibre called Bimbli Patam jute is extracted and is an important fibre crop yielding a bast fibre of great commercial value. The fibre is some times referred to as Deccan hemp or Ambari hemp. The leaves, tops and tender branches are greatly esteemed as a cattle fodder and believed to be especially valuable for cows and buffaloes milk. The leaves and tender shoots and young fruits are also eaten by people, cooked like ordinary pot herbs or in chutneys and curries. During 2003–04, it occupies an area of about 0.20 million ha with an annual production of about 1.08",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to be especially valuable for cows and buffaloes milk. The leaves and tender shoots and young fruits are also eaten by people, cooked like ordinary pot herbs or in chutneys and curries. During 2003–04, it occupies an area of about 0.20 million ha with an annual production of about 1.08 million bale (one bale = 181 kg fibre). The productivity of mesta is 11 q/ha. The potential yield of jute is 35–40 q/ha but the actual realization is a little more than 50% of potential yield. Mesta cannot tolerate salinity as well as acidity. It is grown as a rainfed crop in black cotton soil. The varieties comprise broadly two viz., a green leaved one and a reddish leaved one in both of which the colour of the stem corresponds to the colour of the leaves. The red stemmed green veined variety was found to be the best for fibre. There is another species Hibiscus Sabdariffa, which has deep red almost dark flowers and capsules and which yield the fibre called Roselle. The fibre of mesta is rough and strong with a breaking strength estimated to be 45.4 kg. The fibres are 3 m long, bright and glossy. Though it resembles jute, it cannot stand water logging and is much used for making fishing nets, rough sack cloth and canvas. A. Field Preparation As the crop is grown as a mixed crop with ragi, cholam and sugarcane, there is no preparation of the field especially for this crop. The field is prepared and bring it to the fine tilth for pure crop sowing. B. Season & Varieties The sowing is done in the month of June–July. In any case, sowings are not earlier than May or latter than July. Hibiscus sabdariffa – RT1, RT2, HS 4288 Hibiscus cannabinas – MT15,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is prepared and bring it to the fine tilth for pure crop sowing. B. Season & Varieties The sowing is done in the month of June–July. In any case, sowings are not earlier than May or latter than July. Hibiscus sabdariffa – RT1, RT2, HS 4288 Hibiscus cannabinas – MT15, MT129, HC867 C. Seed Rate About 12–17 kg/ha (as a pure crop) for Broadcasting and 10–13 kg/ha (as a pure crap) for Line sowing is recommended. D. Spacing 30 × 15 cm E. Fertilizer For rainfed crop, application of 20 kg N/ha and for irrigated crop, 40 kg N/ha is recommended. It is 626 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY applied in two splits viz., half as basal and another half as top-dressing around 30–35 DAS. Weeding and pest and disease management may be need based. F. Growth and Harvest The crop grows rapidly and begins to flower from the second month. The crop is harvested when about 50% or more plants are at flowering stage, as delayed harvesting gives a higher fibre yield but the quality becomes coarse and poor. The plants take 5½–6 months to become ready for cutting. At this stage, the stem attains a thickness of 2\" in dia at the base about half that thickness along the upper portions. The plants are cut at the base and brought over to the threshing floor where they are stacked. After extracting the seeds, the stalks are taken to the retting tank or stream for preparing the fibre. The stacks are tied into small bunds and kept submerged under water. They are kept in this way for 8 days. The bast is now quite loosened from the stem and can be easily peeled off in long strips and beating the long strips in water. The clean fibre is now dried",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "are tied into small bunds and kept submerged under water. They are kept in this way for 8 days. The bast is now quite loosened from the stem and can be easily peeled off in long strips and beating the long strips in water. The clean fibre is now dried in the sun and is put up in large plaits and stored. G. Yield When it is grown as a pure crop, the yield of marketable fibre may amount to 450 kg/acre as a maximum. As a mixed crop, the yield is 90 kg/acre. The out turn of fibre is about 16 per cent on the weight of the dry stalks. 3. Agave (Agave Sp.) Among the under exploited resources, ‘Agave’–a fibre yielding drought tolerant plant is one which can prosper the life of the dry land farmers without any risk. In India, it is cultivated in 50,000 ha. Agave is a short-stemmed plant bearing a rosette of long erect pointed fleshy leaves. Agave is noted for its strong, coarse fibre, superior to and more flexible than Manila hemp. It is widely used for making ropes, cordage, twine, fishing nets, door mats, land rugs and the short fibres are used for making mops, brushes. The waste material left after decorticating the leaves is used for making craft paper and paperboards. The fibre also contains about 73–78% of lignified form of cellulose. Apart from these, wax from agave wastes, Hecogenin acetate, a steroid useful for the pharmaceutical industry in India is obtained from agave juice. The genus Agave has about 275 species, of which, A. sisalana, A.cantala and A. americana commonly occur in India. Agave blossoms only once during its lifetime and then dies. Agave plants are grown along railway line, roadsides, riverbanks and as a hedge plant in dry land",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "obtained from agave juice. The genus Agave has about 275 species, of which, A. sisalana, A.cantala and A. americana commonly occur in India. Agave blossoms only once during its lifetime and then dies. Agave plants are grown along railway line, roadsides, riverbanks and as a hedge plant in dry land areas throughout the country. Till date, it is grown in patches and as border crop in a neglected condition. The crop comes up on dry soils unsuitable for crop cultivation but grow vigorously on dry, welldrained sandy loam soils. Nursery: Agaves are usually propagated from bulbils or suckers. Grown up suckers can be dug out and planted during rainy months. In case of bulbils, they are first sown in mother beds at close spacing (5000 bulbils per bed of 1 × 20 m). After 6 months, the seedlings are pulled out and planted in the transplanting bed of size 20 × 1 m at 500 plants. In the second stage, it is kept for three months. After 9 months from the date of bulbils sowing, suckers weighing ¼–½ kg and 9–12\" heights are ready for planting. Main field planting: In the main field, they are planted at 2 × 2 m in pits of size 30 cm3. Planting is usually carried out during the rainy seasons for better establishment, otherwise, initial watering is quite essential for establishment. Harvesting: The leaves are ready for harvesting from 3rd year onwards. The older leaves of length not less than a metre is harvested in the 3rd year. Each plant yields 40–50 leaves/year. The life cycle of the plant is up to l8 years. The content of fibre varies with variety from 2.5%–4.5% and the highest is AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 627 reported under A. sisalana as 4.5%. Agave sisalana produces",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the 3rd year. Each plant yields 40–50 leaves/year. The life cycle of the plant is up to l8 years. The content of fibre varies with variety from 2.5%–4.5% and the highest is AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 627 reported under A. sisalana as 4.5%. Agave sisalana produces a better quality fibre than Agave americana. From 3rd year onwards, leaf yield of 30–40 t/acre could be harvested. Even as border crop, agave could fetch revenue of not less than Rs. 2000/acre/year from 3rd year until 8th year. From traditional hand scraping process, now we have mechanical decorticators for the extraction of fibre. The extracted fibres are washed in water, cleaned and dried and packed in bales. The precaution while fibre extraction is that it should be done on a bright sunny day and within 2 days of the harvesting of the leaves or else the quality of the fibre will be deteriorated. The fibre colour varies from mealy white to golden yellow. 15.12 BIO FUEL PLANTS In India, nearly 63 m. ha of wasteland is available in the country, out of which 33 m. ha of wasteland have been allotted for tree plantation. Certain multipurpose bio-fuel plants can grow well in wastelands with very minimum input. Once cultivated, the crop has fifty years of life. Fruiting can take place in these plants in two years. Bio-fuel plants grown in parts of the waste land, for example, 11 m. ha, can yield a revenue of approximately Rs. 20,000 crore a year and provide employment to over 12 million people both for plantation and running of the extraction plants. It will reduce the foreign exchange outflow paid for importing crude oil, the cost of which is continuously rising in the international market. The bio-fuel is carbon mono-oxide emission free. The",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a year and provide employment to over 12 million people both for plantation and running of the extraction plants. It will reduce the foreign exchange outflow paid for importing crude oil, the cost of which is continuously rising in the international market. The bio-fuel is carbon mono-oxide emission free. The oil can also be used for soap and in candle industries. De-oiled cake is a raw material for composting and the plantation is also good for honey production. One time investment needed for bio-fuel plantation to production in 11 m. ha will be approximately Rs. 27,000 crores. The capital equipment and investment in plant and machinery can come from bank loans and private sector entrepreneurs. Bio-fuel plants can be grown in a number of states in the southern, western and central part of the country (Abdul Kalam, 2006). 1. JATROPHA CURCAS Jatropha curcas is multipurpose non-edible oil yielding perennial shrub originated in tropical America and West Asia. It is commonly known as physic nut or purging nut. Jatropha curcas belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae and has the tendency to produce latex and animals do not browse the plant. This is a hardy and drought tolerant and this crop can be raised in marginal lands with lesser input. The crop can be maintained for 30 years economically. The genus Jatropha has 176 species and distributed throughout the world. Among them, 12 species are recorded in India. The species Jatropha curcas is a promising one with economic seed yield and oil recovery. The oil from Jatropha curcas can be used as bio-diesel blend upto 20%. However, the refined oil is a qualified neat bio-diesel. The plant flowers a year after planting and the economic yield is obtained from 4th year onwards. The farmers of southern districts suggest that this crop can be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "The oil from Jatropha curcas can be used as bio-diesel blend upto 20%. However, the refined oil is a qualified neat bio-diesel. The plant flowers a year after planting and the economic yield is obtained from 4th year onwards. The farmers of southern districts suggest that this crop can be cultivated as fence crop initially in black cotton soils of southern districts under rain fed conditions. Climate: It grows well under subtropical and tropical climates. It can tolerate extremes of temperature but not the frost. Soil: It is grown on wide range of soils. It comes up in the marginal lands and also in problem soils (to some extent). For economic returns, soils with moderate fertility are preferred. Variety: High yielding cultures collected from Tamil Nadu Agricultural University–TNMC–3, 4, 5, 7, 19 and 20. Propagation: Jatropha is normally propagated through seeds. Well-developed plumpy seeds are selected for sowing, seeds are soaked in cow dung solution for 12 hours and kept under the wet gunny bags for 12 hours. Germinated seeds (2–3) are sown in poly-bags of 10 × 20 cm size filled with red soil, sand and farmyard manure in the ratio of 1:1:1 respectively. In some areas, the seeds are treated with 628 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY GA, which results in improvement of germination (45–50%) of raw or cleaned seeds. The current market price of raw seeds and cleaned seeds is Rs. 30/kg, and Rs. 40/kg respectively. Approximately, the number of seeds per kg will be around 1800. Planting: In one acre, 1000 plants can be planted at a spacing of 2 m × 2 m. Pits of 30 × 30 cm may be dug and filled with soil and 5 kg FYM per pit before planting. For better establishment of seedlings, monsoon season may be preferred for planting",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "In one acre, 1000 plants can be planted at a spacing of 2 m × 2 m. Pits of 30 × 30 cm may be dug and filled with soil and 5 kg FYM per pit before planting. For better establishment of seedlings, monsoon season may be preferred for planting (June-July, October-November). Manures and fertilizers: From 2nd year onwards, fertilizers are applied. For one acre, 20:120:60 kg of NPK respectively should be applied during September–October. From 4th year onwards, 150 g super phosphate is recommended over and above the regular dose. Irrigation: Irrigation is a must immediately after planting. Life irrigation should be given on 3rd day after planting. The irrigation at fortnight interval is compulsory to ensure year round production of flowers and harvest of seeds. Growing this crop under garden land condition (assured condition) or drip irrigation is good. After cultivation: Weeding may be done as and when needed. For early flowering, GA @ 100 ppm may be sprayed. It also helps better pod development and yield. Intercropping: Being a perennial crop, intercrops can be raised in between the rows for the first two years. Crops like tomato, bitter gourd, pumpkin, ash gourd, cucumber and black gram can be grown profitably. Canopy management: The terminal-growing twig is to be pinched to induce secondary branches. Likewise, the secondary and tertiary branches are to be pinched or pruned at the end of first year to induce a minimum of twenty-five branches at the end of second year. Once in ten years, the plant may be cut leaving one-foot height from ground level for rejuvenation. The growth is quick and the plant will start yielding in about a year period. This will be useful to include new growth and yield stabilization there on. Pests: Bark eaters (Indarbella spp) and capsule borers",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "years, the plant may be cut leaving one-foot height from ground level for rejuvenation. The growth is quick and the plant will start yielding in about a year period. This will be useful to include new growth and yield stabilization there on. Pests: Bark eaters (Indarbella spp) and capsule borers are the two major pests affecting the plant. They may be controlled by spraying endosulphan at 3 ml/litre of water. Disease: Collar rot may become a problem in the beginning and be controlled by application of 1% of Bordeaux drenching. Yield: Seedlings produce flowers 9 months after sowing. However, plants established through cuttings, produce flowers from 6th month onwards. Wherever Jatropa is cultivated under irrigated condition, the flowering is throughout the year. Economic yield starts from 3rd year-end. It is estimated as 3000 kg seeds/acre @ 3 kg of seeds per plant. The dried pods are collected and the seeds are separated either manually or mechanically. Seeds are dried under sunlight for four days until the moisture is brought to 6–10% before oil extraction. Oil content varies from 22–25%. The present cost of selling jatropha seed is Rs. 5–10/kg. If it is fixed at Rs. 25–30 per kg, the farmers will get additional income. 2. SWEET SORGHUM Alternative uses of sorghum include commercial utilization of grain in food industry and utilization of stalk for the production of value added products like ethanol, syrup and jaggery and bioenriched baggasse as a fodder and as a base material for cogeneration. The syrup can be used as table syrup, bread species, and in salad dressing, cakes, biscuits and ice-cream topping. Utilization of sorghum grain as animal and poultry feed has dramatically increased due to the price competition from maize. Similarly, demand for industrial and potable alcohol is continuously increasing. The recent policy of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "can be used as table syrup, bread species, and in salad dressing, cakes, biscuits and ice-cream topping. Utilization of sorghum grain as animal and poultry feed has dramatically increased due to the price competition from maize. Similarly, demand for industrial and potable alcohol is continuously increasing. The recent policy of Government for blending of alcohol in petrol at 5 per cent increased the demand for alternative and AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 629 commercially feasible raw materials such as sweet sorghum. Sweet sorghum has emerged as a supplementary crop to sugarcane in dry land pockets for the production of ethanol. The advantages of the crop are: (i) it can be grown with limited water and minimal inputs; (ii) it can be harvested in four months. Sweet sorghum is gaining the world attention as a promising bio-energy crop and alternative raw material for the production of alcohol. The success rate is high because of the use of existing machinery available in the sugar factories and attached distilleries. Sweet sorghum juice can be used for the production of syrup called “sorghum honey”. Farmers, in a manner similar to jaggery preparation can prepare sorghum honey. Bagasse can be enriched and sold as cattle-feed. It is also a highly suitable base material for cogeneration. Similarly, use of grain as an alternate raw material for the production of potable alcohol is promising and receiving importance for use as biofuel. Sweet sorghum stalk is juicy and rich in fermentable sugars as high as 15–18 per cent and has potential for cane yield of 40 t/ha or more. Projected uses of sweet sorghum are production of alcohol, syrup and jaggery from the stalk juice. The recovery of alcohol in the pilot run showed 9 per cent of the juice having a brix of 12°. The",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "per cent and has potential for cane yield of 40 t/ha or more. Projected uses of sweet sorghum are production of alcohol, syrup and jaggery from the stalk juice. The recovery of alcohol in the pilot run showed 9 per cent of the juice having a brix of 12°. The various quality parameters that are determined along with the phenotypic characters are juice yield (t/ha), juice extraction (%), juice brix (%), juice pH, reducing sugars (%), non-reducing sugars (Sucrose %), commercial cane sugar (CCS) equivalents (%), and total sugars (%). These parameters play a very important role in determining the suitability of a genotype for a particular alternate use envisaged (mainly alcohol). So far no variety was released except SSV 84 (105 days) through All India Coordinated Sorghum Improvement Project. Varieties: The important sweet sorghum varieties released at international level are Rio, Dale, Brandes, Theis, Rama, Vani, Ramada and Keller. BJ 248, RSSV 9, NSSV 208, NSSV 255 and RSSV 56 are the sweet sorghum cultures identified by the All India Coordinated sorghum Improvement Project at National level. Hybrid Madhura developed by Nimkar Agricultural Research Institute, Phaltan, Maharashtra is a popular hybrid in sweet sorghum. The TNAU has developed a sweet sorghum VMS 98003 with a cane yield of 45.7 t/ha and ethanol yield of 3.6 kl/ha as a promising sweet sorghum variety for Tamil Nadu and is being tested under adaptive research trial (ART) and will be released soon. Most of these varieties mature in 100–110 days. Climate and Soil: It can be sown during June, coinciding with the SWM, September-October during NEM with a rainfall of 500-600 mm well distributed across the growing period and also during summer with assured irrigation. The crop does not prefer high rainfall as high soil moisture or continuous heavy rain after flowering",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Soil: It can be sown during June, coinciding with the SWM, September-October during NEM with a rainfall of 500-600 mm well distributed across the growing period and also during summer with assured irrigation. The crop does not prefer high rainfall as high soil moisture or continuous heavy rain after flowering may hamper sugar increase. If irrigation is available, sowing can be advanced before June so that the crop does not face heavy rains after flowering and more so during the last half of grain maturing period. Sowing during summer season may result in low biomass and sugar yield. All soils that have medium depth (18\" and above) with good drainage are suited. Depending on the soil (red, black, laterite and loamy) and its depth, water requirement may vary which in turn decide the suitability of the crop. Seed treatment: The seeds are treated with Carbendazim (or) Thiram @ 2 g/kg of seeds. The seeds are treated with 2% KH2PO4 for 6 hours as pre sowing treatment under rainfed condition. Before sowing, the seeds are treated with azospirillum @ 600 gm/ha. Seed rate and sowing: For better productivity, the optimum spacing should be 45 cm × 15 cm with a seed rate of 10 kg/ha. 3–4 seeds are dibbled in each hill/planting hole and the seedlings are to be eventually thinned to one per hill. If a planter is used, then the existing seed rate can be further reduced. Fertilization: Recommended dose of fertilizer for sweet sorghum in soils with normal fertility level is 120 kg N, 40 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O. Half of N and whole of P and K are applied as basal. Remaining N is to be top-dressed during 25–30 days after germination, following weeding and intercultivation. 630 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Weed management: Atrazine @",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fertility level is 120 kg N, 40 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O. Half of N and whole of P and K are applied as basal. Remaining N is to be top-dressed during 25–30 days after germination, following weeding and intercultivation. 630 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Weed management: Atrazine @ 0.2 kg a.i./ha can be applied as pre-emergence herbicide at 3 DAS followed by hand weeding at 45 DAS. Irrigation: Irrigation should be based on available soil moisture, which depends on the type of soil and the rainfall distribution. Minimum of 6–7 irrigations are required with an interval of 7–10 days. Pest management: Major pests are sorghum shoot fly and stem borer. Shoot fly attacks soon after germination upto 30 days. Stem borer incidence may be at a later stage and continues up to maturity. Shoot fly attack is noted by dead hearts in seedlings land heavy tillering in affected plants later. Shoot fly is controlled with the application of Carbofuran 2G @ 8–10 kg ha−1 during plating either along the furrow (in furrow sowing) or in a shallow furrows cut on the ridge (in ridge plating). The same insecticide could be applied in leaf whorls (2–3 granules/whorl) based on the foliar injury symptoms, to prevent stem borer tunneling. Disease Management Downy mildew: Seed treatment with Metalaxyl at 4 g/kg of seed. Rogue out infected plants up to 45 days after sowing and spray Metalaxyl 500 g or Mancozeb 1 kg or Zineb 1 kg/ha. Spray Mancozeb 1250 g/ha after noticing the symptoms of foliar diseases, for both transplanted and direct sown crops. Head mould: Spraying Mancozeb 1 kg/ha or Zineb 1 kg/ha or Captan 1 kg/ha + Aureofungin sol 100 g/ha may be done in case of intermittent rainfall during ear head emergence and a week later. Sugary disease:",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "noticing the symptoms of foliar diseases, for both transplanted and direct sown crops. Head mould: Spraying Mancozeb 1 kg/ha or Zineb 1 kg/ha or Captan 1 kg/ha + Aureofungin sol 100 g/ha may be done in case of intermittent rainfall during ear head emergence and a week later. Sugary disease: Sowing period to be adjusted so as to prevent heading during rainy season and severe winter. Spray Ziram 1 kg/ha or Mancozeb 1 kg/ha or Zineb 1 kg/ha at emergence of ear heads (5-10% flowering stage) followed by a spray at 50% flowering and repeat the spray after a week if necessary. Rust: Spraying Mancozeb at 1 kg/ha is done, when the disease reached grade 3 and repeated after 10 days. Harvest: The ear head should be harvested at physiological maturity and sun dried for removing excess moisture in the grain. The green cane should be cut at the ground level and sent to the mill for crushing at the earliest (12 hours after harvest) as the sugar content decrease in progression with time. In any case, it should be crushed before 48 hrs failing which sugar content will be drastically reduced. Varieties SSV 84 RSSV16 NSS 104 Green cane yield (t/ha) 36.0 38.0 41.0 Grain yield (t/ha) 2.3 2.3 2.0 Juice brix 8 19 20 Jaggery yield (t/ha) 3.0 3.1 3.3 Ethanol yield (l/ha) 1851 1948 2101 Production of starch : 592 kg/t of grain (glucose + starch × 1.11) Glucose production : 657 kg/t of grain Alcohol Production : 380 l/t of grain 3. SUGAR BEET Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris Var. Saccharifera L.) is a biennial sugar producing tuber crop, grown in temperate countries. Now, tropical sugar beet varieties are gaining momentum in tropical and sub AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 631 tropical countries including Tamil",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": ": 380 l/t of grain 3. SUGAR BEET Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris Var. Saccharifera L.) is a biennial sugar producing tuber crop, grown in temperate countries. Now, tropical sugar beet varieties are gaining momentum in tropical and sub AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 631 tropical countries including Tamil Nadu as a promising alternative energy crop for the production of ethanol. The ethanol can be blended with petrol or diesel to the extent of 10% and used as bio-fuel. The byproducts of sugar beet viz., beet top can be used as green fodder, while pulp and filter cake from industry can be used as cattle feed. Sugar beet has now emerged as commercial field crop because of the favourable characters like (i) tropical sugarbeet varieties suitable for Tamil Nadu (ii) shorter duration of 5–6 months (iii) moderate water requirement of 80–100 cm (iv) higher sugar content of 12–15% (v) improvement of soil conditions because of tuber crop, and (vi) suitability for saline and alkali soil. Further, as the harvesting period of sugarbeet coincides with the period from March to June, the human resource of sugar factory in the off season could be efficiently utilized in the processing of sugarbeet in the sugar mills, which facilitates in continuous functioning of the sugar mills. Variety and duration: The tropical sugar beet varieties like Pasoda, H1 0064 and Doratea etc., are suitable for cultivation in Tamil Nadu. The duration of these tropical varieties will be 5–6 months depending on variety and climatic conditions prevailing during crop growth period. Climate and soil: Tropical sugar beet requires good sunshine during its growth period. Sugar beet can be grown during October-March with a well-distributed rainfall of 300–350 mm across the growing period. This condition favours vegetative growth and acts as a base for tuber enlargement.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "conditions prevailing during crop growth period. Climate and soil: Tropical sugar beet requires good sunshine during its growth period. Sugar beet can be grown during October-March with a well-distributed rainfall of 300–350 mm across the growing period. This condition favours vegetative growth and acts as a base for tuber enlargement. However, high soil moisture or continuous heavy rain may affect development of tuber and synthesis of sugar. The sugar beet crop requires an optimum temperature range of 20–25°C for germination, 30–35°C for growth and development and 25–35°C for sugar accumulation. All kinds of well drained deep soil (45 cm) with stable and porous soil structure and sandy loam to clayey loam texture are suitable. Optimum pH range is 6.5–8.0 but, it can also grow in saline and alkaline soil. The soils with good organic matter status are more favourable for sugar beet. Season: Sugar beet is a cold weather crop season (rabi). Hence, sugar beet is sown from October to November and harvested during April–May. Field preparation: Sugar beet being a root crop requires deep ploughing (45 cm) followed by 2–3 ploughings to obtain a good soil tilth condition for favourable seed germination and tuber development. After proper leveling to ensure adequate drainage, ridges and furrows are formed at 50 cm apart. Seeds and sowing: To maintain the required plant population of 40,000/acre, use 2 pockets designer seeds. One pocket contains 20,000 seeds weighing 600 g. The recommended spacing is 50 × 20 cm. The designer seed is dippled at 2 cm depth on the top of the ridges at 20 cm apart at one seed per hole. Manures and fertilizers Manures and fertilizers Basal application Top dressing Farm Yard Manure 10 t/acre – Biofertilizers Azospirillum 2 kg/acre (10 pockets) Phosphobacteria 2 kg/acre (10 pockets) – Fertilizers Nitrogen – 15",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2 cm depth on the top of the ridges at 20 cm apart at one seed per hole. Manures and fertilizers Manures and fertilizers Basal application Top dressing Farm Yard Manure 10 t/acre – Biofertilizers Azospirillum 2 kg/acre (10 pockets) Phosphobacteria 2 kg/acre (10 pockets) – Fertilizers Nitrogen – 15 kg/acre each at 30 and 60 DAS Phosphorus 24 kg/acre – Potassium 24 kg/acre – Weeding and earthing up: The crops should be maintained weed free upto 75 days. Pendimethalin at 1.5 l/acre is dissolved in 300 l of water and sprayed with hand operated sprayer on 3rd day after 632 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY sowing, followed by hand weeding on 25 and 50 DAS. The earthing up operation coincides with top dressing of N fertilizer. Irrigation: Sugar beet is very sensitive to water stagnation at all stages of its growth. Irrigation should be based on soil type and climatic conditions. Pre-sowing irrigation is essential at the time of sowing. First irrigation is very crucial for the early establishment of the crop. For light textured sandy loam soil, irrigation once in 5–7 days and for heavy textured clay loam soil, irrigation once in 8–10 days is recommended. Light and frequent irrigation is recommended for maintaining optimum soil moisture. The irrigation may be stopped at least 2–3 weeks before harvest. At the time of harvest, if the soil is too dry and hard, it is necessary to give pre harvest irrigation for easy harvest. Pest and diseases: The major insect pests are aphids, tobacco caterpillar and diamond back moth. To control aphids, spray neem oil 3% or dimethoate 2 ml/l with teepol. For tobacco caterpillar, spray endosulfon 2 ml/l or carbaryl 2g/l of water. The major insect pests that affect the sugar beet crop are rhizoctonia wilt, powdery mildew, cercospora leaf",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "are aphids, tobacco caterpillar and diamond back moth. To control aphids, spray neem oil 3% or dimethoate 2 ml/l with teepol. For tobacco caterpillar, spray endosulfon 2 ml/l or carbaryl 2g/l of water. The major insect pests that affect the sugar beet crop are rhizoctonia wilt, powdery mildew, cercospora leaf spot, and fusarium yellow. To control rhizoctonia wilt, spot drenching with Bordeaux mixture 1% and for fusarium wilt, drenching the soil with carbendazim @ 0.1%. To control powdery mildew, spraying of wettable powder 0.3% and for cercospora leaf spot, application of mancozeb 0.25% on 10–14 days schedule. Harvest, yield and economics: The sugar beet matures in about 5–6 months. The yellowing of lower leaf whirls of matured plant and tuber brix reading of 15–18% indicate the maturity of tuber for harvest. The harvested tuber should be handled as gently as possible to remove soil and trash to minimize the beet breakage and bruising to get quality beet tuber. The average yield of beet tuber is 30-35 t/acre. Total cost of cultivation per acre is around Rs. 8,000–8,500 and the income will be Rs.18,000/acre with a net income of Rs. 10,000/acre. 15.13 GREEN MANURES AND GREEN LEAF MANURES With the advent of high yielding crop varieties, expanded area under irrigation and greater use of fertilizers and other inputs, Asia has changed within the last 20 years from a region of food scarcity to a region of food sufficiency. Increased fertilizer use has been estimated to contribute to about one-fourth of the increased rice production. In some countries, fertilizer prices were subsidised, thereby enabling farmers to apply production-maximising doses. During the same period, use of organic manures including green manure, declined substantially. But fossil fuel-based inorganic fertilizers are becoming more expensive. Another issue of great concern is the sustainability of soil productivity",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "increased rice production. In some countries, fertilizer prices were subsidised, thereby enabling farmers to apply production-maximising doses. During the same period, use of organic manures including green manure, declined substantially. But fossil fuel-based inorganic fertilizers are becoming more expensive. Another issue of great concern is the sustainability of soil productivity as lands are intensively tilled to produce higher yields from a single crop and higher total annual yields under intensive cropping system. The soil organic matter and nitrogen levels vital to sustained crop production are often limiting in the soils of East, South and Southeast of Asia. Hence, there is an urgent need to identify alternate nitrogen sources to supplement inorganic fertilizers. Occurrence of multi-nutrient deficiencies and overall decline in the productive capacity of soils under intensive fertilizers use has been widely reported. All these factors have created a renewed interest on organic manures. Green manuring is a low cost but effective technology in minimising the investment cost of fertilizers and in safeguarding the productive capacity of the soil. The practice of green manuring is as old as the art of manuring crops. The first serious test was made in 1882 at Kanpur Agricultural Station in Uttar Pradesh and was followed at Nagpur and Damraon in 1882 and 1897 respectively. The European planters of India were the pioneers in giving a systematic practice of green manuring as far back as 1890 and the coffee estates of southern India. It is a well-known fact that N, for which soils have the greatest hunger, is a costly plant nutrient. This can be cheaply obtained by the inclusion of leguminous crops in rotations and their ploughing under. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 633 A. Definition Crops grown for the purpose of restoring or increasing the organic matter content in the soil",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "greatest hunger, is a costly plant nutrient. This can be cheaply obtained by the inclusion of leguminous crops in rotations and their ploughing under. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 633 A. Definition Crops grown for the purpose of restoring or increasing the organic matter content in the soil are called green manure crops. Their use in cropping system is called ‘Green Manuring’ where the crop is grown in situ or brought from outside and incorporated. Green leaf manuring consists of gathering green biomass from nearby location and adding it to the soil. In both, the organic material should be worked into the soil while they are fairly young for easy and rapid decomposition. Legumes are usually utilised as green manure crops as they fix atmospheric nitrogen in the root nodules through symbiotic association with a bacterium, rhizobium and leave part of it for utilization of the companion or succeeding crop. B. Subsidiary Object of Green Manures (a) Catch crops: Legumes are inter sown in the main standing crop a little before or after harvest. With a view to utilize the nitrates that might form during the off-season or the left over moisture in the soil profile. This may otherwise be lost. Such subsidiary crops are called ‘Catch Crops’. The catch crops ploughed in as green manures or grazed off. Utilizing the nitrates formed in the soil or residual moisture is a primary object of Green Manuring is only incidental. (b) Shade crops: Green manure crops may be sown in young orchards with the object of shading the soil surface and preventing the rise of temperature. Otherwise the tender roots of fruit plants may be affected by the high soil temperature. In plantation crops like tea and coffee, Gliricidia is used as shade crop first and then incorporated as",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in young orchards with the object of shading the soil surface and preventing the rise of temperature. Otherwise the tender roots of fruit plants may be affected by the high soil temperature. In plantation crops like tea and coffee, Gliricidia is used as shade crop first and then incorporated as green manure. (c) Cover crops: Green manure crops are sometimes grown with the object of clothing the surface with a vegetative cover especially in hill slopes during the rainy weather to avoid soil erosion and runoff. This may also done to check wind erosion. The crop chosen should be capable of covering the surface at the time of commencement of rainy or windy season. Later it is used as Green manure. (d) Forage crops: Some legumes are also grown for taking a few cuttings of green fodder for cattle in every stages. For example, philippesara seeds are broadcasted in the standing rice crop (3–5 days before harvest) in coastal Andhra Pradesh. The early growth supplies fodder for cattle and the later growth is used for green manure purpose. C. Advantages of Green Manuring Green manuring has a positive influence on the physical and chemical properties of the soil. It helps to maintain the organic matter status of arable soils. Green manure serves as a source of food and energy for the soil microbial population, which multiplies rapidly in the presence of easily decomposable organic matter. The enhanced activities of soil organisms not only cause rapid decomposition of the green manure but also result in the release of plant nutrients in available forms of use by the crops. Green manuring improves aeration in the rice soils by stimulating the activities of surface film of algae and bacteria. Many green manure crops have additional use as sources of food, feed and fuel.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "but also result in the release of plant nutrients in available forms of use by the crops. Green manuring improves aeration in the rice soils by stimulating the activities of surface film of algae and bacteria. Many green manure crops have additional use as sources of food, feed and fuel. (i) Soil structure and tilth improvement: Green manuring builds up soil structure and improves tilth. It promotes formation of crumps in heavy soils leading to better aeration and drainage. Depending on the amount humus formed, green manuring increases the water holding capacity of light soils. Green manure crops form a canopy cover over the soil and reduce the soil temperature and protect the soil from the erosive action of rain and water currents. (ii) Fertility improvement of soils: Green manure crops absorb nutrients from the lower layer of soils and leave them in the soil surface layer when ploughed in, for use by the succeeding crops. Green manure crops prevent leaching of nutrients to lower layers. Leguminous green manure 634 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY plants harbour nitrogen fixing bacteria rhizobia in the root nodules and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Green manure crops increase the solubility of lime phosphates, trace elements etc., through the activity of the soil microorganisms and by producing organic acids during decomposition. Single crop of green manure on an average is reported to fix 60–100 kg nitrogen/ha in single season under favourable conditions. (iii) Amelioration of soil problems: Green manuring helps to ameliorate soil problems. Sesbania aculeata (dhaincha), when applied to sodic soils continuously for four or five seasons, improves the permeability and helps to leach out the harmful sodic salts. The soil becomes fit for growing crops. Green leaf manure from sources such as Argemone mexicana and Tamarindus indica has a buffering effect when applied to sodic",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "when applied to sodic soils continuously for four or five seasons, improves the permeability and helps to leach out the harmful sodic salts. The soil becomes fit for growing crops. Green leaf manure from sources such as Argemone mexicana and Tamarindus indica has a buffering effect when applied to sodic soils. (iv) Improvement in crop yield and quality: Green manuring increases the yield of crops to an extent of 15–20 per cent compared to no-green manuring. Vitamins and protein content of rice have been found to be increased by green manuring of rice crop. (v) Pest control: Certain green manure like Pongamia and Neem leaves are reported to have insect control effects. D. Classification of Green Manure It can be mainly classified into two groups viz., legumes and non-legumes and further sub-divided under two groups in each viz., green manure and green leaf manure. Green manure Legumes Non-legumes Green manure Green leaf manure Green manure GLM (e.g.) Dhiancha (e.g.) Gliricidia (e.g.) Sunflower (e.g.) Calotropis Sunnhemp Cassia Buck wheat Adathoda Kolinji Pongamea glabra Thespesia The legume and non-legume green manures are differentiated as follows: (i) Legumes: Legumes fix free nitrogen from the atmosphere. Physical condition of the soil is improved by cultivation and incorporation. They are more succulent than the non-legumes and less soil moisture is utilised for their decomposition. They serve as cover crops by their vigorous growth and weeds are smothered e.g., Clover, Dhaincha and Cowpea. (ii) Non-legumes: Free N is not fixed by non-legumes except in specific plants, which have root nodules produced by bacteria or fungi, e.g., Casuarina, Elasagnus and Cycas. They are not as succulent as legumes and hence require more soil moisture and time for decomposition. (iii) Characteristics desirable in legume green manure crops: • Multipurpose • Short duration, fast growing, and high nutrient accumulation",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "which have root nodules produced by bacteria or fungi, e.g., Casuarina, Elasagnus and Cycas. They are not as succulent as legumes and hence require more soil moisture and time for decomposition. (iii) Characteristics desirable in legume green manure crops: • Multipurpose • Short duration, fast growing, and high nutrient accumulation ability • Tolerance for shade, flood, drought and adverse temperatures • Wide ecological adaptability • Efficiency in use of water • Early onset of biological nitrogen fixation • High N accumulation rate AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 635 • Timely release of nutrients • Photoperiod insensitivity • High seed production • High seed viability • Ease in incorporation • Ability to cross-inoculate or responsive to inoculation • Pest and disease resistant • High N sinks in underground plant parts. Leguminous green manures: Some common leguminous green manure plant species are listed below: Local name Botanical name Sesbania Sesbania speciosa Dhaincha Sesbania aculeata Sunnhemp Crotalaria juncea Wild Indigo Tephrosia purpurea Pillipesara Phaseolus trilobus Cowpea Vigna unguiculata, (Syn. V. sinensis) Cluster bean (Guar) Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Green gram (Mung bean) Vigna radiata, (Syn. Phaseolus aureus) Black gram Vigna mungo, (Syn. Phaseolus mungo) Berseem Trifolium alexandrinum Madras Indigo Indigofera tinctoria Some of the common shrubs and trees utilised for gathering green leafy material for manuring are the following: Cassia auriculata, Derris indica, Ipomoea cornea, Thespesia populnea, Azadirachta indica, Glyricidia maculata, Leucaena leucocephala, Calotropis gigantea, Delonix regia, Delonix elata, Jatropha gossypifolia, Cassia tora, Cassia occidentalis, Tephrosia purpurea, Tephrosia candida, Dodonea viscosa, Hibiscus viscosa, Vitex negundo. Non-conventional green manures: These are leguminous or non-leguminous annuals, shrubs and trees, capable of providing large biomass and can supply considerable quantity of plant nutrients. Initial setback may be seen in crops after the incorporation of organic residues with wide C:N ratio, high lignin content which resist easy",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Vitex negundo. Non-conventional green manures: These are leguminous or non-leguminous annuals, shrubs and trees, capable of providing large biomass and can supply considerable quantity of plant nutrients. Initial setback may be seen in crops after the incorporation of organic residues with wide C:N ratio, high lignin content which resist easy decomposition and release of higher proportion of organic acids during the decomposition process. This early adverse effect on the establishment of young seedlings might have discouraged the farmers in using those non-conventional green biomass as manures in agriculture. This could be overcome by a small extra addition of N or proper pre-treatment, with suitable microbial inoculants. The nutrient contents of some non-conventional green manure are given in Table 15.12. 636 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Table 15.12. Nutrient Content of Non-Conventional Green Manures S.No Green manures Total N C:N Total Total (%) Ratio P (%) K (%) I. Trees (Leaves of Twigs) 1. Azadirachta indica 2.83 70:1 0.28 0.35 2. Delonix elata 3.51 27:1 0.31 0.13 3. Delonix regia 2.76 32:1 0.46 0.50 4. Peltophorum ferrugenum 2.63 34:1 0.37 0.50 5. Cassia nigricans 2.73 – 0.18 0.50 Ca-0.88% Mg-0.34% II. Weeds 1. Aduthoda vesica 1.32 60:1 0.38 0.15 2. Parthenium hysterophorus 2.68 30:1 0.68 1.45 3. Ecchornia crassipes 3.01 29:1 0.90 0.15 4. Trianthema portulacastrum 2.64 32:1 0.43 1.30 5. Ipomea carnea 2.01 43:1 0.33 0.40 6. Calotrophis gigantea 2.06 64:1 0.54 0.31 7. Cassia pistula 1.60 120:1 0.24 1.20 Other green manures: There is an unexploited rich source of plants, which can be used as green manure in India. One such crop is velvet beans (Stizolobium deeringianum). This is an important forage legume widely grown in the tropics and sub-tropics. This crop puts up vigorous growth, accumulating greater biomass and covers the ground fairly well in a short period, smothering",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "which can be used as green manure in India. One such crop is velvet beans (Stizolobium deeringianum). This is an important forage legume widely grown in the tropics and sub-tropics. This crop puts up vigorous growth, accumulating greater biomass and covers the ground fairly well in a short period, smothering weeds and effectively conserving soil moisture. Besides preventing soil erosion it also builds up soil fertility by adding organic matter and fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the root nodules. It is drought tolerant, grows vigorously and can thrive on diverse soil types and marginal lands and gives good yields even in less fertile soils. The leaves and vines form a good roughage. The pods and seeds have a high feeding value as a concentrate feed. The tender fruits and seeds from unripe pods can be used as vegetable. Studies conducted at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore in two seasons, revealed that it could produce a high biomass yield of 28 t/ha at 60 days after sowing when sown at a closer spacing of 30 × 20 cm. When it is sown thickly it has a potential of producing 40–45 t of green matter. The crop accumulated 255 kg N/ha at 60 days after sowing due to its vigorous growth and grater foraging for N in the soil. One constraint limiting the greater use of this green manure crop is the non-availability of good quality seeds. Velvet beans were found to have a profuse pod bearing habit and gave a high yield of 2 t/ha. Being a photosensitive crop it has to be sown at the right time to get optimum biomass and seed yield. According to studies, Velvet beans accumulated greater biomass during South-west monsoon and North-east monsoon. February was found to be the best month for sowing. Since it",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "yield of 2 t/ha. Being a photosensitive crop it has to be sown at the right time to get optimum biomass and seed yield. According to studies, Velvet beans accumulated greater biomass during South-west monsoon and North-east monsoon. February was found to be the best month for sowing. Since it has multiple use, its inclusion in the cropping system will open up new possibilities. E. Choice of Green Manure Species Various nitrogen-fixing leguminous and non-leguminous species—particularly trees, creepers and bushes—can be used as green manures. The criterion for selection of plants as green manure is given AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 637 in Table 98. Using grain legumes for green manuring brings quick economic benefit but, as they tend to accumulate nutrients in the grain, which is then harvested, their positive effect on subsequent crop yields is usually low. Mixtures of green manure crops are often more successful than sole crops, as they are less susceptible to pest attacks and combine different characteristics needed for improving the fallow land, such as quick soil cover and deep rooting. As legume growth depends on the presence of suitable Rhizobium strains, inoculation may be necessary. Plant growth and organic N2-binding can be hindered by water stress, unfavourable pH, lack of other nutrients (particularly P, Ca, Mo and Zn) and/or Mn toxicity. Applying mineral or organic fertilisers (including rock phosphate, lime and ashes) can help to improve legume establishment. Also species in the natural vegetation should be considered for improved fallow, particularly those that are protected by local farmers, e.g., Acioa barterii, Chlorophora excelsa, Alchornea cordifolia, Anthonota macrophylla and Dialium guineense in southern Nigeria. Also tropical grasses such as Pennisetum purpureum, Panicum maximum or Tripsacum laxum can produce large biomass and accumulate phosphorus and potassium more quickly than most legumes. Table 15.13.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "those that are protected by local farmers, e.g., Acioa barterii, Chlorophora excelsa, Alchornea cordifolia, Anthonota macrophylla and Dialium guineense in southern Nigeria. Also tropical grasses such as Pennisetum purpureum, Panicum maximum or Tripsacum laxum can produce large biomass and accumulate phosphorus and potassium more quickly than most legumes. Table 15.13. Criteria for Selection of Plants Criteria Effects High biomass production Mobilisation of nutrients from soil into vegetation; suppression of weeds Deep rooting system Pumping up of weathered and/or leached nutrients from soil layers not occupied by roots of main crop Fast initial growth Quick soil cover for effective soil protection; suppression of weeds More leaf than wood (low C/N ratio) Easy decomposition of organic matter leading to enhanced availability of nutrients for succeeding crops; easy to handle during cutting and/or incorporation into the soil. Nitrogen fixing Increase of nitrogen availability Good affinity with mycorrhiza Mobilisation of phosphorus leading to improved availability for crops Efficient water use Possibility to grow after main cropping season on residual soil moisture or with less rainfall Non-host for crop related pests and diseases Decrease in pest and disease populations. No rhizomes Controllable growth Easy and abundant seed formation Propagation in farmer’s fields Useful ‘by-products’ (e.g., fodder, wood) Integration of animal husbandry and forestry F. Forms of Green Manuring Green manure crops can be planted in different combinations and configurations in time and space: • Improved fallow, i.e., replacing natural fallow vegetation with green manure crops to speed up regeneration of soil fertility and permit permanent cultivation; these green manures may be left to grow for one or several years, or only during the dry season; 638 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Alley cropping, a form of simultaneous fallow in which quickly growing trees, shrubs (usually legumes) or grasses are planted in rows and are regularly",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cultivation; these green manures may be left to grow for one or several years, or only during the dry season; 638 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Alley cropping, a form of simultaneous fallow in which quickly growing trees, shrubs (usually legumes) or grasses are planted in rows and are regularly cut back; the pruning are used as mulch or worked into the soil in the alleys between the rows; • Integration of trees into crop land, as is found in several traditional farming systems, e.g., in West Africa (Faidherbia albida) and in Costa Rice, where tree legumes (usually Erythrina poeppigiana) growing among the crops are regularly cut for mulch material to maintain soil fertility in plots of coffee and other crops; • Relay fallowing by sowing bush legumes among the food crops after these have established and, in the dry season, using the cut green biomass as mulch or working it into the soil; examples are Tephrosia vogelii in Cameroon, Sesbania rostrata in South-east Asia and Mucuna prutients in Honduras; • Live mulching, in which the rows of food crops are sown into a low but dense cover crop of grasses or legumes, e.g., Centrosema pubescens, Pueraria phaseoloides, Arachis prostrata; strips of the cover crop are removed by hand or killed by herbicides when the food crops are to be sown, thus reducing soil tillage operations to zero; • Shaded green manures (in fruit orchards, coffee plots, multistorey kitchen gardens etc.); • Azolla and blue-green algae. G. Agronomy of Green Manure Crops 1. Sesbania speciosa (sithagathi): It is adaptive to different soil conditions and can come up in sandy, loamy, alluvial, clayey and alkaline soils. Though the growth is very slow in the first 30–40 days, it picks up subsequently making rapid growth. It withstands salinity to some extent. It",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Manure Crops 1. Sesbania speciosa (sithagathi): It is adaptive to different soil conditions and can come up in sandy, loamy, alluvial, clayey and alkaline soils. Though the growth is very slow in the first 30–40 days, it picks up subsequently making rapid growth. It withstands salinity to some extent. It has no serious pests or diseases. The plant has greyish appearance with soft hairs on the stem and leaves. The stem is pithy, but if allowed to grow for more than four or five months, it becomes woody making it difficult to be pulled out or even to be harvested with sickle. There are different methods of growing Sesbania speciosa in rice field. Three or five days prior to the harvest of rice crop, seeds at 50 kg/ha are sown as broadcast. These seeds get thrust into the soil while labourers move during harvest of rice crop. With the available soil moisture, the Sesbania seeds germinate. This method is very easy to follow as it involves no preparatory cultivation for raising green manure crop. After ploughing the field, Sesbania seeds are broadcasted at 35–50 kg/ha. A good stand of crop can be obtained by irrigation. Where two crops of rice are taken, three weeks old seedlings of Sesbania can be grown along the borders of the field during the first crop season and utilised as green manure for the second crop. Such border planting of Sesbania at a spacing of 5–10 cm in one hectare will give about 5000–8000 kg of green matter for the second crop. For this purpose, at the time of raising rice nursery for the first crop, 0.75 kg of seeds of Sesbania may be sown in 2.5 cents of nursery. While transplanting rice seedlings, Sesbania seedlings are also pulled out and planted along the borders",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of green matter for the second crop. For this purpose, at the time of raising rice nursery for the first crop, 0.75 kg of seeds of Sesbania may be sown in 2.5 cents of nursery. While transplanting rice seedlings, Sesbania seedlings are also pulled out and planted along the borders of the field. Each plant of Sesbania gives about 400–600 g of seeds. For sowing one hectare for green manure purpose, 50 kg seeds will be necessary. Hence, if about 125–150 vigorous plants are left among the border plants, sufficient seeds could be obtained from these plants. The yield of green matter varies depending upon the duration of growth. A 60 days crop will yield about 10,000 kg/ha of green matter while 90, 120, 150 days crop will yield 20,000, 50,000 and 60,000 kg/ha of green matter, respectively. For one hectare of rice crop, 6,250 kg of green matter will be sufficient. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 639 Season Grown all seasons, March–April sowing is best Soil Grown in all types of soil conditions Seed rate 30–50 kg/ha for green manure, seed purpose 15 kg/ha Seed treatment Mix seeds with specific rhizobium strain @ 5 pkts/ha Spacing Broadcasted and for seed purpose adopt 45 × 20 cm Irrigation Once in 15–20 days Harvest Incorporate the green matter 45–60 DAS and for seed, collect the seeds on 130 DAS Yield Green biomass-10–18 t/ha, Seed 400–600 kg/ha 2. Sesbania aculeata (Daincha): It is a quick growing succulent green manure crop. It adapts itself to varying conditions of soil and climate. It can be grown even under adverse conditions of drought, water logging, salinity, etc. It comes up even in alkaline soils and corrects alkalinity if grown repeatedly for four-five years. Bacterial nodules are formed in plenty on the roots. The",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "It adapts itself to varying conditions of soil and climate. It can be grown even under adverse conditions of drought, water logging, salinity, etc. It comes up even in alkaline soils and corrects alkalinity if grown repeatedly for four-five years. Bacterial nodules are formed in plenty on the roots. The plant has a soft stem. It makes good growth in two-four months and produces abundant green matter ranging from 10–20 t/ha, depending upon the age at harvest. Recommended seed rate is 20–25 kg/ha, though higher seed rate help in producing plants with thin stem. The stem gets woody and fibrous after three months of growth. As a pure crop, 25–30 kg/ha seeds are sown and the plants ploughed in for single crop rice. Though the initial growth is slow, it picks up fast and grows vigorously by later. Season Grown all seasons when sufficient moisture is available, March–April sowing is best for seeds production Soil Grown in all soil conditions Seed rate 25–30 kg/ha for green manure, seed purpose 20 kg/ha Seed treatment Mix seeds with specific rhizobium strain @ 5 pkts/ha Spacing Broadcasted, for seed purpose adopt 45 × 20 cm Irrigation Once in 15–20 days Harvest Incorporate the green matter within 45–60 DAS and collect seeds from 100 DAS Yield Green biomass-20 t/ha, Seed-500–600 kg/ha 3. Sesbania rostrata (Manila agathi): It is a leguminous crop, which has nodules both on the stem and roots. It was introduced in India during 1980’s from the International Rice Research Institute, Philippines. It is a tropical legume, which thrives well under flooded, and water logged conditions, producing aerial nodules on the stem. Due to its profuse stem nodulation, it gives ten times more nodules than most of the legumes. This can be grown either prior to rice crop or in between two",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "It is a tropical legume, which thrives well under flooded, and water logged conditions, producing aerial nodules on the stem. Due to its profuse stem nodulation, it gives ten times more nodules than most of the legumes. This can be grown either prior to rice crop or in between two rice crops. Though naturally propagated by seeds, seedlings and root stem cuttings can also be used as planting material. The normal seed rate is 30–40 kg/ha. To get early, uniform germination and vigorous seedlings, seeds have to be scarified with concentrated sulphuric acid for 15 minutes. Summer (April-July) is the best season for getting higher biomass and better seed production. The photosensitive nature of this crop (short day) restricts its usage during winter. Intercropping one row of 30 days old seedlings for every 1.5 metre rice could produce 3–5 t of biomass in 30 days after transplanting. Rice yields are not affected due to intercropping. 640 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Season Grown all seasons. February–May sowing biomass yield is more, March–May sowing is best for seeds production Soil Black and red soils suitable, Saline alkaline soils not suitable Seed rate 40 kg/ha for green manure, seed purpose 7–8 kg/ha Seed treatment Seeds to be scarified with concentrated H2SO4 (100 ml/kg) by soaking for 10 minutes then wash thoroughly (10–15 times). Mix seeds with specific rhizobium strain @ 5 pkts/ha Spacing Broadcasted, for seed purpose adopt 45 × 20 cm Irrigation Once in 15–20 days Nipping For seed purpose, it should be done 60 DAS to increase branching and seed yield Harvest Incorporate the green matter within 45–50 DAS and seeds can be collected from 100 DAS (3–4 harvest) Yield Green biomass–20 t/ha, Seed–500–600 kg/ha 4. Crotalaria juncea (Sunnhemp): It is a very quick growing green manure-cum-fibre crop. It comes up",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "be done 60 DAS to increase branching and seed yield Harvest Incorporate the green matter within 45–50 DAS and seeds can be collected from 100 DAS (3–4 harvest) Yield Green biomass–20 t/ha, Seed–500–600 kg/ha 4. Crotalaria juncea (Sunnhemp): It is a very quick growing green manure-cum-fibre crop. It comes up well in loamy and heavy soils. This crop can be cut even when it is 45 days old. It does not withstand heavy irrigation or continuous water logging. There are a number of varieties varying in duration ranging from 75–150 days. The general appearance of the crop is greyish to greenish. The tall, robust and late duration varieties are used for fibre extraction also. The seed rate is 25–40 kg/ha and the yield of green matter may vary ranging from 12,000–25,000 kg/ha depending upon the environmental conditions and duration of the crop. The further details are given in the section 15.11: Season Grown in all seasons, March–April sowing is best for seeds production Soil Loamy soils are suitable Seed rate 25–40 kg/ha for green manure, seed purpose 20 kg/ha Seed treatment Mix seeds with specific rhizobium strain @ 5 pkts/ha Spacing Broadcasted or 30 × 10 cm, seed purpose adopt 45 × 20 cm Irrigation Once in 30 days Harvest Incorporate the green mater within 45-60 DAS and for seed production, collect the seeds from 150 DAS Yield Green biomass 13–15 t/ha, Seed–400 kg/ha 5. Tephrosia purpurea (Wild Indigo): It is a slow growing green manure crop. It is not grazed by cattle and so no protection is needed in the field. Further, if the crop is continuously raised for 2–4 seasons in the same field, it becomes self sown in the subsequent years and, thereafter, there is no need of any fresh sowing of seeds in the same field.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "grazed by cattle and so no protection is needed in the field. Further, if the crop is continuously raised for 2–4 seasons in the same field, it becomes self sown in the subsequent years and, thereafter, there is no need of any fresh sowing of seeds in the same field. It is suitable for light soils. It does not withstand water stagnation. It is a perennial under shrub, growing wild in sandy or gravelly wastelands. But it is grown as an annual crop for green manure purpose. It is hardy and drought resistant and suited for summer fallows. It comes up well in loamy soils and could be grown in light soils. The seeds are sown as broadcast in the standing crop of rice just a week before harvest as catch crop. The seeds have a waxy, impermeable hard seed coat and do not quickly germinate. To hasten germination, the seeds are to be pounded with sand or steeped in hot water at 55°C for 2–3 minutes. The seed rate is 25–40 kg/ha, while the green manure yield varies from 3500–6000 kg/ha. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 641 Season Grown all seasons, March–April is best for seeds production Soil Grown all soils, sandy soils are suitable Seed rate 25–40 kg/ha for GM, seed purpose 10 kg/ha Seed treatment Soak the seeds in concentrated sulphuric acid (100 ml/kg seed) for 30 m and then thoroughly wash the seeds in water for 10–15 times and shade dry Spacing Broadcasted, for seed purpose adopt 30 × 10 cm Irrigation Once in 30 days Harvest Incorporate within 60 DAS and for seed collect from 150 DAS Yield Green biomass 3.5–5 t/ha, Seed–400–500 kg/ha 6. Indigofera tinctoria: This is a perennial shrub. It is found wild and in cultivated lands. There are two",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "seed purpose adopt 30 × 10 cm Irrigation Once in 30 days Harvest Incorporate within 60 DAS and for seed collect from 150 DAS Yield Green biomass 3.5–5 t/ha, Seed–400–500 kg/ha 6. Indigofera tinctoria: This is a perennial shrub. It is found wild and in cultivated lands. There are two types, which closely resemble each other and are generally found grown as indigo (Madras Indigo and Bengal Indigo). The seed rate is 25–30 kg/ha and the yield of green matter varies from 10,000–12,000 kg/ha. 7. Calapogonium mucunoides: This is a leguminous cover crop with the ability to cover the ground within a short period. It is also a self-sown crop. The cultivation of calopogonium as a cover crop is the cheapest and most effective method to check soil erosion and the growth of obnoxious weeds in plantations of pepper, orange, coconut etc. It also enriches the soil and conserves soil moisture. It is an annual/perennial, with creeping or climbing habit. It is not grazed by cattle. The plant is capable of growing to a length of about 2.5 m in the course of about 16 weeks and to strike root at every one of nearly 25 nodes over this length, though only about 50 per cent of these nodes actually develop roots in the field. Each plant has three leader shoots and about eight main lateral shoots from each leader shoot. In addition to the large volume of leafy growth over the ground, the plants are found to develop a large volume of roots in the ground. The luxurious surface growth of the plant protects the soil from the splash effects of raindrops during the monsoon months. The chief merit of Calopogonium as a cover crop, in addition to the ease with which it can be established in a very",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "large volume of roots in the ground. The luxurious surface growth of the plant protects the soil from the splash effects of raindrops during the monsoon months. The chief merit of Calopogonium as a cover crop, in addition to the ease with which it can be established in a very short period, is that it dries up during the summer months and offers no competition to the plantation crops for the limited soil moisture. The leave shed by the cover crop during the summer months provide a dry mulch which could effectively reduce soil temperature and surface evaporation during the season. Another desirable attribute of Calopogonium is that it re-establishes itself during the rainy season and covers the soil within a short period. Profuse seeding is yet another virtue of calopogonium. This results in the cover crop establishing itself every year with the summer showers from the self-sown seeds. The seed rate for establishing the cover crop in the beginning is 8–10 kg/ha and the yield of green matter is 5000 kg/ha. 8. Phaseolus trilobus (Pillipesara): This is a dual-purpose crop yielding good fodder for cattle and green manure for land. It is an herbaceous creeper growing into a short dense cover crop when grown thick. Though it does not produce a bulky yield, it is capable of being cut twice or thrice before being ploughed into the field. The harvested material is used as forage. Seeds are also used as a minor pulse. It comes up under varying conditions of soil but prefers loamy and clayey soils. Initially, adequate soil moisture is essential for its early growth. One or two irrigations given during its growth period will help in producing bumper harvest of forage crop. After this harvest, the crop can be ploughed into the soil. It is able",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of soil but prefers loamy and clayey soils. Initially, adequate soil moisture is essential for its early growth. One or two irrigations given during its growth period will help in producing bumper harvest of forage crop. After this harvest, the crop can be ploughed into the soil. It is able to withstand drought and also excessive soil moisture. The seed rate is 20–25 kg/ha and the yield of green matter is 10,000–12,000 kg/ha. 642 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Season Grown in all seasons, March–April is best for seeds production Soil Rice fallow clay soils are suitable Seed rate 20–25 kg/ha for green manure, seed purpose 10 kg/ha Spacing Broadcasted, for seed purpose adopt 30 × 10 cm Irrigation Once in 25–30 days Harvest Incorporate the green matter within 60 DAS and for seed collect the seeds from 150 DAS Yield Green biomass 10–12 t/ha, Seed 400–500 kg/ha 9. Centrosema pubescens: It serves as a cover crop as well as a good fodder crop. It is a drought tolerant legume and a self propagating crop and so it needs no replanting. It is a slow growing perennial creeper, which is hardy and aggressive in nature. It is a shade loving crop and persists in soil. It has cracked pods. 10. Macroptilium atropurpureum (Siratoo): It is a good cover crop. It is a highly drought resistant perennial legume. It forms a good mixture with pasture grasses. It is suitable for sandy loam to red loamy soil. It is a slow growing crop. It has prostrate stem. It sheds its leaves. It has to be replanted each year. The biomass produced by this plant is more than that of centrosema. 11. Stylosanthes hamata: It is used as a good soil cover and also as forage crop. It is a perennial drought resistant, spreading",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "It has prostrate stem. It sheds its leaves. It has to be replanted each year. The biomass produced by this plant is more than that of centrosema. 11. Stylosanthes hamata: It is used as a good soil cover and also as forage crop. It is a perennial drought resistant, spreading type. It is capable of growing on sandy soils. It is a compatible mixture with cultivated pasture grasses. It produces low biomass. 12. Pueraria phaseoloides (Kudzu): It is a hardy, perennial leguminous cover crop. It comes up in poor rough soils and steep slopes. It is a creeper. It has prostrate stem. It sheds its leaves in winter. It has to be replanted each year. It is a fast growing vine propagated through cuttings. It does not withstand water logging. It is superior to Centrosema in biomass production. It comes up in hot summer and autumn. 13. Dolichos lab lab var. lignosus: It is an excellent cover crop. It has a diffuse branching forming a dense cover. It has profuse seeding habit. It does not tolerate winter. H. Agronomy of Green Leaf Manure Shrubs and Trees Green leaf manuring is the application of green leaves gathered from shrubs and trees growing in waste lands to the fields where crops are to be raised. Green leafy material is gathered from all sources by farmers for manuring purpose. Different kinds of shrubs growing on tank bunds, waste lands, field bunds, garden lands, etc. are used. In addition, loppings from miscellaneous trees are also gathered for use as green leaf manure. Green leaves have the same effect as green manure on the land and the crop. The common shrubs growing in waste lands are Cassia auriculata, Dodonia viscosa, Calotropis gigantea, etc. Leguminous trees like Pongamia glabra and can be planted in waste lands,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "also gathered for use as green leaf manure. Green leaves have the same effect as green manure on the land and the crop. The common shrubs growing in waste lands are Cassia auriculata, Dodonia viscosa, Calotropis gigantea, etc. Leguminous trees like Pongamia glabra and can be planted in waste lands, for augmenting the supply of green leaves. The trees do not require any attention after they get established and start growing. A brief description of some of the most common shrubs and trees utilised for the collection of green leafy material is given below. 1. Glyricidia (Glyricidia maculata syn. G. sepium): It is a shrub type of plant that comes up well in moist situations. Under favourable conditions of soil and climate, it takes up a tree habit. It is a quick growing tree and often used for shade and green leaf manure in tea, coffee and cocoa plantations. It can be planted on alternate field bunds of wetland, 1–2 m apart, or as a thick hedge by close planting in 3–4 at 0.5 m spacing or along field border as tall shrubs giving support to the fence line or along farm roads on both sides for the production of green leaf. For green leaf purposes, the shrub could be kept low by pruning AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 643 or lopping at convenient heights. The shrub is pruned 2–3 times a year and it withstands repeated lopping. It has no root effect on the crops grown by the side. When the shrubs are regularly lopped, the height is restricted to 2–3 m and they do not affect the growth of cultivated crops with their shade effect. Glyricidia can be propagated by planting stem cuttings or seedlings raised in nurseries. The establishment of seedling is better compared to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the side. When the shrubs are regularly lopped, the height is restricted to 2–3 m and they do not affect the growth of cultivated crops with their shade effect. Glyricidia can be propagated by planting stem cuttings or seedlings raised in nurseries. The establishment of seedling is better compared to stem cutting. The seeds are sown in well prepared nursery and the seedlings transplanted when they are about 30–60 days old. Within two years after planting, the plants are ready for lopping. Each plant gives 5–10 kg of green leaves annually. When the individual rice fields are about 0.1 ha each, 375–400 plants can be planted on the bunds of one hectare of land and this will produce 2500-3500 kg of green leaves annually. 2. Ipomoea cornea: It is a quick growing, profusely branching, and highly drought resistant weed. It gives abundant green leafy material in short time. It is multiplied by means of mature stem cuttings. Stem cuttings of about 0.3 m long with three or four nodes and axillary buds are planted at a distance of 1–2 m all along the wide field bunds, irrigation channels and fences. As many as 1800–2000 cuttings can be accommodated in one ha as border planting and two to three loppings can be taken in a year. Each plant will give about 5 to 7 kg of green matter per lopping. 3. Cassia auriculata: It is a very common plant, found coming up in waste lands, hill slopes, plain sea shores, etc., almost in the wild condition. It is a hardy plant. The plant is propagated through seeds. The seeds get dispersed and plants grow naturally without any efforts. When the plants start to flower in off-season, they are cut and applied to the fields. 4. Derris indica (Syn. Pongamia glabra): It",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "almost in the wild condition. It is a hardy plant. The plant is propagated through seeds. The seeds get dispersed and plants grow naturally without any efforts. When the plants start to flower in off-season, they are cut and applied to the fields. 4. Derris indica (Syn. Pongamia glabra): It is a leguminous, moderate sized ever green tree. It grows in coastal forests, on river banks and on tank bunds mostly along streams, wastelands and road sides. Trees are established by means of planting two to three months old seedlings, 4 to 5 m apart. Loppings may be taken once or twice a year. A tree yields approximately 100 to 150 kg of green material per lopping. 5. Azadirachta indica (Neem): It is a profusely branching, large ever-green tree and gives plenty of foliage. It comes up in all types of soil. The trees are grown along field borders, rivers banks, roads, waste lands and also in garden lands and homestead gardens. Trees are established by planting seedling at a spacing of 5–6 m. One or two loppings in a Year are taken in favourable seasons, each lopping weighing about 150–200 kg of green matter. 6. Thespesia populnea: It is also an ever-green tree, which thrives in all types of soils. The trees are grown in garden land areas, gardens and also in waste lands. A spacing of 4–5 m is adopted. It is propagated by stem cuttings. It establishes very quickly and produces a number of branches. Two or three lopping of green leaves are taken in a year during favourable seasons. A tree will give as much as 100–150 kg of green matter per lopping. 7. Delonix elata (Vadanarayan): It is a tropical ever green tree, which thrives in all types of soils. Generally, it is propagated by",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "three lopping of green leaves are taken in a year during favourable seasons. A tree will give as much as 100–150 kg of green matter per lopping. 7. Delonix elata (Vadanarayan): It is a tropical ever green tree, which thrives in all types of soils. Generally, it is propagated by stem cuttings. In a year, 2–3 lopping can be taken during favourable seasons. It has some medicinal values. I. Rhizobial Inoculation The leguminous green manure crops have the ability to fix gaseous nitrogen from the air with the aid of rhizobia, which live in nodules on the roots of the legume plants. The bacteria live symbiotically in nodules, with the plants providing food and energy for the organisms, which, in turn, benefit the host plant by fixing nitrogen from the air. Consequent on this symbiotic relationship the leguminous plants succeed in enriching the soil nitrogen status only in the presence of proper nodule bacteria. As many soils do not contain the appropriate strains of bacteria, it becomes necessary to inoculate the legume seeds with the specific strains of rhizobia in order to ensure better growth of the host plant and effective 644 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY nitrogen fixation by the nodule organisms. Without Rhizobium bacteria, the leguminous green manure crops may deplete the soil of nitrogen like any other non-leguminous plants instead of replenishing the soil nitrogen store. Among the root nodule bacteria (rhizobia), there are several types and strains, which are specific for different legumes. For best results, appropriate strains of Rhizobium bacteria for each legume should be present. It may be that poor and ineffective forms of many of the strains of rhizobia are present in normal soils. They may produce nodules that provide little or no nitrogen. Therefore, it becomes necessary to inoculate the legume seeds with",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "strains of Rhizobium bacteria for each legume should be present. It may be that poor and ineffective forms of many of the strains of rhizobia are present in normal soils. They may produce nodules that provide little or no nitrogen. Therefore, it becomes necessary to inoculate the legume seeds with beneficial strains of proper root nodule bacteria. The process of nitrogen fixation begins as soon as or shortly after the formation of nodules, and continues as long as the nodules remain firm and healthy. The maximum nitrogen fixation is found to take place at the flowering stage of the host plant. The percentage of nitrogen progressively decreases as the seed formation proceeds and the nitrogen percentage in the nodules approximates to that of the root by the time the seed is ripened. Conditions for fixation of nitrogen • The presence of appropriate strains of rhizobia in the soil • The level of moisture in the soil • The initial nitrogen level in the soil • The presence of available plant nutrients in the soil • The pH of the soil (pH 5–9 is conducive for N fixation) • The stage of growth and conditions of the green manure crop When the soil is rich in nitrogen, the root nodule bacteria do not fix nitrogen from air but feed on the soil nitrogen. The legumes, they, act just like any other non-leguminous crops. Under such circumstances, it would be advantageous to grow cereals along with legumes in the ratio of 1:3 so that the cereals would be depleting the soil of its nitrogen and the legume would thrive on the atmospheric nitrogen. The requirements for successful nitrogen fixation are proper inoculation with efficient strains of bacteria, adequate supply of available phosphate, lime and moisture, good drainage and a neutral soil reaction.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "so that the cereals would be depleting the soil of its nitrogen and the legume would thrive on the atmospheric nitrogen. The requirements for successful nitrogen fixation are proper inoculation with efficient strains of bacteria, adequate supply of available phosphate, lime and moisture, good drainage and a neutral soil reaction. Bacterial inoculation of legumes: It has been proved that there is a definite increase in the total nitrogen content of legumes when inoculated with specific bacterial culture of the right type and efficiency. Inoculation is the process of mixing the most appropriate bacteria with seeds at sowing time so that maximum benefits are derived from the symbiotic association of plant and bacteria. Inoculation is generally done by treating the specific pure cultures with seeds by using gum or rice kanji. The following indications normally reflect the need for rhizobial inoculation: • When the growth of a recent crop of legume was poor. • When the recently grown legume crop had sparse nodulation on the tap root and upper side roots with widely scattered small nodules on the lower regions of root system. • When legume is being grown on land that is poor due to lack of care or unfavourable natural conditions. • The uses of inoculation could be summed up as follows: • It prevents nitrogen starvation • It lessens the dependence of legumes on soil nitrogen • It improves the quality of crop • It increases crop yield • It ensures a nitrogen rich leguminous green manure crop. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 645 J. Stage of Incorporation When the green manure crops are grown and incorporated in the same field, the best stage of incorporation is the flowering stage of the crop. However, when green-leaf manuring is practised by bringing in the green plants grown",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 645 J. Stage of Incorporation When the green manure crops are grown and incorporated in the same field, the best stage of incorporation is the flowering stage of the crop. However, when green-leaf manuring is practised by bringing in the green plants grown elsewhere, no definite stage can be fixed as the green leaf manuring is controlled by many other factors. But it can be said that the plants used for green leaf manuring should be incorporated into the soil before they mature or attain the woody nature. Plants of very young nature also should not be incorporated as they will very easily decompose leaving little residue in the soil. Woody plants will decompose very slowly. Hence, the best stage for incorporation of plants is either at the flowering stage or before they attain the woody texture. K. Time of Incorporation The success of green manuring depends on the correct time of trampling green matter into the soil and giving sufficient interval before sowing or planting the crop. The manure, being a bulky one is usually applied as basal dressing before the main crop is raised in the field. In our country, except for some perennial crops like coconut, fruits and some plantation crops like tea and coffee, green manure is applied as basal dressing. After incorporation, sufficient time is allowed for decomposition to take place and only after this, the main crop is sown or planted. However, the time will vary according to the crop and other agronomic practices followed. For example, for sugarcane, sunnhemp is grown along with the main sugarcane crop and the green manure crop is incorporated after about 40 to 50 days growth at the time of earthing up. In the case of plantation crops, green manure grown",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to the crop and other agronomic practices followed. For example, for sugarcane, sunnhemp is grown along with the main sugarcane crop and the green manure crop is incorporated after about 40 to 50 days growth at the time of earthing up. In the case of plantation crops, green manure grown in the same field or brought from outside is incorporated for the decomposition in the field. Usually about six to eight weeks time is found to be sufficient for the decomposition. L. Method of Application of Green Manure The method of application varies from place to place depending upon other agronomic practices followed. In the case of green manuring, when plants are grown in the same field where they are to be incorporated, the plants are cut at the proper stage to the ground level, placed in the furrows and covered by the next furrow. With the availability of labour saving implements like green manure trampler, the plants are trampled by working the implement and later on levelling the field. This practice is possible where rice is transplanted. In broadcast crop, a suitable modification is necessary and usually both green manure crops is incorporated during the first weeding. In case of green leaf manuring, the plants brought from outside source are spread over the field and trampled in by the use of implements or by human labour. In some cases, as in the green manuring of sugarcane, the incorporation is done during inter cultivation operation. M. Decomposition of Green Manures The green manure applied to soil undergoes a series of chemical changes and only after these biochemical changes the nutrients contained in the plants become available and the Humus is synthesized. Hence, as in the case of any other bulky organic manure, the nutrients become available slowly and steadily for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "The green manure applied to soil undergoes a series of chemical changes and only after these biochemical changes the nutrients contained in the plants become available and the Humus is synthesized. Hence, as in the case of any other bulky organic manure, the nutrients become available slowly and steadily for a prolonged period of time. The green matter applied to the soil is acted upon by many types of micro organisms such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and macro organisms like protozoa, worms and insect larvae and several end products and intermediate products are formed during the decomposition. The type of decomposition and the products formed are found to be controlled by the following important factors: Organisms present: The type and nature of micro organisms whether fungi or bacteria, aerobic or anaerobic, autotrophic or heterotrophic organisms, will decide the type of decomposition. 646 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Temperature: Optimum temperature of about 30–35°C is necessary for the normal decomposition processes and the rate of decomposition will be modified at low or high temperature. Aeration: The various stages of the decomposition process are decided by the presence or absence of air. Hence, there is aerobic decomposition in the presence of air and anaerobic decomposition in the absence of air. Moisture supply: The moisture content of the green matter and the soil decide the rate and type of decomposition. Optimum moisture is necessary for the normal rate of decomposition. In low moisture supply, decomposition will be slowed down. Soil factors: The various physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil will influence the rate and type of decomposition. In general, the decomposition will be rapid in a fertile soil than in a non-fertile soil. Nature of green manure: The composition of the green manure, its age, maturity, etc. will also influence the rate",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "chemical and biological properties of the soil will influence the rate and type of decomposition. In general, the decomposition will be rapid in a fertile soil than in a non-fertile soil. Nature of green manure: The composition of the green manure, its age, maturity, etc. will also influence the rate and type of decomposition. The young plants will decompose more rapidly than wellmatured plants. Similarly plants having greater amount of nitrogen will decompose more rapidly than those having higher content of carbon compounds. Putting all the above influencing factors together, the decomposition can be broadly studied under two categories viz., aerobic decomposition and anaerobic decomposition or purification (i) Aerobic decomposition: The plant material incorporated into the soil is made up of numerous compounds. But, for studying the decomposition processes the various compounds can be roughly brought under three groups: (1) Carbon compounds consisting of carbohydrates, fats, oils, organic acids, lignin and other cyclic organic compounds; (2) Nitrogen compounds consisting of proteins, amino acids and other non-protein nitrogenous substances, and (3) Mineral salts. In this process of decomposition, the most important deciding factor is the aeration in the soil and sufficient quantity of air is always necessary for the normal rate of aerobic decomposition. Changes in the carbon compounds: The various carbon compounds are attacked by the organisms and all of them are found to be converted finally to carbon dioxide and water. For example, if glucose is attacked by the aerobic bacteria, carbon dioxide and water are produced. C6H12O6 + 6 O2 BACTERIA → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ENERGY In the same way, if starch, cellulose, and hemicellulose are present, they will be converted finally to carbon dioxide and water. This conversion is found to be performed by a group of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes capable of living",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "6 O2 BACTERIA → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ENERGY In the same way, if starch, cellulose, and hemicellulose are present, they will be converted finally to carbon dioxide and water. This conversion is found to be performed by a group of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes capable of living only under aerated condition. But the various organisms capable of decomposing the carbonaceous material require sufficient quantity of energy and nutrients. They find sufficient energy from the decomposition of carbohydrates but there may be insufficiency of nitrogen and phosphorus and in such cases, nitrogen and phosphorus should be added to favour all the activities of the organisms. In the case of young plants there may be sufficient quantities of nutrients and hence the rate of decomposition of carbonaceous material will be carbon dioxide and water but this conversion is not so quick and simple as seen from the reaction. Changes in nitrogen compounds: Proteins constitute the major nitrogenous compounds in the plant material. When protein undergoes decomposition, it is first hydrolysed by proteolytic enzymes produced by micro organisms to polypeptides, amino acids and other nitrogen derivatives. These are further acted upon and ammonia is formed. The ammonia produced does not accumulate in the soil except under anaerobic condition, but under aerobic nature, it is rapidly oxidized by the nitrifying bacteria to nitrate. Some of the ammonia may also be consumed by the micro organisms. In addition to the protein the other nitrogenous compounds like urea, purine bases, lecithin, choline, cyanamide, alkaloids etc., are decomposed by a great variety of micro organisms. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 647 Changes in nitrogen compounds Proteins Hydrolysis Aminization Amino acids Amino acid Ammonification Ammonia Nitrite (Nitrification) Nitrate Polypeptides (peptide and peptones) Therefore, in the aerobic decomposition, the steps are aminization, ammonification and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "alkaloids etc., are decomposed by a great variety of micro organisms. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 647 Changes in nitrogen compounds Proteins Hydrolysis Aminization Amino acids Amino acid Ammonification Ammonia Nitrite (Nitrification) Nitrate Polypeptides (peptide and peptones) Therefore, in the aerobic decomposition, the steps are aminization, ammonification and nitrification and the end product is nitrate, though there is some utilization of nitrogen by the micro organisms to synthesize their body protein. Changes in the mineral constituents: The various mineral constituents like those of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, etc. which are found in the plant in the organic form and to some extent in inorganic form are converted to more soluble forms and they become readily available to the plant. Summarizing the aerobic decomposition, the carbon compounds are finally converted to carbon dioxide and water, the nitrogen compounds finally to nitrates, the mineral constituents into more soluble forms and there is synthesis of humus. Humus is nothing but the ligno-protein complex formed by the combination of the microbial protein and the lignin present in plants. Lignin is resistant to microbial decomposition and in the presence of microbial protein present in the body of the micro organisms they unite together forming the more persistent material called humus. This is the type of decomposition taking place when green manure is applied to aerated soils (garden lands and dry lands). (ii) Anaerobic decompositionThis is found to take place in soils, which are poorly aerated, or under waterlogged conditions. Under these circumstances only the organisms capable of thriving in the absence of oxygen will develop and they will decompose the various constituents present in the plant body. (a) Changes to carbon compounds: The various compounds are attacked and converted to methane, various organic acids, alcohols and carbon dioxide. For example, if glucose is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the organisms capable of thriving in the absence of oxygen will develop and they will decompose the various constituents present in the plant body. (a) Changes to carbon compounds: The various compounds are attacked and converted to methane, various organic acids, alcohols and carbon dioxide. For example, if glucose is attacked by anaerobic bacteria and fungi, lactic acid, alcohol, butyric acid and fumaric acid are produced. C6H12O6 BACTERIA ⎯⎯→ 2C3H6O3 (Lactic acid) C6H12O6 BACTERIA ⎯⎯→ 2C2H5OH (Ethyl Alcohol)+2 CO2 C6H12O6 FUNGI ⎯⎯→ C3H6O3 + C2H5OH + CO2 2C2H5OH ⎯⎯→ C2H4O + 2 CH4 Hence, all the non-nitrogenous compounds are finally found to be converted to the above mentioned products. (b) Changes in the nitrogenous compounds: Here also the proteins, on hydrolysis by the various hydrolytic enzymes produced by the various micro-organisms are converted to polypeptides, 648 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY peptides and peptones and finally to amino acids. The amino acids are further converted to ammonia and along with the ammonia, various amines and mercaptans are also produced and these are responsible for the putrefactive odour. Hence, the anaerobic decomposition is also sometimes referred to a putrefaction. The end product is ammonia but in some cases, it may be further converted to gaseous nitrogen, which may be lost to the atmosphere. Proteins and other nitrogenous compounds Hydrolysis by enzymes produced by bacteria Polypeptides, peptides, peptones Hydrolysis Amino acids Ammonifying bacteria Ammonia Gaseous nitrogen With regard to mineral constituents, they are converted into more soluble forms as in the case of aerobic decomposition. So in the anaerobic decomposition, the carbon compounds are converted to methane, carbon dioxide, organic acids, the nitrogen compounds into ammonia and gaseous nitrogen and there is the formation of humus to some extent. Carbon nitrogen ratio on decomposition process: Carbon nitrogen ratio is the relative proportion by",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "aerobic decomposition. So in the anaerobic decomposition, the carbon compounds are converted to methane, carbon dioxide, organic acids, the nitrogen compounds into ammonia and gaseous nitrogen and there is the formation of humus to some extent. Carbon nitrogen ratio on decomposition process: Carbon nitrogen ratio is the relative proportion by weight or organic carbon to nitrogen, in the soil or any organic matter. The number obtained by dividing the percentage of organic carbon by the percentage of nitrogen is usually referred to as carbonnitrogen (C:N) ratio. Carbon-nitrogen ratio is of fundamental and practical importance in understanding the mineralization of the organic matter. It is a well established fact that the C:N ratio exerts a marked influence upon the mineralization of carbon or nitrogen of the green matter, both under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Only green matter with C:N ratio of 30:1 or lower will decompose in the normal manner. Materials with a very wide ratio do not decompose rapidly as the nitrogen contained in the green matter is not sufficient for the microbial activity and materials with very narrow ratio decompose more rapidly as excess nitrogen is available for the microbial activity. This is due to the fact that the various micro organisms taking part in the decomposition process require carbon for their energy and nitrogen for the synthesis of their protoplasm. Hence, in the presence of more carbon (wide C:N ratio) more energy giving material will be available for the micro organisms and thus the increased activity of the organisms will utilize all the nitrogen. Once the available nitrogen is exhausted, the micro organisms will become inactive and decomposition rate will be retarded. In contrast, when proportionate amounts of both carbon and nitrogen are available, the mineralization will proceed in a normal way. Mature plants have a very wide",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "organisms will utilize all the nitrogen. Once the available nitrogen is exhausted, the micro organisms will become inactive and decomposition rate will be retarded. In contrast, when proportionate amounts of both carbon and nitrogen are available, the mineralization will proceed in a normal way. Mature plants have a very wide C:N ratio of 50:1. In such cases, the carbon, when mineralized, gives out energy, which is utilized by the various micro organisms. With the availability of more energy, AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 649 the organisms utilize all the available nitrogen present in the soil and plant material. Thus the entire nitrogen will be left to be mineralized and thus the wide ratio in the beginning will be narrowed down and when this type of green matter is added to the soil, it will be acted only by the carbon mineralizing organisms. When green matter with very narrow ratio, below 20:1, is applied to the soils, the availability of nitrogen will be more due to more mineralization of nitrogen. However, in all cases of plant materials, finally the C:N ratio will be brought to about 10:1, which is said to be an equilibrium stage. Succulent and leafy portions of green manure, when applied, decompose very quickly (in about a week time), and behave almost like inorganic fertilizer. In contrast, when matured and woody plants are used, much time is taken for the decomposition, and the nutrients are released very slowly as in the case of other bulky organic manures. Thus, the C:N ratio is an useful indicator by which the decomposition process, the release of nutrients and other biochemical reactions connected with mineralization can be well understood. N. Farmer Acceptance of Green Manuring If green manure crops are not associated with a direct increase in income, farmers are",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "manures. Thus, the C:N ratio is an useful indicator by which the decomposition process, the release of nutrients and other biochemical reactions connected with mineralization can be well understood. N. Farmer Acceptance of Green Manuring If green manure crops are not associated with a direct increase in income, farmers are not likely to be interested in them. It is, therefore, important that green manuring raises the farmer’s income not only indirectly by improving soil fertility but also directly,(e.g., by yielding by-products of economic importance such as fuel, stakes for climbing plants, food, fodder and local medicines). All forms of sown fallow demand a great deal of labour. Even more important can be the point in time when this labour is needed. If this coincides with other farm activities that cannot be delayed and improved fallow is not likely to be accepted by the farmers. Where forms of alley cropping are practised, farmers often prefer to plant the green manure crops in a looser configuration than the recommended model. Two leguminous plants, which show great promise as green manure, are velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) and sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea, C.ochroleuca). O. Limitations in Raising Green Manure Crops Though there are several advantages of green manuring, it is not being practised on a large scale by the farmers due to certain limitations. • Non-availability of water resources may restrict raising of green manure crops. • Non-availability of good quality seeds poses a problem. • Allotment of 6–8 weeks exclusively for growing a green manure crop is not preferred by farmers in intensive cropping system. • In North India, where rice is grown after a wheat crop, the farmers are not able to carry out field operations in the peak summer months of May and June. • As the benefits of green manuring are",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "manure crop is not preferred by farmers in intensive cropping system. • In North India, where rice is grown after a wheat crop, the farmers are not able to carry out field operations in the peak summer months of May and June. • As the benefits of green manuring are not as spectacular as those usually derives from direct application of inorganic fertilisers, farmers are not convinced about the usefulness of green manuring. • Sensitivity of certain leguminous green manure crops to photoperiodism is a constraint. • Vegetative growth is regarded by early flowering during a short, dry season, resulting in less biomass production. • A green manure crop may compete for time, labour and water, the cost of which must be balanced against the cost of inorganic fertilisers. • Poor germination of certain green manure seeds is also a problem. • Incorporation of green manure crops under certain situations may be difficult and costly. 650 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 15.14 FORAGE CROPS AND GRASSES The term forages or forage crops denote plants either cultivated or wild that are used as stock feed for domestic animals, which are allowed to graze or fed with cut grasses in stalls. Forage crops include pasture (which is used for grazing animals) straw, haulms, foliage of trees and shrubs. Forages account for 4.4% of total arable land in the country. Cereal fodders/forages belong to family Poaceae and legumes belong to family Fabaceae. Although forages and fodder crops are synonyms, yet often latter is termed to the cultivated crops like cereals and legumes. The term fodder is generally applied to nontraditional forage crops used for livestock feed e.g., maize, sorghum, bajra, guar etc. are primarily the grain crops, but also raised as soiling crop (greed fodder, which is cut and fed to cattle). The gap",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to the cultivated crops like cereals and legumes. The term fodder is generally applied to nontraditional forage crops used for livestock feed e.g., maize, sorghum, bajra, guar etc. are primarily the grain crops, but also raised as soiling crop (greed fodder, which is cut and fed to cattle). The gap of demand and supply of forages needs to be bridged by maximizing forage production by the following ways; • In space and time (intensification) • Identifying new avenues of forage production • Integration of forage crops in existing cropping • Utilization of marginal, submarginal degraded and problem land for forage production through pastures, and sylvipasture. Green fodder Dry forage Estimated forage production 513 m.t 400 m.t. Actual requirement 1083 m.t 676 m.t. 1. FORAGE CROPS Forage crops are divided into six groups. 1. Grass fodder • Hybrid cumbu Napier grass or Elephant grass • Guinea grass (Perennial) • Para (water) grass or buffalo grass • Kolukattai grass/Blou buffel grass 2. Cereal fodder (Annual) 1. Summer Cereal fodder • Sorghum • Bajra • Maize • Teosinte 2. Winter cereal fodder: Oats 3. Legume fodder • Annual summer fodder – Cowpea • Annual winter fodder – Berseem • Perennial summer fodder – Desmanthus, Stylosanthus • Perennial winter legume – Lucerne 4. Tree leaf fodder Subabul (Lucaena) Acacia sp. (Velvel, Karuvel) Agathi 5. Dry fodder Sorghum, cumbu, rice, maize, ragi straw 6. Miscellaneous Most farm products except straw and hays–cane tops, fodder amaranthus and number of non-conventional fodder and feed. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 651 A. Toxic Constituents in Forages (i) Hydrocynic acid (HCN) poisoning: It causes sudden death with in 1–2 hours. Ruminants are more susceptible than horse and pigs. Etiology: It is found in sorghum, cyanodon, Johnson grass and Sudan grass. Young leaves contain more than 500 ppm.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 651 A. Toxic Constituents in Forages (i) Hydrocynic acid (HCN) poisoning: It causes sudden death with in 1–2 hours. Ruminants are more susceptible than horse and pigs. Etiology: It is found in sorghum, cyanodon, Johnson grass and Sudan grass. Young leaves contain more than 500 ppm. Critical level: Less than 20 mg HCN/100 gram of feed material (< 200 ppm). Control: To avoid HCN poisoning, harvesting for fodder at heading stage/50% flowering, drying or haymaking is recommended. (ii) Nitrate poisoning: Forage that accumulated more than 1.5% of NO3 (on dry matter basis are classified as potentially toxic). Causes: Salivation, teeth grinding, high pulse rate, abdominal pain, difficult breathing and finally death of ruminants. Etiology: Found in immature green oats, hybrid cumbu napier grass, rye, para grass etc. Management practices: • Irrigation management is important to prevent long spell of drought • Dilution of high NO3 water and cattle shed washings are necessary • Avoid ‘N’ fertilizer application particularly during drought period • Cutting may be delayed and allow over maturity • Application of FYM/Compost is recommended (iii) Oxalates: Oxalic acid present in napier grass and rice straw (1.5–1.6%). Young leaves of bajra contain more oxalic acid than matured leaves. Young leaves contain up to 7%. Toxic limit is 3% only. Symptom: It causes negative ‘Ca’ balance. Precipitation of calcium in the blood is possible. It impairs P, Mg and Na nutrition. Management: • Ensiling or hay making the napier grass is important • Combining with legume fodder is important • Supplemental with chalk or superannuated limewater at 1.0 lit/animal may be given along with drinking water. (iv) Mimosine: A toxic amino acid found in subabul and Mimosa pudica. Critical level is < 0.75%. Symptoms: Infertility, goiter, low birth weight and death of newborn. Control: Mixing with",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fodder is important • Supplemental with chalk or superannuated limewater at 1.0 lit/animal may be given along with drinking water. (iv) Mimosine: A toxic amino acid found in subabul and Mimosa pudica. Critical level is < 0.75%. Symptoms: Infertility, goiter, low birth weight and death of newborn. Control: Mixing with other cereal forages/feeding 1% FeSO4 in the diet/supplemented with Iron. (v) Saponins: Biologically active glycosides of steroid rich in lucerne, berseem-bloating in ruminants. To avoid, feeding dry roughage prior to feeding and spraying oil are recommended. (vi) Tanins: Sorghum, Subabul, Acacia reduce digestibility of protein. 2. FORAGE GRASSES • Napier or Elephant grass : Pennisetum glaucum • Guinea grass : Panicum maximum • Water or Para grass or Buffalo grass : Brachiaria mutica • Blou Buffel grass (Neelakollukattai) : Cenchrus glaucus • Dennanath grass : Pennisetum pedicellatum 652 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 15.14.1 Forage Crops 15.14.1.1 Grass Fodder (Perennial) 1. Napier grass-cumber napier (P. glaucum) It is a tall growing (200–300 cm) erect, stout, deep-rooted perennial hybrid grass derived from P. glaucum × P. purpureum. The crude protein content is 10.1%. Origin: Native of Rhodessia and South Africa. Distribution: It is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, Southern Europe and America. In India, it is grown in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. Climate: It grows well under warm tropical conditions. Soil: Loamy soil with good drainage is good. It can withstand in saline soils to some extent. Season: It is cultivated throughout the year under irrigation. Varieties: BN 2 – Green fodder yield of 250 t/ha/year NB21 – 225 t/ha/year CO1 – 250–300 t/ha/year CO2 – 350–385 t/ha/year CO3 – 380–400 t/ha; higher foliage, low oxalic acid content (2.8–2.9%) Non-lodging, profuse tillering, more leafy. Seeds: It is multiplied by",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is cultivated throughout the year under irrigation. Varieties: BN 2 – Green fodder yield of 250 t/ha/year NB21 – 225 t/ha/year CO1 – 250–300 t/ha/year CO2 – 350–385 t/ha/year CO3 – 380–400 t/ha; higher foliage, low oxalic acid content (2.8–2.9%) Non-lodging, profuse tillering, more leafy. Seeds: It is multiplied by vegetative propagation by two nodded stem cutting or by root slips. For sole crop: 40,000 slips or stem cuttings/ha. For inter cropping with one row of Desmanthus: 30,000 slips/ha. Field preparation: The field is ploughed with Iron plough 2–3 times to obtain good tilth. Ridges and furrows are formed using ridge plough (Ridger), 6 m long and 50 cm apart. FYM: 25 t/ha of FYM/compost is applied and incorporated. Fertilizer application: It is applied as per soil test recommendation. If it is not possible, blanket recommendation of 50:50:40 of NPK kg/ha is followed. Full dose of NPK is applied before planting by opening furrow 5 cm deep on the side of the ridges and cover. Transplanting: Irrigate through furrows and plant one rooted slip per hole at a depth of 3–5 cm on the side of the ridges. A spacing of 50 × 50 cm with 40,000 slips/ha is maintained. As a mixed crop, 3 rows of cumber napier hybrid and one row of desmanthus can be raised to increase the nutrient value. The following inter cropping systems are suggested: • CNH + desmanthus at 3:1 ratio • CNH + lucerne + oat • CNH + velvet beans • CNH + cowpea + berseem Water Management: Life irrigation on 3rd day is given and thereafter once in 10 days. Sewage or wastewater can also be used for irrigation. After cultivation: Hand weeding and hoeing is done on 30 DAP (days after planting). Thinning and gap filling is done to maintain",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "+ cowpea + berseem Water Management: Life irrigation on 3rd day is given and thereafter once in 10 days. Sewage or wastewater can also be used for irrigation. After cultivation: Hand weeding and hoeing is done on 30 DAP (days after planting). Thinning and gap filling is done to maintain plant population. Earthing up is done once after 3 cuts and remove dried leaves once a year. Harvest: First harvest is on 60 DAP and subsequent harvests at interval of 45 days. Top dressing: After each harvest, 100 kg N/ha is applied. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 653 Points to be remembered Quartering has to be done every year or whenever the clumps become unwidely and large. Wherever necessary to countermand the ill effects of oxalates in this grass, the following steps are suggested: • Feeding 5 kg of leguminous fodder/day/animal along with these grasses. • Provide calcium, bone meal or mineral mixture to the animal, or • Giving daily half litre of superannuated clear lime water along with the drinking water or sprinkling the water on the seed. Green fodder yield: 380 t/ha/year. 2. Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) It is a tall growing, vigorous, tufted perennial grass. Guinea grass is a high tillering grass and produces more number of leaves. It is easily digestible and high yielding (250–280 t/ha). It can be grown as mixed crop with desmanthus (Velimasal). It comes up well under coconut garden and it is not toxic to any animals. It is rich in crude protein (10%), Ca (0.56%) and P (0.33%). The cropping systems like guinea grass + cowpea, guinea grass + velvet bean, guinea grass + lucerne, guinea grass + berseem, guinea grass + desmodium, guinea grass + stylosanthus and guinea grass + rice bean are recommended/ followed. Origin: Tropical and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in crude protein (10%), Ca (0.56%) and P (0.33%). The cropping systems like guinea grass + cowpea, guinea grass + velvet bean, guinea grass + lucerne, guinea grass + berseem, guinea grass + desmodium, guinea grass + stylosanthus and guinea grass + rice bean are recommended/ followed. Origin: Tropical and subtropical Africa. Propagation: It can be propagated either by rooted slips or by seeds (mostly). Germination of fresh seed is low, but can be increased by storing the seed in dry condition for 6 months. Variety: CO1. Soil and climate: All type of soils with good drainage is preferred. But, loamy soil is highly preferred for guinea grass. It can be cultivated in wide range of climate (from tropical to subtropical and spread even to humid tropics and subtropics). Season: Irrigated: Throughout the year Rainfed: Monsoon season (June-July to Sep.–Oct.) Field preparation: 25 t FYM/ha is applied as basal. Ploughing once with Iron plough and twice with country plough is done. Ridges and furrows are formed at 50 cm apart. Manures: NPK should be applied as per the STL recommendation. If it is not followed, blanket recommendation of NPK at 50:50:40 kg/ha is followed at the time of planting. Seeds and Sowing: The seed rate is 2.5 kg/ha or number of rooted slips required is 40,000/ha. The rooted slips are planted at 3 cm depth on the side of ridges adopting 50 × 50 cm spacing. After cultivation: Hoeing and weeding is done on 30th day. Thinning and gap filling is done to maintain spacing. Earthing up is done once after three cuts. Dried tillers are removed once in a year. Irrigation: Irrigation is given at the time of planting/sowing, followed by life irrigation on 3rd day. Thereafter, irrigation is given once in 10 days or as required. Harvest: First",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is done to maintain spacing. Earthing up is done once after three cuts. Dried tillers are removed once in a year. Irrigation: Irrigation is given at the time of planting/sowing, followed by life irrigation on 3rd day. Thereafter, irrigation is given once in 10 days or as required. Harvest: First cut is done at 80 DAP and subsequent cuts may be done once in 45 days. Green fodder yield: 250-280 t/ha/year. Top dressing: After each harvest, 50 kg N/ha is applied. 3. Para grass–Brachiaria mutica (water grass or buffalo grass) It is a perennial grass and grows to a height of 2.5 m. It grows on moist soils and withstands prolonged flooding or water logging. The crude protein content is 6.9%. The cropping systems like para grass + 654 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY cowpea, para grass + velvet bean, para grass + berseem, para grass + lucerne and para grass + rice bean are followed: Origin: Tropical Africa and Tropical South America. Season: It is cultivated throughout the year under irrigated conditions. Soil: It can be grown in all type of soils. Field preparation: Same as in guinea grass. Manuring: Application of FYM or compost at 25 t/ha and NPK at 20:40:0 kg/ha is recommended as basal prior to planting. 20 kg N/ha is applied after each cutting. Seeds and sowing: Ridges and furrows are formed at 50 cm apart. It is propagated by stem cuttings. Number of rooted slips required for planting one ha is 40,000/ha. Spacing: 50 × 50 cm. Plant to a depth of 3 cm on the side of ridges. After cultivation and Irrigation: similar to that of guinea grass. Harvest: First cut is done at 60 DAP and subsequent cuts may be done once in 45 days. Green fodder yield: 200–240 t/ha/year. 4. Blou buffel",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "50 cm. Plant to a depth of 3 cm on the side of ridges. After cultivation and Irrigation: similar to that of guinea grass. Harvest: First cut is done at 60 DAP and subsequent cuts may be done once in 45 days. Green fodder yield: 200–240 t/ha/year. 4. Blou buffel grass (Cenchrus glaucus) It is a promising green grass, which performs well in dry lands under rainfed conditions. Two species namely C. ciliaris (white kollukottai) and C. setigerus (black) are two commonly grown species, but are low yielding. C. glaucus (Neela Kollukattai) is the type, which yields better than other two species. It is a perennial pasture grass and easily digestible. It comes well in arid and semi arid tropical climate with long dry spell. It is highly drought resistant. It contains 9.06% protein and 0.59% Ca. It is best suited for hay or silage making. Intercropping with Stylosanthus at 3:1 ratio or Clitoria or Sirato or Desmanthus will help to improve fodder quality. Origin: Northeast Africa and India. Variety: CO1. Season: It is cultivated under rainfed conditions in SWM (June-July) or NEM (September– October) Soil: Well drained soil with high calcium or calcareous soil is good. Field preparation: The field is ploughed twice or thrice to obtain good tilth. Seeds and sowing: Seed rate is 6–8 kg/ha. Spacing: 50 × 30 cm Manuring: Application of FYM 12.5 t/ha and NPK at 25:40:20 kg/ha as basal is recommended. Top dressing: After each cut, if sufficient moisture is available ‘N’ at 25 kg/ha should be applied. Seeds and sowing: Seeds are to be sown at a shallow depth (1 cm) and cover with soil. Care is to be taken for the seeds, i.e., seeds are mixed with soil and used to avoid blown away by wind while sowing. After cultivation: One",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "25 kg/ha should be applied. Seeds and sowing: Seeds are to be sown at a shallow depth (1 cm) and cover with soil. Care is to be taken for the seeds, i.e., seeds are mixed with soil and used to avoid blown away by wind while sowing. After cultivation: One hand weeding is done on 30 DAS. Harvest: First cut is done on 70–75 DAP and subsequent 4–6 cuts in a year depending on the growth. Yield: Pure crop yield will be 40 t/ha/year in 4–6 cuts. 15.14.1.2 Cereal Forage Crops 1. Fodder sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) It is a favourite fodder in many parts of the country. It comes up well under tropical or subtropical climate. To improve the nutritive value, it should be grown mixed with leguminous fodder crops like AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 655 cowpea, cluster bean, green gram etc. Crude protein content is 9.2–9.8%. It is used as green fodder and stover for silage and haymaking. It is an excellent silage crop. Since it contains HCN, it should be harvested at 50% flowering. Origin: Africa. Season: It is cultivated both under irrigated conditions (January to February and April to May in all districts) and rainfed conditions (June–July and September–October). Varieties: Irrigated – CO11 (37 t/ha), CO27 (44 t/ha) Rainfed – K7 (33 t/ha), CO27 Soil: It can be grown in all soils, but loamy soils with good drainage are best suited. Field preparation: The field is ploughed once with Iron plough and twice with country plough for rainfed crop. Field should be prepared in advance taking advantage of early showers. FYM @12.5 t/ha is applied and incorporated. Application of 10 pockets of Azospirillum (2 kg/ha) for irrigated crop is recommended. Ridges and furrows of 6 m long and 30 cm apart are formed and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "country plough for rainfed crop. Field should be prepared in advance taking advantage of early showers. FYM @12.5 t/ha is applied and incorporated. Application of 10 pockets of Azospirillum (2 kg/ha) for irrigated crop is recommended. Ridges and furrows of 6 m long and 30 cm apart are formed and irrigation channels across the furrows using a ridge are formed. If ridges and furrows are not made, beds of 20 m2 depending on the availability of water are formed. Fertilizer: For irrigated crop, fertilizer dose of 60:40:20 kg N, P, K kg/ha is recommended. Application of 30:40:20 kg N, P, K kg/ha is done as basal. Top dressing of 30 kg N is done on 30 DAS. For rainfed crop, application of 40:20:0 kg N, P, K kg/ha as basal is recommended. Seed rate: The seed rate for irrigated crop is 40 kg/ha and 75 kg/ha for rainfed crop. The seeds are treated with 3 pockets of Azospirillum (600 g/ha). Spacing: 30 × 15 cm is recommended for both rainfed and irrigated crops. For irrigated crop, the seeds are sown to a depth of 3 cm and cover the seeds. For rainfed crop, seed drill is used for sowing at 5 cm depth or country plough (pre monsoon sowing) and sowing is done behind the country plough. Water management: For irrigated crop, irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Life irrigation is given on 3rd day and there after once in 10 days. Weed management: First weeding is done on 20 DAS and second weeding on 30–40 DAS if necessary. Along with hand weeding, thinning and gap filling is done, maintaining the spacing of 15 cm between plants. Harvesting: If it is a single cut, it should be harvested at 60–65 days (50% flowering) and if it is a multicut variety,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "DAS and second weeding on 30–40 DAS if necessary. Along with hand weeding, thinning and gap filling is done, maintaining the spacing of 15 cm between plants. Harvesting: If it is a single cut, it should be harvested at 60–65 days (50% flowering) and if it is a multicut variety, the first cut is at 60 DAS and a second cut 40 days after first cut. The yield in first cut will be 45 t/ha (green) and 25 t/ha (green) in second cut. 2. Fodder maize (Zea mays) It is a quick growing, emerging fodder and is well suited to wide of range of climate. It has no HCN content. High yield and digestibility will be obtained, when it is harvested at 50% flowering–dough stage. It is highly palatable and nutritious and suitable for high altitude. Origin: Africa. Season: It can be cultivated throughout the year for irrigated crop. It is cultivated in kharif season under rainfed conditions. Varieties/Hybrid: African Tall Ganga–5 Green fodder yield (t/ha) 42 34 Crude protein (%) 9.8 10.6 656 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Field preparation: Field preparation is similar to fodder sorghum. Soil: All soils with good drainage are good. Ridges and furrows are formed 6 m long and 30 cm apart or beds are formed depending on the availability of water. Manuring: FYM/compost at 25 t/ha is applied and fertilizer dose of 60:40:20 kg NPK/ha is followed and applied as given below: N P K (kg/ha) Basal 30: 40: 20 Top dress on 30 DAS 30: – – Seed and sowing: The seed rate is 40 kg/ha and one seed is dibbled in the row to a depth of 4 cm. The recommended spacing is 30 × 15 cm. The seeds are treated with 3 pockets of (600 g) Azospirillum inoculant before sowing. Weed",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "DAS 30: – – Seed and sowing: The seed rate is 40 kg/ha and one seed is dibbled in the row to a depth of 4 cm. The recommended spacing is 30 × 15 cm. The seeds are treated with 3 pockets of (600 g) Azospirillum inoculant before sowing. Weed management: Hand weeding is done on 20th day and subsequent weeding if necessary. Water management: For irrigated crop, irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Life irrigation is given on 3rd day and there after once in 10 days. Harvesting: The crop is harvested when the cob is in the milling stage (50% flowering to dough stage). Yield: Green fodder yield is 40-45 t/ha. When mixed with cowpea, fodder quality will be best. 3. Fodder cumbu/Bajra (Pennisetum glaucum) It is a high yielding, sweet stemmed, high tillering, short duration, fast growing, drought resistant and non-lodging fodder. At any stage, it can be cut and fed to animals (free of toxic). As a rainy season crop, it is grown in well drained light soils of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab. It is one of the quick growing crops and it responds to multicut. Hence, it has to be cut before flowering stage, so that 2–3 harvests can be taken. The fodder is not as palatable as that of sorghum or maize. But variety CO 8 is palatable and sweet and it contains high protein of 12.56%. Origin: Africa. Variety: CO 8. Seed rate: 10 kg/ha. Spacing: 30 × 10 cm. Manuring: FYM at 25 t/ha is applied as basal and NPK requirement is 50:40:20 kg/ha respectively. 25:40:20 kg NPK/ha is applied as basal prior to sowing and the remaining 25 kg N as top dressing on 25 DAS. Seed and sowing: The seeds are sown to a depth of 2-3 cm",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "FYM at 25 t/ha is applied as basal and NPK requirement is 50:40:20 kg/ha respectively. 25:40:20 kg NPK/ha is applied as basal prior to sowing and the remaining 25 kg N as top dressing on 25 DAS. Seed and sowing: The seeds are sown to a depth of 2-3 cm and covered or the seeds are broadcasted and covered with country plough. It can be intercropped with fodder cowpea to improve the fodder quality. Hand weeding: Hand weeding is done on 20 DAS and subsequent weeding may be done if necessary. Irrigation: Irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Life irrigation is given on 3rd day and there after once in 10 days. Harvest: First cut is on 40–45 DAS (at boot leaf stage) and 3–5 cuts can be taken. Yield: Yield is 30–35 t/ha/cut. 4. Teosinite (Euchlaena mexicana) ‘This is relative to maize (monocious) and introduced from Central America. It is a tall, succulent annual growing to a height of 1.8-3.6 m in large clumps with numerous branching tillers. The leaves are 90 cm long and 5.0–7.5 cm broad. It was first introduced to India in 1881. It is unaffected by any serious AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 657 pests or diseases. The seeds are about 8 mm long, somewhat angular and vary in colour from dark brown to creamy white. It is also used for hay and silage making. In Punjab, it is recommended for growing during fodder scarcity months of May–June and October–November. Climate: It is a tropical crop and it can be grown in warm humid regions with annual rainfall of >1000 mm. Soil: It needs rich well-drained loamy soil for best growth. Season: It is usually grown in kharif season. Best time of sowing in north India is June 25th to July 15th. It",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a tropical crop and it can be grown in warm humid regions with annual rainfall of >1000 mm. Soil: It needs rich well-drained loamy soil for best growth. Season: It is usually grown in kharif season. Best time of sowing in north India is June 25th to July 15th. It is also grown in rabi season. Sowing: Seed rate is 40 kg/ha. Sowing is done either by broadcast or by drilling, adopting 30 cm row spacing. Manuring: Application of 12.5 t/ha of FYM and NPK at 20:40:40 kg/ha is recommended as basal before sowing. After cultivation: It requires more water compared to maize and 4–5 irrigations are given. One weeding may be done if necessary. Harvest: The crop is harvested at 110–120 days. Sometimes second cut may be done after 6–7 weeks after first harvest. Fodder yield is 40–50 t/ha. 5. Oats: Winter cereal fodder: The details are given in the Chapter 15 Section 15.2. 15.14.1.3 Legume Forages Fodder legumes are also referred as masals. They have immense value in animal nutrition, because of their higher protein content (19–24%), vitamin’s specific minerals like phosphorus, calcium etc. Legume forages are near equal to concentrates and are likely to be substituted for the latter. The legume forage crops are short duration in nature and raised as catch crop in between two crops. It improves soil fertility by way of ‘N’ fixation and is suitable for inter or mixed cropping. It is raised for dual purpose (green manure and fodder value) e.g., Sunnhemp and berseem. It will increase intake of fodder by improving fodder availability and capable of replacing concentrates in animal rations and save feeding costs. In India, important leguminous forage crops are: • Annual–summer growing – Cowpea and Stylosanthus hamata • Annual–winter growing – Berseem and Lentil • Perennial – Desmanthus,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and berseem. It will increase intake of fodder by improving fodder availability and capable of replacing concentrates in animal rations and save feeding costs. In India, important leguminous forage crops are: • Annual–summer growing – Cowpea and Stylosanthus hamata • Annual–winter growing – Berseem and Lentil • Perennial – Desmanthus, Lucerne, S. Scabra and S. hamata 1. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) It has 19% crude protein and 2.13% Ca. It is grown both in irrigated and rain fed conditions. It comes well under shade condition. Cowpea is mixed or intercropped with sorghum/maize or cumbu that will help to improve fodder yield as well as quality. Origin: India. Variety: CO5 (only for fodder purpose). Season: It can be grown throughout the year under Irrigated conditions and during September– October under rainfed conditions. Soil: All soil types with good drainage. Field preparation: The field is ploughed 2 or 3 times and ridges and furrows are formed at 6 m long and 30 cm apart or beds of 20 m2 are formed. Manuring: Application of FYM or compost at 25 t/ha and NPK at 25:40:20 kg/ha is recommended. Band application prior to sowing is preferred. 658 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Seed rate: 40 kg/ha. Spacing: 30 × 10 cm. Seed treatment: The seeds are treated with Rhizobium (3 Pockets) before sowing. Sowing: The seeds are sown to a depth of 3 cm on the side of the ridges. After cultivation: Hoeing and weeding is done on 20 DAS. Subsequent weeding may be done if required. Irrigation: Irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Life irrigation is given on 3rd day and there after once in 10 days. Harvest: Harvest is done on 50–55 days (50% flowering). Green fodder yield: 20–25 t/ha. 2. Berseem or Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) In India, it is an important rabi",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "required. Irrigation: Irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Life irrigation is given on 3rd day and there after once in 10 days. Harvest: Harvest is done on 50–55 days (50% flowering). Green fodder yield: 20–25 t/ha. 2. Berseem or Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrinum) In India, it is an important rabi forage crop in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh. It is a winter forage crop and very good fodder for milch animals and horses. It has 20% crude protein/70% dry matter digestibility and rich in Ca and P. It is used as green manure growing berseem decrease bulk density and better soil aggregation can be achieved. Origin: Indigenous to Egypt and introduced to India (1904). Climate: Berseem requires dry and cool climate. When the temperature goes around 30–33°C, regrowth after cutting is not possible. It cannot with stand drought and frost. It cannot be grown in damp and heavy rainfall areas. Soil: It can be grown in all type of soils except sandy soils. Well-drained medium loam soils rich in ‘P’ and calcium is good. It performs well in acid soil. Field preparations: The field is ploughed once with iron plough and thrice with country plough and makes it to fine tilth. Ridges and furrows or beds are formed. Varieties: Diploid: (i) Mescari (C.10)–6.0–7.0 t/ha. It is cultivated in Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. (ii) Berseem Ludhiana 1: (BL.1). Tetraploid: It is a winter hardy and quick growing, very leafy and succulent. However regrowth after cutting is not possible if temperature goes > 27°C. e.g., Pusa Giant (winter hardy and frost resistant) can yield 10-15% more than Mescari. Manuring: Apply FYM 15 t/ha and NPK: 25:60:0 kg/ha as basal. Seeds and sowing: Seed rate is 20–25 kg/ha. For late/early sowing, the seed rate is 30–35 kg/ha. The seeds",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "possible if temperature goes > 27°C. e.g., Pusa Giant (winter hardy and frost resistant) can yield 10-15% more than Mescari. Manuring: Apply FYM 15 t/ha and NPK: 25:60:0 kg/ha as basal. Seeds and sowing: Seed rate is 20–25 kg/ha. For late/early sowing, the seed rate is 30–35 kg/ha. The seeds are treated with rhizobium treatment. Time of sowing: Best time of sowing is first fortnight of October. For better growth and yield, diploid and tetraploid varieties should be mixed with 1:1 or 2:1 ratio. Sowing: The seeds are broadcasted and covered. For getting higher yield of good quality fodder, 1.8 kg of mustard seed is mixed with full rate of berseem seed. Irrigation: Irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Life irrigation is given on 3rd day and there after once in 15–20 days. Weed control: Pre plant incorporation or pre-emergence application of Basalin at 1.0 lit/ha in 500 lit of water is recommended. Harvesting: First cut is done on 60 DAS. Subsequent cuttings may be done at 25–35 days interval depending on vegetable growth. After two cuttings, the crop may be allowed for seed production. Yield: 8–11 t/ha of green fodder with 18–20% of Dry matter. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 659 3. Hedge lucerne (Desmathus virgatus) Velimasal It is a perennial fodder legume and it can withstand repeated cuttings. It is well suited for growing as mixed crop with cumbu napier hybrids. It contains 19.2% crude protein, 27% dry matter and there is no toxic principles. Origin: South America. Season: Irrigated crop can be cultivated through out the year and rainfed crop is raised during June–October. Soils: All types of soils. Field preparations: The field is ploughed once with iron plough and thrice with country plough and makes it to fine tilth. Ridges and furrows are formed",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "South America. Season: Irrigated crop can be cultivated through out the year and rainfed crop is raised during June–October. Soils: All types of soils. Field preparations: The field is ploughed once with iron plough and thrice with country plough and makes it to fine tilth. Ridges and furrows are formed at 50 cm apart. Manuring: Application of 12.5 t FYM/ha as basal along with NPK at 10:60:30 kg/ha is recommended. Seed treatment is done with rhizobium (3 pockets/ha). Seed rate: 20 kg/ha. Spacing: 50 cm × solid sowing. Sowing: The seeds are soaked in hot water for 4 minutes (80°C) and then soaked in cold water overnight. Deep sowing will result in lower germination. hence, shallow sowing to a depth of 1.0–1.5 cm is recommended. Irrigation: Irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Life irrigation is given on 3rd day and there after once in a week. After cultivations: Hoeing and weeding is done on 30 DAS. Thereafter, hand weeding is done after each cut. Harvest: First cut is done on 90 DAS at 50 cm height and, subsequent cut may be done at an interval of 40 days. Green fodder yield: 125 t/ha. 4. Stylosanthes (Muyal Masal or Stylo) Stylos are drought resistant pasture legumes coming up well in areas receiving a minimum rainfall of 450–840 mm annually. These can be grown in a wide range of soil. Crude protein content ranges from 15–18% and it is well suited for inter cropping or mixed cropping with guinea grass. Origin: South America. Varieties: Stylosanthes hamata (perennial) and Stylosanthus scabra (perennial). Season: Irrigated crop can be cultivated through out the year and rainfed crop is raised during June–July/September–October. Field preparation: The field is ploughed 2–3 times to obtain good tilth. Manuring: Application of FYM or compost at 10 t/ha and NPK at",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "America. Varieties: Stylosanthes hamata (perennial) and Stylosanthus scabra (perennial). Season: Irrigated crop can be cultivated through out the year and rainfed crop is raised during June–July/September–October. Field preparation: The field is ploughed 2–3 times to obtain good tilth. Manuring: Application of FYM or compost at 10 t/ha and NPK at 20:60:15 kg/ha as basal is recommended. Seed rate: 10 kg/ha. Spacing: 30 × 15 cm. Sowing: The seeds are soaked in hot water for 4 minutes (80°C) and then soaked in cold water overnight. Deep sowing will result in lower germination. Hence, shallow sowing to a depth of 1 cm is recommended. After cultivation: Weeding is done at 25 DAS. Irrigation: For Irrigated crop, irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Life irrigation is given on 3rd day and there after once in 7–10 days interval. Harvest: First cut is done on 75th day (at flowering) and subsequent cut may be done depending upon the growth. 660 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Green fodder yield: Irrigated crop can yield up to 50 t/ha. In first year, yield will be poor. Second and subsequent years, the yield will go up to 30–35 t/ha. 5. Lucerne or Alfalfa–Medicago sativa (Kudirai masal) It is a perennial leguminous plant. Being a deep rooted crop, it extracts water from deeper zone. It contains higher crude protein (20-24%) with 72% digestibility and 1.5% Ca and 0.2% P. It is rich in vitamin A, B and D. Lucerne crop supplies green fodder for a long period (November to June) (for 3–4 years from the same field). It is cultivated in USA, Canada, Argentina and India. In India, it is mostly grown in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Origin: South-west Asia. Climate: It thrives best under dry and sunny condition. It can be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(for 3–4 years from the same field). It is cultivated in USA, Canada, Argentina and India. In India, it is mostly grown in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Origin: South-west Asia. Climate: It thrives best under dry and sunny condition. It can be grown even up to 2500 m altitude. It can withstand fairly low temperature. Soil: Loamy soil with good drainage is highly preferred. Season: Under irrigated condition, it can be grown throughout the year and middle of October is the best time of sowing. Varieties: CO1, IGFRI.112 (for all areas), Anand 2, 3 and Anand 1 (for hill areas). Manures: Application of FYM or compost at 25 t/ha and NPK at 25:120:40 kg/ha is recommended. Band placement is preferred prior to planting. Seed rate: 15–20 kg/ha. Spacing: 25 cm × solid line. Sowing: The seeds are treated with rhizobium (3 pockets). Sowing at 2 cm depth on the sides of the ridges or above the fertilizer band is good. After Cultivation: Hand weeding is done on 20 DAS, followed by thinning and gap filling. Subsequent weeding may be done if necessary. Irrigation: Irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Life irrigation is given on 3rd day and thereafter once in a week. Harvest: First cut is done on 60 DAS and subsequent cut at 25–30 days interval. Green fodder yield: 80–100 t/ha (in 12–13 cuts). Seed yield: 150–200 kg/ha. 15.14.1.4 Fodder Trees Fodder trees provide nutritious top feed in the form of legumes and pods rich in proteins and minerals to livestocks. They provide variety of products such as fuel, timber, fiber, human food, medicine etc. and they provide shade for grazing animals. Fodder trees are the source of organic matter to soil and increase soil N besides improving soil structure. The",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "legumes and pods rich in proteins and minerals to livestocks. They provide variety of products such as fuel, timber, fiber, human food, medicine etc. and they provide shade for grazing animals. Fodder trees are the source of organic matter to soil and increase soil N besides improving soil structure. The fodder trees can serve as fence/hedge and as windbreak. They prevent soil erosion and conserve soil moisture and provide shade for shade loving plants. Tree fodders increase the yield and improve the quality of grasses. The important fodder trees are Acacia sp (velvel, karuvel etc.), Agathi, sithagathi and subabul (Leucanea leucocephala). 1. Subabul/Soundal (Leucaena leucocephala) Leaves and pods are nutritious. It contains high crude protein (26%) and 45% digestibility. Crude fibre content is very low and it can withstand drought. It is a quick growing and fixes atmospheric ‘N’. Variety: CO 1. Season: It is grown during June–July under irrigated conditions, and during September–October under rainfed conditions. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 661 Soil: Soil with high Ca and P is preferred. Field preparation: The field is ploughed 2-3 times and ridges and furrows are formed at 100 cm spacing. Manuring: Application of FYM or compost at 25 t/ha and NPK at 10:60:30 kg/ha is recommended as basal for irrigated crop and for rainfed crop, ½ the dose of NPK may be applied. Seed rate: 10 kg/ha Spacing: 100 × 30 cm Seed treatment: The seeds are soaked in hot water (80°C) for 5 minutes and then soak over night in cold water. Irrigation: For better establishment, the soil should be sufficiently moist for 5–6 months. In summer, irrigation once in 6 weeks is adequate. Harvest: For irrigated crop, first cut is done 6 months after sowing and subsequent cut at 45–60 days interval and for rainfed crop,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "over night in cold water. Irrigation: For better establishment, the soil should be sufficiently moist for 5–6 months. In summer, irrigation once in 6 weeks is adequate. Harvest: For irrigated crop, first cut is done 6 months after sowing and subsequent cut at 45–60 days interval and for rainfed crop, first cut is 2 years after sowing and subsequent cut at 60–80 days interval. Green fodder yield: Irrigated-75–100 t/ha and rain fed–40t/ha 2. Acacia sp. (Velvel, Karuvel) Acacia nilotica In English, it is called as Indian gum Arabic tree and in Tamil, it is known as Karu velam. In Hindi, it is called as Babul. It belongs to Mimosae family. Utilization: Leaves and pods are widely used as fodder. It is an extremely valuable source of fuel wood and charcoal of excellent quality. General utility of timbers is for construction of carts, wheels, agricultural tools and implements, doors, windows, mine props, fencing materials etc. Bark is one of the best tanning materials of Northern India. Babul gum is used in inks, paints, matches and confectionery. Distribution: Babul is indigenous to the Western part of the India–Gangetic plains and the Northern part of Deccan plateau, including Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is widely planted, or self-sown throughout the hot regions of lndia, viz., Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. It is an important constituent of southern dry mixed deciduous tropical forests and Northern and Southern tropical thorn forests of India; at an elevation range of 200–500 m. The tree varies much in size, remaining little more than a shrub in some localities, and in others attaining a height of 50–60 ft. or even more, and occasionally a girth of 8–10 ft. Phenology: The young leaves appear from March to May, the old leaves commencing to fall before",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "The tree varies much in size, remaining little more than a shrub in some localities, and in others attaining a height of 50–60 ft. or even more, and occasionally a girth of 8–10 ft. Phenology: The young leaves appear from March to May, the old leaves commencing to fall before they appear. Flowering is most general in the rainy season, from June to September, but trees may be found with flowers as late as December or January. The time of fruit ripening varies according to locality, but is usually from April to June. It is drought-resistant; frost-tender. It is strong light-demander. It’s coppicing power is very variable, generally poor. Climate and Soil: A. nilotica can grow on a variety of soils, provided sufficient moisture is available. It prefers well-drained fresh alluvial sandy loam soil in riverain tracts, though it can grow on clay and black cotton soil also. It can withstand mild soil salinity provided sufficient moisture is available. In its natural habitat, average rainfall is 400–1500 mm; fairly drought resistant, but thrives best in areas with 500–1250 mm. Nursery techniques: Babul seedlings are raised in polythene bags (5 cm × 22 cm, 150–200 gauge). Treated seeds are sown, about 1.5 cm deep, 2–3 seeds in each bag in February–March (or May, for freshly collected seed) and regularly watered and weeded. Excessive watering should be avoided; shading is necessary to avoid surface cracking. 662 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Planting: Seedlings are fit for planting in July–August of the same year (when 3–4 months old). For obtaining bigger plants, seeds are sown in June–July in bigger bags and one year old seedlings can be planted. It’s rotation is 30 years for timber and 15–20 years for tannin; it yields 23.02 m3 wood per ha at the age of 30 years and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(when 3–4 months old). For obtaining bigger plants, seeds are sown in June–July in bigger bags and one year old seedlings can be planted. It’s rotation is 30 years for timber and 15–20 years for tannin; it yields 23.02 m3 wood per ha at the age of 30 years and 8–10 t of pods per ha. 15.14.2 Pasture Management Pastures are the grasslands where domestic animals are allowed to roam around and graze for themselves. Hence, pastures may be of two types viz., 1. natural pastures, and 2. seeded pastures. Native pastures are highly degraded ones. The improvement and management involves a set of technical and social interventions. The important technical interventions are: (i) Identification and introduction of suitable grass and legume species: Suitable pasture species for drought prone areas are given below: Pasture species Soil type Seed rate Dry forage (kg/ha) yield (t/ha) Sewan grass Light soil 3–5 3.5 t/ha (Lasiurus sindicus) Marvel grass Medium to 4–5 2.5 t/ha (Dicanthium annulatum) heavy soil Buffel grass Vertisols 5–6 4.0 t/ha (Cenchrus ciliaris) Dinanath grass Vertisols–All 8–9 3.0 t/ha (Pennisetum pedicellatum) types Perennial legumes Stylo. Stylosanthus hamata Light to 5–7 3.5 t/ha S. scabra Medium soil 4–6 2.5 t/ha Siratro: Macroptilium atropurpureus Light to 7–8 2.8 t/ha Medium soil (ii) Improved moisture conservation: Forming contour furrows (60 cm wide and 22 cm deep) at a distance of 8–10 m across the slope of the grassland increase forage production of perennial grass by 130% over non furrowed grass lands. (iii) Using suitable establishment techniques: (a) Reseeding: Due to poor germination of seeds of Sewan and Marvel grass, the sowing of mixture of seeds of Cenchrus species and Sewan grass is found advantage for large scale development of pasture in arid regions like Rajasthan. (b) Transplanting: The establishment of Sewan grass and Marvel",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "establishment techniques: (a) Reseeding: Due to poor germination of seeds of Sewan and Marvel grass, the sowing of mixture of seeds of Cenchrus species and Sewan grass is found advantage for large scale development of pasture in arid regions like Rajasthan. (b) Transplanting: The establishment of Sewan grass and Marvel grass is found more assured by transplanting of rooted slips, or seedlings compared to direct seeding. (c) Dry seeding: Cenchrus ciliaris seeds sown in dry soil before on set of rain give 36% higher forage yield over monsoon sowing. (d) Pelleting forage seeds for higher seed germinations: Pellets are prepared by mixing grass seeds with cow dung, clay and sand in proportions of 1:1:3:1 using sufficient quantity of water for preparing round pellets of size of about 0.5 cm diameter. AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 663 (iv) Fertilization in pasturelands: Application of fertilizers to pasture grasses increase the forage yield as well as seed yield. Application of 20 kg N to Cenchrus pastures results in 83% increase in dry forage yield. In well rainfall distributed area, application of NPK at 40:20:0 is recommended. For stylo, application of “P” at 30 kg/ha is recommended. The protein content of fertilized pastures was higher than that of unfertilized ones. (v) Regulating the grazing pressure and using an optimum stocking rate: The access of livestock to pastures should be controlled, so that grazing pressure could be managed. Carrying Capacity: The native pasture can carry only 2 sheep/ha. But improved pasture can carry up to 6 sheep/ha in a continuous grazing system. The quality of pasture can be evaluated in terms of number of lambing and lamb weight at birth. The improved pastures produced more number of lambs (2.78) than natural pastures (1.56), because of better quality of forages. (vi) Rotational grazing: It",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "up to 6 sheep/ha in a continuous grazing system. The quality of pasture can be evaluated in terms of number of lambing and lamb weight at birth. The improved pastures produced more number of lambs (2.78) than natural pastures (1.56), because of better quality of forages. (vi) Rotational grazing: It is one in which the pastureland is divided into number of compartments. The sheeps are allowed to graze first in one compartment. After completion of grazing in the first compartment, the sheeps are allowed to graze in the second compartment and then in third compartment. This is recommended for the grassland having annual grass species. But this system requires additional investments. This system has several advantages. • There is no wastage compared to continuous grazing. • The pastures get enough regrowth periods. (vii) Increasing the grazing period through introduction of top feed tree species: A major shortcoming of most of common pastures is lack of production during hot summer lean period. A traditional way to over come this is to use tree leaf fodder during this period. In the pasturelands, lot of trees is growing. It these are replaced with top feed species that would prolong the grazing period and improve carrying capacity of pasture. Top feed trees suited for sylvipastoral system 1. Semi arid regions: (a) Acacia senegal (b) Acacia aneura (c) Acacia nilotica (d) Leucaena (Subabul) 2. Arid regions: (a) Prosophis cineraria (b) Zizyphus sp (c) Acacia tortilis (d) Acacia senegal (viii) Improving the quality of fodder by inclusion of legume pasture With availability of high fodder yielding varieties of season-bound and perennial fodder crops, there is a glut/abundance of fodder availability during peak-periods of growth (rainy season/monsoon season) and scarcity during other periods. The best way to regulate the supply of palatable and nutritive fodder during the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "inclusion of legume pasture With availability of high fodder yielding varieties of season-bound and perennial fodder crops, there is a glut/abundance of fodder availability during peak-periods of growth (rainy season/monsoon season) and scarcity during other periods. The best way to regulate the supply of palatable and nutritive fodder during the lean period of October and November and May to July is to conserve the surplus fodder in the form of 1. Hay (Hay making) 2. Silage (silage making). I. Hay Making: Hay can be defined as the conversion of green forage into dry form without affecting quality of original material. It is the most common, easy and safe method of preserving the excess green fodder (grasses) for long time. The quality of hay largely depends on the (a) species (b) the stage of harvesting, and (c) freedom from moulds and bacteria. 664 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Steps for making hay • Good quality hay is prepared by adopting the following procedure: • Quality of hay mainly depends on the stage of harvest: The fodder crops namely cowpea, velvet bean, guar, moth bean, jowar, bajra, teosinte and oats should be cut at flowering stage for hay making. • Pasture and cultivated grasses are cut at 50% flowering or slightly earlier to prevent the lignifications of cellulose, losses of protein and palatability. • Lucerne and Berseem are cut for hay making at 30–40 days interval. • The fodder crop should not be harvested immediately after irrigation. They should be harvested in the afternoon and before irrigation. • Though the fodder species may be dried as such in the field itself, the best quality hay is made by chaffing into small pieces by hand driven machine or with a power drivers chaff. Either chaffed or unchaffed material is spread evenly in layers",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the afternoon and before irrigation. • Though the fodder species may be dried as such in the field itself, the best quality hay is made by chaffing into small pieces by hand driven machine or with a power drivers chaff. Either chaffed or unchaffed material is spread evenly in layers and is turned 2–3 times daily. In the evening, half dried material is racked and collected or heaped in the form of cone so as to prevent exposure of the material to dew fall at night. On the second day, the material is again spread evenly after the dew has disappeared. The material is turned frequently depending on the climatic conditions. During summer, the hay of lucerne, cowpea, berseem etc., may preferably be made in shade so that bleaching action may be reduced to the minimum. • The hay made by adopting above steps and possessing about 15% moisture is finally transported to the hay-barn. It should retain green colour, good aroma and flavour. • It should be preferably stored at low temperature and humidity so as to prevent the losses owing to oxidations of carbohydrates. For rainy seasons, hay curing sheds are recommended. • In order to minimize the space for storage and for effective long term storage, the hay is turned into bales of suitable sizes with manually operated or power driven hay-bales. B. Losses of fodder quality • Shattering of leaves (mostly in legumes) • Fermentation—Normal loss is about 6% of dry matter • Oxidation leads to loss of carotenes • Leaching—Loss of protein, N free extract minerals and vitamins. Thereby crude protein content increases and digestibility decreases. C. Methods of haymaking (i) Hay curing structures: In some countries, haymaking is done in hay barns, which are specially designed structures in which hot air is circulated for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "loss of carotenes • Leaching—Loss of protein, N free extract minerals and vitamins. Thereby crude protein content increases and digestibility decreases. C. Methods of haymaking (i) Hay curing structures: In some countries, haymaking is done in hay barns, which are specially designed structures in which hot air is circulated for drying the material quickly. However, in India, the most prevalent systems are as follows: (ii) Fence method: In this method, fodders are cut and spread evenly and thinly over the fences of the paddocks or fields or specially erected fences. This method helps to dry the material quickly and turning of the material after every 2 or 3 hours daily can be avoided. (iii) Tripod method: In this system, tripods of convenient heights are erected by using local materials e.g., wood or galvanized iron poles. In between these poles, horizontal supports are erected to increase the carrying capacity. Unchapped fodders are dried in the manner described under the fence method. (iv) Gable shaped structure: The gable shaped structures is made by using galvanized woven-wire fencing material of desired width and angle iron poles. The fencing material is fixed in such a way as to provide a slopping support and good ventilation for quick drying. This system also AGRONOMY oF FIELD CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 665 permits the excessive shedding of leafy material with less handling unlike the ordinary ground method. The structure can be made economical further by using netted ropes of medium diameter and wooden poles. (v) Hay curing shades: Hay curing shades of convenient size of 18 m × 9 m × 3 m with a slanting rod supported by pillars are constructed with corrugated asbestos. Chain like fencing of 5 cm × 5 cm mesh and 1–1.2 m in width is arranged length wise in a 4",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "shades: Hay curing shades of convenient size of 18 m × 9 m × 3 m with a slanting rod supported by pillars are constructed with corrugated asbestos. Chain like fencing of 5 cm × 5 cm mesh and 1–1.2 m in width is arranged length wise in a 4 or 5 tier system. These types of sheds are good for making hay during the monsoon and summer. The cost is further reduced by thatching the roof and by using wooden poles for support. (vi) Ground method: In this method, the chaffed or unchaffed material is thinly and evenly spread over a pucca floor so as to prevent soiling. The material is turned 2 or 3 times daily till it dries completely. 15.14.3 Silage Making Silage is a product obtained by packing fresh fodder in a suitable container (Silo) and allowing it to ferment under anaerobic conditions with out undergoing much loss of nutrients. Fermentation under anaerobic condition preserves the nutritive value and enhances the keeping quality of the fodder. The process of conserving the green fodder in this way is termed as ‘Ensiling’. A. Qualities of good silage • A good silage should be greenish or yellowish brown, with pleasant odour, possess high acid content (pH ranges from 3.5–4.2). • Silage having acidic taste and odour, being free from butyric acid, moulds with ammonical “N” (less than 10% of the total nitrogen). B. Crops suited for silage making Generally, the fodder crops rich in soluble carbohydrates and low to medium in protein content are ideally suited for silage making. High content of soluble carbohydrates provides excellent growth medium for the anaerobic bacteria to form abundant acids, which increases the keeping quality of the silage. Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Guinea grass, Para grass and Napier grass are highly suitable for making",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "medium in protein content are ideally suited for silage making. High content of soluble carbohydrates provides excellent growth medium for the anaerobic bacteria to form abundant acids, which increases the keeping quality of the silage. Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Guinea grass, Para grass and Napier grass are highly suitable for making good quality silage. On the other hand, leguminous fodders, which normally have high moisture and high crude protein and low soluble carbohydrates, are not considered fit for silage making. C. Types of silos (i) Tower silos: They are permanent type and are costly. They are constructed above the ground level in the form of cylindrical towers. The diameter and height vary according to the needs. The loss of dry matter in such silos is 5–10% only. (ii) Bunker silos: These silos are constructed on the surface of the ground. They should always built on firm soils having good surface and subsurface drainage. (iii) Pit or Trench silos: Pit silos are less costly than tower silos and are widely adopted for silage making. Pits of desired sizes are dug according to the availability of green fodder. Pits silos are not suited to the areas where there is higher water table. D. Making silage A pit size of 20′ × 20′ × 20′ is sufficient for 50–55 t green fodder. The fodder crops should be harvested and chaffed at proper stage of growth. The early harvesting of crops affects the production of different acids. Thus the green fodder should have about 30–35% dry matter. In silo pits, the bottom and sides should be carpeted with dry grass or long straw of grasses or cereal crops etc., so as to make 5–6 cm 666 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY thick carpet all around. This carpeting helps to prevent the direct contact between fresh-chaffed material",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "dry matter. In silo pits, the bottom and sides should be carpeted with dry grass or long straw of grasses or cereal crops etc., so as to make 5–6 cm 666 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY thick carpet all around. This carpeting helps to prevent the direct contact between fresh-chaffed material and soil. The fodder to be ensiled should be chaffed in the small pieces (1–2 cm) by using the chaff cutter. The silo pits must be filled very quickly (within 3–4 days) and the materials must be compacted in such a way as to remove as much air as possible through constant pressing either by manual labourers or bullocks or using tractor. The exclusion of air causes fermentation under anaerobic condition. The level of chaffed material should be about 1–2 m above the ground level. During the course of fermentation, the material will gradually settle down. Urea at the rate of 3–4 kg per t of chaffed material is mixed with or sprinkled evenly on different layers, if the chaffed material happens to be very low in protein content in the case of cereal fodder. The silo pits after filling and compacting the material carefully, should be given a doom–like shape for drainage of rainwater. Then thick layer of straw is put on the chaffed material from all sides and over the straw a thick layer of moist soil (10–12 cm) is spread. The surface is covered either by mud plaster or polythene or alkathene sheets. This avoids contact of atmospheric ‘N’ with ensiled material, which prevent the anaerobic fermentation. The silage is ready after 2–3 months. A silo pit is opened and the material is removed daily by exposing little surface area to prevent sunlight. The feeding of the silage should be regulated in such a way that the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "atmospheric ‘N’ with ensiled material, which prevent the anaerobic fermentation. The silage is ready after 2–3 months. A silo pit is opened and the material is removed daily by exposing little surface area to prevent sunlight. The feeding of the silage should be regulated in such a way that the silage is used within a reasonable period. Otherwise long exposure causes drying and deterioration in keeping quality. Silage may be fed in small quantities (4–5 kg per cow) to start with and later quantity may be increased to 15–20 kg. Under ideal condition, it can be stored easily for 1 year. E. Advantages It is more suited in lean seasons when weather is not conducive for haymaking. Thick stemmed crops like sorghum and maize are better utilized. Weeds are used as fodder, consequently the weed seeds are destroyed. The final product is highly palatable and nutritious. Organic acids produced during ensiling are similar to those organic acid produced in the digestive tract of the animals (ruminants) and used in the same manner (Lactic acid 3–13% and Butyric acid 0.2–0.5 %). TERMINOLOGIES Agrostology: A science, which deals with the study of grasses, their classification, management and utilization. Forage crops: Crops, which are primarily grown for livestock feed for making hay or silage or utilized as green fodder or grazed by animals. Fodder crops: Crops, which are harvested and used for stall-feeding. Mostly these crops are grown for both fodder as well as grain purpose e.g., fodder sorghum, fodder maize, fodder cowpea, horse gram etc. Silage: It is the product obtained by packing fresh fodder in a suitable container and allowing it to ferment under anaerobic conditions without undergoing much loss of nutrients. Ensiling: The process of making silage. Hay: It can be defined as conversion of green forage in to dry",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "horse gram etc. Silage: It is the product obtained by packing fresh fodder in a suitable container and allowing it to ferment under anaerobic conditions without undergoing much loss of nutrients. Ensiling: The process of making silage. Hay: It can be defined as conversion of green forage in to dry form without affecting the quality of original material. Ley farming: Annual arable crops are rotated with biennial/perennial pastures, which is used for soil moisture conservation and grazing. E.g., sorghum–pasture–castor (I year–II and III year–IVth year). Quartering: Removal or thinning of excess tillers from the clump is called quartering. It is generally done from 3rd year onwards in grasses like cumber Napier grass. Soiling: Feeding harvested fodder directly to cattle. Paddock: Small forced field used for grazing purpose. Chapter 16 Cropping System and Farming System In the recent past, cropping systems approach has gained importance in agriculture and related enterprises. A system consists of several components, which are closely related and interacting among themselves. In agriculture, management practices are usually formulated for individual crops. However, farmers are cultivating different crops in different seasons based on their adaptability to a particular season, domestic needs and profitability. Therefore, production technology or management practices should be developed keeping in view all the crops grown in a year or more than one year if any sequence or rotation extends beyond one year. Such a package of management practices for all the crops leads to efficient use of costly inputs, presides reduction in production cost. For instance, residual effect of manures and fertilizers applied and nitrogen fixed by legumes can considerably bring down the production cost if all the crops are considered than individual crops. In this context, cropping systems approach is gaining importune. 16.1 CROPPING SYSTEM It is an important component of a farming system",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "instance, residual effect of manures and fertilizers applied and nitrogen fixed by legumes can considerably bring down the production cost if all the crops are considered than individual crops. In this context, cropping systems approach is gaining importune. 16.1 CROPPING SYSTEM It is an important component of a farming system and it represents the cropping pattern used on a farm and their interactions with farm resources other farm enterprises and available technology which determine their make up. A. Cropping Pattern Cropping pattern means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in an unit area. If cropping pattern indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow on a given area. B. Crop Rotation (a) Meaning: Crop rotation refers to recurrent succession of crops on the same piece of land either in a year or over a long period of time. Component crops are so chosen so that soil health is not impaired or Crop rotation refers to growing different crops in succession on a piece of land in a specific period of time with an objective to get maximum profit from least investment without impairing the soil fertility. This may also be defined as the repetitive cultivation of an ordered succession of crops (or crops and fallow) on the same land and one cycle may take one or more years to complete. 668 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (b) Principles: There are certain principles, which should be adhered to, to make a rotation successful. These principles are as follows: • Crops with top roots should be followed by those, which have fibrous root system. This helps in proper and uniform use of nutrients and water from the soil and the roots do not compete with each other. • Leguminous crops should be grown after",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "These principles are as follows: • Crops with top roots should be followed by those, which have fibrous root system. This helps in proper and uniform use of nutrients and water from the soil and the roots do not compete with each other. • Leguminous crops should be grown after non-leguminous crops because legumes fix atmospheric–N into the soil and add more organic matter to the soil. Actually, non-legumes are fertility depleting crops. • More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops. For example, potato, sugarcane, maize, etc need more inputs than oilseeds and pulses. • Selection of the crops should be demand based. The crops, which are needed by the people of the area, can be easily sold at a higher price. • Selection of crop should be problem based. For instance: – On sloping lands which are prone to soil erosion, an alternate cropping of erosion-promoting crops e.g., millets and other row crops and erosion resisting crops, e.g., legumes should be adopted. – Under dry land farming or partially irrigated areas, the selection of crops should be such, which can tolerate the drought spell. Similarly in low lying and flood prone areas the crops should be such, which can tolerate water stagnation e.g., paddy, jute, etc. – Selection of crops should suit the financial condition of the farmers. – Crops selected should also suit the soil and climatic conditions. • Crops of the same family should not be grown in succession because they act like alternate hosts for insects/pests and disease pathogens. Apart from this, different types of weeds are found associated with various crops, therefore, selection of the same type of crops in rotation encourages weed problems in the field. • An ideal crop rotation is one, which provides maximum employment to the family and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "hosts for insects/pests and disease pathogens. Apart from this, different types of weeds are found associated with various crops, therefore, selection of the same type of crops in rotation encourages weed problems in the field. • An ideal crop rotation is one, which provides maximum employment to the family and farm labourer. Some common crop rotations followed in various parts of the country are given below: Rotation Duration Paddy–Wheat 1 Year Maize–wheat 1 Year Maize–potato 1 Year Soybean–wheat 1 Year Maize–potato–sugarcane 2 year Paddy–sugarcane–wheat 2 year (c) Advantages: The major advantages of following proper crop rotation principles are: • Agricultural operations can be done timely for all the crops because of less competition. • Soil fertility is maintained by legumes through fixing of atmospheric nitrogen encouraging microbial activity and maintaining physicochemical properties of the soil. The soil is also protected from erosion, salinity and acidity. • An ideal crop rotation helps in controlling insect pests and diseases. It also controls the weeds in the fields. CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 669 • Proper utilization of all the resources and inputs could be made. Farmers get better price for their produce because of its higher demand in the locality or in the market. C. Need In counties like India, the population is increasing by leaps and bounds and by 2010 A.D., it will cross 1.5 billion demanding a food grain supply of 250 m.t. per year from the present level of 145 m.t. from the 132 m.ha of cultivated land. By the end of 2020 A.D., the perceptive land availability will be less than 0.17 ha. And by all possible means like reclaiming the problem soils and wastelands the net area cultivated could be increased to 150 m.ha only. The other estimate shows that the cultivated area may be even reduced",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the end of 2020 A.D., the perceptive land availability will be less than 0.17 ha. And by all possible means like reclaiming the problem soils and wastelands the net area cultivated could be increased to 150 m.ha only. The other estimate shows that the cultivated area may be even reduced because of increasing population and due to industrialization and urbanization to meet food demand of even growing population the total production has to be increased by • Increasing the area under cultivation. • Increasing the productivity i.e., yield per unit area/unit time. Increasing area under cultivation is seldom possible and the alternative is to increase the productivity by intensive cropping, which means the cropping systems. 16.2 EFFICIENT CROPPING ZONES The present concept of cropping pattern defines it as the proportion of area under various crops at a particular time in a given area. But this concept has got some limitations. • The unit of classification is political and administrative. The scientific and natural features such as soil and climate did not figure with greater emphasis. • The cropping pattern was determined by the spread of crop expressed as percentage of the total area of important crops. It is not necessary that spread and cropping efficiency will go together. • Though the cropping pattern has been evolved after centuries of experience, in national perspective it is not necessarily the most efficient use of land and other resources. • No cropping pattern can hold good for all times. It has to change with the improvement in technology and economic factors e.g., sugarcane and cotton average shrinks when the prices are more favourable for grain crops and vice-versa. Therefore, a new concept has been evolved which refers to both time and space sequence of crops. It includes the identification of the most efficient",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "with the improvement in technology and economic factors e.g., sugarcane and cotton average shrinks when the prices are more favourable for grain crops and vice-versa. Therefore, a new concept has been evolved which refers to both time and space sequence of crops. It includes the identification of the most efficient crops of the region, which is considered a homogeneous soil and climatic belt, the rotation in which the crop best fits in, and the intensity of cropping. So the cropping pattern has been scientifically defined as yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or crops and fallow in a given area (Palaniappan, 1985). According to the new concept, the most efficient crops will be identified in a homogeneous region and put in the yearly sequence (rotation) where they fit best and the space (area) of those crops, which are inefficient, will be reduced and area of efficient crops will be increased. This way, by knowing the temporal and spatial arrangement of crops in a region, we can identify the cropping pattern followed in the region. For the purpose of planning the cropping pattern, it is necessary to divide the country into homogeneous regions on some well-defined basis. There can be a number of physical, climatological and agronomic criteria, e.g., climatic index and soil groups, as both are fixed entities and can be better criteria than the political units. It is necessary to know whether crops grown are most suitable for the region; an analysis of productivity and efficiency of various crops in different regions becomes imperative. 670 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY This could be done with the help of relative yield index (RYI) and relative spread index (RSI) of the crop. Mean yield of the crop in zone RVI 100 Mean all Indian yield = × Per cent area of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "crops in different regions becomes imperative. 670 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY This could be done with the help of relative yield index (RYI) and relative spread index (RSI) of the crop. Mean yield of the crop in zone RVI 100 Mean all Indian yield = × Per cent area of the crop of the total cultivated area in the zone RSI 100 100 Per cent area of the crop of the total cultivated area in the country = × These indices are grouped in 7 categories and arranged in Table 16.1. Table 16.1. Division of Cropped Area on RSI and RYI basis RSI (%) RYI (%) 200 200–150 150–120 120–90 90–60 60–30 <30 A 200 B 200–150 Zone-I–High yield and High spread Zone III–Low yield and High spread C 150–120 D 120–90 E 90–60 F 60–30 Zone II–High yield and Low spread Zone IV–Low yield and Low spread G < 30 It is assumed that the average relative yield is below 90 per cent and a relative spread below 90 per cent can be taken as an index of relatively inefficient areas. The area under every crop can be divided into four zones i.e., Zone–1–High yield and high spread, Zone–2–High yield land low spread Zone–3–Low yield and high spread and Zone–4–Low yield and low spread. The Zone–1 can be considered as the most efficient and Zone–4 as the most inefficient for production. For any important crop most efficient region can be identified and the rotation woven around it will determine the most suitable cropping pattern. The zone, which appears to be inefficient for a crop, should be identified and more efficient crops substituted. Efficient Crop Zone: It is the zone/area where the productivity of a crop is higher and also stable due to prevalence of optimum condition for crop growth",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the most suitable cropping pattern. The zone, which appears to be inefficient for a crop, should be identified and more efficient crops substituted. Efficient Crop Zone: It is the zone/area where the productivity of a crop is higher and also stable due to prevalence of optimum condition for crop growth and yield. 1. Rice zone: About 49% of the area is under rainfed and 51% under irrigated. In India, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are the potential zone for irrigated/low land rice. North-eastern part of the country (Assam, West Bengal, Tiripura, Meghalaya, Orissa and Bihar is the potential area for upland/rainfed rice. Semi dry rice is commonly cultivated in Chengelput and Ramanad districts. In Tamil Nadu, the major rice growing zones are as follows: • Cauvery delta zone (Tiruchirappalli, Thanjavur, Thiruvarur and Nagapattinam districts) • North-eastern Zone (Villupuram and Chengelput district) • Western Zone (LBP command area–Coimbatore, Erode districts) • Southern Zone (Vaigai command and Thambirabarani command areas) 2. Wheat zone: Efficient wheat zones are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. Higher production of wheat is from Uttar Pradesh, but Punjab recorded the highest average productivity. Nearly 85% of the wheat is grown under irrigated condition and the remaining 15% under rainfed condition. CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 671 3. Sorghum zone: Nearly 94% of sorghum is grown under rainfed condition. In India, potential zone for rainfed sorghum are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Irrigated sorghum is raised to lesser extent in southern part of India. In Tamil Nadu, cultivation of sorghum is common in: • North-western zone (Salem and Dharmapuri districts) • Western zone (Coimbatore and Erode districts) • Southern zone (Tirunelveli and Madurai districts). Sorghum yields are higher in Southern zone. Some area under sorghum in black soils, are diverted for",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "part of India. In Tamil Nadu, cultivation of sorghum is common in: • North-western zone (Salem and Dharmapuri districts) • Western zone (Coimbatore and Erode districts) • Southern zone (Tirunelveli and Madurai districts). Sorghum yields are higher in Southern zone. Some area under sorghum in black soils, are diverted for more remunerative crops such as sunflower in Southern zone and maize in Western zone. 4. Maize zone: In India, 85% of area is under rainfed. Efficient zones are Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The average productivity is high in Karnataka. Area under maize is in increasing trend in Western zone of Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore and Erode), North Western zone and Southern zone. In Tamil Nadu, it is mainly grown as irrigated crop during December–January, and July–August months for higher yield. During September–October, it is grown as rainfed crop. 5. Bajra zone: More than 95% of the area is under rainfed condition. It is cultivated in drought prone low rainfall areas and in shallow soils. The potential area is North-western part of India (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Part of Uttar Pradesh). Rajasthan is the potential area for bajra. In Tamil Nadu, it is largely grown in North-eastern, Western and Southern zones. 6. Finger millet (ragi): It is an important coarse cereal in Karnataka. It is extensively grown in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar and in hilly areas of Uttar Pradesh. In Tamil Nadu, it is largely grown as rainfed crop in Dharmapuri District. It is also grown as irrigated crop in Villupuram, Chengelput, Coimbatore and Erode districts. 7. Pulse zone: India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world and accounts 33% of world area and 22% of world production. Nearly 90% of pulses are grown under rainfed condition. In India, potential production",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "grown as irrigated crop in Villupuram, Chengelput, Coimbatore and Erode districts. 7. Pulse zone: India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world and accounts 33% of world area and 22% of world production. Nearly 90% of pulses are grown under rainfed condition. In India, potential production of pulses is from Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Karnataka. In Tamil Nadu, Cauvery delta zone is the efficient area for the production of rice fallow pulses viz., green gram and black gram. The other areas/zone are North-western zone, Western and Southern zones. Chickpea: Efficient zones are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in Western zone. Red gram (pigeon pea): Efficient zones are Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in Southern zone, Western zone and North-western zone. Green gram: Efficient areas are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in Cauvery Delta zone, Southern zone and Western zone. Black gram: Efficient zones are in India are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa. In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in Cauvery Delta zone and Southern zone. Horse gram: Efficient zones are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. In Tamil Nadu, it is cultivated in North-western zone and Western zone. 8. Forage crops: Efficient areas are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Gujarat. In Tamil Nadu, it is largely cultivated in North-western and Southern zones. 16.3 MAJOR CROPPING SYSTEMS Cropping system vary widely from the simplest system of two crops a year in sequence to complex 672 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY intercropping with many crops. Multiple cropped lands can be broadly grouped into lowlands, irrigated uplands, and rainfed uplands. A. Lowland and Irrigated Uplands Rice based cropping systems predominate in lowlands. Number of crops",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the simplest system of two crops a year in sequence to complex 672 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY intercropping with many crops. Multiple cropped lands can be broadly grouped into lowlands, irrigated uplands, and rainfed uplands. A. Lowland and Irrigated Uplands Rice based cropping systems predominate in lowlands. Number of crops per year and the crops that follow or precede rice depends on the period of water availability and the degree of control of water. Where irrigation or rainfall (> 200 mm per month) extends over 9–10 months, the system could be ricerice-rice, rice-rice-upland crop or upland crop-rice-rice. When this period is limited to 6–8 months, upland crop-rice-upland crop or upland crop may be appropriate. Early maturing rice cultivars are ideal for such sequences. If water is available for 4–5 months, only one rice crop is grown. B. Irrigated Uplands In irrigated uplands where winter is mild, upland crops that can follow rice include legumes such as green gram, black gram, soybean and groundnut, cereals such as maize, sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet and other crops such as cotton, sunflower and vegetables. Where the winter is cool, important crops, which can follow rice, are wheat, barley, mustard, chickpea and potato (Fig. 16.1). One irrigable high rainfall uplands, sequential cropping with a wide range of crops is possible. The systems could be cereal-cereal and cereal-legume, oilseeds or other cash crops. In northern India, potato or mustard can be added to maize-wheat by relay plating either of these in the standing maize and delaying wheat by about 2 months. Short duration green gram or fodder crops can be grown after the harvest of wheat in summer. C. Rainfed Uplands Cropping systems in rainfed uplands predominantly take the form of intercropping in Alfishols, Inseptisols and Entisols during rainy season. Cereal + pigeon pea system",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "delaying wheat by about 2 months. Short duration green gram or fodder crops can be grown after the harvest of wheat in summer. C. Rainfed Uplands Cropping systems in rainfed uplands predominantly take the form of intercropping in Alfishols, Inseptisols and Entisols during rainy season. Cereal + pigeon pea system (sorghum + pigeon pea), cereal + cotton (setaria + cotton) are popular in India. In Vertisols of high moisture retentivity, land is kept fallow during rainy season followed by sorghum, chickpea, sunflower or coriander on stored soil moisture during post rainy season (Fig. 16.2). However, double cropping can be practiced if the monsoon is relatively early. Under such conditions, sorghum, pearlmillet or a pulse crop can be taken during rainy season followed by sunflower, safflower, chickpea or coriander in post rainy season. Agronomy of rainfed cropping systems Agronomy of rainfed cropping systems includes all practices controlled by the farmer that contribute to productivity of crops. Many management decisions are influenced by climate, inherent soil properties and socioeconomic constraints. Each decision on crop and cultivar, land preparation, fertilizers and other agronomic practices will have impact on other factors as well. Intercropping is the major system in rainfed agriculture, although ratooning is practiced under unfavourable rainfall during the season. Crops and cultivars: Crop combinations depend on climate, local preferences and other sitespecific factors. Combination varies with differences in: • Crop duration, • Plant morphology, • Root system, • Stress tolerance, • Density response, • Resistance to pests and pathogens, and • Yield stability. CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 673 Cropping System Region of Importance Fig. 16.1 Major cropping systems of irrigated areas in India Cotton, rice Wheat Western India Vegetables Potato (of) Mung Maize mustard Late Wheat bean Western and north India Mung bean/pigeonpea Late Wheat Western and north India Sorghum, Maize",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "stability. CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 673 Cropping System Region of Importance Fig. 16.1 Major cropping systems of irrigated areas in India Cotton, rice Wheat Western India Vegetables Potato (of) Mung Maize mustard Late Wheat bean Western and north India Mung bean/pigeonpea Late Wheat Western and north India Sorghum, Maize Pearl millet cowpea (or Maize (or soybean) Wheat mung bean) Western and central India Rice, jute, Rice, potato maize (or Rice Wheat mung bean) Eastern India Rice Cowpea Finger millet Eastern and parts of South India Rice Cotton South India Green manures Rice Pulses (or vegetables) South India Rice Rice Rice South India Rice Groundnut, rice Upland crops South India J J A S O N D J F M A M Rainy season Post rainy season 674 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Fig. 16.2 Alfisols, Inceptisols, Entisols region of importance 16.3 TYPES OF CROPPING SYSTEMS Depending on the resources and technology availability, different types of cropping systems are adopted on farms. Soybean Groundnut Millet (or mung bean Sorghum) (or cowpea) All over semiarid India Millet (or Sorghum) Pigeonpea All over semiarid India Linseed, chickpea Sunflower, wheat Horse bean, mustard Maize, rice pigeonpea (or sweet potato) or finger millet Eastern India VERTISOLS Fallow Less assured rainy season Sorghum/chickpea (or safflower) Mung bean Sorghum Deccan Maize (or sorghum) Pigeonpea Deccan Central India Chickpea, chilli safflower, pigeonpea Sorghum (or maize) (or sorghum) Deccan plateau Maize/soybean CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 675 Intercropping Sequential cropping Growing of two or more crops simultaneously Growing of two or more crops in sequence on the on the same piece of land in a cropping season. same piece of land in a farming year (June–May) (June–Sept. Kharif) Includes three seasons. (Oct–Jan. Rabi) Intercropping is intensive cropping mainly in Sequential cropping is intensive cropping mainly space dimension. in time",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "two or more crops in sequence on the on the same piece of land in a cropping season. same piece of land in a farming year (June–May) (June–Sept. Kharif) Includes three seasons. (Oct–Jan. Rabi) Intercropping is intensive cropping mainly in Sequential cropping is intensive cropping mainly space dimension. in time dimension. Types Types (i) Inter cropping (i) Mono cropping (ii) Mixed cropping (ii) Multiple cropping 16.3.1 Intercropping Intercropping refers to growing of two or more dissimilar crops simultaneously on the same piece of land. The base crop, necessarily in distinct row arrangement and its recommended optimum plant population, is suitably combined with the additional plant density of the associated crop. The objective is the intensification of cropping both in time and space dimensions and to raise productivity per unit area by increasing the pressure of plant population. It has better utilization of growth resources than sole cropping. Generally, legumes and non-legumes are grown. The advantages associated with intercropping are: (i) additional income from the companion crop, (ii) if the principal crop is damaged due to unfavourable conditions like drought, flood, epidemics, etc., companion crop may give sustenance income, (iii) legumes grown as companion crops always benefit the principal crop through N-fixation and also utilizes soil moisture from deeper soil layers, (iv) quick growing companion crops always suppress the harmful weeds thriving in the inter-spaces of the principal crops, (v) gainful utilization of the labourer by increasing more man days employment potential, (vi) better utilization of growth resources–nutrient, water, light and space, (vii) less incidence of insect pests and diseases attack, and (viii) less erosion losses. At the same time, there are several disadvantages of intercropping as (i) the fertilizer management is difficult because the nutrient requirement of the crops is different, (ii) difficulty in harvesting because of different seeding time",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "space, (vii) less incidence of insect pests and diseases attack, and (viii) less erosion losses. At the same time, there are several disadvantages of intercropping as (i) the fertilizer management is difficult because the nutrient requirement of the crops is different, (ii) difficulty in harvesting because of different seeding time of crops, and (iii) there are certain combinations which suppress the growth of another crop and may be conducive to insect pests and diseases. Successful results from intercropping can be obtained provided a suitable companion crop is selected to grow with the main crop. Before putting any intercrop with the main crops like sugarcane, maize, sorghum, bajra, it is very essential to know the prerequisites of the companion crops such as soils and water requirement compatibility: competition for space, sunshine and air, compatibility for pests and diseases; duration and yielding potential and time of sowing and harvesting. On the basis of knowledge of the above some suitable combinations are: Principal Crop Intercrop Sugarcane Wheat, cowpea, soybean, moong, sunflower Sorghum Cowpea, soybean, moong, urd, arhar Maize Cowpea, soybean, urd, arhar, castor Bajra Cowpea, soybean, urd, arhar, castor Cotton Soybean, groundnut Potato Wheat, radish 676 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 16.3.1.1 Intercropping Vs Mixed Cropping Intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land with a definite row arrangement. For example, growing ground nut and red gram in 6:1 ratio. Mixed cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land in a proportion without any row arrangement. E.g., fodder sorghum + fodder cowpea or pillipesera. I. Sole cropping Vs. Row intercropping Sole cropping: One crop variety grown alone in pure stand at normal density. It is also called solid planting. For example, Sorghum at 45 × 15 cm, groundnut at 30 × 10 cm. Row",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "row arrangement. E.g., fodder sorghum + fodder cowpea or pillipesera. I. Sole cropping Vs. Row intercropping Sole cropping: One crop variety grown alone in pure stand at normal density. It is also called solid planting. For example, Sorghum at 45 × 15 cm, groundnut at 30 × 10 cm. Row intercropping: Growing two or more crops in the same piece land simultaneously with definite proportion in rows. E.g., Sorghum + cowpea : at 2:1 or 3:1 Sugarcane + soybean : at 1:2 or 1:1 II. Strip cropping Vs. Strip intercropping Strip cropping: Growing soil conserving and soil depleting crops in alternate strips running perpendicular to the slope of the land or to the direction of prevailing winds for the purpose of reducing erosion. Strip intercroppingGrowing two or more crops simultaneously in different strips wide enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for the crop to interact agronomically. III. Row intercropping Row intercropping is raised by way of additive and replacement series. (a) Additive series: One crop (base crop) is raised in full population and in between the rows of base crop, intercrops are raised at less population level by adjusting or changing crop geometry of the base crop. (b) Replacement series: By sacrificing certain proportion of population of one component crop, another component crop is introduced. For example, sorghum + cowpea at 2:1 ratio IV. Relay intercropping It is interplanting or inter sowing of the succeeding crop in the proceeding annual crops, succeeding crop is sown after the proceeding crop has reached the maturity stage but before the harvest of standing crop or it refers to planting of succeeding crop before the harvest of preceding crop. The planting of succeeding crop may be done before or after flowering, before or after the attainment of reproductive stage, completion of active",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "crop has reached the maturity stage but before the harvest of standing crop or it refers to planting of succeeding crop before the harvest of preceding crop. The planting of succeeding crop may be done before or after flowering, before or after the attainment of reproductive stage, completion of active life cycle, senescence of leaves or attainment of physiological maturity of the crop. The common examples of relay cropping are maize-potato, maize-toria, maize-turnip, ragihorse gram. The relay cropping is primarily done with the objectives (i) to gain time for multiple cropping, (ii) to plant the subsequent crops at their optimum planting date when the current crop harvest is delayed, (iii) to avoid moisture stress in the post-rainy season, and (iv) to avoid labour peaks at the harvest of the first crop and planting of the second crop. Relay cropping is difficult in the closely spaced and dense canopy cereals as sorghum or millets unless some rows are skipped. CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 677 For example, rice–black gram in Cauvery delta regions groundnut–cotton in Lower Bhavani Project dry area. groundnut (spreading)–horse gram or red sorghum in rainfed lands of North-western Zone of Tamil Nadu. V. Multi tier or Multistoried intercropping Growing of two or more crops having different growth habit differential rooting pattern and above ground architecture, simultaneously in a piece of land. Perennial crops offer several types of opportunities during their growth. The space between young trees could be utilized for growing crops. Multistore or multi-level cropping is a system of growing crops of different heights together at the same time on the same piece of land and thus, using land, water and space most efficiently and economically. It is aimed at maximum production per unit area per unit time wherein economic yields of compatible crop species are harvested",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "system of growing crops of different heights together at the same time on the same piece of land and thus, using land, water and space most efficiently and economically. It is aimed at maximum production per unit area per unit time wherein economic yields of compatible crop species are harvested from different heights. The basement floor is the same for all species and crop yielding floors are increased for more production. Land used efficiency rises beyond 100 per cent. The land use efficiency (LUE) can be expressed as: Number of days land used in a year LUE 100 365 = × The important considerations for multistoried cropping are: (i) primary companion crops should be quick growing so that they complete their life cycle before the principal crop attains full growth, (ii) companion crops with twining habit except pepper with coconut should be avoided, (iii) secondary companion crops should always be annual or seasonal, preferably vegetable, fodder, tuber crops, (iv) cultivation of legumes as secondary intercrop enriches soil fertility besides given additional income and (v) companion crops should not host the parasites infecting principal crops. Generally, three crops are taken as principal crop, primary companion and secondary companion, Multistoried cropping will be a common feature of Indian agriculture in 2020 A.D. if we want to feed every mouth. In south India, coconut (10–30 m) + pepper (trailed on coconut trees up to 6–8 m) + cacao (1.5–2.5 m) + pineapple (forms the ground floor, 1.5–2 feet) is a common example, other examples could be–coconut + pepper + grasses, coffee + banana + arhar. The other examples are: For example, • Coconut +bajra-napier grass + stylo in Western zone of Tamil Nadu; • Sorghum + red gram + lab lab + pillipesara : Tamil Nadu; • Ground nut + castor + red",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "examples could be–coconut + pepper + grasses, coffee + banana + arhar. The other examples are: For example, • Coconut +bajra-napier grass + stylo in Western zone of Tamil Nadu; • Sorghum + red gram + lab lab + pillipesara : Tamil Nadu; • Ground nut + castor + red gram + lab lab. : Tamil Nadu; VI. Alley cropping or Hedgerow intercropping Raising two or more crops in alleys. For example, fodder crops in path way. Advantages of the intercropping systems • Higher productivity per unit area per unit time with stability in production. • Efficient and better use of growth resources like natural–land, light and water and applied– labourers, manures, fertilizers, crops and varieties. • Efficient management of weeds, pest and diseases. • Providing physical support to other crops. For example, Betel vine or black pepper vines on coconut or arecanut. Lablab on sorghum. • Providing wind shelter and shade to the component crops. For example, Oak for tea or Albizzia for Tea or castor or red gram for turmeric. 678 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Erosion control by proving continuous ground cover. For example, Bajra or sorghum + pillipesara. • Insurance against complete crop failure due to aberrant weather condition under rainfed situation. • Mutual benefits of component crops, which is termed as annidation. • Mobility of essential nutrients to each component crops by the other. • For example, sorghum + pulses–pulses provide N by fixing atmospheric N. Disadvantages • Yield decrease due to adverse competitive effect. • Creates obstruction for free usage of farm implements and machinery for various cultural operations. For example, cotton + onion/junior hoe. • Acts as alternate hosts for various pests and diseases by harbouring insect pests and diseases. • Hindrance to chemical weed management. 16.3.1.2 Multiple Cropping (a) Concept: It refers",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "• Creates obstruction for free usage of farm implements and machinery for various cultural operations. For example, cotton + onion/junior hoe. • Acts as alternate hosts for various pests and diseases by harbouring insect pests and diseases. • Hindrance to chemical weed management. 16.3.1.2 Multiple Cropping (a) Concept: It refers to intensification of cropping both in time and space dimensions. It includes sequential cropping, inter-cropping and mixed cropping. In simplest form, multiple cropping is a oneyear cropping system in which two or more crops are grown within a year; if all the crops are cereals it will resemble monoculture in its advantages and requirements. It may be pointed out that this pivotal theme of intensive cropping may manifest itself in various forms such as relay, inter or just multiple cropping. In a broader sense, it is continuous cropping. If all the post-harvest operations are taken into consideration, then they are overlapping operations. The philosophy of multiple cropping is the maximum crop production per unit area with minimum soil deterioration; the requirement of multiple cropping underlying the suitability of variety which need not give maximum yield or returns during its specific period. Instead, it must match in a crop sequence to give maximum return from production and use of resources over the full tern of one year or other appropriate time span. (b) Important considerations for multiple cropping: There are some important considerations for multiple cropping, such as (i) the crop should be agro climatically suitable and technically feasible, (ii) select most profitable crops capable to utilize growth resources and land in best manner, (iii) the crop combinations and in put rations should be compatible with farmer’s skill, enterprise preference, health, age and capital, (iv) assured irrigation facility, (v) local availability of essential inputs like improved seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, (vi) stable",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "most profitable crops capable to utilize growth resources and land in best manner, (iii) the crop combinations and in put rations should be compatible with farmer’s skill, enterprise preference, health, age and capital, (iv) assured irrigation facility, (v) local availability of essential inputs like improved seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, (vi) stable marketing and storage facilities, (vii) good transportation facilities, (viii) easy availability of credit, (ix) availability of cheap labour, and (x) proper adjustment of sowing and harvesting time of crops. A due consideration to all these points will make multiple cropping successful and meaningful. (c) Types: 1. Sequential cropping: It refers to growing two or more crops in sequence on the same field in a year. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been harvested. Actually, crop intensification is only in the time dimension. There is no intercrop competition. One has to manage only one crop at a time in the same field. Sequential cropping may be of many types as–(i) double cropping– growing of two crops a year in sequence, (ii) triple cropping–growing of three crops a year in sequence, (iii) quadruple cropping–growing of four crops a year in sequence and (iv) ratoon cropping – cultivation of crop regrowth after harvest of plant crop, not necessarily for grain. Sequential cropping systems in irrigated conditions are based on the availability of short duration, photo-insensitive and thermoinsensitivity high yielding varieties while cropping systems of short duration, photo-insensitive and CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 679 thermo-insensitivity high yielding varieties while cropping systems under rainfed conditions have been developed depending on availability of cultivars with a short growing period that escape drought. Ratoon cropping or ratooning refers to raising a crop with regrowth coming out of roots of stalks after the harvest of the crop. For example, sugarcane–14 ratoons, Sorghum–Two or",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cropping systems under rainfed conditions have been developed depending on availability of cultivars with a short growing period that escape drought. Ratoon cropping or ratooning refers to raising a crop with regrowth coming out of roots of stalks after the harvest of the crop. For example, sugarcane–14 ratoons, Sorghum–Two or Three ratoons Rice–‘Intan’ variety. Advantages • Increase the productivity of the system. • Influence the soil conditions favourably. • Efficient utilization of available resources like nutrients, water and light. • Residual influence of previous crops on (legume effect 15–120 kg N/ha) succeeding crops. Disadvantage • Carry over effects of pests and disease • Allelopathic effect e.g., sunflower. • Immobilization of N. e.g., sorghum. • Shift in weed population and species. 2. Mono cropping or monoculture: Growing only one crop (same crop) on a piece of land year after year in the same field. Due to certain specific reasons, (e.g.), ground nut year after year under rainfed condition of Tamil Nadu, and flue cured tobacco in Gunter region of Andhra Pradesh. 16.3.2 Fallowing Fallowing means keeping the land vacant without raising any crop is called fallowing. • Barren fallow–without ploughing and undisturbed land. • Ploughed fallow–prepare the land and leaving without any crop. Advantages • Soil structure is protected. • Conservation against soil and water erosion. • Conservation of plant nutrients. • Building up beneficial soil micro and macro organisms. Demerits • Growth of bushy and weedy plants. • Rodents, pests and disease problem. 16.4 INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS India with 2.2 per cent of global geographical area supports more than 15 per cent of the total world population, 70 per cent of whom depend on agriculture. It also supports nearly 15 per cent of the total livestock population of the world. One-third of the gross national product comes from agricultural sector.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "per cent of global geographical area supports more than 15 per cent of the total world population, 70 per cent of whom depend on agriculture. It also supports nearly 15 per cent of the total livestock population of the world. One-third of the gross national product comes from agricultural sector. During 2050 A.D., 349 m. tones of food, 25 m. tones of vegetable oil and 92 m.m3 of industrial wood shall be needed for approximately 1667 million people. As of now, out 328.73 m. ha of geographical area approximately 18 per cent is under forest; only 13.5 per cent is not available for cultivation. Total problem areas constitute 173.65 m. has which include 680 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY areas subject to wind and water erosion (145 m. ha), water-logged areas (8.53 m. ha), alkali soils (3.58 m. ha), saline and coastal sandy areas (5.50 m. ha), ravines and gullies (3.97 m. ha), shifting cultivation (4.91 m. ha) and reverie torrents (2.73 m. ha). Besides 40 m. ha are prone to flood and 260 m. ha are drought prone. Thus the net sown area is 136.18 m. ha (41.42 per cent of the total geographical area) (Subbaian et. al., 2000). Unlike industries, agriculture is practiced by 105 m. farm families who live in 0.6 m. villages. More than 40 per cent of them are below the poverty line. Nearly 85 m. farm families belong to small and marginal categories. In spite of increase in food production, after the independence of the country, only in north-western India, per capita food production has increased and it has declined in other parts of the country. The per capita availability of land during the same period has declined from 0.48–0.15 ha by 2000 A.D. Per capita investment in agricultural infrastructure is the lowest in eastern",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "country, only in north-western India, per capita food production has increased and it has declined in other parts of the country. The per capita availability of land during the same period has declined from 0.48–0.15 ha by 2000 A.D. Per capita investment in agricultural infrastructure is the lowest in eastern India, where the density of population is the highest. Only 25–30 per cent of the modern agricultural technologies have reached the farmers. This is often because the technology has not been consistent with conditions of the farm situations. The benefits of modern technology have, however, been restricted to favourable farming situations. Only 44 out of 453 districts are contributing half of the total food grain basket of the country. This clearly suggests that the technology supposed to be scale and resource neutral has been confined to the districts with favourable farming conditions. Since there is no further scope for horizontal expansion of land for cultivation, the only alternative left is for vertical expansion and diversification of farm enterprises with less demand on space and time particularly for small and marginal farmers (constituting 76 per cent of the farming community) who do not have much of resources, specially in rainfed areas (70 per cent of the total cultivated land). The new farming system research strategy should, therefore, necessarily concentrate on developing technology with participatory approach within the biophysical and socioeconomic environments in which the farmers operate. 16.4.1 Present Research Thrust and its Limitations The existing programme of the ICAR is a component research and there is no system-based programme. The response of a component in isolation does not necessarily fit into a systems perspective. The individual programme ignores the socio-economic and biophysical aspects of the farming community. The limitations of the conventional model of agricultural research and extension in dealing with",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "component research and there is no system-based programme. The response of a component in isolation does not necessarily fit into a systems perspective. The individual programme ignores the socio-economic and biophysical aspects of the farming community. The limitations of the conventional model of agricultural research and extension in dealing with interactive matrix are well recognized. The reductionist component research approach curtails system perspective resulting in wide gap in technology development and utilization particularly for the resourcepoor farmers. Systems research takes into consideration appropriate perspective in handling a complex undertaking such as farm enterprises, diversification and their interaction on farm productivity. The challenge is to design practical integrated farming systems that can be adapted to regions, minimize energy and base inputs, and are sustainable. Design and implementation of integrated farming systems require collaboration among agricultural, social, economic, and ecological disciplines. They also depend upon the full participation of farmer. If may be probably impossible to develop efficient integrated farming systems without interdisciplinary planning and implementation. A major challenge to agricultural research and development is the need for modifying institutional structures and research and development methodologies to allow such collaboration. 16.4.2 Definition Farming system is a complex inter-related matrix of soil, plants, animals, implements, power, labour, capital and other inputs controlled in part by farming families and influenced to varying degrees by political, economic, institutional and social forces that operate at many levels. The farming system, CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 681 therefore, refers to the farm as an entity of interdependent farming enterprises carried out on the farm. The farm is viewed in a holistic manner. The farmers are subjected to many socio-economic, biophysical, institutional, administrative and technological constraints. Farming system conceptually is a set of elements or components that are interrelated which interact among themselves. At the centre of the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "farming enterprises carried out on the farm. The farm is viewed in a holistic manner. The farmers are subjected to many socio-economic, biophysical, institutional, administrative and technological constraints. Farming system conceptually is a set of elements or components that are interrelated which interact among themselves. At the centre of the interaction is the farmer exercising control and choice regarding the type and results of interaction. Any farming system, however, is subject to what is potentially possible in technical terms. It is the human environment that provides sufficient condition for development and utilization of a particular system. A farming system obviously is very complex. Therefore, any agricultural technology well suited to a particular agro-ecological situation and socio-economic environment may not be adopted by other farmers. Unless both natural and human environments are considered, agricultural research will not result in relevant agricultural technology. The income from cropping alone in small and marginal farms is hardly sufficient to sustain the farmers’ family. With the decline in farm size (0.15 ha) due to explosion of population, it would be increasingly difficult to produce enough food for the family by the end of the century. Therefore, the farmer, to be assured of a regular income for a decent living (above the poverty line), a judicious mix of any one or more of these enterprises with agronomic crops should complement the farm income and help in recycling the farm residue/waste. The selection of enterprises must be based on the cardinal principle of minimizing the competition and maximizing the complementarily between the enterprises (Annadurai et. al., 1994b). 16.4.3 Development World population has been increasing by leaps and bounds. India’s population is expected to reach 1370 and 1660 m. in 2030 and 2050 A.D. respectively. The country’s food production has reached an all time high of 204 m.t.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "maximizing the complementarily between the enterprises (Annadurai et. al., 1994b). 16.4.3 Development World population has been increasing by leaps and bounds. India’s population is expected to reach 1370 and 1660 m. in 2030 and 2050 A.D. respectively. The country’s food production has reached an all time high of 204 m.t. during 2000. Food production level of 289 and 349 m.t. will be needed to satisfy the projected population in 2030 and 2050 A.D. respectively. The net cultivable area is 142.8 m ha. Unlike the population spurt and corresponding food need for 2050, there is every chance that the land area under cultivation will decrease due to diversion of some of the cultivable area to buildings and industrial purposes. It is anticipated that the land area available for cultivation in 2050 would be 137 m ha. So, it becomes necessary to increase the productivity almost to double of what we are producing today. This could be made possible by putting the land, both irrigated and rainfed, under intensive cultivation. Fortunately most of our country lies in tropics and so is blessed with abundant solar energy, thus making cropping round the year possible. The only way to increase agricultural production is to increase the productivity per unit area per unit time. The cropping systems, genotypes, geometry of planting and management practices are designed to increase the productivity, simultaneously making efficient use of available resources and stabilising yields (Palaniappan and Annadurai, 1999). Modern agriculture emphasises two dimension viz., time and space. Time concept relates to increasing crop intensification in a situation where there is no constraint for inputs including irrigation. In other words increasing the cropping intensity in areas where the production potential viz., land is under utilized even with full resource potential. It is a time bound program where, for most of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "relates to increasing crop intensification in a situation where there is no constraint for inputs including irrigation. In other words increasing the cropping intensity in areas where the production potential viz., land is under utilized even with full resource potential. It is a time bound program where, for most of the field crops, it is considered for 365 days or 12 months. In the case of long duration and perennial crops the duration of each rotation will vary from two or three years depending upon the duration of the constituent crops. The areas, where only one crop (100 per cent) two crops (200 per cent) three crops (300 per cent), are raised in an year, leaving the land fallow for two to eight months the cropping intensity has to be increased to 200, 300 and 400 per cent respectively within one year. This will ultimately help to enhance the productivity. In case of rainfed areas where there is no possibility of increasing the intensity of cropping, the other concept viz., ‘space concept’ can be applied. By raising of crops/other agricultural allied components in a vertical dimension, the land equivalent area can be increased. Thus by making 682 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY use of these time and space dimensions either in irrigated or in rainfed areas within specified time span, say a year, and unit area of land, a hectare, productivity is sought to be increased by repeated and/or intensified cropping. This calls for urgent action on the part of Agronomists and Scientists of related disciplines to devote their attention on the design and testing of cropping systems for different regions. Income through arable farming alone is insufficient for bulk of the marginal farmers. Activities such as dairying, poultry, fish culture, sericulture, biogas production, edible mushroom cultivation, agro forestry etc. assume,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Scientists of related disciplines to devote their attention on the design and testing of cropping systems for different regions. Income through arable farming alone is insufficient for bulk of the marginal farmers. Activities such as dairying, poultry, fish culture, sericulture, biogas production, edible mushroom cultivation, agro forestry etc. assume, critical importance in supplementing their farm income. These activities fit well with farm level infrastructure and ensure fuller utilisation of by-products. Integrated Farming System (IFS) is the answer to increase food production and farm income and for improving nutrition of the small-scale farmers with limited resources without any adverse effect on environment and agro-ecosystem. In a cropping system, the amount of by-products can be as high or higher than marketable produce. This may go to waste if not utilised in an animal enterprise. Hence, integration of different agricultural allied enterprises with crop activity as base will provide a way to recycle low cost produces at farm level/no cost waste materials of farm from one enterprises to another and thus reduce the cost of production of the economic produce and finally to enhance the net income of the farm as whole (Annadurai et al.,1994a). 16.4.4 Characteristics of an Improved Farming System Sustainable system must (a) maintain the long-term biological and ecological integrity of natural resources, (b) sustain a desirable level of support to a farm’s, community’s or regions social, political, and economic well being, and (c) enhance quality of life. To be operational, however, sustainability must have tangible and objective criteria (e.g., soil and water conservation, productivity restoration, improvement in water quality in relation to dissolved and suspended loads, a positive thermodynamic energy balance, improvement in air quality, reduction in use of off-farm input for the same level of production and profitability, and acceptable life style as influenced by socio-political factors).",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(e.g., soil and water conservation, productivity restoration, improvement in water quality in relation to dissolved and suspended loads, a positive thermodynamic energy balance, improvement in air quality, reduction in use of off-farm input for the same level of production and profitability, and acceptable life style as influenced by socio-political factors). All of these criteria are quantifiable but also have a time dimension. Over what period of time are these changes desired or achieved-months, years, decades, or centuries? Is the system that we desire to achieve closed, static, steady state, or dynamic? Obviously, closed or static systems, through ecologically stable, are not productive enough to meet present demands and future needs. Because the system is dynamic, what is the energy flux involved in terms of output/input ratio and what is the carrying capacity of such a system? It is not only the energy efficiency but also the total energy flux that is very important in sustainability. What are the indirect costs of achieving such a goal? Indirect costs are indeed important factors to be considered. For example, reducing the use of off-farm input may necessitate bringing additional land into production. The latter may be marginal, subject to severe problems of accelerated erosion and other degraded processes. Substitution of inorganic fertilizers with organic amendments like green manure may equally endanger the quality of surface and ground water. Will substitution of input by management have serious social and economic implications? Sustainability must be assessed at different levels or hierarchies (e.g., technology, sub-system, or system). Therefore, the choice of a criterion to assess sustainability would depend on the hierarchy to be evaluated. Agronomic yields and productivity are useful criteria at the level of crop or cropping system. Profit rather than production is the suitable criterion at the level of farm household or farming system.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "system). Therefore, the choice of a criterion to assess sustainability would depend on the hierarchy to be evaluated. Agronomic yields and productivity are useful criteria at the level of crop or cropping system. Profit rather than production is the suitable criterion at the level of farm household or farming system. An assured supply of raw materials, off-farm income, and preserving the productive potential of land resources and environmental quality are appropriate criteria for evaluating the sustainability of a community or a region. A system sustainable at a lower level (crop or cropping system) may, however, not be sustainable at a higher level (community or nation). CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 683 Furthermore, a system that is economically viable in the short run may not be ecologically viable in the long run. Farm households or communities may adopt systems that are economically viable in the short run but are ecologically detrimental to the community or region in the long run. Typical examples of ecologically incompatible systems include resource-based agriculture with little or no input, intensive use of steep slopes and other marginal lands, uncontrolled grazing at excessive stocking rates etc., the strategic questions to be considered are: • What system or systems should be made sustainable? • What policies or incentives are needed to bring about these changes? • Who is responsible for implementing these policies? These are difficult but relevant policy questions, because in most cases the beneficiary may be a community or a region rather than the individual household. Furthermore, some of the benefits may not be strictly in economic terms. A critical appraisal of the first question is important. Should the farm household, community, or national policy makers decide which farming systems should be made sustainable (e.g., intensive food crop production, plantation crops, or food crops)? Keeping national",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Furthermore, some of the benefits may not be strictly in economic terms. A critical appraisal of the first question is important. Should the farm household, community, or national policy makers decide which farming systems should be made sustainable (e.g., intensive food crop production, plantation crops, or food crops)? Keeping national interests in perspective, policy makers can provide appropriate incentives to transform subsistence agriculture into intensive systems of food crop production. Once that decision is made, policy makers have several options/tools for using technologies associated with sustainable management of soil and water resources for a chosen system (e.g. conservation tillage, mulch farming, agro forestry, water harvesting, fertilizer use, cover crops, and multiple cropping). 16.5 MODELS FOR DIFFERENT AGRO-ECO SYSTEMS 16.5.1 Integrated Farming System for Wet Land A. IFS IFS is a resources management strategy to achieve economic and sustained agricultural production through two or more interrelated or interdependent agricultural allied enterprises, to meet diverse requirements of the farm house hold, while preserving the resource base (Soil fertility) and maintaining a high environmental quality. Advantages of IFS • Increased income. • Income at short periodic intervals from different components/enterprises. • Yield stability. • Employment generation throughout the year. • Effective utilization of farm residues and livestock wastes (better organic recycling). • Optimal utilization of all resources. • Meeting the energy need of the family to a considerable extend. • Production of diversified farm products leading to balanced diet. • Improved standard of living of the farmers. B. Wet Land Farming It is otherwise called as low land farming. Here the soils are usually flooded or copiously irrigated to keep the soil in a continuously submerged condition. Irrigation is through Canals, Ponds or Tanks. 684 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY C. Types of IFS 1. Crop based IFS: Here, crop production is the major",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "otherwise called as low land farming. Here the soils are usually flooded or copiously irrigated to keep the soil in a continuously submerged condition. Irrigation is through Canals, Ponds or Tanks. 684 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY C. Types of IFS 1. Crop based IFS: Here, crop production is the major activity, utilizing a greater share of available resources and often contributing more of total income. Other activities complement the crop production activity by way of recycling of organic waste and supplementing the income. The crop by products can be utilized for the allied enterprises. For example, Crop + Dairy Crop + Poultry Crop + Fish 2. Live stock based IFS: Here, rearing of livestock is the major activity, which contributes the major share of income. Cropping is to plan in such a way to meet the fodder and feed requirement of the livestock. For example, Poultry Farm Goat/sheep Farm Fish + Piggery + Crop. 3. Tree based IFS: Cultivation of multipurpose tree crop to meet the requirements of fuel, feed, fodder, wood and timber. Annual field crops will be raised as intercrop in between tree crops. 4. Horticulture based IFS: Growing of either vegetable crops and fruit trees or both serve as the major component. In between fruit trees, annual field crops can be cultivated. D. Features of Wetland Cropping : 9–12 months in a year. Source of Water : Canals, Ponds, Tanks. Climate : Arid and Semiarid. Problem : Over irrigated/water logging. Fertilizer application : Liberal to maximize the yield. Other problems : Drainage, soil health due to continuous submergence, salt affected soils, mainly surface salinity. E. Crops in Wetland rice–rice–rice with assured irrigation rice–rice–rice fallow pulses with limited use of water fallow–rice–rice fallow pulses with limited use of water rice–rice–upland crop (ground nut) upland crop–rice–rice rice–rice–cotton F. IFS",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "yield. Other problems : Drainage, soil health due to continuous submergence, salt affected soils, mainly surface salinity. E. Crops in Wetland rice–rice–rice with assured irrigation rice–rice–rice fallow pulses with limited use of water fallow–rice–rice fallow pulses with limited use of water rice–rice–upland crop (ground nut) upland crop–rice–rice rice–rice–cotton F. IFS for Wetlands IFS approach introduces a change in the farming techniques for maximum production in the cropping pattern and takes care of optimal utilization of resources in which farm wastes are better recycled for productive purposes. It comprises the cropping system, the livestock system and the farmhouse hold. The final outcome is to get into the useful products that can be consumed or sold. Selection of suitable agricultural enterprises, suited to the given agro-climatic conditions and socio–economic status of the farmers would bring prosperity in the farming. CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 685 Components/enterprises proposed for IFS under wetland conditions • Multiple cropping including sequential cropping and multi-tier cropping, inter and relay cropping. • Integrating livestock, cow, goat, piggery etc., along with cropping enterprises. • Combining fish (Aquaculture) cum poultry in the existing system. • Agro-forestry on tree components in the existing system. • Inclusion of mulberry cultivation and sericulture or lac culture with crops. • Mushroom cultivation with cropping. • Inclusion of apiary and horticultural crops etc. I. IFS Models for Coastal Ecosystem, Tamil Nadu, India i. Crop : rice Early duration – Rohini, Cauvery, SSRC 91216 culture Medium duration – IR 20, TRY-1 Long duration – Pankaj, Jaganath Flood resistant – IR43, ADT40, TRY-1. ii. Livestock system Cows, Poultry, Goat, Fish, Prawn and Duck. Prawn : Water canals in homestead or coconut groves connected directly or indirectly with backwater having water having free tidal water movements can be converted into productive prawn farms. From an area of 400",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Flood resistant – IR43, ADT40, TRY-1. ii. Livestock system Cows, Poultry, Goat, Fish, Prawn and Duck. Prawn : Water canals in homestead or coconut groves connected directly or indirectly with backwater having water having free tidal water movements can be converted into productive prawn farms. From an area of 400 m2 of water canal, 12–16 kg of prawn (Indian white variety) can be produced in 90 days. It can fetch Rs. 50–60 per kg. The main expenditure will be only Rs. 2000/for providing sluice gates to regulate the flow of water. Prawn culture can be integrated with duckery, poultry, agricultural, horticulture or piggery. Fishes : In fresh water areas, fishes of Indian major carps viz., roghu, catla and mirgal are grown in perimeter trenches in rice plots. Tree Crops: Major tree crops suitable for coastal region are coconut, cashew nut and jackfruit. The forest tree species are Casuarina sp., Acacia sp., Eucalyptus terticornis, Pongamia pinnata, Azadirachta indica and Anacardium sp. Farm Pond : The farm pond technology which involves digging of a pond in 20% of the area in coastal lowland area and spreading the excavated earth in remaining 80% of the field is gaining popularity among the farmers in coastal region. In the field so developed, the farmers are able to get a samba crop of high yield rice variety in monsoon season and vegetable in winter and summer months. II. IFS Model for single crop wetland area (Periyar-Vaigai-command area), Tamil Nadu, India Crop + vegetables + poultry + fish Cropping (in ha) Rice – Maize 0.20 Rice – Green gram 0.20 Rice – Groundnut 0.20 Rice – Green manure 0.20 686 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Vegetables Bhendi – Tomato–Brinjal 0.05 Bitter gourd – Moringa–chillies Poultry unit Layer – 20 Nos. Fishery unit Mushroom cultivation if condition prevails. Fig.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fish Cropping (in ha) Rice – Maize 0.20 Rice – Green gram 0.20 Rice – Groundnut 0.20 Rice – Green manure 0.20 686 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Vegetables Bhendi – Tomato–Brinjal 0.05 Bitter gourd – Moringa–chillies Poultry unit Layer – 20 Nos. Fishery unit Mushroom cultivation if condition prevails. Fig. 16.3 Rice cropping-Fishery-Poultry model III. IFS model for a double crop wetland, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India Components : Cropping–rice Fish Poultry Mush room Area Allocation (a) Cropping (in ha) Rice–Rice–Maize 0.16 Rice–Rice–Ground nut 0.10 Rice–Rice–Sesamum 0.10 Fish pond 0.04 Total area 0.40 CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 687 (b) Fishery (400 fingerlings) 0.04 (c) Poultry unit (over fish pond) 20 layers (droppings as fish feed) (d) Mushroom Production capacity of 2.0 kg/day/unit Fig. 16.4 Duck rearing in wetland ecosystem 16.5.2 Integrated Farming System for Irrigated Upland It is a type of farming where the crops are grown with supplemental irrigation by using water from underground sources. This can also be called irrigated dry land. A. Features • Farming will be for around 9-12 months. • The sources of water are wells and deep bore wells in addition to rainfall. • The climate is arid to humid. • Water management is the main criteria, i.e., economic use of water. • Fertilizer use–liberal to maximize the yield. B. Constraints • Salt affected soils are more • Energy for lift irrigation is a must, but availability is a problem 688 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY C. Crops Crops that can tolerate mild winter Legumes – green gram, black gram, soybean, and groundnut. Cereals – maize, sorghum, pearl millet and ragi. Other crops – cotton, sunflower and vegetables. Crops that can tolerate cool winter are wheat, barely, mustard and potato. I. Integrated farming system model for irrigated upland system at Coimbatore, TamilNadu, India (Crop +",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "– green gram, black gram, soybean, and groundnut. Cereals – maize, sorghum, pearl millet and ragi. Other crops – cotton, sunflower and vegetables. Crops that can tolerate cool winter are wheat, barely, mustard and potato. I. Integrated farming system model for irrigated upland system at Coimbatore, TamilNadu, India (Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Mushroom) Crop Management Area (ha) 1. Cotton + green gram – Maize 0.56 2. Soybean – Maize-Cotton 0.19 3. Cumbu Napier grass 0.15 4. Lucerne 0.05 5. Leucanea leucocephala 150 trees (border trees) 6. Farm shed Dairy Component – 3 Jersey cows + 2 calves Biogas – For effective recycling of farm and animal waste, a biogas unit of 2 m3 capacity Spawn and mushroom production – 1.5–2.0 kg/days 16.5.3 Integrated Farming System for Dry Land Crop production depends entirely on the quantity of rainfall received or with conserved moisture. Hence, there is every likelihood of crop being facing with mild to severe stress during its growth period. The major constraint is the wind and water erosion. More details are given in the chapter 13—Dry land agriculture. Crops Cereal + Pigeon Pea Cereal + Cotton Single crop area Sorghum, Chickpea, Sunflower, Coriander Double crop area Sorghum/Pearl millet/Pulse during rainy period. Sunflower/Safflower/Chickpea during post rainy period. I. IFS model for dry lands of Coimbatore (low rainfall < 700 mm), Tamil Nadu, India Area (ha) 1. Sorghum + Cowpea (grain) 0.2 2. Sorghum + Cowpea (fodder) 0.2 3. Leucanea + Cencherus ciliaris 0.2 4. Acacia senegal + Cenchrus ciliaris 0.2 5. Prosophis Cineraria + Cenchrus ciliaris 0.2 Tellicherry goats (20 does + 1 buck) CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 689 II. IFS model for vertisol area of assured rainfall (Aruppukottai), Tamil Nadu, India Crops 1. Cotton 1.6 ha 2. Sorghum 1.6 ha Tree crops 3. Amla 1.6 ha",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "ciliaris 0.2 5. Prosophis Cineraria + Cenchrus ciliaris 0.2 Tellicherry goats (20 does + 1 buck) CROPPING SYSTEM AND FARMING SYSTEM 689 II. IFS model for vertisol area of assured rainfall (Aruppukottai), Tamil Nadu, India Crops 1. Cotton 1.6 ha 2. Sorghum 1.6 ha Tree crops 3. Amla 1.6 ha 4. Ber 1.6 ha 5. Cenchrus ciliaris 1.6 ha Tellicherry goat (5 + 1) III. IFS model for deep vertisol area of unassured rainfall region (Kovilpatti), Tamil Nadu, India 1. Cotton 0.5 ha 2. Sunflower 0.5 ha 3. Sorghum grain 0.5 ha 4. Cenchrus ciliaris 0.5 ha 5. Sorghum (fodder) 0.5 ha 6. Bajra (fodder) 0.5 ha 7. Jersey cow 2 number 690 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Chapter 17 Sustainable Agriculture Agriculture has been the basic source of subsistence for man over thousands of years. It provides a livelihood to half of the world’s population even today. According to the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), people in the developing world where the population increase is very rapid, may face hunger if the global food production does not rise by 50–60 per cent. The contribution of developing countries to world agricultural production in 1975 was about 38 per cent, while that of developed countries, which account for 33 per cent of world’s population, was 62 per cent. Only those countries, which can match the demands of the increasing population with increased production, can escape mass hunger. In the pre-independence period, Indian agriculture was usually described as a gamble with monsoons. There used to be a great deal of uncertainty about crop prospects, as monsoons played a decisive role in determining agricultural output and their failures resulted in widespread famine and misery. In the last few years, Indian agriculture has made impressive progress and so is more resilient to the vagaries of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "used to be a great deal of uncertainty about crop prospects, as monsoons played a decisive role in determining agricultural output and their failures resulted in widespread famine and misery. In the last few years, Indian agriculture has made impressive progress and so is more resilient to the vagaries of the monsoon, although the country’s population increased from 361 million in 1951 to more than one billion in 2005. During this period, the size of farm holdings and the per capita availability of agricultural land have also been decreasing and they are expected to be around 1.4 and 0.14 hectares respectively, by the turn of this century (Table 17.1). With competing demands on land for other sectors of development, this decline is likely to aggravate further. Table 17.1. Statistics on Population, Food Production and Land Resources Particulars 1981 2000 A.D. 2050 A.D.* (1) (2) (3) (4) 1. World population 5 6.1 9 (Billion) 2. India’s population 0.7 1.0 1.4 (Billion)–Total (a) Rural 0.627 (1991) 0.750 0.500 (b) Urban 0.217 (1991) 0.250 0.900 3. Per capita availability of land (in ha) 0.94 (1950) 0.15 ha ... (Contd.) SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 691 Particulars 1981 2000 A.D. 2050 A.D.* (1) (2) (3) (4) 4. Food production (million tons) 175 (1950) 206 550 5. Per capita availability of food grains (g/day) 395 (1950) 573 (1991) 589 (2000) 6. Degraded lands (million ha) 145 (1968) 175 (1990) Due to deforestation alone 1.3 m.ha. of forest area lost every year * Projections. World population today is about more than 6 billion. It is projected to become over 8 billion by 2025 and nearly 10.5 billion by the end of next century. In simple terms, the basic food production must double to maintain the status quo. The hunger must be banished from the surface of earth, as a",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "more than 6 billion. It is projected to become over 8 billion by 2025 and nearly 10.5 billion by the end of next century. In simple terms, the basic food production must double to maintain the status quo. The hunger must be banished from the surface of earth, as a first responsibility of any civilised society to provide sufficient food for the people who are below the poverty line. 17.1 INDIAN AGRICULTURE BEFORE THE GREEN REVOLUTION Our traditional farming systems were characterised mainly by small and marginal farmers producing food and basic animal products for their families and local village communities. Farming was highly decentralised with individual farmers deciding on the types of crops to grow depending on climate and soil conditions. These traditions consisted of methods for controlling pests and diseases, and for building soil fertility and structure in their own ingenious ways, since farming did not include the use of chemical pesticides or fertilizers. Rather, soil health and pest control were achieved using practises such as shifting cultivation, conservation, the use of animal manures and farm wastes and the introduction of legumes into crop rotations. By growing a mixture of crops in the fields, early farmers insulted themselves from total crop failure caused by weather or pest epidemics. Even, Alexander Walker, resident at Baroda in Gujarat, wrote in 1820 that green fodder was being grown throughout the year; intercropping, crop rotation, fallowing, composting and manuring were practised; all these allowed continued farming on the same land for more than 2000 years without drop in yields. Further, the crops were relatively free from pests. One of the reasons for the decline in their sustainable system of agriculture was the land revenue collected by the British. A tax of 50 per cent and sometimes as much as 63 per cent",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "than 2000 years without drop in yields. Further, the crops were relatively free from pests. One of the reasons for the decline in their sustainable system of agriculture was the land revenue collected by the British. A tax of 50 per cent and sometimes as much as 63 per cent revenue was collected and hence more than a third of the irrigated land went out of production. Similarly, an environmentally stable form of tree and forest conservation, which had been developed over the ages, crumbled. Even sacred groves, which were preserved since time immemorial, were turned into coffee, tea, teak wood and sugarcane plantations. Hence, from 1865 through 1900 India experienced the most severe series of protracted famines in its entire history. 17.2 THE GREEN REVOLUTION After the green revolution was launched in India, substantial increase in the production of food grains was achieved through the use of improved crop varieties and higher levels of inputs of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals. But it has now been realised that the increase in production was achieved 692 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY at the cost of soil health and that sustainable production at higher levels is possible only by the proper use of factors, which will help to maintain the fertility of the soil. In fact, about 60 per cent of our agricultural land currently under cultivation suffers from indiscriminate use of irrigation water and chemical fertilizers. The gravity of environmental degradation resulting from faulty agricultural practices has caused alarm among the concerned farmers, scientists and conservationalists and greater viable and sustainable farming systems have become a necessity. There has been a series of scientists and policy conference on this issue. One such alternative agriculture system which will help to overcome the problems of soil degradation and declining soil fertility is organic",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "concerned farmers, scientists and conservationalists and greater viable and sustainable farming systems have become a necessity. There has been a series of scientists and policy conference on this issue. One such alternative agriculture system which will help to overcome the problems of soil degradation and declining soil fertility is organic farming and ecological agriculture. Most of the growth in the food production during the green revolution period is attributed to the higher fertilizer use. The growth of the fertilizer industry in India between 1965 and 1983 has been remarkable. The per hectare consumption of NPK increases from 0.6 kg in 1950 – 50 kg by 1987–88. However, the available data show that the fertilizer consumption is largely confined to irrigated areas which constitute only about 30 per cent of the gross cropped area. The annual fertilizer consumption is expected to rise to about 20 million tonnes by the turn of this century. This rise in fertilizer use is anticipated because: • N deficiency will continue to be universal in Indian soils. • Deficiency of P will be next in the order. • K will become limiting in high productive regions. • In at least half of the Indian soils, crops would benefit from Zn treatment. • S deficiency will limit the productivity in a vast majority of Indian soils. 17.2.1 Impact of Green Revolution on the Environment To increase the agricultural production in the country and to meet the requirements of the expanding population, it became imperative to change the methodologies of crop production. These involved the use of high-yielding varieties and higher fertilizer dosages; increasing the irrigated area and intensive cropping; bringing large areas under one crop; growing crops in non-conventional areas; and changing the crop sequences. The green revolution followed the development of commercial agriculture in the developed",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "methodologies of crop production. These involved the use of high-yielding varieties and higher fertilizer dosages; increasing the irrigated area and intensive cropping; bringing large areas under one crop; growing crops in non-conventional areas; and changing the crop sequences. The green revolution followed the development of commercial agriculture in the developed countries after World War II, Chemical companies that developed highly toxic and life damaging chemicals for the purpose of warfare, decided to turn their attention on the chemical control of insects, pests and unwanted plants in the farmer’s fields. In addition, the production of petroleumbased fertilizers by oil companies was used to replace composts and manures. The food grain production increased dramatically as the policies of green revolution began to take effect. By the year 2000, India will need to produce 230 million tons of food grains on 140 million hectares of agricultural land in order to feed an estimated 1 billion Indians. This achievement, though remarkable, has also coasted us dearly. Along with the increase of food grain production pesticide consumption in India also increased considerably. In 1932 nearly 200 metric tons of chemical pesticides were used, but by 1975 it was 25,000 metric tons, an astounding 375 fold increase over 30 years. Despite increasing use of pesticides, annual crop losses due to pests still amount to more than 15,000 crores. Consumption of chemical fertilizers has gone up seven times in the last 20 years, but production has only increased a miserable two-fold. While we now have enough food ourselves and are concentrating on broadening our food exports, we have apparently sadly overlooked on equitable food distribution to our hungry millions. It is quite unfair to balance our country’s trade deficit, caused by expanding imports of petroleum-based products with food exports at the expense of making the same available",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "ourselves and are concentrating on broadening our food exports, we have apparently sadly overlooked on equitable food distribution to our hungry millions. It is quite unfair to balance our country’s trade deficit, caused by expanding imports of petroleum-based products with food exports at the expense of making the same available for local consumption. The modern agriculture techniques such as use of SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 693 synthetic fertilisers and pesticides are continuing to destroy stable traditional ecosystems and the use of high yielding varieties of crop has resulted in the elimination of thousands of traditional varieties, with the concurrent loss of genetic resources. In the past, our fore-fathers were consuming chemical-free foods, but now a large quantity of chemical residues getting into the food chain and toxic residues in agricultural commodities is an issue of major concern to everybody. Our major concern is to meet the internal demands of farm production without degrading the productive environment. Sustainability issues have become highly relevant even under the low input use situations. There is hardly any scope of finding new land area suitable for cultivation. Since the ability of the land to produce food is limited and the limits of production are set by soil and climatic conditions, there are critical levels of population that can be supported in perpetuity from any given land area. Any attempt to produce food in excess for the restrictions set by soil and climatic conditions will, in the long term, result in failure. Degradation of land, hunger and eventual reduction in population are the outcome of such practises. However, the application of technological innovations in the form of new seeds, fertilizers, irrigation and suitable management strategies has bailed such catastrophic predictions in the past. This underscores the tremendous potential of science and shows the possibility of meeting the demands",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "reduction in population are the outcome of such practises. However, the application of technological innovations in the form of new seeds, fertilizers, irrigation and suitable management strategies has bailed such catastrophic predictions in the past. This underscores the tremendous potential of science and shows the possibility of meeting the demands put on our farm production systems without reducing its sustainability, through scientific research. The progress in Indian agriculture during the last 40 years can be broadly classified under three areas: First, progress in developing the research and educational infrastructure, essential for generating and testing technologies suitable for different agro-ecological regions, secondly, a reasonably efficient input production and delivery system for the production and distribution of seeds, fertilisers and other inputs. Thirdly, evolving policies essential for stimulating higher production by small farmers and increased consumption by the rural and urban poor. Thanks to these steps, growth of food production has on the whole remained above the rate of population growth. Statistics on agricultural production in India from 1960–1988 show that during the period (a) the gross cropped area increased marginally; (b) the area under irrigation nearly doubled; (c) the high yielding variety programme, initiated at the national level in 1966, increased to cover nearly 39 per cent of the cropped area; (d) the total food production increased from 74 million tonnes to nearly 174 millions tonnes; and (e) both the fertiliser and pesticide consumption increased more than 25 times. The ratio of pesticide to fertilizer remained nearly constant at 1:100. Interestingly, the use of pesticides in the public health sector, which has higher than in the agricultural sector until 1966, became almost equal in 1970 and declined significantly thereafter. The number of pesticides used in agricultural sector has always been a more diversified than in public health sector which used only",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the use of pesticides in the public health sector, which has higher than in the agricultural sector until 1966, became almost equal in 1970 and declined significantly thereafter. The number of pesticides used in agricultural sector has always been a more diversified than in public health sector which used only DDT, HCH and malathion. The introduction of high-yielding varieties changed the agricultural environment leading to numerous pest problems of economic importance. Many of these were either unknown or were minor importance in the early 1960’s. Increased irrigation, higher usage of fertilizers and wide adoption of high-yielding varieties led to the resurgence of pests. The high-yielding varieties and the monoculture practices led to material changes in the pest complex. Pests and diseases such as gall midge, brown plant hopper, bacterial blight and tungro virus of rice, which were of minor importance before the green revolution, suddenly assumed major proportions; for instance, Spodoptera litura on cotton, maize and tobacco; Pyrilla on wheat, maize and sorghum; apple scab and codling moth on apple and Karnal bunt on wheat increased the crop losses due to pests enormously. An important aspect of the resurgence of newer pests in the time-lag between the introduction on of a new variety/agronomic practice and the actual manifestation of the pest epidemic. This varies with pest and the crop. For example, in the rice bacterial wilt there was a practically no time-lag in the very first season of the introduction of Taichung Native 694 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1 in Andhra Pradesh in 1963, the disease broke out. In the case of the rice tungro virus, it took four to five years before the disease manifested itself in a virulent form. It took, however, a decade for the brown plant hopper to become a major pest. Similarly, every variety of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Andhra Pradesh in 1963, the disease broke out. In the case of the rice tungro virus, it took four to five years before the disease manifested itself in a virulent form. It took, however, a decade for the brown plant hopper to become a major pest. Similarly, every variety of hybrid bajra, when released, was thought to be tolerant/resistant to downy mildew, but within a few years all proved to be susceptible. Since the high-yielding varieties were more prone to pests and diseases, use of pesticides increased and this brought about (a) widespread occurrence of pesticide residues in nearly every agricultural commodity; (b) increased pesticide resistance in vectors; (c) resistance to pesticides in stored grain pests which was first reported in 1971 and by 1979 six major pests of stored grain became resistant to a number of insecticides and fumigants; and (d) pesticide resistance in pests of agricultural importance becoming an important constraint in increasing productivity. This is true especially for the polyphagous pests such as Spodoptera litura (tobacco caterpillar); Plutella xylostella (diamond back moth) and Heliothis armigera (American boll worm). It is suspected that the Aphis craccivora (black aphid), a serious pest of pulses, and Lipahis erysimi (Mustard aphid) have also developed resistance to pesticides. The ills of green revolution are stated to be: • reduction in natural fertility of the soil • destruction of soil structure, aeration and water holding capacity • susceptibility to soil erosion by water and wind • diminishing returns on inputs (the ratio of energy input to output halves every 10 years) • indiscriminate killing of useful insects, micro organisms and predators that naturally check excess crop damage by insect pests • breeding more virulent and resistant species of insects • reducing genetic diversity of plant species • pollution with toxic chemicals from the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "energy input to output halves every 10 years) • indiscriminate killing of useful insects, micro organisms and predators that naturally check excess crop damage by insect pests • breeding more virulent and resistant species of insects • reducing genetic diversity of plant species • pollution with toxic chemicals from the agrochemicals and their production units • endangering the health of the farmers using chemicals and the workers who produce them • poisoning the food with highly toxic pesticide residues • cash crops displacing nutritious food crops • chemicals changing the natural taste of food • high inputs increasing the agricultural expenses • Increasing the farmer’s work burden and tension • depleting the fossil fuel resources • increasing the irrigation needs of the land • big irrigation projects often resulting in soil salinity and poor drainage • depleting the ground water reserves • lowering the drought tolerance of crops • appearance of ‘difficult’ and problematic weeds • heightening the socio-economic disparities and land holding concentration • high input subsidies leading to inflationary spirals • increasing the political and bureaucratic corruption • destroying the local culture (commercialisation and consumerization displacing self-reliance) • throwing financial institutions into disarray (as impoverished farmers demand write-off of loans) • agricultural and economic problems sparking off social and political turmoil resulting in violence. 17.3 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE Earlier, the subsistence level of farmers forced to over exploit natural resources by way of mining soil SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 695 nutrients, cultivating in steep slopes, overgrazing rangelands and excessive collection of fuel wood in order to survive. Now modern crop production technology has considerably raised the yield but has created problem of land degradation, chemical residues in farm produce and atmosphere and water pollution. Hence modern agriculture was not sustainable. Sustainable agriculture is the successful management of resources for agriculture to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "fuel wood in order to survive. Now modern crop production technology has considerably raised the yield but has created problem of land degradation, chemical residues in farm produce and atmosphere and water pollution. Hence modern agriculture was not sustainable. Sustainable agriculture is the successful management of resources for agriculture to satisfy changing human needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality of environment and conserving natural resources. Sustainable agriculture is also known as ecofarming (as ecological balance is important) or organic farming (as organic matter is the main source of nutrient management) or sometimes as natural farming or permaculture. Some other designated it as regenerative agriculture or alternative farming. Sustainable agriculture is a food and fiber production and distribution system that: • Supports profitable production; • Protects environmental quality; • Uses natural resources efficiently; • Provides consumers with affordable, high-quality products; • Decreases dependency on nonrenewable resources; • Enhances the quality of life for farmers and rural communities, and • Will last for generations to come. 17.3.1 Role Small landholders in the tropics are mainly fed up with rain fed farming and it is being carried out with high risk. In a constant struggle to survive, farm communities have developed numerous ways of obtaining food and fiber from plants and animals (TAC/CGAIR, 1988). A wide range of different farming systems have been developed, each adapted to the local ecological conditions (Okigbo, 1978) Richards, 1988: Dupre, 1990). A closer look at these traditional farming systems reveals that they are not static; they have changed over the generations–and particularly quickly over the last few decades–primarily as a result of the research and development activities of the local people. (Wieskel, 1989; Owasu, 1990). However, rapid changes in economic, technological and demographic conditions demand adjustments in smallholder farming systems. New market opportunities, promotion of chemical",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "have changed over the generations–and particularly quickly over the last few decades–primarily as a result of the research and development activities of the local people. (Wieskel, 1989; Owasu, 1990). However, rapid changes in economic, technological and demographic conditions demand adjustments in smallholder farming systems. New market opportunities, promotion of chemical inputs and financial constraints may lead farmers to seek short term profits and pay less attention to keeping their agriculture in balance with the ecological conditions. In recent years, the negative environmental and soil impacts of High External Input Agriculture (HEIA) have become increasingly obvious (Wali, 1992; NRC, 1993). At the same time, many disadvantaged communities of smallholders are being forced to exploit the resources available to them so intensively that, environmental degradation is setting in. Hence, it is important to seek new approaches to agricultural development, which will benefit small farmers, half degradation of natural resources and restore degraded soils and ecosystems. In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED, 1987) called attention to the immense problems and challenges facing world agriculture for meeting present and future food needs, and to the need for a new approach to agricultural development. The agricultural systems that have been developed over the past few decades have contributed greatly to the alleviation of hunger and the raising of standard of living of poor people (Dora, 1983; Wilken, 1987) who have served their purposes up to a point. But they were developed for the purposes of a smaller, more fragmented world. However, new realities reveal their inherent contradictions, realities while require agricultural systems that focus as much attention on people as they do on technology, as much on resources as on production, as much on the long term as on the short term. Only such systems can meet the challenges of the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "new realities reveal their inherent contradictions, realities while require agricultural systems that focus as much attention on people as they do on technology, as much on resources as on production, as much on the long term as on the short term. Only such systems can meet the challenges of the future (WCED, 1987). 696 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 17.3.2 Concepts and Basic Principles A. Concept The use of modern farming practices has greatly enhanced the productivity of crops. However, the hazards of the use of agricultural chemicals in causing eco-degradation have prompted many to think rationally and evolve alternatives. The negative impact of pesticides on the environment has been well documented. Pesticides are not specific to the target organisms and kill many useful organisms, thus upsetting the food web in nature. Further, some resistant pests survive even after pesticide application; therefore, higher doses are required to kill them. The pesticide residues in the food chain have endangered the life sustaining systems. Finally, lack of safety measures in the use of pesticides pose adverse health effects on people. The synthetic fertilizers have also jeopardized the environment through nitrate poisoning and exterminating the beneficial soil microflora and microfauna by adversely altering the chemical and physical properties of the soil. Though the agricultural extension personnel are aware of the ill effects of modern technology, they are helpless without an effective alternative system. Therefore, the need for sustainable and ecological agriculture is increasingly felt in the world. Sustainable agriculture is also referred by other names such as alternative agriculture, ecological agriculture and natural organic farming. It is that form of farming which maintains or enhances the flow of its products without damaging its own long term potential. The United States National Research Council (1989) defined alternative agriculture as “those alternative systems incorporating natural processes",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "names such as alternative agriculture, ecological agriculture and natural organic farming. It is that form of farming which maintains or enhances the flow of its products without damaging its own long term potential. The United States National Research Council (1989) defined alternative agriculture as “those alternative systems incorporating natural processes reducing the use of inputs of off-farm sources, ensuring the long term sustainability of current production levels and conserving soil, water, energy and biological resource: Organic farming is an agricultural production system, which avoids or largely excludes the use of systematically compounded fertilizers and pesticides. To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures to maintain soil productivity and tilth to supply plant nutrients. It looks forward to alternative methods of pest-control like pest resistant cultivars, bio-control agents and cultural methods of pest-control. Such ecological farming systems are highly productive and they should not be mistaken for a reversion to inefficient and less productive farming methods. The adoption of ecological farming is not as simple as one may presume. It is highly knowledge intensive, labour-oriented and a complex system integrating several organic recycling processes. B. Basic principles Principle: The use of limited quantities of fertilizers and discrete application of small quantities of target specific pesticides at critical stages of crop damage thereby overcoming the effects of modern agriculture. The following seven principles will have to be kept in view to achieve success in promoting ecological agriculture: • Based on both biological potential and biological diversity, land can be classified into conservation, restoration and sustainable intensification areas. Conservation areas are rich in biological diversity and must be protected in their pristine purity. Soils with diminished biological potential are also referred as waste or degraded lands and it should be improved through",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "biological potential and biological diversity, land can be classified into conservation, restoration and sustainable intensification areas. Conservation areas are rich in biological diversity and must be protected in their pristine purity. Soils with diminished biological potential are also referred as waste or degraded lands and it should be improved through the adoption of principles of restoration ecology. The diversion of land suitable for sustainable farming should be prevented by legislation. Such lands should be subjected to a continuous soil health monitoring. • Effectiveness in water saving, equity in water sharing and efficiency in water delivery and use are important for sustainable management of available surface and groundwater resources. There SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 697 should be an integrated policy for conjunctive and appropriate use of river, rain, ground, sea and sewage water. • An integrated system of energy management involving the use of renewable and non-renewable resources of energy in an appropriate manner is essential for achieving desired yield levels. • Soils in India are often not only thirsty but also hungry. There is a need for reduction in the use of market purchased inputs and not of inputs per se. It is in this context integrated systems of nutrient supply assume importance. The components of the integrated nutrient supply system suitable for easy adoption include crop rotation, green manures and biofertilizers. Biodynamic systems that make significant use of compost and humus will help improve soil structure and fertility. • Genetic diversity and location specific varieties are essential for achieving sustainable advances in productivity. Genetic homogeneity characteristic of modern agricultural systems only leads to greater genetic vulnerability to biotic and abiotic stresses. Diversity of crops and crop varieties will help enhance the yield stability. • The control of weeds, insect pests and pathogens is one of the most challenging jobs in agriculture.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in productivity. Genetic homogeneity characteristic of modern agricultural systems only leads to greater genetic vulnerability to biotic and abiotic stresses. Diversity of crops and crop varieties will help enhance the yield stability. • The control of weeds, insect pests and pathogens is one of the most challenging jobs in agriculture. Therefore, an integrated pest management system needs adoption. The conservation and wise use of genetic diversity is essential for breeding strains possessing multiple resistances to biotic and abiotic stresses. Similarly, the conservation of natural enemies of pests is important for minimizing the use of chemical pesticides and for avoiding the multiplication of insecticide resistant pests. Botanical pesticides such as those derived from neem, need popularization. Selective microbial pesticides offer particular promise, of which, strains of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) serve as an example. Transgenic techniques have made the transfer and expression of Bt toxin possible in several crops. • Whole plant utilization methods and preparation of value added products from the available agricultural biomass are important both for enhancing income and for ensuring good nutritional and consumer acceptance properties. Both producers and consumers will not derive benefit from production advances if there is a mismatch between production and post-harvest technologies. C. Feasibility The shift from chemical to ecological agriculture should be gradual. A sudden switch over could spell disaster and discourage farmers from taking to this course. At least seven to eight years will be needed for the transition and during the interim years the farmers could build up a sufficient organic base to fertilize the fields and improve the fertility of soil. From a purely ecological point of view, ecological farms should have more diversity of species of plants, which invite different species of birds and beneficial insects. As ecological equilibrium is established, the build up of specific pests and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "organic base to fertilize the fields and improve the fertility of soil. From a purely ecological point of view, ecological farms should have more diversity of species of plants, which invite different species of birds and beneficial insects. As ecological equilibrium is established, the build up of specific pests and pathogens is significantly reduced. The biggest problem faced by most ecological farmers is that they do not know how to start switching the transition phase, which poses a great challenge, and they do not have any information on how to shift. There is no organized extension machinery to disseminate the proven technologies and in many cases the basis information itself is not available. When the farmers proceed to change the soil fertility using organic manures, they often ignore other aspects of the farming system. For instance, they forget the plant protection aspect. There are no immediate alternatives available to chemical control in the market. One has to develop effective alternatives. So far they are only left with the adoption of preventive methods. Simple changes in transition lead to complications in pest and disease management. Plant derived products are there but they are not as effective as synthetically compounded ones and therefore cannot be an efficient substitute. Farmers should get trained in pest monitoring. While 698 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY calculating nutrient balances, ecological farmers should show least dependency on purchased inputs and in addition they must use these little inputs quite efficiently. There have been several positive steps towards this direction. Integrated pest management and nutrient recycling systems have been advocated widely. The heavy reliance on synthetic agro-inputs is gradually removed by substituting farm-grown inputs both for ecological and economic reasons. With more agricultural research institutes, and progressive farmers focusing greater attention on the sustainable agricultural practices, it is opined",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "direction. Integrated pest management and nutrient recycling systems have been advocated widely. The heavy reliance on synthetic agro-inputs is gradually removed by substituting farm-grown inputs both for ecological and economic reasons. With more agricultural research institutes, and progressive farmers focusing greater attention on the sustainable agricultural practices, it is opined that more useful practical methods will emerge to profit small and marginal farmers. D. Goals Sustainable agricultural systems must maintain or enhance biological and economic productivity of crops, (ii) enhance the efficiency of use of input, (iii) lesser adverse environmental impacts both on and off the farm, (iv) minimize adverse environmental impacts on adjacent and down stream environments, (v) minimize the magnitude and rate of soil degradation and to enhance soil quality and resilience so that the crop productivity can be sustained with minimum adverse impact on soils and environment, and (vi) enhance compatibility with social and political conditions. The word ‘sustainability’ is now widely used in development circles. But what does it really mean? According to a dictionary definition, ‘sustainability’ refers to ‘keeping an effort going continuously, the ability to last out and keep from falling’. In the context of agriculture, ‘sustainability’ basically refers to the capacity to remain productive while maintaining the resource base. For example, the Technical Advisory Committee of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (TAC/CGIAR 1988) states: “sustainable agriculture is the successful management of resources for agriculture to satisfy changing human needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality of the environment and conserving natural resources”. However, many people use a wider definition, judging agriculture to be sustainable if it is (after Gips 1986); • Ecologically sound, which means that the quality of natural resources is maintained and the vitality of the entire agro-ecosystem from humans, crop and animals to soil organisms–is enhanced. This is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "resources”. However, many people use a wider definition, judging agriculture to be sustainable if it is (after Gips 1986); • Ecologically sound, which means that the quality of natural resources is maintained and the vitality of the entire agro-ecosystem from humans, crop and animals to soil organisms–is enhanced. This is best ensured when the soil is managed and the health of crops, animals and people is maintained through biological processes (self-regulation). Local resources are used in a way that minimizes losses of nutrients, biomass and energy, and avoids pollution. Emphasis is on the use of renewable resources. • Economically viable, which means that farmers can produce enough for self-sufficiency and/or income, and gain sufficient returns to warrant the labour and costs involved. Economic viability is measured not only in terms of direct farm produce (yield) but also in terms of functions such as conserving resources and minimizes risks. • Socially just, which means that resources and power are distributed in such a way that the basic needs of all members of society are met and their rights to land use, adequate capital, technical assistance and market opportunities are assured. All people have the opportunity to participate in decision-making, in the field and in the society. Social unrest can threaten the entire social system, including agriculture. • Humane, which means that all forms of life (plant, animal, human) are respected. The fundamental dignity of all human being is recognized, and institutions incorporate such basic human values as trust, honesty, self-respect, cooperation and compassion. The cultural and spiritual integrity of the society is preserved and nurtured. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 699 • Adaptable, which means that rural communities are capable of adjusting to the constantly changing conditions for farming, population growth, policies, market demand etc. This involves not only the development of new appropriate",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and compassion. The cultural and spiritual integrity of the society is preserved and nurtured. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 699 • Adaptable, which means that rural communities are capable of adjusting to the constantly changing conditions for farming, population growth, policies, market demand etc. This involves not only the development of new appropriate technologies but also innovations in social and cultural terms. These different criteria of sustainability may conflict and can be seen from different view points; those of the farmers, the community, the nation and the world. There may be conflicts between present and future needs; between satisfying immediate needs and conserving the resource base. The farmer may seek high income through high prices for farm products; the national government may give priority to sufficient food at prices, which the urban population can afford. Choices must continually be made in a never-ending search for balance between the conflicting interests. Therefore, well-functioning institutions and well deliberated polices are needed on all levels-from village to global in order to ensure sustainable development. In agricultural development, raising production is often given primary attention. But there is an upper limit to the productivity of ecosystems. If this is exceeded, an ecosystem will degrade and may eventually collapse, and fewer people will be able to survive on the remaining resources than before. This implies that, when the limits on the supply side are reached, something has to be done on the demand side, e.g. other sources of income, emigration, lower consumption level, and population control. Production and consumption have to be brought into balance on an ecologically sustainable level. Although sustainability must be seen as a dynamic concept, which allows for the changing needs of an increasing global population (TAC/CGIAR, 1988), basic ecological principles oblige us to recognize that agricultural productivity has finite limits. Why has the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "consumption have to be brought into balance on an ecologically sustainable level. Although sustainability must be seen as a dynamic concept, which allows for the changing needs of an increasing global population (TAC/CGIAR, 1988), basic ecological principles oblige us to recognize that agricultural productivity has finite limits. Why has the concept of sustainability gained increasing importance with reference to agricultural development? This becomes evident if we take a look at the present situation of world agriculture. The Goal of sustainable agriculture is to feed the expanding population while farming in an economically sound and regenerative way. Economically viable system that minimizes the purchase of off farm inputs such as pesticides and fertilizers and rely on on-farm renewable resources, form the important factor in sustainable agriculture. It emphasizes soil building practices through crop residues, animal manures, green manures, etc., Nature pest control and crop rotations with N fixing legumes ensure substitution of external resources by internal resources, reduce production costs and are ecologically sound. Modern agricultural systems are capital intensive. Economic returns require use of high level of inputs. Injudicious use of input leads to environmental pollution. Such system does not endure long. A farming system to be sustainable should have the capacity to endure indefinitely. Therefore the ultimate goal of sustainable agriculture is “to develop farming system that are: (a) productive, (b) profitable, (c) conserve the natural resource base, (d) protect the environment, and (e) enhance soil health and safety over a long term’. Hence, this can be referred as Eco-friendly Agriculture. 17.3.3 Sustainability through Farming Systems Two farming systems have been proposed for enduring sustainability. They are: 17.3.3.1 Low external input sustainable Agriculture or Low input sustainable Agriculture (LEISA/LISA) It means Minimal use of external production inputs. In view of the limited access of most farmers to artificial external",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Eco-friendly Agriculture. 17.3.3 Sustainability through Farming Systems Two farming systems have been proposed for enduring sustainability. They are: 17.3.3.1 Low external input sustainable Agriculture or Low input sustainable Agriculture (LEISA/LISA) It means Minimal use of external production inputs. In view of the limited access of most farmers to artificial external inputs, the limited value of these inputs under LEIA conditions, the ecological and social threats of ‘green revolution’ technology and the dangers of production on nonrenewable energy sources, the strong emphasis on High External Input Agriculture (HEIA) in agricultural development 700 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY must be questioned. However, it is also open to question whether it will be possible to raise world food production sufficiently without the use of such external inputs. Besides, natural as opposed to artificial inputs can also have detrimental environmental effects. LEISA is an option which is feasible for a large number of farmers and which can complement other forms of agricultural production. As most farmers are not in a position to use artificial inputs or can use them only in small quantities, it is necessary to concentrate on technologies that make efficient use of local resources. Also, those farmers who now practice HEIA could reduce contamination and costs and increase the efficiency of the external inputs by applying some LEISA techniques. It is important that the agro-ecological knowledge of both scientists and farmers can be applied, so that internal and external inputs can be combined in such a way that the natural resources are conserved and enhanced. Productivity and security are increased and negative environmental effects are avoided. A. LEISA refers to those forms of agriculture that • Seek to optimize the use of locally available resources by combining the different components of the farm system, i.e., plants, animals, soil, water, climate and people,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "conserved and enhanced. Productivity and security are increased and negative environmental effects are avoided. A. LEISA refers to those forms of agriculture that • Seek to optimize the use of locally available resources by combining the different components of the farm system, i.e., plants, animals, soil, water, climate and people, so that they complement each other and have the greatest possible synergetic effects. • Seek ways of using external inputs only to the extent that they are needed to provide elements that are deficient in the ecosystem and to enhance available biological, physical and human resources. In using external inputs, attention is given mainly to maximum recycling and minimum detrimental impact on the environment. • LEISA does not aim at maximum production of short duration but rather at a stable and adequate production level over the long term. LEISA seeks to maintain and, where possible, enhance the natural resources and make maximum use of natural processes. Where part of the production is marketed, opportunities are sought to regain the nutrients brought to the market. Numerous developing countries are now implementing so-called structural adjustment programs that involve policies such as devaluation of exchange rates, reduction of government spending and intervention, reduction of subsidies and removal of price controls. In this way, the demand for imports is to be curtailed and the purchase of local goods stimulated, so as to reduce the balance of payment and government deficits and to promote national economic growth. LEISA appears to fit within this context, as it is less demanding on imports and credits than the conventional approach to agricultural development. At farm, regional and national level, LEISA implies the need for closely monitoring and carefully managing flows of nutrients, water and energy in order to achieve a balance at a high level of production. Management",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "it is less demanding on imports and credits than the conventional approach to agricultural development. At farm, regional and national level, LEISA implies the need for closely monitoring and carefully managing flows of nutrients, water and energy in order to achieve a balance at a high level of production. Management principles include harvesting water and nutrients from the watershed, recycling nutrients within the farm, managing nutrient flow from farm to consumers and back again, using aquifer water judiciously, and using renewable sources of energy. As these flows are not confined by farm boundaries, LEISA requires management not only at farm level but also at district, regional, national and even international levels. At each level, technologies are sought to make the flow cycle as short as possible and to balance the flows. In this book, the focus is on practices that can be applied at farm level. Questions related to techniques and system at village level and above are equally important, but should be addressed in a separate study. LEISA incorporates the best components of indigenous farmers’ knowledge and practices; ecologically sound agriculture developed elsewhere, conventional science and new approaches in science (e.g., systems approach, agro-ecology, biotechnology). Thus, conventional science has served mainly HEIA, but the contributions could make to LEIA should be explored to the full. LEISA practices must be developed within each ecological and socioeconomic system. The specific strategies and techniques SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 701 will vary accordingly and will be innumerable. The experience thus far of developing LEISA systems cannot provide universal, ready-made answers for the problems of farmers in other areas, but can provide some indications of principles and promising possibilities. The process of combining local farmers’ knowledge and skills with those of external agents to develop site-specific and socio economically adapted farming techniques has been given the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cannot provide universal, ready-made answers for the problems of farmers in other areas, but can provide some indications of principles and promising possibilities. The process of combining local farmers’ knowledge and skills with those of external agents to develop site-specific and socio economically adapted farming techniques has been given the name ‘participatory Technology Development’ (PTD). Farmers work together with professionals from outside their community (e.g., extension workers, researchers etc.) in identifying, generating, testing and applying new techniques. PTD seeks to strengthen the existing experimental capacity of farmers, and to encourage continuation of the innovation process under local control (Haverkort, et al., 1988). The experience of combining indigenous and scientific knowledge through a process of PTD indicates strongly that it is indeed possible to transform LEIA to LEISA (Low External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture). This approach to agricultural development appears to be better adapted to the needs and opportunities of LEIA farmers and to fit better into their cultural context than the conventional approach. B. Sustainable agroecosystems An alternative to the chemical dependence is to maximize the contributions of bio diversity to pest control and nutrient cycling and to attain optimal productivity with minimal inputs. Edwards and Grove (1991) proposed an analogous term for management of nutrients, integrated nutrient management. This approach capitalizes the adaptive features of traditional systems and incorporates additional advantages of conventional and innovative technology. It is important to recognize a strong link between the availability of organic matter and both bio diversity and nutrient cycling (Palm et. al., 1987). The practice in many developing countries of removing organic matter from the land for fuel and other purposes is a serious constraint to long-term sustainability (Oram, 1988). The most sustainable farming practices and components of the man managed bio diversity can be developed only by understanding the functions of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1987). The practice in many developing countries of removing organic matter from the land for fuel and other purposes is a serious constraint to long-term sustainability (Oram, 1988). The most sustainable farming practices and components of the man managed bio diversity can be developed only by understanding the functions of the agro ecosystem and low social and economic conditions of the farmers and their climatic and environments impact upon overall crop and animal productivity. No matter how well the agro ecosystem functions biologically, it is sustainable only if it is socially and economically sound (Altieri, 1987). Advantages • Production costs are low, • Overall risk of the farmer is considerably reduced, • Pollution of water is avoided, • Healthy food very little or no pesticide residue is ensured, • Ensure both short and long term profitability. Disadvantages Continuation of LEISA will perpetuate a vicious circle of “low input-low yields” which the third world countries with even increasing population cannot afford. The solution for this is the optimal input farming which will meet the requirement of sustainability with the promise of low input/unit of output. It lays emphasis on law of diminishing returns. 17.3.3.2 Organic Farming A. Why organic farming? Need for more intensive and economic agriculture production led to wide use of high doses of concentrated chemical fertilizer but insufficient use of organics led to negative results, decrease in soil fertility 702 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY and soil structure. Chemical fertilisers and pesticides pollute our air and water. Agricultural chemicals, including hormones and antibiotics leave residues in food that may cause cancer or genetic damage. Other aspects of food quality have also changed for the worse. Further soil and energy resources are being depleted. Instead of recycling our wastes back into the land as fertiliser, we allow them to pollute",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "including hormones and antibiotics leave residues in food that may cause cancer or genetic damage. Other aspects of food quality have also changed for the worse. Further soil and energy resources are being depleted. Instead of recycling our wastes back into the land as fertiliser, we allow them to pollute our water. We use non-renewable energy resources to produce artificial fertiliser. In the future we may be forced to make radial adjustments in such agricultural practices. Thus organic farming requires the total elimination of the most damaging chemicals. Such restrictions would presumably satisfy most concern about pollution and human health. High-yields of crops are heavily dependent on use of chemical fertilizers. But in long run many problems are encountered. The adverse effect of continued use of high analysis NPK can be summarized as follows: • The occurrence of Zn and S deficiencies in many rice growing areas. • Adverse effect on soil biotic life, particularly if the soil is acid. B. Objectives of organic and conventional farming It can be summarized as follows: Organic farming Conventional farming A. Organization 1. Ecological orientation, Economical orientation mechanization, minimising second economy, efficient labour input. labour input. 2. Diversification, balanced Specialisation, disproportionate development of enterprises. combination of enterprises. 3. Stability due to diversification. Programme based on market. B. Production 1. Cycle of nutrients within the farm, Supplementing nutrients, predominantly bought in predominantly farm produced materials. fertilizer. 2. Weed control by crop rotation and cultural Weed control by herbicides. practices. 3. Pest control based on inoffensive substances. Pest control by pesticides. 4. Housing of livestock for production Livestock rarely combined. and health. C. Mode of influencing life processes 1. Production is integrated into environment, Emancipation of enterprises from their environment by building healthy landscapes. chemical and technical manipulation. 2. Balanced conditions for plants and animals;",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "inoffensive substances. Pest control by pesticides. 4. Housing of livestock for production Livestock rarely combined. and health. C. Mode of influencing life processes 1. Production is integrated into environment, Emancipation of enterprises from their environment by building healthy landscapes. chemical and technical manipulation. 2. Balanced conditions for plants and animals; Excessive fertilisation, necessitating frequent correction of few deficiencies need to be corrected. nutrient deficiencies. D. Social Values 1. Optimum input/output ratio. Low input/output ratio. 2. No pollution. Considerable pollution worldwide. 3. Maximum conservation of soils, water Using up soil fertility often resulting in erosion and quality and wild life. losses in water quality and wildlife. 4. Holistic approach. Economic motivation. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 703 C. Organic Vs. Natural farming There is a misconception that organic farming is merely to say “no” to chemicalism. But apart from restricting and to the extent possible eliminating chemicals (Pesticides and fertilizers) it has something else also to convey. One who understands the whole concept of organic farming will be certainly inspired by it. The differences between organic farming and natural farming (based on natural principles) are given below: Natural farming Organic farming * It is not alternative system of farming but In many respects close to natural farming, but does not part of the philosophy of life involving have the philosophical overtone of natural farming. continuous search to know the true spirit and form of nature. * Totally eliminates all the components of modern Organic farming does not totally exclude elements of farming. modern farming. It involves limited and essential – ploughing – hoeing, weeding, and – use of chemicals * It indicates a ‘Do-nothing’ approach It indicates a soil building programme–more intensive style of natural farming. Application of natural plant protection chemicals (which are not inorganic derivatives) use of organic manures (instead of chemical",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "It involves limited and essential – ploughing – hoeing, weeding, and – use of chemicals * It indicates a ‘Do-nothing’ approach It indicates a soil building programme–more intensive style of natural farming. Application of natural plant protection chemicals (which are not inorganic derivatives) use of organic manures (instead of chemical fertilisers) are permitted. The essential principles are: Principal elements to be considered in practising organic farming are: * No cultivation (i) maintaining a living soil. * No chemical fertilisers (ii) making available all the essential nutrients. * No weeding (iii) organic mulching. * No plant protection. Nonetheless, the principles and practices that lie behind these terms are essentially similar. The objectives of organic agriculture are concisely expressed in the standard document of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) as follows: • to produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity • to work with natural systems rather than seeking to dominate them • to encourage and enhance the biological cycles within farming system involving micro organisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals • to maintain and increase the long term fertility of soils • to use as far as possible renewable resources in locally organised agricultural systems • to work as much as possible within a closed system with regard to organic matter and nutrient elements • to give all livestock, conditions of life that allow them to perform all aspect of their innate behaviour • to avoid all forms of pollution that may result from agricultural techniques 704 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • to maintain the genetic diversity of the agricultural system and its surroundings, including the protection of plant and wildlife habitats • to allow agricultural producers an adequate return and satisfaction from their work including a safe working environment, and • to consider",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "agricultural techniques 704 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • to maintain the genetic diversity of the agricultural system and its surroundings, including the protection of plant and wildlife habitats • to allow agricultural producers an adequate return and satisfaction from their work including a safe working environment, and • to consider the wider social and ecological impact of the farming system. In general, the problems ascribed to be created by the use of chemical fertilizers include high energy cost, monocropping, loss of productivity and water pollution. 1. Energy use: The increased use of fertilizers has been possible due to increase of energy input for fertiliser production. Although in developing countries about 70 per cent of the commercial energy used in agriculture goes in the production of chemical fertilisers as against 35 per cent in developed countries; total consumption is more in developed countries which account for only 37 per cent of the total agricultural area. Thus, the scope for reducing energy consumption in developing countries is marginal. 2. Monocropping: The crop yields increased greatly in developed countries over last 50 years and in developing countries during last 20 years. Most of these are due to development of varieties, which respond well to fertilisers. The different types of cropping systems practised in traditional agriculture have given way to system involving only few crops, which are highly nutrient depleting. The legumes, grasses and millets which are regular components of cropping systems in Indian agriculture have largely been phased out in highly productive areas and replaced by high yielding rice, wheat, sugarcane, etc. This has created the problems of soil erosion and disturbances to soil and wild life habitats. 3. Imbalance of nutrients and decrease in soil productivity: There is increasing concern on the role of fertilizers in maintaining long term soil productivity. In",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and replaced by high yielding rice, wheat, sugarcane, etc. This has created the problems of soil erosion and disturbances to soil and wild life habitats. 3. Imbalance of nutrients and decrease in soil productivity: There is increasing concern on the role of fertilizers in maintaining long term soil productivity. In intensive agriculture with high yielding crop varieties, crop yields will be drastically reduced due to decline in the soil nutrient reserves. Long term use of only chemical (N) fertilisers also has adverse effect on soil physical properties such as bulk density, hydraulic conductivity and stability of aggregates. The deterioration in soil due to intensive cultivation can be easily arrested by the balanced use of bulky organic measure such as FYM and compost. 4. Pollution: Greater use of synthetic N and P fertilisers has given rise to concern amongst environmental and health specialists. The N fertilisers create health and ecological hazards due to presence of excess nitrate in drinking water; eutrophication of lakes and streams and depletion of stratospheric ozone due to nitrous oxide production from denitrification. The continued application of P fertilisers to agricultural lands can result in the build up of trace metal contaminants such as arsenic and cadmium contained in the fertiliser. Although the mobility of P in soil is low, transport of P from agricultural soils to aquatic environment in runoff can result in deterioration of water quality. So to avoid the toxic effects we can go for biological agriculture which attempts to provide a balanced environment, in which the maintenance of soil fertility and control of pests and diseases are achieved by the enhancement of natural processes and cycles, with only moderate inputs of energy and resources while maintaining optimum productivity. The rapidly growing population is also causing serious environmental problems and degrading natural resources that",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in which the maintenance of soil fertility and control of pests and diseases are achieved by the enhancement of natural processes and cycles, with only moderate inputs of energy and resources while maintaining optimum productivity. The rapidly growing population is also causing serious environmental problems and degrading natural resources that are essential to agriculture. Some of these problems are discussed below: 1. Soil erosion: In recent decades more and more forest and grasslands have been cleared and converted to crop fields. At the same time effective traditional soil conservation techniques have been abandoned. Thus soil erosion has become a serious and growing threat to sustained agricultural productivity. Man’s increasing impact on the environment is resulted in a world-wide tendency towards degradation and erosion of soils. In Britain, 44 per cent of the arable land is subjected to erosion. It is SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 705 not unusual to find fields that lose 20 t/ha/year. In worst areas the loss is as high as 50 tonnes per ha in a single year. Soil Scientists estimate that if fields repeatedly lose more than 2 t per ha, yields of cereals would fall permanently. In China the annual erosion rate is 50–70 t/ha/year and in India, it is about 16 t/ha/year. After years of intensive cultivation, the thickness of top soil has reduced from 60–70 cm to only 20–30 cm. Approximately 0.5 cm of top soil is lost annually. The seriousness of this situation becomes apparent when it is recognised that soil is formed only at approximately 1 t/ha/yr. 2. Decrease in organic matter: Severe erosion results in reduction of organic matter in the soil, the more organic matter in the soil the more stable it is. A stable soil is also more porous allowing water to drain rapidly from the surface. Water that does",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "at approximately 1 t/ha/yr. 2. Decrease in organic matter: Severe erosion results in reduction of organic matter in the soil, the more organic matter in the soil the more stable it is. A stable soil is also more porous allowing water to drain rapidly from the surface. Water that does not penetrate the soil, runs off the surface taking soil with it. Changing in farming techniques led to depletion of organic matter in the soils. Farmers have ceased rotating grass with crops. Pasture crops maintain or even raise the amount of organic matter in the soil whereas continuous arable cropping tends to reduce these levels. Also inorganic fertilisers have largely replaced organic manures. Grass crops not only increase the amount of organic matter but also permanently cover the ground affording greater protection to erosion by rain. Organic farming techniques will help to increase the organic matter content of soils, thus reducing the bulk density and decreasing compaction. There can be effective conservation systems since they provide soil cover during most of the year and with the greater use of rotations and green manure crops, crop residues and legumes, there is an increased emphasis on manure as a source of soil fertility. So unlike under conventional and monocropping systems, due to maintenance of crop cover during greater part of the year there is a little runoff and erosion. Modern concept of conservation tillage is effective to reduce erosion but it employs excessive use of herbicides, which are hazardous to our environment. Soil organic matter is one of the important components of the soil. The dead plant and animal remains and dead microbial tissues form the main source of soil organic matter. Various organic matter like farmyard manure, compost, green manure etc. that are added to the soil from time to time",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Soil organic matter is one of the important components of the soil. The dead plant and animal remains and dead microbial tissues form the main source of soil organic matter. Various organic matter like farmyard manure, compost, green manure etc. that are added to the soil from time to time further add to the store of organic matter. These added organic undergo a series of microbial decompositions and finally humus is formed (light bulky amorphous material of dark brown to black colour). Tropical soils are generally low in organic matter content. Sandy soils contain less organic matter than loams and loams contain less than clay soils. The low organic matter is primarily due to climate particularly due to high temperature and secondarily due to cultural practices. In tropical and sub-tropical regions although much organic matter is produced, it decays very rapidly. Whatever organic matter added to the soils will be decomposed (over 90 per cent in a year) and hence, it is Herculean task to raise the organic matter content of the soil. In cultivatable soils, the organic matter content ranges from less than 1 per cent to 15 per cent. The peat soils contain more than 90 per cent organic matter. D. Concept and Definition The concept of organic agriculture has been perceived differently by different people. To most of them, it implies the use of organic manures and natural methods of plant protection instead of using synthetic fertilisers and pesticides. It is regarded by some as farming involving the integrated use of fertilisers and organic manures as well as of chemicals and natural inputs for plant protection. In either case the concept has been understood only partially. Organic agriculture has been defined differently, but the description offered by Lampkin (1990) appears to be most comprehensive one covering all",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the integrated use of fertilisers and organic manures as well as of chemicals and natural inputs for plant protection. In either case the concept has been understood only partially. Organic agriculture has been defined differently, but the description offered by Lampkin (1990) appears to be most comprehensive one covering all essential features. As per this description, organic agriculture is a production system, which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic compounded fertilisers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming system rely on crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farming organic wastes and aspect of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and tilth, 706 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY to supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests. The concept of soil as living system that develops the activities of beneficial organisms is central to the definition. Organic agriculture does not imply the simple replacement of synthetic fertilisers and other chemical inputs with organic inputs and biologically active formulations. Instead, it envisages a comprehensive management approach to improve the health of underlying productivity of the soil. In a healthy soil, the biotic and abiotic components covering organic matter including soil life, mineral particles, soil air and water exist in a stage of dynamic equilibrium and regulate the ecosystem processes in mutual harmony by complementing and supplementing each other. When the soil is in good health, the population of soil fauna and flora multiplies rapidly which, in turn, will sustain the bio-chemical process of dissolution and synthesis at a high rate. This state of soil life and the associated organic transformations will enhance the regenerative capacity of the soil and make it resilient to absorb the effects of climatic factors and occasional failures in agronomic management. The success",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "will sustain the bio-chemical process of dissolution and synthesis at a high rate. This state of soil life and the associated organic transformations will enhance the regenerative capacity of the soil and make it resilient to absorb the effects of climatic factors and occasional failures in agronomic management. The success of organic agriculture depends to a great extent on the efficiency of agronomic management adopted to stimulate and augment the underlying productivity of the soil resource. In this context, the concept of agro-ecosystem becomes relevant. A farming system unit is treated as a agroecosystem when it attains the semblance of a forest ecosystem in species diversity and multiplicity. The adoption of sequence and mixed cropping models in the presence of compatible species of nitrogen fixing trees with or without the association of livestock components makes the agro-ecosystem benefit from the positive interaction and the stimulated cycling mechanisms. As a consequence, the system slowly achieves self-regulation and stability. Agriculture production attained at this stage will be engaging without eroding or deteriorating the natural resource base. As the OAS derives it strength from the primary education capacity of the soil and complimentary interaction among the components of the system, the use of chemical inputs either for soil fertility management or for plant protection is excluded. This renders the system free from the pollution problems usually associated with the use of such inputs. For achieving marked improvement in soil productivity and for sustaining optimum levels of biological production, OAS lays emphasize on appropriate cropping and farming models, ensuring on-farm diversity and nutrient cycling, conservation and use of organic/ biological sources of nutrients, cultural practices conducive to the conservation of soil and water resources and natural and or biological methods of pest and disease suppression. With an understanding of the principles of organic agriculture,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cropping and farming models, ensuring on-farm diversity and nutrient cycling, conservation and use of organic/ biological sources of nutrients, cultural practices conducive to the conservation of soil and water resources and natural and or biological methods of pest and disease suppression. With an understanding of the principles of organic agriculture, a straight and simple definition to the concept can be suggested. Organic agriculture is a farming system devoid of chemical inputs, in which the biological potential of the soil and underground water resources are conserved and protected from the natural and human induced degradation or depletion by adopting suitable cropping models including agro forestry and methods of organic replenishment; besides natural and biological means are used for pest and disease management by which the soil life and beneficial interaction are stimulated and sustained. The system achieves self regulation and stability as well as capacity to produce agricultural outputs at levels, which are profitable and enduring over time, and, at the same time, consistent with the carrying capacity of the managed agro-ecosystem. There are also different opinions on nomenclature of organic farming. Some call it as ecofarming i.e., farming in relation to ecosystem. Others prefer the term biological farming (farming in relation to biological diversity); yet others prefer the term bio-dynamic farming (biologically dynamic and ecologically sound and sustainable farming) or macrobiotic agriculture (agriculture in relation to macro-fauna). Whatever be the name, the basic point is that organic farming is the farming based on natural principles, which alone are sustainable. According to Fantilanan (1990), organic farming is a matter of giving back to nature what we take from it. It is safe, inexpensive, profitable and sensible. Organic farming is not mere non-chemicalism in agriculture; it is a system of farming based on integral SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 707 relationship. So, one should know",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to Fantilanan (1990), organic farming is a matter of giving back to nature what we take from it. It is safe, inexpensive, profitable and sensible. Organic farming is not mere non-chemicalism in agriculture; it is a system of farming based on integral SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 707 relationship. So, one should know the relationships among soil, water, plants, and microflora and the overall relationship between plants and animal kingdom, of which, man is the apex animal. It is the totality of these relationship, which is the backbone of organic farming. Organic farming does not totally exclude the elements of modern agriculture and varying agro climatic conditions do need input from the current technological advances. It is basically simple as it abhors excessive ploughing, hoeing, weeding and application of plant protection chemicals and fertilizers. The principal elements to be considered while practising organic farming are: • maintaining a living soil • making available all the essential nutrients • organic mulching for conservation, and • attaining sustainable high yield Agricultural practices followed in organic farming are governed by the principles of ecology and are within the ecological means. Limited experience shows that this form of natural farming is the basis for sustainable agriculture and could be highly productive. It should not be discontinued for reversion to inefficient and less productive farming systems. Hence, organic farming is a production system, which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic compound fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible, it relies on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, offfarming organic wastes and aspect of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests. In this system most of the ill effects of modern day agriculture is",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, offfarming organic wastes and aspect of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests. In this system most of the ill effects of modern day agriculture is avoided because: • Use of agrochemical is forbidden. • There is emphasis in building up of organic matter in the soil, thereby activate biological activity. • Soil is treated as living organism. Emphasis is given on • Maintenance of favourable soil structure. • Development and use of crop rotation that improves and prevents soil erosion. • Biological control of pests, diseases and weeds. E. Principles of organic agriculture systems Organic agriculture systems are based on three strongly interrelated principles under autonomous ecosystem management: mixed farming, crop rotation and organic cycle optimization. The common understanding of agriculture production in all types of organic agriculture is managing the production capacity of an agro-ecosystem. The process of extreme specialization propagated by the green revolution led to the destruction of mixed and diversified farming and ecological buffer systems. The function of this autonomous ecosystem management is to meet the need for food and fibres on the local ecological carrying capacity. (a) Mixed farming: In organic agriculture system, one strives for appropriate diversification, which ideally means mixed farming, or the integration of crop and livestock production on the farm. In this way, cyclic processes and interactions in the agro-ecosystem can be optimised, like using crop residues in animal husbandry and manure for crop production. Diversification of species biotypes and land use as a means to optimize the stability of the agro-ecosystem is another way to indicate the mixed farming concept. The synergistic concept among plants, animals, soil and biosphere support this idea. 708 A TEXTBOOK",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "residues in animal husbandry and manure for crop production. Diversification of species biotypes and land use as a means to optimize the stability of the agro-ecosystem is another way to indicate the mixed farming concept. The synergistic concept among plants, animals, soil and biosphere support this idea. 708 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (b) Crop rotation: Within the mixed farm setting, crop rotation takes place as the second principle of organic agriculture. Besides, the classical rotation involving one crop per field per season, intercropping, mixed cropping and under sowing are other options to optimize interactions. In addition to plant functions, other important advantages such as weed suppression, reduction in soil-borne insect pests and diseases, complimentary in nutrient demand, nutrient catching and soil covering can be mentioned. (c) Organic cycle optimisation: Each field, farm, or region contains a given quantity of nutrients. Management should be used in such a way that optimal use is made of this finite amount. This means that nutrients should be recycled and used a number of times in different forms. Second, care should be taken that only a minimum amount of nutrients actually leave the system so that ‘import’ nutrients can be restricted. Third, the quantity of nutrients available to plants and animals can be increased within the system by activating the edaphon, resulting in increased weathering of parent material. F. Concept of organic farming It envisages a comprehensive management approach to improve the health underlying productivity of the soil. Organic farming is a matter of giving back to nature what we take from it. It is cheap, inexpensive, profitable and sensible. G. Components of organic farming They are (i) organic manures, (ii) non-chemical weed control measures, and (iii) biological pest and disease management. 1. Organic manures: Organic materials such as farmyard manure, biogas, slurry, composts, straw",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "back to nature what we take from it. It is cheap, inexpensive, profitable and sensible. G. Components of organic farming They are (i) organic manures, (ii) non-chemical weed control measures, and (iii) biological pest and disease management. 1. Organic manures: Organic materials such as farmyard manure, biogas, slurry, composts, straw or other crop residues, biofertilisers, green manures and cover crop can substitute for inorganic fertilisers to maintain the environmental quality. In addition, the organic farmers can also use seaweeds and fish manures and some permitted fertilisers like basic-slag and rock phosphate. The use of organic manures will increase the organic matter content and water holding capacity of the soil. Erosion is reduced by organic manures. Crop rotation with legumes adds to soil fertility. Green manure provides the nutrients and improves the soil. 2. Non-chemical weed control measures: Compared to conventional farmers, the organic farmers use more of mechanical cultivation of row crops to reduce the weed menace. No herbicides are applied as they lead to environmental pollution. 3. Biological pest management: The control of insect pests and pathogens is one of the most challenging jobs in tropical and sub-tropical agriculture. Here again non-chemical, biological pest management is encouraged. The conservation of natural enemies of pests is important for minimising the use of chemical pesticides and for avoiding multiplication of insecticides-resistant pests. Botanical pesticides such as those derived from neem could be used. Selective microbial pesticides offer particular promise, of which strains of Bacillis thuringiensis is an example. H. Essential characteristics of organic farming The most important characteristics are as follows: • Maximal but sustainable use of local resources. • Minimal use of purchased inputs, only as complementary to local resources. • Ensuring the basic biological functions of soil-water-nutrients-humus. • Maintaining a diversity of plant and animal species as a basis",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of organic farming The most important characteristics are as follows: • Maximal but sustainable use of local resources. • Minimal use of purchased inputs, only as complementary to local resources. • Ensuring the basic biological functions of soil-water-nutrients-humus. • Maintaining a diversity of plant and animal species as a basis for ecological balance and economic stability. • Creating an attractive overall landscape, which gives satisfaction to the local people. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 709 • Increasing crop and animal diversity in the form of polycultures, agroforestry systems, integrated crop/livestock systems, etc. to minimise risk. Methods in organic agriculture are less intensive in terms of synthetic and other external inputs compared to the conventional farming methods, but are much more intensive from a biological point of view. Organic agriculture systems include approaches and methods like organic, biodynamic, regenerative, nature farming and permaculture. These were developed during the last 50 years. Although there are some differences among these approaches, the common understanding is that practising organic agriculture is managing the agro-ecosystem as an autonomous system, based on the primary production capacity of the soil under the given agro-climatic conditions. Agro-ecosystem management implies treating the system, on any scale, as a living organism supporting its own vital potential for biomass and animal production, along with biological mechanisms for mineral balancing, soil improvement and pest control. I. Possibility of organic farming in India By 2010 India needs 280 million tones of food grains and the nutrient requirement will be 34 million tones of NPK. Estimate indicates that organic residues can provide 7.1, 3.0 and 7.6 million tones of NPK respectively. Even if 50% of these organic residues are recycled, sustainable crop productivity can be achieved with less pollution and better quality food products. J. Advantages of organic farming • Organic manures produce optimal conditions in the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "that organic residues can provide 7.1, 3.0 and 7.6 million tones of NPK respectively. Even if 50% of these organic residues are recycled, sustainable crop productivity can be achieved with less pollution and better quality food products. J. Advantages of organic farming • Organic manures produce optimal conditions in the soil for high yields and good quality crops. • They supply all the nutrients required by the plant (NPK, secondary and micronutrients). • They improve plant growth and physiological activities of plants. • They improve the soil physical properties such as granulation and good tilth, giving good aeration, easy root penetration and improved water holding capacity. The fibrous portion of the organic matter with its high carbon content promotes soil aggregation to improve the permeability and aeration of clay soils while its ability to absorb moisture helps in the granulation of sandy soils and improves their water holding capacity. The carbon in the organic matter is the source of energy for microbes, which help in aggregation. • They improve the soil chemical properties such as supply and retention of soil nutrients and promote favourable chemical reactions. • They reduce the need for purchased inputs. • Most of the organic manures are wastes or by-products, which on accumulation may lead to pollution. By way of utilizing them for organic farming, pollution is minimized. • Organic fertilisers are considered as complete plant food. Organic matter restores the pH of the soil, which may become acid due to continuous application of chemical fertilisers. • Organically grown crops are believed to provide more healthy and nutritional superior food for man and animals than those grown with commercial fertilisers. • Organically grown plants are more resistant to pest and diseases, and hence few or two chemical sprays or other protective treatments are required. • There",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "• Organically grown crops are believed to provide more healthy and nutritional superior food for man and animals than those grown with commercial fertilisers. • Organically grown plants are more resistant to pest and diseases, and hence few or two chemical sprays or other protective treatments are required. • There is an increasing consumer demand for agricultural produces, which are free of toxic chemical residues. In developed countries consumers are willing to pay more organic foods. • Organic farming helps to avoid chain reaction in the environment from chemical sprays and dusts. • Organic farming helps to prevent environmental degradation and can be used to regenerate degraded areas. 710 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Since the basic aim is diversification of crops, much more secure income can be obtained than when they rely on only one crop or enterprise. K. Limitations of organic farming • Maintenance of organic carbon is difficult in tropical agriculture due to high temperature coupled with conventional tillage where the organic carbon is easily oxidized. • Sudden shift to organic farming would reduce crop yields (low yields). • Take time to buildup soil fertility and balance the ecosystem. (Organic manure and fertilizer combinely added to field increase yield doubly). • Non-availability of organic manures, crop residues, bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides. • Transport of organic manures is difficult due to bulkiness. • Absence of premium price of organic farming produces in India. • In India, it is recognized that organic farming is expensive and labour intensive. • Lack of technical know-how (like timely and effective control of weeds, insects and diseases). • Lack of awareness among farmers. Initially there may be some barriers, which inhibit the farmers from adopting organic farming. Land resources can move freely from organic farming to conventional farming; they do not move freely in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of technical know-how (like timely and effective control of weeds, insects and diseases). • Lack of awareness among farmers. Initially there may be some barriers, which inhibit the farmers from adopting organic farming. Land resources can move freely from organic farming to conventional farming; they do not move freely in the reverse direction. In changing over to organic farming an initial crop loss generally occurs, particularly if it is rapid. Organic farmers may be afraid to enter the new market without adequate government support. Hence package of practices involving organic farming practices are to be spread among the farmers and economics (cost-benefit ratio) be made available. L. Options of organic farming There are at least three options available in organic farming. They are: 1. Pure organic farming 2. Integrated green revolution farming 3. Integrated farming system (IFS) 1. Pure organic farming: Pure organic farming is done by the use of organic manures, biofertilizers and bio-pesticides and completely avoiding inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. This excludes the use of inorganics, both fertilisers and pesticides, but advocates the use of organic manures and biological pest control methods. By the year 2000 A.D., to meet the demands of the population of a billion people food production has to reach 230 million tonnes needing 24 million tonnes of NPK fertilizers and 2 million tonnes of organics. If the entire NPK requirement is to be supplied in the form of organics, either as farm or town compost or green manure, the quantity of organics required will be huge. But, large potential of organic resources remains untapped in the country. Nearly 750 million tonnes of cow dung, 250 million tonnes of buffalo manure and nearly 100–115 million tonnes of crop residues are available. The nutrient value of these organics produced annually is in the order of 2.5,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "be huge. But, large potential of organic resources remains untapped in the country. Nearly 750 million tonnes of cow dung, 250 million tonnes of buffalo manure and nearly 100–115 million tonnes of crop residues are available. The nutrient value of these organics produced annually is in the order of 2.5, 2.0 and 3 million tonnes of NPK equivalent respectively. Besides, hundreds of millions tonnes of rural and urban compost could be collected. 2. Integrated green revolution farming: Integrated green revolution farming is a high input technology green revolution farming involving INM and IPM. Here chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used apart from organics, bio fertilizers and bio-control agents depending on the necessity. Under this option, the basic trends of the green revolution such as intensive use of external inputs, increased irrigation, development of high yielding crop varieties and hybrids SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 711 and mechanisation of labour are retained. But much greater on the use of these inputs is obtained as to limit damage to the environment and human health. For this purpose, some organic techniques are developed and combined with the high input technology in order to create integrated systems such as ‘Integrated nutrient management’ (INM), ‘Integrated pest management’ (IPM) and biological control methods which reduce the need for chemicals. Modern biotechnology is also employed to develop higher yielding, pest resistant crop varieties. This option is possible for conditions, including fertile soils, climate and availability of necessary infrastructure facilities like irrigation. 3. Integrated farming system: The third option in organic farming is the low input organic farming, in which the farmers have to depend on local resources and ecological processes, recycling agricultural wastes and crop residues. Integrated Farming System (IFS) is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustained agricultural production through two or more interrelated or inter dependent",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "farming is the low input organic farming, in which the farmers have to depend on local resources and ecological processes, recycling agricultural wastes and crop residues. Integrated Farming System (IFS) is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustained agricultural production through two or more interrelated or inter dependent agricultural and allied enterprises, to meet diverse requirements of the farm household, while preserving the resources base (soil fertility) and maintaining a high environmental quality. It is a Low Input Organic Farming (LIOF) in which the local resources are effectively recycled. For example, Cropping (0.96 ha); Fishery (0.04 ha) + poultry in wetlands. Crops, dairy, biogas, trees in garden lands. Crops, trees and goats in dry-farming areas. Capital intensive green revolution techniques are simply not a feasible alternative for the poorest of the 1.4 billion farmers who live on the tropical region with ecologically, geographically and developmentally less favourable production conditions. In order to cover such risks and to ensure sustainability in their small holdings, the age-old mixed farming systems are prudently integrated with the cropping system. M. Scope of bio-fertilizers in organic farming In the context of search for alternate sources for sustaining soil fertility through renewable sources, harnessing of bacteria and other microorganisms for fixing N and efficient utilization of N assumes greater importance. An about 139 million tone of N per annum is fixed globally by microorganisms. Research shows that 25% of the N and P could be met through the bio-fertilizers for the cultivated crops in our country. Efforts must be taken to cover the entire cropping area with bio fertilizers by alleviating the constraints in its production and commercialization. Thus bio-fertilizers can play a significant role in the nutrient management of crops and in ushering organic farming in the near future. N. Management of organic",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "our country. Efforts must be taken to cover the entire cropping area with bio fertilizers by alleviating the constraints in its production and commercialization. Thus bio-fertilizers can play a significant role in the nutrient management of crops and in ushering organic farming in the near future. N. Management of organic farming Management of organic farming system involves: • Organization of crop and livestock production, and the management of farm resources in such a way that it harmonizes rather than conflicts with natural systems. • Achievement of a closed cycle to the greatest extent possible between soil, plants, animals and people and an avoidance of environmental pollution. • Maintenance of soil fertility for optimum production, relying primarily on renewable resources. • Reduction of pest and disease incidence through a carefully designed farm rotation and enterprise structure; use of resistant varieties; the encouragement of beneficial pest predators; and the use of other biological pest control techniques. • Use of forms of animal husbandry which respect the welfare and behavioural needs of farm livestock. 712 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • Use of appropriate farm machinery and cultivation techniques, which reduces non-renewable resource consumption. • Enhancement of the environment in such a way that wildlife flourishes and it is enjoyable for people both working within the system and viewing it from outside. These principles will lead to a wider definition of quality than is usually given to food. The following categories have been suggested: • External quality: freedom from pest and disease damage, freshness and colour. • Technological quality: Improved properties of storage and processing. • Nutritional/physiological quality: Increased content of valuable nutrients such as proteins and vitamins, and the absence of detrimental substances such as nitrates and other agricultural chemical residues. • Environmental quality of the system of production, with regard to the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and colour. • Technological quality: Improved properties of storage and processing. • Nutritional/physiological quality: Increased content of valuable nutrients such as proteins and vitamins, and the absence of detrimental substances such as nitrates and other agricultural chemical residues. • Environmental quality of the system of production, with regard to the organisation of crop and live stock and management of farm resources, in such a way that they harmonize rather than conflict with natural systems. 17.4 INDICES OF SUSTAINABILITY Quantification of sustainability is essential to objectively assess the impact of management systems on actual and potential productivity, and on environment. One can assess sustainability or several indices (Lal, 1994). Indices may be simple involving one parameter or complex involving several parameters. Although general principles may be the same, there indices must be fine-tuned and adapted under local environments. Some indices of sustainability include the following: 1. Productivity (P): Production per unit of resource used can be assessed by, P = P/R; Where, P is productivity, P is total production and R is resource used. 2. Total Factor Productivity (TFP): It is defined as productivity per unit cost of all factors involved (Herdt, 1993). ( ) 0 TFP n i P Ri Ci = = × ∑ where, P is total production, R is resource used and C is cost of the resource, and n is the number of resources used in achieving total production. 3. Coefficient of sustainability (CS): It is measure of change in soil properties in relation to production under specific management system (Lal, 1991). Cs = F(Oi, Od, Om) t, Where, Cs is coefficient of sustainability, Oi is output per unit that maximizes per capita productivity or profit, Od is output per unit decline in the most limiting or non-renewable resource, Om is the minimum assured output, and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "under specific management system (Lal, 1991). Cs = F(Oi, Od, Om) t, Where, Cs is coefficient of sustainability, Oi is output per unit that maximizes per capita productivity or profit, Od is output per unit decline in the most limiting or non-renewable resource, Om is the minimum assured output, and t is the time. The time scale is important and must be carefully selected. 4. Index of sustainability (Is): It is a measure of sustainability relating productivity to change in soil and environmental characteristics (Lal, 1993; Lal and Miller, 1993). Is = f (Pi*Si*Wi*Ci)t, Where, Is index of sustainability, Si is alteration in soil properties, Wi is change in water resources and quality, Ci is modification in climatic factor and t is time. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 713 5. Agricultural Sustainability (Ag.): It is a broad-based index based on several parameters associated with agricultural production (Lal, 1993) As = d (Pt*Sp*Wt*Ct*)dt, Where, As is agricultural sustainability, Pt is productivity per unit input of the limited or nonrenewable resource, Sp is critical soil property of rooting depth, soil organic matter content, Wt is available water capacity including water quality, and Ct is climatic factor such as gaseous flux from agricultural activity and t is time. 17.4.1 Sustainability Coefficient (SC) It is a complex and a multipurpose index based on a range of parameters, and is similar to As. It is defined as: Sc + F (Pt * Pd * Pm) t Sc = d(Pi * Wt* Ct) dt Where, Pt is productivity per unit input of the limited resource, Pd is productivity per unit decline in soil property, Sc is critical level of soil property, Wt is soil water regime and quality, Ct is climatic factor, and t is time. 17.4.2 Crop Productivity as an Indicator of Sustainability A measure of crop productivity",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "unit input of the limited resource, Pd is productivity per unit decline in soil property, Sc is critical level of soil property, Wt is soil water regime and quality, Ct is climatic factor, and t is time. 17.4.2 Crop Productivity as an Indicator of Sustainability A measure of crop productivity is a good integrator of all soil, water, climatic and biotic factors. It is important to assess potential vis-à-vis actual productivity. In a science based management system, actual production exceeds potential production in soils of low inherent fertility and in harsh environments. The potential productivity, soils’ productive potential within a biome, can be estimated by several models e.g., CERES (Richie et. al.,1989) and Tropical soil Productivity calculator (Aune and Lal, 1994). If land availability is a limiting factor, appropriate indices of productivity are Land use Factor (L), Land Equivalent Ratio (LER), and Area Time Equivalent Ratio (ATER) etc. Sustainability coefficient (Sc): It is a complex and a multipurpose index based on a range of parameters, and is similar to As. It is defined as: Sc = f (Pt * Pd * Pm)t Sc = d(Pi * Wt* Ct) dt Where, Pt is productivity per unit input of the limited resource, pd is productivity per unit decline in soil property, Sc is critical level of soil property, Wt is soil water regime and quality, Ct is climatic factor, and t is time. The Land use factor (L) is defined as the ratio of cropping period C plus fallow period F to cropping period C (Okigbo, 1978). L = C+F/C The factor L is generally high for low intensity systems e.g., shifting cultivation. The LER is calculated as follows (Willey and Osiru, 1972): 1 n i Yi LER Ym = ⎛ ⎞ = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠ ∑ Where, Yi and Ym",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cropping period C (Okigbo, 1978). L = C+F/C The factor L is generally high for low intensity systems e.g., shifting cultivation. The LER is calculated as follows (Willey and Osiru, 1972): 1 n i Yi LER Ym = ⎛ ⎞ = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠ ∑ Where, Yi and Ym are yields of component crops in the inter crop and monoculture system, respectively, and n is the number of crops involved. Because crops involved vary widely in their maturity period, ATER index considers the crop duration (Hiebsch and Mc Collum, 1987). 714 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1 1 . n i d Yi ATER t ym = ⎛ ⎞ = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠ ∑ Where, d is the growth period of the crop in days and t is the time in days for which the field remained occupied i.e., the growth period of the longest duration crop. Numerical values of ATER approaches that of LER for a mixture consisting of crops of approximately identical growth periods i.e., when t=dI. In comparison, productivity can also be expressed terms of the resources use efficiency of the most limiting resource e.g., water, nutrients, energy or labour. 17.5 INPUT MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS The concept of two global commonalities–biological diversity and nutrient cycling among agro ecosystems is supported by the literature on ecosystems and their management anecdotal account of indigenous practices, and the rapidly emerging literature on agro ecology. Organic matter is the basis of all bio-geo chemical cycles. The fundamental issues concerning efficient use of organic matter are leakage of nutrients from agro ecosystems and the rates of decomposition. Organic matter and the nutrients if contains are lost from soils by run off and mineralization (Tiuy, 1990), both of which can be controlled by appropriate tillage practices (Campbell et. al., 1995);",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "concerning efficient use of organic matter are leakage of nutrients from agro ecosystems and the rates of decomposition. Organic matter and the nutrients if contains are lost from soils by run off and mineralization (Tiuy, 1990), both of which can be controlled by appropriate tillage practices (Campbell et. al., 1995); Lal et. al., 1994). Loss of nutrients to mineralization is also controlled by assuring sufficient inputs of plant or animal material to maintain the soil organic matter (SOM) reserves (Woodmansee, 1984). Legumes are important in maintaining SOM and increasing soil N suffer. In addition, they prefect the soil from run off water and wind erosion and improve infiltration, agro forestry systems use leguminous and other trees to provide alternative crops (Steppler and Lundgren 1988), produce animal forage and fuel, recycle nutrients for crop use and project soil from wind and water erosion (Altieri, 1987). Plant biodiversity plays an important role in pest, disease, and weed management. Crop rotations are effective in controlling pests, diseases and weeds (Altieri, 1987). Living mulches control weeds and minimize the need for herbicides (Regnion and Jahnke, 1990); Increases in structural diversity within the crop canopy leads to greater diversity in insects and less damage from insect pests (Stinner and Blair, 1990). Integration of animals into Agro ecosystems offers further diversity and stability. McInfire and Cryseels (1987) summarized the potential benefits of integration of crops and animals. Integration of animals facilitates nutrients movement and increases the opportunities for efficient nutrient management across the whole farm system. Animals increase overall net productivity of the farm and reduce environmental degradation by serving as alternatives to crops on the marginal areas of farms by utilizing crop residues as feed. 17.5.1 Optimizing Nutrient Availability A very important condition for good plant growth and health and, indirectly, for good animal and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Animals increase overall net productivity of the farm and reduce environmental degradation by serving as alternatives to crops on the marginal areas of farms by utilizing crop residues as feed. 17.5.1 Optimizing Nutrient Availability A very important condition for good plant growth and health and, indirectly, for good animal and human health is the timely provision of sufficient and balanced quantities of nutrients that can be taken up by the plant roots. Nutrient deficiencies and imbalances are main constraints to crop production, especially in regions with poor and very poor or alkaline soils. There is a constant flow of nutrients through the farm. Some of the nutrients are lost by export of products, erosion, leaching and volatilization. For example, it has been estimated that in Africa nutrient losses through soil erosions and other processes exceed application of artificial fertilizers (Stocking, 1986). If the farm is to remain productive it must be ensured that the amount of nutrients leaving the farm does not exceed the amount returned to it. In other words, over time, there must be a positive nutrient balance. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 715 17.5.2 Micronutrient Deficiencies Due to intensive cropping the micronutrients are removed to a considerable extent, which control various aspects of plant growth. A study at Ranchi, India revealed that applying looks NPK (10:25:25) per ha. Led to depletion of Zinc by 0.619/ha and copper by 0.49/ha. this can depress yields by up to 4t/ha in rice, 2 t/ha in wheat and 3.4 t/ha in maize. Also iron is a limiting factor in rice production in the new rice-wheat rotation evolved in the non-traditional rice growing areas of Punjab. One of the solutions to correct this micronutrient deficiencies is greater use of organic manures and multiple cropping with legumes. At Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana field experimental results proved",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is a limiting factor in rice production in the new rice-wheat rotation evolved in the non-traditional rice growing areas of Punjab. One of the solutions to correct this micronutrient deficiencies is greater use of organic manures and multiple cropping with legumes. At Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana field experimental results proved that application of poultry manure, pig manure and farmyard manure were effective in meeting zinc requirements in a maize-wheat rotation. Also cultural practices such as prolonged submergence of the field can be used to tackle iron and manganese deficiencies (Sharma, 1985). 17.5.3 Limiting Nutrient Losses Nutrient losses can be limited by: • Recycling organic wastes by returning them to the field, either directly or treated (composted, fermented etc.). • Applying organic and artificial fertilizers in such a way that nutrients are not leached by excessive rain or volatilized by high temperature or solar radiation. • Reducing losses due to run-off and soil erosion. • Minimizing nutrient losses due to biomass bussing. • Reducing volatilization of nitrogen by denitrification under wet soil conditions. • Avoiding leaching by using organic and artificial fertilizers, which release nutrients slowly, maintaining high humus content in the soil and intercropping plant species with different rooting depth. • Limiting nutrient export in products by producing crops with relatively high economic value relative to nutrient content. 17.5.4 Use of Chemical Fertilizers The use of chemical fertilizers is essential for obtaining high crop yields. However, many small landholders and resource-poor farmers cannot offer costly fertilizers. Most soils in the tropics are so deficient in primary nutrients that it is imperative that strategies be developed for adding them from outside the ecosystem. There is some potential for enhancing N supply by biological N fixation. Additional N and other nutrients must be supplied. The requirements for chemical fertilizers, however, can be",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "tropics are so deficient in primary nutrients that it is imperative that strategies be developed for adding them from outside the ecosystem. There is some potential for enhancing N supply by biological N fixation. Additional N and other nutrients must be supplied. The requirements for chemical fertilizers, however, can be reduced considerably by decreasing losses, recycling nutrients and through biological N fixation. 17.5.5 Nutrient Recycling Nutrient recycling or regime is an important strategy for sustainable crop production. It involves returning nutrients removed by crops to the soil for further use. In addition, soil fauna (e.g., earth worms, termites) also play an important role in recycling of plant nutrients. Growing deep-rooted crops is important in order to recycle nutrients from the sub soil by returning them through crop residue to the surface where the succeeding shallow rooted crops can use them. Use of mulches, incorporation of crop residues and animal waste, growing legumes as intercrops in cereals etc., can substantially reduce chemical fertilizer requirements. 17.5.6 Use of Crop Residues Crop residues contain substantial quantities of plant nutrients. The beneficial effects of returning crop 716 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY residues as mulch on crop yields are well known (Akimbo and Lal, 1980 and Kang, 1993). These benefits are not only to the recycling of plant nutrients but also to improvements in soil moisture and temperature, enhancement of soil structure and soil erosion control. The nutrient composition of the crop residues of some of the important crops is given in Table 17.2. Table 17.2. Nutrient Composition (%) of Crop residues of Major Crops grown in the tropics Crop/Species N P K Cowpea straw 1.07 1.14 2.54 Cowpea leaves 1.99 0.19 2.20 Rice 0.58 0.10 1.38 Maize 0.59 0.31 1.31 Oil palm (Processed fiber) 1.24 0.10 0.36 Sesbania leaves 4.00 0.19 2.00 Crotalaria spp",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "17.2. Nutrient Composition (%) of Crop residues of Major Crops grown in the tropics Crop/Species N P K Cowpea straw 1.07 1.14 2.54 Cowpea leaves 1.99 0.19 2.20 Rice 0.58 0.10 1.38 Maize 0.59 0.31 1.31 Oil palm (Processed fiber) 1.24 0.10 0.36 Sesbania leaves 4.00 0.19 2.00 Crotalaria spp 2.89 0.29 0.72 Tephrosia spp 3.73 0.28 1.78 Azolla spp 3.68 0.20 0.11 Typha spp 1.37 0.21 2.38 Water hyacinth 2.04 0.37 3.40 Source: FAO, 1990. 17.5.7 Biological Nitrogen Fixation Augmenting the nitrogen supply to crops through biological nitrogen fixation is a viable officer for resource– poor farmers of the tropics. The amount of N fixed by legumes can range from 20–250 kg/ha/yr depending Table 17.3. Quantities of N field by various Legume Crops Crop species N fixed (kg/ha/yr) Alfalfa 78–222 Peanut 87–222 Cowpea 65–130 Field peas 174–195 Soybean 170–217 Birds foot 49–112 Chickpea 24–84 Common bean 70–124 Faba bean 77–250 Vetch 111 Ladino clover 164–187 Lentil 167–188 White lupin 193–247 Sesbania spp. 267 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 717 on the species, soil type, climate and agro-eco-region. Some common legumes that can be grown as cover crops and the quantity of N fixed by these crops are listed in Table 17.3. 17.5.8 Use of Biofertilizers Biofertilizers have been recognized as important inputs in integrated plant nutrition systems. The use of legume green manure, blue green algae and Azolla for rice: Azotobacter and Azospirillum for wheat, millets and vegetable crops; Rhizobium for pulses and oil legume crops, Phosphate solubilizers Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae) for various crops is well reported, on an average these biofertilizers can minimize the use of inorganic N by 25–50 kg/ha. 17.5.9 Green Manuring The green manure crops when applied improve the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Green manures also increase the fertilizer use efficiency of crops when applied",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "various crops is well reported, on an average these biofertilizers can minimize the use of inorganic N by 25–50 kg/ha. 17.5.9 Green Manuring The green manure crops when applied improve the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Green manures also increase the fertilizer use efficiency of crops when applied in combination with inorganic fertilizers. Among the green manure crops, special attention is being given to Sesbania rostrata, which bears stem nodules in addition to the root nodules. The amount of N contributed in terms of fertilizer N equivalence ranges from 80–120 kg/ha. In a field trial comprising different green manure crops, it was found out that Sesbania rostrata produced the highest biomass (20–25 tons/ha) and accumulated a maximum of 150–220 kg N/ha. More details are given in the chapter 15. The common leguminous green manure crops used in tropics and their N content are given in Table 17.4. Table 17.4. Common Green Manure Crops and their N content Crop species Scientific name Biomass N per cent (Moist) Sunnhemp Crotalaria juncea 21.2 0.43 Dhaincha Sesbania aculeata 20.0 0.43 Dhaincha Sesbania rostrata 19.6 – Pillipesara Phaseolus trilobus 18.3 1.10 Mungbean Phaseolus arvensis 8.0 0.53 Cowpea Vigna sinensis 15.0 0.49 Guar Cyamposis tetragonoloba 20.0 0.34 Senji Melilotus alba 28.6 0.57 Khesari Lathyrus sativus 12.3 0.54 718 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Annexures ANNEXURE-1 Units related to Crop Production A. AREA Inch: It is equal to 2.54 cm. Foot: It is equal to 30.48 cm or 0.305 m. Cent: It is a unit of measurement of an area of land, which is 1/100 of an acre. This is equal to 40 m2 or 435.6 sq. ft. Area: A unit of measurement of an area to 100 cents (4000 m2). It is also equal to 2/5th of hectare. Hectare: It refers to an area of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "measurement of an area of land, which is 1/100 of an acre. This is equal to 40 m2 or 435.6 sq. ft. Area: A unit of measurement of an area to 100 cents (4000 m2). It is also equal to 2/5th of hectare. Hectare: It refers to an area of 10,000 m2 or 250 cents or 2.5 acres. 100 kuzhi = 1 maa or kaani; 3 maa = 1 acre; 20 maa = 6.67 acres = 1 veli. B. WEIGHT Pound : It is a unit of weight equal to 454 grams. Kilogram : It is unit of weight equal to 1000 grams or 2.203 pounds. Quintal : This refers to a unit of weight equal to 100 kg or 0.1 tonne. Bale : 177.8 kg (cotton lint). Tonne : Unit of weight equal to 1000 kg or 10 quintals. Million tonnes : 10,00,000 tonnes. C. VOLUME Milli litre (ml) : It is a unit of volume equal to 1/1000th of a litre. 1 ml = 1 cc = 1cu. mm. Litre : It is a volume equal to 1000 ml or 1000 cc. Cubic meter : It is a volume equal to 1000 litres. Cubic foot : It is a volume equal to 28.32 litres. TMC : Thousand metric cubic feet. Imp. gallon : 4.546 litres. ANNEXURES 719 ANNEXURE-1A Conversion Factors between Important Primary and Secondary Agricultural Commodities Commodity Conversion Factor Rice (Cleaned) Production 2/3 of Paddy Production Cotton Cotton Lint Production 1/3 of Kapas Production Cotton Seed Production 2/3 of Kapas Production 2 Times of Cotton Lint Production Jute 100 Yards of Hessian 54 lbs. of Raw Jute 4148 Yards of Hessian 1 Ton of Raw Jute (5.55 Bales of Raw Jute (of 180 Kgs. Each) 1 Ton of Sacking 1.11 Tons of Raw Jute 6.17 Bales of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2/3 of Kapas Production 2 Times of Cotton Lint Production Jute 100 Yards of Hessian 54 lbs. of Raw Jute 4148 Yards of Hessian 1 Ton of Raw Jute (5.55 Bales of Raw Jute (of 180 Kgs. Each) 1 Ton of Sacking 1.11 Tons of Raw Jute 6.17 Bales of Raw Jute (of 180 Kgs. Each) 1 Ton of Hessian 1.05 Tons of Raw Jute Sacking etc. 5.85 Bales of Raw Jute (of 180 Kgs. Each) Groundnut Kernel to Nuts in Shell 70 Percent Oil to Nuts in Shell 28 Percent Oil to Kernels Crushed 40 Percent Cake to Kernels Crushed 60 Percent Sesamum Oil to Seeds Crushed 40 Percent Cake to Seeds Crushed 60 Percent Rape seed and Mustard Oil to Seeds Crushed 33 Percent Cake to Seeds Crushed 67 Percent Linseed Oil to seeds Crushed 33 Percent Cake to Seeds Crushed 67 Percent Castor seed Oil to Seeds Crushed 37 Percent Cake to Seeds Crushed 63 Percent Cotton Seed Oil to Seeds Crushed 14–18 Percent Cake to Seeds Crushed 82–86 Percent Coconut Copra to Nuts One Ton of Copra = 6773 Nuts 720 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Oil to Copra Crushed 62 Percent Cake to Copra Crushed 38 Percent Niger seed Oil to Seeds Crushed 28 Percent Cake to Seeds Crushed 72 Percent Kardi Seed Oil to Seeds Crushed 40 Percent Cake to Seeds Crushed 60 Percent Mahua Seed Oil to Seeds Crushed 36 Percent Cake to Seeds Crushed 64 Percent Neem Seed Oil to Kernels Crushed 45–50 Percent Cake to Kernels Crushed 50–55 Percent Soyabean Seed Oil to Soyabean Seed Crushed 18 Percent Meal to Soyabean Seed Crushed 73 Percent Hull from Soyabean Seed Crushed 8 Percent Wastage from Soyabean Seed Crushed 1 Percent Sugar Gur from Cane Crushed 11.20 Percent to 11.50 Percent Crystal Sugar from",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Percent Cake to Kernels Crushed 50–55 Percent Soyabean Seed Oil to Soyabean Seed Crushed 18 Percent Meal to Soyabean Seed Crushed 73 Percent Hull from Soyabean Seed Crushed 8 Percent Wastage from Soyabean Seed Crushed 1 Percent Sugar Gur from Cane Crushed 11.20 Percent to 11.50 Percent Crystal Sugar from Gur Refined (Gur Refineries) 62.5 Percent Crystal Sugar from Cane Crushed (Cane Factories) 10.20 Percent Khandasari Sugar (Sulphur and Non-sulphur) 46 Percent from standard Gur Refined Molasses from Cane Crushed 4.0 Percent to 4.5 Percent Cane–Trash* from Cane Harvested 8.0 Percent to 12.0 Percent Lac Seed Lac 66.0 Percent of Stick Lac Shell Lac 57.4 Percent of Stick, or 87.0 Percent of Seed Lac Cashew nut Cashew Kernel 25 Percent of Cashew nuts * This consists of leaves and portion of the top of stalk which are removed from the cane stalk, while harvesting and before sending the cane for milling. ANNEXURES 721 ANNEXURE-2 List of Crops–Common and Botanical Names Cereals and millets 1. Rice Oryza sativa Linn. 2. Wheat Triticum aestivum L. Triticum sativum, Lamk. 3. Maize Zea mays Linn. 4. Rye Secale cereale Linn. 5. Oat Avena sativa Linn. 6. Barley Hordeum vulgare Linn. 7. Sorghum, Jowar Sorghum bicolor Pers. 8. Pearl millet, Bajra Pennisetum glaucum Linn. 9. Finger millet, Ragi Eleusine coracana Gaertn. 10. Barnyard millet (kuthiraivali) Echinochloa frumentacea Roxb. 11. Italian millet (thenai) Setaria italica. Linn. 12. Kodo millet (varagu) Paspalum scrobiculatum. Linn. 13. Common millet (panivaragu) Panicum millaceum Linn. 14. Little millet (samai) Panicum milleare Linn. Pulses 1. Black gram, Kalai, Urd Vigna mungo var, radiatus Linn. 2. Chickling vetch, khesari Lathyrus sativus Linn. 3. Chickpea, Gram Cicer arietinum Linn. 4. Cowpea Vigna sinensis Savi 5. Green gram Mung or Moong Vigna radiatus Roxb. 6. Horse gram, kulthi Macrotyloma uniflorum Linn. 7. Lentil Lens esculenta",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Linn. Pulses 1. Black gram, Kalai, Urd Vigna mungo var, radiatus Linn. 2. Chickling vetch, khesari Lathyrus sativus Linn. 3. Chickpea, Gram Cicer arietinum Linn. 4. Cowpea Vigna sinensis Savi 5. Green gram Mung or Moong Vigna radiatus Roxb. 6. Horse gram, kulthi Macrotyloma uniflorum Linn. 7. Lentil Lens esculenta Moench 8. Moth bean Phaseolus aconitifolia Linn. 9. Peas Pisum sativum Linn. 10. Pigeon pea, Arhar, Tur Cajanas cajan Millsp. (Cajanus indicus) 11. Pillipesara Phaseolus trilobus. 12. Soybean Glycine max. Linn. Merr. Oilseeds 1. Black mustard Brassica nigra Linn. Koch. 2. Castor Ricinus communis Linn. 3. Coconut Cocus nucifera Linn. 4. Groundnut/peanut Arachis hypogaea Linn. 5. Indian mustard or rai Brassica Cass Linn. 6. Indian rape or toria Brassica napeustris Linn., var, napus 722 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 7. Niger Guizotia abyssinica Cass 8. Linseed Linum usitatissimum Linn. 9. Safflower Carthamus tinctorious Linn. 10. Sesame/Gingelly/Til Sesamum indicum Linn. 11. Sunflower Helianthus annus Linn. 12. White mustard Brassica alba Linn. 13. Oil palm Elaeis guinensis. Fibre Crops 1. Cotton Gossypium spp. 2. Jute Corchorus spp. 3. Mesta Hibiscus cannabinus Linn. 4. Sunnhemp Crotalaria juncea Linn. Fumitories, Masticatorias 1. Tobacco (Desi) Nicotiana tobacum. 2. Tobacco (Calcutta) Nicotiana rustica. Sugars and Starches 1. Pine apple Ananas sativa Schutt. 2. Potato Solanum tuberosum Linn. 3. Sugar beet Beta vulgaris Linn. 4. Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum Linn. 5. Sweet potato Ipomea batatus Lann. 6. Tapioca Manihot esculenta crantz. Spices and Condiments 1. Black pepper Piper nigrum L. 2. Betel vine Piper betle L. 3. Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum Matora. 4. Coriander Coriandrum sativum Linn. 5. Garlic Allium sativum Linn. 6. Ginger Zingiber officinale Rose 7. Onion Allium cepa Linn. 8. Red pepper, Chillies Capsicum annum Linn. 9. Turmeric Curcuma longa Linn. Forage Grasses 1. Buffel grass, Anjan Cenchrus ciliaris. 2. Dallis grass Paspalum dilatatum Poir. ANNEXURES 723",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cardamomum Matora. 4. Coriander Coriandrum sativum Linn. 5. Garlic Allium sativum Linn. 6. Ginger Zingiber officinale Rose 7. Onion Allium cepa Linn. 8. Red pepper, Chillies Capsicum annum Linn. 9. Turmeric Curcuma longa Linn. Forage Grasses 1. Buffel grass, Anjan Cenchrus ciliaris. 2. Dallis grass Paspalum dilatatum Poir. ANNEXURES 723 3. Dinanath grass Pennisetum. 4. Guinea grass Panicum maximum Jacq. 5. Marvel grass Dicanthium annulatum (Forsk.) 6. Napier or Elephant grass Pennisetum purpureum Schum. 7. Pangola grass Digitaria decumbens Stent. 8. Para grass Brachiaria mutica. 9. Sudan grass Sorghum sudanense Stapf. 10. Teosinte Euchlaena mexicana Schrad. 11. Blue panicum Panicum antidotale Retz. Forage Legumes 1. Berseem/Egyptian Clover Trifolium alexandrinum Linn. 2. Centrosema Centrosema pubescens. 3. Gaur/Cluster bean Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Taub. 4. Lucerne/Alfalfa Medicago sativa Linn. 5. Sirato Macroptlium atropurpureum. 6. Velvet Bean Mucuna cochinchinensis Brot. Plantation Crops 1. Banana Musa paradisiaca L. 2. Areca Palm Areca catechu Linn. 3. Arrowroot Maranta arundinacea L. 4. Cacao Theobroma cacao Linn. 5. Coconut Cocos nucifera Linn. 6. Coffee Coffea arabica Linn. 7. Tea Camellia theasinesis O. Ktze. Green Manure Crops 1. Daincha Sesbania aculeata Poir. Sesbania speciosa Tam. 2. Sunnhemp Crotolaria juncea Linn. (Sanappai) 3. Manila agathi Sesbania rostrata. 4. Sittagathi Sesbania sesban. Vegetables 1. Ash Gourd Beniacasa cerifera Savi. 2. Bitter gourd Momordica charantia Linn. 3. Bottle gourd Lagenaria leucantha Rusby. 4. Brinjal Solanum melongena Linn. 5. Broad bean Vicia faba Linn. 724 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 6. Cabbage Brassica oleracea var. capitata Linn. 7. Chinese cabbage B. pekinensis (Lour) Rupr. 8. Carrot Daucus carota Linn. 9. Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. botrytis Linn. 10. Colocasia Colocasia esculenta (L). Schott. 11. Cucumber Cucumis sativus Linn. 12. Double bean Phaseolus lunatus Linn. 13. Elephant ear/edible arum Colocasia antiquorum Schott. 14. Elephant foot/yam Amorphophallus campanulatus Bheme. 15. French bean Phaseolus vulgaris Linn. 16. Knol khol",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Carrot Daucus carota Linn. 9. Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. botrytis Linn. 10. Colocasia Colocasia esculenta (L). Schott. 11. Cucumber Cucumis sativus Linn. 12. Double bean Phaseolus lunatus Linn. 13. Elephant ear/edible arum Colocasia antiquorum Schott. 14. Elephant foot/yam Amorphophallus campanulatus Bheme. 15. French bean Phaseolus vulgaris Linn. 16. Knol khol Brassica oleracea var. Caulorapa Pasq. 17. Lesser yam Dioscorea alata L. 18. Lettuce Lactuca sativa Linn. 19. Must Melon Cucumis melo Linn. 20. Pointed gourd/Parwal Trichosanthes diora Roxb. 21. Pumpkin Cucurbita moschata Dutch. 22. Radish Raphanus sativus Linn. 23. Bhendi Abelmoschus esculentus Linn. 24. Red pumpkin Cucurbita maxima Duch. 25. Ridge gourd Luffa acutangula Roxb. 26. Spinach Spinacia oleracea Linn. 27. Snake gourd Trichosanthes anguina. Linn. 28. Tomato Lycopersicum esculentus Mill. 29. Turnip Brassica campestris var. rapa Linn. 30. Watermelon Citrullus vulgaris schrad. 31. Yam Dioscorea esculenta L. Medicinal Crops 1. Aloe Aloe vera. 2. Ashwagantha Withania somnifera Dunai. 3. Belladonna Atropa belladona Linn. 4. Bishop’s weed Ammi visnaga Linn. 5. Bringaraj Eclipta alba. 6. Cinchona Cinchona sp. 7. Coleus Coleus forskholli Briq. 8. Dioscorea Dioscorea bulbifera Linn. 9. Duboisia Duboisia myoporoides Brown. 10. Glory Lily Gloriosa superba Linn. 11. Ipecae Cephaelis ipecacuanha Linn. 12. Long pepper Piper longum Linn. 13. Opium poppy Papav somniferum. ANNEXURES 725 14. Prim rose Oenothera lamarekiana Linn. 15. Roselle Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. 16. Sarpagandha Rauvalfia serpentine Benth. 17. Senna Cassia angustifolia Vahl. 18. Sweet Flag Acorus calamus Linn. 19. Valeriana Valeriana wallaichii. Aromatic Crops 1. Ambrettee Abelmoschus moschatus Medic. 2. Celery Apium graveolens Linn. 3. Citronella Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt. 4. Geranium Pelargonium graveolens. 5. Jasmine Jasminum grantiflorum. 6. Khus Vetiveria zizanoids. 7. Lavender Lavendula sp. Linn. 8. Lemon grass Cymbopogon flexuosus Stapf. 9. Mint Mint sp. 10. Palmarosa Cymbopogon martini. 11. Patchouli Pogostemon cablin Benth. 12. Sandal wood Santalum album. 13. Sacred Basil (Tulsi)",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "3. Citronella Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt. 4. Geranium Pelargonium graveolens. 5. Jasmine Jasminum grantiflorum. 6. Khus Vetiveria zizanoids. 7. Lavender Lavendula sp. Linn. 8. Lemon grass Cymbopogon flexuosus Stapf. 9. Mint Mint sp. 10. Palmarosa Cymbopogon martini. 11. Patchouli Pogostemon cablin Benth. 12. Sandal wood Santalum album. 13. Sacred Basil (Tulsi) Ocimum sanctum Linn. 14. Tuberose Polianthus tuberosa Linn. Other Economic Crops 1. Annatto Bixa orellana. 2. Camphor Basil Ocimum kilimandscharicum. 3. Henna Lawsonia inermis Linn. 4. Pyrethrum Chrysanthemum cineraraefolium. 726 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-3 Efficient Cropping Systems for different Agro-Climatic Zones of India Agro-climatic region Soil type Cropping systems 1. Western Himalayas cold-arid Shallow, sandy to loamy and Rice-potato-wheat, Lucerne-oats-vetch Jammu and Kashmir Ladakh skeletal soils plateau 2. Western plain katch and part of Desert and saline soils Sorghum-wheat-millet, Maize-Green, Kathiawar peninsula manure, Maize-wheat, sorghum-wheat, (hot arid regions) Cotton-wheat 3. Deccan plateau (hot-arid) Red and black soils Pigeon pea + sorghum/groundnut, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka Cotton-millet-sorghum 4. Northern plains and central Alluvium derived soils Maize-green manure, Rice-wheat, highlands (semi-arid) Gujarat, Maize-wheat, cotton-wheat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, sorghum-wheat Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan 5. Central highlands Gujarat plains Medium deep black soils Groundnut-wheat, Rice-sugarcane Kathiawar peninsula (hot semi-arid) + soybean, Rice–wheat-Green manure, Rice-wheat millet, Pearl millet-potato-cotton 6. Deccan plateau (hot-semi-arid) Shallow and medium Cotton-millet-sorghum, black soils Pegeonpea + sorghum/groundnut 7. Deccan plateau and Eastern ghats Red and black soils Sorghum-safflower, Cotton-millet (hot-semi-arid) Pigeon pea-sunflower, Groundnut + sorghum-fallow 8. Eastern ghats, Tamil Nadu uplands Red loamy soils Rice-Rice-pulses, Cotton-groundnut, and Deccan plateau (hot semi-arid) Groundnut-sorghum, Cotton-millet 9. Northern plain (hot sub humid) Alluvium derived Rice-wheat, Maize-wheat, Maizemustard-sugarcane 10. Central High lands (hot sub-humid) Black and red soils/ Sorghum-wheat, Maize-wheat Soybean pigeon pea-green gram, Rice-wheat 11. Eastern plateau (hot sub-humid soils) Red and yellow soils Rice-wheat-green manure, Rice-pigeon pea, Rice-millet, Pulses-Rice 12. Eastern plateau and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Groundnut-sorghum, Cotton-millet 9. Northern plain (hot sub humid) Alluvium derived Rice-wheat, Maize-wheat, Maizemustard-sugarcane 10. Central High lands (hot sub-humid) Black and red soils/ Sorghum-wheat, Maize-wheat Soybean pigeon pea-green gram, Rice-wheat 11. Eastern plateau (hot sub-humid soils) Red and yellow soils Rice-wheat-green manure, Rice-pigeon pea, Rice-millet, Pulses-Rice 12. Eastern plateau and Eastern ghats Red and lateritic soils Rice-Rice, Rice-wheat, Groundnut(hot sub-humid) sunflower 13. Eastern plain (hot sub-humid) Alluvium derived soils Rice-wheat, Rice-lentil, Rice-chickpea Jute-rice 14. Western Himalayas Brown, forest and Rice-wheat, Rice-potato, Maize-wheat (warm sub-humid) podzolic soils finger, millet-rice-mustard small millets–fallow/barley 15. Bengal and Assam plains Alluvium derived soils Rice-wheat-rice, rice, Rice-chickpea, (hot sub-humid) Rice-rice, Rice-potato-sesame 16. Eastern Himalayas Brown and red hill soils Rice-rice, rice-wheat, jute-rice Rice/ (warm per humid) maize-fallow 17. North-eastern Hills Red and lateritic soils Rice-rice-rice-wheat, Jute-rice, Rice/ (warm per humid) maize-fallow ANNEXURES 727 Agro-climatic region Soil type Cropping systems 18. Eastern coastal plains Coastal alluvium Rice-rice, Rice-groundnut, Jute(hot sub-humid to semi-arid) rice, Pulses-fallow, Maize-sorghumhorse gram 19. Western ghats and coastal plains Red lateritic alluvium Rice-fallow/pulses/cassava, (hot humid per humid) derived soils Rice-rice, Rice-sorghum, Plantation crops 20. Islands (hot humid to per humid) Red loamy and sandy soils Rice-rice, Rice-fallow, Plantation crops 728 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-4 List of Major Weeds in the World and India Common name Scientific name Growth habitat and kind of plant Smooth pig weed Amaranthus hybridus A-B Spiny amaranth Amaranthus spinosus A-B Wild oat Avena fatua A-G Common lambsquarters Chenophodium album A-B Field bind weed Convolvulus arvensis P-B Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon P-G Yellow nut sedge Cyperus esculentus P-S Purple nut sedge Cyperus rotundus P-S Crab grass Digitaria sanguinalis A-G Jungle rice Echinochloa colonum A-G Barnyard grass Echinochloa crusgalli A-G Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes P-B Goose grass Eleusine indica A-G Cogon grass Imperata cylindrical P-G Sour paspalum Paspalum conjugatum P-G Common",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "dactylon P-G Yellow nut sedge Cyperus esculentus P-S Purple nut sedge Cyperus rotundus P-S Crab grass Digitaria sanguinalis A-G Jungle rice Echinochloa colonum A-G Barnyard grass Echinochloa crusgalli A-G Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes P-B Goose grass Eleusine indica A-G Cogon grass Imperata cylindrical P-G Sour paspalum Paspalum conjugatum P-G Common purslane Portulaca oleracea A-B Itch grass Rottboellia exaltata A-G Johnson grass Sorghum halepense P-G A-annual; B-biannual; P-Perennial; G-grasses; S-sedges; B-Broad leaf weeds. ANNEXURES 729 ANNEXURE-5 Most Common Weeds in Crop Fields of India Monocot species Dicot species ANNUALS Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crusgalli) Goat weed (Ageratum conyzoids) Crabgrass (Digitaria sp.) Pig weed (Amaranthus sp.) Foxtail (Setaria sp.) Black jack (Bidens pilosa) Sandbur (Cenchrus sp.) Cox comb (Celosia argentia) Wild oat (Avena fatua) Lambsquarters (Chenopodium album) Goose grass (Eleusine indica) Wild carrot weed (Parthenium hysterophorus) Torpedo grass (Panicum repens) Common purslane (Portulaca oleracea) Canary grass (Philaris minor) Horse purslane (Trianthema portulacastrum) Crowfoot grass (Dactyloctenium aegyptium) PERENNIALS Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) Canada thistle (Circium arvense) Thatch grass (Imperata cylindrical) Day flower (Commelina benghalensis) Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense) Field bind weed (Convolvulus arvensis) Quack grass (Agropyron repens) White horse nettle (Solanum elaeagnifolium) Nut grass (Cyperus rotundus) 730 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-6 Contribution of Agriculture to National Income Year Percentage contribution of agriculture and allied activities to National income 1950–1951 56.1 1960–1961 51.2 1970–1971 50.6 1980–1981 42.0 1984–1985 36.9 1989–1990 30.0 1999–2000 25.5 ANNEXURES 731 ANNEXURE-7 National Institutions for Agricultural Research 1. Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur-342 003, Rajasthan. 2. Central Institute for Cotton Research (CICR), Panjari farm, Wardha Road, Nagpur-440 010, Maharastra. 3. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE), Nabi-Bagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal-462 038, Madhya Pradesh. 4. Central Institute of Brackish water Aquaculture (CIBA) 141, Marshalls Road, Egmore, Chennai600 008, Tamil Nadu. 5. Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT), Willington Island,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for Cotton Research (CICR), Panjari farm, Wardha Road, Nagpur-440 010, Maharastra. 3. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE), Nabi-Bagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal-462 038, Madhya Pradesh. 4. Central Institute of Brackish water Aquaculture (CIBA) 141, Marshalls Road, Egmore, Chennai600 008, Tamil Nadu. 5. Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT), Willington Island, Cochin-628 029, Kerala. 6. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI), P.B. No. 1603, Ernakulam, Cochin-682 014, Kerala. 7. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), P.O. Kudlu, KasarKod-671 124, Kerala. 8. Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI) Simla-171 001, Himachal Pradesh. 9. Central Research Institute for Dry land Agriculture, (CRIDA), Santhosh Nagar, Hyderabad-500 659, Andhra Pradesh. 10. Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres (CRIJAF) Nilganj, District 24, Parganas (North) P.O. Barrackpore-743 101, West Bengal. 11. Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI), Cuttack-753 006, Orissa. 12. Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute (CSWRI), Avika Nagar, Malpura-304 501, Rajasthan. 13. Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute. (CSWCRTI), 218, Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun-248 195, Uttar Pradesh. 14. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Zarifa farm, Kachhwa Road, Karnal-132 001, Haryana. 15. Central Tobacco Research Institute (CTRI), Rajamundry-533 105, Andhra Pradesh. 16. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), Sree Kariyam, Thiruvananthapuram-695 017, Kerala. 17. Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi-110 012. 18. Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (IASRI) Library Avenue, Pusa, New Delhi-110 012. 19. India Grassland and Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI) Gwalior–Jhansi Road, Jhansi-284 003, Uttar Pradesh. 20. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Hassaraghatta, Lake post, Bangalore-560 089, Karnataka. 21. Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR) Kalyanpur, Kanpur-208 024, Uttar Pradesh. 22. Indian Institute of Soil Science (IISS) Z-6, Zone–1, Maharana Pratap Nagar, Bhopal, 462 001, Madhya Pradesh. 23. Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), P.B. No. 1701, Marikunnu. P.O., Calicut-673 012, Uttar Pradesh. 24. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR) Kalyanpur, Kanpur-208 024, Uttar Pradesh. 22. Indian Institute of Soil Science (IISS) Z-6, Zone–1, Maharana Pratap Nagar, Bhopal, 462 001, Madhya Pradesh. 23. Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), P.B. No. 1701, Marikunnu. P.O., Calicut-673 012, Uttar Pradesh. 24. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (IISR), Rae Bareli Road, P.O. Dilkusha, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh–226 002. 732 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 25. Indian Lac Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Namkum, Ranchi-843 010, Bihar. 26. Indian Veterinary Research Institute, (IVRI) Izat Nagar-243 122, Uttar Pradesh. 27. Jute Technological Research Laboratories (JTRL) 12, Regent Park, Calcutta-700010, West Bengal. 28. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), IARI Pusa Campus, New Delhi-110 012. 29. National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, (NBSS and LUP) Amaravathi Road, Nagpur, 440 010, Maharashtra. 30. National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal-132 001, Haryana. 31. National Research Centre for Agroforestry (NRCAF), IGFRI Campus, Jhansi-284 003, Uttar Pradesh. 32. National Research Centre for Banana (NRCB), 44, Ramalinga Nagar, Vayalur Road, Tiruchirappalli-620 017, Tamil Nadu. 33. National Research Centre for Oil Palm (NRCOP), Ashok Nagar, Eluru, Pedavagai, West Godavari District-534 002, Andhra Pradesh. 34. National Research Centre for Weed Science (NRCWS) 215, Ravindra Nagar, Adhartal, Jabalpur-482 004, Madhya Pradesh. 35. Sugarcane Breeding Institute, (SBI) Coimbatore-641 007, Tamil Nadu. ANNEXURES 733 ANNEXURE-8 International Institutions for Agricultural Research 1. Centro International de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) Apartado Aereo 6713, Cali, Columbia. 2. Central International de la Papa (CIP) (International Institute of Potato) Apartado postal 5969, Lima, Peru. 3. Centro International de Mejoramiento de Maizy Trigo (CIMMYT) (International Centre for maize and Wheat Improvement) Londres 40, Apartodo Postal 6–641, 06600 Mexico, D.F. Mexico. 4. International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) P.O. Box-5466, Aleppo, Syria. 5. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT),",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Centro International de Mejoramiento de Maizy Trigo (CIMMYT) (International Centre for maize and Wheat Improvement) Londres 40, Apartodo Postal 6–641, 06600 Mexico, D.F. Mexico. 4. International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) P.O. Box-5466, Aleppo, Syria. 5. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, Hyderabad, P.O., 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India. 6. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 1776, Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036, U.S.A. 7. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) P.O. Box, 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria. 8. International Laboratory for Research in Animal Diseases (ILRAD), P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya. 9. International Service in National Agricultural Research (ISNAR) P.O. Box 93375, 2509, A.J. The Hague, Netherlands. 10. International Livestock Centre in Africa (ILCA), P.O. Box. 5689. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 11. West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA) Ivory coast, Liberia. 12. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), P.O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines. 13. Natural Resources Institute (NRI), Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent MC. U.K. 14. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre (AVRDC) P.O. Box 42, Shanhau, Tasnan 941, Taiwan, Republic of China. 15. International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) P.O. Box 30772, Nairobi, Kenya. 16. International Council for Research in Agro Forestry (ICRAF) P.O. Box 30677, Nairobi, Kenya. 17. International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka. 18. Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), 1818, Hst., N.W. Washington. D.C.U.S.A. 19. Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development (WINROCK INTERNATIONAL), Canada. 734 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-9 Selected Indicators of Agriculture Development in India, Asia–Pacific Region and the World, 1994 and 2003 Sl. No. Indicator Year India Asia-Pacific Region World Developing Developed Total countries countries 1. Agriculture Land 1994 169790 505220 60254 565474 1528915 (‘000 hectares)** 2003 169739 519203 56043 575346 1540572 2. Agriculture Land as % 1994 57.1 19.2 7.2 16.3",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in India, Asia–Pacific Region and the World, 1994 and 2003 Sl. No. Indicator Year India Asia-Pacific Region World Developing Developed Total countries countries 1. Agriculture Land 1994 169790 505220 60254 565474 1528915 (‘000 hectares)** 2003 169739 519203 56043 575346 1540572 2. Agriculture Land as % 1994 57.1 19.2 7.2 16.3 11.8 of Total Land 2003 57.1 19.7 6.7 16.6 11.8 3. Agriculture Population 1994 515982 1848819 8162 1.9E+06 2506964 (‘000) 2004 559656 1920090 5073 1.9E+06 2600301 4. Agriculture Population 1994 56.4 59.9 5.6 57.4 44.8 as % of Total Population 2004 51.8 54.3 3.3 52.2 40.8 5. Ratio of Agriculture Land 1994 0.33 0.27 7.38 0.30 0.61 to Agriculture Population 2004* 0.30 0.27 11.05 0.30 0.59 (Hectare/Person) 6. Irrigated Land as % of 1994 27.9 32.1 9.1 29.7 17.0 Agricultural Land 2003 31.3 33.9 9.7 31.6 18.0 7. Consumption Per hectare 1993 73.0 101.2 71.9 90.3 79.5 of Agriculture Land 2002 94.8 139.8 77.8 122.7 91.9 (Kg. Plant nutrient/hectare) 8. No. of Agricultural 1994 1257630 3482991 2451000 5.9E+06 26129160 Tractors in Use 2003 2528122 5273631 2419000 7.7E+06 27625100 * Assumes same agricultural land area for 2004 as for 2003; data for Marshall Islands, FSM and Palau not reported in 1994. ** “Agricultural Land” as used in this publication refers to “Arable and Permanent Cropped Land”, which excludes permanent meadows and pastures, fallow land resulting from shifting cultivation, and land under trees grown for food or timber. Double cropped. Source: Selected Indicators of Food and Agriculture Development in Asia-Pacific Region. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok. ANNEXURES 735 ANNEXURE-10 India’s Position in World Agriculture in 2003 Item India World India’s position % Share Rank Next to 1. Area ** (Million Hectares) Total Area 329 13428 2.4 Seventh Russian Federation, Canada, U.S.A., China, Brazil, Australia Land Area 297 13067",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok. ANNEXURES 735 ANNEXURE-10 India’s Position in World Agriculture in 2003 Item India World India’s position % Share Rank Next to 1. Area ** (Million Hectares) Total Area 329 13428 2.4 Seventh Russian Federation, Canada, U.S.A., China, Brazil, Australia Land Area 297 13067 2.3 Seventh Russian Federation, China, Canada, U.S.A., Brazil, Australia Arable Land 162 F 1404 11.5 Second U.S.A. Irrigated Area 55 F 277 20.6 First 2. Population (Million) Total 1050 6225 16.9 Second China Agriculture 755 3234 23.3 Second China 3. Economically Active Population (Million) Total 460 3037 15.1 Second China Agriculture 270 1333 20.3 Second China 4. Crop Production (Million Tonnes) (A): Total Cereals 232 2075 11.2 Third China, U.S.A. Wheat 65 556 11.7 Second China Rice (Paddy) 132 589 22.4 Second China Coarse grains 35 930 3.8 Forth U.S.A., China, Brazil Total Pulses 12 57 21.1 First (B): Oilseeds Groundnut (in shell) 8* 36 22.2 Second China Rapeseed and Mustard 4 36 11.1 Third China, Canada 5. Fruits and Vegetables (Million Tonnes) (A) : Vegetables and Melons 82 F 842 9.7 Second China (B) : Fruits excluding Melons 46 480 9.6 Second China (C) : Potatoes 23 311 7.4 Third China, Russian Federation (D) : Onion (Dry) 5 F 53 9.4 Second China 6. Commercial Crops (Million Tonnes) (A) : Sugarcane 290 1333 21.8 Second Brazil (B) : Tea 0.89 3.21 27.7 First (C) : Coffee (green) 0.28 7.20 3.9 Sixth Brazil, Vietnam, Indonesia, Colombia, Mexico (D) : Jute and Jute like Fibres 1.98 3.23 61.3 First (Contd.) 736 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Item India World India’s position % Share Rank Next to (E) : Cotton(lint) 2.10 19.53 18.8 Third China, U.S.A. (F) : Tobacco Leaves 0.60 6.2 9.7 Third China, Brazil 7. Livestock (Million Heads) (A) : Cattle",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Jute like Fibres 1.98 3.23 61.3 First (Contd.) 736 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Item India World India’s position % Share Rank Next to (E) : Cotton(lint) 2.10 19.53 18.8 Third China, U.S.A. (F) : Tobacco Leaves 0.60 6.2 9.7 Third China, Brazil 7. Livestock (Million Heads) (A) : Cattle 226 * 1371 16.5 First (B) : Buffaloes 97 * 171 56.7 First (C) : Camels 0.90 F 19.07 4.7 Fourth Somalia, Sudan, Mauritania (D) : Sheep 59 F 1024 5.8 Third China, Australia (E) : Goats 124 F 768 16.1 Second China (F) : Chicken 824 F 16605 5.0 Fifth China, U.S.A., Indonesia, Brazil 8. Animal Products (A) : Total Milk (000 MT) 86960 * 599600 14.5 First (B) : Eggs Total (Million) 2200 F 60469 3.6 Fourth China, U.S.A., Japan, (C) : Total Meat (000 MT) 6038 F 253528 2.4 Sixth China, U.S.A., Brazil, Germany, France 9. Implements (Thousands numbers)** Tractors-in-use 1525 F 26704 5.7 Fourth U.S.A., Japan, Italy F : FAO Estimates * Unofficial Figures ** Figures relate to 2002 Source: FAO Production Year Book, 2003 ANNEXURES 737 APPENDIX-11 Production and Productivity in Agriculture during past 50 years Area: million ha., Production: t., Yield: kg./ha Crop 1950–511960–611970–711980–811990–911995–961996–971997–981998–991999–002000–01 All food Area 97.30 115.60 124.30 126.70 127.80 121.02 123.58 123.88 125.17 123.06 119.01 grains Production 50.82 82.02 108.42 129.59 176.39 180.42 199.44 192.26 203.61 208.87 196.07 Yield 522 710 872 1023 1380 1491 1614 1552 1627 1677 1638 Rice Production 20.58 34.58 42.22 53.63 74.29 76.98 81.74 82.53 86.05 89.55 86.30 Yield 668 1013 1123 1336 1740 1797 1882 1900 1921 1990 1927 Wheat Production 6.46 11.00 23.83 36.31 55.14 62.10 69.35 86.33 71.23 75.52 68.46 Yield 663 851 1307 1630 2281 2483 2679 2485 2590 2756 2742 Oilseeds Production 5.16 6.98 9.63 9.37 18.61 22.11 24.38 21.32 24.75",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "89.55 86.30 Yield 668 1013 1123 1336 1740 1797 1882 1900 1921 1990 1927 Wheat Production 6.46 11.00 23.83 36.31 55.14 62.10 69.35 86.33 71.23 75.52 68.46 Yield 663 851 1307 1630 2281 2483 2679 2485 2590 2756 2742 Oilseeds Production 5.16 6.98 9.63 9.37 18.61 22.11 24.38 21.32 24.75 20.87 18.20 Yield 481 507 579 532 771 851 926 816 944 856 790 Sugarcane Production 57.02 110.00 126.37 154.25 241.05 281.10 277.56 279.54 285.72 299.23 300.32 Yield 33422 45548 48322 57844 65395 67787 66496 71134 79203 70805 69550 Pulses Production 8.40 12.70 11.82 10.63 14.26 12.31 14.24 12.98 14.91 13.35 11.06 Yield 441 539 524 473 578 552 635 567 634 630 553 Coarse Production 15.38 23.74 30.55 29.0 2 32.70 29.03 34.10 30.40 31.34 30.60 30.25 cereals Yield 408 528 665 695 900 940 1072 986 1068 1034 1000 Milk Production 17.00 20.00 – 31.60 53.90 66.20 69.10 70.80 74.70@ 78.1 81.00 Fish Production 0.75 1.16 – 2.44 3.84 4.95 5.35 5.39 5.26 5.66 – Irrigated area 22.56 27.98 38.19 49.78 62.47 71.35 73.25 72.78 – – – Fertilizer consumption (t) 0.07 0.29 2.17 5.52 12.55 13.88 14.31 16.19 16.80 18.07 – Per capita availability 394.90 449.60 455.01 410.40 472.60 495.30 476.20 505.50 450.30 470.40 458.60 of food grains (gms/day) Note: @ Anticipated Source:Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, 2001, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. 738 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE12 Tamil Nadu Basic Statistics Tamil Nadu State is situated at the South-eastern extremity of the Indian peninsula bounded on the north by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, in the East by Bay of Bengal, in the South by Indian Ocean and in the West by Kerala State. It has a coastal line of 922 km and a land boundary of 1200 km. It",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "extremity of the Indian peninsula bounded on the north by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, in the East by Bay of Bengal, in the South by Indian Ocean and in the West by Kerala State. It has a coastal line of 922 km and a land boundary of 1200 km. It lies between 8o5' and 13o35' at N latitude and 76o15' and 80o20' of E longitude with an area of 1,30,069 sq. km. (50,154.7 sq. miles). PHYSICAL FEATURES The State can be divided broadly into two natural divisions i.e., (a) the coastal plains, and (b) the hilly western areas. It can further be divided into coromandal plains comprising of the districts of Kancheepuram, Tiruvellore, Cuddalore, Villupuram, and Vellore, Thiruvannamalai and alluvial plains of Cauvery delta extending over Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur and part of Trichy and dry southern plains in Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga, Virudunagar, Tuticorin and Tirunelveli districts. It also extends a little in Western Ghats in Kanyakumari District. The Western Ghats averaging 3000' to 8000' height runs along the western part with the hill groups of Nilgiris and Anamalais on either side of it. Palani hills, Varashanad and Andipatti ranges are the major off-shoots of Ghats. The other prominent hills comprise of Javadis, Shervarayan, Kalvarayans and Pachai Malais. These ranges continue south of river Cauvery. A plateau is found between these hills and the Western Ghats with an average elevation of 1000 feet raising west-ward. The highest peak of Doddapettah in the Nilgiris is 8650' above M.S.L. Western Ghats forms a complete watershed and no river passes through them. The main streams i.e., Paraliyar, Vattasery Phazhayar etc. are of limited length and fall in the Arabian sea. All other rivers are east-flowing rivers. The Eastern Ghats are not a complete watershed and as a result the rivers pass through them at",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "complete watershed and no river passes through them. The main streams i.e., Paraliyar, Vattasery Phazhayar etc. are of limited length and fall in the Arabian sea. All other rivers are east-flowing rivers. The Eastern Ghats are not a complete watershed and as a result the rivers pass through them at places, notable among them is the river Cauvery. The main rivers of Tamil Nadu are Cauvery (with tributaries of Bhavani, Amaravathi, Noyyal) Vaigai, Tamaraparani, Palar, Ponniyar and Vellar. CLIMATE The climate of Tamil Nadu is basically tropical. Due to its proximity to the sea, the summer is less hot and winter is less cold. The maximum daily temperature rarely exceeds 43°C and the minimum daily temperature seldom falls below 18oC. The State is exposed to both South-west and North-east Monsoons. AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES Based on rainfall distribution, irrigation pattern, soil characteristics, cropping pattern and other physical ecological and social characteristics, Tamil Nadu State is classified into seven districts agro-climatic zones delineated as follows: (i) Northeastern Zone: This zone covers the districts of Kancheepuram, Tiruvellore, Vellore, Thiruvannamalai, Cuddalore (excluding Chidambaram and Kattumannarkovil taluks) and Ariyalur and Perambalur taluks in Perambalur district. (ii) Northwestern Zone: This zone comprises Dharmapuri district (Excluding hilly areas), Salem and Namakkal districts (Excluding Tiruchengode taluk) and Perambalur taluk of Perambalur district. (iii) Western Zone: Comprising Erode and Coimbatore districts, Tiruchengode taluk of Namakkal, Karur Taluk of Karur district and northern parts of Madurai district. ANNEXURES 739 (iv) Cauvery Delta Zone: This zone covers the Cauvery Delta area in Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur districts and Musiri, Tiruchirappalli, Lalgudi, Thuraiyur and Kulithalai taluks of Tiruchirappalli districts, Aranthangi taluk of Pudukottai and Chidambram and Kattumannarkoil taluks of Cuddalore District. (v) Southern Zone: This zone includes Ramanathapuram, Virudunagar, Sivaganga, Tuticorin and Tirunelveli districts, Dindigul and Natham taluks of Dindigul district, Melur, Tirumangalam, Madurai",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur districts and Musiri, Tiruchirappalli, Lalgudi, Thuraiyur and Kulithalai taluks of Tiruchirappalli districts, Aranthangi taluk of Pudukottai and Chidambram and Kattumannarkoil taluks of Cuddalore District. (v) Southern Zone: This zone includes Ramanathapuram, Virudunagar, Sivaganga, Tuticorin and Tirunelveli districts, Dindigul and Natham taluks of Dindigul district, Melur, Tirumangalam, Madurai South and Madurai North taluks of Madurai district and Pudukottai district (excluding Aranthangi taluk). (vi) High Rainfall zone: This zone consists of Kanyakumari district. (vii) Hilly zone: This zone covers the hilly regions, the Nilgiris, Shevroys, Elagiri-Javadhi, Kollimalai, Pachaimalai, Anamalais, Palanis and Podhigai malai. RAINFALL The Western ghats acting as a barrier deprive the State of the full blast of South-west monsoon winds. However, South-west Monsoon has a precipitation of about 1/3rd of the normal rainfall received in Tamil Nadu which helps in taking up the rainfed cultivation. The State depends mainly on the Northeast Monsoon rains which are brought by the troughs of low pressure establishing in south Bay of Bengal between October and December. The following are the normal rainfall during the major season of State. Season Normal rainfall (In mm) South-west Monsoon 307.6 North-east Monsoon 438.7 Winter 42.2 Summer 136.5 Total 925.0 High Rainfall Regions: The Nilgiris, the coastal belt of the Cuddalore, Kancheepuram districts and Palani hills. Medium Rainfall Regions: Western parts of the Cuddalore, Tiruvellore districts, whole of Vellore, Thiru-vannamalai, eastern parts of the Salem, Western part of Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, eastern and northern parts of Trichy, eastern part of Madurai, Dindigul, northern part of Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga, Virudunagar, Coimbatore and Salem. Low Rainfall Regions: Central and Southern parts of Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga, Virudunagar, Tuticorin and Tirunelveli districts and Central part of Coimbatore, Central and Western parts of Madurai Dindigul and the Southern half of Tiruchirapalli. Number of Rainy Days: State average is 50 days per year and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Sivaganga, Virudunagar, Coimbatore and Salem. Low Rainfall Regions: Central and Southern parts of Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga, Virudunagar, Tuticorin and Tirunelveli districts and Central part of Coimbatore, Central and Western parts of Madurai Dindigul and the Southern half of Tiruchirapalli. Number of Rainy Days: State average is 50 days per year and the highest is 106.2 in Nilgiris and the lowest is 45.8 in Ramanathapuram. SOILS The predominant soils of Tamil Nadu are red loam and laterite black, alluvial and saline soils. Red Loam: This soil occupies a large part of the State particularly interior districts including the coastal districts. It is found predominantly in Kancheepuram, Cuddalore, Vellore, Salem, Dharmapuri, 740 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Ramanathapuram, Coimbatore, Trichy, Pudukkottai, Thanjavur, Sivaganga, Virudunagar, Madurai, Dindigul, Nagapattinam, Tuticorin, Tirunelveli and the Nilgiris. The red or brown colour of the soil is attributed to the diffusion of iron content. Laterite Soil: This soil is clayey and generally brick red with a little titanium present. It is found in parts of Kancheepuram, Thanjavur, Nagapattinam and the Nilgiris districts. Black Soil: The black clayey alluvium rich soil is known as black cotton soil which is found in parts of Coimbatore, Madurai, Dindigul, Tuticorin and Tirunelveli and in patches in the districts of Kancheepuram, Vellore, Salem, Dharmapuri, Ramanathapuram, Virudunagar and the Nilgiris. Alluvial Soil: Coastal and deltaic areas of Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruchirappalli, Cuddalore, Kancheepuram, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, Kanyakumari, Ramanathapuram and Sivaganga districts have this kind of soil. Saline Soil: These soils are found in the regions of poor drainage and high evaporation. It is found in patches in all the districts except Kanyakumari and the Nilgiris. FORESTS The total area under forest is 21,072 sq. km. of which 17,264 sq. km are reserved forests and 3,808 sq. km. are reserved lands. This constitutes only 16.6% of the total geographical",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and high evaporation. It is found in patches in all the districts except Kanyakumari and the Nilgiris. FORESTS The total area under forest is 21,072 sq. km. of which 17,264 sq. km are reserved forests and 3,808 sq. km. are reserved lands. This constitutes only 16.6% of the total geographical area. POPULATION The population of Tamil Nadu is 55.638 millions as per 1991 census. AGRICULTURE 2004–05 (P) Total Cultivated Area (Ha) 5889069 Net Area Sown (Ha) 5097011 Area Sown more than once (Ha) 792058 Area and Production of Principal Crops Area (Ha)(in ‘000) Production (‘000 Tonnes) Paddy (Rice) 1873 5062 Millets and Other Cereals 824 868 Pulses 590 216 Sugarcane (Cane) 222 24457 Groundnut 616 1005 Gingelly 73 34 Cotton (bales of 170 Kg. lint) 129 195 Agricultural Land Holdings (as per 2000–01 Agricultural Census) (P) Holdings (in Nos.) 7858887 Area (Ha) 6971516 Average size of Holdings (Ha) 0.89 ANNEXURES 741 Land Utilisation (Area in Hec.) Classification 2004–05 A. By Professional Survey 13026645 B. By Village Papers 13026645 1. Forests 2122069 2. Barren and Unculturable land 509275 3. Land put to Non-agricultural uses 2124564 4. Culturable Waste 374026 5. Permanent Pastures and other grazing lands 113563 6. Land under misc. tree crops and groves not included in the net area sown 290072 7. Current fallow lands 691926 8. Other fallow lands 1704139 9. Net area sown 5097011 Area sown more than once 792058 Gross Area Sown 5889069 Source: Department of Economics and Statistics, Chennai-6. 742 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-13 Area, Production and Productivity of Principal Crops in Tamil Nadu (2004–05) I. Food Crops A. CEREALS Area (ha) Production (t) Productivity (kg/ha) 1. Rice 1872822 5061622 2703 2. Cholam (Jowar) 376739 252063 669 3. Cumbu (Bajra) 97608 124300 1273 4. Maize 189893 294717 1552 5. Ragi 108845 154085 1416 6.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Area, Production and Productivity of Principal Crops in Tamil Nadu (2004–05) I. Food Crops A. CEREALS Area (ha) Production (t) Productivity (kg/ha) 1. Rice 1872822 5061622 2703 2. Cholam (Jowar) 376739 252063 669 3. Cumbu (Bajra) 97608 124300 1273 4. Maize 189893 294717 1552 5. Ragi 108845 154085 1416 6. Small Millets 50648 42826 846 7. Total Cereals 2696555 5929613 2199 B. PULSES 8. Bengal gram 6420 3942 614 9. Red gram 43416 28979 667 10. Black gram 226364 82998 367 11. Green gram 154959 61760 399 12. Horse gram 67513 20110 298 13. Other Pulses 91578 18642 204 14. Total Pulses 590250 216431 367 15. Total Foodgrains (7 + 14) 3286805 6146044 1870 C. OIL SEEDS 16. Groundnut 615877 1005342 1632 17. Gingelly 72725 33840 465 18. Castor 8269 2598 314 19. Coconut (in Nuts) 357056 * 40970 ** 11474 20. Other Oil Seeds 25124 — — 21. Total Oil Seeds 1079051 — — D. OTHER CROPS 22. Cotton 129364 ^ 185960 244 23. Sugarcane # 222188 24457244 $ 110 24. Tobacco 6049 9274 1533 25. Chillies 66990 44631 666 26. All other crops 1098622 — — 27. Total (Other Crops) 1523213 — — 28. Total Crops (15 + 27) 5889069 — — @ In terms of Rice; * In lakh nuts; ** Nuts per Hectare, ^ in Bales of 170 kg lint each; # In terms of Cane; $ t/Hectare; Source: Department of Economics and Statistics, Chennai-600 006. ANNEXURES 743 ANNEXURE-14 Area under Principal Crops by Districts (2004–05) in Tamil Nadu (in ha) Sl. No. District Rice Cholam Cumbu Ragi Maize 1. Kancheepuram 101674 2 26 855 27 2. Thiruvallur 66734 187 1950 199 0 3. Cuddalore 114599 1327 3176 201 3950 4. Villupuram 163696 2004 20439 1827 1713 5. Vellore 29399 12464 4517 4263 1040 6. Thiruvannamalai",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in Tamil Nadu (in ha) Sl. No. District Rice Cholam Cumbu Ragi Maize 1. Kancheepuram 101674 2 26 855 27 2. Thiruvallur 66734 187 1950 199 0 3. Cuddalore 114599 1327 3176 201 3950 4. Villupuram 163696 2004 20439 1827 1713 5. Vellore 29399 12464 4517 4263 1040 6. Thiruvannamalai 116820 1677 6051 2882 286 7. Salem 27304 15522 3768 10421 13785 8. Namakkal 9042 24633 345 132 1975 9. Dharmapuri 13915 21473 1807 17798 202 10. Krishnagiri 17620 4068 186 57732 103 11. Erode 55347 745 1333 8065 15759 12. Coimbatore 7239 94888 460 167 24692 13. The Nilgiris 1443 0 0 0 0 14. Tiruchirappalli 62178 38009 3349 136 6441 15. Karur 18233 37549 5192 16 176 16. Perambalur 46434 14656 1816 79 57423 17. Pudukottai 94032 1368 35 356 914 18. Thanjavur 160608 0 6 35 840 19. Nagapattinam 153139 0 5 0 29 20. Thiruvarur 148608 0 0 4 9 21. Madurai 60368 10605 5201 122 826 22. Theni 16635 14238 5338 74 6172 23. Dindigul 21031 53098 3997 112 34067 24. Ramanathapuram 126607 3029 1237 1705 137 25. Virudhunagar 29713 11596 5585 414 8236 26. Sivagangai 85141 247 57 706 2 27. Tirunelveli 86832 2730 767 342 6886 28. Thoothukudi 16415 10624 20965 202 4203 29. Kanyakumari 22016 0 0 0 0 STATE 1872822 376739 97608 108845 189893 744 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-14 contd. Sl. No. District Other cereals Total cereals Bengal Gram Red gram Green gram 1. Kancheepuram 0 102584 0 33 668 2. Thiruvallur 4 69074 1 1427 8230 3. Cuddalore 2752 126005 0 664 3489 4. Villupuram 2127 191806 0 509 381 5. Vellore 4815 56498 2 13774 2210 6. Thiruvannamalai 4766 132482 73 2578 1399 7. Salem 2238 73038 163 1224 3165 8. Namakkal 373 36500 16 1307 8565 9.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2. Thiruvallur 4 69074 1 1427 8230 3. Cuddalore 2752 126005 0 664 3489 4. Villupuram 2127 191806 0 509 381 5. Vellore 4815 56498 2 13774 2210 6. Thiruvannamalai 4766 132482 73 2578 1399 7. Salem 2238 73038 163 1224 3165 8. Namakkal 373 36500 16 1307 8565 9. Dharmapuri 21587 76782 756 2488 1080 10. Krishnagiri 2993 82702 9 2656 614 11. Erode 37 81286 8 1428 5644 12. Coimbatore 28 127474 4146 296 5435 13. The Nilgiris 5 1448 0 0 0 14. Tiruchirappalli 294 110407 41 2397 630 15. Karur 1 61167 0 4702 117 16. Perambalur 1207 121615 6 995 254 17. Pudukottai 115 96820 0 1607 220 18. Thanjavur 18 161507 0 50 8709 19. Nagapattinam 0 153173 0 0 21984 20. Thiruvarur 0 148621 0 1 27053 21. Madurai 3983 81105 106 1025 3955 22. Theni 173 42630 0 2975 164 23. Dindigul 178 112483 904 563 3438 24. Ramanathapuram 896 133611 0 0 61 25. Virudhunagar 1475 57019 128 381 9917 26. Sivagangai 14 86167 0 265 99 27. Tirunelveli 214 97771 10 33 11495 28. Thoothukudi 355 52764 51 38 25883 29. Kanyakumari 0 22016 0 0 0 STATE 50648 2696555 6420 43416 154959 ANNEXURES 745 ANNEXURE-14 contd. Sl. No. District Black Horse Other Total Total food gram gram pulses pulses grains 1. Kancheepuram 3054 82 598 4435 107019 2. Thiruvallur 1190 168 169 11185 80259 3. Cuddalore 31563 57 86 35859 161864 4. Villupuram 15995 457 2040 19382 211188 5. Vellore 4380 5189 4285 29840 86338 6. Thiruvannamalai 4172 3855 2131 14208 146690 7. Salem 3019 2191 6927 16689 89727 8. Namakkal 3518 2102 2010 17518 54018 9. Dharmapuri 1706 13752 6809 26591 103373 10. Krishnagiri 427 16010 5403 25119 107821 11. Erode 1962 8442 13098 30582 111868 12. Coimbatore",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Vellore 4380 5189 4285 29840 86338 6. Thiruvannamalai 4172 3855 2131 14208 146690 7. Salem 3019 2191 6927 16689 89727 8. Namakkal 3518 2102 2010 17518 54018 9. Dharmapuri 1706 13752 6809 26591 103373 10. Krishnagiri 427 16010 5403 25119 107821 11. Erode 1962 8442 13098 30582 111868 12. Coimbatore 2186 5056 17642 34761 162235 13. The Nilgiris 0 0 1 1 1449 14. Tiruchirappalli 4401 852 563 8884 119291 15. Karur 404 1519 994 7736 68903 16. Perambalur 1383 19 35 2692 124307 17. Pudukottai 919 130 534 3410 100230 18. Thanjavur 13708 0 2 22469 183976 19. Nagapattinam 45465 0 0 67449 220622 20. Thiruvarur 39341 0 4 66399 215020 21. Madurai 1563 196 2438 9283 90388 22. Theni 185 626 5117 9067 51697 23. Dindigul 5271 5103 13365 28644 141127 24. Ramanathapuram 2105 13 776 3055 136666 25. Virudhunagar 5455 329 1177 17387 74406 26. Sivagangai 418 6 565 1353 87520 27. Tirunelveli 16038 684 3824 32084 129855 28. Thoothukudi 14469 666 752 41859 94623 29. Kanyakumari 2067 9 233 2309 24325 STATE 226364 67513 91578 590250 3286805 746 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-14-contd. Sl. No. District Sugarcane Cotton Groundnut Gingelly Castor 1. Kancheepuram 4174 114 25137 2132 4 2. Thiruvallur 3240 0 22774 2358 36 3. Cuddalore 29734 1572 20570 4201 27 4. Villupuram 39444 5215 58999 6721 40 5. Vellore 12325 1885 55781 1569 562 6. Thiruvannamalai 17231 2576 108633 844 4 7. Salem 6399 14958 29887 1302 973 8. Namakkal 9476 3488 48111 667 2910 9. Dharmapuri 9819 7260 15211 363 149 10. Krishnagiri 1645 2572 15391 429 653 11. Erode 19948 5434 44660 17277 1347 12. Coimbatore 5883 11547 19147 1125 236 13. The Nilgiris 11 0 0 5 0 14. Tiruchirappalli 4470 2715 15456 657 598 15. Karur 2842 445 7114 4721",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2910 9. Dharmapuri 9819 7260 15211 363 149 10. Krishnagiri 1645 2572 15391 429 653 11. Erode 19948 5434 44660 17277 1347 12. Coimbatore 5883 11547 19147 1125 236 13. The Nilgiris 11 0 0 5 0 14. Tiruchirappalli 4470 2715 15456 657 598 15. Karur 2842 445 7114 4721 83 16. Perambalur 10721 2794 31755 3610 157 17. Pudukottai 7472 246 25668 756 0 18. Thanjavur 12000 2225 8217 7243 4 19. Nagapattinam 2550 3843 3306 444 0 20. Thiruvarur 1834 3035 1160 1106 1 21. Madurai 3312 12035 8108 999 28 22. Theni 5940 5137 2599 415 77 23. Dindigul 4185 3703 18720 1552 131 24. Ramanathapuram 260 5413 8607 1772 11 25. Virudhunagar 2194 17439 7487 3783 67 26. Sivagangai 2248 489 7295 216 8 27. Tirunelveli 2771 6625 3945 2375 108 28. Thoothukudi 60 6599 2097 4083 55 29. Kanyakumari 0 0 42 0 0 STATE 222188 129364 615877 72725 8269 Source: Department of Economics and Statistics, Chennai-600 006. * L. Bales–Lakh Bales, ** L.Tonnes–Lakh Tonnes. ANNEXURES 747 ANNEXURE-15 Time Series Data Area of Important Crops in Tamil Nadu (’000 ha) Year Rice Cholam Cumbu Ragi Total cereals Total pulses Groundnut 1989–90 1963 587 261 172 3203 821 1016 1990–91 1856 541 274 170 3038 847 963 1991–92 2118 512 246 158 3212 776 1099 1992–93 2184 484 220 151 3206 739 1188 1993–94 2306 506 213 158 3337 690 1158 1994–95 2229 432 192 145 3158 691 1080 1995–96 1951 383 173 122 2762 577 933 1996–97 2174 395 165 111 2977 582 902 1997–98 2261 380 169 107 3051 591 868 1998–99 2275 365 154 120 3039 637 858 1999–00 2164 351 158 123 2940 693 759 2000–01 2080 331 129 127 2813 688 699 2001–02 2060 317 125 125 2766 686 663 2002–03",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "933 1996–97 2174 395 165 111 2977 582 902 1997–98 2261 380 169 107 3051 591 868 1998–99 2275 365 154 120 3039 637 858 1999–00 2164 351 158 123 2940 693 759 2000–01 2080 331 129 127 2813 688 699 2001–02 2060 317 125 125 2766 686 663 2002–03 1516 320 102 104 2229 563 502 2003–04 1397 402 159 118 2300 537 592 2004–05 1873 377 98 109 2699 590 616 ANNEXURE-15 contd. Year Gingelly Sugarcane Cotton Gross area Net area Gross area Net area sown sown irrigated irrigated 1989–90 140 222 281 6822 5662 3045 2497 1990–91 138 233 239 6632 5578 2894 2373 1991–92 149 238 258 6977 5726 3257 2605 1992–93 141 216 267 7067 5814 3385 2698 1993–94 129 249 229 7158 5901 3544 2800 1994–95 127 328 255 7026 5790 3588 2903 1995–96 100 326 261 6267 5342 3183 2625 1996–97 103 260 252 6457 5486 3347 2812 1997–98 88 283 228 6558 5581 3519 2945 1998–99 99 306 219 6627 5635 3635 3019 1999–00 112 316 178 6519 5464 3585 2972 2000–01 104 315 170 6338 5303 3490 2888 2001–02 84 321 164 6226 5172 3412 2801 2002–03 64 261 76 5191 4590 2622 2310 2003–04 84 192 98 5316 4689 2479 2148 2004–05 73 222 129 5889 5097 3087 2637 Source: Department of Economics and Statistics, Chennai-600 006. 748 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-16 Area and Production of Rice, Sorghum and Cumbu in Tamil Nadu-district wise (2004–2005) Sl. No. Districts Rice Rice Sorghum Sorghum Cumbu Cumbu area production area production area production (ha) (t) (ha) (t) (ha) (t) 1. Kancheepuram 101674 307110 2 2 26 44 2. Thiruvallur 66734 199886 187 141 1950 3678 3. Cuddalore 114599 315702 1327 524 3176 4640 4. Villupuram 163696 525850 2004 1444 20439 19546 5.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Rice Sorghum Sorghum Cumbu Cumbu area production area production area production (ha) (t) (ha) (t) (ha) (t) 1. Kancheepuram 101674 307110 2 2 26 44 2. Thiruvallur 66734 199886 187 141 1950 3678 3. Cuddalore 114599 315702 1327 524 3176 4640 4. Villupuram 163696 525850 2004 1444 20439 19546 5. Vellore 29399 90145 12464 16335 4517 4927 6. Thiruvannamalai 116820 330487 1677 1131 6051 1965 7. Salem 27304 96626 15522 9686 3768 5604 8. Namakkal 9042 28793 24633 18403 345 412 9. Dharmapuri 13915 38568 21473 24999 1807 2046 10. Krishnagiri 17620 45254 4068 2576 186 260 11. Erode 55347 216247 745 446 1333 1673 12. Coimbatore 7239 24454 94888 32292 460 865 13. The Nilgiris 1443 4763 0 0 0 0 14. Tiruchirappalli 62178 205397 38009 17263 3349 1391 15. Karur 18233 54278 37549 9671 5192 1463 16. Perambalur 46434 108510 14656 14036 1816 2748 17. Pudukottai 94032 277277 1368 876 35 41 18. Thanjavur 160608 439323 0 0 6 14 19. Nagapattinam 153139 140662 0 0 5 14 20. Thiruvarur 148608 239805 0 0 0 0 21. Madurai 60368 196583 10605 10754 5201 6376 22. Theni 16635 67094 14238 22045 5338 8010 23. Dindigul 21031 74246 53098 46369 3997 5348 24. Ramanathapuram 126607 254700 3029 3499 1237 1467 25. Virudhunagar 29713 86992 11596 7388 5585 6718 26. Sivagangai 85141 179535 247 189 57 123 27. Tirunelveli 86832 358920 2730 5251 767 1273 28. Thoothukudi 16415 67929 10624 6743 20965 43654 29. Kanyakumari 22016 86486 0 0 0 0 STATE 1872822 5061622 376739 252063 97608 124300 ANNEXURES 749 ANNEXURE-17 Area and Production of Maize and Ragi in Tamil Nadu-district wise (2004–05) Sl. No. Districts Maize Maize Ragi Ragi area (ha) production (t) area (ha) production (t) 1. Kancheepuram 27 42 855 1578 2. Thiruvallur 0 0 199 339 3.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "STATE 1872822 5061622 376739 252063 97608 124300 ANNEXURES 749 ANNEXURE-17 Area and Production of Maize and Ragi in Tamil Nadu-district wise (2004–05) Sl. No. Districts Maize Maize Ragi Ragi area (ha) production (t) area (ha) production (t) 1. Kancheepuram 27 42 855 1578 2. Thiruvallur 0 0 199 339 3. Cuddalore 3950 7589 201 409 4. Villupuram 1713 2491 1827 3999 5. Vellore 1040 1726 4263 8820 6. Thiruvannamalai 286 478 2882 4528 7. Salem 13785 25639 10421 18004 8. Namakkal 1975 3682 132 247 9. Dharmapuri 202 223 17798 25796 10. Krishnagiri 103 113 57732 73348 11. Erode 15759 36028 8065 9463 12. Coimbatore 24692 27779 167 261 13. The Nilgiris 0 0 0 0 14. Tiruchirappalli 6441 8428 136 187 15. Karur 176 431 16 37 16. Perambalur 57423 67998 79 116 17. Pudukottai 914 1877 356 574 18. Thanjavur 840 2246 35 80 19. Nagapattinam 29 75 0 0 20. Thiruvarur 9 27 4 9 21. Madurai 826 1657 122 187 22. Theni 6172 12377 74 123 23. Dindigul 34067 67489 112 163 24. Ramanathapuram 137 160 1705 2843 25. Virudhunagar 8236 16693 414 781 26. Sivagangai 2 4 706 1146 27. Tirunelveli 6886 6130 342 734 28. Thoothukudi 4203 3339 202 313 29. Kanyakumari 0 0 0 0 STATE 189893 294717 154085 750 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-18 Area of Bengal Gram, Red Gram and Green Gram in Tamil Nadu–district wise (2004–2005) in ha Sl.No. Districts Bengal gram Redgram Green gram Black gram Horse gram 1. Kancheepuram 0 33 668 3054 82 2. Thiruvallur 1 1427 8230 1190 168 3. Cuddalore 0 664 3489 31563 57 4. Villupuram 0 509 381 15995 457 5. Vellore 2 13774 2210 4380 5189 6. Thiruvannamalai 73 2578 1399 4172 3855 7. Salem 163 1224 3165 3019 2191 8. Namakkal",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Kancheepuram 0 33 668 3054 82 2. Thiruvallur 1 1427 8230 1190 168 3. Cuddalore 0 664 3489 31563 57 4. Villupuram 0 509 381 15995 457 5. Vellore 2 13774 2210 4380 5189 6. Thiruvannamalai 73 2578 1399 4172 3855 7. Salem 163 1224 3165 3019 2191 8. Namakkal 16 1307 8565 3518 2102 9. Dharmapuri 756 2488 1080 1706 13752 10. Krishnagiri 9 2656 614 427 16010 11. Erode 8 1428 5644 1962 8442 12. Coimbatore 4146 296 5435 2186 5056 13. The Nilgiris 0 0 0 0 0 14. Tiruchirappalli 41 2397 630 4401 852 15. Karur 0 4702 117 404 1519 16. Perambalur 6 995 254 1383 19 17. Pudukottai 0 1607 220 919 130 18. Thanjavur 0 50 8709 13708 0 19. Nagapattinam 0 0 21984 45465 0 20. Thiruvarur 0 1 27053 39341 0 21. Madurai 106 1025 3955 1563 196 22. Theni 0 2975 164 185 626 23. Dindigul 904 563 3438 5271 5103 24. Ramanathapuram 0 0 61 2105 13 25. Virudhunagar 128 381 9917 5455 329 26. Sivagangai 0 265 99 418 6 27. Tirunelveli 10 33 11495 16038 684 28. Thoothukudi 51 38 25883 14469 666 29. Kanyakumari 0 0 0 2067 9 STATE 6420 43416 154959 226364 67513 ANNEXURES 751 ANNEXURE-19 Area and Production of Sugarcane and Cotton in Tamil Nadu-district wise (2004–2005) Sl. No. Districts Sugarcane Sugarcane Cotton Cotton production area (ha) production area (ha) (in bales of 170 kg lint each) 1. Kancheepuram 4174 397085 114 223 2. Thiruvallur 3240 329440 0 0 3. Cuddalore 29734 3549318 1572 1734 4. Villupuram 39444 4511684 5215 9582 5. Vellore 12325 1000691 1885 5114 6. Thiruvannamalai 17231 1596624 2576 5271 7. Salem 6399 583832 14958 28430 8. Namakkal 9476 1306920 3488 5486 9. Dharmapuri 9819 783163 7260 10699 10. Krishnagiri",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2. Thiruvallur 3240 329440 0 0 3. Cuddalore 29734 3549318 1572 1734 4. Villupuram 39444 4511684 5215 9582 5. Vellore 12325 1000691 1885 5114 6. Thiruvannamalai 17231 1596624 2576 5271 7. Salem 6399 583832 14958 28430 8. Namakkal 9476 1306920 3488 5486 9. Dharmapuri 9819 783163 7260 10699 10. Krishnagiri 1645 88236 2572 3531 11. Erode 19948 2675825 5434 12272 12. Coimbatore 5883 679798 11547 14808 13. The Nilgiris 11 1211 0 0 14. Tiruchirappalli 4470 391871 2715 3812 15. Karur 2842 257026 445 760 16. Perambalur 10721 1220543 2794 4827 17. Pudukottai 7472 930638 246 314 18. Thanjavur 12000 1362612 2225 5235 19. Nagapattinam 2550 222240 3843 6530 20. Thiruvarur 1834 201877 3035 4245 21. Madurai 3312 404518 12035 6820 22. Theni 5940 723302 5137 7106 23. Dindigul 4185 484598 3703 6173 24. Ramanathapuram 260 28619 5413 3802 25. Virudhunagar 2194 218450 17439 16648 26. Sivagangai 2248 195502 489 576 27. Tirunelveli 2771 305017 6625 14854 28. Thoothukudi 60 6604 6599 7108 29. Kanyakumari 0 0 0 0 STATE 222188 24457244 129364 185960 752 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-20 Area and Production of Groundnut, Gingelly and Area of Castor in Tamil Nadudistrict wise (2004–2005) Sl.No. Districts Groundnut Groundnut Gingelly GingellyCastor area (ha) production area (ha) production area (ha) 1. Kancheepuram 25137 63376 2132 773 4 2. Thiruvallur 22774 78997 2358 1206 36 3. Cuddalore 20570 49280 4201 1439 27 4. Villupuram 58999 114140 6721 2667 40 5. Vellore 55781 72625 1569 983 562 6. Thiruvannamalai 108633 126710 844 251 4 7. Salem 29887 35009 1302 858 973 8. Namakkal 48111 51156 667 422 2910 9. Dharmapuri 15211 24621 363 163 149 10. Krishnagiri 15391 23792 429 57 653 11. Erode 44660 82524 17277 13852 1347 12. Coimbatore 19147 24227 1125 392 236 13. The Nilgiris 0 0 5 2",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "4 7. Salem 29887 35009 1302 858 973 8. Namakkal 48111 51156 667 422 2910 9. Dharmapuri 15211 24621 363 163 149 10. Krishnagiri 15391 23792 429 57 653 11. Erode 44660 82524 17277 13852 1347 12. Coimbatore 19147 24227 1125 392 236 13. The Nilgiris 0 0 5 2 0 14. Tiruchirappalli 15456 26820 657 373 598 15. Karur 7114 14341 4721 1339 83 16. Perambalur 31755 37777 3610 1016 157 17. Pudukottai 25668 36746 756 285 0 18. Thanjavur 8217 18413 7243 1332 4 19. Nagapattinam 3306 5630 444 124 0 20. Thiruvarur 1160 2892 1106 315 1 21. Madurai 8108 10812 999 335 28 22. Theni 2599 6208 415 147 77 23. Dindigul 18720 49228 1552 697 131 24. Ramanathapuram 8607 19221 1772 320 11 25. Virudhunagar 7487 8558 3783 1228 67 26. Sivagangai 7295 10319 216 70 8 27. Tirunelveli 3945 8869 2375 1035 108 28. Thoothukudi 2097 3000 4083 2159 55 29. Kanyakumari 42 51 0 0 0 STATE 615877 1005342 72725 33840 8269 ANNEXURES 753 ANNEXURE-21 Three Largest Producing States of Important Crops during 2005–06 Crop/Group of crops States Production (m.t.) I. Foodgrains Rice West Bengal 14.51 Andhra Pradesh 11.70 Uttar Pradesh 11.13 Wheat Uttar Pradesh 24.07 Punjab 14.49 Haryana 8.86 Maize Andhra Pradesh 3.09 Karnataka 2.73 Bihar 1.36 Total Coarse Cereals Karnataka 6.56 Maharashtra 6.09 Rajasthan 4.53 Total Pulses Madhya Pradesh 3.23 Uttar Pradesh 2.23 Maharashtra 2.01 Total Foodgrains Uttar Pradesh 40.41 Punjab 25.18 Andhra Pradesh 16.95 II. Oilseeds Groundnut Gujarat 3.39 Andhra Pradesh 1.37 Tamil Nadu 1.10 Rapeseed and Mustard Rajasthan 4.42 Uttar Pradesh 0.91 Madhya Pradesh 0.85 Soyabean Madhya Pradesh 4.50 Maharashtra 2.53 Rajasthan 0.86 Sunflower Karnataka 0.79 Andhra Pradesh 0.30 Maharashtra 0.21 Total Oilseeds Rajasthan 5.96 Madhya Pradesh 5.72 Gujarat 4.68 754 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY III. Other Cash Crops",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Pradesh 1.37 Tamil Nadu 1.10 Rapeseed and Mustard Rajasthan 4.42 Uttar Pradesh 0.91 Madhya Pradesh 0.85 Soyabean Madhya Pradesh 4.50 Maharashtra 2.53 Rajasthan 0.86 Sunflower Karnataka 0.79 Andhra Pradesh 0.30 Maharashtra 0.21 Total Oilseeds Rajasthan 5.96 Madhya Pradesh 5.72 Gujarat 4.68 754 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY III. Other Cash Crops Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh 125.47 Maharashtra 38.85 Tamil Nadu 35.11 Cotton@ Gujarat 6.77 Maharashtra 3.16 Punjab 2.40 Jute and Mesta $ West Bengal 8.11 Bihar 1.39 Assam 0.60 Potato Uttar Pradesh 9.99 West Bengal 7.46 Bihar 1.23 Onion Maharashtra 2.47 Gujarat 2.13 Karnataka 0.87 @ : Production in million bales of 170 kgs. each. $ : Production in million bales of 180 kg. each. ANNEXURES 755 ANNEXURE-22 Area, Production and Yield of Principal Crops in various Countries in 2003 Country Area Production Yield (‘000 ha) (‘000 t) (kg/ha) 1. Paddy World 153522 589126 3837 Bangladesh 11100* 38060* 3429 Brazil 3150 10199 3238 China 27398* 166417* 6074 Egypt 615* 5800F 9431F India 44000* 132013 3000F Indonesia 11477 52079 4538 Japan 1665 9740 5850F Myanmar 6650* 24640* 3705F Pakistan 2210* 6751* 3055F Philippines 4094 14031 3427F Russian Federation 142 450 3175 Thailand 11000* 27000* 2455F U.S.A. 1213 9034 7448F Vietnam 7449 34519 4634F 2. Wheat World 208764 556349 2665 Argentina 7000 14530 2076F Australia 12456 24900 1999F Bangladesh 778* 1550* 1992F Canada 10467 23552 2250F China 22040* 86100 3907 Egypt 1000* 6155* 6155F France 4905 30582 6235F India 24886 65129 2617F Iran 6500* 12900* 1985F Italy 2267 6243 2754F Pakistan 8069 19210 2381F Romania 1411 2479 1757F Russian Federation 19960* 34062 1707F Spain 2218 6290 2836F Syria 1796 4913 2736F Turkey 9400F 19000* 2021F 756 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY U.K. 1837 14288* 7778F U.S.A 21383 63590 2974F Ukraine 2625 3600 1371F 3. Maize World 142685 638043 4472 Argentina 2323 15040 6474F Brazil 12935",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Romania 1411 2479 1757F Russian Federation 19960* 34062 1707F Spain 2218 6290 2836F Syria 1796 4913 2736F Turkey 9400F 19000* 2021F 756 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY U.K. 1837 14288* 7778F U.S.A 21383 63590 2974F Ukraine 2625 3600 1371F 3. Maize World 142685 638043 4472 Argentina 2323 15040 6474F Brazil 12935 47809 3696F Canada 1226 9587 7819F China 23520* 114175 4854 France 1667 11898 7137F Egypt 830F 6400F 7711F Hungry 1150* 4534 3943F India 7000* 14800* 2114F Indonesia 3355 10910 3252F Italy 1159 8978 7744F Mexico 7781 19652 2526F Pakistan 875* 1275* 1457F Philippines 2485* 4478 1802F Romania 3119 9577 3070F Russian Fed 648 2113 3262F Turkey 575 2800 4870F U.S.A. 28789 256905 8924F 4. Groundnut (in shell) World 26463 35658 1347 Argentina 156 316 2026F Brazil 85 177 2082F China 5125F 13447 2624 India 8000* 7500* 938F Indonesia 683 1377 2016F Japan 10 22 2308F Myanmar 575* 730* 1270F Nigeria 2800F 2700F 964F Senegal 900F 900F 1000F Sudan 1900F 1200F 632F Thailand 87* 132F 1517F U.S.A. 531 1880 3540F Uganda 211F 150F 711F Vietnam 240 400 1667F 5. Sugarcane World 20420 1333253 65293 Argentina 296F 14250F 65254F Australia 423 36012* 85135F Bangladesh 166 6838 41212 (Contd.) ANNEXURES 757 Country Area Production Yield (‘000 ha) (‘000 t) (kg/ha) Brazil 5343 386232 72290F China 1328F 92370 69556F Colombia 435F 36600F 84138F Cuba 654 22902 35000F Egypt 132F 12000F 90909F Guatemala 186F 17500F 93914F India 4608 289630 62859F Indonesia 350* 25600* 73143F Mauritius 72 5199 72587F Mexico 639 45126 70614F Thailand 970* 64408* 66400F Pakistan 1086 52056 47934F Philippines 385* 25835* 67104F U.S.A. 404 31301 77515F 6. Tobacco Leaves World 3938 6195 1573 Argentina 61F 126F 2066F Bangladesh 33F 40F 1212F Brazil 389 648 1666F Bulgaria 38F 60F 1579F Canada 23F 60F 2609F China 1353F 2308* 1706 France 9 24 2768F Greece 57*",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "66400F Pakistan 1086 52056 47934F Philippines 385* 25835* 67104F U.S.A. 404 31301 77515F 6. Tobacco Leaves World 3938 6195 1573 Argentina 61F 126F 2066F Bangladesh 33F 40F 1212F Brazil 389 648 1666F Bulgaria 38F 60F 1579F Canada 23F 60F 2609F China 1353F 2308* 1706 France 9 24 2768F Greece 57* 121* 2123F India 435* 595* 1368 Indonesia 156F 135* 865F Italy 37* 106* 2887F Japan 23* 60* 2563F Korea Republic 21F 48F 2264F Pakistan 50* 95 1917F Philippines 42F 51* 1200F Poland 10 20* 1942F Spain 14 44 3129F Thailand 415 65F 1585F Turkey 193F 152 787F U.S.A. 168 377 2238F Zimbabwe 81F 178F 2216F * : Unofficial figure, F: FAO Estimate, Source: FAO Production Year Book-2003. 758 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-23 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Rice from 1950–51 to 2005–06 Year Area Production Yield % Coverage (m.ha) (m.t) (kg/ha) under irrigation 1950–51 30.81 20.58 668 31.7 1951–52 29.83 21.30 714 31.7 1952–53 29.97 22.90 764 32.3 1953–54 31.29 28.21 902 33.6 1954–55 30.77 25.22 820 34.4 1955–56 31.52 27.56 874 34.9 1956–57 32.28 29.04 900 35.4 1957–58 32.30 25.53 790 36.4 1958–59 33.17 30.85 930 36.3 1959–60 33.82 31.68 937 35.8 1960–61 34.13 34.58 1013 36.8 1961–62 34.69 35.66 1028 37.5 1962–63 35.69 33.21 931 37.4 1963–64 35.81 37.00 1033 37.1 1964–65 36.46 39.31 1078 37.3 1965–66 35.47 30.59 862 36.5 1966–67 35.25 30.44 863 37.9 1967–68 36.44 37.61 1032 38.6 1968–69 36.97 39.76 1076 38.4 1969–70 37.68 40.43 1073 38.2 1970–71 37.59 42.22 1123 38.4 1971–72 37.76 43.07 1141 37.2 1972–73 36.69 39.24 1070 39.1 1973–74 38.29 44.05 1151 38.4 1974–75 37.89 39.58 1045 38.8 1975–76 39.48 48.74 1235 38.7 1976–77 38.51 41.92 1089 38.4 1977–78 40.28 52.67 1308 40.2 1978–79 40.48 53.77 1328 41.6 1979–80 39.42 42.33 1074 42.8 1980–81 40.15 53.63 1336 40.7",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1971–72 37.76 43.07 1141 37.2 1972–73 36.69 39.24 1070 39.1 1973–74 38.29 44.05 1151 38.4 1974–75 37.89 39.58 1045 38.8 1975–76 39.48 48.74 1235 38.7 1976–77 38.51 41.92 1089 38.4 1977–78 40.28 52.67 1308 40.2 1978–79 40.48 53.77 1328 41.6 1979–80 39.42 42.33 1074 42.8 1980–81 40.15 53.63 1336 40.7 1981–82 40.71 53.25 1308 41.5 1982–83 38.26 47.12 1231 42.0 1983–84 41.24 60.10 1457 42.7 (Contd.) ANNEXURES 759 Year Area Production Yield % Coverage (m.ha) (m.t) (kg/ha) under irrigation 1984–85 41.16 58.34 1417 43.7 1985–86 41.14 63.83 1552 42.9 1986–87 41.17 60.56 1471 44.1 1987–88 38.81 56.86 1465 43.6 1988–89 41.73 70.49 1689 45.8 1989–90 42.17 73.57 1745 46.1 1990–91 42.69 74.29 1740 45.5 1991–92 42.65 74.68 1751 47.3 1992–93 41.78 72.86 1744 48.0 1993–94 42.54 80.30 1888 48.6 1994–95 42.81 81.81 1911 49.8 1995–96 42.84 76.98 1797 49.9 1996–97 43.43 81.74 1882 51.0 1997–98 43.45 82.53 1900 50.8 1998–99 44.80 86.08 1921 52.3 1999–00 45.16 89.68 1986 53.9 2000–01 44.71 84.98 1901 53.6 2001–02 44.90 93.34 2079 53.2 2002–03 41.18 71.82 1744 50.2 2003–04 42.59 88.53 2077 52.6 2004–05 41.91 83.13 1984 NA 2005–06 43.66 91.79 2102 NA Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. 760 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-24 Area, Production and Yield of Rice during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Rice Producing States Area–m.ha Production–m.t. Yield–Kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production West Bengal 5.78 13.24 14.51 15.81 15.81 2509 5.78 13.79 14.88 17.90 17.90 2574 Andhra Pradesh 3.98 9.12 11.70 12.75 28.55 2939 3.09 7.37 9.60 11.55 29.45 3111 Uttar Pradesh",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "% of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production West Bengal 5.78 13.24 14.51 15.81 15.81 2509 5.78 13.79 14.88 17.90 17.90 2574 Andhra Pradesh 3.98 9.12 11.70 12.75 28.55 2939 3.09 7.37 9.60 11.55 29.45 3111 Uttar Pradesh 5.58 12.78 11.13 12.13 40.68 1996 5.34 12.74 9.56 11.50 40.95 1790 Punjab 2.64 6.05 10.19 11.10 51.78 3858 2.65 6.32 10.44 12.56 53.51 3943 Orissa 4.48 10.26 6.86 7.47 59.25 1531 4.47 10.67 6.47 7.78 61.29 1446 Karnataka 1.49 3.41 5.74 6.25 65.51 3868 1.31 3.13 3.55 4.27 65.56 2712 Tamil Nadu 2.05 4.70 5.22 5.69 71.20 2546 1.87 4.46 5.06 6.09 71.65 2703 Chhattisgarh 3.75 8.59 5.01 5.46 76.65 1337 3.75 8.95 4.38 5.27 76.92 1170 Assam 2.42 5.54 3.55 3.87 80.52 1468 2.38 5.68 3.47 4.17 81.09 1460 Bihar 3.25 7.44 3.50 3.81 84.33 1075 3.12 7.44 2.47 2.97 84.06 792 Haryana 1.05 2.40 3.21 3.50 87.83 3051 1.03 2.46 3.02 3.63 87.69 2941 Maharashtra 1.52 3.48 2.70 2.94 90.77 1779 1.52 3.63 2.16 2.60 90.29 1425 Madhya Pradesh 1.66 3.80 1.66 1.81 92.58 999 1.62 3.87 1.17 1.41 91.70 720 Jharkhand 1.35 3.09 1.56 1.70 94.28 1150 1.29 3.08 1.68 2.02 93.72 1305 Gujarat 0.67 1.53 1.30 1.42 95.70 1949 0.69 1.65 1.24 1.49 95.21 1806 Kerala 0.28 0.64 0.63 0.69 96.38 2284 0.29 0.69 0.67 0.81 96.02 2301 Others 1.71 3.92 3.32 3.62 100.00 @ 1.71 4.08 3.31 3.98 100.00 @ All India 43.66 100.00 91.79 100.00 2102 41.91 00.00 83.13 100.00 1984 @ Since area/production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. ANNEXURES 761 ANNEXURE-25 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Wheat from",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "91.79 100.00 2102 41.91 00.00 83.13 100.00 1984 @ Since area/production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. ANNEXURES 761 ANNEXURE-25 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Wheat from 1950–51 to 2005–06 Year Area Production Yield (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) 1950–51 9.75 6.46 663 1951–52 9.47 6.18 653 1952–53 9.83 7.50 763 1953–54 10.68 8.02 750 1954–55 11.26 9.04 803 1955–56 12.37 8.76 708 1956–57 13.52 9.40 695 1957–58 11.73 7.99 682 1958–59 12.62 9.96 789 1959–60 13.38 10.32 772 1960–61 12.93 11.00 851 1961–62 13.57 12.07 890 1962–63 13.59 10.78 793 1963–64 13.50 9.85 730 1964–65 13.42 12.26 913 1965–66 12.57 10.40 827 1966–67 12.84 11.39 887 1967–68 14.99 16.54 1103 1968–69 15.96 18.65 1169 1969–70 16.63 20.09 1208 1970–71 18.24 23.83 1307 1971–72 19.14 26.41 1380 1972–73 19.46 24.74 1271 1973–74 18.58 21.78 1172 1974–75 18.01 24.10 1338 1975–76 20.45 28.84 1410 1976–77 20.92 29.01 1387 1977–78 21.46 31.75 1480 1978–79 22.64 35.51 1568 1979–80 22.17 31.83 1436 1980–81 22.28 36.31 1630 1981–82 22.14 37.45 1691 1982–83 23.57 42.79 1816 762 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1983–84 24.67 45.48 1843 1984–85 23.56 44.07 1870 1985–86 23.00 47.05 2046 1986–87 23.13 44.32 1916 1987–88 23.06 46.17 2002 1988–89 24.11 54.11 2244 1989–90 23.50 49.85 2121 1990–91 24.17 55.14 2281 1991–92 23.26 55.69 2394 1992–93 24.59 57.21 2327 1993–94 25.15 59.84 2380 1994–95 25.70 65.77 2559 1995–96 25.01 62.10 2483 1996–97 25.89 69.35 2679 1997–98 26.70 66.35 2485 1998–99 27.52 71.29 2590 1999–2000 27.49 76.37 2778 2000–01 25.73 69.68 2708 2001–02 26.34 72.77 2762 2002–03 25.20 65.76 2610 2003–04 26.60 72.16 2713 2004–05 26.38 68.64 2602 2005–06 26.48 69.35 2619 Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "25.89 69.35 2679 1997–98 26.70 66.35 2485 1998–99 27.52 71.29 2590 1999–2000 27.49 76.37 2778 2000–01 25.73 69.68 2708 2001–02 26.34 72.77 2762 2002–03 25.20 65.76 2610 2003–04 26.60 72.16 2713 2004–05 26.38 68.64 2602 2005–06 26.48 69.35 2619 Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. ANNEXURES 763 ANNEXURE-26 Area, Production and Yield of Wheat during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Wheat Producing States Area–m.ha Production–m.t. Yield–Kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Uttar Pradesh 9.16 34.59 24.07 34.71 34.71 2627 9.00 34.12 22.51 32.79 32.79 2502 Punjab 3.47 13.10 14.49 20.89 55.60 4179 3.48 13.19 14.70 21.42 54.21 4221 Haryana 2.30 8.69 8.86 12.78 68.38 3844 2.32 8.79 9.06 13.20 67.41 3901 Madhya Pradesh 3.69 13.94 5.96 8.59 76.97 1613 4.14 15.69 7.18 10.46 77.87 1735 Rajasthan 2.12 8.01 5.87 8.46 85.44 2762 2.01 7.62 5.71 8.32 86.19 2839 Bihar 2.00 7.55 3.24 4.67 90.11 1617 2.03 7.70 3.26 4.75 90.94 1609 Gujarat 0.92 3.47 2.47 3.56 93.67 2700 0.73 2.77 1.81 2.64 93.58 2482 Maharashtra 0.93 3.51 1.30 1.87 95.54 1393 0.76 2.88 1.02 1.49 95.06 1344 West Bengal 0.37 1.40 0.77 1.11 96.65 2109 0.40 1.52 0.84 1.22 96.28 2103 Himachal Pradesh 0.36 1.36 0.68 0.98 97.64 1894 0.36 1.36 0.68 0.99 97.28 1890 Uttaranchal 0.40 1.51 0.65 0.94 98.57 1633 0.39 1.48 0.80 1.17 98.44 2038 Jammu & Kashmir 0.25 0.94 0.44 0.63 99.21 1790 0.25 0.95 0.47 0.68 99.13 1910 Karnataka 0.25 0.94 0.22 0.32 99.52 858 0.24 0.91 0.18 0.26 99.39 740 Jharkhand 0.06 0.23 0.08 0.12 99.64 1340 0.06",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1890 Uttaranchal 0.40 1.51 0.65 0.94 98.57 1633 0.39 1.48 0.80 1.17 98.44 2038 Jammu & Kashmir 0.25 0.94 0.44 0.63 99.21 1790 0.25 0.95 0.47 0.68 99.13 1910 Karnataka 0.25 0.94 0.22 0.32 99.52 858 0.24 0.91 0.18 0.26 99.39 740 Jharkhand 0.06 0.23 0.08 0.12 99.64 1340 0.06 0.23 0.15 0.22 99.61 2381 Assam 0.05 0.19 0.05 0.07 99.71 1074 0.06 0.23 0.07 0.10 99.71 1066 Others 0.15 0.57 0.20 0.29 100.00 @ 0.15 0.57 0.20 0.29 100.00 @ All India 26.48 100.00 69.35 100.00 2619 26.38 100.00 68.64 100.00 2602 @ Since area/production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. 764 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-27 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Jowar from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage coverage under Irrigation Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1950–51 15.57 5.50 353 3.0 1951–52 15.94 6.08 381 3.5 1952–53 17.54 7.36 420 3.1 1953–54 17.76 8.08 455 3.1 1954–55 17.46 9.20 527 3.3 1955–56 17.36 6.73 387 3.6 1956–57 16.24 7.33 451 3.4 1957–58 17.31 8.64 499 3.5 1958–59 17.96 9.03 503 3.5 1959–60 17.71 8.58 484 3.6 1960–61 18.41 9.81 533 3.6 1961–62 18.25 8.03 440 3.7 1962–63 18.41 9.75 529 3.7 1963–64 18.38 9.20 501 3.9 1964–65 18.06 9.68 536 3.8 1965–66 17.68 7.58 429 4.1 1966–67 18.05 9.22 511 4.0 1967–68 18.42 10.05 545 3.9 1968–69 18.73 9.80 523 4.5 1969–70 18.61 9.72 522 4.1 1970–71 17.37 8.11 466 3.6 1971–72 16.78 7.72 460 4.4 1972–73 15.51 6.97 449 3.3 1973–74 16.72 9.10 544 4.0 1974–75 16.19 10.41 643 4.6 1975–76 16.09 9.50 591 4.9 1976–77 15.77 10.52 667 5.1 1977–78 16.32 12.06 739 4.9 1978–79 16.15",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "9.80 523 4.5 1969–70 18.61 9.72 522 4.1 1970–71 17.37 8.11 466 3.6 1971–72 16.78 7.72 460 4.4 1972–73 15.51 6.97 449 3.3 1973–74 16.72 9.10 544 4.0 1974–75 16.19 10.41 643 4.6 1975–76 16.09 9.50 591 4.9 1976–77 15.77 10.52 667 5.1 1977–78 16.32 12.06 739 4.9 1978–79 16.15 11.44 708 4.8 1979–80 16.67 11.65 699 4.9 1980–81 15.81 10.43 660 4.7 1981–82 16.60 12.06 727 4.6 1982–83 16.38 10.75 657 4.3 (Contd.) ANNEXURES 765 Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1983–84 16.43 11.92 725 4.1 1984–85 15.94 11.40 715 4.4 1985–86 16.10 10.20 633 4.5 1986–87 15.95 9.19 576 4.9 1987–88 16.00 12.20 762 4.9 1988–89 14.60 10.17 697 5.8 1989–90 14.84 12.90 869 6.3 1990–91 14.36 11.68 814 5.6 1991–92 12.36 8.10 655 6.5 1992–93 13.04 12.81 982 6.1 1993–94 12.71 11.41 895 6.2 1994–95 11.51 8.97 779 6.7 1995–96 11.33 9.33 823 6.8 1996–97 11.43 10.93 956 6.7 1997–98 10.80 7.53 697 7.3 1998–99 9.79 8.42 859 8.1 1999–2000 10.25 8.68 847 7.7 2000–01 9.86 7.53 764 7.9 2001–02 9.80 7.56 771 8.3 2002–03 9.30 7.01 754 8.5 2003–04 9.33 6.68 716 7.5 2004–05 9.09 7.24 797 NA 2005–06 8.67 7.24 880 NA Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. 766 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-28 Area, Production and Yield of Jowar during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in Major Jowar producing States along with Coverage under Irrigation Area–m.ha Production–m.t Yield–Kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Maharashtra 4.74 54.67 3.90 51.11 51.11 824 4.76 52.37 3.62 50.00 50.00",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Area–m.ha Production–m.t Yield–Kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Maharashtra 4.74 54.67 3.90 51.11 51.11 824 4.76 52.37 3.62 50.00 50.00 762 Karnataka 1.52 17.53 1.67 21.89 73.00 1095 1.66 18.26 1.44 19.89 69.89 863 Madhya Pradesh 0.58 6.69 0.63 8.26 81.26 1088 0.66 7.26 0.63 8.70 78.59 957 Andhra Pradesh 0.44 5.07 0.59 7.73 88.99 1324 0.50 5.50 0.52 7.18 85.77 1032 Uttar Pradesh 0.23 2.65 0.24 3.15 92.14 1065 0.25 2.75 0.25 3.45 89.23 1020 Tamil Nadu 0.32 3.69 0.23 3.01 95.15 732 0.38 4.18 0.25 3.45 92.68 669 Rajasthan 0.59 6.81 0.17 2.23 97.38 288 0.57 6.27 0.27 3.73 96.41 464 Gujarat 0.13 1.50 0.15 1.97 99.34 1138 0.18 1.98 0.21 2.90 99.31 1154 Haryana 0.09 1.04 0.02 0.26 99.61 273 0.10 1.10 0.03 0.41 99.72 271 Orissa 0.01 0.12 0.01 0.13 99.74 600 0.01 0.11 0.01 0.14 99.86 545 Others 0.02 0.23 0.02 0.26 100.00 @ 0.02 0.22 0.01 0.14 100.00 @ All India 8.67 100.00 7.63 100.00 880 9.09 100.00 7.24 100.00 797 @ Since area/production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. ANNEXURES 767 ANNEXURE-29 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Bajra from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with Percentage Coverage under Irrigation Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1950–51 9.02 2.60 288 3.4 1951–52 9.52 2.35 246 3.8 1952–53 10.77 3.19 296 3.3 1953–54 12.20 4.55 373 3.1 1954–55 11.37 3.52 310 3.6 1955–56 11.34 3.43 302 3.6 1956–57 11.25 2.87 255 3.1 1957–58 11.17 3.62 324 2.9 1958–59",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1950–51 9.02 2.60 288 3.4 1951–52 9.52 2.35 246 3.8 1952–53 10.77 3.19 296 3.3 1953–54 12.20 4.55 373 3.1 1954–55 11.37 3.52 310 3.6 1955–56 11.34 3.43 302 3.6 1956–57 11.25 2.87 255 3.1 1957–58 11.17 3.62 324 2.9 1958–59 11.43 3.87 338 3.0 1959–60 10.70 3.49 327 2.5 1960–61 11.47 3.28 286 2.8 1961–62 11.28 3.65 323 2.6 1962–63 10.96 3.96 361 2.7 1963–64 11.10 3.88 349 2.3 1964–65 11.83 4.52 382 2.3 1965–66 11.97 3.75 314 2.8 1966–67 12.24 4.47 365 3.1 1967–68 12.81 5.19 405 3.0 1968–69 12.05 3.80 315 4.1 1969–70 12.49 5.33 426 4.2 1970–71 12.91 8.03 622 4.0 1971–72 11.77 5.32 452 3.7 1972–73 11.82 3.93 333 4.5 1973–74 13.93 7.52 540 4.2 1974–75 11.29 3.27 290 5.5 1975–76 11.57 5.74 496 5.1 1976–77 10.75 5.85 544 4.9 1977–78 11.10 4.73 426 4.4 1978–79 11.39 5.57 489 4.4 1979–80 10.58 3.95 373 5.5 1980–81 11.66 5.34 458 5.5 1981–82 11.78 5.54 470 6.0 1982–83 10.94 5.13 469 6.0 (Contd.) 768 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1983–84 11.83 7.72 653 4.8 1984–85 10.62 6.05 569 5.2 1985–86 10.65 3.66 344 5.1 1986–87 11.27 4.51 401 6.0 1987–88 8.71 3.30 378 8.4 1988–89 12.04 7.78 646 5.3 1989–90 10.90 6.65 610 6.3 1990–91 10.48 6.89 658 5.1 1991–92 10.03 4.67 465 6.5 1992–93 10.62 8.88 836 5.8 1993–94 9.55 4.97 521 6.6 1994–95 10.22 7.16 700 5.5 1995–96 9.32 5.38 577 6.2 1996–97 9.98 7.87 788 5.3 1997–98 9.67 7.64 791 5.9 1998–99 9.30 6.96 748 7.0 1999–00 8.90 5.78 650 8.3 2000–01 9.83 6.76 688 8.0 2001–02 9.53 8.28 869 6.3 2002–03 7.74 4.72 610 9.0 2003–04 10.61 12.11 1141 6.3 2004–05 9.23 7.93 859 NA 2005–06 9.58 7.68 802 NA Note: The yield rates given",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1997–98 9.67 7.64 791 5.9 1998–99 9.30 6.96 748 7.0 1999–00 8.90 5.78 650 8.3 2000–01 9.83 6.76 688 8.0 2001–02 9.53 8.28 869 6.3 2002–03 7.74 4.72 610 9.0 2003–04 10.61 12.11 1141 6.3 2004–05 9.23 7.93 859 NA 2005–06 9.58 7.68 802 NA Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. ANNEXURES 769 ANNEXURE-30 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Maize from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage Coverage under Irrigation Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1950–51 3.16 1.73 547 11.4 1951–52 3.31 2.08 627 16.4 1952–53 3.61 2.87 796 14.0 1953–54 3.87 3.04 785 11.5 1954–55 3.75 2.98 794 14.6 1955–56 3.70 2.60 704 11.8 1956–57 3.76 3.08 819 13.1 1957–58 4.08 3.15 772 13.4 1958–59 4.27 3.46 812 10.5 1959–60 4.34 4.07 938 9.9 1960–61 4.41 4.08 926 12.6 1961–62 4.51 4.31 957 9.5 1962–63 4.64 4.61 992 11.5 1963–64 4.58 4.56 995 11.4 1964–65 4.62 4.66 1010 12.1 1965–66 4.80 4.82 1005 16.1 1966–67 5.07 4.89 964 15.6 1967–68 5.58 6.27 1123 11.9 1968–69 5.72 5.70 997 19.5 1969–70 5.86 5.67 968 18.2 1970–71 5.85 7.49 1279 15.9 1971–72 5.67 5.10 900 14.3 1972–73 5.84 6.39 1094 18.8 1973–74 6.02 5.80 965 14.7 1974–75 5.86 5.56 948 21.0 1975–76 6.03 7.26 1203 16.2 1976–77 6.00 6.36 1060 17.7 1977–78 5.68 5.97 1051 16.3 1978–79 5.76 6.20 1076 16.3 1979–80 5.72 5.60 979 24.0 1980–81 6.01 6.96 1159 20.1 1981–82 5.94 6.90 1162 19.8 1982–83 5.72 6.55 1145 21.7 (Contd.) 770 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1983–84 5.86 7.92 1352 16.9 1984–85 5.80 8.44 1456 17.5 1985–86 5.80 6.64 1146 18.7 1986–87 5.92 7.59 1282 21.2",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "6.96 1159 20.1 1981–82 5.94 6.90 1162 19.8 1982–83 5.72 6.55 1145 21.7 (Contd.) 770 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1983–84 5.86 7.92 1352 16.9 1984–85 5.80 8.44 1456 17.5 1985–86 5.80 6.64 1146 18.7 1986–87 5.92 7.59 1282 21.2 1987–88 5.56 5.72 1029 21.2 1988–89 5.90 8.23 1395 21.0 1989–90 5.92 9.65 1632 20.8 1990–91 5.90 8.96 1518 19.7 1991–92 5.86 8.06 1376 22.5 1992–93 5.96 9.99 1676 21.5 1993–94 6.00 9.60 1602 22.4 1994–95 6.14 8.88 1570 20.5 1995–96 5.98 9.53 1595 22.6 1996–97 6.26 10.77 1720 20.6 1997–98 6.32 10.82 1711 20.6 1998–99 6.20 11.15 1797 21.7 1999–00 6.42 11.51 1792 22.9 2000–01 6.61 12.04 1822 22.4 2001–02 6.58 13.16 2000 20.5 2002–03 6.64 11.15 1681 19.5 2003–04 7.34 14.98 2041 19.1 2004–05 7.43 14.17 1907 NA 2005–06 7.59 14.71 1938 NA Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. NA-not available. ANNEXURES 771 ANNEXURE-31 Area, Production and Yield of Maize during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Maize Growing States Area–m.ha Production–m.t Yield–Kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Andhra Pradesh 0.76 10.01 3.09 21.01 21.01 4073 0.66 8.88 2.06 14.54 14.54 3142 Karnataka 0.94 12.38 2.73 18.56 39.56 2915 0.85 11.44 2.51 17.71 32.25 2955 Bihar 0.65 8.56 1.36 9.25 48.81 2098 0.61 8.21 1.47 10.37 42.63 2386 Madhya Pradesh 0.86 11.33 1.25 8.50 57.31 1450 0.90 12.11 1.25 8.82 51.45 1398 Rajasthan 1.00 13.18 1.10 7.48 64.79 1098 1.04 14.00 1.26 8.89 60.34 1211 Uttar Pradesh 0.81 10.67 1.05 7.14 71.92 1295",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "32.25 2955 Bihar 0.65 8.56 1.36 9.25 48.81 2098 0.61 8.21 1.47 10.37 42.63 2386 Madhya Pradesh 0.86 11.33 1.25 8.50 57.31 1450 0.90 12.11 1.25 8.82 51.45 1398 Rajasthan 1.00 13.18 1.10 7.48 64.79 1098 1.04 14.00 1.26 8.89 60.34 1211 Uttar Pradesh 0.81 10.67 1.05 7.14 71.92 1295 0.88 11.84 1.49 10.52 70.85 1705 Maharashtra 0.47 6.19 1.00 6.80 78.72 2106 0.43 5.79 0.75 5.29 76.15 1759 Gujarat 0.50 6.59 0.56 3.81 82.53 1124 0.46 6.19 0.41 2.89 79.04 898 Himachal Pradesh 0.30 3.95 0.54 3.67 86.20 1839 0.32 4.31 0.74 5.22 84.26 2272 Jammu & Kashmir 0.32 4.22 0.45 3.06 89.26 1413 0.32 4.31 0.49 3.46 87.72 1526 Punjab 0.15 1.98 0.40 2.72 91.98 2723 0.15 2.02 0.42 2.96 90.68 2740 Jharkhand 0.18 2.37 0.24 1.63 93.61 1315 0.19 2.56 0.29 2.05 92.73 1497 Tamil Nadu 0.20 2.64 0.24 1.63 95.24 1189 0.19 2.56 0.29 2.05 94.78 1552 West Bengal 0.05 0.66 0.13 0.88 96.13 2533 0.05 0.67 0.14 0.99 95.77 2977 Others 0.40 5.27 0.57 3.87 100.00 @ 0.38 5.11 0.60 4.23 100.00 @ All India 7.59 100.00 14.71 100.00 1938 7.43 100.00 14.17 100.00 1907 @ Since area/production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. 772 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-32 All-India Area, Production and Yield of total Pulses from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage Coverage under Irrigation Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1950–51 19.09 8.41 441 9.4 1951–52 18.78 8.42 448 9.7 1952–53 19.84 9.19 463 9.8 1953–54 21.73 10.62 489 9.2 1954–55 21.91 10.95 500 8.8 1955–56 23.22 11.04 476 8.4 1956–57 23.32 11.55 495 7.3 1957–58 22.54 9.56 424 9.1 1958–59 24.31 13.15 541",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1950–51 19.09 8.41 441 9.4 1951–52 18.78 8.42 448 9.7 1952–53 19.84 9.19 463 9.8 1953–54 21.73 10.62 489 9.2 1954–55 21.91 10.95 500 8.8 1955–56 23.22 11.04 476 8.4 1956–57 23.32 11.55 495 7.3 1957–58 22.54 9.56 424 9.1 1958–59 24.31 13.15 541 8.4 1959–60 24.83 11.80 475 8.5 1960–61 23.56 12.70 539 8.0 1961–62 24.24 11.76 485 8.1 1962–63 24.27 11.53 475 8.9 1963–64 24.18 10.07 416 8.9 1964–65 23.88 12.42 520 9.2 1965–66 22.72 9.94 438 9.4 1966–67 22.12 8.35 377 10.9 1967–68 22.65 12.10 534 8.7 1968–69 21.26 10.42 490 9.8 1969–70 22.02 11.69 531 9.4 1970–71 22.54 11.82 524 8.8 1971–72 22.15 11.09 501 8.8 1972–73 20.92 9.91 474 8.1 1973–74 23.43 10.01 427 7.9 1974–75 22.03 10.02 455 8.1 1975–76 24.45 13.04 533 7.9 1976–77 22.98 11.36 494 7.5 1977–78 23.50 11.97 510 7.1 1978–79 23.66 12.18 515 7.9 1979–80 22.26 8.57 385 8.8 1980–81 22.46 10.63 473 9.0 1981–82 23.84 11.51 483 8.5 1982–83 22.83 11.86 519 8.2 1983–84 23.54 12.89 548 7.5 ANNEXURES 773 1984–85 22.74 11.96 526 7.9 1985–86 24.42 13.36 547 8.5 1986–87 23.16 11.71 506 9.6 1987–88 21.27 10.96 515 9.4 1988–89 23.15 13.85 598 9.3 1989–90 23.41 12.86 549 10.0 1990–91 24.66 14.26 578 10.5 1991–92 22.54 12.02 533 10.7 1992–93 22.36 12.82 573 10.4 1993–94 22.25 13.30 598 11.3 1994–95 23.03 14.04 610 12.7 1995–96 22.28 12.31 552 12.9 1996–97 22.45 14.24 635 12.7 1997–98 22.87 12.98 567 11.3 1998–99 23.50 14.91 634 12.1 1999–00 21.12 13.42 635 16.1 2000–01 20.35 11.08 544 12.5 2001–02 22.01 13.37 607 13.3 2002–03 20.50 11.13 543 14.4 2003–04 23.46 14.91 635 13.6 2004–05 22.76 13.13 577 NA 2005–06 22.39 13.39 598 NA Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "14.91 634 12.1 1999–00 21.12 13.42 635 16.1 2000–01 20.35 11.08 544 12.5 2001–02 22.01 13.37 607 13.3 2002–03 20.50 11.13 543 14.4 2003–04 23.46 14.91 635 13.6 2004–05 22.76 13.13 577 NA 2005–06 22.39 13.39 598 NA Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. NA-not available. 774 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-33 Area, Production and Yield of total Pulses during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major pulses growing states Area–m.ha Production–m.t Yield–kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Madhya Pradesh 4.28 19.12 3.23 24.14 24.14 754 4.52 19.86 3.43 26.12 26.12 759 Uttar Pradesh 2.75 12.28 2.23 16.67 40.81 811 2.80 12.30 2.38 18.13 44.25 847 Maharashtra 3.43 15.32 2.01 15.02 55.83 584 3.38 14.85 1.66 12.64 56.89 492 Andhra Pradesh 1.78 7.95 1.38 10.31 66.14 772 1.80 7.91 1.02 7.77 64.66 565 Karnataka 1.98 8.84 0.96 7.17 73.32 487 2.11 9.27 0.79 6.02 70.68 376 Rajasthan 3.44 15.36 0.90 6.73 80.04 261 3.57 15.69 1.34 10.21 80.88 375 Gujarat 0.78 3.48 0.55 4.11 84.16 704 0.71 3.12 0.48 3.66 84.54 675 Bihar 0.60 2.68 0.45 3.36 87.52 749 0.66 2.90 0.47 3.58 88.12 710 Chhattisgarh 0.95 4.24 0.45 3.36 90.88 477 0.93 4.09 0.37 2.82 90.94 395 Orissa 0.81 3.62 0.34 2.54 93.42 416 0.64 2.81 0.25 1.90 92.84 388 Tamil Nadu 0.53 2.37 0.18 1.35 94.77 337 0.60 2.64 0.25 1.90 94.74 410 West Bengal 0.22 0.98 0.17 1.27 96.04 785 0.23 1.01 0.17 1.29 96.04 740 Jharkhand 0.29 1.30 0.17 1.27 97.31 592 0.27 1.19 0.16 1.22 97.26 586 Haryana 0.19 0.85 0.12",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2.81 0.25 1.90 92.84 388 Tamil Nadu 0.53 2.37 0.18 1.35 94.77 337 0.60 2.64 0.25 1.90 94.74 410 West Bengal 0.22 0.98 0.17 1.27 96.04 785 0.23 1.01 0.17 1.29 96.04 740 Jharkhand 0.29 1.30 0.17 1.27 97.31 592 0.27 1.19 0.16 1.22 97.26 586 Haryana 0.19 0.85 0.12 0.90 98.21 622 0.18 0.79 0.15 1.14 98.40 793 Others 0.36 1.61 0.24 1.79 100.00 @ 0.36 1.58 0.21 1.60 100.00 @ All India 22.39 100.00 13.38 100.00 598 22.76 100.00 13.13 100.00 577 @ Since area/production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. ANNEXURES 775 ANNEXURE-34 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Groundnut from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage Coverage under Irrigation Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1950–51 4.49 3.48 775 NA 1951–52 4.92 3.19 649 NA 1952–53 4.80 2.93 611 1.2 1953–54 4.25 3.45 811 1.5 1954–55 5.54 4.25 766 1.7 1955–56 5.13 3.86 752 1.7 1956–57 5.53 4.37 783 1.8 1957–58 6.42 4.71 734 2.9 1958–59 6.25 5.18 828 2.5 1959–60 6.44 4.56 708 2.5 1960–61 6.46 4.81 745 3.0 1961–62 6.89 4.99 725 3.4 1962–63 7.28 5.06 695 2.6 1963–64 6.89 5.30 769 3.0 1964–65 7.38 6.00 814 2.9 1965–66 7.70 4.26 554 3.4 1966–67 7.30 4.41 604 4.8 1967–68 7.55 5.73 759 5.4 1968–69 7.09 4.63 653 5.1 1969–70 7.13 5.13 720 5.8 1970–71 7.33 6.11 834 7.5 1971–72 7.51 6.18 823 7.3 1972–73 6.99 4.09 585 6.6 1973–74 7.02 5.93 845 9.1 1974–75 7.06 5.11 724 8.2 1975–76 7.22 6.76 935 6.9 1976–77 7.04 5.26 747 5.9 1977–78 7.03 6.09 866 8.1 1978–79 7.43 6.21 835 9.6 1979–80 7.17 5.77 805 12.1 1980–81 6.80 5.01 736",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "7.5 1971–72 7.51 6.18 823 7.3 1972–73 6.99 4.09 585 6.6 1973–74 7.02 5.93 845 9.1 1974–75 7.06 5.11 724 8.2 1975–76 7.22 6.76 935 6.9 1976–77 7.04 5.26 747 5.9 1977–78 7.03 6.09 866 8.1 1978–79 7.43 6.21 835 9.6 1979–80 7.17 5.77 805 12.1 1980–81 6.80 5.01 736 13.3 1981–82 7.43 7.22 972 14.2 1982–83 7.22 5.28 732 14.8 (Contd.) 776 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1983–84 7.54 7.09 940 16.0 1984–85 7.17 6.44 898 16.1 1985–86 7.12 5.12 719 14.8 1986–87 6.98 5.88 841 15.1 1987–88 6.84 5.85 855 19.0 1988–89 8.53 9.66 1132 18.6 1989–90 8.71 8.10 930 17.0 1990–91 8.31 7.51 904 18.6 1991–92 8.67 7.09 818 19.1 1992–93 8.17 8.56 1049 19.7 1993–94 8.32 7.83 941 19.4 1994–95 7.85 8.06 1027 19.9 1995–96 7.52 7.58 1007 18.1 1996–97 7.60 8.64 1138 17.9 1997–98 7.09 7.37 1040 19.5 1998–99 7.40 8.98 1214 19.4 1999–00 6.87 5.26 766 19.0 2000–01 6.56 6.41 977 17.6 2001–02 6.24 7.03 1127 17.3 2002–03 5.94 4.12 694 16.5 2003–04 5.99 8.13 1357 16.6 2004–05 6.64 6.77 1020 NA 2005–06 6.74 7.99 1187 NA Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. NA-Not available. ANNEXURES 777 ANNEXURE-35 Area, Production and Yield of Groundnut during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Groundnut Producing States Area–m.ha Production–m.t Yield–kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Gujarat 1.95 28.93 3.39 42.43 42.43 1734 2.00 29.67 1.89 27.92 27.92 943 Andhra Pradesh 1.88 27.89 1.37 17.15 59.57 728 1.84 27.30 1.64 24.22 52.14 890",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "% of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Gujarat 1.95 28.93 3.39 42.43 42.43 1734 2.00 29.67 1.89 27.92 27.92 943 Andhra Pradesh 1.88 27.89 1.37 17.15 59.57 728 1.84 27.30 1.64 24.22 52.14 890 Tamil Nadu 0.62 9.20 1.10 13.77 73.34 1775 0.62 9.20 0.01 0.15 52.29 1632 Karnataka 1.04 15.43 0.67 8.39 81.73 645 0.97 14.39 0.74 10.93 63.22 766 Rajasthan 0.32 4.75 0.49 6.13 87.86 1549 0.29 4.30 0.45 6.65 69.87 1552 Maharashtra 0.43 6.38 0.41 5.13 92.99 958 0.45 6.68 0.50 7.39 77.25 1123 Madhya Pradesh 0.21 3.12 0.23 2.88 95.87 1126 0.20 2.97 0.24 3.55 80.80 1158 Orissa 0.09 1.34 0.11 1.38 97.25 1171 0.09 1.34 0.11 1.62 82.42 1233 Uttar Pradesh 0.11 1.63 0.09 1.13 98.37 851 0.08 1.19 0.07 1.03 83.46 816 Others 0.09 1.34 0.13 1.63 100.00 @ 0.10 1.48 1.12 16.54 100.00 @ All India 6.74 100.00 7.99 100.00 1187 6.64 98.52 6.77 100.00 1020 @ Since area/ production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. 778 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-36 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Rapeseed and Mustard from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage Coverage under Irrigation Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1950–51 2.07 0.76 368 NA 1951–52 2.40 0.94 393 NA 1952–53 2.11 0.86 408 NA 1953–54 2.24 0.87 389 NA 1954–55 2.44 1.04 425 NA 1955–56 2.56 0.86 336 10.4 1956–57 2.54 1.04 411 13.5 1957–58 2.41 0.93 387 13.0 1958–59 2.45 1.04 426 13.0 1959–60 2.91 1.06 365 12.3 1960–61 2.88 1.35 467 12.1 1961–62 3.17 1.35 425 13.2 1962–63 3.13 1.30",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "408 NA 1953–54 2.24 0.87 389 NA 1954–55 2.44 1.04 425 NA 1955–56 2.56 0.86 336 10.4 1956–57 2.54 1.04 411 13.5 1957–58 2.41 0.93 387 13.0 1958–59 2.45 1.04 426 13.0 1959–60 2.91 1.06 365 12.3 1960–61 2.88 1.35 467 12.1 1961–62 3.17 1.35 425 13.2 1962–63 3.13 1.30 417 13.3 1963–64 3.05 0.92 300 16.1 1964–65 2.91 1.47 507 15.2 1965–66 2.91 1.30 446 15.8 1966–67 3.01 1.23 408 20.3 1967–68 3.24 1.57 483 14.8 1968–69 2.87 1.35 469 18.4 1969–70 3.17 1.56 493 23.5 1970–71 3.32 1.98 594 25.2 1971–72 3.61 1.43 396 28.6 1972–73 3.32 1.81 545 26.7 1973–74 3.46 1.70 493 30.4 1974–75 3.68 2.25 612 35.4 1975–76 3.34 1.94 580 31.2 1976–77 3.13 1.55 496 34.4 1977–78 3.58 1.65 460 39.7 1978–79 3.54 1.86 525 39.7 1979–80 3.47 1.43 411 41.9 1980–81 4.11 2.30 560 43.7 1981–82 4.40 2.38 541 44.9 1982–83 3.83 2.21 577 44.0 (Contd.) ANNEXURES 779 1983–84 3.87 2.61 673 46.6 1984–85 3.99 3.07 771 53.3 1985–86 3.98 2.68 674 51.3 1986–87 3.72 2.60 700 51.8 1987–88 4.62 3.45 748 54.7 1988–89 4.83 4.38 906 60.0 1989–90 4.97 4.13 831 61.6 1990–91 5.78 5.23 904 59.8 1991–92 6.55 5.86 895 63.9 1992–93 6.19 4.80 776 60.0 1993–94 6.29 5.33 847 59.4 1994–95 6.01 5.76 958 62.4 1995–96 6.55 6.00 916 65.8 1996–97 6.55 6.66 1017 69.1 1997–98 7.04 4.70 668 60.0 1998–99 6.51 5.66 869 58.3 1999–00 6.03 5.79 960 63.2 2000–01 4.48 4.19 935 66.1 2001–02 5.07 5.08 1002 68.3 2002–03 4.54 3.88 854 69.2 2003–04 5.43 6.29 1159 67.0 2004–05 7.32 7.59 1038 NA 2005–06 7.28 8.13 1117 NA Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. NA-Not available. 780 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-37",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2002–03 4.54 3.88 854 69.2 2003–04 5.43 6.29 1159 67.0 2004–05 7.32 7.59 1038 NA 2005–06 7.28 8.13 1117 NA Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. NA-Not available. 780 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-37 Area, Production and Yield of Rapeseed and Mustard during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Rapeseed and Mustard Producing States Area–m.ha Production–m.t Yield–kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Rajasthan 3.67 50.41 4.42 54.37 54.37 1205 3.68 50.55 3.97 52.31 52.31 1078 Uttar Pradesh 0.79 10.85 0.91 11.19 65.56 1149 0.82 11.26 0.80 10.54 62.85 979 Madhya Pradesh 0.81 11.13 0.85 10.46 76.01 1047 0.69 9.48 0.67 8.83 71.67 988 Haryana 0.71 9.75 0.79 9.72 85.73 1117 0.70 9.62 0.83 10.94 82.61 1177 Gujarat 0.34 4.67 0.46 5.66 91.39 1349 0.29 3.98 0.40 5.27 87.88 1390 West Bengal 0.42 5.77 0.38 4.67 96.06 909 0.46 6.32 0.43 5.67 93.54 934 Assam 0.21 2.88 0.10 1.23 97.29 456 0.24 3.30 0.13 1.71 95.26 528 Bihar 0.08 1.10 0.08 0.98 98.28 926 0.08 1.10 0.07 0.92 96.18 805 Punjab 0.05 0.69 0.05 0.62 98.89 1102 0.06 0.82 0.06 0.79 96.97 1033 Others 0.20 2.75 0.09 1.11 100.00 @ 0.30 4.12 0.23 3.03 100.00 @ All India 7.28 100.00 8.13 100.00 1117 7.32 100.55 7.59 100.00 1038 @ Since area/ production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. ANNEXURES 781 ANNEXURE-38 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Soyabean from 1970–71 to 2005–06 Year Area",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "100.00 1038 @ Since area/ production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. ANNEXURES 781 ANNEXURE-38 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Soyabean from 1970–71 to 2005–06 Year Area Production Yield (m.ha) (m.t.) (kg./ha) 1970–71 0.03 0.01 426 1971–72 0.03 0.01 426 1972–73 0.03 0.03 819 1973–74 0.05 0.04 829 1974–75 0.07 0.05 768 1975–76 0.09 0.09 975 1976–77 0.13 0.12 988 1977–78 0.20 0.18 940 1978–79 0.31 0.30 975 1979–80 0.50 0.28 568 1980–81 0.61 0.44 728 1981–82 0.48 0.35 741 1982–83 0.77 0.49 637 1983–84 0.84 0.61 735 1984–85 1.24 0.95 768 1985–86 1.34 1.02 764 1986–87 1.53 0.89 584 1987–88 1.54 0.90 582 1988–89 1.73 1.55 892 1989–90 2.25 1.81 801 1990–91 2.56 2.60 1015 1991–92 3.18 2.49 782 1992–93 3.79 3.39 894 1993–94 4.37 4.75 1086 1994–95 4.32 3.93 911 1995–96 5.04 5.10 1012 1996–97 5.45 5.38 987 1997–98 5.99 6.46 1079 1998–99 6.49 7.14 1100 1999–2000 6.22 7.08 1138 2000–01 6.42 5.28 822 2001–02 6.34 5.96 940 2002–03 6.11 4.65 762 2003–04 6.56 7.82 1193 2004–05 7.57 6.87 908 2005–06 7.71 8.27 1073 Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. 782 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-39 Area, Production and Yield of Soyabean during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Soyabean Producing States Area–m.ha Production–m.t Yield–kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Madhya Pradesh 4.26 55.25 4.50 54.41 54.41 1058 4.49 58.24 3.75 54.51 54.51 835 Maharashtra 2.35 30.48 2.53 30.59 85.01",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Madhya Pradesh 4.26 55.25 4.50 54.41 54.41 1058 4.49 58.24 3.75 54.51 54.51 835 Maharashtra 2.35 30.48 2.53 30.59 85.01 1077 2.10 27.24 1.89 27.47 81.98 900 Rajasthan 0.74 9.60 0.86 10.40 95.41 1150 0.62 8.04 0.89 12.94 94.91 1425 Andhra Pradesh 0.10 1.30 0.19 2.30 97.70 1949 0.08 1.04 0.13 1.89 96.80 1567 Karnataka 0.13 1.69 0.07 0.85 98.55 534 0.16 2.08 0.09 1.31 98.11 604 Others 0.13 1.69 0.12 1.45 100.00 @ 0.12 1.56 0.13 1.89 100.00 @ All India 7.71 100.00 8.27 100.00 1073 7.57 98.18 6.88 100.00 908 @ Since area/ production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. ANNEXURES 783 ANNEXURE-40 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Sunflower from 1970–71 to 2005–06 Year Area Production Yield (m.ha) (m.t.) (kg./ha) 1970–71 0.12 0.08 653 1971–72 0.12 0.08 653 1972–73 0.12 0.08 653 1973–74 0.24 0.17 712 1974–75 0.34 0.23 671 1975–76 0.32 0.22 686 1976–77 0.26 0.14 541 1977–78 0.27 0.14 523 1978–79 0.18 0.10 543 1979–80 0.06 0.03 519 1980–81 0.12 0.07 555 1981–82 0.28 0.16 564 1982–83 0.46 0.23 497 1983–84 0.70 0.30 431 1984–85 0.84 0.44 527 1985–86 0.75 0.28 374 1986–87 1.02 0.42 411 1987–88 1.65 0.64 385 1988–89 1.10 0.37 335 1989–90 1.19 0.63 529 1990–91 1.63 0.87 535 1991–92 2.11 1.19 565 1992–93 2.09 1.18 567 1993–94 2.67 1.35 505 1994–95 2.00 1.22 610 1995–96 2.12 1.26 593 1996–97 1.93 1.25 646 1997–98 1.74 0.89 548 1998–99 1.82 0.94 517 1999–00 1.29 0.69 538 2000–01 1.07 0.65 602 2001–02",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "335 1989–90 1.19 0.63 529 1990–91 1.63 0.87 535 1991–92 2.11 1.19 565 1992–93 2.09 1.18 567 1993–94 2.67 1.35 505 1994–95 2.00 1.22 610 1995–96 2.12 1.26 593 1996–97 1.93 1.25 646 1997–98 1.74 0.89 548 1998–99 1.82 0.94 517 1999–00 1.29 0.69 538 2000–01 1.07 0.65 602 2001–02 1.18 0.68 577 2002–03 1.64 0.87 531 2003–04 2.01 0.93 464 2004–05 2.17 1.19 549 2005–06 2.34 1.44 615 Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. 784 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-41 Area, Production and Yield of Sunflower during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Sunflower Producing States Area–m.ha Production–m.t Yield–kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Karnataka 1.43 61.11 0.79 54.86 54.86 552 1.27 54.27 0.60 50.42 50.42 471 Andhra Pradesh 0.44 18.80 0.30 20.83 75.69 671 0.48 20.51 0.29 24.37 74.79 609 Maharashtra 0.36 15.38 0.21 14.58 90.28 580 0.32 13.68 0.17 14.29 89.08 525 Bihar 0.02 0.85 0.03 2.08 92.36 1345 0.02 0.85 0.02 1.68 90.76 1401 Haryana 0.02 0.85 0.03 2.08 94.44 1667 0.01 0.43 0.01 0.84 91.60 1657 Tamil Nadu 0.02 0.85 0.02 1.39 95.83 1240 0.02 0.85 0.02 1.68 93.28 1060 Uttar Pradesh 0.01 0.47 0.02 1.39 97.22 1278 0.01 0.47 0.02 1.68 94.96 2049 Others 0.04 1.67 0.04 2.78 100.00 @ 0.03 1.24 0.06 5.04 100.00 @ All India 2.34 100.00 1.44 100.00 615 2.16 92.31 1.19 100.00 549 @ Since area/ production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. *",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "@ 0.03 1.24 0.06 5.04 100.00 @ All India 2.34 100.00 1.44 100.00 615 2.16 92.31 1.19 100.00 549 @ Since area/ production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. ANNEXURES 785 ANNEXURE-42 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Cotton from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage Coverage under Irrigation Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1950–51 5.88 3.04 88 8.2 1951–52 6.56 3.28 85 9.1 1952–53 6.36 3.34 89 8.5 1953–54 6.99 4.13 100 8.4 1954–55 7.55 4.45 100 9.8 1955–56 8.09 4.18 88 10.0 1956–57 8.02 4.92 104 11.0 1957–58 8.01 4.96 105 12.7 1958–59 7.96 4.88 104 12.5 1959–60 7.30 3.68 86 12.9 1960–61 7.61 5.60 125 12.7 1961–62 7.98 4.85 103 13.0 1962–63 7.73 5.54 122 14.1 1963–64 8.22 5.75 119 15.3 1964–65 8.37 6.01 122 15.5 1965–66 7.96 4.85 104 15.9 1966–67 7.84 5.27 114 16.1 1967–68 8.00 5.78 123 16.7 1968–69 7.60 5.45 122 16.5 1969–70 7.73 5.56 122 16.4 1970–71 7.61 4.76 106 17.3 1971–72 7.80 6.95 151 20.3 1972–73 7.68 5.74 127 21.0 1973–74 7.57 6.31 142 22.1 1974–75 7.56 7.16 161 22.9 1975–76 7.35 5.95 138 23.5 1976–77 6.89 5.84 144 24.6 1977–78 7.87 7.24 157 26.2 1978–79 8.12 7.96 167 27.2 1979–80 8.13 7.65 160 27.5 1980–81 7.82 7.01 152 27.3 1981–82 8.06 7.88 166 27.7 1982–83 7.87 7.53 163 29.0 (Contd.) 786 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1983–84 7.72 6.39 141 29.9 1984–85 7.38 8.51 196 28.5 1985–86 7.53 8.73 197 30.2 1986–87 6.95 6.91 169 31.1 1987–88 6.46 6.38 168 32.0 1988–89 7.34 8.74 202 33.0 1989–90 7.69 11.42 252 34.2 1990–91",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1983–84 7.72 6.39 141 29.9 1984–85 7.38 8.51 196 28.5 1985–86 7.53 8.73 197 30.2 1986–87 6.95 6.91 169 31.1 1987–88 6.46 6.38 168 32.0 1988–89 7.34 8.74 202 33.0 1989–90 7.69 11.42 252 34.2 1990–91 7.44 9.84 225 32.9 1991–92 7.66 9.71 216 33.3 1992–93 7.54 11.40 257 34.6 1993–94 7.32 10.74 249 34.7 1994–95 7.87 11.89 257 34.2 1995–96 9.04 12.86 242 35.0 1996–97 9.12 14.23 265 35.8 1997–98 8.87 10.85 208 36.8 1998–99 9.34 12.29 224 34.9 1999–00 8.71 11.53 225 35.2 2000–01 8.53 9.52 190 34.3 2001–02 9.13 10.00 186 34.0 2002–03 7.67 8.62 191 33.1 2003–04 7.60 13.73 307 27.1 2004–05 8.79 16.43 318 NA 2005–06 8.68 18.50 362 NA 1 bale 170 kg. Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. ANNEXURES 787 ANNEXURE-43 Area, Production and Yield of Cotton during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Cotton Producing States Area–m.ha Production–million bales (1 bale–170 kg.) Yield–kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Gujarat 1.91 22.00 6.77 36.59 36.59 604 1.91 22.00 4.72 28.73 28.73 421 Maharashtra 2.88 33.18 3.16 17.08 53.68 187 2.84 32.72 2.94 17.89 46.62 176 Punjab 0.56 6.45 2.40 12.97 66.65 731 0.51 5.88 2.09 12.72 59.34 697 Andhra Pradesh 1.03 11.87 2.11 11.41 78.05 347 1.18 13.59 2.19 13.33 72.67 316 Haryana 0.58 6.68 1.50 8.11 86.16 437 0.62 7.14 2.08 12.66 85.33 568 Rajasthan 0.47 5.41 0.88 4.76 90.92 317 0.44 5.07 0.76 4.63 89.96 297 Madhya Pradesh 0.62 7.14 0.75 4.05",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "2.09 12.72 59.34 697 Andhra Pradesh 1.03 11.87 2.11 11.41 78.05 347 1.18 13.59 2.19 13.33 72.67 316 Haryana 0.58 6.68 1.50 8.11 86.16 437 0.62 7.14 2.08 12.66 85.33 568 Rajasthan 0.47 5.41 0.88 4.76 90.92 317 0.44 5.07 0.76 4.63 89.96 297 Madhya Pradesh 0.62 7.14 0.75 4.05 94.97 204 0.58 6.68 0.63 3.83 93.79 185 Karnataka 0.41 4.72 0.55 2.97 97.95 228 0.52 5.99 0.69 4.20 97.99 224 Tamil Nadu 0.14 1.61 0.21 1.14 99.08 258 0.13 1.50 0.19 1.16 99.15 256 Others 0.08 0.92 0.17 0.92 100.00 @ 0.06 0.69 0.14 0.85 100.00 @ All India 8.68 100.00 18.50 100.00 362 8.79 101.27 16.43 100.00 318 @ Since area/ production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. 788 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-44 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Jute and Mesta from 1950–51 to 2005–06 Year Area Production Yield (m.ha) (million bales) (kg./ha) 1950–51 0.57 3.31 1043 1951–52 0.79 4.72 1074 1952–53 0.93 5.32 1028 1953–54 0.68 3.77 992 1954–55 0.68 3.86 1021 1955–56 0.94 5.39 1038 1956–57 1.07 5.81 977 1957–58 1.02 5.33 944 1958–59 1.10 6.91 1130 1959–60 0.98 5.69 1049 1960–61 0.90 5.26 1049 1961–62 1.34 8.24 1104 1962–63 1.24 7.19 1041 1963–64 1.27 7.98 1130 1964–65 1.21 7.66 1136 1965–66 1.11 5.78 936 1966–67 1.12 6.58 1058 1967–68 1.20 7.59 1137 1968–69 0.81 3.84 855 1969–70 1.09 6.79 1120 1970–71 1.08 6.19 1032 1971–72 1.11 6.84 1107 1972–73 0.99 6.09 1104 1973–74 1.16 7.68 1188 1974–75 0.98 5.83 1068 1975–76 0.91 5.91 1164 1976–77 1.09 7.10 1173 1977–78 1.16 7.15 1108 1978–79 1.27 8.33 1186 1979–80 1.22 7.96 1177 1980–81 1.30 8.16 1130 1981–82 1.15 8.37 1311 1982–83 1.02 7.17",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1.08 6.19 1032 1971–72 1.11 6.84 1107 1972–73 0.99 6.09 1104 1973–74 1.16 7.68 1188 1974–75 0.98 5.83 1068 1975–76 0.91 5.91 1164 1976–77 1.09 7.10 1173 1977–78 1.16 7.15 1108 1978–79 1.27 8.33 1186 1979–80 1.22 7.96 1177 1980–81 1.30 8.16 1130 1981–82 1.15 8.37 1311 1982–83 1.02 7.17 1265 1983–84 1.05 7.72 1320 (Contd.) ANNEXURES 789 1984–85 1.13 7.79 1242 1985–86 1.50 12.65 1524 1986–87 1.07 8.62 1454 1987–88 0.96 6.78 1274 1988–89 0.92 7.86 1540 1989–90 0.91 8.29 1646 1990–91 1.02 9.23 1634 1991–92 1.11 10.29 1662 1992–93 0.93 8.59 1658 1993–94 0.89 8.43 1713 1994–95 0.93 9.08 1760 1995–96 0.93 8.81 1712 1996–97 1.10 11.13 1818 1997–98 1.11 11.02 1792 1998–99 1.03 9.81 1722 1999–00 1.04 10.56 1836 2000–01 1.02 10.56 1867 2001–02 1.05 11.68 2007 2002–03 1.04 11.28 1960 2003–04 1.00 11.17 2008 2004–05 0.92 10.27 2019 2005–06 0.90 10.84 2173 1 bale–180 kg. Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. * Figures for 1950–51 and 1951–52 relate to Jute crop only. 790 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY ANNEXURE-45 Area, Production and Yield of Jute and Mesta during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in respect of major Jute and Mesta Producing States Area–m.ha Production–million bales of 180 kg. each Yield–kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production West Bengal 0.57 63.33 8.11 74.82 74.82 2566 0.58 64.44 7.93 77.22 77.22 2473 Bihar 0.15 16.67 1.39 12.82 87.64 1692 0.15 16.67 1.18 11.49 88.70 1416 Andhra Pradesh 0.05 5.56 0.46 4.24 91.88 1638 0.05 5.56 0.46 4.48 93.18 1555 Assam 0.06 6.67 0.60 5.54 97.42 1733",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "production production West Bengal 0.57 63.33 8.11 74.82 74.82 2566 0.58 64.44 7.93 77.22 77.22 2473 Bihar 0.15 16.67 1.39 12.82 87.64 1692 0.15 16.67 1.18 11.49 88.70 1416 Andhra Pradesh 0.05 5.56 0.46 4.24 91.88 1638 0.05 5.56 0.46 4.48 93.18 1555 Assam 0.06 6.67 0.60 5.54 97.42 1733 0.06 6.67 0.44 4.28 97.47 1243 Orissa 0.03 3.60 0.14 1.29 98.71 991 0.03 3.60 0.15 1.46 98.93 872 Maharashtra 0.02 2.22 0.04 0.37 99.08 270 0.02 2.22 0.04 0.39 99.32 265 Meghalaya 0.08 8.89 0.06 0.55 99.63 1194 0.08 8.89 0.04 0.39 99.71 860 Others -0.06 -6.93 0.04 0.37 100.00 @ -0.05 -5.82 0.03 0.29 100.00 @ All India 0.90 100.00 10.84 100.00 2173 0.92 102.22 10.27 100.00 2019 @ Since area/ production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. ANNEXURES 791 ANNEXURE-46 All-India Area, Production and Yield of Sugarcane from 1950–51 to 2005–06 along with percentage Coverage under Irrigation Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1950–51 1.71 57.05 33422 67.3 1951–52 1.94 61.63 31786 68.8 1952–53 1.73 51.00 29495 66.3 1953–54 1.41 44.41 31497 67.7 1954–55 1.62 58.74 36303 68.8 1955–56 1.85 60.54 32779 67.2 1956–57 2.05 69.05 33683 64.9 1957–58 2.07 71.16 34325 65.2 1958–59 1.95 73.36 37658 67.4 1959–60 2.14 77.82 36414 67.9 1960–61 2.42 110.00 45549 69.3 1961–62 2.46 103.97 42349 68.0 1962–63 2.24 91.91 40996 67.8 1963–64 2.25 104.23 46353 69.6 1964–65 2.60 121.91 46838 71.5 1965–66 2.84 123.99 43717 71.1 1966–67 2.30 92.83 40336 71.0 1967–68 2.05 95.50 40665 74.1 1968–69 2.53 124.68 49236 76.9 1969–70 2.75 135.02 49121 75.5 1970–71 2.62 126.37 48322 72.4 1971–72 2.39 113.57 47511 71.8 1972–73 2.45 124.87 50933 75.0 1973–74 2.75",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "104.23 46353 69.6 1964–65 2.60 121.91 46838 71.5 1965–66 2.84 123.99 43717 71.1 1966–67 2.30 92.83 40336 71.0 1967–68 2.05 95.50 40665 74.1 1968–69 2.53 124.68 49236 76.9 1969–70 2.75 135.02 49121 75.5 1970–71 2.62 126.37 48322 72.4 1971–72 2.39 113.57 47511 71.8 1972–73 2.45 124.87 50933 75.0 1973–74 2.75 140.81 51163 76.5 1974–75 2.89 144.29 49855 77.9 1975–76 2.76 140.60 50903 78.0 1976–77 2.87 153.01 53383 77.2 1977–78 3.15 176.97 56160 78.1 1978–79 3.09 151.66 49114 77.8 1979–80 2.61 128.83 49358 77.2 1980–81 2.67 154.25 57844 81.2 1981–82 3.19 186.36 58359 82.3 1982–83 3.36 189.51 56441 80.5 (Contd.) 792 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Year Area Production Yield % Coverage under (m.ha) (m.t) (kg./ha) irrigation 1983–84 3.11 174.08 55978 80.3 1984–85 2.95 170.32 57673 83.6 1985–86 2.85 170.65 59889 84.5 1986–87 3.08 186.09 60444 85.4 1987–88 3.28 196.74 60006 85.6 1988–89 3.33 203.04 60992 86.2 1989–90 3.44 225.57 65612 86.9 1990–91 3.69 241.05 65395 86.9 1991–92 3.84 254.00 66069 88.0 1992–93 3.57 228.03 63843 88.3 1993–94 3.42 229.66 67120 88.8 1994–95 3.87 275.54 71254 87.9 1995–96 4.15 281.10 67787 87.4 1996–97 4.17 277.56 66496 88.1 1997–98 3.93 279.54 71134 91.3 1998–99 4.05 288.72 71203 91.7 1999–2000 4.22 299.32 70935 92.0 2000–01 4.32 295.96 68577 92.1 2001–02 4.41 297.21 67370 91.6 2002–03 4.52 287.38 63576 91.3 2003–04 3.93 233.86 59380 90.7 2004–05 3.66 237.08 64752 NA 2005–06 4.20 281.17 66928 NA Note: The yield rates given above have been worked out on the basis of production and area figures taken in ‘000 units. NA Not available. ANNEXURES 793 ANNEXURE-47 Area, Production and Yield of Sugarcane during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Sugarcane Producing States Area–m.ha Production–(m.t.) Yield–kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "‘000 units. NA Not available. ANNEXURES 793 ANNEXURE-47 Area, Production and Yield of Sugarcane during 2004–05 and 2005–06 in major Sugarcane Producing States Area–m.ha Production–(m.t.) Yield–kg./ha 2005–06 2004–05 State Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield Area % of Production % of Cumulative Yield total total % of total total total % of total area production production area production production Uttar Pradesh 2.16 51.43 125.47 44.62 44.62 58201 1.95 53.28 118.72 50.08 50.08 60733 Maharashtra 0.50 11.90 38.85 13.82 58.44 77551 0.32 8.74 20.48 8.64 58.71 63194 Tamil Nadu 0.34 8.10 35.11 12.49 70.93 104671 0.23 6.28 23.40 9.87 68.58 100845 Karnataka 0.22 5.24 18.27 6.50 77.43 83411 0.17 4.64 14.28 6.02 74.61 80202 Andhra Pradesh 0.23 5.48 17.66 6.28 83.71 76765 0.21 5.74 15.74 6.64 81.25 74948 Gujarat 0.20 4.76 14.58 5.19 88.89 74010 0.20 5.46 14.57 6.15 87.39 74072 Haryana 0.13 3.10 8.18 2.91 91.80 64409 0.13 3.55 8.06 3.40 90.79 62000 Uttaranchal 0.10 2.38 6.13 2.18 93.98 60733 0.11 3.01 6.44 2.72 93.51 60196 Punjab 0.08 1.90 4.86 1.73 95.71 57857 0.09 2.46 5.17 2.18 95.69 60116 Bihar 0.10 2.38 4.34 1.54 97.25 42822 0.10 2.73 4.11 1.73 97.42 39460 Madhya Pradesh 0.06 1.43 2.43 0.86 98.12 43694 0.05 1.37 2.15 0.91 98.33 40914 West Bengal 0.02 0.48 1.25 0.44 98.56 83180 0.02 0.55 1.03 0.43 98.76 66231 Orissa 0.02 0.48 1.07 0.38 98.94 65828 0.02 0.55 0.86 0.36 99.13 55838 Assam 0.02 0.48 0.87 0.31 99.25 37231 0.02 0.55 0.88 0.37 99.50 36983 Others 0.02 0.48 2.10 0.75 100.00 @ 0.04 1.09 1.19 0.50 100.00 @ All India 4.20 100.00 281.17 100.00 66928 3.66 100.00 237.08 100.00 64752 @ Since area/ production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "0.48 2.10 0.75 100.00 @ 0.04 1.09 1.19 0.50 100.00 @ All India 4.20 100.00 281.17 100.00 66928 3.66 100.00 237.08 100.00 64752 @ Since area/ production is low in individual states, yield rate is not worked out. Note: States have been arranged in descending order of percentage share of production during 2005–06. * Provisional. Acronyms A AAU Assam Agricultural University (India) ABA Abscisic acid analogue AB-DLO Research Institute for Agrobiology and Soil Fertility (The Netherlands) ADB Asian Development Bank (Headquarters: Philippines) ADC Agricultural Development Council (formerly CECA) (New York, USA) AEZ Agroecological Zone AGDP Agricultural Gross Domestic Products AGLINET Agricultural Libraries Network AGRICOLA Agricultural On-line Access (Headquarters: USA) AGRIS International Information System for the Agricultural Sciences and Technology (affiliated with FAO, Italy) ai Active ingredient AIBA Agriculture Information Bank for Asia (Headquarters: Philippines) AICARP All India Coordinated Agronomic Research Project AICORP All India Coordinated Oilseeds Research Project AICRIP All India Coordinated Rice Improvement Project AICSMSP All India Coordinated Scheme of Micronutrients in Soils and Plants AIEDP Asian Institute for Economic Development and Planning (Headquarters: Thailand) AIFST Australian Institute of Food Science and Technology AIRD Asian Institute for Rural Development (Headquarters: India) Amax Maximum photosynthetic rate APAU Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University (India) APCFFT Asian and Pacific Council Food and Fertilizer Technology Center APEID Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (Headquarters: Thailand) ARA Acetylene-reducing activity ARBN Asian Rice Biotechnology Network OR African Rice Blast Nursery ARC Agricultural Resources Centre OR Agricultural Research Council OR Agricultural Research Centre 796 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY AREEO Agricultural Research, Education, Extension Organization (Iran) ARFSN Asian Rice Farming Systems Network (IRRI) ARS/USDA Agricultural Research Service/United States Department of Agriculture ARTP African Rice Testing Program ASA American Society of Agronomy ASEAN Association of South-East Asian Nations asl Above sea level ASS Acid sulfate soils ASPP American",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "OF AGRONOMY AREEO Agricultural Research, Education, Extension Organization (Iran) ARFSN Asian Rice Farming Systems Network (IRRI) ARS/USDA Agricultural Research Service/United States Department of Agriculture ARTP African Rice Testing Program ASA American Society of Agronomy ASEAN Association of South-East Asian Nations asl Above sea level ASS Acid sulfate soils ASPP American Society of Plant Physiology ASTA American Seed Trade Association ATP Adenosine triphosphate AVRDC Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (Taiwan) AYT Advanced yield trial B BARC Bhabha Atomic Research Institute or Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council BARI Bihar Agricultural Research Institute (India) or Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute BARR Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources (Washington, DC) BAU Bangladesh Agricultural University or Birsa Agricultural University (India) BC Backcross B:C Benefit-to-cost ratio BGA Blue-green algae BIFAD Board for International Food and Agricultural Development (Agency for International Development, Washington, DC) BIOSIS Bioscience Information Service of Biological Abstracts (USA) BIOTECH National Institute of Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology (Philippines) BNF Biological nitrogen fixation BOSTID Board on Science and Technology for International Development (Washington, DC) BPH Brown plant hopper BRRI Bangladesh Rice Research Institute BShR Brown sheath rot Bt Bacillus thuringiensis C CABI Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International (UK) CARD Center for Agricultural Research and Development (Iowa, USA) OR Communicators for Agricultural and Rural Development (Philippines) OR Center for Agricultural Research and Development (Bhutan) CARDI Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (Trinidad) CARI Central Agricultural Research Institute (Sri Lanka) CARIS Current Agricultural Research Information Systems (FAO) CAZRI Central Arid Zone Research Institute (India) CEC Cation exchange capacity OR Continuing Education Center, Philippines CEDA Centre for Economic Development and Administration (Nepal) CEDO Centre for Educational Development Overseas (UK) CERES Crop estimation through resource and environment synthesis CERI Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (OEEC, France) CFTRI Central Food Technological Research Institute (India) CFTU/CIIFAD Conservation Farming in the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "capacity OR Continuing Education Center, Philippines CEDA Centre for Economic Development and Administration (Nepal) CEDO Centre for Educational Development Overseas (UK) CERES Crop estimation through resource and environment synthesis CERI Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (OEEC, France) CFTRI Central Food Technological Research Institute (India) CFTU/CIIFAD Conservation Farming in the Tropical Uplands/Cornell International Institute for Food, Agriculture, and Development (USA) CGFPI Consultative Group on Food Production and Investment in Developing Countries (United Nations, affiliated with IBRD) CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (Headquarters: Washington, DC) CGR Crop growth rate CH4 Methane CHO Carbohydrates CIAE Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (India) CIBC Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control (Trinidad) CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CIEI Center for International Environment Information (New York, USA) CIIFAD Cornell International Institute for Food, Agriculture, and Development (New York, USA) CIRAD Center for International Cooperation in Development-oriented Agricultural Research, France CMA/IIM Centre for Management in Agriculture/Indian Institute of Management C:N Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio CODATA Committee on Data for Science and Technology (ICSU, France) COSTED Committee on Science and Technology in Developing Countries (ICSU, France) CREMNET Crop Resources Management Network (IRRI) CRIFC Central Research Institute for Food Crops (Indonesia) CRRI Central Rice Research Institute (India) CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (Ghana, India, New Zealand) CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (Australia) CSN Cropping Systems Network CSRRI Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (India) CSTD United Nations Center for Science and Technology for Development (USA) D DAE Days after emergence DAF Days after flowering OR DNA Amplification Fingerprinting DAH Days After Harvest DAI Days After Inoculation DANIDA Danish International Development Agency (Copenhagen) DAP Days After Planting DARE Department of Agricultural Research and Education (India) ACRONYMS 797 798 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY DAS Days after seeding/sowing DAS-ELISA Double Antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay DAT Days after treatment OR",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Fingerprinting DAH Days After Harvest DAI Days After Inoculation DANIDA Danish International Development Agency (Copenhagen) DAP Days After Planting DARE Department of Agricultural Research and Education (India) ACRONYMS 797 798 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY DAS Days after seeding/sowing DAS-ELISA Double Antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay DAT Days after treatment OR Days after transplanting DBH Days before Harvest/Heading DBMS Data base Management System DBT Days before Transplanting DM Dry Matter DMI Dry Matter Intake DMP Dry Matter Production DMRT Duncan’s Multiple Range Test DOA & E Department of Agriculture and Extension DOASL Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka DOST Department of Science and Technology (Philippines) DOT Date of transplanting DRAAE Department of Agronomic Research and Agro-economy, FOFIFA, Madagascar DRR Department of Rice Research, FOFIFA, Madagascar OR Directorate of Rice Research (India) DSR Direct seeded rice DSS Decision support system DSSAT Decision Support System for Agro Technology Transfer dw Dry weight DWR Deepwater Rice DWS Direct Wet Seedbed F F1 First filial generation F2 Second filial generation Fn nth filial generation FA Fulvic acid FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (UN) fb Followed by FIDA International Fund for Agricultural Development (France) FNRI Food and Nutrition Research Institute (Philippines) FSR Farming System Research FSRI Farming Systems Research Institute (Thailand) FSSRI Farming Systems and Soil Resources Institute (UPLB, Philippines) fw Fresh weight FYM Farmyard manure H ha Hectare HA Humic Acid HAU Haryana Agricultural University (India) HDI High density index HI Harvest index HPLC High performance liquid chromatography HRD Human resources development HW Hand Weeding HWT Hot Water Treatment I IAA Indole acetic acid IAAE International Association of Agricultural Economics (Headquarters: UK) IAAP Intensive Agricultural Area Program (India) IADP Intensive Agricultural District Program (India) IARI Indian Agricultural Research Institute IAS Institute of Agricultural Sciences (Republic of Korea) IASRI Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute IBPGR International Board",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Hot Water Treatment I IAA Indole acetic acid IAAE International Association of Agricultural Economics (Headquarters: UK) IAAP Intensive Agricultural Area Program (India) IADP Intensive Agricultural District Program (India) IARI Indian Agricultural Research Institute IAS Institute of Agricultural Sciences (Republic of Korea) IASRI Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute IBPGR International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (Italy; became IPGRI in 1994) ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research ICARDA International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (Syria) ICASALS International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies (Texas, USA) ICID International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (India) ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (India) IDRC International Development Research Centre (Canada) IEA Initial Environmental Assessment IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development (Italy) IFDC International Fertilizer Development Center (Alabama, USA) IFDP Institute for Food Development Policy (USA) IFPRI International Food Policy and Research Institute (Washington, DC) IFRPD Institute of Food Research and Product Development (Thailand) IFS International Foundation of Science (Sweden) IGLIC International Grain Legume Information Centre (Nigeria) IGUAT Indira Gandhi University of Agriculture and Technology (India) IIBC International Institute of Biological Control (UK) IIHR Indian Institute for Horticultural Research IIMI International Irrigation Management Institute (Sri Lanka) IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (Nigeria) ILO International Labour Organization ILRI International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (The Netherlands) or International Livestock Research Institute (Kenya and Ethiopia) INSA Indian National Science Academy or National Institute of Agricultural Sciences (Vietnam) INSFFER International Network on Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Evaluation for Rice INSURF International Network on Soil Fertility and Sustainable Rice Farming IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (formerly IBPGR) IPM Integrated Pest Management IPPC International Plant Protection Center (Oregon, USA) ACRONYMS 799 800 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY IPR Intellectual property rights IR Infrared spectrophotometry or Irrigated rice IRAT Institute for Research in Tropical",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Network on Soil Fertility and Sustainable Rice Farming IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (formerly IBPGR) IPM Integrated Pest Management IPPC International Plant Protection Center (Oregon, USA) ACRONYMS 799 800 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY IPR Intellectual property rights IR Infrared spectrophotometry or Irrigated rice IRAT Institute for Research in Tropical Agriculture, France IRRI International Rice Research Institute (Philippines) IRRN International Rice Research Notes (formerly IRRI Newsletter) IRPT International Rice Testing Program (now INGER) ISBN International standard book number ISFEIP International Soil Fertility Evaluation and Improvement Program ISMARC Irrigation System Management Research Committee ISNAR International Service for National Agricultural Research (The Netherlands) ISO International Standardization Organization ISRIC International Soil Reference and Information Centre (includes the former International Soil Museum, The Netherlands) ISSN International standard serial number ISSS International Soil Science Society (Italy) ISTA International Seed Testing Association (Switzerland) IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (Switzerland) IVOMD In vitro Organic Matter Digestibility IVTDMD In vitro Total Dry Matter Digestibility L L/B Length/Breadth ratio of grain LAI Leaf Area Index LAN Local Area Network LAR Leaf Area Ratio LC50 Concentration that causes 50% Mortality LD50 Duration, in days, to 50% Mortality LEISA Low external input and sustainable Agriculture LER Land Equivalent Ratio LRDC Land Resources Development Centre (UK) LSD Least Significant Difference LTCCE Long-term Continuous Cropping Experiment LTFE Long-term Fertility Experiment LTR Light Transmission Ratio LUCC Land-use/Cover Change LWD Leaf Water Potential M MACROS Modules for Annual Crop Simulation MARDI Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute m-d Man-days MP Matric Potential MS Male Sterile or Mildly susceptible or Moderately susceptible MOA Ministry of Agriculture MW Molecular weight N NARC Nepal Agricultural Research Council or National Agricultural Research Center (Japan) NARP National Agricultural Research Project (India) NARS/s National Agricultural Research System/s NAS National Academy of Sciences (Washington, DC) NBPGR",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "MP Matric Potential MS Male Sterile or Mildly susceptible or Moderately susceptible MOA Ministry of Agriculture MW Molecular weight N NARC Nepal Agricultural Research Council or National Agricultural Research Center (Japan) NARP National Agricultural Research Project (India) NARS/s National Agricultural Research System/s NAS National Academy of Sciences (Washington, DC) NBPGR National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (India) NCRI National Cereals Research Institute (Nigeria) NDUAT Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology (India) NERC National Environment Research Center (Alabama, USA) NFDC National Fertilizer Development Center (Tennessee, USA) NFE Nitrogen-free extract NFNC National Food and Nutrition Commission (Zambia) NFS Nitrogen fixation stimulation NFTAL Nitrogen fixation in tropical agricultural legumes NGO Nongovernmental Organization NHI Nitrogen harvest index NIAR National Institute of Agrobiological Resources (Japan) NIB National Irrigation Board (Philippines) NIR Near-infrared reflectance NIRD National Institute for Rural Development (India) NIRS National Irrigation Research Station (Zambia) NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy NoET Number of effective tillers/hill NoFG Number of filled grains/panicle NPGRCC National Plant Genetic Resources Conservation Center (China) NPGRL National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory (Philippines) NPT New plant type NRI Natural Research Institute (UK) NRIP National Rice Improvement Programme (Nepal) NSERC National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (Ottawa) NSKE Neem seed kernel extract NUE Nitrogen use efficiency O ODAI Operation for Integrated Agricultural Development ODC Overseas Development Council (USA) OM Organic matter ORP Operational Research Project (India) OUAT Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology (India) OYT Observational yield trial/test ACRONYMS 801 802 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY P PAR Photo Synthetically Active Radiation PARC Pakistan Agricultural Research Council PAU Punjab Agricultural University (India) Pd Domestic price PDSS Phosphorus Decision Support System PEt Potential Evapotranspiration PFP Partial Factor Productivity PGMS Photosensitive Genetic Male Sterile/Sterility PGR Plant Growth Regulator PhilRice Philippine Rice Research Institute PHT Post Harvest Technology PHTRC Post Harvest Horticulture Training and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Radiation PARC Pakistan Agricultural Research Council PAU Punjab Agricultural University (India) Pd Domestic price PDSS Phosphorus Decision Support System PEt Potential Evapotranspiration PFP Partial Factor Productivity PGMS Photosensitive Genetic Male Sterile/Sterility PGR Plant Growth Regulator PhilRice Philippine Rice Research Institute PHT Post Harvest Technology PHTRC Post Harvest Horticulture Training and Research Center (Philippines) PI Panicle Initiation PNUE Photosynthetic N use efficiency PPD Plant Population Density PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal PU Prilled Urea PVC Polyvinyl Chloride Pw World Price PWD Ponding Water Depth R R Resistant or Restorer or Restorer line RAU Rajendra Agricultural University (India) RAVC Return After Variable Cost RCI Rice Cropping Intensity rDNA Recombinant DNA RG Rate of Germination RGR Relative Growth Rate RGSV Rice Grassy Stunt Virus RH Relative Humidity RIFSA Research Institute for Food Crops in Swampy Areas (Indonesia) RKN Root Knot Nematode RLR Rainfed Lowland Rice RNA Ribonucleic Acid RPM Revolutions per Minute rRNA Ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid RRSV Rice Ragged Stunt Virus RRTC Rice Research and Training Centre (Egypt) RS Remote Sensing or Row seeder or Simple random sampling RSV Ragged Stunt Virus RTD Rice Tungro Disease RTV Rice Tungro Virus S SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SACCAR Southern African Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural Research and Training (Headquarters: Botswana) SADC Southern African Development Coordination Conference (Headquarters: Botswana) SAREC Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries SARP Systems Analysis and Simulation for Rice Production SCOPE Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (ICSU, France) SCU Sulfur-Coated Urea SEAPPO South-east Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Organization SEARCA South-east Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (Headquarters: Philippines) SLW Specific Leaf Weight SMB Soil Microbial Biomass SMT Soil Moisture Tension SOC Soil Organic Carbon SOM Soil Organic Matter SPAD Soil and Plant Analyzer Development (Japan) SUB Submergence SWRI Surface Water Retention",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Plant Protection Organization SEARCA South-east Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (Headquarters: Philippines) SLW Specific Leaf Weight SMB Soil Microbial Biomass SMT Soil Moisture Tension SOC Soil Organic Carbon SOM Soil Organic Matter SPAD Soil and Plant Analyzer Development (Japan) SUB Submergence SWRI Surface Water Retention Index T t ton/s T Temperature or Tertiary tillers TAC Technical Advisory Committee (CGIAR) TARC Tropical Agriculture Research Center (now JIRCAS, Japan) TARI Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute TARO Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute TDMY Total Dry Matter Yield TDRI Thailand Development Research Institute or Tropical Development and Research Institute (formerly Tropical Products Institute, UK) TFP Total factor productivity TNAU Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (India) TNAU-WTC Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Water Technology Center (India) TNRRI Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute (India) TPR Transplanted rice TPRI Tropical Pesticides Research Institute (Tanzania) TSP Triple Super Phosphate TUAT Tokyo University of Agricultural Technology TVC Total Variable Cost ACRONYMS 803 U UAS University of Agricultural Sciences (India) UES Urea-elemental Sulfur UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP/WB United Nations Development Programme/World Bank UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (France) URICC Upland Rice Research Intercenter Coordinating Committee USAID United States Agency for International Development (also AID) USDA United States Department of Agriculture USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency USG Urea Supergranule UV Ultraviolet Light W WAI Weeks after incubation or Weeks after inoculation WARDA West Africa Rice Development Association (C”te d’Ivoire) WAS Weeks After Seeding WAU Wageningen Agricultural University (The Netherlands) WCRP World Climate Research Programme WHO World Health Organization WMO World Meteorological Organization WS Wet season wt Weight WTD Water Table Depth WUE Water Use Efficiency ACRONYMS 804 Glossary The glossary given in this part, contain the following list in alphabetic order. For a more complete glossary and acronyms, we recommend the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Climate Research Programme WHO World Health Organization WMO World Meteorological Organization WS Wet season wt Weight WTD Water Table Depth WUE Water Use Efficiency ACRONYMS 804 Glossary The glossary given in this part, contain the following list in alphabetic order. For a more complete glossary and acronyms, we recommend the readers to refer the books like Agriculture : Facts and Figures (Subbaian, Annadurai and Palaniappan, 2000–published by Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India), Agronomic terminology (by Indian Society of Agronomy, New Delhi) and Glossary of terms in crop production (by Ramamoorthy, Annadurai and Subbaian, 2005 published by Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India, 420p). For few important words, the glossary of terms is given then and there. Absolute humidity: The actual mass of water vapour present in a given volume of moist air. It is expressed as grams of water vapour per cubic meter or cubic feet. Absolute water requirement: Also called consumptive use of water. This is the quantity of water in ha-cm per crop season absorbed by the crop together with the evaporation from the crop producing land. It includes the water used by evapo-transpiration and retained in the plant body. Absorption: The process by which a substance is taken into and included within another substance, i.e., intake of water by soil, or intake of gases, water, nutrients, or other substances by plants. Absorptivity: Absorptivity of a substance is defined as the ratio of the amount of radiant energy absorbed to the total amount incident upon that substance. The absorptivity of a blackbody is unity. Natural bodies like sun and earth are near perfect black bodies Acre-Foot: A volume of water required to irrigate an area of one acre to a depth of one foot. This is equal to 43,560 c. ft or 1233.5 m3. Acre-Inch: A volume of water necessary to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "blackbody is unity. Natural bodies like sun and earth are near perfect black bodies Acre-Foot: A volume of water required to irrigate an area of one acre to a depth of one foot. This is equal to 43,560 c. ft or 1233.5 m3. Acre-Inch: A volume of water necessary to cover an area of one acre of land to a depth of one inch. The volume of this water is 3630 cubic feet (102.8 m3). 1 cubic feet = 0.0283 m3 = 28.32 litres. Actual crop evapo-transpiration: Rate of evapo-transpiration equal to or smaller that PET as affected by the level of available soil water salinity field, size, or other causes; mm/day. Actual vapour pressure: Pressure exerted by water vapour contained in the air, millibar (mb) or mm of Hg. Adsorption: The increased concentration of molecules or ions at a surface, including exchangeable cations and anions on soil particles. Advection: The process of transport of an atmospheric property (such as heat, water vapour or momentum) solely by the horizontal motions of the atmosphere. Aerodynamic: Refers to forces of moving air acting upon the soil of crop surface. Aggregate: A single mass or cluster of soil consisting of many soil particles held together, such as a clod, prism, crumb, or granule. 806 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Agriculture Labourer: Basically they own neither land nor farm implements although some may own to a negligible extent. They make a living mainly or wholly by selling their labour in agriculture of allied activities as free or attached or share-cropper for a very low wage in without much security of tenure. Agro climatic regions: The grouping of different physical areas within the country into broadly homogeneous zones based on climatic and edaphic factors. Air capacity: The quantity of air in the soil when the soil",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "free or attached or share-cropper for a very low wage in without much security of tenure. Agro climatic regions: The grouping of different physical areas within the country into broadly homogeneous zones based on climatic and edaphic factors. Air capacity: The quantity of air in the soil when the soil is at field moisture capacity. Albedo: It is the capacity of any surface to reflect the incoming radiation (light) or it is the ratio of incoming radiation to the outgoing radiation. The total reflectivity is known as earth’s albedo. Average albedo value for earth is 34%. The total energy coming to the earth over a considerable period of time is equal to the total outward losses. If this were not so, the earth would seen become either very hot or very cold. Actually there is a deficit of heat at higher latitudes and surplus in low latitudes. Alkali soil: A soil that contains sufficient exchangeable sodium to interfere with the growth of most crop plants, either with or without appreciable quantities of soluble salts. Alkaline soil: A soil that has an alkaline reaction, i.e., a soil for which the pH reading of the saturated soil paste is higher than 7. Anticyclone: When isobars are circular, elliptical in shape and the pressure is highest at the centre such a pressure system is called ‘High’ or ‘Anticyclone’. When the isobars are elliptical rather than circular the system is called as ‘Ridge’ or ‘Wedge’. The movement will be clockwise in the Northern hemisphere while it is anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Aquifer: Water bearing formation in the ground that will yield enough water. Arid: A climate that is characterized by low rainfall and high rate of evaporation. Arid climate is usually defined as less than 10 inches (25 cm) of precipitation per year,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "while it is anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Aquifer: Water bearing formation in the ground that will yield enough water. Arid: A climate that is characterized by low rainfall and high rate of evaporation. Arid climate is usually defined as less than 10 inches (25 cm) of precipitation per year, and semi-arid as between 10 and 20 inches per year. Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by the atmosphere as a consequence of the weight of the air lying directly above the unit of area in question. At sea level atmospheric pressure is equal to 76 cm Hg column. Available soil water: Depth of water stored in the root zone between field capacity and PWP; mm/m soil depth. Blackbody radiation: A Blackbody is defined as a body, which completely absorbs all the heat radiations falling on it without reflecting and transmitting any of it. It means reflectivity and transmittivity become zero. When such a black body is heated, it emits radiation of all wavelengths depending upon its temp. Blue colour of the sky: If the circumference of the scattering particle is less than about 1/10 of the wavelength of the incident radiation, the scattering co-efficient is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength of the incident radiation. This is known as Rayleigh scattering. This is the primary cause of the blue colour of the sky. For larger particles with circumference >30 times of wavelength of the incident radiation, scattering is independent of the wavelength (i.e.,) white light is scattered. This is known as Mei scaring. Bowen ratio: The ratio of energy fluxes upward as sensible heat to latent energy flux in the same direction (negative when the fluxes are in opposite directions). Buoyancy: The upward force exerted on a volume of fluid (or an object in the fluid) by",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "This is known as Mei scaring. Bowen ratio: The ratio of energy fluxes upward as sensible heat to latent energy flux in the same direction (negative when the fluxes are in opposite directions). Buoyancy: The upward force exerted on a volume of fluid (or an object in the fluid) by virtue of density difference between the volume of fluid (or the object) and that of the surrounding fluid. Calorie (cal): A unit of heats required raising the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5–15.5°C. The international table calorie equals 1.00032 cal. Capillary potential or Buckingham’s potential: It is a measure of the attraction forces with which water is held by a soil. It is usually expressed in terms of work that must be done to move water against the capillary forces of the soil. Buckingham (1907) who originally losses applied to the soil in one irrigation application and which is needed to bring the soil water content of root zone to field capacity; mm. Capillary rise: The rise of a liquid in a capillary tube may be obtained by computing the pressure exerted by the hanging water column. Water ‘hangs’ around the perimeter of the tube by virtue of adsorption forces between the tube surface and the liquid and the cohesive forces in the liquid surface or surface tension. Capillary rise (h) can be given as: ( ) 2 2 cos or h h r g r g σ σ α = = ρ ρ where σ is the surface tension, r is the radius of the capillary tube, ρ is the density of the liquid and ; αg is the contact angle between water and soil pore (assumed to be zero). Cell water potential: Water potential is a measure of the free energy status of water. As applied",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "surface tension, r is the radius of the capillary tube, ρ is the density of the liquid and ; αg is the contact angle between water and soil pore (assumed to be zero). Cell water potential: Water potential is a measure of the free energy status of water. As applied to plant cells, under isothermal equilibrium conditions, the various factors involved in cell water relations can be summarized by the following equation. Ψcell = ΨS + ΨD + ΨM in which Ψcell is the potential of water in the cell and the other terms express the contribution to Ψcell by solutes ΨS pressure ΨD and matric forces (ΨM). ΨS and ΨM are both negative while ΨP is positive. ΨS expresses the effect of solutes in the cell solution, and ΨM expresses the effect of water-binding colloids and surfaces in the cell. The sum of ΨS+ΨP+ΨM is a negative number, except in fully turgid cells when it becomes zero. In this case, the positive pressure potential ΨP balances the sum of the negative osmotic and matric potentials. It may be shown that DPD is numerically equal to Ψcell but opposite in sign (Kramer, 1969), that is, ΨCell = DPD The potential of water in a cell is less than that of pure water, i.e., it is negative whereas, DPD is positive because it is defined as a deficit. Chemical potential of water: The chemical potential of a substance in a system is a measure of the capacity of that substance to work. In a simple solution of a non-electrolyte in water, the chemical potential of water depends on the mean free energy per molecule and the concentration of water molecules. Condensation: The physical process by which a vapour becomes a liquid or solid-opposited of evaporation. Conduction: Conduction is the process of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "work. In a simple solution of a non-electrolyte in water, the chemical potential of water depends on the mean free energy per molecule and the concentration of water molecules. Condensation: The physical process by which a vapour becomes a liquid or solid-opposited of evaporation. Conduction: Conduction is the process of heat transfer through matter by molecular activity. In this process heat is transferred from one part of a body to another or between two objects touching each other. Conduction occurs through molecular movement. Convection: Convection is the process of the transfer of heat, through movement of a mass or substance from one place to another. Convention is possible only in gases or fluids, for they alone have internal mass motions. In solid substances this type of heat transfer is impossible. Cubic foot per second (cu sec): A continuous flow of water equal to a stream of one foot wide, one foot deep, and flowing at a velocity of one foot/second. It is equal to 0.0283 m3/sec. or 28.3 litres/second. 1 cusec = 1 acre inch/hr = 1 ha. Cm/hr = 24 ha.cm/day = 2 acre feet/day. One TMC = one thousand million cubic feet (109 cubic feet) = 100 crore c.ft. GLOSSARY 807 808 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Cubic meter (M3): A volume equal to that of a cube having 1 m long, 1 m wide and 1 m deep. 1 cubic metre = 1000 litres. Cubic metre per second (cu mec): A continuous flow of water equal to a stream of 1 metre wide and 1 metre deep flowing at a velocity of 1 metre per second. Cyclone: Means closed circulation about a low-pressure centre, which is anti-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. Cyclonic whirls are the ‘Storms’ of middle latitude. In the temperate latitude they produce much of the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "stream of 1 metre wide and 1 metre deep flowing at a velocity of 1 metre per second. Cyclone: Means closed circulation about a low-pressure centre, which is anti-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. Cyclonic whirls are the ‘Storms’ of middle latitude. In the temperate latitude they produce much of the winter precipitation. Around the low-pressure centres. Air circulates anticlockwise direction in Northern Hemisphere. The air is heterogeneous in relation to temperature and moisture. Degree days: At a given location, the period between planting and harvesting is not a specific number of calendar days but rather a summation of energy units, which may be represented as degree-days. A degree-day for a given crop is defined as a day on which the mean daily temp. is one degree above the zero temp. (That is the minimum temp. for growth) of the plant. Dew: Dew is a common form of condensation in the environment. Dew forms on the ground and on solid objects before condensation occurs in the air. Because the ground cools rapidly than the air. Air curing in contact with cold surface may be cooled before its dew point and gets condensed and deposited. Dew point: Temperature to which air must be coded at constant pressure and moisture content for saturation to occur. Dew forms on automobiles and other metal objects first. Metals cool rapidly than soil (or) vegetation. Dew can form at any temperature above freezing point in tropics, often it forms at as high temperature at 21°C. Diffusion: Movement of diffusing particles from higher concentration to lower concentration is called diffusion. It is an essential step in exchange of gasses in respiration and photosynthesis and stomatal transpiration. Disposition of solar radiation: 25% of solar radiation is reflected back to the space by clouds (more by middle and high latitudes",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of diffusing particles from higher concentration to lower concentration is called diffusion. It is an essential step in exchange of gasses in respiration and photosynthesis and stomatal transpiration. Disposition of solar radiation: 25% of solar radiation is reflected back to the space by clouds (more by middle and high latitudes and less in the subtropics). 6% reflected back by air, dust and water vapour. 30% scatted downwards (more in the form of shorter wavelengths able) them that in longer wave length (red). 17% of solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere. (Mostly by Oxygen, O3, CO2 and H2O vapour). O2 – absorb the extreme UV wavelengths (0.12–0.6 µ) O3 – UV (0.2 to 0.32 µ) and Visible part of radiation (0.44–0.7 µ) H2O vapour – Near infra red (0.93, 1.13, 1.42 µ) CO2 – IR band 2.7 µ. About 50% of solar radiation reaches earth’s surface, after reflection, scattering and absorption. Visible rays 390–760 micron m, nm 1 Micron meter 1000000 = 1 mm 1000 = Milli micron: 10−9 ml = nanometer Distribution efficiency (Ed): Ratio of water made directly available to the crop and that released at the inlet of a block of fields: Ed = Eb/Ea; fraction. Drainage: The process of the discharge of water from an area of soil by sheet or stream flow (surface drainage) and the removal of excess water from within the soil by downward follow-through the soil (internal drainage). Or the means for effecting the removal of water from the surface of soil and from within the soil, i.e., sloping topography or stream channel (surface drainage) and open ditches, underground tile lines, or pumped wells (artificial drainage). Drizzle: It is “fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops of water (diameter less than 0.8 mm) very close to one another”. In some places",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and from within the soil, i.e., sloping topography or stream channel (surface drainage) and open ditches, underground tile lines, or pumped wells (artificial drainage). Drizzle: It is “fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops of water (diameter less than 0.8 mm) very close to one another”. In some places drizzles is called mist. According to Donn, if the droplets in a drizzle completely evaporate before reaching the ground, the conditions is referred to as mist. However, in the International codes for weather reports, the term ‘mist’ is used when the hydrometer-mist or fog-reduces the horizontal visibility at the earth’s surface do not less than one km. Drought year: When the rainfall is short by more than twice the deviation, the year is said to be drought year for a particular place, e.g., if the normal rainfall is 1,000 mm and normal deviation is 150 mm, then if the rainfall received is less than 700 mm, it would be termed as a drought year. Duty of water: The area of a crop in acres that can be irrigated throughout the crop period by a continuous flow of 1 cusec of water or the area of a crop in hectares that can be irrigated throughout the crop period by a continuous flow of 1 cumec of water. Effective rainfall (ER): Rainfall useful for meeting crop water requirements; it excludes deep percolation, surface runoff and interception; mm/period. Effective rooting depth (D): Soil depth from which the full-grown crop extracts most of the water needed for evapotranspiration; m. Electrical conductivity (Ec): Ec is the property of the medium of transferring electric charge. It is the reciprocal of electrical resistively and is expressed in reciprocal of Ohms (mhos) per cm at 25°C. Emissivity: Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy emitted",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "water needed for evapotranspiration; m. Electrical conductivity (Ec): Ec is the property of the medium of transferring electric charge. It is the reciprocal of electrical resistively and is expressed in reciprocal of Ohms (mhos) per cm at 25°C. Emissivity: Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy emitted by a given surface to the total heat energy emitted by a black body. The emissivity of a black body is unity. Energy measurement Units Cal cm−2 min−1 J cm−2 mi−1 W cm−2 Cal cm−2 min−1 1 4.1868 0.069 J cm−2 mi−1 0.238 1 0.00165 W cm−2 14.3 60.6 1 Energy balance or heat balance: The net radiation is the difference between total incoming and outgoing radiations and is a measure of the energy available at the ground surface. It is the energy available at the earth’s surface to drive the processes of evaporation, air and soil heat fluxes as well as other smaller energy consuming processes such as photosynthesis and respiration. The net radiation over crop is as follows: Rn = G + H + LE + PS + M Rn is net radiation, G is surface soil heat flux, H is sensible heat flux, LE is latent heat flux, PS and M are energy fixed in plants by photosynthesis and energy involved in respiration, respectively. The PS and M are assumed negligible due to their minor contribution (about 1–2% of Rn). The net radiation is the basic source of energy for evapotranspiration (LE), heating the air (H) and soil (S) and other miscellaneous M including photosynthesis. Equator: An imaginary circle around the earth, equally distant at all points from both the North pole and the south pole. It divides the earth’s surface into the northern Hemisphere and the southern Hemisphere. GLOSSARY 809 810 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Equivalent",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "soil (S) and other miscellaneous M including photosynthesis. Equator: An imaginary circle around the earth, equally distant at all points from both the North pole and the south pole. It divides the earth’s surface into the northern Hemisphere and the southern Hemisphere. GLOSSARY 809 810 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Equivalent weight: The weight in grams of an ion or compound that combines with or replaces one gram of hydrogen. The atomic weight or formula weight divided by its valence. Exchangeable cation: A cation that is adsorbed on the exchange complex and which is capable of exchange with other cations. Exchangeable sodium percentage: The degree of saturation of the soil exchange complex with sodium. It may be calculated by the formula: ( ) ( ) Exchangeable sodium meq 100 g soil ESP 100 Cation-exchange-capacity meq 100 g soil = × Extra-terrestrial radiation (Ra): Amount of solar radiation received on a horizontal plane at the top of the atmosphere; equivalent evaporation mm/day. Farmer: Etymologically a farmer is a person who cultivations a farm which is basically pertaining to agriculture. The Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Government of India, defined marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farmers as the households having <1 acre (1 acre = 0.4047 ha), 1–2 acres, 2–4 acres, 4–10 acres and >10 acres of land respectively (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Government of India, 1970–71). However in West Bengal, marginal, small, medium and large farmers are considered as those who posses < 2.5 acres. 2.5–5 acres: 5–10 acres and >10 acres of land respectably. Field application efficiency (Ea): Ratio of water made directly available to the crop and that received at the field inlet. Field capacity (Fc): Depth of water held in the soil in absence of ET after ample irrigation or heavy rain when the rate of downward",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": ">10 acres of land respectably. Field application efficiency (Ea): Ratio of water made directly available to the crop and that received at the field inlet. Field capacity (Fc): Depth of water held in the soil in absence of ET after ample irrigation or heavy rain when the rate of downward movement has substantially decreased, usually 1–3 days after irrigation, or rain. Soil water content at soil water tension of about 0.1–0.3 atmosphere. Fifteen-atmosphere percentage: It is the moisture percentage on dry-weight basis of a soil sample, which has been wetted and brought to an equilibrium in a pressure membrane plate apparatus at 15 atm pressure (221 lb/sq. inch). This characteristic moisture value for soil approximates the lower limit of water available for crop growth, which is also referred to as PWP. Fog: Fog is a condensed water droplet suspended in air in the lower atmosphere (surface of the earth). Condensed water droplets around nuclei are called cloud. Fog reduces the horizontal visibility. They frequently occur in super cold. Liquid at temperature much below the freezing. Accumulation of dust or smoke fog in air is called dust fogs or smoke fogs. Thick fogs are more frequent in smoke cities. The bled of smoke and fog is called ‘smog’. Free flow: It is a condition under which the rate of discharge is solely dependent on the length of crest and depth of water at ‘Ha’ in the converging section of the Par shall flume. At free-flow the ratio of Hb and Ha equals or is less than 0.6. Gas constant: The constant factor in the equation of state for perfect gases. The universal gas constant is R = 8.314 × 107 erg mol−1. 0 K−1. Global radiation: The total of direct solar radiation and diffuse sky radiation received by a unit horizontal",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "equals or is less than 0.6. Gas constant: The constant factor in the equation of state for perfect gases. The universal gas constant is R = 8.314 × 107 erg mol−1. 0 K−1. Global radiation: The total of direct solar radiation and diffuse sky radiation received by a unit horizontal surface (essentially less than about 3 microns). Ground water table: Upper surface of free water accumulating in lower depths or saturating the underlying sand or gravel. Furnishes supplies for shallow spring and wells; water table of more than 180-240 cm below the bottom of the root zone is not of much use to the plants. Ground water: The water that occurs in the zone of saturation, from which wells and springs or open channels are fed. This term is sometimes used to include also the suspended water and is loosely synonymous with subsurface water, underground water or sub-terranian water. Hail: It is “Precipitation of small balls or pieces of ice (hailstorms) with a diameter ranging from 5 to 50 mm or sometimes more, falling either separately or agglomerated into irregular humps. It is always produced by convective clouds, usually cumulonimbus. Hail Storm: Small round pieces of ice 9 hail) that sometimes fall during thunderstorms (frozen raindrops, hailstorms). Hails may be sometimes greater in size than a large marble. It falls from cumulonimbus clouds. Hails are destructive to crops–mechanical damage, structures etc. Heat: It is the aggregate internal energy of motion and molecules of a body. It is often defined as energy in the process of being transferred from one object to another because of the temperature between them. Heat budget: If the total solar radiation reaches the outer limit of the atmosphere, about 32 per cent is reflected by clouds of scattered back to space by suspended particles and it",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "energy in the process of being transferred from one object to another because of the temperature between them. Heat budget: If the total solar radiation reaches the outer limit of the atmosphere, about 32 per cent is reflected by clouds of scattered back to space by suspended particles and it is not used to heat the air. The earth surface reflects 2 per cent of radiation to the space. The total reflectivity is known as earth’s “albedo”. The average albedo value for the earth is 34 per cent. About 19 per cent of solar radiation is absorbed by gases and water vapour, about 24 per cent is absorbed the earth from scattering of clouds and atmosphere. Thus approximately two-thirds of the total radiation is effective in heating the earth. Heat Wave: A region is considered to be in the grip of moderate heat wave when it recorded maximum temperature exceeds the normal by 5°–8°C. Heat wave is common in UP (54% Probability) in the month of June. Incidence is maximum in Western UP. Persistence is 5–6 days particularly more in June. Effect of Heat Wave: Already dealt in effect of temperature on crop growth. Thermal death point affects photosynthesis and respiration. Increased respiration depletion of reserve food, sun clad, stem girdle. Hectare-centimeter: A volume of water necessary to fill an area of 1 hectare of land to a depth of 1 cm. 1 ha. cm = 100 m3 = 1,00,000 litres. Hectare-meter: A volume water required to irrigate one hectare of land to a depth of 1m. 1ha m = 10,000 m3. Hurricane: A violent tropical cyclone with wind speed of 73 or more miles per hour or 134 and more km/h usually accompanied by torrential (very heavy fall) rain, originating usually in West Indian regions. Hydraulic conductivity: Hydraulic conductivity",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of land to a depth of 1m. 1ha m = 10,000 m3. Hurricane: A violent tropical cyclone with wind speed of 73 or more miles per hour or 134 and more km/h usually accompanied by torrential (very heavy fall) rain, originating usually in West Indian regions. Hydraulic conductivity: Hydraulic conductivity is the proportionality factor k in Darcy’s law (v = ki, in which v is the effective flow velocity and i is the hydraulic gradient). It is, therefore, the effective flow velocity at unit hydraulic gradient and has the dimensions of velocity (LT−1). The values of k depend on the properties of the fluid with the porous medium, such as swelling of a soil. A soil that has high porosity and coarse open texture has a high hydraulic conductivity value. For two soils of the same ‘total’ porosity, the soil with small pores has lower conductivity than the soil with large pores because of the resistance to flow in small pores. A soil with pores of many sizes conducts water faster if the large pores form a continuous path through the profile. In fine-textured soils, hydraulic conductivity depends almost entirely on structural pores. In some soils, particles are cemented together to form nearly impermeable layers commonly called hardpans. In other soils, very finely divided or colloidal material expands on absorbing water to form an impervious gelatinous mass that restricts the movement of water. Hydraulic gradient: Hydraulic gradient is the rate of change of piezometric or hydraulic head with distance. Hydraulic gradient of ground water records the head consumed by friction in the flow in unit distance since in ground water flow the velocity heads are generally negligible. Hydraulic pressure: The pressure in a fluid in equilibrium, which is due solely to the weight of fluid above. GLOSSARY 811 812 A",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "gradient of ground water records the head consumed by friction in the flow in unit distance since in ground water flow the velocity heads are generally negligible. Hydraulic pressure: The pressure in a fluid in equilibrium, which is due solely to the weight of fluid above. GLOSSARY 811 812 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Hydroscopic coefficient: It is the amount of moisture in dry soil when the same is in equilibrium with some standard relative humidity near a saturated atmosphere 9 about 98 per cent) expressed in terms of percentage on the basis of oven-dry soil. Hygroscopic water: Hygroscopic water is that which is absorbed from an atmosphere of water vapour as a result of attractive forces in the surface of particles. Imbibition: The first process in the absorption of water by the plant is the imbibition of water by the cell walls of root hairs. Indicator plant: Indicator plant is one, which reflects specific growing conditions either by its presence or character of growth. Such as plant indicates water stress earlier than main crop plants. Infiltration: It is defined as the process of entry of water into the soil profile through the surface of soil or The downward entry of maximum rate at which a soil under a given condition and at a given time can absorb water when there is no divergent flow at borders. Infiltration rate: It is defined as the rate of entry of water into the soil profile and expressed as cm/hr. Infrared radiation: Electromagnetic radiation lying outside the red band with wavelength between about 0.8 mm. Insolation: Electro magnetic energy radiated into the space by the sun Intrinsic permeability: Intrinsic permeability is the factor k in the equation V = k dgi/, η where V = flow velocity, d = density of liquid, g =",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "lying outside the red band with wavelength between about 0.8 mm. Insolation: Electro magnetic energy radiated into the space by the sun Intrinsic permeability: Intrinsic permeability is the factor k in the equation V = k dgi/, η where V = flow velocity, d = density of liquid, g = scaler value of acceleration due to gravity, I = hydraulic gradient and η = viscosity of fluid. Irrigation efficiency: The ratio of the volume of water required for a specific beneficial use as compared to the volume of water delivered for this purpose. It is commonly interpreted as the volume of water stored in the soil for evapo-transpiration compared to the volume of water delivered for this purpose. Irrigation interval: Time between the start of successive field irrigation applications on the same field; days Irrigation requirement: Refers to the quantity of water, exclusive of precipitation, required for crop production. This amounts to net irrigation requirement plus other economically unavoidable losses. It is usually expressed in depth for a given time. Irrigation response: Irrigation response is the rate of increase in crop yield per unit of increase in water applied. Isobar: A line of equal pressure. Isohyet: A line of equal precipitation. Isohyets: Isohyets are the lines connecting various locations, having an equal amount of precipitation. Isotach: A line of equal wind speed. Isotherm: A line of equal temperature. Kinetic energy: Energy of motion. Laminar flow: A flow in which fluid moves smoothly in streamlines in parallel layers or sheets (no turbulent flow). Latent heat: It is the energy required to change a substance to a higher state of matter. This same energy is released on the reverse process. Change of state through evaporation and condensation is known as latent heat of evaporation and latent heat of condensation. From water to",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "turbulent flow). Latent heat: It is the energy required to change a substance to a higher state of matter. This same energy is released on the reverse process. Change of state through evaporation and condensation is known as latent heat of evaporation and latent heat of condensation. From water to water vapour takes 600 calories and water to ice takes 80 calories. Latitude: Angular distance, measure in degrees, north or south from the equator. Leaching requirement: The fraction of the water entering the soil that must pas through the root zone in order to prevent soil salinity from exceeding a specified value. Leaching requirement is used primarily under steady state or long time average conditions. Leaf area index: The area of one side of leaves per unit area of land surface. Longitude: (Length) distance east or west on the earth’s surface measured as an are of the equator (in degrees up to 189o or by the difference in time) between the meridian passing through a particular place and a standard or prime meridian, usually the one passing through Greenwich, England. Long-wave radiation: Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength greater than 0.8 microns. Low/Depression: When the isobars are circular or elliptical in shape, and the pressure is lowest at the centre, such a pressure system is called ‘Low’ or ‘Depression’ or ‘Cyclone’. The movement will be anti-clockwise in the Northern hemisphere while it is clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Wind speed hardly exceeds 40 km per hour. Meridian: A great circle of the earth passing through the geographical poles an any given point on the earth’s surface. (Geographical) Microclimate: The pattern of variation in temperature, moisture, etc., over a small area, i.e., the sequence of atmospheric changes with a very small region. Moisture percentage—Dry weight basis: The weight of water per 100",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the earth passing through the geographical poles an any given point on the earth’s surface. (Geographical) Microclimate: The pattern of variation in temperature, moisture, etc., over a small area, i.e., the sequence of atmospheric changes with a very small region. Moisture percentage—Dry weight basis: The weight of water per 100 units of weight of material dried to constant weight at a standard temperature. Depth basis: The equivalent depth of free water per 100 units of depth of soil. Numerically this value approximates the volume of water per 100 units of volume of soil. Mole: A unit of mass numerically equals to the molecular weight of the substance. Mulch: Mulch is natural or artificially applied layer of plant residues or other material on the surface of the soil with the object of moisture conservation, temperature control, prevention of surface compaction of crusting, reduction of run off and erosion, improvement in soil structure or weed control. Net irrigation requirement: Depth of water required for meeting evapo-transpiration minus contribution by precipitation, ground-water, stored soil water; does not include operation losses and leaching requirements; mm/period. Net radiation (Rn): Balance between all incoming and outgoing short and long wave radiation; Rn = Rns + Rnl; equivalent evaporation; mm/day. Non saline alkali soil: A soil that contains sufficient exchangeable sodium to interfere with the growth of most crop plants and does not contain appreciable quantities of soluble salts. The exchangeable sodium percentage is greater than 15 and the electrical conductivity of the saturation extract is less than 4 m mhos/cm (at 25°C). The pH reading of the saturated soil paste is usually greater than 8.5. Oasis effect: Effect of dry fallow surrounds on the micro-climate of a relatively small acreage of land, where an air mass moving into an irrigated area will give up sensible heat.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "than 4 m mhos/cm (at 25°C). The pH reading of the saturated soil paste is usually greater than 8.5. Oasis effect: Effect of dry fallow surrounds on the micro-climate of a relatively small acreage of land, where an air mass moving into an irrigated area will give up sensible heat. For small field, this may result in a higher ET crop as compared to predicted ET crop using a climatic data collected inside the irrigated area; conversely ET crop predictions based on weather data collected outside the irrigated fields may over-predict actual evapo-transpiration losses. Osmosis: The movement of water from lower concentration to a higher concentration or higher potential to lower potential through a permeable membrane. Osmotic pressure: When a solution is separated from pure solvent by membrane permeable only to the solvent there tends to be a net flux of solvent into the solution since the chemical potential of the solvent is higher in the pure phase than in the solution. This process is called osmosis and the pressure difference, which must be applied to the solution to prevent a net flux of solvent, is called osmotic pressure. In general dehydration is accompanied by an increase in osmotic pressure. Osmotic pressure, however, is not sufficiently sensitive to be used as an indicator of small changes in water balance. GLOSSARY 813 814 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Pan coefficient (Kp): Ratio between reference evapo-transpiration ET0 and water loss by evaporation from an open water surface of a pan; k = ET0/E pan fraction. Pan evaporation (E pan): Rate of water loss by evaporation from an open water surface of a pan mm/day. Peasant: Peasants are rural cultivators. They raise crops and livestock in the countryside, not in greenhouses in the midst of cities. Perched water or perched ground water: Ground water",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "pan fraction. Pan evaporation (E pan): Rate of water loss by evaporation from an open water surface of a pan mm/day. Peasant: Peasants are rural cultivators. They raise crops and livestock in the countryside, not in greenhouses in the midst of cities. Perched water or perched ground water: Ground water of a limited aquifer embedded in different depths on small impermeable or relatively impermeable layers. Percolation: Percolation is the downward movement of water through saturated or nearly saturated soil in response to the force of gravity. Percolation occurs when water is under pressure or when the tension is smaller than about ½ atmosphere. Percolation rate is synonymous with infiltration rate with the qualitative provision of saturated or near saturated conditions. Permanent wilting point: Permanent wilting point is the moisture content in percentage of a soil at which nearly all plants wilt and do not recover in a humid dark chamber, unless water is added from an outside source. This is the lower limit of available moisture range for plant growth. Below the wilting point, extraction of moisture continues for some time but growth ceases completely. The force with which moisture is held by the soil at this point corresponds to 15 atm. Permeability: It is the characteristic feature of soil medium referring to its ability or capacity with which it conducts water or fluids, under normal conditions. It depends upon soil porosity and fluid density. Pore space percentage can be calculated by using particle density and bulk density. PF: is the logarithm of height in cm of a column of water, which represents the total stress with which water is held by a soil. Piezometer: It is a hallow pipe with opening at the bottom used to measure pressure of ground water at the point of entry. Plank’s law: Plank",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the logarithm of height in cm of a column of water, which represents the total stress with which water is held by a soil. Piezometer: It is a hallow pipe with opening at the bottom used to measure pressure of ground water at the point of entry. Plank’s law: Plank introduced the ‘particle concept’. The electromagnetic radiation consists of a stream or flow of particles or quanta, each quantum having energy content E determined by of each quantum is proportional to the frequency given by the equation. E= hν where, h = Plank’s constant (6.62 × 10−34 J sec−1) V = Frequency The law states that greater the frequency (shorter wave length) greater is the energy of quantum. Potassium adsorption ratio (PAR): A ratio for soil extract and irrigation waters used to express the relative activity of potassium ions in exchange reactions with soil. ( ) ++ K PAR Ca Mg 2 + ++ = + where the ionic concentration are expressed in meq/litre. Potential evaporation: It represents evaporation from a large body of free water surface. It is a assumed that there is no effect of advective energy. It is primarily a function of evaporative demand of climate. Potential evapo-transpiration (PET): It is amount of water evapo-transpired in unit time from a short uniform green crop growing actively and covering an extended surface and never short of water. Precipitation: Precipitation has been defined as water in liquid or solid forms falling to the earth. Precipitation occurs in a variety of forms such as rainfall, snow, hail, fog and dew. Fog, dew and front are condensation forms and are not considered to be precipitation. Common precipitation forms are Rain, Drizzle, Snow, Hail and sleet etc., are the common forms of precipitation. Precipitated moisture falling on the ground takes various forms,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of forms such as rainfall, snow, hail, fog and dew. Fog, dew and front are condensation forms and are not considered to be precipitation. Common precipitation forms are Rain, Drizzle, Snow, Hail and sleet etc., are the common forms of precipitation. Precipitated moisture falling on the ground takes various forms, which depend on the following conditions. • The temperature at which condensation takes place. • The conditions encountered as the particles pass through the air. • The type of clouds and their heights from the ground. • The processes generating precipitation. All forms of precipitation regardless of appearance are collectively termed ‘hydrometers’. Pressure gradient: The rate of decrease of pressure in space at a given time. Psychrometer: Device to measure air humidity; normally consisting of two standard thermometers, one of whose bulb is surrounded by a wet muslin bag and is called wet-bulb thermometer; both should normally be force-ventilated and shielded against radiation (Assmann type). Radiation: Radiation is the process of transmission of energy by Electro magnetic waves and is the means by which energy emitted by the sun reaches the earth. Radiation balance: The difference between all incoming and outgoing radiation at the earth’s surface and top of the atmosphere is known as radiation balance at the earth’s surface. Radiation laws: The direct transfer of heat from the sun to the earth through the space and atmosphere indicates that radiation of heat from one place to other occurs in the form of electromagnetic waves in the same manner and with same speed of as light. The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is given by the equation C V λ = Where λ = Wavelength (The shortest distance between consecutive crests in the wave trance) C = Velocity of light (3 × 1010 cm sec−1) V = Frequency means number of",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "with same speed of as light. The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is given by the equation C V λ = Where λ = Wavelength (The shortest distance between consecutive crests in the wave trance) C = Velocity of light (3 × 1010 cm sec−1) V = Frequency means number of vibrations of cycles per second. Rain: It is precipitation of liquid water particles either in the form of drops having diameter greater than 0.5 mm or in the form of smaller widely scattered drops. When the precipitation process is very active, the lower air is moist and the clouds are very deep, rainfall is in the form of heavy downpour. On occasions, falling raindrops completely evaporate before reaching the ground. Red colour of the sky at sunset and sunrise: It is because of increased path length in the atmosphere. % of solar energy in the visible part decreases. With in the visible part, the ratio of the blue to the red part decreases with increased path length. Reference crop evapo-transpiration (ET0): Rate of evapo-transpiration from an extended surface of 8–15 cm tall, green grass cover of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water; mm/day. Reflection coefficient: The ratio of amount of solar radiation reflected by a body to the amount incident upon it. Reflectivity: Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy reflected to the total incident radiation upon that surface. If it is expressed in percentage it becomes albedo. Relative Humidity: The ratio between the amount of water vapour present in a given volume of air and the amount of water vapour required for saturation under fixed temperature and pressure. Salinisation: The process of accumulation of soluble salts in soil at or when air is saturated at given air temperature; millibar",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "The ratio between the amount of water vapour present in a given volume of air and the amount of water vapour required for saturation under fixed temperature and pressure. Salinisation: The process of accumulation of soluble salts in soil at or when air is saturated at given air temperature; millibar (mb) or mm of Hg. GLOSSARY 815 816 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Saturated air: Moist air in a state of equilibrium with a plane surface of pure water or ice at the same temperature and pressure. In such a state the relative humidity is 100 per cent and the amount of water vapour is maximum for the given temperature. Saturation deficit (also called vapour pressure deficit): The difference between the actual vapour pressure and the saturation vapour pressure at the existing temperature. Seepage or inflow: The sideward or lateral water movement is termed as seepage or inflow. This will occur both vertically and horizontally. The capillary rise is the reason for seepage in surface layer. Practically it is impossible to separate the water movement as percolation and seepage but for our study purpose, the seepage and percolation can be separated and calculated through some methods. Semi permeable membrane: A membrane that permits the diffusion of one components of a solution but not the other. In biology, a septum which permits the diffusion of water but not the solute. Sensible heat: It is the heat that can be measured by a thermometer and thus sensed by humans. Normally measured in Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin. Short-wave radiation: A term used loosely to distinguish solar and diffuse sky radiation from long-wave radiation. Sleet: It refers to precipitation in the form of a mixture of rain and snow. It consists of small pellets of transparent ice, 5 mm or less in diameter. It refers",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Fahrenheit and Kelvin. Short-wave radiation: A term used loosely to distinguish solar and diffuse sky radiation from long-wave radiation. Sleet: It refers to precipitation in the form of a mixture of rain and snow. It consists of small pellets of transparent ice, 5 mm or less in diameter. It refers to a frozen rain that forms when rain falling to the earth passing through a layer of cold air and freezes. This happens when temperature is very low. It is not commonly seen in India expect high ranges, that too in winter, in extreme north and north-east India. Snow: It is precipitation of white and opaque grains of ice. “In winter, when temperature is below freezing in the whole atmosphere, the ice crystals falling from the alto-stratus” does not melt and reach the ground as snow. Heaviest snowfall is reported to occur when the temperature of air form which snow is falling is not much below 0oC. Because under such a condition the moisture content is fairly high. A snow cover is a poor conductor of heat and koops the soil temperature higher. It prevents soil freezing and thus protects the roots of the plants. Snow accumulated during winter on the mountains and melts in summer which supplies water for maintaining flow in the rivers. Sodium adsorption ratio: A ratio for soil extracts and irrigation waters used to express the relative activity of sodium ions in exchange reactions with soil. ( ) ++ Na SAR Ca Mg 2 + ++ = + Where the ionic concentrations are expressed in milli equivalents (me) per litre. Soil structure: Arrangement of soil particles into aggregates, which occur in a variety of, recognized shapes, sizes and strengths. Soil temperature: In many cases soil temperature is more important to plant life than air temperature. It",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "= + Where the ionic concentrations are expressed in milli equivalents (me) per litre. Soil structure: Arrangement of soil particles into aggregates, which occur in a variety of, recognized shapes, sizes and strengths. Soil temperature: In many cases soil temperature is more important to plant life than air temperature. It influences the germination of seeds and root activities. It influences the soil-borne diseases like seedling blight, root rot etc. The decomposition of organic matter will be higher in higher soil temperature with necessary moisture. It controls the nutrient availability. In tropics high temperature of soil causes regeneration of potato tubers. It also affects nodulation in legumes. Soil texture: Characterization of soil in respect of its particle size and distribution. Soil water stress: Sum of soil water tension and osmotic pressure to which water must be subjected, to be in equilibrium with soil water; also called soil water potential; atmosphere or bar. Soil water tension: Force at which water is held by the soil or negative pressure or suction that must be applied to bring the water in a porous cup into static equilibrium with the water in the soil; soil water tension does not include osmotic pressure; also called matric potential; atmosphere or bar. Solar Constant: The sun is the source of more than 99 per cent of the thermal energy required for the physical processes taking place in the earth atmosphere system. Every minute, the sun radiates approximately 56 × 1026 calories of energy. In terms of the energy per unit area incident on a spherical shell with a radius of 1.5 × 1013 cm (the mean distance of the earth from the sun) and concentric with the sun, this energy is equal to ( ) 26 1 1 2 13 56 10 cal. Min. S 2.0 langely min",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "per unit area incident on a spherical shell with a radius of 1.5 × 1013 cm (the mean distance of the earth from the sun) and concentric with the sun, this energy is equal to ( ) 26 1 1 2 13 56 10 cal. Min. S 2.0 langely min . 4 1.5 10 cm − − × = = π × The solar constant (S) is a true constant, but fluctuates by as much as 3.5 percent abut its mean value, depending upon the distance of earth from the sun (Langley = gram calories cm−2). Solar constant = 2.0 gram calories cm−2 min−1. 1. Shorter than visible range: Chemically very active • When plants are exposed to this radiation the effects are detrimental. • Atmosphere acts as regulator for this radiation and none of cosmic, Gamma and X-rays reaches to the earth. • The UV rays of this segment reaching to the earth are very low and it is normally tolerated by the plants. 2. Higher than visible wavelength: • Referred to IR radiation • It has thermal effect on plants • In the presence of water vapour, this radiation does not harm plants, rather it supplies the necessary thermal energy to the plant environment. 3. Visible spectrum: • Between UV and IR radiation and also referred as light • All plant parts are directly or indirectly influenced by the light • Intensity, quality and duration are important for normal plant growth • Poor light leads to plant abnormalities • Light is indispensable to photosynthesis • Light affect the production of tillers, the stability, strength and length of culms • It affects the yield, total weight of plant structures, size of the leaves and root development. • Critical stages of plant growth for light • Radiation intensity during the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "• Light is indispensable to photosynthesis • Light affect the production of tillers, the stability, strength and length of culms • It affects the yield, total weight of plant structures, size of the leaves and root development. • Critical stages of plant growth for light • Radiation intensity during the third month of Maize plant • Rice–25 days prior to flowering • Barley–flowering period GLOSSARY 817 818 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Band Wavelength (nm) Specific effect on plant 1. Radiation within 1000 and more No specific effect on plant activity. Radiation absorbed by plants is transformed into heat. This radiation does not interfere with bio-chemical processes. 2. 1000–720 Radiation in this band helps in plant elongation, can be accepted as an adequate measure of plant elongation activity. The far red region (700–920 nm) has important role on photo-periodism, germination of seeds, flowering and colouration of fruits. 3. 720–510 In this spectral region light is strongly absorbed by chlorophylls. It generates strong photosynthetic and photo-periodic activity. 4. 610–510 This is green-yellow region. Absorption in this spectral region has low photosynthetic effectiveness and weak formative activity. 5. 510–400 It is the strongest chlorophyll and yellow pigment absorption region. In the blue-violet range, photosynthetic activity becomes very strong. This region has very strong effect on formation of tissues. 6. 400–315 Radiation in this band produces formative effects. It has dwarfing effect on plants and thickening effect on plant leaf. 7. 315–280 Radiation in this band has detrimental effect on most plants 8. Less than 280 Lethal effectmost of the plants get killed due to radiation in this band UV ranges have germicidal action. A part of the incident radiation on the surface is absorbed, while a part is reflected and the remaining is transmitted. Solar radiation: The flux of radiant energy from the",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "than 280 Lethal effectmost of the plants get killed due to radiation in this band UV ranges have germicidal action. A part of the incident radiation on the surface is absorbed, while a part is reflected and the remaining is transmitted. Solar radiation: The flux of radiant energy from the sun is solar radiation. Heavenly bodies emit– short wave radiation and Near surfaces including earth emit–long wave radiation. Specific heat: The heat capacity of a system per unit mass. Specific humidity: The ratio of the mass of water vapour in a volume of moist air to the total mass of the volume of moist air. Spectrum of Radiation Band Spectrum Wavelength (µ) Importance Ultra violet Cosmic rays < 0.005 Shorter wave lengths of spectrum and Chemically active, unless filtered there is danger of life on earth Gamma rays and X-rays 0.005–0.20 Ultraviolet rays 0.20–0.39 (Contd.) Band Spectrum Wavelength (µ) Importance Visible Violet 0.39–0.42 Visible spectrum known as Light essential for all plant processes Blue 0.42–0.49 Green 0.49–0.54 Yellow 0.54–0.59 Orange 0.59–0.65 Red 0.65–0.76 Infra red Infrared rays > 0.76 Essential for thermal energy of the plant (Source of heat) Units of measurements of wavelength Micron, 1µ = 10−6 m = 10−4 cm Milli micron, 1 mµ = 10−9 m = 10−7 cm Angstrom, Å = 10−10 m = 10−8 cm Stefan-Boltzmann’s law: The intensity of radiation emitted (E) by a radiating body is directly proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of that body. (Emissivity of black body = 1) E = σT4 Where, T= (273+°C) because temperature is in Kelvin Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant which is equal to 5.673 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 Storm: A marked atmosphere disturbance characterized by a strong wind, usually accompanied by rain, snow, sleet (rain that freezes as it falls-mixture of rain with",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "= 1) E = σT4 Where, T= (273+°C) because temperature is in Kelvin Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant which is equal to 5.673 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 Storm: A marked atmosphere disturbance characterized by a strong wind, usually accompanied by rain, snow, sleet (rain that freezes as it falls-mixture of rain with snow or hail) or hail and often thunder and lighting. Temperature: It is defined as the measure of the average speed of atoms and molecules. T= (273+°C) because temperature is in Kelvin. Tensiometer: A device for measuring the tension of soil water in the soil consisting of a porous, permeable ceramic cup connected through a tube to a manometer or vacuum gauge. Tornadoes: Defined as a violently rotating column of air attended by a funnel-shaped or tubular cloud extending downward from the base of cumulonimbus cloud. Tornadoes are the most violent storms of lower troposphere. They are very small in size and of short duration. They mostly occur during spring and early summer. They have been reported at widely scattered locations in the mid latitudes and tropics. Crop losses are heavy due to this event. Transpiration: The process by which water in plants is transferred as water vapour to the atmosphere. Turbulence: A state of fluid flow in which instantaneous velocities exhibits irregular and apparently random fluctuations. Typhoon: Any violent tropical cyclone originating in the western pacific especially in the south China sea. Vapour pressure: The partial pressure of water vapour in the atmosphere. Viscosity: It is defined as the property of liquid, which oppose the relative motion among its parts. It is nothing but internal friction that makes resistance to flow of liquid. Water potential: The capability of soil water to do work compared with free-water. The water potential at the surface of free water is taken as zero.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "property of liquid, which oppose the relative motion among its parts. It is nothing but internal friction that makes resistance to flow of liquid. Water potential: The capability of soil water to do work compared with free-water. The water potential at the surface of free water is taken as zero. GLOSSARY 819 820 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Water requirement (WR): Also referred as water need. It is defined, as the water needed for raising a crop in a given period. It includes consumptive use and other economically unavoidable losses and that applied for special operation such as land preparation, transplanting leaching etc., it is usually expressed as depth of water for a given time. Watershed: Watershed is the area above a given point on a stream that contributes water to the flow at that point. Catchment basins or drainage basins are synonymous with it. Wein’s Displacement laws: The wavelength of the maximum intensity of emission (λmax) from a radiating black body is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature λmax = 2897 T−1 µ = 2897/T µ Where T is in ºK If the temperature of a body is high, radiation maximum is displaced towards shorter wavelengths. For the sun’s surface temperature of 5793°K, the λmax is 0.5 µ (2897/5793). The most intense solar radiation occurs in the blue-green range of visible light. The wavelength of maximum intensity of radiation for the earth’s actual surface temperature of 14°C or 287°K is about 10.0 (2897/287) microns, which is in the infrared band. Wet year: If the rainfall exceeds twice the normal deviation at a particular place, that year is said to be a wet year. Wind vane: An instrument used to indicate wind direction. Wind speed (U2): Speed of air movement at 2 m above ground surface in unobstructed surrounding. Means in",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Wet year: If the rainfall exceeds twice the normal deviation at a particular place, that year is said to be a wet year. Wind vane: An instrument used to indicate wind direction. Wind speed (U2): Speed of air movement at 2 m above ground surface in unobstructed surrounding. Means in m/section over the period considered, or total wind run in km/day. Zero-plane displacement: An empirically determined constant introduced into the logarithmic velocity profile to extend its applicability to very rough surfaces or to take into account the displacement of a profile above a dense crop. For Further Reading Principles of Agronomy Ahlawat I.P.S., Om Prakash and G.S.Saini.1998. Scientific Crop Production in India, Rama Publishing House, Meerut. Balasubramaniyan P and SP. Palaniappan. 2002. Principles and Practices of Agronomy. Agrobios (India), Jodhpur. Biswas T.D. and S.K. Mukherjee. 1994. Text Book of Soil Science, Tata McGraw Hill publishing company Ltd., New Delhi. Brady N.C., 1990. The Nature and Properties of Soils, MacMillan Publishing Co., New York, USA. Cheema S.S., B.K. Dhaliwal, and T.S. Sahota, 2000. Theory and Digest Agronomy, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Chidda Singh,1997. Modern techniques of raising field crops, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Dahama A.K. 1996. Organic farming for Sustainable Agriculture, Agri. Botanical Publishers, Bikaner. DAS P.C. 2000. Manures and fertilizers, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Das P.C., 1997. Oilseed crops of India. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Gopal Chandra De, 1997. Fundamentals of Agronomy, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Gopalachari, N.C., 1984. Tobacco, ICAR, New Delhi. ICAR, 1996. Handbook of Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. John M.M., 1987. Cotton. Longman Scientific and Technical, New Delhi. Kannaiyan S. and C.Ramasamy, 2002. Agriculture. Science, Agriculture, Policy. TNAU, Coimbatore. Maiti S., M.R.Hegde and S.B.Chattopadhyay, 1988. Handbook of annual oil seed crops. Oxford and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "ICAR, New Delhi. ICAR, 1996. Handbook of Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. John M.M., 1987. Cotton. Longman Scientific and Technical, New Delhi. Kannaiyan S. and C.Ramasamy, 2002. Agriculture. Science, Agriculture, Policy. TNAU, Coimbatore. Maiti S., M.R.Hegde and S.B.Chattopadhyay, 1988. Handbook of annual oil seed crops. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Mandal R.C. and P.K. Jana, 1998. Water resource utilization and micro-irrigation; Sprinkler and Drip system, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana. Michael A.M., 1978. Irrigation – Theory and Practice, Vikas publishing House Pvt., Co. New Delhi. Morachan Y.B., 1980. Crop Production and Management. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Palaniappan S.P., 1985. Cropping systems in the Tropics – Principles and Management, Wiley Eastern Limited and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Randhawa N.S., 1980. A history of Agriculture in India, Vols. I & II Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. 822 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Rao V.S., 1983. Principles of Weed Science, Oxford and IBH, Pub. Co. New Delhi. Reddy S.R., 1999. Principles of Agronomy. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Sankaran S and V.T. Subbiah Mudaliar, 1997. Principles of Agronomy. The Bangalore Printing and publishing co. Ltd., Bangalore. Singh S.S., 1998. Principles and Practices of Agronomy, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Somasundaram E., K. Annadurai, M.L. Manoharan, R. Kavimani, and R.Vijayalakshmi, 2000. Hand book on Rice Production Technology, Golden net printers, Tiruchirappalli. Somasundaram E. and A. Arokiaraj, 2000. Text Book on Principles of Agronomy, Crystal Offset Printers, Tiruchirappalli. Subbiah Mudaliar V.T., 1956. Common Cultivated Crops of South India. Amutha Nilayam Pvt. Ltd., Madras. Subbian P. K., Annadurai, K and S.P. Palaniappan, 2000. Agriculture Facts and Figures, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Thakur C., 1980. Scientific Crop Production Vol. I, Metropolitan Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Thakur C., 1981. Scientific Crop Production Vol. II, Metropolitan Book",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of South India. Amutha Nilayam Pvt. Ltd., Madras. Subbian P. K., Annadurai, K and S.P. Palaniappan, 2000. Agriculture Facts and Figures, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Thakur C., 1980. Scientific Crop Production Vol. I, Metropolitan Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Thakur C., 1981. Scientific Crop Production Vol. II, Metropolitan Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Yadav J.S.P. and G.B. Singh, 2000. (Eds., ) Natural Resource Management for Agricultural Production in India, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Yadava R.L., 1993. Agronomy of Sugarcane Principles and Practices. International Book Distributing Co., Lucknow. Yellamananda Reddy T. and G.H. Sankara Reddi, 1997. Principles of Agronomy. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Weed management Aldrich R.J. and R.J. Kremer. 1997. Principles in Weed Management. Iowa State University Press, Iowa. Gupta O.P. 1998. Weed management Principles and Practices. Agro Botanical Publishers, Bikaner. Rao V.S.1994. Principles of Weed Science. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Sankaran S., R. Jeyakumar and N. Kempu Chetty. 1993. Herbicide Residues. Gandhi Book House, Coimbatore. Subramanian S., A. Mohamed Ali and R. Jayakumar. 1997. All about weed control. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Irrigation management Agarwall R.R., Yadav, J.S.P., Gupta, R.N., 1982. Saline alkali soils of India. ICAR., New Delhi. Aruna Rajagopal, Vijayaraghavan C.R., Narayanswamy M.R., Balasubramanian P., and Venkatakrishnan A.S. 1991. An introduction to irrigation agronomy. DKV publication, Coimbatore. Dastane NG., 1972. A practical manual for water use research in agriculture, Navabharat – Prakashan, Pune. De Datta S.K., 1981. Principles and practices rice production, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New Delhi. Doorenbos I and W.O. Fruitt, 1977. Crop water Requirement. FAO Irrigation and drainage paper, Vol-24. Gupta I.C., 1990. Use of saline water in agriculture, Oxford and IBH publishing Co., Pvt., Ltd., New Delhi. Hiran K.S., Jaspal Singh and M.S. Acharya, 1990. Irrigation Scheduling. CBS publishers and distributors, New",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "New Delhi. Doorenbos I and W.O. Fruitt, 1977. Crop water Requirement. FAO Irrigation and drainage paper, Vol-24. Gupta I.C., 1990. Use of saline water in agriculture, Oxford and IBH publishing Co., Pvt., Ltd., New Delhi. Hiran K.S., Jaspal Singh and M.S. Acharya, 1990. Irrigation Scheduling. CBS publishers and distributors, New Delhi. IARI, 1977. Water requirement and irrigation management of crops in India, WTC, IARI, New Delhi. ICAR, 1968. Proceedings of symposium on water management, Indian Society of Agronomy, New Delhi. Israelson O.W. and Hansen, 1962. IrrigationPrinciples and Practices, Wiley International Edition, New Delhi. Michael AM, 1997. Irrigation Theory and practices, Vikas publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. FOR FURTHER READING 823 Minhas P.S., Tyagi, N.K., 1998. Guidelines for irrigation with saline and alkali waters, CSSR1, Karnal, India P.P. 35. Misra RD., and M. Ahmed, 1987. Manual on Irrigation Agronomy, Oxford and IBH publication, New Delhi. Prihar S.S., Sandhu. BS. 1994. Irrigation of Field Crops Principles and Practices. ICAR, PUSA, New Delhi. Sankara Reddi, G.H. and T.Yellamanda Reddy, 1997. Efficient Use of Irrigation Water. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Singh R.P., 1996. Sustainable development of Dryland Agriculture in India. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. Sivanappan R.K. 1987. Sprinkler Irrigation. Oxford and IBH publishing Co., Pvt., Ltd., New Delhi. Thorne DW. And Peterson, 1954. Irrigated soils, The blackiston company, IWC, Tornato. Dry farming Arnon I., 1972. Crop production in dry regions, Vol.I and II. Leonard Hill, London. Gupta U.S., 1995. Production and improvement of crops for drylands, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Singh R.P. 1996. Sustainable development of Dryland Agriculture in India. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. Agricultural Heritage in India Ayachit S.M. (Tr), 2002. Kashyapiya Krishisukti (A treatise on Agriculture by Kashyapa). Agri – History Bulletin No.4. Asian Agri History foundation, Secundrabad . Choudhary S.L., Sharma, G.S. and Nene, Y.L., 2000. Ancient",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Delhi. Singh R.P. 1996. Sustainable development of Dryland Agriculture in India. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. Agricultural Heritage in India Ayachit S.M. (Tr), 2002. Kashyapiya Krishisukti (A treatise on Agriculture by Kashyapa). Agri – History Bulletin No.4. Asian Agri History foundation, Secundrabad . Choudhary S.L., Sharma, G.S. and Nene, Y.L., 2000. Ancient and medieval history of Indian agriculture and its relevance to sustainable agriculture in the 21st century, Proceedings of the summer school held from 28 May to 17 June 1999. Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur, India. Nene Y.L. and Choudhary, S.L., 2002. Agricultural heritage of India. Asian Agri – History foundation, Secundrabad. Randhawa M.S., 1980 – 86. A history of Agriculture in India, Vol. I, II, III and IV. Indian council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Raychaudhuri S.P., 1964. Agriculture in ancient India. Indian council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Razia Akbar (Tr), 2000. Muskha Dar Fauni – Falahat (The art of agriculture). Agri – History Bulletin No. 3. Asian Agri. History foundation, Secundrabad. Sadhale Nalini (Tr) 1996. Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda (The science of plant life), Asian History Bulletin No. 1. Asian – Agri – History foundation, Secundrabad. Sadhale Nalini (Tr), 1999. Krishi – Parashara (Agriculture by Parashara), Agri – History Bulletin No. 2. Asian Agri – History foundation, Secundrabad, India. Agricultural meteorology Gopalaswamy N., 1994. Agricultural Meteorology, Rawat publications, Jaipur, 153 p. Kakde J.R., 1985. Agricultural Climatology, Metropolitan Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Mavi H.S., 1996. Introduction to Agrometeorology, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi. Murthy V.R.K., 1995. Practical manual on Agricultural Meteorology, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, 86 p. NBSS & LUP, 1999. Agro-ecological sub regions of India for planning and development, Publications No.35, NBSS & LUP, Nagpur, 372 p. Pisharoty P.R., 1986. Meteorology for the Indian Farmers, ISRO Publishers, 89 p. Radhakrishna Murthy, V., 2002. Basic Principles of Agricultural",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "manual on Agricultural Meteorology, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, 86 p. NBSS & LUP, 1999. Agro-ecological sub regions of India for planning and development, Publications No.35, NBSS & LUP, Nagpur, 372 p. Pisharoty P.R., 1986. Meteorology for the Indian Farmers, ISRO Publishers, 89 p. Radhakrishna Murthy, V., 2002. Basic Principles of Agricultural Meteorology. BS Publications Hyderabad, 261 p. Venkataraman, S., Krishnan A., 1992. Crops and Weather. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Pusa, New Delhi, 580 p. 824 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Agronomy of field crops Ahlawat I.P.S., Om Prakash and G.S.Saini.,1998. Scientific Crop Production in India, Rama Publishing House, Meerut. Chandrasekaran B., K.Annadurai and R.Kavimani, 2007. A Textbook of Rice science. Kalyani Publishers, Jodhpur. 667p. Chatterjee B.N. and K.K.Bhattacharyya,1986. Principles and Practices of Grain legume production, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Chatterjee B.N. and P.K.Das, 1989. Forage crop production Principles and Practices, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Chidda Singh, 1997. Modern techniques of raising field crops, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Das P.C., 1997. Oilseed crops of India, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Gopalachari N.C., 1984. Tobacco, ICAR, New Delhi. John M.M., 1987. Cotton, Longman Scientific and Technical, New Delhi. Maiti S., M.R.Hegde and S.B.Chattopadhyay, 1988. Handbook of annual oil seed crops, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Ramamoorthy A., P.Subbain and K.Annadurai, 2006. Glossary of terms in crop production, Scientific publishers, Jodhpur. Singh R.V., 1982. Fodder Trees of India, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Singh S.S.1997, Crop management under irrigated and rainfed conditions, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Srivastava H.C., S.Bhaskaran, K.K.G.Menon, S.Ramanujam and M.V.Rao, 1984. Pulse production Constraints and opportunities. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Subbiah Mudaliar V.T., 1956. Common Cultivated Crops of South India, Amutha Nilayam Pvt. Ltd.,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Delhi. Singh S.S.1997, Crop management under irrigated and rainfed conditions, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Srivastava H.C., S.Bhaskaran, K.K.G.Menon, S.Ramanujam and M.V.Rao, 1984. Pulse production Constraints and opportunities. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Subbiah Mudaliar V.T., 1956. Common Cultivated Crops of South India, Amutha Nilayam Pvt. Ltd., Madras. Thakur C., 1980. Scientific crop production, Vol.I Metropolitan Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Thakur C., 1981. Scientific crop production, Vol.II. Metropolitan Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. TNAU, 2003. Crop Production Guide, TNAU and Directorate of Agriculture, Chennai. Yadava R.L., 1993. Agronomy of Sugarcane Principles and Practices, International Book Distributing Co., Lucknow. Organic farming Dahama A.K., 2002. Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture, Agrobios (India), Jodhpur pp.301. Lampkin N., 1990. Organic farming, Ipswich, U.K . Farming Press Books pp.710. Palaniappan SP. and K. Annadurai, 1999. Organic farming: Theory and Practice, Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. Sharma A.K., 2002. A Handbook of Organic Farming Agrobios (India), Jodhpur pp. 627. Thampan P.K., 1995. Organic Agriculture, Peekay Tree Crops Development Foundation, Cochin. pp.354. Vyas S.C., Smriti Vyas, Sameer Vyas and H.A. Modi, 1998. Biofertilizers and Organic farming. Akta Prakashan, Nadiad, pp.252. Cropping and Farming system Chaterjee B.N. and S.Maiti, 1993. Cropping system – Theory and practice, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Palaniappan SP and K. Sivaraman,1996. Cropping systems in the tropics – Principles and management, New Age International ( P) Ltd., Publishers, New Delhi. FOR FURTHER READING 825 Rangasamy A., K.Annadarai, P.Subbian and C.Jayanthi, 2002. Farming systems in the tropics, Kalyani publishers. Panda S.C., 2003. Cropping and Farming systems, Agro bios publishers, Jodhpur. Soils Kanwar J.S., 1976. Soil Fertility Theory and Practice, ICAR, New Delhi. Mariakulandai A and T.S. Manickam, 1975. Chemistry of fertilizers and manures, Asia Publishing House, New Delhi. Tamhane R.V., D.P. Motiramani, Y.P. Bali, and R.L. Donahue,",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Kalyani publishers. Panda S.C., 2003. Cropping and Farming systems, Agro bios publishers, Jodhpur. Soils Kanwar J.S., 1976. Soil Fertility Theory and Practice, ICAR, New Delhi. Mariakulandai A and T.S. Manickam, 1975. Chemistry of fertilizers and manures, Asia Publishing House, New Delhi. Tamhane R.V., D.P. Motiramani, Y.P. Bali, and R.L. Donahue, 1966. Soils : Their Chemistry and Fertility in Tropical Asia. Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi. Teuscher H. and Adler, R., 1960. The Soil and its Fertility, Reinhold Publishing Co., New York. Thompson L.M. and F.R. Troeh, F.R. 1973. Soils and Soil Fertility, McGraw Hill Publishing Co., London. Tisdale S.L., W.L. Nelson, and J.D. Beaton, 1990. Soil fertility and fertilizers, MacMillan Publishing Company, New York. Selected References Agarwal R.R., Yadav, J.S.P. Gupta, R.N., 1982. Saline alkali soils of India, ICAR., New Delhi. Ahlawat I.P.S., Om Prakash and G.S. Saini, 1998. Scientific Crop Production in India, Rama Publishing House, Meerut. Ahlawat I.P.S., Om Prakash and G.S. Saini, 1998. Scientific Crop Production in India, Rama Publishing House, Meerut. Arnon I., 1972, Crop production in dry regions, vol-1, Leonard Hill, London. Aruna Rajagopal C.R. Vijayaraghavan, M.R. Narayanaswamy, P. Balasubramanian, and A.S. Venkatakrishnan, 1991. An introduction to Irrigation agronomy, DKV publications, Coimbatore. Biswas T.D. and S.K. Mukherjee, 1994. Text Book of Soil Science, Tata Mc-Graw Hill publishing company Ltd., New Delhi. 667p. Chandrasekaran B.K., Annadurai and R. Kavimani, 2006. A Textbook of Rice Science. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India. 667p Chatterjee B.N. and K.K. Bhattacharyya, 1986. Principles and Practices of Grain legume production, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Chatterjee B.N. and P.K. Das, 1989. Forage crop production–Principles and Practices, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Cheema S.S., Dhaliwal B.K. and T.S. Sahota, 2000. Theory and Digest Agronomy, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Chidda Singh, 1997. Modern techniques of raising",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Chatterjee B.N. and P.K. Das, 1989. Forage crop production–Principles and Practices, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Cheema S.S., Dhaliwal B.K. and T.S. Sahota, 2000. Theory and Digest Agronomy, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Chidda Singh, 1997. Modern techniques of raising field crops. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Chidda Singh, 1997. Modern techniques of raising field crops, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Dahama A.K., 1996. Organic farming for Sustainable Agriculture, Agri. Botanical Publishers, Bikaner. Das P.C., 2000. Manures and fertilizers, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Das P.C., 1997. Oilseed crops of India, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Dastane NG., 1972. A practical manual for water use research in agriculture, Navabharat–Prakashan, Pune. De Datta S.K., 1981. Principles and practices rice production. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New Delhi. Doorenbos I and W.O. Fruitt, 1977. Crop Water Requirement, FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper. Vol-24. Gopal Chandra De, 1997. Fundamentals of Agronomy, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Gopalachari N.C., 1984. Tobacco, ICAR, New Delhi. Gupta I.C., 1990. Use of saline water in agriculture, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., Pvt., Ltd., New Delhi. Hiran K.S., Jaspal Singh and M.S. Acharya, 1990. Irrigation Scheduling, CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi. IARI, 1977, Water requirement and irrigation management of crops in India, WTC, IARI, New Delhi. ICAR, 1968, Proceedings of symposium on water management, Indian Society of Agronomy, New Delhi. ICAR, 1996, Hand book of Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Israelson O.W. and Hansen, 1962. Irrigation Principles and Practices, Wiley International Edition, New Delhi. John M.M., 1987. Cotton, Longman Scientific and Technical, New Delhi. Maiti S., M.R. Hegde and S.B. Chattopadhyay, 1988. Handbook of annual oil seed crops, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt.",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Israelson O.W. and Hansen, 1962. Irrigation Principles and Practices, Wiley International Edition, New Delhi. John M.M., 1987. Cotton, Longman Scientific and Technical, New Delhi. Maiti S., M.R. Hegde and S.B. Chattopadhyay, 1988. Handbook of annual oil seed crops, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Mandal R.C. and P.K. Jana. 1998. Water resource utilization and micro-irrigation; Sprinkler and Drip system, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana. Michael A.M., 1978. Irrigation–Theory and Practice, Vikas Publishing House Pvt., Co. New Delhi. Michael AM, 1997. Irrigation Theory and Practices, Vikas Publishing house Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Minhas P.S., Tyagi, N.K., 1998. Guidelines for irrigation with saline and alkali waters, CSSR1, Karnal, India P.P. 35. Misra RD., Ahmed, M., 1987. Manual on Irrigation Agronomy, Oxford and IBH publication, New Delhi. Morachan Y.B., 1986. Crop Production and Management, Oxford and IBH Pub. Co. New Delhi. Palaniappan S.P., 1985. Cropping Systems in the Tropics–Principles and Management, Wiley Eastern Limited and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Palaniappan S.P., and K.Annadurai, 1999. Organic Farming : Theory and Practice, Scientific publishers, Jodhpur. 287p. Prihar S.S., and Sandhu. B.S., 1994. Irrigation of Field Crops principles and practices, ICAR, PUSA, New Delhi. Ramamoorthy A., P. Subbain and K.Annadurai, 2005. Glossary of terms in crop production, Scientific publishers, Jodhpur. Randhawa N.S., 1980. A history of Agriculture in India, Vols. I and II., Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Rangasamy A., K. Annadurai, P. Subbaian and Jayanthi Chinnusamy, 2002. Farming systems in the tropics, Kalyani publishers Ludhiana, India. p. 230. Rao V.S., 1983. Principles of Weed Science, Oxford and IBH, Pub. Co. New Delhi. Reddy S.R., 1999. Principles of Agronomy, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Sankaran S. and V.T. Subbiah Mudaliar, 1997. Principles of Agronomy, The Bangalore Printing and publishing Co. Ltd., Bangalore. Singh S.S., 1999. Principles and",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "India. p. 230. Rao V.S., 1983. Principles of Weed Science, Oxford and IBH, Pub. Co. New Delhi. Reddy S.R., 1999. Principles of Agronomy, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Sankaran S. and V.T. Subbiah Mudaliar, 1997. Principles of Agronomy, The Bangalore Printing and publishing Co. Ltd., Bangalore. Singh S.S., 1999. Principles and Practices of Agronomy, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Singh R.V., 1982. Fodder Trees of India, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Singh S.S., 1997. Crop management under irrigated and rainfed conditions, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi Sivanappan R.K., 1987. Sprinkler Irrigation, Oxford and IBH publishing Co., Pvt., Ltd., New Delhi. Somasundaram E., K. Annadurai, M.L. Manoharan, R. Kavimani and R. Vijayalakshmi, 2000. Hand book on Rice Production Technology, Golden net printers, Trichirappalli. Srivastava H.C., S.Bhaskaran, K.K.G. Menon, S. Ramanujam and M.V. Rao., 1984. Pulse production–Constraints and Opportunities, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Subbiah Mudaliar V.T., 1956. Common Cultivated Crops of South India, Amutha Nilayam Pvt. Ltd., Madras. Subbian P., K. Annadurai and S.P. Palaniappan, 2000. Agriculture Facts and Figures, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. 827 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Thakur C., 1980. Scientific Crop Production Vol. I, Metropolitan Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Thakur C. 1981. Scientific Crop Production Vol. II, Metropolitan Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Thorne DW. And Peterson, 1954. Irrigated soils, The Blackiston Company, IWC, Tornato TNAU, 1999. Crop Production Guide, TNAU and Directorate of Agriculture, Chennai. Yadav J.S.P. and G.B. Singh, 2000. (Eds.,) Natural Resource Management for Agricultural Production in India, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Yadava R.L., 1993. Agronomy of Sugarcane–Principles and Practices, International Book Distributing Co., Lucknow. Yellamanda Reddy, T. and Sankara Reddi, G.H., 1999. Principles of Agronomy, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. SELECTED REFERENCES 828 Index A Aberrations in rainfall 219 Ablation 604 Absolute humidity 190",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "India, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Yadava R.L., 1993. Agronomy of Sugarcane–Principles and Practices, International Book Distributing Co., Lucknow. Yellamanda Reddy, T. and Sankara Reddi, G.H., 1999. Principles of Agronomy, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. SELECTED REFERENCES 828 Index A Aberrations in rainfall 219 Ablation 604 Absolute humidity 190 Acedophytes 173 Acid soils 258 Acid sulphate soils 275 Adaptation 174 Additive series 676 Adhesion 253 Adiabatic lapse rate 208 Adjuvants 340 Advanced farming 6 Aerobic rice 541 Aeroponic 3 After cultivation 307 Agri horticulture 502 Agricultural drought 472 Agricultural education in India 165 Agricultural extension 167 Agricultural implements 66 Agricultural research in India 166 Agricultural universities 160 Agriculture 1 Agriculture Act 1 Agriculture heritage in India 29 Agrisilviculture 506 Agroclimatic normal 221 Agroclimatic zones 220 Agronomist 19 Agronomy 18 Alfisols 259 Alkali soils 263 Allelopathy 321 Alley cropping 486, 506, 677 Alley crops 174 Alluvial soils 255 Almanac 84 Alternate land use system 504 Altitude 190, 204 Alto-stratus 211 Altocumulus (AC) 210 Ancient hindu calendar 74 Ancient irrigation 112 Animals flesh as human food 152 Annual crops 170 Annual weeds 312 Antagonistic effect 335 Anthropic (Socio economic) factors 199 Antitranspirants 491, 501 Apparent specific gravity 248 Aquatic weeds 314 Arable crops 172 Arahamihira’s brihat samhita 79 Arbori–horticulture 126 Aridity 469 Assartage system 5 Astro-meteorology 82 Astronomy 71 Atmosphere 204 Atmospheric drought 472 Atmospheric gases 196 Augmenting crops 174 Available soil moisture 418 Azolla 530 Azospirillum 532 B Balanced nutrition 451 Basophytes 173 830 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Beverages 170 Biennial crops 171 Biennials 312 Biofertilizers 446 Bioherbicides 329 Biological pest management 708 Biotic factors 198 Black cotton soils 108 Black soils 256 Blue green algae 530 Broad casting 303 Broad leaved weeds 312 Bronze age 34 Bulk density 248 Bulky organic manures 437 Button shedding 607 C Calciphytes 173",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Biennial crops 171 Biennials 312 Biofertilizers 446 Bioherbicides 329 Biological pest management 708 Biotic factors 198 Black cotton soils 108 Black soils 256 Blue green algae 530 Broad casting 303 Broad leaved weeds 312 Bronze age 34 Bulk density 248 Bulky organic manures 437 Button shedding 607 C Calciphytes 173 Canal irrigation 118 Capillary pores 250 Capillary water 254 Carbon nitrogen ratio 648 Cardinal points 187 Catch crops/contingent crops 173 Cenozoic era 22 Chasmophytes 173 Chilling injury 188 Chlorosis 436 Choice of crops and varieties 100 Cirrocumulus 210 Cirrostratus 210 Cirrus 210 Climate 202 Climate change 233 Climate variability 233 Climatic factors 185 Climatology 202 Cloud seeding 212 Cloudiness 190 Clouds 210 Cohesion 253 Cold injury 188 Cold rain 211 Combine harvester 514 Common salt technique 213 Companion cropping 180 Complex fertilizers 444 Compost 111 Compound fertilizers 444 Concentrated organic manures 437 Construction of reservoirs 115 Coordinates 204 Cover crops 174 Cow dung as plant food 152 Critical dry spell 219 Critical percentages of plant nutrients 11 Critical period of weed competition 321 Crop diversity 99 Crop geometry 305 Crop model 231 Crop production in ancient India 95 Crop rotation 112, 181, 667, 708 Crop water requirement 351 Crop water use efficiency 398 Crop weather modelling 231 Cropping pattern 182, 667 Cropping systems 67, 182, 561 Crops and varieties 67 Curing 173, 618 Cutting 173 D Dead animals 112 Desert soils 109, 257 Desuckering 617 Dew point 191 Dibbling 303 Direction of light 194 Dormancy 317 Drainage 407 Drilling 303 Drip or trickle irrigation system 374 Drought 471 Drug crops/medicinal plants 170 Dry farming 455 Dry ice seeding 212 Dry land farming 455 Dry land horticulture 502 Dry lands 171 Dry spells 218 Dry system or upland rice 524 Duration of light 194 E Edaphic factors 196 Edaphology 238 INDEX",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Drip or trickle irrigation system 374 Drought 471 Drug crops/medicinal plants 170 Dry farming 455 Dry ice seeding 212 Dry land farming 455 Dry land horticulture 502 Dry lands 171 Dry spells 218 Dry system or upland rice 524 Duration of light 194 E Edaphic factors 196 Edaphology 238 INDEX 831 Effective rainfall 360 Effective root zone depth 423 El nino and la–nina 236 Emulsifiable concentrates (EC) 332 Entisols 259 Environmental factors 185 Equator 204 Evapotranspiration 215 Exhaustive crops 173 Exosphere 207 Exotic crops 92 Extended forecast 224 F Fallow tillage 288 Fallowing 679 Farming systems 105 Fauna 197 Feed/forage 170 Fertilizers 443 Fibre crops 170 Field capacity 418 Field water use efficiency 398 Flora 197 Floriculture 132 Fluffy paddy soils 270 Flumes 380 Food problem 16 Food production trends 15 Food scenario 8 Forest and hill soils 109 Freezing injury 188 Fruit crops 126 Fumigation 120 G Gap filling 307 General agreement on trade and tariff 3 Geological strata 199 Geoponic 3 Germination 301 Ginning 173 Global warming 235–6 Grading and sorting 173 Granules 333 Grasses 311 Gravitational water 255 Gravity irrigation 377 Grazing 173 Green leaf manures 110, 437 Green manures 437 Green revolution 3, 691 Greenhouse effect 234 Gross irrigation requirement 359 Growing degree days 512 Growth promoters 104 Guard/barrier crops 174 H Halophytes 173 Harvest index 512 Harvest maturity 512 Harvesting 511 Harvesting and threshing 70 Heat injury 189 Heaving 189 Hedgerow intercropping 506 Herbicide antidote 340 Herbicide mixtures 339 Herbicide resistance 339 Herbicide rotation 339 Herbigation 331 Heterosphere 207 Highly permeable soils 267 History of cotton 95 History of rice 93 History of sugarcane 94 History of wheat 94 Homospheres 207 Hortipasture 502 Humidity 190 Hunter gatherers 32 Hybrid rice 539 Hydrological drought 472 Hydroponic 3 Hygroscopic water 254 I Icar institutes 160 Ice age",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Herbigation 331 Heterosphere 207 Highly permeable soils 267 History of cotton 95 History of rice 93 History of sugarcane 94 History of wheat 94 Homospheres 207 Hortipasture 502 Humidity 190 Hunter gatherers 32 Hybrid rice 539 Hydrological drought 472 Hydroponic 3 Hygroscopic water 254 I Icar institutes 160 Ice age 32 Implements for wetlands 299 In situ soil moisture conservation 504 Inceptisols 259 Indices of sustainability 712 832 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Indo-gengetic alluvium 108 Indus valley civilization 153 Integrated farming system 502 Integrated weed management (IWM) 337, 534 Intensive cropping 179 Inter cultural implements 296 Intercropping 179, 675 Inverse yield–nitrogen law 11 Ionosphere 207 Iron age 34 Irrigated crops 171 Irrigation 344 Irrigation frequency 359 Irrigation management 68, 396 Irrigation scheduling 386 K Kautilya’s arthasastra 56 Kharif 170 Krishi vigyan kendras 160 Krishi-panchang 84 L Land leveling implements 297 Land preparation 67 Land resources 7 Land shaping implements 297 Land utilization statistics 2 Lapse rate 208 Laterite soils 259 Laterites 109 Laterites and lateritic soils 257 Latitude 189, 204 Law of diminishing returns 11 Leguminous green manures 635 Lemuria civilization 28 Length of crop season 178 Ley farming 505 Liebig’s law of minimum 10 Life span of animals 145 Lift irrigation 378 Light 193 Light intensity 194 Lime requirement 273 Lithophytes 173 Livestock in agriculture 145 Locating water table 113 Long range forecast 224 Longitude 204 Low external input sustainable agriculture 699 Low input sustainable agriculture (LEISA/LISA) 699 M Macro climate 203 Malthusian theory 10 Manures 110 Marketing 70 Meridian 204 Mesoclimate 203 Mesolithic period or meso stone age 33 Mesozoic era 22 Meteorological drought 472 Microclimate 203 Millets 170 Minimum tillage 291 Mixed farming 6, 707 Mixed intercropping 181 Mixing ratio 191 Monoculture 679 Morphological adaptation 174 Mulching 484, 501 Multi tier or multistoried intercropping 677 Multiple cropping",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Meridian 204 Mesoclimate 203 Mesolithic period or meso stone age 33 Mesozoic era 22 Meteorological drought 472 Microclimate 203 Millets 170 Minimum tillage 291 Mixed farming 6, 707 Mixed intercropping 181 Mixing ratio 191 Monoculture 679 Morphological adaptation 174 Mulching 484, 501 Multi tier or multistoried intercropping 677 Multiple cropping 179, 678 Multistoried cropping 181 N Narcotics, fumitories and masticatories 170 National calamities 61 National income 13 Natural farming 703 Necrosis 436 Neolithic or new stone age 5, 33 Net irrigation requirement 358 Neutron probe 431 Nimbostratus 211 Nipping 622 Non capillary pore space 250 Non-arable crops 172 Non-chemical weed control measures 708 Non-conventional green manures 635 North east monsoon (NEM) 195, 213 Nurse crops 174 Nutrient recycling 715 O Ocean currents 190 Off season tillage 288 INDEX 833 Oil seeds 170 Ontogeny 170 Organic cycle optimisation 708 Organic farming 701 Organic manures 437, 708 Orifices 380 Origin of crop plants 89 Overlapping system of cropping 179 Ozone 205 Ozone layer 235 Ozonosphere or mesosphere 207 P Paira crop/residual crops 173 Paleolithic 5 Paleolithic period or old/ancient stone age 31 Panchang 84 Parallel cropping 180 Parasitic weeds 314 Particle density 248 Pastures and grasslands 504 Peaty soils 259 Pedology 238 Penning 111 Perennial crops 171 Perennials 312 Perfumes 135 Permanent wilting point 418 Physiographic factors 199 Physiological adaptation 174 Physiological maturity 512 Physiological water use efficiency 398 Picking 173 Pipes and siphon tubes 380 Planetary movement 73 Plant density 305 Plant protection 70 Planting 303 Poisonous weeds 313 Pore space 249 Post-emergence 333 Potential evapotranspiration (PET) 215 Potential yield 20 Pre-emergence 333 Pre-monsoon dry seeding 492 Pre-planting 333 Precipitation 185 Pressurized irrigation methods 369 Primary tillage 287 Primary tillage implements 293 Priming 173 Problem soils 259 Psammophytes 173 Pulses 170 Q Quality of light 194 R Rabi 170 Rain forecasting",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "249 Post-emergence 333 Potential evapotranspiration (PET) 215 Potential yield 20 Pre-emergence 333 Pre-monsoon dry seeding 492 Pre-planting 333 Precipitation 185 Pressurized irrigation methods 369 Primary tillage 287 Primary tillage implements 293 Priming 173 Problem soils 259 Psammophytes 173 Pulses 170 Q Quality of light 194 R Rabi 170 Rain forecasting 85 Rain gun 376 Rain water harvesting 117 Rainfed crops 171 Rainfed farming 455 Rainmaking 212 Ratoon cropping or ratooning 179 Ratooning 501 Ratooning in rice 540 Real specific gravity 248 Reaping 172 Reclamation 262 Recycling 111 Red soils 108, 256 Reference evapotranspiration 215 Relative humidity 190 Relay cropping 179 Relay intercropping 676 Remote sensing (RS) 228 Replacement series 676 Research yield 20 Resistance block 428 Restorative crops 173 Retting 624 Rigveda 50 Rishi–krishi method of vermiculture 112 Row intercropping 181, 676 S Safeners/protectants 340 Saline and alkaline soils 109, 266 Saline soils 257 Sar 263 Saucer shape basins 502 Scientific agriculture 6 Sea level rise 235 Seasoning 173 Seasons 65, 96, 279 Seasons and equinoxes 72 834 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY Secondary tillage 287 Sedges 312 Seed 300 Seed rate 302 Seed treatment 302 Seeds and sowing 67, 101 Semi arid tropics (SAT) 456 Semidry rice 525 Sequence of cropping 100 Sequential cropping 179, 678 Shelling 173 Shelterbelts 486 Shifting cultivation 5 Short range forecast 224 Siddha 143 Silage 665 Silver iodide seeding 212 Silviculture 505 Silvipasture 506 Slowly permeable soils 268 Smother crops 174 Sodic/alkali soils 258 Soil air 197 Soil classification 107 Soil fertility 68 Soil mineral matter (SMM) 197, 239 Soil moisture constant 417 Soil moisture tension 253 Soil organic matter (SOM) 197, 239 Soil organisms 197 Soil reaction 198 Soil structure 244 Soil surface crusting 269 Soil survey 276 Soil temperature 197 Soil types of India 108 Soil wetness 249 Solar radiation 192 Sorghum poisoning",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "matter (SMM) 197, 239 Soil moisture constant 417 Soil moisture tension 253 Soil organic matter (SOM) 197, 239 Soil organisms 197 Soil reaction 198 Soil structure 244 Soil surface crusting 269 Soil survey 276 Soil temperature 197 Soil types of India 108 Soil wetness 249 Solar radiation 192 Sorghum poisoning (Sorghum effect) 558 South west monsoon (SWM) 195, 213 Sowing 302 Sowing implements 298 Special purpose implements 297 Specific humidity 190 Spices and condiments 170 Sprinkler irrigation system 370 Stem girdle 189 Storage of grains 105 Straight fertilizers 443 Strato cumulus 211 Stratosphere 206 Stratus 211 Strip cropping 676 Stripping 173 Stubble mulch tillage or stubble mulch farming 292 Stubble or post harvest tillage 288 Subsidiary farming 6 Subsistence farming 6 Subsoil hard pans 268 Subsurface irrigation 369 Suffocation 188 Sugar and starch crops 170 Summer rainfall 214 Summer tillage 288 Sun clad 189 Super rice 540 Surface or gravity irrigation 362 Surface tension 253 Surge irrigation 367 Sustainable agriculture 695 Sustainable agroecosystems 701 Synergistic cropping 180 Synergistic effect 335 System rice intensification (SRI) 541 T Tank irrigation 377 Temperature 186 The zodiac 71 Theory of avoidance 175 Theory of factors replaceability 175 Theory of optima and limiting factors 11 Theory of tolerance 175 Thinning 307 Tillage 286 Tilth 286 Timber-fibre system 506 Topography 199, 203 Topping 617 Toxic constituents in forages 651 Transpiration 353 Transplanting 303 Trap crops 174 Tree culture (vrksayurveda) 126 Troposphere 206 U Ultisols 260 INDEX 835 V Vapour pressure 191 Vedic civilization 48 Vedic period 50 Vegetable farming 130 Vegetation 203 Vertisol 258 W Warm rain 211 Water drop technique 212 Water resources 8 Water soluble concentrates 333 Water vapour 205 Watershed 506 Weather 202 Weather and climate 202 Weather calendar 226 Weather forecasting 223 Weed management 67 Weeds 308 Weirs 380 Wet lands 171",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "50 Vegetable farming 130 Vegetation 203 Vertisol 258 W Warm rain 211 Water drop technique 212 Water resources 8 Water soluble concentrates 333 Water vapour 205 Watershed 506 Weather 202 Weather and climate 202 Weather calendar 226 Weather forecasting 223 Weed management 67 Weeds 308 Weirs 380 Wet lands 171 Wet seeded rice/direct seeding 537 Wet spell 219 Wet system or low land rice 526 Wettable powders (wp) 333 White revolution 3 Wind direction 195 Wind speed 195 Wind velocity 194 Winter rainfall 213 Winter tillage 288 Y Yellow revolution 3 Z Zaid 170 Zero tillage/no tillage/chemical tillage 292",
    "source": "Agricultural_studies.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "EVERYTHING YOU WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT SMART AGRICULTURE A PREPRINT Alakananda Mitra Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering University of North Texas, USA alakanandamitra@my.unt.edu Sukrutha L. T. Vangipuram Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering University of North Texas, USA lakshmisukruthatirumalavangipuram@my.unt.edu Anand K. Bapatla Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering University of North Texas, USA anandkumarbapatla@my.unt.edu Venkata K. V. V. Bathalapalli Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering University of North Texas, USA venkatakarthikvishnuvardbathalapalli@my.unt.edu Saraju P. Mohanty Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering University of North Texas, USA saraju.mohanty@unt.edu Elias Kougianos Dept. of Electrical Engineering University of North Texas, USA elias.kougianos@unt.edu Chittaranjan Ray Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA cray@nebraska.edu January 14, 2022 ABSTRACT The world population is anticipated to increase by close to 2 billion by 2050 causing a rapid escalation of food demand. A recent projection shows that the world is lagging behind accomplishing the “Zero Hunger” goal, in spite of some advancements. Socio-economic and well being fallout will affect the food security. Vulnerable groups of people will suffer malnutrition. To cater to the needs of the increasing population, the agricultural industry needs to be modernized, become smart, and automated. Traditional agriculture can be remade to efficient, sustainable, eco-friendly smart agriculture by adopting existing technologies. In this survey paper the authors present the applications, technological trends, available datasets, networking options, and challenges in smart agriculture. How Agro Cyber Physical Systems are built upon the Internet-of-Agro-Things is discussed through various application fields. Agriculture 4.0 is also discussed as a whole. We focus on the technologies, such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) which support the automation, along with the Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) which provides data integrity and security. After an in-depth study of different architectures, we also present a smart agriculture framework which relies",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "as a whole. We focus on the technologies, such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) which support the automation, along with the Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) which provides data integrity and security. After an in-depth study of different architectures, we also present a smart agriculture framework which relies on the location of data processing. We have divided open research problems of smart agriculture as future research work in two groups from a technological perspective and from a networking perspective. AI, ML, the blockchain as a DLT, and Physical Unclonable Functions (PUF) based hardware security fall under the technology group, whereas any network related attacks, fake data injection and similar threats fall under the network research problem group. arXiv:2201.04754v1 [cs.CY] 13 Jan 2022 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Keywords Smart Agriculture, Internet-of-Things (IoT), Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), Agirculture Cyber-Physical Systems (A-CPS), Internet-of-Agro-Things (IoAT), Physical Unclonable Function (PUF), Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT), Blockchain 1 Introduction The world population is anticipated to reach 9.7 billion by 2050 and could reach 11 billion by the end of this century [1]. Given these projections, it is anticipated that worldwide food consumption will increase at a rapid pace. The needed increase in food production to serve the future population is a tremendous task. Escalating food supply production is only possible through sustainable and smart agriculture. A goal has been set to end hunger all over the world by 2030. But currently, we are not in a trajectory to reach that goal [2, 3]. Today 800 million people are undernourished worldwide. Increased population plays a significant role in this issue. More people means more food. By 2050, 70% more food production is needed to adequately feed the world’s population [4]. A number of other factors are aggravating this situation: • Urbanization",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "goal [2, 3]. Today 800 million people are undernourished worldwide. Increased population plays a significant role in this issue. More people means more food. By 2050, 70% more food production is needed to adequately feed the world’s population [4]. A number of other factors are aggravating this situation: • Urbanization is changing food habits. People are consuming more animal protein. In 1997-1999 annual animal protein per capita consumption was 36.4Kg which will increase to 45.3Kg by 2030. • Natural resources are being depleted. Farming lands are turning into lands unsuitable for agriculture. 25% of the current farming land is highly unsuitable and 44% is moderately unsuitable. Water scarcity has turned 40% of the farming land into barren land. • Deforestation for urban expansion and new farmland is rapidly depleting groundwater. • Over farming is leading to short fallow periods, lack of crop rotation, and livestock overgrazing causing soil erosion. • Climate change is happening rapidly. It is affecting every aspect of food cultivation. Over the past 50 years, greenhouse gas emissions have doubled which results in unpredictable precipitation and increased occurrence of droughts or floods. • Food wastage is another contributing factor. 33% to 50% of the food produced is wasted across the globe. To alleviate these issues, the food and agricultural industries welcome “Agriculture 4.0”, a green, smart revolution with science and technology at its core. Fig.1 shows an overview of smart agriculture. If we travel back through the industrial revolution, we see that it actually started in the Neolithic and Copper Ages when ancient people used wood and rock as instruments and later adopted metals for farming. But Industry 1.0 started with the use of the steam engine. Mass production and use of electrical energy initiated Industry 2.0. Industry 3.0 comes with automation and use of information technology",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Neolithic and Copper Ages when ancient people used wood and rock as instruments and later adopted metals for farming. But Industry 1.0 started with the use of the steam engine. Mass production and use of electrical energy initiated Industry 2.0. Industry 3.0 comes with automation and use of information technology whereas Industry 4.0 connecting the machines and nodes in cyber physical systems through AI, Big Data (BD), the Internet of Things (IoT), robotics, etc. [5]. A parallel agricultural revolution also happened starting with indigenous tools in Agriculture 1.0, use of tractors and fertilizers in Agriculture 2.0, decision and monitoring systems in Agriculture 3.0 and smart farming or smart agriculture in Agriculture 4.0 [5]. Agriculture 4.0 is defined by the amalgamation of various technologies, e.g. the IoT, AI, the blockchain, the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), nanotechnology, and robotics, as shown in Fig. 2. The rest of this survey is organized into eight sections. Section 2 presents the importance of smart agriculture. Section 3 presents the smart agriculture architecture. Internet-of-Agro-Things (IoAT) based Agriculture Cyber Physical Systems (A-CPS) is discussed in Section 4. Various applications of smart agriculture are described in Section 5. Challenges the industry faced are depicted in Section 6. Section 7 describes different technologies adapted in smart agriculture, whereas Section 8 discusses available datasets in the agricultural industry. Section 9 talks about the open research problems for the future and finally Section 10 concludes the paper. A list of acronyms used in the paper is appended at the end of the paper. 2 Smart Agriculture and Why Do We Need It? Traditional agriculture with manual labor and low productivity is being transformed into sustainable, intelligent, efficient, and eco-friendly agriculture with the use of technologies such as those depicted in Fig. 2. Long established, old-world agriculture is transmuting to",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "end of the paper. 2 Smart Agriculture and Why Do We Need It? Traditional agriculture with manual labor and low productivity is being transformed into sustainable, intelligent, efficient, and eco-friendly agriculture with the use of technologies such as those depicted in Fig. 2. Long established, old-world agriculture is transmuting to “smart” agriculture. New terminologies are emerging “smart farming,” “digital farming,” “precision farming.” “Smart Farming” is another name for “Smart Agriculture.” In “Smart Farming” the focus is accessing data and applying those data to optimize a complex system towards increasing the quality standards and yield of the produce along with reducing human labor. 2 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Livestock Monitoring Autonomous Tractor Remote Sensing Crop Management Agriculture Marketing Smart Agriculture Smart Irrigation Smart Agriculture Figure 1: Smart Agriculture Overview. Agriculture 4.0 Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning Blockchain Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Big Data Nanotechnology IoT Robotics Figure 2: Elements of Agriculture 4.0. 3 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT “Precision Farming or Agriculture” and “Digital Farming” are mostly the predecessors of “smart agriculture” [6]. When the goal of farming is optimization, accuracy, and customized solutions for a particular field or crop with the help of different technologies, it falls under the label “Precision Farming or Agriculture.” “Digital Farming” is the combination of these two. In this paper, we will discuss “smart agriculture\" which addresses “Agriculture 4.0” and its future. Fig. 3 shows the tremendous benefits of smart agriculture compared to traditional agriculture. They are: • Water conservation. • Optimization of the use of fertilizers and pesticides. As a result, produce are more toxin free and nutrient rich. • Increased crop production efficiency. • Reduction of operational costs. • Opening up of unconventional farming area in cities, deserts. • Lower greenhouse gas emissions. •",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "are: • Water conservation. • Optimization of the use of fertilizers and pesticides. As a result, produce are more toxin free and nutrient rich. • Increased crop production efficiency. • Reduction of operational costs. • Opening up of unconventional farming area in cities, deserts. • Lower greenhouse gas emissions. • Reduced soil erosion. • Real time data availability to farmers. Smart Agriculture Benefits Optimization of Fertilizers, Pesticides Water Conservation Green House Gas & Soil Erosion Reduction Real Time Data Provision Operational Cost Reduction Crop Production Efficiency Increase Figure 3: Smart Agriculture Benefits Over Traditional Agriculture. 3 Smart Agriculture Architecture The IoT has been recently boosting the agricultural industry. Different technologies, protocols and standards are being employed. Depending on the application, the number of associated layers varies in the implementation architecture. Smart agriculture architectures with three layers [7, 8, 9], four layers [10, 11], five layers [12], six layers [13], and seven layers [14] have been presented in the literature. Different names and perspectives have been used in those architectures. We adapt a generic architecture, where layers are defined depending on the location (proximity to the occurrence) of their processing and how are they connected. This smart agriculture architecture is shown in Fig. 4. We depict the architecture with three main layers. These layers are connected through two connectivity layers. We divide them in two sub layers as both connectivity layers connect different layers with different technologies. As the connectivity layer establishes a bridge among all the layers, it is the core layer of smart agriculture architecture through which all the layers work in sync with each other. 4 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Edge Computing Layer Cloud Computing Layer Agriculture Device Layer sigfox LoRa ZigBee Connectivity Layer-2 Connectivity Layer-1 Figure 4: Architecture of Smart Agriculture.",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "core layer of smart agriculture architecture through which all the layers work in sync with each other. 4 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Edge Computing Layer Cloud Computing Layer Agriculture Device Layer sigfox LoRa ZigBee Connectivity Layer-2 Connectivity Layer-1 Figure 4: Architecture of Smart Agriculture. • Layer-1: Agriculture Device Layer is the base layer of the smart agriculture architecture. It comprises of various things like sensors, laid out through the agricultural land, animal paddocks, green houses, hydroponic systems, tagged livestock, unmanned aerial vehicles, agricultural robots, automated fencing and tractors [15, 16]. These devices or distributed source nodes sense the physical parameters, collect data round the clock in real-time and send them to the gateway node at next layer through the connectivity layer, which is basically a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). Fig. 5 shows the data sensed by different sensors/cameras in various fields of smart agriculture. For example, in a rice crop field, underground soil sensors and on-UAV sensors and cameras collect the data and send them to the edge for further processing. • Layer-2: This is the Edge Computing Layer. This comprises of a number of edge nodes. The number of nodes depends on the specific smart agricultural system. Data collected at layer-1 are processed, filtered and encrypted here. Previously, the prognostic and solution parts were done in the next layer because of the resource limitations at the edge layer. But with recent advancement of hardware and AI at the edge initiatives, trained machine learning models can perform the prognostics and suggest solutions at this layer. However, if the job is resource expensive or not time sensitive, prognostic and inference can both be done in the next layer. For example, if a cow is outside its supposed territory in a livestock farm or needs milking,",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "models can perform the prognostics and suggest solutions at this layer. However, if the job is resource expensive or not time sensitive, prognostic and inference can both be done in the next layer. For example, if a cow is outside its supposed territory in a livestock farm or needs milking, the necessary measures are performed at the edge computing layer and the farmer is notified. Hardware boards are being used as the edge devices [17]. To mention a few common boards and applications, the Arduino UNO, has been used in [18] for a greenhouse monitoring and controlling system, the Raspberry Pi for a hydroponic system [19], the ESP8266 for connecting smart agricultural components for managing ambient factors [20], the ESP32 for smart irrigation [21], the Intel Edison for vertical agricultural warehouses [22], and the BeagleBone for monitoring of agrochemical processes [23]. • Layer-3: The Cloud Computing Layer is the third or topmost layer of the bottom up architecture of the smart agriculture system. This virtual layer usually resides in data centers and can be accessed from anywhere in the world through the Internet [11]. Massive data, collected by the sensors or cameras in agricultural farms need 5 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Measured Parameters at Agricultural Devices Underground Sensors On UAV Sensors/Cameras Crop Soil Moisture Soil pH Soil Chemical Composition (N2, S, Ammonia) Livestock Image Environmental Parameters Thermal Image RGB Image Multi Spectral Image LiDAR Image Air Humidity Air Temperature Solar Radiation Wind Speed Location Body vitals Reproductive Cycle Milking Time Feeding Time Wearable Collar Greenhouse (GH) GH Humidity GH Temperature GH Quality Wind Speed Soil Moisture Hydroponics Room Humidity Room Temperature Water Level Water Temperature Soil Moisture Light Intensity Soil pH Light Intensity Soil pH Precipitation CO2 Figure 5: Sensor Parameters in Various Sectors",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Body vitals Reproductive Cycle Milking Time Feeding Time Wearable Collar Greenhouse (GH) GH Humidity GH Temperature GH Quality Wind Speed Soil Moisture Hydroponics Room Humidity Room Temperature Water Level Water Temperature Soil Moisture Light Intensity Soil pH Light Intensity Soil pH Precipitation CO2 Figure 5: Sensor Parameters in Various Sectors of Smart Agriculture. to be processed, analyzed and saved. Until recently, most of the analysis and decision taking were done at the cloud along with storing the huge data sets [7, 8, 24]. The high computing power of the cloud allows it to perform various complex tasks in reasonable time. But there are certain limitations of cloud computing which demand new computing paradigms to emerge. Latency, high band width Internet requirements, security and privacy of data are some of the limiting factors which restrain the time sensitive monitoring and managing of smart agriculture. AI, recent developments in hardware boards and 5G network have orchestrated a new paradigm, the Edge AI. It increases the security and privacy of data as it processes data near its point of origin. So data does not travel to the cloud or is shared at the centralized cloud. Edge AI has reduced the latency and dependence on the Internet. • Connectivity Layers: They bridge the various layers. Connectivity layer-1 gets the physical parameter data from layer-1 and passes them to layer-2. Processed data from layer-2 are passed to layer-3 by Connectivity layer -2. Various transmission range communication networks are used in this layer depending on the area to be connected as in Fig. 6. When data is transferred from the agriculture device layer to the edge computing layer, near range ZigBee, Wi-Fi, Z-Wave, Bluetooth, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), and Near Field Communication (NFC) are commonly used, whereas for longer ranges SigFox, LoRaWan, and Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT)",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "area to be connected as in Fig. 6. When data is transferred from the agriculture device layer to the edge computing layer, near range ZigBee, Wi-Fi, Z-Wave, Bluetooth, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), and Near Field Communication (NFC) are commonly used, whereas for longer ranges SigFox, LoRaWan, and Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT) are used [17]. For example, for a smaller farm in a remote village where the network bandwidth is limited low battery consuming Z-Wave is a good choice. But for larger farms, LoRaWan is suitable for its low energy usage and long distance transmission capability. Bluetooth low power has been used for monitoring soil and air along with water management systems in [25], and ZigBee for managing an irrigation system in [26]. RFID is extensively used in the smart agricultural industry [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. LoRa has been used for water management in [33]. When the processed data are sent from the edge computing layer to the cloud layer, cellular technologies like Ground Penetrating Radar Services (GPRS), Long-Term Evolution (LTE), 3G/4G, and 5G are used. The recent 5G technology has low latency, high reliability, large coverage areas, high data rate and new frequency bands [9]. This can greatly assist smart agriculture to advance. GPRS has been used for irrigation in [24]. New initiatives have started using 5G [34, 35]. The successor of the 5G network is 6G cellular technology which is under development. It will be much faster than the existing mobile networks. Flexible decentralized models will propel various areas like edge computing, AI, and blockchain which will advance the growth of smart agriculture. 6 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Networks Connectivity Layer-2 Connectivity Layer-1 Long Range Short Range ZigBee Wi-Fi Z-Wave Bluetooth RFID NFC SigFox NB-IoT LoRaWan GPRS 3G/4G LTE 5G 6G (Under",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "areas like edge computing, AI, and blockchain which will advance the growth of smart agriculture. 6 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Networks Connectivity Layer-2 Connectivity Layer-1 Long Range Short Range ZigBee Wi-Fi Z-Wave Bluetooth RFID NFC SigFox NB-IoT LoRaWan GPRS 3G/4G LTE 5G 6G (Under Development) Figure 6: Various Networks for Smart Agriculture. 4 Internet of Agro-Things (IoAT) based Agricultural Cyber-Physical Systems (A-CPS) The IoT is the network of interrelated physical things, devices, objects with unique id for connecting and sharing data with other devices and systems through the Internet. Implementation of the IoT in physical systems gives birth to Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS). CPS are hybrid systems of physical entities and software or computing capabilities. It is a modern way to define an industry. Smart cities and smart villages include one or more CPS like smart health, smart agriculture, smart energy, smart transportation, smart citizens, renewable energy, etc. A-CPS is the core of smart agriculture. It revolutionizes the agricultural industry. As the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) forms Healthcare Cyber-Physical Systems (H-CPS), the IoAT forms A-CPS [6]. The IoAT is a data driven system. Constant data collection, processing, and measures are taken to make the workflow highly efficient. Fig. 7(a) shows such an iterative system workflow which allows farmers to take actions readily if any issue is observed. The cycle consists of five stages: • Data Collection: First, various things (“T”) or sensors connected through the Internet (“I”) collect the data at sensor level or end level. • Data Processing: Second, if any data processing is needed to make the data compatible to the model, it is done in this phase at the edge level. E.g. if the sensor data is not in range or the photos taken by an UAV are needed to be",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "end level. • Data Processing: Second, if any data processing is needed to make the data compatible to the model, it is done in this phase at the edge level. E.g. if the sensor data is not in range or the photos taken by an UAV are needed to be changed to gray scale or any encryption of data is needed before sending to the cloud, they are performed here. • Prognostic: This is mostly done in the clouds for existing technologies. The data, processed at the edge, are analyzed here from the predefined rules or models (mostly ML, Fuzzy Logic (FL), and Arificial Neural Networks (ANN) based). This is where data is stored for future use. The edge AI initiative is transforming the scenario. • Solution: Once the issue is detected in the cloud platform, the solution is suggested. This stage can be done in the cloud or at the edge. E.g. if part of the farm land is dry, this stage suggests which valves of the irrigation system need to release what value and how long to optimally water the dry patch. • Measures Taken: This is the final stage of the cycle where the implementation of the solution is performed. This is performed by the IoT device. In the previously mentioned example, the opening of the valve of the irrigation system is performed here. The cycle continues to serve the whole farming process optimally. Fig. 7(a) shows that when ML based tasks are performed in the cloud and edge settings, the decision or solution is sent to the IoT device for measures taken there. But, TinyML as-a-service is bridging the ML and embedded worlds. Instead of “outsourced” the decision to the IoT device, the ML based task is being performed at the limited resource IoT device only.",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and edge settings, the decision or solution is sent to the IoT device for measures taken there. But, TinyML as-a-service is bridging the ML and embedded worlds. Instead of “outsourced” the decision to the IoT device, the ML based task is being performed at the limited resource IoT device only. In this new era, Fig. 7(a) is changing to Fig. 7(b). 7 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT IoAT Data Collection Data Processing Prognostic Solution Measures Taken Agriculture Device Level Cloud / Edge Level Edge Level Agriculture Device Level Cloud / Edge Level (a) Before TinyML Era Agriculture Device Level IoAT Data Collection Data Processing Prognostic Solution Measures Taken Agriculture Device Level Edge Level (b) After TinyML Era Figure 7: IoT Based Smart Agriculture Cycle. 5 Smart Agriculture: Applications In this section, application areas of smart agriculture are discussed. Fig. 8 shows some application areas of smart agriculture, e.g., crop management, smart irrigation, livestock monitoring, and pest control and Fig. 10 shows some more applications, e.g., smart greenhouse, UAV and autonomous tractor, and hydroponic system. 5.1 Crop Management Crop Management is the process of analyzing the economical, ecological and sociological aspects which constitute an important part in the crop selection, cultivation and marketing. Crop growth, water resources availability, labor, insurance and environmental factors guide cropping patterns. Ecological factors contribute to a change in cropping patterns. For instance, in areas with depleting water resources and groundwater tables, traditional crops like paddy cultivation, which requires abundant water resources, cannot be sustained. The market for an agricultural product, as well as different countries, export and import policies, also affect crop selection. Once a crop has been selected then crop cultivation is the next important aspect. Using the IoT, farmers are equipped with the latest technology and sensors placed in-field",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "cannot be sustained. The market for an agricultural product, as well as different countries, export and import policies, also affect crop selection. Once a crop has been selected then crop cultivation is the next important aspect. Using the IoT, farmers are equipped with the latest technology and sensors placed in-field monitor plant growth. For instance, ultrasonic sensors are placed in the field to monitor the presence of pests and insects affecting plant growth. After identifying the presence of pests, high frequency sound waves are generated to remove the pest and the farmer is also notified of the pests’ presence for further help [37]. The flowchart illustrating the concept of Smart Farming is detailed in Fig. 9. 5.2 Soil Monitoring Soil moisture plays an important role in the overall farming process. It is responsible for photosynthesis, respiration , transpiration and transportation of minerals during the plant growth process [38]. Soil monitoring constitutes an important role in farm decision making. Cropping patterns depend on various factors like water availability, soil salinity, pests, moisture, pH and humidity. These factors help in assessing soil health. Sensors on the field monitor soil temperature and humidity and the analyzed data are sent to the cloud. Farmers will receive an alert on a range of factors and cropping patterns are analyzed and decided based on salinity content and soil nutrient level, humidity, and temperature. Soil moisture is a vital aspect in plant growth process as water is an important component in photosynthesis, regulating temperature and acting as a carrier of food and essential nutrients for the plant growth. Humidity controls the nutrient supply and regulates the rate of transpiration for optimum plant growth. The ideal humidity for vegetable 8 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Figure 8: Applications of Smart Agriculture Crop Management,",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a carrier of food and essential nutrients for the plant growth. Humidity controls the nutrient supply and regulates the rate of transpiration for optimum plant growth. The ideal humidity for vegetable 8 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Figure 8: Applications of Smart Agriculture Crop Management, Pest Control, Smart Irrigation, Livestock Monitoring [36]. Crop Management Livestock Remote Sensing Agriculture Supply Chain Water Monitoring Soil Monitoring pH Humidity Salinity Temperature Crop Monitoring Pest Detection Photosynthesis Weed Detection Disease Prediction Field Monitoring Fertigation UAV Weather Monitoring Smart Farming Location Tracking Disease Prediction Figure 9: Applications of Smart Agriculture. 9 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT plants cultivation is 50% to 60% [39]. Soil moisture sensors placed inside the root of plants analyze soil moisture level values to facilitate optimum utilization of water resources [40, 41]. 5.3 Smart Irrigation Smart irrigation is the process of improving the quality and quantity of yield with optimal utilization of water using the latest technologies. It conserves water by optimally watering the plants. There are two types of irrigation systems weather based and soil moisture sensor based. Weather based irrigation systems receive temperature and rainfall data from a local mini weather station and a controller regulates the irrigation. In soil moisture sensor based irrigation systems, sensors placed inside the turf of trees, accurately determine soil moisture content. In this type of irrigation, accurate values of humidity and air temperature along with weather monitoring and cropping pattern are required to irrigate the field. Data is sent to the cloud and actuators like sprinklers are activated [42]. The soil moisture sensor values guide the irrigation schedule per unit area of farm. The micro level analysis and scheduling of irrigation and efficient actuation ensures optimum crop growth and 100% efficiency in water",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "irrigate the field. Data is sent to the cloud and actuators like sprinklers are activated [42]. The soil moisture sensor values guide the irrigation schedule per unit area of farm. The micro level analysis and scheduling of irrigation and efficient actuation ensures optimum crop growth and 100% efficiency in water utilization [43]. Farmers can operate the irrigation system from a smartphone based mobile application. This irrigation system is based on data from temperature, humidity, soil moisture and ultrasonic sensors placed in the field [44]. The smartphone based mobile application for automatic irrigation is connected to the cloud for analysis using a user friendly mobile application where farmers can perform actuation by enabling the irrigation pumps to water the farm. 5.4 Livestock Monitoring Livestock management constitutes an important part of smart agriculture. An IoT enabled livestock health monitoring system enables farmers to monitor the health of cattle herds, track grazing animals, and optimize breeding practices. Cattle health can be monitored automatically by measuring body vitals like heart rate, blood pressure or respiratory rate using a wearable collar or RFID tag. This has a two fold advantage saving man power and providing time sensitive treatment to the animal which in turn stops spreading of diseases. For this purpose, Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking is used [42]. It also can prevent accidents to the animal. RFID tags are also used in animal identification and tracking [45]. 5.5 Remote Sensing Remote sensing in agriculture can help farmers receive real time data on the crop using drones which record high quality images to map the farm fields. They can also be used to check the crop yield using the information on crop health and the condition of farmland. Remote sensing can be used to map soil conditions and enable farmers to decide which type of",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "using drones which record high quality images to map the farm fields. They can also be used to check the crop yield using the information on crop health and the condition of farmland. Remote sensing can be used to map soil conditions and enable farmers to decide which type of soil is better for a particular crop. Weed and pests can be detected and proper pest control mechanisms can be adapted. The most important application of remote sensing is weather forecasting and monitoring. It can be used to track rainfall, drought conditions and in identifying water resources, thereby alerting farmers beforehand on availability of water and on weather so that capital and crop planning can be done in advance [46]. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NVDI) values, which are one of the most important parameters to quantify the crop cultivation process, are used to notify yield prediction and plant growth [47]. Remote sensing instruments on the farm field are used for monitoring abiotic stress agents with the best possible spatial resolution [48]. 5.6 Smart Greenhouse In the wake of global climate change, and diminishing natural resources the agricultural industry welcomes technology supported farming techniques. Smart greenhouse is one of them. It is an indoor controlled environment tailored for plants. It is a self-isolated farm monitoring ecosystem integrated with IoT, and AI/ML technologies. It protects the farm from wind, storms, and floods. It increases the efficiency of productivity without manual intervention. Solar powered IoT sensors are placed inside the greenhouse for monitoring the vitals for vegetables, fruits and other horticultural crops. Automatic drip irrigation can be employed using soil moisture sensors placed inside the root of the tree. If a threshold value is reached, the in-field actuator waters the farm accordingly. Use of LED lighting can better cater to the plants’ needs.",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the vitals for vegetables, fruits and other horticultural crops. Automatic drip irrigation can be employed using soil moisture sensors placed inside the root of the tree. If a threshold value is reached, the in-field actuator waters the farm accordingly. Use of LED lighting can better cater to the plants’ needs. A controlled illumination with specific wavelength and intensity can revamp the plant growth and all year-round yield. Drip fertigation techniques can be used to sprinkle sufficient amounts of minerals like potassium, phosphorus and other minerals required for optimum growth and good health of plants. Smart greenhouse cultivation is increasing as the technologies are at the farmer’s disposal and demand is growing for organic fruits and vegetables using smart green techniques [49]. A decision support based IoT friendly smart greenhouse system has been presented in [50] for increasing productivity of rose plants. 10 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Figure 10: Applications of Smart Agriculture Smart Greenhouse, Agriculture Robot, UAV and Autonomous Tractor, Hydroponic System [36]. 5.7 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle In the current agricultural industry, the usage of UAV, a.k.a drones, has been steadily increasing. They are being used for crop mapping, field monitoring, remote sensing, fertigation, and weed detection. Drones can be a savior for taking photos in large farming areas, mountainous regions or remote areas. The NVDI is calculated from the drone taken images to asses the crop health. It determines water level, stress condition, plant nutrition, and pest infestation. It can guide the entire crop cultivation process [51, 52, 53]. 5.8 Autonomous Tractor Cutting edge technologies are changing the agriculture industry. The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) has propelled from crop management, soil monitoring, smart irrigation to pest control, livestock management or agro marketing. We can expect in the near future farming with autonomous,",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "crop cultivation process [51, 52, 53]. 5.8 Autonomous Tractor Cutting edge technologies are changing the agriculture industry. The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) has propelled from crop management, soil monitoring, smart irrigation to pest control, livestock management or agro marketing. We can expect in the near future farming with autonomous, intelligent, and smart instruments. An autonomous tractor is an important part of these instruments. It is a programmable self-driving vehicle. It can perform tillage, and spraying fertilizers. They are equipped with GPS, lasers and cameras and can function on their own without requiring farmers to monitor them. Autonomous drones are used along with these smart tractors and are used in weed detection, pesticide spraying, field monitoring and surveillance for sustainable agriculture [54]. The autonomous tractors used for spraying and mowing in orchards have perception systems to detect obstacles and remote aided guide for performing agricultural tasks. The perception system uses cameras for geometry based obstacle detection and path identification [55, 56]. 5.9 Urban Farming The increased urbanization rate poses an alarming situation in densely populated cities. A new approach to farming has emerged to offer a sustainable farming solution in those areas. Hence the practice of urban or vertical farming has gained prominence among urban populations. It takes up 3-D space for farming with controlled water, nutrients, 11 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Automatic Irrigation Fertigation Photosynthesis Soil Monitoring Smart Greenhouse Figure 11: Smart Greenhouse. minimal pesticides, and artificial lighting sources. The practical limitation of vertical farming system is generation of artificial light sources for plant growth and the large costs involved [57]. • As the name suggests, hydroponics is a water based system where plants get all the nutrients from the nutrient rich water solution [58]. In hydroponic systems, the nutrient supply needs to",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "vertical farming system is generation of artificial light sources for plant growth and the large costs involved [57]. • As the name suggests, hydroponics is a water based system where plants get all the nutrients from the nutrient rich water solution [58]. In hydroponic systems, the nutrient supply needs to be continuous. These systems can be operated through mobile apps. In [59] such a mobile app controls an Arduino controller for watering the plants to manage the hydroponic system. • Aeroponics is a similar system but instead of submerging the roots in the water, the roots are misted. Research shows that aeroponics plants have more nutrients than hydroponics plants [60]. In the Internation Space Station, this technology is used for growing plants. • Another recent farming system is aquaponics which is essentially a hydroponic system but the nutrients (phosphorous, nitrogen) are not mixed from the outside. Fish in the same tank generate those nutrients. 5.10 Agriculture Marketing Proper marketing of the produce is an important aspect of the economic growth of a society. The presence of middle men causes inflation and both consumers and farmers lose. Smart agriculture changes this scenario. Farmers can sell the product directly to the consumers using various agro-marketing apps. Ethereum based blockchain has been used as a platform for trade negotiations between farmers and end consumers [61]. A food supply chain has been implemented with the help of blockchain [62] from updating the distributed ledger at the production phase to the final distribution phase. 6 Smart Agriculture: Challenges Traditional Agriculture has been modernized and eased by Smart Agriculture processes. But there are still many challenges needed to be addressed for the adoption of technologies to scale. These issues are associated with a variety of aspects which are discussed in the current Section. Fig. 12 shows",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Smart Agriculture: Challenges Traditional Agriculture has been modernized and eased by Smart Agriculture processes. But there are still many challenges needed to be addressed for the adoption of technologies to scale. These issues are associated with a variety of aspects which are discussed in the current Section. Fig. 12 shows some of the major challenges of Smart Agriculture. 12 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Challenges Power Consumption Networking and Communication Scalability Big Data Hardware availability and Security Data Security and Privacy Reliability Artificial Intelligence Figure 12: Major Challenges in Smart Agriculture. 6.1 Power Issues Most smart agriculture activities utilize large machine automation which requires high amounts of power to operate. As farms are generally vast in area and require many electronic components, it is not unusual to have very high power requirements. This has been a bottleneck for wide adoption of such automation processes in large farms. Some of the solutions propose the use of clean energy from renewable sources like solar, wind, and hydro and provide continuous uninterrupted power to the machinery [63]. This has been an area of interest for many researchers and research is ongoing to implement and improve such renewable energy sources for smart farming [64, 65]. Some of the issues with these alternative power options are the storage and transmission of power, along with uneven energy requirements at different location of the farm. An efficient microgrid architecture is required to overcome such issues and research has been done in this area to propose an efficient smart microgrid working along with renewable power sources in [66, 67]. 6.2 Power Consumption For a seamless, reliable and sustainable operation of the smart agriculture farm, as IoAT devices are needed to be operated by alternative power sources, the deployed models are required to be",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "area to propose an efficient smart microgrid working along with renewable power sources in [66, 67]. 6.2 Power Consumption For a seamless, reliable and sustainable operation of the smart agriculture farm, as IoAT devices are needed to be operated by alternative power sources, the deployed models are required to be less power hungry. They should be capable of working in a low resource setting. 6.3 Hardware Availability Smart Agriculture requires different sensors and devices for sensing different environmental and system parameters. After acquiring the data, the devices act upon those signals to give better predictable yield. Availability of specific hardware is a bottleneck in this scenario. 13 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT 6.4 Hardware Security By 2020, the number of IoT connected devices are believed to be 50 billion [68]. These IoT devices are needed to be robust and resilient against various attacks. But demand of simple hardware with low price compromises hardware security. Hardware Trojan and Side Channel Attacks are the most common hardware security threats for IoT devices, consequently limiting wide adoption of IoT network in critical applications. Hardware Trojans make use of malicious hardware modifications by the adversary which can be used as a backdoor to control the system and to perform attacks. These are very hard to detect and some methods include performing electronic microscope scanning on de-metalized chips [69] and studying power and delays within the circuit and also inspecting the PUF which acts as signature of these electronic devices [70]. Side Channel Attacks are another common hardware security threat which make use of side channel signals to retrieve confidential information like cryptography keys. Some of these side channel signals include electromagnetic emanation, power profiling and timing analysis [71]. As IoT networks are more prone to these issues, many solutions",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "[70]. Side Channel Attacks are another common hardware security threat which make use of side channel signals to retrieve confidential information like cryptography keys. Some of these side channel signals include electromagnetic emanation, power profiling and timing analysis [71]. As IoT networks are more prone to these issues, many solutions have been proposed in [72, 73, 74]. 6.5 Networking and Communication Machine-to-Machine (M2M) interaction is one of the most common aspects in smart agriculture. This makes use of different network and communication protocols to share data and work collaboratively towards a common task. Most of the applications make use of many different communication networks like ZigBee, Wi-Fi, LoRA, SigFox, and GPRS. Establishing and maintaining such huge networks is expensive and not a viable option in large, open farms due to physical damages and threats. Research directions have been explored and some solutions for efficient communication networks have been proposed [75, 76, 77]. Additionally, some research has integrated communication equipment with other smart devices making it viable for uninterrupted communication such as Solar Insecticidal Lamps (SIL) and WSN to create a novel agriculture thing, SIL-IoT [78]. The need for more secure and robust communication is very high in smart agriculture applications and requires further research and new affordable technologies. 6.6 Connectivity Issues In many rural areas across the globe reliable high bandwidth Internet connection is not available, which stalls the existing cloud based computing and prevents the advancement of smart agriculture. Tall trees or hills can also stop the line-of-sight GPS communication [79]. 6.7 Data Security and Privacy To maintain data privacy and security during data transmission, robust cryptography techniques and security measures are needed. However, due to the minimalist design of IoAT sensor nodes and underlying protocols they are not resource intensive. Practicing security measures in a resource limited device",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "communication [79]. 6.7 Data Security and Privacy To maintain data privacy and security during data transmission, robust cryptography techniques and security measures are needed. However, due to the minimalist design of IoAT sensor nodes and underlying protocols they are not resource intensive. Practicing security measures in a resource limited device is difficult in today’s existing technologies. Thus data privacy and security has become a serious challenge in smart agriculture. As most of the processes in smart agriculture are automated, an adversary can manipulate these processes to create chaos in the network. This may lead to very serious consequences for yield and overall quality of farm production. 6.8 Scalability and Reliability Agricultural farms vary in their size from smaller individual farms to larger commercial farms. They need different quantities of field sensors. These sensors generate a varied amount of data. Hence, any agriculture technology is needed to be scalable. The devices are required to be reliable, so that the number of redundant devices to accommodate fault tolerance can be lower. It will significantly reduce the cost. 6.9 Big Data Challenge Massive amounts of heterogeneous data is collected by the sensor nodes or cameras in smart agriculture. Traditional ways of processing this enormous amount of data are insufficient and BD analysis comes into play. Big data has the capacity to explore massive datasets. It improves the efficiency of the end-to-end supply chain in smart agricultural systems, mitigates food security issues [80], provides predictive analysis, real time decision, and introduces new business models [81, 82]. Support Vector Machines (SVM) and ANN have been utilized to integrate big data platforms for milk production chain security [83]. Fig. 13 shows the big data workflow in smart agriculture systems based on [80, 82]. It starts with the data collection at various sensor nodes and ends with",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "[81, 82]. Support Vector Machines (SVM) and ANN have been utilized to integrate big data platforms for milk production chain security [83]. Fig. 13 shows the big data workflow in smart agriculture systems based on [80, 82]. It starts with the data collection at various sensor nodes and ends with the various data analysis methods including both traditional and big data analysis. 14 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Data Generation • Enormous and Wide Variety of Data from Smart Agriculture Data Acquisition • Collection • Transmission • Preprocessing Data Storage • Direct Attached Storage (DAS) • Network Attached Storage (NAS) • Storage Area Network (SAN) Traditional Analysis • Cluster • Factor • Correlation • Regression • Bucket Testing • Statistical • Data Mining Big Data Analysis • Hashing • Index • Triel • Parallel Computing Data Analysis Figure 13: Big Data Work Flow in Context of Smart Agriculture. 6.10 Challenges of AI Though AI is a logical step toward smart agriculture for sustainable, efficient, and cost effective farming, there are some constraint factors which pose big challenges to applying AI in the agricultural industry: • There is a lack of connection between the agricultural industry and AI research field. So, the problems faced by farmers are not well known to AI researchers and similarly farmers are not well aware of the existing AI technologies. More interdisciplinary collaboration is needed to solve this two-fold problem. • As AI applications in agriculture are emerging, there are no well established policies and regulations. Thus, many legal aspects of smart farming are unanswered. Until recently, most of the existing AI-IoT solutions were cloud based and therefore cyber attacks, data security, and privacy concerns kept farmers away from embracing AI techniques. To mitigate this issue, a new IoT setting “Edge",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "well established policies and regulations. Thus, many legal aspects of smart farming are unanswered. Until recently, most of the existing AI-IoT solutions were cloud based and therefore cyber attacks, data security, and privacy concerns kept farmers away from embracing AI techniques. To mitigate this issue, a new IoT setting “Edge AI” has emerged. Edge AI processes sensor data at the local level, and it provides higher security and privacy in data along with lower latency and cost. • Another challenge for AI in agriculture is lack of data. AI is a data-driven technology. The unavailability of proper data is a barrier to applying various AI techniques. • In remote rural areas where higher bandwidth mobile networks are not available but agriculture is the main industry, Edge AI can be a game changer there. It expands the possibilities of smart agriculture. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) have been used in [84] at the edge layer to compress the sensor image data and then the compressed data has been sent to the fog layer using Low-Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) technology. 6.11 Technical Malfunction Technical malfunction, e.g., sensor damage can disrupt the technology. A huge amount of loss from wrong decisionmaking of devices can introduce multi domain damage. For a paddy field, if the sensors are damaged by hail, they will not predict the water content of the soil correctly which in turn can damage crops, impact food supply chain, and cause rice price imbalance. 6.12 Lack of Initial Capital Investment In rural areas of developing countries where farmers work with a very meager profit margin, initial investment for advanced technologies is not always available. It can decelerate the mass scale use of smart technologies. 6.13 Unavailability of Uniform Standards Different countries use different standards of units and technologies which demand customized solution.",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "areas of developing countries where farmers work with a very meager profit margin, initial investment for advanced technologies is not always available. It can decelerate the mass scale use of smart technologies. 6.13 Unavailability of Uniform Standards Different countries use different standards of units and technologies which demand customized solution. This increases the price. A uniform standard across the world will solve the problem [79]. 15 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT 7 Technologies for Smart Agriculture 2021 has been marked as the start of the Industry 5.0 era. It arrived at the right moment when various industry sectors are welcoming digital, smart, green and sustainable ecosystems to cope with COVID-19 challenges. It redefines the relationship between “man” and “machine” [85]. In agriculture, the Industry 5.0 era will accelerate the arrival of Agriculture 5.0. Mainly AI/ML and DLT will orchestrate the advancement along with FL, UAV, agricultural robotics, and alternative farming, as shown in Fig. 14. In this section the two main technologies are discussed. Technologies Distributed Ledger AI / ML Fuzzy Logic UAV Agro Robot Alternative Farming Clustering SVM ANN CNN DNN LSTM DT Ensemble Learning Regression Blockchain Hash Graph Directed Acyclic Graph Hollow Chain Tempo Figure 14: Technologies in Smart Agriculture. 7.1 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Artificial intelligence is the intelligence displayed by machines that resembles human intelligence. Advancements in AI and ML have shown a lot of promise in various domains such as e-commerce and marketing [86], human resources [87], computer vision [88], multimedia forensics [89, 90], healthcare [91], social media [92, 93], gaming [94, 95], automobiles, and agriculture. In agriculture, AI is used in increasing efficiency, crop yield and profitability, monitoring crop health, monitoring and forecasting climate, optimizing supply chain, managing irrigation systems, pesticide and fertilizer management, weed control, smart sensing",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "[88], multimedia forensics [89, 90], healthcare [91], social media [92, 93], gaming [94, 95], automobiles, and agriculture. In agriculture, AI is used in increasing efficiency, crop yield and profitability, monitoring crop health, monitoring and forecasting climate, optimizing supply chain, managing irrigation systems, pesticide and fertilizer management, weed control, smart sensing and mapping, livestock tracking and geofencing. Researchers are applying Fuzzy logic, various AI/ML techniques including classification, and logistic regression as well as Neuro-Fuzzy logic to agricultural predictive analytics, decision making systems, agricultural robotics and mobile expert systems [96]. Fig. 15 shows the AI tools presented in various literature works on smart agriculture. 7.1.1 Crop Management Crop management consists of crop production or yield prediction, estimation, and crop supply chain management. Various ML tools have been used in different sectors of crop management. To count the number of coffee fruits on a coffee plant branch [98] and identify the green immature citrus fruits [99], SVM have been used. SVM have also been used for rice crop yield prediction [100]. The branches with full of cherries have been estimated with Gaussian Naive Bayes [101]. ANN have been used to evaluate grassland biomass [102] and wheat yield prediction [103]. Corn and soybean yield prediction has been done in [104] using ANN with better accuracy than regression models. ANN with back propagation have also been used to predict yields from soil parameters [105]. ANN have also been used to predict corn yield [106], rice yield in a mountainous region [107], cotton yield [108], wheat yield [109], maize crop yield [110], tea yield [111], and general crop yield [112]. ANN have also been used in detecting nutrition disorder for crops [113] and predicting the reaction of crops over soil salinity and water content [114]. From UAV imagery, tomatoes have been detected using clustering [115]. Crop",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "yield [109], maize crop yield [110], tea yield [111], and general crop yield [112]. ANN have also been used in detecting nutrition disorder for crops [113] and predicting the reaction of crops over soil salinity and water content [114]. From UAV imagery, tomatoes have been detected using clustering [115]. Crop growth has been monitored in [116]. 16 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Smart Irrigation Pest / Disease Control Soil Management Livestock Management Weed Control Alternative Farming Crop Management SVM ANN DNN CNN Regression Bayesian Models DT Fuzzy Logic Clustering Instance Based Models Ensemble Learning LSTM Figure 15: AI Tools for Smart Agriculture [97]. 7.1.2 Soil Management Soil property management such as soil moisture, temperature, and nutrient content is an important part of smart agricultural systems. Its benefits are two fold increasing crop yield and preserving soil resources [117]. But the process is time consuming and costly. So, various inexpensive and autonomous ML techniques are being proposed to have a reliable soil management system [97]. Mostly, the data from sensors, satellite images or images taken by UAV are used as the input of the ML models. ANN, SVM, and autoencoders have been used in predictive analysis. ANN and Multi-Layer Perceptrons (MLP) have been used for suitability of soil evaluation [118]. Phosphorous in soil has been predicted using various ML models [119]. Deep Neural Networks (DNN) have been utilized to extract geo-parcels from high resolution images and MLP have been employed to predict the phosphorous content. Radial basis function neural network have been applied to predict the water retention capacity of soil in Brazilian coastal areas [120]. Soil moisture is also predicted with Boosted Regression Trees (BRT) from UAV-taken images [121] and with ANN in [122]. Health and condition of soil moisture sensors have been predicted using",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "basis function neural network have been applied to predict the water retention capacity of soil in Brazilian coastal areas [120]. Soil moisture is also predicted with Boosted Regression Trees (BRT) from UAV-taken images [121] and with ANN in [122]. Health and condition of soil moisture sensors have been predicted using SVM along with the stage of the degradation by using Naive Bayes classification [123]. Autoencoder and SVM have been used to predict the soil salinity from satellite images [124]. 7.1.3 Smart Irrigation Water management is an integral part of smart agricultural systems. Rainfall patterns are changing worldwide due to climate change. Evapotranspiration plays a vital role to assess water resources. Various AI methods have been utilized in smart water management. Deep reinforcement learning has been used for smart water management in a crop field [125]. A multiple linear regression algorithm has been applied to calculate the water needed for greenhouse organic crops and then water valves have been operated automatically with a LoRa Point-to-Point (P2P) network [126]. An ANN system has been proposed in [127] to predict evapotranspiration by carrying out a study in Dehradun, India. ANN and the Penman-Monteith equation have been utilized to predict daily evapotranspiration [128]. A smart irrigation system has been proposed using Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) and Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) based models in an Edge-Fog-Cloud setting [129]. Spatial water distribution has been predicted with ANN in [130] for a neuro-drip irrigation system. 7.1.4 Pest/Disease Control To have optimal yield from a crop field, disease, pest, and weed control are necessary. An automated efficient system can save time and cost. From that perspective, AI techniques are being proposed in various publications. The advancement started with a rule based system [131, 132, 133, 134, 135] in the last decade and evolved through FL systems [136, 137,",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "pest, and weed control are necessary. An automated efficient system can save time and cost. From that perspective, AI techniques are being proposed in various publications. The advancement started with a rule based system [131, 132, 133, 134, 135] in the last decade and evolved through FL systems [136, 137, 138, 139]. Various ANN have been used for different diseases in different crops [140, 141, 142, 143] or for pest detection, e.g., a channel–spatial attention module, integrated with a backbone CNN and a Region Proposal Network (RPN) have been used to detect various pests in a crop field [144] and apple leaf disease is detected in [145] using the GoogleNet Inception network and Rainbow concatenation. An incremental back propagation network has 17 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT been used with Correlation-based Feature Selection (CFS) to detect pests in a tea plant. The CNN based object detection model YOLOv3 has been utilized to localize the pest Tessaratoma Papillosa and by analyzing the environmental information by LSTM, pest occurrence is predicted with 90% accuracy [146]. YOLOv3 and YOLOv3-Dense models have also been employed to detect anthrax on apple surface in an apple orchard [147]. Single Seed Descent (SSD) has been applied with 84% accuracy in detecting pests and with 86% accuracy in classifying pests [148]. Pest detection and recognition have been performed through k-means clustering and correspondence filter [149]. CNN based models have been used in [150] and in [151] in crop disease detection. 7.1.5 Weed Control Weed affects yield negatively. So, weed control is another important area in smart agriculture. Weeds are sometimes hard to distinguish from crops. The application of AI in weed control started in the early 2000s. ANN have been employed with Hebbian synaptic modification for distinguishing weeds from crops [152] and the",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Weed affects yield negatively. So, weed control is another important area in smart agriculture. Weeds are sometimes hard to distinguish from crops. The application of AI in weed control started in the early 2000s. ANN have been employed with Hebbian synaptic modification for distinguishing weeds from crops [152] and the accuracy achieved was reasonable based on the available hardware at that time. YOLOv3 has been used for low cost precision weed management in [153]. Counter Propagation (CP)-ANN with multi-spectral images [154] and a combination of auto encoder and SVM along with hyper spectral images [155] have been utilized to detect weeds. SVM has been used in [156] to detect weeds in grassland cropping. 7.1.6 Livestock Management AI/ML techniques have been used in livestock management in two ways: animal welfare and livestock production [97]. Animal welfare, or the well-being of the animals has been addressed in [157] for cattle using bagging ensemble learning, for calf using decision tree and C4.5 algorithm [158], and for pigs using Gaussian Mixture Models [159]. AI helps to optimize the efficiency of livestock production. ANN with back propagation has been used in [160] to predict cattle rumen fermentation patterns from milk fatty acids. Pigs’ faces have been detected with CNN with 97% accuracy in [161]. SVM have been used for problem detection and warnings in egg production for commercial hen production [162], to estimate cattle weight trajectories for evolution [163], and to predict skeleton weight of the beef cattle [164]. ANN with Bayesian Regularization has been used to predict quality milk production and to reduce the heat stress levels of the cows in a robotic cow farm [165]. A fully connected neural network has been used to predict cow diseases in [166]. 7.1.7 Alternative Farming Alternative farming consists of greenhouse farming, and hydroponics. ML and deep",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "used to predict quality milk production and to reduce the heat stress levels of the cows in a robotic cow farm [165]. A fully connected neural network has been used to predict cow diseases in [166]. 7.1.7 Alternative Farming Alternative farming consists of greenhouse farming, and hydroponics. ML and deep learning techniques are used in those systems for better and precise control with less manpower. Greenhouse air temperature is forecast using fully connected ANN and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) [167]. ANN have been used for greenhouse tomato yield and growth [168], greenhouse basil yield [169], greenhouse gas emission and energy consumption of wheat yield [170] and that of watermelon [171]. An Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) with back propagation has been used to predict the humidity and the temperature of a greenhouse, powered by solar energy [172] and RNN-LSTM in [173] for climate (humidity, temperature and CO2) prediction. ANN and Bayesian Networks have been used in hydroponic systems to predict the needed action [19]. Various AI technologies are proposed depending on the location of the computation. For edge AI settings, where the AI model runs on the limited resource embedded system itself, research is ongoing to design deep neural network models which have higher accuracy but fewer parameters to train [174]. MobileNet [175], SqueezeNet [176], EfficientNet [177] are such networks where depth wise convolution, down-sampling of data and uniform scaling down of the model are performed respectively. Quantization [178, 179, 180, 181] and pruning [182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188] are used to reduce the DNN size. Proper choice of hardware is equally important as the algorithms. 7.2 Blockchain and Distributed Ledger Technology 7.2.1 Blockchain as a Digital Technology Blockchain is one of the recent technologies with promising applications in different fields which include peer-to-peer financial systems [189][190], Real-time",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "188] are used to reduce the DNN size. Proper choice of hardware is equally important as the algorithms. 7.2 Blockchain and Distributed Ledger Technology 7.2.1 Blockchain as a Digital Technology Blockchain is one of the recent technologies with promising applications in different fields which include peer-to-peer financial systems [189][190], Real-time Secure IoT systems [191], Smart Governance applications [192, 193], Digital Asset Copyright technologies [194, 195], Smart Healthcare [196, 197], Smart Agriculture and many other industries. The blockchain can be simplistically defined as a peer-to-peer distributed ledger which processes incoming transaction data and updates the shared ledger chronologically based on a set of rules known as Consensus mechanism that are accepted by peers across the network. The main idea behind creating such peer-to-peer networks is to create a reliable and verifiable communication and data storage between un-trusted entities which need to share data and work collectively as a single system. The most commonly used decentralized application structure in the past few decades is 18 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT the client-server model where instead of housing data on a single central entity it is replicated and partitioned onto multiple servers easily accessed by clients from multiple locations. Even though this model has successfully addressed centralized system problems, it is still prone to security and privacy attacks which can be efficiently addressed using distributed networks. Fig. 16 shows different network configurations. a. Centralized System b. Decentralized System C. Distributed System Figure 16: Types Of Networks (a) Centralized network which has single point of information sharing represented by blue sphere and multiple clients represented by orange spheres (b) Decentralized network which has multiple replicated central nodes represented by blue spheres and multiple clients represented by orange spheres (c) Distributed network where there is no central entity Centralized systems",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "network which has single point of information sharing represented by blue sphere and multiple clients represented by orange spheres (b) Decentralized network which has multiple replicated central nodes represented by blue spheres and multiple clients represented by orange spheres (c) Distributed network where there is no central entity Centralized systems have all the network data housed at a single location which is controlled and maintained by a network owner. The main drawbacks of this system are Single Point-of-Failure (SPoF) and latency in data accessing from long distances. These drawbacks can be avoided by introducing a decentralized system where the data is replicated among multiple central servers which serve different locations effectively even when there is a failure at one of the central nodes. Even though this solved most of the problems, data is still controlled by a third party owner who is responsible for maintaining and storing the client information and interacting with them which may lead to several security and privacy issues. Another disadvantage with such an architecture is lack of data ownership and control on data from clients while interacting with such decentralized systems. Distributed networks can solve these issues by removing the need for central authorities to monitor and verify the network traffic. The IoT has sensor and edge devices which form a distributed network. The data sharing and collective working of such devices can be improved by blockchain technology. Main components of the blockchain include Shared Ledger, Node, Transaction and consensus mechanism. The blockchain shared ledger is a chronologically connected sequence of blocks of approved transactions. Each block consists of transactions along with the metadata which can be used to verify the integrity and authenticity of the transaction information within. Every node participating in the network will have its own copy of the ledger which will",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is a chronologically connected sequence of blocks of approved transactions. Each block consists of transactions along with the metadata which can be used to verify the integrity and authenticity of the transaction information within. Every node participating in the network will have its own copy of the ledger which will be updated periodically and helps to act as a single point of truth for the network. The ledger is replicated across the nodes in the network to avoid double spending of digital assets. Nodes are the participants of the network which are capable of performing transactions and also participate in network operations. Based on the roles they perform nodes can be peer nodes, full nodes and miners. Peer nodes are less computationally capable and are mainly responsible for generating transactions which utilize the blockchain network to process and handle transactions. Full nodes are nodes with large storage and are responsible for storing the entire trail of transactions. There is no incentive associated with full nodes but these nodes maintain the complete ledger to verify the transactions coming in. Miner nodes are responsible for performing the consensus mechanism where blocks generated are processed based on the pre-defined set 19 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT of rules called consensus mechanism. These nodes are computationally capable and incentives are given for each block generated by the node. Most popular consensus mechanisms used are Proof-of-Work (PoW) and Proof-of-Stake (PoS), among which PoW makes use of computationally hard cryptography puzzles to select the miner whereas PoS makes use of staking and age of staking into consideration while selecting a miner to generate new blocks. Fig. 17 shows the transactions steps and digital asset verification process in detail. Sender A wants to send a digital asset to B A Transaction block",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to select the miner whereas PoS makes use of staking and age of staking into consideration while selecting a miner to generate new blocks. Fig. 17 shows the transactions steps and digital asset verification process in detail. Sender A wants to send a digital asset to B A Transaction block is generated by the sender Block is Broadcasted to entire network Transaction is approved by participants of network Block added to Transparent and Immutable Chain of transaction blocks Digital Asset moved to Receiver B Hash Link a. Transaction Processing Steps in Blockchain Transaction n Sender A’s Public Key Hash Previous Owner Signature Transaction n+1 Receiver B’s Public Key Hash Sender A’s Signature Previous Block Hash Sender A’s Private Key Verify Sign b. Ownership Verification Figure 17: Blockchain Transaction Steps and Digital Asset Ownership Verification. 7.2.2 Relevance of Blockchain Technology in Smart Agriculture The agriculture sector has evolved by adapting various new technologies to modify farming practices for efficient and better yield of crops [5]. One such enabling technology is the IoT which provides solutions for automating many anthropocentric tasks in farming. In the layered architecture used in the IoT environment in agriculture, layer-2 or the edge computing layer consists of many Edge Data Centers (EDC)) which form distributed networks with a critical need to communicate and share data between each other to work collectively [198], as in Fig. 18. In order to make these Machine-to-Machine communications more secure, there is a need for central authorities to monitor the data and deploy some cryptography techniques to maintain data integrity and privacy. This can be a challenging task with the number of computing edge devices that are needed while monitoring and controlling a large farm. Furthermore, using such central monitoring system can lead to centralization and other problems like single point of",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "deploy some cryptography techniques to maintain data integrity and privacy. This can be a challenging task with the number of computing edge devices that are needed while monitoring and controlling a large farm. Furthermore, using such central monitoring system can lead to centralization and other problems like single point of failure and latency issues. These issues can adversely affect farms as automated systems will not behave as expected and result in the reduction in yield or quality of crop. 7.2.3 Blockchain Applications in Agriculture The blockchain has a large set of applications in smart agriculture and deals with different aspects of farm activities. Some of the major applications and related solutions are discussed below. 7.2.3.1 Secure Real-time Data Sharing Data security and privacy is one important aspect in smart agriculture which needs to be addressed for efficient functioning of autonomous processes. The blockchain makes use of cryptography techniques and processes transactions in chronological order to maintain integrity of data and avoid adversary attacks such as Denial-of-Service (DoS) and 20 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Edge Device Edge Device Edge Device Edge Device Blockchain Core Network Sensing Layer Sensor Data Farm data block Blockchain Transaction Figure 18: Analogy Between Smart Agriculture IoT Network and Blockchain. False Data Injection. Apart from data privacy, data ownership and monetization are also problems. Unlike in centralized applications where the data is monetized by a central authority, blockchain based applications can help farmers control the data access at granular levels and can help in monetizing the data on their own. A typical IoT architecture consists of a cloud layer where data from the edge layer is stored and processed to perform automated tasks. One of the main drawbacks with such networks is that the latency and access times vary based on",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "can help in monetizing the data on their own. A typical IoT architecture consists of a cloud layer where data from the edge layer is stored and processed to perform automated tasks. One of the main drawbacks with such networks is that the latency and access times vary based on network availability and number of access requests going to the server at a given time. As real-time operation is critical in making decisions, the blockchain can help in developing an efficient real-time data sharing model. Some of the secure models using blockchain for secure data sharing are proposed in [199, 200, 201, 202]. [199] established an identity managed authentication mechanism which makes use of private blockchain and provides a secure information sharing mechanism eliminating Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attacks. [200] has proposed a system which is a combination of Software-Defined Networking (SDN) technology along with blockchain to detect and prevent attacks in the IoT environment with only minimal overhead. This can be an optimal solution in resource constrained environments like IoAT. [201] makes use of homomorphic computation on encrypted data and follows a similar approach to Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) and is based on the threshold number of correct responses from the server relevant smart contracts will be run. For the implementation, the Ethereum blockchain was used and the response times were computed to be 22 sec as the block generation time of Ethereum is fixed at 15 sec and can be further improved by adapting second generation blockchains with shorter block times. [202] has proposed a novel key management architecture which can address issues of centralized systems using blockchain while increasing scalability and reliability. [203] made use of distributed ledgers instead of traditional blockchains which are resource intensive to increase the scalability and real-time data availability in Smart Agriculture",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "shorter block times. [202] has proposed a novel key management architecture which can address issues of centralized systems using blockchain while increasing scalability and reliability. [203] made use of distributed ledgers instead of traditional blockchains which are resource intensive to increase the scalability and real-time data availability in Smart Agriculture systems. 7.2.3.2 Community Farming and Local Markets Community farming needs collective intelligence and transparent sharing of weather, crop disease or product demand data to help crop choice and achieve better yield. Along with this, local markets will enable the farmers to monetize their product more efficiently with greater profits. The blockchain can help in organizing and managing such applications for farmers to enable them to both produce and realize better profitability. Some of the works towards this area have been presented in [204] which made use of the Ethereum platform to remove the intermediaries to establish an ethical supply chain and provide deserved profits to farmers. Fig. 19 shows the logistics present in the Supply Chain Traceability. 21 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Consumers Producers Storage Packaging and Processing Transportation Web Figure 19: Supply Chain Traceability in Smart Agriculture. 7.2.3.3 Supply-Chain Traceability Globalization is the trend which enabled product availability at even remote places. This has made global food supply chains more complex by involving multiple entities working together throughout the process. One of the major problems with such complex food supply chains is traceability and consumer confidence. It is very common to see food-borne disease outbreaks. In such scenarios, the most common approach is to dispose of the entire inventory as testing each product for infestation is not possible. Instead, tracing the product back to the farm from where it was produced can help in determining which products are affected and reduce food wastage.",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "disease outbreaks. In such scenarios, the most common approach is to dispose of the entire inventory as testing each product for infestation is not possible. Instead, tracing the product back to the farm from where it was produced can help in determining which products are affected and reduce food wastage. As an end user, a clear and transparent supply chain can help building customer confidence in the authenticity of food. The blockchain can help in this aspect by building transparent supply chains where traceability and authenticity of the food can be easily verified. Many research works have been proposed. [205, 206] makes use of HyperLedger Fabric blockchain to perform a case study on the blockchain based supply chain and discusses limitations. A solution based on RFID technology integrated with blockchain is proposed in [207]. [208] proposed a smart contract based financial solution in supply chains to help in solving the issue of SPoF in traditional Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems. [209] has proposed Ethereum based decentralized applications for tracing the supply chain in organic foods to build trust and confidence from the consumer towards suppliers. [210] proposed an efficient supply chain tracking system integrating blockchain with Electronic Product Code Information Services (EPCIS) and making use of Ethereum smart Contracts. 7.2.3.4 Farm Insurance Farms are more prone to weather changes and the damages due to weather conditions will lead to financial instability for farmers. Agriculture insurance is based on a farmer paying a fixed amount of premiums before the cropping cycle begins and receiving a payout based on the damage caused by the weather conditions. The problem arises when there is 22 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT no index available to calculate the amount of damage, hence weather data is used and analyzed by the insurance",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "begins and receiving a payout based on the damage caused by the weather conditions. The problem arises when there is 22 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT no index available to calculate the amount of damage, hence weather data is used and analyzed by the insurance provider to evaluate an index which forms the baseline for farmers and makes it easy to process these farm insurances. The most common setup is for the insurance provider to make use of weather station data recorded remotely and presented to farmers. Blockchain can help in assessing and accepting premium payments from the farmer using automated smart contracts. Together with that, weather index data can also be made available to farmers with greater reliability. [211] proposes a blockchain based solution for avoiding fraud in insurance. [212] made use of the NEO platform to build a system for drought based insurance. [213] proposed an Ethereum blockchain and hyperledger private blockchain based solution for insurance services using smart contracts. 7.2.4 Limitations of Blockchain Even though the blockchain has many potential applications in smart agriculture to enhance data security and integrity, there are still challenges which need to be addressed before wide adoption of this technology into the agriculture space. IoT technology used in smart agriculture is resource constrained both in terms of power and computations whereas the consensus mechanism and cryptography components of the blockchain require large amounts of power and computation. The blockchain as such cannot be an efficient solution, hence research is being done to propose various efficient consensus mechanisms which can be implemented in resource constrained environments as in smart agriculture. [214] has proposed a consensus mechanism based on cryptographic authentication and Media Access Control (MAC) address verification which has reduced the computational requirements of the consensus mechanism and",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "research is being done to propose various efficient consensus mechanisms which can be implemented in resource constrained environments as in smart agriculture. [214] has proposed a consensus mechanism based on cryptographic authentication and Media Access Control (MAC) address verification which has reduced the computational requirements of the consensus mechanism and has increased the transaction times significantly. Data is another significant problem which needs to be addressed for wide adoption. As the size of each block in the blockchain is predefined and limited, large amounts of data like images are not viable to be stored on-chain. Hence, many researchers are working on making the data stored off-chain while the transaction and access information along with the data are stored on-chain for secure access and integrity. [215] proposed a system which makes use of the Interplanetary File System (IPFS) along with Ethereum smart contracts to share COVID-19 related patient data which can help in enforcing social distancing practices. This can be adopted into smart agriculture for storage of large chunks of data. Multi level access management is also a vital aspect which needs to be addressed. [216] proposed a blockchain system which can operate at multiple levels with different access policies for an efficient and controlled data management process which can be adopted to smart agriculture environments. 8 Datasets for Smart Agriculture Research Smart agriculture makes use of intelligent devices to collect data to analyze crop yields, livestock management, and economics related to supply. The stored data can help further research into the availability of resources in farming for next generations. Table 1 shows different datasets of multiple formats that we have studied and collected for the current survey paper. 8.1 Crop Yield and Production Sensors are used to collect data relating to acreage, crop condition, and yield. The amount of crop",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the availability of resources in farming for next generations. Table 1 shows different datasets of multiple formats that we have studied and collected for the current survey paper. 8.1 Crop Yield and Production Sensors are used to collect data relating to acreage, crop condition, and yield. The amount of crop yield can be calculated by dividing the amount of produce over the harvested area. Crop production can be measured in terms of tonnes per hectare. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) produces annual reports that include data for yield, acreage, and production for crops, plants, livestock, and animals, along with a Census of Agriculture. Fig.20 shows the graphs for some of the crops, livestock, and expenditures of agriculture in the United States for different years. Additionally, the prices for farming, labor, production, and land values are collected monthly and annually [217]. 8.2 Crop Condition and Soil Moisture Knowledge of soil moisture is a critical factor for the yield and production of crops. In order to execute different agricultural operations easily, data regarding the soil is essential for farmer decision making. Crop Condition and Soil Moisture Analytics (Crop-CASMA) is a web-based geospatial application used to measure soil moisture and vegetation conditions. The data collected is in the form of Geographic Information System mapping format (.gis) [218]. Fig. 21(a) and 21(b) show crop condition and soil moisture analytics in the United States at two different dates. 8.3 Plant Diseases When a plant gets infected with disease, its vital functions are modified and damaged, leading to harmful consumption for individuals. Each plant species has its unique syndrome. Kaggle is a good source of various datasets regarding different plant diseases. Fig. 22 shows some of the sample images from the Plant Disease dataset [219]. Collecting and 23 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "damaged, leading to harmful consumption for individuals. Each plant species has its unique syndrome. Kaggle is a good source of various datasets regarding different plant diseases. Fig. 22 shows some of the sample images from the Plant Disease dataset [219]. Collecting and 23 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Table 1: Datasets for Smart Agricuture. Dataset Source Dataset Format Link Crop Yield & Production USDA & NASS .php https://www.nass.usda.gov/Charts_ and_Maps/ Crop Condition & Soil Moisture Crop-CASMA .gis https://nassgeo.csiss.gmu.edu/ CropCASMA/ Plant Diseases Kaggle .csv https://www.kaggle.com/saroz014/ plant-diseases Soil Health & Characterization NCSS .mdb https://new.cloudvault.usda.gov/ index.php/s/7iknp275KdTKwCA Pesticide use in Agriculture USGS .php, .txt https://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/pnsp/ usage/maps/ Water use in Agriculture USGS Tableau https://labs.waterdata.usgs.gov/ visualizations/water-use-15 Groundwater Nitrate Contamination USGS .jpeg https://prd-wret.s3. us-west-2.amazonaws.com/ assets/palladium/production/ s3fs-public/thumbnails/image/ wss-nitrogen-map-us-risk-areas.jpg Disaster Analysis USDA & NASS .png, .pdf https://www.nass.usda.gov/Research_ and_Science/Disaster-Analysis/ storing these data can help study, train, and test to improve and impede the diseases in crops. Predicting plant diseases can enhance crop yield and productivity. Fig. 8.3 shows some sample images from the Pomegranate Fruit Dataset [220]. Fig. 24 shows some sample images from the Chinese Cabbage Disease dataset [221]. 8.4 Soil Health and Characterization The soil characterization survey is used to give information regarding the properties and features of soil in a specific area. The survey can contain detailed descriptions and soil boundaries that are beneficial to the farmers, estate agents, and engineers. The National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS) provides database reports for soil classification [222] along with the pedon number for soil taxonomy. A pedon is a three-dimensional structure of soil that is sufficient to explain the soil’s inner composition and can be used for collecting samples for lab analysis. The soil properties at each field, such as available rock fragments, bulk density, moisture, water content, carbon, salt, pH, carbonates, phosphorous, clay, sand, and",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "pedon is a three-dimensional structure of soil that is sufficient to explain the soil’s inner composition and can be used for collecting samples for lab analysis. The soil properties at each field, such as available rock fragments, bulk density, moisture, water content, carbon, salt, pH, carbonates, phosphorous, clay, sand, and silt mineralogy, can be obtained from the primary data characterization of the soil. The reports can be seen on-screen or downloaded in text files by giving primary country, state, and county details [222]. 8.5 Pesticide Use in Agriculture The primary use of pesticides in agriculture is for controlling weeds, insect infestations, and fungus. However, excessive use of pesticides can destroy other microorganisms necessary for soil health and degrade the quality of groundwater. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) collects data for the amount of pesticide used in the U.S. on an annual basis in the form of tables, graphs, and maps [223]. The map provides a more refined picture of estimated pesticide use on agricultural land in terms of pounds per square mile, and the graphs show the estimated usage in millions of pounds for each crop every year. 24 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Source: USDA & NASS (a) Small Red Bean Production. Source: USDA & NASS (b) Dry Pea Production. Source: USDA & NASS (c) All Cows and Calves Inventory. Source: USDA & NASS (d) Farm Production Expenditures. Figure 20: Graphs showing Crop yield and Production [217]. 8.6 Water Use in Agriculture Water is essential for agriculture. Both surface and groundwater are crucial and are utilized in farming [224]. Surface water is formed from natural rivers and lakes; groundwater is found under the earth’s surface between rock, soil, and sand cracks. The USGS collects total water usage every five years and updates the statistics",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "essential for agriculture. Both surface and groundwater are crucial and are utilized in farming [224]. Surface water is formed from natural rivers and lakes; groundwater is found under the earth’s surface between rock, soil, and sand cracks. The USGS collects total water usage every five years and updates the statistics in billions of gallons per day. The data shows that water use is higher in agricultural areas, including irrigation, livestock, and aquaculture [225]. 8.7 Groundwater Nitrate Contamination Nitrate is the primary source for the growth of plants and crops. It is an oxidized form of nitrogen, which occurs naturally in the earth, but it can dissipate due to extensive farming. To refill the soil with essential nutrients, nitrogen fertilizers are applied while farming. Nonetheless, these nitrates can be toxic primarily when they enter food, groundwater, and surface water. Fig. 25 shows the map for contamination of groundwater all over the United States. Collecting data nationwide, the USGS has developed a model for estimating groundwater nitrate contamination [226]. 8.8 Disaster Analysis Agriculture is facing threats from uncertain risks and changing landscapes and temperatures. It is necessary to forecast disasters before they occur to know the intensity of these hazards so farmers can be prepared for the worst and plan accordingly. The USDA and National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) have implemented a research study for disaster analysis assessments in near real-time. To collect the datasets, geospatial techniques and sensors are used in the procedure to estimate the disasters [227]. One of the example studies for monitoring flooding with the help of Sentinel-1, Synthetic Aperture Radar is given in [228]. 25 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT (a) Dated November 07, 2021 (b) Dated November 30, 2021 Figure 21: Crop Condition and Soil Moisture in the United States [218].",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "example studies for monitoring flooding with the help of Sentinel-1, Synthetic Aperture Radar is given in [228]. 25 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT (a) Dated November 07, 2021 (b) Dated November 30, 2021 Figure 21: Crop Condition and Soil Moisture in the United States [218]. 26 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT (a) Healthy Plant Leaves Apple, Potato, and Peach (From Left to Right) (b) Infected Plant Leaves Scab Infected Apple, Late Blight Infected Potato, and Bacterial Spot Infected Peach (From Left to Right) Figure 22: Sample Images from Plant Disease Disease Dataset [219]. (a) Pomegranates of Different Grades of Quality 1 (From Left to Right Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade 3) (b) Pomegranates of Different Grades of Quality 4 (From Left to Right Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade 3) Figure 23: Pomegranate Fruit Dataset [220]. 27 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT (a) Healthy Chinese Cabage Plant (b) Infected with Back Moth (c) Infected with Leaf Miner (d) Infected with Mildew Figure 24: Chinese Cabbage Disease Dataset [221]. Source: United States Geological Survey(USGS) Figure 25: Groundwater Contamination [226]. 28 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT 9 Smart Agriculture Open Research Problems In this section we discuss the open research problems of Agriculture 4.0 and Agriculture 5.0. We can divide them into two main sub groups depending on the research focus. 9.1 Technology Perspective Smart agriculture faces various challenges as previously mentioned. These challenges need to be addressed by adapting new and existing technologies. Until now most of the smart agriculture AI models were cloud based, cloud-edge based, or cloud-fog-edge based. Hardware advancement has boosted the computing paradigm shift. The addition of intelligence to IoT devices is the new trend [229]. Network availability,",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "challenges need to be addressed by adapting new and existing technologies. Until now most of the smart agriculture AI models were cloud based, cloud-edge based, or cloud-fog-edge based. Hardware advancement has boosted the computing paradigm shift. The addition of intelligence to IoT devices is the new trend [229]. Network availability, latency and bandwidth are not anymore barriers in successful, seamless agriculture system operations. This opens up a new avenue for research. Edge AI in smart agriculture is a broad area which will be a hot topic in the near future. Fig. 26 shows various open research problems in a technology context. Research in the following fields holds much promise: • Low powered and solar powered, low latency TinyML devices. • Low computational decision methods suitable for low powered IoT devices. • Sensor technologies operable in extreme temperatures. • Data analytic methods for data compression. • Quantization and pruning techniques for AI/ML models. • Unsupervised and semi-supervised learning methods. • Real time data analysis and decision. • Public dataset creation with sensor data. • UAV taken image dataset. • Thermal and Infrared image dataset for crop field. Research areas are not only limited to these. Blockchain based data privacy and integrity and service based smart agriculture applications are other areas to work with: • Blockchain enhanced IoT applications focusing on immutable data storage mechanisms. • Optimizing computational resource, design time, and energy efficiency. Hardware security is another broad area of research for sustainable Smart Agriculture. The functionality and applications of each IoT device in agriculture is unique. Research on PUF, which is a hardware fingerprint [230, 231] is an important area of research: • PUF’s susceptibility to environmental effects like rainfall, pesticides, fertilizers, and chemicals. • Reliability and tamper resistance of these hardware security modules. 9.2 Network Perspective The network component",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "IoT device in agriculture is unique. Research on PUF, which is a hardware fingerprint [230, 231] is an important area of research: • PUF’s susceptibility to environmental effects like rainfall, pesticides, fertilizers, and chemicals. • Reliability and tamper resistance of these hardware security modules. 9.2 Network Perspective The network component is a very important aspect of smart agriculture which makes use of different Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to interconnect remote devices and make data transfer possible. Budding stage unsecured network layer protocols for limited resource IoT devices have led to various security threats. A classification of research problems which need to be addressed is given in Fig. 27.: • Providing alternative networking paths which can operate during natural disasters. • Techniques to increase the real-time data operations even when the network is experiencing congestion due to high volumes of transactions. • Robust and resource efficient techniques are still needed to manage data privacy and security challenges. • Efficient network topologies are needed to maximize usage of the available hardware and increase coverage area to avoid blind spots. • Cost-efficient methods for easy maintenance of network equipment with minimal wear and tear can be challenging. 29 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Research Problems Technology Perspective PUF Based Blockchain AI / ML Low computational decision methods Extreme Temperatures Operable Sensors Public Dataset Creation Real Time Data Analysis and Decision TinyML Device UAV Taken Image Dataset Creation Use of Unsupervised and Semi-supervised Learning Methods Data Compression Methods Optimizing Design time Optimizing Computational Resource Immutable Data Storage Mechanisms PUF’s Impact to Environmental Effects Reliability and Tamper Resistance Optimizing Energy Efficiency Thermal and Infrared Image Dataset for Crop Field Figure 26: Network and Communication Challenges on Smart Agriculture. Research Problems Network Perspective Socio-Financial Cyber Physical Physical Threats Natural Disaster",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Optimizing Design time Optimizing Computational Resource Immutable Data Storage Mechanisms PUF’s Impact to Environmental Effects Reliability and Tamper Resistance Optimizing Energy Efficiency Thermal and Infrared Image Dataset for Crop Field Figure 26: Network and Communication Challenges on Smart Agriculture. Research Problems Network Perspective Socio-Financial Cyber Physical Physical Threats Natural Disaster Disruption Data Integrity Delay Hardware Availability Coverage Area Vandalism Equipment Wear & Tear Fake Data Injection Man in the Middle Attacks Distributed Denial of Services (DDoS) Technical Skill Gap and Ease of Usage Lack of Financial Resources and Affordable Hardware Figure 27: Network and Communication Challenges of Smart Agriculture. 30 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT • Preventive techniques to address physical damages like vandalism by adversaries are much needed. • Proper routing techniques in the network to avoid network threats like DDoS can be an area of interest to work. • Efficient encryption techniques and authentication mechanisms such as hardware assisted authentication are very much needed to be included in network layer to avoid different security threats. • Ease of use and troubleshooting mechanisms can be areas of interest for researchers as this technology is developed for farmers. • Network equipment is expensive, thus making networking hardware affordable can make the technology more adopted into vast applications in Smart Agriculture. 10 Conclusions and Future Directions In today’s world, we value more than ever “Let food be thy medicine” as quality food boosts our immunity. Research on agriculture, food security, and food supply chain has become more relevant. This article provides a detailed survey on the ongoing research trends in smart agriculture. It discusses recent technology trends to challenges and open research problems in this field. The authors believe this work will give an overall idea on technologies, challenges and research problems in smart agriculture. Technological",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "more relevant. This article provides a detailed survey on the ongoing research trends in smart agriculture. It discusses recent technology trends to challenges and open research problems in this field. The authors believe this work will give an overall idea on technologies, challenges and research problems in smart agriculture. Technological advancement along with rapid growth of ICT have transformed traditional agriculture to a smart, intelligent, automated agriculture. Smart agriculture reduces the carbon footprint by introducing sustainable, green farming, reducing the use of pesticides and fertilizers, and optimizing the use of natural resources. Soon the agricultural industry will welcome Agriculture 5.0 [232]. This will raise yields while keeping the system environmentally sustainable. Developing countries will also follow the same trend as developed countries. Humanity will embrace the production and distribution of food in an economically and ecologically efficient way as never before [233]. List of Acronyms A-CPS Agricultural Cyber-Physical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 ANN Arificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 AI Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 BD Big Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . .",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 BD Big Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 BRT Boosted Regression Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 CNN Convolutional Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 CFS Correlation-based Feature Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Crop-CASMA Crop Condition and Soil Moisture Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 CPS Cyber-Physical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": ". . . . . . . . . 23 CPS Cyber-Physical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 DDoS Distributed Denial-of-Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 DLT Distributed Ledger Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 DNN Deep Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 DoS Denial-of-Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 EDC Edge Data Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 EPCIS",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 EPCIS Electronic Product Code Information Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 ERP Enterprise Resource Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 FL Fuzzy Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 GPRS Ground Penetrating Radar Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 GPS Global Positioning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 GRU Gated Recurrent Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 GRU Gated Recurrent Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 H-CPS Healthcare Cyber-Physical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 ICT Information and Communication Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 IIoT Industrial Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 IoAT Internet of Agro-Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 IoMT Internet of Medical Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": ". . . 7 IoMT Internet of Medical Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 IoT Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 31 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT IPFS Interplanetary File System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 LPWAN Low-Power Wide Area Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 LSTM Long Short-Term Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 LTE Long-Term Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": ". . 17 LTE Long-Term Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 M2M Machine-to-Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 MAC Media Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 ML Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 MLP Multi-Layer Perceptrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 NB-IoT Narrowband IoT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 NASS",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "IoT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 NASS National Agricultural Statistics Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 NCSS National Cooperative Soil Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 NFC Near Field Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 NVDI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 P2P Point-to-Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 PBFT Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 PBFT Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 PoS Proof-of-Stake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 PoW Proof-of-Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 PUF Physical Unclonable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 RFID Radio Frequency Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 RMSE Root Mean Square Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": ". . . . . . . . . . . . 6 RMSE Root Mean Square Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 RNN Recurrent Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 RPN Region Proposal Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 SDN Software-Defined Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 SIL Solar Insecticidal Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 SPoF Single Point-of-Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 SSD Single Seed",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Single Point-of-Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 SSD Single Seed Descent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 SVM Support Vector Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 USGS U.S. Geological Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 WSN Wireless Sensor Network . . . . . . . . .",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 WSN Wireless Sensor Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 References [1] UN Report. https://www.un.org/devFelopment/desa/en/news/population/world-population-prospects-2019.html. [2] Un Report :Food. https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/food. [3] UNICEF WFP FAO, IFAD and WHO. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. 2020. [4] World Government Summit. https://www.worldgovernmentsummit.org/api/publications/document?id=95df8ac4e97c-6578-b2f8-ff0000a7ddb6. [5] Ye Liu, Xiaoyuan Ma, Lei Shu, Gerhard Petrus Hancke, and Adnan M. Abu-Mahfouz. From industry 4.0 to agriculture 4.0: Current status, enabling technologies, and research challenges. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, 17(6):4322–4334, jun 2021. doi:10.1109/tii.2020.3003910. [6] Saraju P Mohanty. Internet-of-agro-things (ioat) makes smart agriculture. IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine, 10(4):4–5, 2021. [7] Ahmed Khattab, Ahmed Abdelgawad, and Kumar Yelmarthi. Design and implementation of a cloud-based iot scheme for precision agriculture. In Proceedings of 28th International Conference on Microelectronics (ICM), pages 201–204, 2016. doi:10.1109/ICM.2016.7847850. [8] Abdullah Na and William Isaac. Developing a human-centric agricultural model in the iot environment. In Proceedings of International Conference on Internet of Things and Applications (IOTA), pages 292–297, 2016. doi:10.1109/IOTA.2016.7562740. 32 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT [9] Andrés Villa-Henriksen, Gareth TC Edwards, Liisa A Pesonen, Ole Green, and Claus Aage Grøn Sørensen. Internet of things in arable farming: Implementation, applications, challenges and potential. Biosystems Engineering, 191:60–84, 2020. [10] Francisco Javier Ferrández-Pastor, Juan Manuel García-Chamizo, Mario Nieto-Hidalgo, Jerónimo Mora-Pascual, and José Mora-Martínez. Developing ubiquitous sensor network platform using internet of things: Application in precision agriculture. Sensors, 16(7):1141,",
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    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
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    "text": "and Elias Kougianos. CoviChain: A blockchain based framework for nonrepudiable contact tracing in healthcare cyber-physical systems during pandemic outbreaks. SN Computer Science, 2(5), jun 2021. doi:10.1007/s42979-021-00746-x. [216] Sujit Biswas, Kashif Sharif, Fan Li, Anupam Kumar Bairagi, Zohaib Latif, and Saraju P. Mohanty. GlobeChain: An interoperable blockchain for global sharing of healthcare data—a COVID-19 perspective. IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine, 10(5):64–69, sep 2021. doi:10.1109/mce.2021.3074688. [217] United States Department of Agriculture and NASS. Census of Agriculture, 2021. URL https://www.nass. usda.gov/Charts_and_Maps/. Last Accessed on 30 October 2021. [218] USDA and NASS. Crop Condition and Soil moisture Analytics, 2021. URL https://nassgeo.csiss.gmu. edu/CropCASMA/. Last Accessed on October 30, 2021. [219] kaggle Dataset. Plant Disease, october 2018. URL https://www.kaggle.com/saroz014/plant-diseases. Last Accessed on October 30, 2021. [220] Pomegranate Fruit Dataset. URL https://www.kaggle.com/kumararun37/ pomegranate-fruit-dataset. [221] Chinese Cabbage Disease Dataset. https://www.kaggle.com/ giane901/chinese-cabbage-disease-detection. [222] National Cooperative Soil Survey. Soil Characterization Data, . URL https://ncsslabdatamart.sc.egov. usda.gov/. Last Accessed on 30 October 2021. [223] US Geological Survey. Estimated Annual Agricultural Pesticide Use, . URL https://water.usgs.gov/ nawqa/pnsp/usage/maps/. Last Accessed on 30 October 2021. [224] U.S.Geological Survey. Total Water Use in the United States, 2015. URL https://www.usgs.gov/ special-topic/water-science-school/science/total-water-use-united-states. Last Accessed on 30 October 2021. [225] U.S.Geological Survey. Water use in the U.S, 2015. URL https://labs.waterdata.usgs.gov/ visualizations/water-use-15/. Last Accessed on 30 October 2021. [226] U.S.Geological Survey. Groundwater Quality, . URL https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/ areas-high-risk-nitrogen-contamination-groundwater. Last Accessed on 30 October 2021. [227] U.S.Department of Agriculture. Disaster Analysis, 2021. URL https://www.nass.usda.gov/Research_ and_Science/Disaster-Analysis/. Last Accessed on 30 October 2021. [228] Claire G. Boryan, Zhengwei Yang, Avery Sandborn, Patrick Willis, and Barry Haack. Operational Agricultural Flood Monitoring with Sentinel-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar. In IGARSS 2018 2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, pages 5831–5834, 2018. doi:10.1109/IGARSS.2018.8519458. [229] Gabriel Signoretti, Marianne Silva, Pedro Andrade, Ivanovitch Silva, Emiliano Sisinni, and Paolo Ferrari. An evolving tinyml compression algorithm for iot environments based on data",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Haack. Operational Agricultural Flood Monitoring with Sentinel-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar. In IGARSS 2018 2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, pages 5831–5834, 2018. doi:10.1109/IGARSS.2018.8519458. [229] Gabriel Signoretti, Marianne Silva, Pedro Andrade, Ivanovitch Silva, Emiliano Sisinni, and Paolo Ferrari. An evolving tinyml compression algorithm for iot environments based on data eccentricity. Sensors, 21(12):4153, 2021. [230] Shital Joshi, Saraju P. Mohanty, and Elias Kougianos. Everything you wanted to know about PUFs. IEEE Potentials, 36(6):38–46, 2017. doi:10.1109/MPOT.2015.2490261. [231] Carson Labrado, Himanshu Thapliyal, and Saraju P. Mohanty. Fortifying vehicular security through low overhead physically unclonable functions. J. Emerg. Technol. Comput. Syst., 18(1), 2021. ISSN 1550-4832. doi:10.1145/3442443. [232] Verónica Saiz-Rubio and Francisco Rovira-Más. From smart farming towards agriculture 5.0: A review on crop data management. Agronomy, 10(2):207, 2020. [233] Evan DG Fraser and Malcolm Campbell. Agriculture 5.0: reconciling production with planetary health. One Earth, 1(3):278–280, 2019. 43 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Authors Alakananda Mitra received a Bachelor of Science (Honors) in Physics from Presidency College, University of Calcutta in 2001 and a Bachelor of Technology and Master of Technology in Radiophysics and Electronics from the Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics, University of Calcutta in 2004 and 2006, respectively. She is currently a doctoral student in the research group at Smart Electronics Systems Laboratory (SESL) in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at the University of North Texas, Denton, USA. Along with her course work, she also works as a Teaching Assistant in the department. She has worked as a Project Linked Personnel at Advanced Computing and Microelectronics Unit in Indian Statistical Institute from 2006 to 2007. Her research interests include artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, edge AI, and application of AI/ML approaches in multi-media forensics, smart agriculture, and smart healthcare. Sukrutha L. T. Vangipuram received a",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "as a Project Linked Personnel at Advanced Computing and Microelectronics Unit in Indian Statistical Institute from 2006 to 2007. Her research interests include artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, edge AI, and application of AI/ML approaches in multi-media forensics, smart agriculture, and smart healthcare. Sukrutha L. T. Vangipuram received a Master of Technology in Computer Science, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad in 2012 and Bachelor of Engineering in Information Technology, Osmania University, Hyderabad in 2007. Currently, she is enrolled as a doctoral student in the research group at Smart Electronics Systems Laboratory (SESL) at Computer Science and Engineering at the University of North Texas, Denton, USA. She has worked as an Assistant Professor in the Computer Science Engineering Department, Methodist College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad from 2012 -2015 and as a Teaching Assistant in the Information Technology Department in Swamy Vivekananda Institute of Technology Hyderabad, India, from 2007 -2009. Her research interests are Web Programming Services, Services Oriented Architecture, Cloud Computing, Application of Blockchain in Health Care, and Smart Agriculture. Anand Kumar Bapatla received a Bachelor’s of Technology (B. Tech) in Electronics and Communication from Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engineering, Visakhapatnam, India, in 2014 and an MSCE degree in 2019 from the University of North Texas, Denton, USA. He is currently a Ph.D. candidate in the research group at Smart Electronics Systems Laboratory (SESL) at Computer Science and Engineering at the University of North Texas, Denton, TX. His research interests include smart healthcare and Blockchain applications in Internet of Things (IoT). Venkata K. V. V. Bathalapalli received B.Tech. degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, India, in 2020. He is currently pursuing Ph.D. program in Computer Science and Engineering at Smart Electronics Systems Laboratory, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA. His research interests",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Things (IoT). Venkata K. V. V. Bathalapalli received B.Tech. degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, India, in 2020. He is currently pursuing Ph.D. program in Computer Science and Engineering at Smart Electronics Systems Laboratory, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA. His research interests are in the areas of Hardware Assisted Security and Blockchain based IoT Device Security for Smart Healthcare and Smart Agriculture. 44 Everything You wanted to Know about Smart Agriculture A PREPRINT Saraju P. Mohanty received the bachelor’s degree (Honors) in electrical engineering from the Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, in 1995, the master’s degree in Systems Science and Automation from the Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, in 1999, and the Ph.D. degree in Computer Science and Engineering from the University of South Florida, Tampa, in 2003. He is a Professor with the University of North Texas. His research is in “Smart Electronic Systems” which has been funded by National Science Foundations (NSF), Semiconductor Research Corporation (SRC), U.S. Air Force, IUSSTF, and Mission Innovation. He has authored 400 research articles, 4 books, and 7 granted and pending patents. His Google Scholar h-index is 45 and i10-index is 180 with 8500 citations. He is regarded as a visionary researcher on Smart Cities technology in which his research deals with security and energy aware, and AI/ML-integrated smart components. He introduced the Secure Digital Camera (SDC) in 2004 with built-in security features designed using Hardware-Assisted Security (HAS) or Security by Design (SbD) principle. He is widely credited as the designer for the first digital watermarking chip in 2004 and first the low-power digital watermarking chip in 2006. He is a recipient of 13 best paper awards, Fulbright Specialist Award in 2020, IEEE Consumer Electronics Society Outstanding Service Award in 2020, the IEEE-CS-TCVLSI",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "principle. He is widely credited as the designer for the first digital watermarking chip in 2004 and first the low-power digital watermarking chip in 2006. He is a recipient of 13 best paper awards, Fulbright Specialist Award in 2020, IEEE Consumer Electronics Society Outstanding Service Award in 2020, the IEEE-CS-TCVLSI Distinguished Leadership Award in 2018, and the PROSE Award for Best Textbook in Physical Sciences and Mathematics category in 2016. He has delivered 15 keynotes and served on 13 panels at various International Conferences. He has been serving on the editorial board of several peer-reviewed international transactions/journals, including IEEE Transactions on Big Data (TBD), IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems (TCAD), IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics (TCE), and ACM Journal on Emerging Technologies in Computing Systems (JETC). He has been the Editor-in-Chief (EiC) of the IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine (MCE) during 2016-2021. He served as the Chair of Technical Committee on Very Large Scale Integration (TCVLSI), IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS) during 2014-2018 and on the Board of Governors of the IEEE Consumer Technology Society during 2019-2021. He serves on the steering, organizing, and program committees of several international conferences. He is the founding steering committee chair/vice-chair for the IEEE International Symposium on Smart Electronic Systems (IEEE-iSES), the IEEE-CS Symposium on VLSI (ISVLSI), and the OITS International Conference on Information Technology (OCIT). He has mentored 2 post-doctoral researchers, and supervised 13 Ph.D. dissertations, 26 M.S. theses, and 11 undergraduate projects. Elias Kougianos received a BSEE from the University of Patras, Greece in 1985 and an MSEE in 1987, an MS in Physics in 1988 and a Ph.D. in EE in 1997, all from Louisiana State University. From 1988 through 1998 he was with Texas Instruments, Inc., in Houston and Dallas, TX. In 1998 he joined Avant! Corp.",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "University of Patras, Greece in 1985 and an MSEE in 1987, an MS in Physics in 1988 and a Ph.D. in EE in 1997, all from Louisiana State University. From 1988 through 1998 he was with Texas Instruments, Inc., in Houston and Dallas, TX. In 1998 he joined Avant! Corp. (now Synopsys) in Phoenix, AZ as a Senior Applications engineer and in 2000 he joined Cadence Design Systems, Inc., in Dallas, TX as a Senior Architect in Analog/Mixed-Signal Custom IC design. He has been at UNT since 2004. He is a Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering, at the University of North Texas (UNT), Denton, TX. His research interests are in the area of Analog/Mixed-Signal/RF IC design and simulation and in the development of VLSI architectures for multimedia applications. He is an author of over 200 peer-reviewed journal and conference publications. Chittaranjan Ray is a Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, and Director of the Nebraska Water Center at University of Nebraska. He has extensive experience in many facets of managing both water quantity and water quality issues, particularly in the areas of chemical and pathogen impacts on ground water quality; flow and transport processes in the vadose zone, technologies for low-cost water supply, and the agriculture-water/energy nexus. He previously served as the interim director of the Water Resources Research Center at University of Hawaii-Manoa. Ray also was Director of the university’s Environmental Center and as Chief Environmental Engineer for the Applied Research Laboratory, a U.S. Navy sponsored facility at University of Hawaii. He has held positions in industry and at the Illinois State Water Survey. 45",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a U.S. Navy sponsored facility at University of Hawaii. He has held positions in industry and at the Illinois State Water Survey. 45",
    "source": "Systems_technology.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Identifying the Core Periodical Literature of the Agricultural Communications Documentation Center Joseph R. Zumalt ABSTRACT. “Agricultural communications” is an emerging field which is naturally both part of the “agriculture” and “communications” literature. However, it is much broader than just a subset of each. The coverage of standard databases such as CAB Abstracts and Communication Abstracts, while a good start, does not sufficiently cover the field. The Agricultural Communications Documentation Center (ACDC) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign has, over the last quarter century, worked to help define and collect this literature, by identifying relevant documents and entering them into a Web-searchable Microsoft Access database. An analysis of this database reveals important clues concerning the literature of agricultural communications. Of the nearly 30,000 documents within the ACDC collection, periodical articles comprise a little over one half, from a core list of 45 periodicals within the ACDC collection. More than one half of these core periodicals are outside the traditional agriculture and life science literature; approximately one third are scholarly journals. KEYWORDS. Agricultural communications, Agricultural Communications Documentation Center, core literature, periodicals, journals Joseph R. Zumalt (E-mail: jzumalt@uiuc.edu) is Assistant ACES Librarian/Assistant Professor of Library Administration, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 200 Library Information and Alumni Center, MC-633, 1101 South Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801. 1 brought to you by CORE View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk provided by Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship Repository OVERVIEW OF AGRICULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS Agriculture plays an essential role in every culture throughout the world. Everyone has to eat. While much of the world is still stuck in subsistence agriculture, barely eking out a living and able to feed their families, another sizeable proportion of humanity is enjoying the fruits of modernity. Our modern world is engaged in global commerce with",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "culture throughout the world. Everyone has to eat. While much of the world is still stuck in subsistence agriculture, barely eking out a living and able to feed their families, another sizeable proportion of humanity is enjoying the fruits of modernity. Our modern world is engaged in global commerce with nearly ubiquitous, instant communications. We are awash in information, but most know very little about what is in their food or how it is produced. Establishing an organized system to share information about agriculture, specifically food safety, can be a matter of life and death. Effective communication has long been recognized as vital to the food and agricultural enterprises of societies. Thousands of reports and analyses have documented the integral role of information and human communication throughout these enterprises, in every sector of agriculture-related activity, from local to global (See Huffman and Tegene; Roberts and Schimmelpfennig; Truelsen; McInerney, Bird, and Nucci; Fry; Mody; King; Corey; and Dickson for a few recent examples). Front-page, prime-time news often testifies to breakdowns in the flow and quality of information about current public issues related to food and agriculture (e.g., Coghlan; Smyth and Phillips). Agricultural communications, as considered here, encompasses all kinds of human communication in relation to agriculture, food, natural resources and rural interests. It obviously involves two wide streams of endeavor: communications and agriculture. As a discipline, agricultural communications seeks to connect these two well-established streams effectively—somewhat akin to the role of a lubricant, integral and vital to an operating engine. 2 One might be inclined to visualize agricultural communications in terms of a Venn diagram, a tool commonly used to illustrate the intersection of two sets, in this case agriculture and communications (Figure A). Communications Agriculture Agricultural Communications Figure A. Notice, though, how this perspective identifies agricultural communications as an enterprise",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "One might be inclined to visualize agricultural communications in terms of a Venn diagram, a tool commonly used to illustrate the intersection of two sets, in this case agriculture and communications (Figure A). Communications Agriculture Agricultural Communications Figure A. Notice, though, how this perspective identifies agricultural communications as an enterprise that is segmented, peripheral to both of these broad clusters but not integrated with either. Figures B and C reveal a more realistic and informative portrayal of agricultural communications, in relation to those clusters. 3 Crop Sciences Horticulture Natural Resources Animal Science Communications Figure B. Literature of Agriculture Internet Radio Television Print Agriculture Figure C. Literature of Communications A pie chart perspective suggests, in Figure B, that every sector of the food and agricultural enterprise of societies has a dimension of human interaction. 4 Communications touches and serves all aspects of agriculture—in fact, it is integral to each and woven throughout each. Similarly, this perspective visualizes, in Figure C, how the food and agricultural enterprise draws upon all means and methods of communication. Pieces of the pie represent, for example, the diverse array of mass media (such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio); new information technologies (such as the Internet); information and education systems (such as libraries, extension services and schools); group methods (such as meetings and field events); one-on-one interactions (such as friend-to-friend conversations); and even intra-personal communications that help individuals make decisions. EMERGENCE OF AGRICULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS AS A SPECIAL FIELD OF INTEREST People have communicated about agriculture for millennia, using this interaction as a vital tool for survival. In the United States, mediated methods began to join word-ofmouth methods as early as the American Revolution (Bardolph, p. 13-14; Fusonie, p. 3334; Boone, Meisenbach and Tucker, p. 3-8). Books came first, mostly from Europe, while commercial farm papers and magazines",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "using this interaction as a vital tool for survival. In the United States, mediated methods began to join word-ofmouth methods as early as the American Revolution (Bardolph, p. 13-14; Fusonie, p. 3334; Boone, Meisenbach and Tucker, p. 3-8). Books came first, mostly from Europe, while commercial farm papers and magazines emerged in the early 1800s. Over the decades, these print media have been joined by radio, television, films, the Internet and many other technologies for mediated communication. They are used to convey agricultural news, information, issues and views. A field of professional and academic endeavor—called agricultural journalism—grew along with them and still remains central. At the same time, the emergence of advertising, public relations, extension information services, organizational communication and other non-journalistic aspects of 5 the field has led, since the mid-20th Century, to widespread adoption of an identification broader than journalism. As an umbrella concept, the term “communications” embraces all means of human interaction—interpersonal, group, organizational and mass. Similarly, the agricultural stream has broadened dramatically in several ways. First, while early agricultural journalism focused mainly on agriculture as the production of food, feed and fiber and on those who produced it, increasingly, the concept of agriculture has broadened to encompass a total, complex enterprise—from research, production, processing and marketing to consumption, nutrition and health. Second, the concept of agriculture has increasingly broadened to encompass relationships between the agriculture/food enterprise and the broader public interests of society. Third, agriculture is increasingly being recognized as a globally-entwined endeavor. Agricultural communications has become part of the curriculum in higher education and graduates are finding jobs in the field. There are at least eighteen different universities offering degrees in either agricultural journalism or agricultural communications. Many of their graduates are working in positions with titles such as farm broadcaster, extension media specialist, or",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "become part of the curriculum in higher education and graduates are finding jobs in the field. There are at least eighteen different universities offering degrees in either agricultural journalism or agricultural communications. Many of their graduates are working in positions with titles such as farm broadcaster, extension media specialist, or public information officer (Zumalt, p. 29). New graduate study programs in agricultural communications are expanding the need for resources to guide research initiatives. PROBLEMS IN FINDING INFORMATION ABOUT THE FIELD Generally, “agricultural” specialties are well-defined within the sciences and wellcovered by scientific-oriented indexing and abstracting services such as CAB Abstracts 6 and AGRICOLA. The social science-oriented areas of agriculture are generally poorly covered. A couple of examples will illustrate this. The CAB Abstracts Archives consists of seventeen printed abstract journals covering very specialized fields such as helminthology (the study of parasitic worms) and weeds. Agricultural communications has never had an abstract journal included in CAB Abstracts. Furthermore, the wellestablished discipline of agricultural economics is also not covered by CAB Abstracts or its Archive. “Communication(s)” is a well-identified area within the social sciences and is covered by databases such as Communication Abstracts and ComAbstracts; however, more science-oriented areas within communications are poorly covered. A search for “agriculture” in Communication Abstracts yields only 110 documents since 1978. Paradoxically, the advent of general databases does not facilitate identification of this literature because they are not specific enough to cover the majority of the agricultural communications publications. How, then, does one locate and gain access to this body of literature? DEVELOPMENT OF THE AGRICULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS DOCUMENTATION CENTER The international resource and service now known as the Agricultural Communications Documentation Center (ACDC or the Center) emerged from needs felt by agricultural communications faculty members at the University of Illinois. By the late 1970s they were",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "access to this body of literature? DEVELOPMENT OF THE AGRICULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS DOCUMENTATION CENTER The international resource and service now known as the Agricultural Communications Documentation Center (ACDC or the Center) emerged from needs felt by agricultural communications faculty members at the University of Illinois. By the late 1970s they were teaching more than a dozen courses and conducting research projects, increasingly aware of the need for more scholarly resources. Library catalog searches 7 commonly identified few publications. Colleagues at other universities reported a similar dilemma (Evans). These experiences generated a belief that relatively little agricultural communications literature existed. In 1981, that belief changed drastically through a bibliometric analysis (Prabha and Evans). The analysis revealed a substantial body of literature that was growing at the rate of about 14% yearly. The results also identified great scatter. The literature featured gray literature and significant periodicals. Gray literature consisted of many conference proceedings and research reports. Periodicals consisted of newspapers, magazines, or journals. The periodical literature identified through this analysis came from 326 periodicals and featured no core. The top ten periodicals contained only 28% of all articles identified. A follow-up national survey among agricultural communications scholars and professionals revealed a substantial desire for greater access to such literature (Evans and Prabha). So the Center was initiated in 1982 to help meet an identified, growing need. Staffing consisted of a halftime graduate research assistant and volunteer help from faculty members and other interested associates. The Center’s collection and services grew quickly throughout the 1980s and 1990s. A Web site made the collection accessible to a world-wide audience in 1997 (http://web.aces.uiuc.edu/agcomdb/docctr.html). With the advent of the 21st Century, the Center embarked on a collaboration with the Isaac Funk Family Library of the University of Illinois Library System. An agriculture librarian took on administrative responsibilities",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1980s and 1990s. A Web site made the collection accessible to a world-wide audience in 1997 (http://web.aces.uiuc.edu/agcomdb/docctr.html). With the advent of the 21st Century, the Center embarked on a collaboration with the Isaac Funk Family Library of the University of Illinois Library System. An agriculture librarian took on administrative responsibilities with the Center and, in 2003, it became a special collection within the Isaac Funk Family Library. The Center collects and makes available information across 8 the full spectrum of agricultural communications interests described earlier. It now contains more than 29,000 documents involving agriculture-related communications in more than 100 countries. All documents include both dimensions—communications and agriculture. All are physically located either within the Center or the University Library. Document delivery is offered on a cost-recovery basis. During 2005 the Center’s Web site, featuring a searchable database, served more than a million page requests from searchers in 81 countries. AFTER 25 YEARS: A VIEW OF THE CORE PERIODICAL LITERATURE IN THE FIELD A collection that has grown to become the largest and broadest of its kind invites analysis in an effort to identify the core dimensions of the field. The results of research reported here will provide what is believed to be the most comprehensive profile yet of the core periodical literature of agricultural communications as a field of research, teaching and practice. Research questions. This analysis focuses on five research questions related to the periodical literature contained in the ACDC collection. For the purposes of this study, periodical literature includes serials commonly described as journals, magazines, newspapers, newsletters, and others, published regularly on an annual, quarterly or other basis. The research questions under study include: 1. How much periodical literature is in the ACDC collection now and in what kinds of periodicals? 2. What time period is reflected in",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "includes serials commonly described as journals, magazines, newspapers, newsletters, and others, published regularly on an annual, quarterly or other basis. The research questions under study include: 1. How much periodical literature is in the ACDC collection now and in what kinds of periodicals? 2. What time period is reflected in the periodical literature of the collection and what is the geographical representation? 9 3. What major subject areas does this periodical literature address? 4. How centralized or scattered are the sources of such periodical literature and how does that pattern compare with the centrality/scatter identified 25 years ago? 5. What are the core periodicals found within the collection? METHODOLOGY In order to ascertain the core periodical literature found within the Agricultural Communications Documentation Center, an extensive study was done of the ACDC database. Each physical document located within the ACDC collection currently has a surrogate record in a Microsoft Access database. Using the powerful design features of Access, a standard form was created for record input. Record elements include article title, periodical title, author, language, notes, publication date, institution, library location, and document type. Structured queries within Access revealed the nature of the periodical literature found within the ACDC Collection. Findings Originally, the periodical literature in the collection consisted mainly of articles from the research and teaching files of Illinois faculty members and from personal collections contributed to the Center. Beyond those resources, staff members of the Center identified periodical literature by two primary methods. First, they conducted onshelf searches of selected periodicals in the University Library collection, including those identified through a bibliometric analysis. They reviewed all issues and volumes of several periodicals. In most cases, however, they monitored only new or recent issues 10 because of limited time and resources for searching. Second, staff members periodically performed keyword",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of selected periodicals in the University Library collection, including those identified through a bibliometric analysis. They reviewed all issues and volumes of several periodicals. In most cases, however, they monitored only new or recent issues 10 because of limited time and resources for searching. Second, staff members periodically performed keyword searches of relevant bibliographic databases and listings available at the time, for example, the National Agricultural Library’s Agricultural Online Access (AGRICOLA); selected abstracts of the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, now CAB International; Communication Abstracts; and the AGRIS international information system of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. The Internet and new online research resources are now permitting greater rigor in searching for periodical literature about agriculture-related communications. Laborintensive paper searches in multiple indexes are now carried out more efficiently within large periodical databases such as CAB Abstracts. Staff members are now identifying more periodical literature than their time and resources permit them to process into the collection. EXTENT OF PERIODICALS IN ACDC COLLECTION Slightly more than one half (55%) of the documents in the ACDC collection come from periodical literature. This collection now includes 16,102 articles, drawn from periodicals serving disciplines as diverse as behavioral science and agribusiness. A substantially larger number of document types originally found in the collection were combined to form ten categories. The periodical category includes scholarly journals, magazines, newspapers, and, now, their electronic equivalents. PERIODS COVERED AND GEOGRAPHICAL VARIETY IN THE ACDC COLLECTION 11 Table 1 lists the number of ACDC documents of all types identified by decade, through July 2006, and reveals a lack of early coverage. To date, only small numbers of documents identified for the collection were produced prior to World War II. The limited number of materials identified by ACDC staff during this time period may be due",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of all types identified by decade, through July 2006, and reveals a lack of early coverage. To date, only small numbers of documents identified for the collection were produced prior to World War II. The limited number of materials identified by ACDC staff during this time period may be due to several reasons. One is the lack of financial support, which limited the amount of literature searching done. Another is the comparative difficulty of database searching at the time. With the advent of new archival databases, such as the CAB Abstracts Archive with coverage back to 1910, it will become much easier to fill in the historical literature. Material older than 1910 will be harder to identify without similar electronic coverage. Finally, smaller numbers of materials found during early years may reflect a general dearth in publication compared with recent years. Table 1. ACDC Documents by Decade Published Decade Document Published Frequency 1850s-1890s 19 1900s 495 1910s 295 1920s 254 1930s 301 1940s 367 1950s 1099 1960s 2170 1970s 4579 1980s 7932 1990s 6129 2000s 5109 The periodical articles found in the ACDC have been produced in countries from around the world. Table 2 lists the top ten countries represented in the ACDC collection and clearly illustrates the broad array of articles about communications aspects of world 12 agriculture. While articles produced here in the United States clearly predominate, a large number represent other countries, notably India, the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. A substantial number of articles are also classified under “International,” a designation for articles that involve more than one country. Table 2. ACDC Articles, by Country Country ACDC Documents by Country USA 11032 International 1246 India 1216 UK 518 Canada 378 Australia 298 The Netherlands 161 South Africa 70 Philippines 53 New Zealand 53 PRIMARY TOPICS ADDRESSED",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "classified under “International,” a designation for articles that involve more than one country. Table 2. ACDC Articles, by Country Country ACDC Documents by Country USA 11032 International 1246 India 1216 UK 518 Canada 378 Australia 298 The Netherlands 161 South Africa 70 Philippines 53 New Zealand 53 PRIMARY TOPICS ADDRESSED Table 3 shows the eleven most frequently used words within periodical article titles found in the ACDC periodical collection. Words like “agriculture” or “agricultural” rose to the top, along with words like “farm,” “farmer,” or “farming.” Other social science terms such as “communication(s),” “media,” “radio,” and “broadcast” were also well represented. Table 3. Frequently Used Title Words in ACDC Periodical Collection Articles Frequently Used Title Words in ACDC Collection Frequency Farm(*) 3134 Agricultur(*) 2093 Communication(s) 1163 Extension 1084 13 Rural 1060 Food 838 Advertis(*) 704 Media 508 Radio 508 Television or TV 423 Broadcast 317 One of the great strengths of the ACDC Collection is the depth of keyword indexing. Each document, no matter what the size, has been indexed with an average of 8-10 different keywords. Table 4 lists ACDC keywords, ranking them by frequency in the database. Not surprisingly, many of the top keywords correspond very closely with the frequently used title words found in Table 3. Table 4. Keywords found in ACDC Documents Keyword Terms Frequency farmers 2790 rural development 2565 development 2217 development communication 1985 roles 1965 attitudes 1959 food safety 1750 advertising 1727 extension 1621 extension communication 1528 information needs 1491 India 1479 media effectiveness 1463 biotechnology 1365 information services 1353 genetic engineering 1291 development issues 1281 radio 1276 farm journals 1273 adoption 1260 consumers 1232 participation 1222 extension programs 1176 14 information sources 1092 food 1091 information issues 1044 public attitude 1028 agricultural development 1025 risk communication 1024 extension services 975 reporting 970 rural",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1463 biotechnology 1365 information services 1353 genetic engineering 1291 development issues 1281 radio 1276 farm journals 1273 adoption 1260 consumers 1232 participation 1222 extension programs 1176 14 information sources 1092 food 1091 information issues 1044 public attitude 1028 agricultural development 1025 risk communication 1024 extension services 975 reporting 970 rural broadcasts 893 communicators 854 coverage 846 television 836 mass media 821 information technology 808 farming methods 795 trends 782 history 778 decision making 776 campaigns 774 extension agents 769 farmer attitudes 756 DISPERSION OF ACDC PERIODICAL LITERATURE A 25-year comparison of the periodical literature found in 1981 and 2006 revealed a substantial dispersion in the literature of agricultural communications. Not surprisingly, the total number of different periodicals found in the collection had grown more than five-fold, to 1,766 different periodicals. Table 5 reveals a continuing lack of centrality in the periodical literature of agricultural communications. The total of 1,766 periodicals represented in the ACDC collection in 2006 highlights the wide scatter of such literature. Table 5. Dispersion of ACDC Literature 1981 2006 Top Periodical, as a share of all periodical literature 6 percent 10 percent Top 10 Periodicals, as a share of all periodical literature 28 percent 37 percent Total number of periodicals in collection 326 1766 15 CORE PERIODICALS REPRESENTED Identification of the core periodical literature in agricultural communications can be accomplished using several different techniques. By stipulating that the literature already found within the Agricultural Communications Documentation Center represents a selected subset of this literature identified by experts in the field, we can begin to target the most appropriate sources. Table 6 provides a list of the 45 periodicals with the largest number of citations in the database. Articles from these 45 periodicals represent slightly over one half of the entire ACDC periodical collection. The peer-reviewed titles are",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the field, we can begin to target the most appropriate sources. Table 6 provides a list of the 45 periodicals with the largest number of citations in the database. Articles from these 45 periodicals represent slightly over one half of the entire ACDC periodical collection. The peer-reviewed titles are listed in bold type. To illustrate the broad reach of agricultural communications, more than one half are periodicals outside the agricultural and life science mainstream. Table 6. Core Periodicals in the ACDC Collection Periodical Title (Peer Reviewed Journals in Bold) Number of Citations Agri Marketing 1434 Journal of Applied Communications (AAACE, ACE Quarterly) 1148 Agricultural Advertising 706 Journal of Extension (Journal of Cooperative Extension) 316 Development Communication Report 316 CHATS (National Association of Farm Broadcasting) 316 Rural Sociology 275 Advertising Age 260 American Journal of Agricultural Economics 258 Agricultural Information Development Bulletin 225 Media Asia 204 Journal of Communication Studies (Interaction) 157 Agricultural Systems (Agricultural Administration) 133 Agribusiness 130 Extension Review 123 Agriculture and Human Values 100 Agricultural Education Magazine 93 Journal of Extension Systems 93 NACTA Journal (North American Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture) 93 Successful Farming 82 Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly (Journalism 77 16 Quarterly, Journalism Bulletin) INTERPAKS Interchange 74 Journal of Communication 72 Journal of Agricultural Education 65 Public Relations Tips for Dairymen 58 Kurukshetra 57 Agricultural History 55 Farm Journal 55 Agricultural Libraries Information Notes 55 LEISA ( ILEIA Newsletter) 53 Television/Radio Age 53 AgBioForum 52 Choices 50 New Agriculture 50 Sponsor 49 Sociology of Rural Life 47 South African Journal of Agricultural Extension 47 HortTechnology 47 Indian Journal of Adult Education 43 Rural Libraries 43 Journal of Environmental Education 42 Journal of Food Distribution Research 41 Public Opinion Quarterly 40 Mediaweek (Marketing and Media Decisions, Media Decisions) 39 CCA News (Cooperative Communicators Association) 38",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Rural Life 47 South African Journal of Agricultural Extension 47 HortTechnology 47 Indian Journal of Adult Education 43 Rural Libraries 43 Journal of Environmental Education 42 Journal of Food Distribution Research 41 Public Opinion Quarterly 40 Mediaweek (Marketing and Media Decisions, Media Decisions) 39 CCA News (Cooperative Communicators Association) 38 The Appendix includes important background information on these journals, including title changes, cost, whether peer reviewed or not, whether they are social science or science oriented, etc. DIRECTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH An important research strategy for the future development of the ACDC is to confirm the core literature of the ACDC with that of agricultural communications itself. Frequently used keywords will be used to search databases across a wide variety of disciplines. The resulting periodical list will be compared with the list of periodicals found in the ACDC database. Any new titles uncovered will be considered for inclusion within the database. The recent introduction of the CAB Abstracts Archive, with coverage back to 1910, will be of assistance in locating more historical literature. 17 Additional research to help further identify gray literature, not a focus of this investigation, will also further enhance the ACDC database. CONCLUSIONS This study sheds useful light on the five research questions that generated it. The size of the ACDC periodical collection confirms a substantial body of agricultural communication literature, much larger than could be revealed by usual searching methods. The results of this analysis underscore the need to search across an extremely wide range of disciplines for the periodical literature of agricultural communications and provide helpful directions and guidelines for doing so. The findings reveal a need for a closer examination of the early periodical literature of this field, especially publishing prior to and through the 1800s and the early to mid-1900s. The findings suggest",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "disciplines for the periodical literature of agricultural communications and provide helpful directions and guidelines for doing so. The findings reveal a need for a closer examination of the early periodical literature of this field, especially publishing prior to and through the 1800s and the early to mid-1900s. The findings suggest that what began as a United States-based resource is becoming international in substantial ways, identifying and sharing periodical literature from many parts of the world. This effort needs to expand and, as it does, can greatly strengthen contributions of the Center to global service. The periodical literature of agricultural communications shows importance and value for a wide range of individuals interested in effective communications related to agriculture: students, teachers, researchers, professional communicators and others. The Center can contribute substantially and needs to develop more ways to make this information available to diverse users. Agricultural communications is, and will always be, firmly implanted within the established disciplines of agriculture and communications. The results of this study underscore the importance and value of the ACDC effort to identify and make available the widely scattered literature of agricultural 18 communications. While electronic databases and mass communication help reveal this literature, special collections like the Agricultural Communications Documentation Center have further defined agricultural communications. In addition, the Center provides a dedicated repository, a place to search for this important literature. REFERENCES Bardolph, Richard. (1948). Agricultural Literature and the Early Illinois Farmer. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Boone, Kristina, Meisenbach, Terry and Tucker, Mark. (2000). Agricultural Communications: Changes and Challenges. Ames: Iowa State University Press. Clarke, B. (2003). \"Farmers and Scientists: A Case Study in Facilitating Communication.\" Science Communication 25(2): 198-203. Coghlan, Andy. (November 4, 2000). \"BSE Report: How It Went So Horribly Wrong.\" New Scientist 168(2263): 4-6. Corey, Charles W. (April 27, 2006). \"Press",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Agricultural Communications: Changes and Challenges. Ames: Iowa State University Press. Clarke, B. (2003). \"Farmers and Scientists: A Case Study in Facilitating Communication.\" Science Communication 25(2): 198-203. Coghlan, Andy. (November 4, 2000). \"BSE Report: How It Went So Horribly Wrong.\" New Scientist 168(2263): 4-6. Corey, Charles W. (April 27, 2006). \"Press Freedom Key Building Block of Democracy and Development.\" USINFO. International Information Programs, U. S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfileenglish&y=2006&m=April&x=20060420141312WCyeroC0.6638758. Dickson, David. (October 5, 2004). \"Science Journalists ‘Play Critical Role in Decisionmaking.’\" News report from the Science and Development Network, London, United Kingdom. http://www.scidev.net/News/index.cfm?fuseaction=readNews&itemid=1642&language= 1. Evans, James F. Personal interview, Urbana, IL, August 2, 2006. Evans, James F. and Prabha, Chandra G. (1983). User Interest in the Literature of 19 Agricultural Communications: A National Survey. Mimeographed report, Agricultural Communications Documentation Center, University of Illinois, Urbana. Fry, John J. (2005). The Farm Press, Reform, and Rural Change, 1895-1920. New York: Routledge. Fusonie, Alan E. (1977). \"The Agricultural Literature of the Gentleman Farmer in the Colonies.\" In Alan Fusonie and Leila Moran (eds.), Agricultural Literature: Proud Heritage Future Promise. Washington, D. C.: Graduate School Press, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Huffman, Wallace E. and Tegene, Abebayehu. (2002). \"Public Acceptance of and Benefits from Agricultural Biotechnology: A Key Role for Verifiable Information.\" In Vittorio Santaniello, Robert E. Evenson and David Zilberman (eds.), Market Development for Genetically Modified Foods. Oxon, UK: CABI Publishing, p. 179-189. King, Dave. (2003). \"Communicators as Architects of Change.\" Journal of Applied Communications 87(1): 39-41. McInerney, Claire, Bird, Nora, and Nucci, Mary. (2004). \"The Flow of Scientific Knowledge from Lab to Lay Public: The Case of Genetically Modified Food.\" Science Communication 26(1): 44-74. Mody, Bella (ed.). (2003). International and Development Communication: a 21st Century Perspective. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Nganje, W., Schuck, E. C., and Okigbo, C. (2004). \"An Economic",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Mary. (2004). \"The Flow of Scientific Knowledge from Lab to Lay Public: The Case of Genetically Modified Food.\" Science Communication 26(1): 44-74. Mody, Bella (ed.). (2003). International and Development Communication: a 21st Century Perspective. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Nganje, W., Schuck, E. C., and Okigbo, C. (2004). \"An Economic Analysis of Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) in Adoption of Slash and Burn Agriculture.\" Journal of African Communications 4(1): 136-158. Prabha, Chandra and Evans, James F. (1982). \"The Literature of Ag Communication: A Partial View, 1970-1979.\" Agricultural Communicators in Education Quarterly 65(4): 15-31. 20 Roberts, Michael J. and Schimmelpfennig, David. (April 2006). \"Public Information Creates Value.\" Amber Waves, electronic periodical published by the Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Retrieved August 20, 2006, at http://www.ers.usda.gov/AmberWaves/April06/Features/Public.htm. Smyth, Stuart and Phillips, Peter W. B. (2002). \"Science and Regulation: Assessing the Impacts of Incomplete Institutions and Information in the Global Agricultural Biotechnology Industry.\" In Vittorio Santaniello, Robert E. Evenson and David Zilberman (eds.), Market Development for Genetically ModifiedFoods. Oxon, UK: CABI Publishing, p. 191-203. Truelsen, Stewart. (May 3, 2004). \"Farm Broadcasters Provide Community Service.\" Focus on Agriculture feature from the American Farm Bureau Federation, Park Ridge, Illinois. Zumalt, Joseph R. (2003). “A Primer on Agricultural Communications for Student, Librarians, and Researchers.” Journal of Agricultural & Food Information 5(1): 25-33. doi:10.1300/J108v05n01_05. Received: 8/25/06 Revised: 3/8/07 Accepted: 3/9/07 Appendix 21 Journal Title Title Changes Years of Publication Publisher Publication Type Typical # of Pages Science or Social Science Oriented 2006 Cost 2005 Impact Factor* Advertising Age: the International Newspaper of Marketing American Demographics / Focus / Advertising Age’s Focus / Promotion / Advertising & Sales Promotion / Advertising Requirements / Advertising Agency 1930Crain Communications, Inc. Popular 36 Social Science $178.50 AgBioForum 1998University of Missouri, Columbia, Agriculture & Engineering Department Scholarly 60 Science",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Impact Factor* Advertising Age: the International Newspaper of Marketing American Demographics / Focus / Advertising Age’s Focus / Promotion / Advertising & Sales Promotion / Advertising Requirements / Advertising Agency 1930Crain Communications, Inc. Popular 36 Social Science $178.50 AgBioForum 1998University of Missouri, Columbia, Agriculture & Engineering Department Scholarly 60 Science Free AgriMarketing Magazine 1962Doane Agricultural Services Popular 75 Science $62 Agribusiness (New York): an International Journal 1984John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Scholarly 125-150 Social Science $1429 Agricultural Advertising 1893-1918 Long-Critchfield Publishing Popular 60 Science Ceased Agricultural Education Magazine 1929Interstate Publishing Popular 27 Science Agricultural History 1927Agricultural History Society Scholarly 125-165 Social Science $158 0.032 Agricultural Information Development Bulletin 1979-1991 Agricultural Division, United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Popular 36 Ceased Agricultural Libraries 1975-1997 U.S. National Agricultural Popular 25-40 Social Science Ceased 22 Information Notes Library Agricultural Systems 1976Elsevier Scholarly Science $2918 Agriculture and Human Values 1984Springer-Verlag Dordrecht Scholarly 115 Social Science $328 0.571 American Journal of Agricultural Economics Journal of Farm Economics 1919Blackwell Publishing, Inc. Scholarly 270 Social Science $217 0.967 CCA News http://www.com municators.coop/ Cooperative Communicators Association, Lubbock, TX Popular Science CHATS 2003National Association of Farm Broadcasting Popular Science Choices http://www.choic esmagazine.org/ 1986American Agricultural Economics Association Scholarly 48 Science Free Development Communication Report Instruction Technology Report 1972-1993 Clearinghouse on Development Communication Popular Social Science Ceased Extension Review Extension Service Review 1930-1990 Extension Service, USDA Popular 16 Science Ceased Farm Journal: The Magazine of American Agriculture 1877Farm Journal Media Popular 50 Science $24.75 HortTechnology 1991American Society for Horticultural Science 180 Science $120 Indian Journal of Adult Education 1939J.L. Sachdeva Pub. Scholarly 72 Social Science $40 INTERPAKS Digest Interchange 1983-1996 International Program for Agricultural Knowledge System Popular 12 Science Ceased 23 Journal of Agricultural Education American Association of Teacher Educators in Agriculture. Journal 1959American Association for",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Society for Horticultural Science 180 Science $120 Indian Journal of Adult Education 1939J.L. Sachdeva Pub. Scholarly 72 Social Science $40 INTERPAKS Digest Interchange 1983-1996 International Program for Agricultural Knowledge System Popular 12 Science Ceased 23 Journal of Agricultural Education American Association of Teacher Educators in Agriculture. Journal 1959American Association for Agricultural Education Scholarly 80-100 Social Science $120 Journal of Applied Communications ACE Quarterly / AAACE 1990Agricultural Communicators in Education Scholarly 60 Social Science $75 Journal of Communication 1951Blackwell Publishing, Inc. Scholarly 200-250 Social Science $253 1.134 Journal of Communication Studies Interaction 1983National Council of Developmental Communication Popular 120 Social Science Journal of Environmental Education 1970Heldref Publications Scholarly 64 Social Science $130 Journal of Extension (online) http://www.joe.o rg/ Journal of Extension (print) / Journal of Cooperative Extension 1963Extension Journal, Inc. Scholarly 40-60 Social Science Free Journal of Extension Systems http://www.jeson line.org/ 1985Allied Publishers Popular 100 Science $30 Journal of Food Distribution Research 1969Food Distribution Research Society Scholarly 60-200 Science Free, available at: http://agecon.lib. umn.edu/ Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly: Devoted to Research and Commentary in Journalism and Mass Communication Journalism Quarterly, Journalism Bulletin 1924Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication Scholarly 240 Social Science $140 Kurukshetra: 1952-1984 State of India Popular 40 Science Ceased 24 India’s Journal of Rural Development LEISA ILEIA Newsletter 1984Center for and Information on Low-ExternalInput and Sustainable Agriculture Popular 36 Science $25 Media Asia 1974School of Communication & Information, Nanyang Technological University Scholarly 60 Social Science $73 MediaWeek: The News Magazine of the Media 1966VNU Business Publications Popular 22 Social Science $149 NACTA Journal National Association of Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture. Journal 1957National Association of Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture Scholarly 75 Science $35 New Agriculture 1918-1952 Miller Publishing Popular 16 Science Ceased Public Opinion Quarterly: Journal of the American Association for public Opinion Research",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Publications Popular 22 Social Science $149 NACTA Journal National Association of Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture. Journal 1957National Association of Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture Scholarly 75 Science $35 New Agriculture 1918-1952 Miller Publishing Popular 16 Science Ceased Public Opinion Quarterly: Journal of the American Association for public Opinion Research 1937 Oxford University Press Scholarly 160 Social Science $140 1.509 Public Relation Tips for Dairymen 1961-??? American Dairy Association Popular Science Ceased Rural Libraries: a Forum for Rural Library Service 1980Center for the Study of Rural Librarianship, Clarion University Scholarly 75 Social Science $20 Rural Sociology: 1937Rural Sociological Scholarly 150 Social Science $125 25 Devoted to Scientific Study of Rural and Community Life Society Sociology of Rural Life 1978-1995 University of Minnesota Popular 8 Social Science Ceased South African Journal of Agricultural Extension South African Society for Agricultural Extension. Journal 1972South African Society for Agricultural Extension Scholarly Science ZAR 50 Successful Farming 1902Meredith Corporation Popular 75 Science $15.95 Television/Radio Age Television Age 1953-1989 TV Trade Media Inc. Popular Social Science Ceased *Source: Journal Citation Reports, ISI Web of KnowledgeSM (where available). 26",
    "source": "agriculture_communications.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350663407 EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LEGISLATION IN INDIA Article · April 2021 CITATIONS 0 READS 47 2 authors, including: Sachin V R Assam Agricultural University 3 PUBLICATIONS 1 CITATION SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Sachin V R on 06 April 2021. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. www.tjprc.org editor@tjprc.org EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LEGISLATION IN INDIA SACHIN V. R1, PRASANTA MISHRA2 & SHRIDEVI S. V3 1Scholar, Department of Extension Education, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam, India 2Professor and Head, Department of Extension Education, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam, India 3Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension, M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi, Odisha, India ABSTRACT The dictionary meaning of 'legislation is a law or set of laws suggested by a government and made official by a parliament'. Agricultural legislation or agricultural laws deals with the agricultural production, marketing, and distribution of agricultural commodities. As it's a broad area it goes out of the box due to its complexity and it includes labor laws, commercial and environmental laws, etc. Our today's well-structured law and order system didn't come directly. It's a result of corrective measures taken throughout the evolution process since the origin of agriculture practices. We can observe significant contributions since the Indus valley civilization period and milestones like the Vedic period, contributions of Chanakya, Mughal period, reforms made by the British during pre-independence and systematic reforms made by the Government of India to social justice of all the cultivators. The post-independence agricultural legislation can be broadly classified as follows; (a) Land legislation and reforms, (b) Legislation reforms of input management, (c) Labour laws in agriculture, (d) Legislation on agricultural marketing, (e) Legislations in",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and systematic reforms made by the Government of India to social justice of all the cultivators. The post-independence agricultural legislation can be broadly classified as follows; (a) Land legislation and reforms, (b) Legislation reforms of input management, (c) Labour laws in agriculture, (d) Legislation on agricultural marketing, (e) Legislations in the livestock sector, (f) Legislation of agriculture credit and finance and (g) Legislation in the co-operative sector. All the agricultural acts, orders passed are under these categories. Understanding these laws by the people who are working with the farmers for them it would be easier to create awareness among farmers. Through the awareness it's possible to help them to protect themselves from exploitation. KEYWORDS: Agricultural Legislation, Government of India, Farmers & Agricultural Production Received: May 18, 2020; Accepted: Jun 08, 2020; Published: Jun 26, 2020; Paper Id.: IJASRAUG20207 INTRODUCTION The dictionary meaning of 'legislation is a law or set of laws suggested by a government and made official by a parliament' (www.dictionary.cambridge.org). The legislation is one of the three common functions of government. Legislations started to take a formal frame when the legal acts and laws are framed by passing them through legislative houses. In agriculture, we have reached a stage where sometimes we have to deal with the issues of agriculture under the jurisdiction of the court. However, agricultural legislation or agricultural laws deals with the agricultural production, marketing, and distribution of agricultural commodities. The laws, rules, and regulations for different activities are framed and standardized under this. It includes labor laws, commercial and environmental laws, etc. The objective of this is to ensure efficient production and smooth distribution of agricultural commodities in the country. The violations do offer penalties, punishments, etc. (www.justia.com). The well-established agricultural legislation system didn’t flash in a single day. It has a remarkable history.",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "includes labor laws, commercial and environmental laws, etc. The objective of this is to ensure efficient production and smooth distribution of agricultural commodities in the country. The violations do offer penalties, punishments, etc. (www.justia.com). The well-established agricultural legislation system didn’t flash in a single day. It has a remarkable history. Therefore we need to look into the roots since its origin for a better understanding. Agriculture does not evolve in a Original Article International Journal of Agriculture Science and Research (IJASR) ISSN (P): 2250–0057; ISSN (E): 2321–0087 Vol. 10, Issue 4, Aug 2020, 55-66 © TJPRC Pvt. Ltd. 56 Sachin V. R, Prasanta Mishra & Shridevi S. V Impact Factor (JCC): 8.3083 NAAS Rating: 4.13 single place. It has been evolved at different places in different ways like the cultivation of wet rice started in the Asian region, cattle rearing evolved in the case of American region and production of wheat started by the people in European regions, etc. (www.britannica.com). Worldwide Civilization in Agricultural History About 11700 years ago during the last Pleistocene glacial period (also known as ice age), the agriculture started to develop with supportive global climate changes. The Epipaleolithic people who were existed in that period started rearing sheep and goats. Many plants (like wild barley) were collected intensively. An independent evolution process was found to be started at different times in Southwest Asia, America, East-Asia, and European regions. In Asia, different regions of agricultural development found to be started in different regions viz., China, Korea, Japan, and Indian subcontinents (www.britannica.com). Indus Valley Civilization The evolution of Indian agricultural history has its own pace. It came across many great civilizations and dynasties of great rulers. The ancient and the great Indus valley civilization of the Bronze Age on the bank of river Indus was well known for",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Indian subcontinents (www.britannica.com). Indus Valley Civilization The evolution of Indian agricultural history has its own pace. It came across many great civilizations and dynasties of great rulers. The ancient and the great Indus valley civilization of the Bronze Age on the bank of river Indus was well known for its modernized well-built cities. The Indus River allowed this civilization's establishment and development in a better way of utilizing water and rich fertile lands. The people used to take up crop cultivation in the fertile lands created by floods of Indus River. Agricultural production was more than their requirements. The barter system was popular in this period for the transactions of all kinds. There found to be many regulations in agriculture that may look simple now. Those great thoughts had served their purposes in those days in a greater way. They also gave chances for further developmental corrections using felt experiences. They used to collect the grains as tax from farmers and the distribution of wages also in terms of grains only. The proper system was there to secure the ownership right of grains with the help of clay tags (www.harappa.com). Vedic Period After this Indus civilization, the next prominent era that could be found in the Vedic period can be observed between 1500 B. C. to 500 B. C. It’s also known as Iron Age in India. People used to take up crop cultivation (agriculture) for their livelihood. They worshiped crop cultivation more than considering it as just a social process of growing food. The little comparative advancement could be found in this era in handling systems of agricultural lands, resources, and activities of the cultivation process i.e., rules and regulations. There found to be a division of cultivation lands i.e., two types of lands found in Rigvedic period",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "social process of growing food. The little comparative advancement could be found in this era in handling systems of agricultural lands, resources, and activities of the cultivation process i.e., rules and regulations. There found to be a division of cultivation lands i.e., two types of lands found in Rigvedic period viz., ‘Apnasvati’ (fertile soil) and ‘Artana’ (arid soil). In the Rigvedic period ‘Grama' (village) was found to be a center for agriculture. All kinds of village settlements happened in farming, animal rearing, and iron technology. The same villages started to become administrative centers in the later Vedic times. Like this, the Vedic period provides its contribution to today’s system like panchayat raj employing ideas like settlements mentioned at village levels (https://www.insa.nic.in). Maurya Empire The most important and vast area occupied empire which attracts attention in this period is the Mauryan Empire. This was found by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya under the guidance of Chanakya. They ruled more than two centuries since 322 B.C. In this period, Agriculture was the primary source of livelihood in this empire. The landholdings were cultivated by Emergence and Development of Agricultural Legislation IN India 57 www.tjprc.org editor@tjprc.org the small landlords who were given lands to keep with them in exchange for tax paid by them to the king. The actual rights of ownership on lands were reserved with the king. The tax rate was 25 percent of their production, need to be paid by the farmers after every harvest of the crop. Farmers were completely exempted from participation in wars. (https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com). The well-known book entitled ‘Arthasastra’, which consists of Kautilya's views on management and enhancement of resources of a dynasty for its development. Artashastra has 15 books, in which the 14th chapter of the second book entitled 'Sitadhyaksha’ (which means the superintendent of agriculture) is specifically",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "from participation in wars. (https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com). The well-known book entitled ‘Arthasastra’, which consists of Kautilya's views on management and enhancement of resources of a dynasty for its development. Artashastra has 15 books, in which the 14th chapter of the second book entitled 'Sitadhyaksha’ (which means the superintendent of agriculture) is specifically for agriculture. In this chapter the measures to be taken by the superintendent of agriculture to improve productivity and production have been mentioned which applies even to general farmers. The current services provided by the state departments of agriculture were mentioned those days in Artashastra which were very similar (Nene, 2002). The remarkable suggestions about agricultural regulation practices by Chanakya in his book ‘Artasastra’ are not negligible The Mughal Empire established who invaded India and occupied importance in Indian history through their unique contributions and administration strategies. It caught the attention through the observable advancements and developments made by them in most of the aspects including agriculture. Mughal Period In the Mughal empire, there was a great emphasis on irrigation and roads. These two services were the responsibility of the government. Though there was no technological revolution in agricultural tools and techniques until the termination stage of the Mughal Empire. Since Upanishad's time, there was an evolution of ocean trade commercial economy due to the arrival of western powers. With the help of irrigation systems and/or adequate rainfall, two crops (two seasons) were common in a year as noticed by Megasthenes. The Mughals ruled almost 300 years by the invasion that made remarkable reforms in Indian agricultural history. They introduced many new crops, gave tremendous importance to irrigation also like the repair of canals from Yamuna River in the time of Akbar and Shah Jahan built a new canal called ‘Nahr-i-Bihisht’ at Khizrabad (www.academia.edu). The reward goes to Sher Shah",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "that made remarkable reforms in Indian agricultural history. They introduced many new crops, gave tremendous importance to irrigation also like the repair of canals from Yamuna River in the time of Akbar and Shah Jahan built a new canal called ‘Nahr-i-Bihisht’ at Khizrabad (www.academia.edu). The reward goes to Sher Shah who was the first Muslim ruler who took the initiation of a beneficial revenue system equally good for both state and farmers. The village was the smallest unit of administration even in Mughal Empire like the Vedic period. Division of lands according to Emperor Akbar was found to be as follows; ‘Polaj’ was land where two crops could be taken up in a year, ‘Parauti’ was land which used to left fallow after taking up two crops, ‘Chachar’ is the name given to unfertile lands cultivated once in three to four years and ‘Banjar' was land which is not at all fit for cultivation purpose. Akbar also made efforts to bring more uncultivated lands under cultivation i.e., expansion of agricultural land. There are many other improvements found even in the cultivation practices of different crops. (www.academia.edu). After the end of the Mughal Empire, the British rule took over India. They also built some land reform systems that could be seen in the history which undoubtedly have their contributions to the evolution of present legislation systems of the agricultural sector. Pre-Independence Period There was no good legislation system during the pre-independence period. British followed the tax system of Mughals more formally. For that purpose, following acts were passed by the British government during pre-independence viz., Land 58 Sachin V. R, Prasanta Mishra & Shridevi S. V Impact Factor (JCC): 8.3083 NAAS Rating: 4.13 acquisition act (1894), Indian forest act in 1927, and 1930 Indian sale of goods act. Land Acquisition Act",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "For that purpose, following acts were passed by the British government during pre-independence viz., Land 58 Sachin V. R, Prasanta Mishra & Shridevi S. V Impact Factor (JCC): 8.3083 NAAS Rating: 4.13 acquisition act (1894), Indian forest act in 1927, and 1930 Indian sale of goods act. Land Acquisition Act came into force from 1st March 1894 and extended to the entire country except for Jammu & Kashmir. The land acquisition bill (2007) was passed again in Lok-Sabha in 2009 to protect the interests of poor farmers whose lands are acquired to set up industries (https://indiankanoon.org). Indian Forest Act was passed in 1927 “An Act to prevent overexploitation and consolidate the law relating to forests, the transit of forest produce and the duty leviable on timber and other forest-produce” (Indian Forest Act). However this act also focused to protect wildlife and to check deforestation for agriculture and other purposes. But the British government was more interested in the tax from these forest produce (https://indiacode.nic.in). Indian Sale of Goods Act was passed in 1930 to define and amend the law relating to the sale of goods (The Sale of Goods Act). This act is regarding rules and regulations of selling goods in the entire country except in Jammu & Kashmir enforced since 1930 (https://indiacode.nic.in). When we look into overall legislations of agriculture, mainly there could find 'Land legislation and reforms', 'Legislation reforms of input management', 'Labour laws in agriculture', 'Legislation on agricultural marketing', 'Legislations in livestock sector', 'Legislation of agriculture credit and finance' and 'Legislation in co-operative sector' (https://icar.org.in). During the British period i.e., pre-independence period three predominant revenue systems are found viz., Zamindari system, Ryoywari system, and Mahalwari system. Land Legislations and Reforms Zamindari system came into force in 1793 through an act called 'the permanent settlement act' the person",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and finance' and 'Legislation in co-operative sector' (https://icar.org.in). During the British period i.e., pre-independence period three predominant revenue systems are found viz., Zamindari system, Ryoywari system, and Mahalwari system. Land Legislations and Reforms Zamindari system came into force in 1793 through an act called 'the permanent settlement act' the person behind this was Lord Cornwallis. It was introduced to overcome the corruption problems of the 'annual bidding system' that existed before. In this system the East India Company recognized zamindars and were given the right to collect tax from farmers. This system was found in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and Varanasi provinces and it covered 19 percent of British India. They earned revenue by creating a rich class in the society called zamindars. Zamindars used to have 10 years of the agreement with East India Company to collect revenue. The agreement used to be with the renew system and zamindars’ children had inherent right from their parents to continue revenue collection. The amount payable to East India Company was termed as ‘Peshwash’. Here the farmers were the real sufferers and overexploited by the zamindars, as the right to fix the amount of revenue to be collected was in the hands of zamindars (http://dialogue.hubpages.com). Ryotwari system came into force in 1820, it was an idea of Thomas Munro who was a district collector of Rayalaseema of Andra Pradesh. This system removed the middlemen (rich class created by British for collection of tax viz., zamindars) in between farmers and East India Company. It was found in Madras, Bombay, some parts of Assam and Coorg provinces. Here, farmers were made as owners of lands. But, it was also the worst system and only means of revenue to East India Company. British brought this system, because in those provinces, where it was introduced were with",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "was found in Madras, Bombay, some parts of Assam and Coorg provinces. Here, farmers were made as owners of lands. But, it was also the worst system and only means of revenue to East India Company. British brought this system, because in those provinces, where it was introduced were with dry spell lands. Also no such people were found by the British to create zamindars in those provinces. The poor farmers were overexploited by the corrupt tax collection officers in place of zamindars. Situations were worse in these dry spell areas than the provinces occupied by the zamindari system. The additional exploitation of money lenders made farmers fall into a debt trap. The revenue percentage was high i.e., 50 percent in dryland areas and 60 percent in irrigated land areas. It covered almost 52 percent of British held territories (https://hubpages.com). In 1883, Warren Hastings introduced the Mahalwari system. It spread to almost 29 percent of British held Emergence and Development of Agricultural Legislation IN India 59 www.tjprc.org editor@tjprc.org territories. Here the revenue was fixed and collected by the village committee, based on the ‘Mahal’ (which is village or group of two or three small villages). The land ownership rights have remained with farmers. In this system also there were problems like threatening money lenders and excessive revenues charged by the British government. The dominance of this system was found in Central Province, North-West Frontier, Agra, Punjab, Gangetic Valley, etc., (https://hubpages.com). The exploitation of peasants was very common in all these systems and these are all just a means or source of income to East India Company. Even with the lack of social justice and welfare of farmers, the contributions were not negligible to the present developments. They also serve as links to the development of modern agricultural legislation since primitive",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "systems and these are all just a means or source of income to East India Company. Even with the lack of social justice and welfare of farmers, the contributions were not negligible to the present developments. They also serve as links to the development of modern agricultural legislation since primitive stages of its origin. Post-Independence Period This is the time from where the true efforts were started in a real sense of social justice to all citizens of the country. Immediately after the independence, the country was in a high level of poverty. Unemployment, low productivity levels with issues of food insecurity and a thick population made situations even worse. The following major actions were made to taken care of all problems. In 1955, the abolition of intermediaries those who played a role in between the actual cultivator and the government (for example zamindars) were made. This step was taken by the government to remove them and made available the lands to real cultivators. The states formulated the legislative measures to abolish such kinds of tenures and made actual cultivators have direct contact with the government. This made a burden to the government as the compensation and pension schemes that need to be formulated to take care of landholders. The positive effects were found, like the direct connection of farmers with government, increased revenue collection from rural areas, and improved employment. It also found a hike in productivity and production levels in the agricultural sector (https://www.economywatch.com). The tenancy reforms are made to protect the tenant farmers from the landlords (money lenders). The tenant farmers were losing their properties due to the higher interest rates which made them fall into indebtedness and poverty. Then the common problem was found that the land was a scarce resource. But there was more number",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "made to protect the tenant farmers from the landlords (money lenders). The tenant farmers were losing their properties due to the higher interest rates which made them fall into indebtedness and poverty. Then the common problem was found that the land was a scarce resource. But there was more number of farmers who were willing to cultivate as per the report of the committee headed by professor D. R. Gadgil. This institutional problem was a threat to agricultural progress and social justice. To solve this, the ceiling on agricultural land holdings was made with an intension to remove very clearly visible inequality in society. Also to meet the land needs of landless people for cultivation thereby increasing the self-employment of rural people. The ceiled limits for landholding were 9 acres for fully irrigated land with public irrigation source facility for three seasons (entire year) for annual or perennial crops, 18 acres for irrigated lands with public irrigation source facility for two seasons for two crops, 27 acres for irrigated lands with public irrigation source facility for one season for one crop and 54 acres for completely unirrigated land (http://www.legalserviceindia.com). Bhoodan or Gramdan movement was initiated by Acharya Vinoba Bhave in 1950 and spread over different states of the country. The intention is to collect the lands from the landowners who had excess and to distribute the collected land to the landless peasants in that particular village. To facilitate this process ‘Bhoodan Board’ is established. The Bhoodan board had its fund and started to collect land donated by any state or central government, private sector or any individual to 60 Sachin V. R, Prasanta Mishra & Shridevi S. V Impact Factor (JCC): 8.3083 NAAS Rating: 4.13 distribute to landless. Then the state passed an act called Bhoodan or Gramdan Act, to",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and started to collect land donated by any state or central government, private sector or any individual to 60 Sachin V. R, Prasanta Mishra & Shridevi S. V Impact Factor (JCC): 8.3083 NAAS Rating: 4.13 distribute to landless. Then the state passed an act called Bhoodan or Gramdan Act, to distribute the collected land legally. With this law the ownership rights of 18 lakh hectares land were given to the landless peasants. (http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in). Administration of Land Acquisition Act 1894 amended many times and the land acquisition (amendment) bill 2007 was passed in the Lok Sabha in the year 2009. Industries are important to boost up the economy and to improve capital investments. Often agricultural lands were acquired from the poor farmer to establish industries by dominant business class. Therefore, this bill was passed to protect the interest of farmers. This act ensures the rehabilitation to the individual or families who are affected by any public or private projects while acquiring land to set up industries (https://dolr.gov.in). Legislation Reforms of Input Management The quality and adequate availability of inputs are very essential for good production and productivity. To regulate the manufacture, availability, facilitating easy distribution of quality inputs to the farming community and to remove hurdles, the legal procedures and laws are made and passed by the government. It includes ‘Fertilizer legislations’, ‘Seed legislations’, ‘pests and pesticide legislation' and 'plant quarantine legislation’. The fertilizer use was high in the green revolution period. It was necessary to control and regulate the manufacture, distribution, and marketing of modern input of agriculture. Therefore, the government of India passed some laws to serve the purpose. The Fertilizer Control Order (FCO) came to force on 15th may 1957 even though it was issued in 1937. The main intention was to ensure the availability to farmers at",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "distribution, and marketing of modern input of agriculture. Therefore, the government of India passed some laws to serve the purpose. The Fertilizer Control Order (FCO) came to force on 15th may 1957 even though it was issued in 1937. The main intention was to ensure the availability to farmers at the right time and right quantity by keeping an eye on the quality of fertilizers. This was done by regulating the price, quantity of fertilizer distribution, and sales. Based on the central government framed ‘FCO review committee’ report about ‘FCO, 1957’ the revised FCO was passed in 1985. It is called as ‘FCO, 1985’. Revised FCO is well structured with rules and regulations for FCO certification and quality maintenance. Provisions were made to punish violations under the Essential Commodities Act (https://icar.org.in). Further for fair distribution of fertilizers among different states of country, the Fertilizer Movement Control Order (FMCO) was passed on 31st December 1960. The responsibility of proper implementation was given to state governments. Further, it was revised in the year 1967 and issued another FMCO (1973) which was passed in 1973. FMCO completed a total of 15 amendments and in 2001 the last amendment was made. Under this order, there is a prohibition to export fertilizer from one state to another without authoritative permission. There is also provision for punishment for violations under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (https://icar.org.in). The allocation order came to distribute the quantity of fertilizer required by each state. Under which, estimation of quantity required for a season and quantity to be manufactured has been done by the central government. Based on that the process of manufacturing and distribution activities are carried out by each state. The order is renewed by the Central government once every six months, it's called \"Essential Commodity Act Allocation Orders”.",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for a season and quantity to be manufactured has been done by the central government. Based on that the process of manufacturing and distribution activities are carried out by each state. The order is renewed by the Central government once every six months, it's called \"Essential Commodity Act Allocation Orders”. To ensure to meet the quality of fertilizer needs of farmers, the movement of fertilizers across the states and within the country has been regulated (https://icar.org.in). The quality seed is such a strong tool with enormous potential to change the scenario of agricultural productivity and it’s already proved (Scheeren, B. R., et. al., 2010). Therefore it's very important and essential to have laws to control seed quality and their use in a proper way. The government made few laws to get control and regulate the seed marketing Emergence and Development of Agricultural Legislation IN India 61 www.tjprc.org editor@tjprc.org viz., Seeds Act, Seed Rules, Seed Control Order, Seed Bill and Protection of Plant Varieties, and Farmers' Rights Act. The need for the law came to reality in 1966 in the form of the Seeds Act and Seed Rules in 1968. Sufficient infrastructure has been established by the central government all over the nation. Seed Certification Agencies, Seed Testing Laboratories, and Seed Law Enforcement Agencies have been created with the funds of the Central Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare. The chief legislation authorities of this act are Central Seed Committee, Central Seed Certification Board, and its sub-committees. In 2005, the National Seed Research and Training Centre (NSRTC) established to play the role of the central seed testing lab as well as a referral lab for any court issues in the country. Under this act, there are proper prescriptions regarding the quality parameters of varieties, their labeling. There is even provision for",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Seed Research and Training Centre (NSRTC) established to play the role of the central seed testing lab as well as a referral lab for any court issues in the country. Under this act, there are proper prescriptions regarding the quality parameters of varieties, their labeling. There is even provision for punishments and penalties for any violations. Seed inspector appointed by the state government was responsible to ensure and regulate the seed quality (https://icar.org.in). The Seed Control Order has been passed in 1983 by the ministry of civil supplies by declaring seeds as essential commodities and as per the order of the Supreme Court, it came into force with effect under state governments in 1994. As per this, dealers must get a license from the licensing authority by fulfilling or satisfying the certain terms and conditions prescribed. Based on the level of fulfillment of terms, an authority may or may not provide a license. Even the license holders need to maintain the quality prescriptions, violations found during the inspection may lead to the cancellation of the dealer's license (https://icar.org.in). The Seed Bill has been passed in the year 2004 by the Central government as per the suggestions of the 'Seed Policy Review Committee'. As per the bill, it’s compulsory to register seed variety to ensure quality in terms of proper regulations in performance trials of varieties, maintenance of the national register of varieties, self-certification, and accreditation of private seed testing labs along with regulating the export and import of seeds. There is a provision for penalties and punishments in case of any violations. The essence of this act is farmers are excluded. They can save exchange or sell their seeds without any brand names and regulations as applicable to commercial companies or agencies (https://icar.org.in). Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "is a provision for penalties and punishments in case of any violations. The essence of this act is farmers are excluded. They can save exchange or sell their seeds without any brand names and regulations as applicable to commercial companies or agencies (https://icar.org.in). Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act was passed in 2001 to stimulate investment in research and developments on new plant varieties. Under this act, an authority called “plant varieties and farmers’ rights protection authority” was established. It is to ensure high-quality seeds to farmers through facilitating the growth of seed companies. Farmers are excluded from the act but farmers cannot sell the branded seeds of protected varieties on a commercial scale. In this act, there is a provision for researchers to register the varieties that they bred. They can use the existing different crops as sources of genes to breeding programs. Here, researchers have to share the profits with those communities who keep on saving those varieties, used as sources or parents for breeding programs. There is a provision for registering the distinct and stable varieties of crops that are saved by farmers for a long time through cultivation practice (https://icar.org.in). Pesticides are important inputs for crop protection and are equally dangerous to human and animal health. Therefore, it is a serious responsibility to manage them effectively. To make sure pesticides serve the intended purposes by avoiding the negative aspects, and to take care of environmental safety, the Insecticides Act, Destructive Insects, and Pests Act and Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order have been passed. It has started with the enforcement of the Insecticides Act in 1968 and Insecticides rules in the 1971 Amendment again done in 2000 and known as Insecticides (Amendment) Act, 2000. Under this act, there is a well established",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order have been passed. It has started with the enforcement of the Insecticides Act in 1968 and Insecticides rules in the 1971 Amendment again done in 2000 and known as Insecticides (Amendment) Act, 2000. Under this act, there is a well established infrastructural network to deal with pesticide rules and 62 Sachin V. R, Prasanta Mishra & Shridevi S. V Impact Factor (JCC): 8.3083 NAAS Rating: 4.13 regulations. The 49 State Pesticides Testing Laboratories and 2 regional pesticide testing laboratories located all over the country functioning to take care of the proper implementation of the act. The central insecticides laboratory is fulfilling the statutory role of referral analysis (https://icar.org.in). There are two statutory bodies established under the Pesticide Act. ‘The Central Insecticides Board’ with advisory function to central and state governments in technical matters. ‘Registration Committee (RC)’ which registers the pesticides which prove their self-efficacy and safety conditions. Under this act, it's compulsory for any individual or company to register the pesticide and to fulfill the efficacy and safety parameters fixed as per the standards. License from competent authority is compulsory to manufacture and sell any pesticides. within addition, there will be a review of the licensed pesticide effect on the environment. Any pesticide which found to be hazardous is subjected to be banned by an authority. For example, ban of Endosulfan due to its detrimental effects (https://icar.org.in). Labeling to the containers is mandatory to sell any pesticide as per this act. The information that must be there in labels and leaflets are as follows: \"(i) name of the product, (ii) chemical composition, (iii) name of the manufacturer, (iv) symptoms of poisoning, (v) first-aid measure, (vi) cautionary statements, (vii) directions concerning usage, (viii) restrictions (if any), (ix) instructions for storage, (x) information",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "The information that must be there in labels and leaflets are as follows: \"(i) name of the product, (ii) chemical composition, (iii) name of the manufacturer, (iv) symptoms of poisoning, (v) first-aid measure, (vi) cautionary statements, (vii) directions concerning usage, (viii) restrictions (if any), (ix) instructions for storage, (x) information regarding disposal of used packages, (xi) application equipment, and (xii) waiting period” (https://icar.org.in). It's necessary to restrict the movement of harmful insects and diseases across the countries and even within the country across the states (Barba, M., & James, D., 2017). To serve this purpose, the Destructive Insects and Pests Act came into force in 1914. This necessary measure was needed to control endemic and huge losses due to the spread of destructive pests and diseases. The Plant, Fruits, and Seeds (Regulation of Import into India) Order undergone revision based on the WTO agreements. Finally, led government of India to make the Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order in 2003 came in to force from 1st January 2004 to enforce the agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. The responsibility is with the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine, and Storage (DPPQS) to enforce rules and regulations of quarantine. With the help of infrastructural support of 35 plant quarantine stations and 41 inspection authorities, DPPQS across the country quarantine inspection and disinfestations of agro-commodities is going on. The DPPQS also developed 21 phytosanitary standards for importing the agricultural commodities (https://icar.org.in). Labour Laws in Agriculture Labour is one of the significant among the factors of production and very essential. This is because of the ability of humans to manage the remaining factors of production efficiently and effectively. As a living and emotional being, labors also affected by many other complex parameters. So they need to be treated with dignity along with",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "among the factors of production and very essential. This is because of the ability of humans to manage the remaining factors of production efficiently and effectively. As a living and emotional being, labors also affected by many other complex parameters. So they need to be treated with dignity along with necessary safety measures. To protect them from exploitation, several labor laws have been passed by the government and many of these apply to agricultural laborers as rural communities contribute a larger part for the labor pool. The minimum wage act was passed in the year 1948 to provide justice to laborers by fixing wages rates. The power has been given to the states under state governments to fix the minimum wages to their respective states. Hence laborers should be paid the wages above that fixed levels. In the case of agriculture, it’s not justifiable to compare with other sectors due to the complexity of weather parameters of production (https://icar.org.in). Another law like The Abolition of Bonded Labour System Ordinance was made in 1975 to relive the bonded labor. National Policy on Skills Development was approved in the year 2009 and another policy National Policy on Safety, Emergence and Development of Agricultural Legislation IN India 63 www.tjprc.org editor@tjprc.org Health, and Environment at Workplace was approved in the same year 2009 to provide basic required needs at working places. Some other labor legislation applicable to agriculture is as follows:  Payment of Bonus Act passed in 1965 applies to all agricultural labors  Employees’ Provident Fund and Family Pension Act passed in 1972 and the Payment of Gratuity Act passed in 1972 applicable to workers who work in plantations and orchards  The Industrial Disputes Act passed in 1947 applies to labors in commercial agricultural firms  The Trade Unions Act passed",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": " Employees’ Provident Fund and Family Pension Act passed in 1972 and the Payment of Gratuity Act passed in 1972 applicable to workers who work in plantations and orchards  The Industrial Disputes Act passed in 1947 applies to labors in commercial agricultural firms  The Trade Unions Act passed in 1926 applies to registered agricultural workers unions  The Workmen’s Compensation Act passed in 1923 applies to tractor drivers or other types of machinery operators in farm  Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) passed in 2005 is also applicable to agricultural labors (https://icar.org.in) Legislations on Agricultural Marketing The market is the most unpredictable when it comes to agriculture. Better management of the marketing process is very essential for agricultural commodities. Therefore, laws and legislation require at the macro level to provide a wellorganized marketing service. The efforts to improve infrastructure in the agricultural marketing sector got the foundation in the year 1935 through the establishment of Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI). The Agricultural Produce Market Act, The Weights and Measures Act, The Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marketing) Act etc., were passed by the government to improve the process of agricultural marketing. Agricultural Produce Market Act came into force in 1939. The well-established marketing infrastructure came to reality through the establishment of regulated markets and the Agricultural Produce Marketing Committees (APMCs). There are 7418 agricultural produce markets are established to protect farmers from exploitation by middlemen. This act is in force all over the country except in Kerala and Manipur. In the case of UTs, it's not implemented in Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Lakshadweep and Daman, and Diu (https://icar.org.in). The Weights and Measures Act was passed in the year 1976. It is to ensure the use of only standardized, tested, and stamped",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "in Kerala and Manipur. In the case of UTs, it's not implemented in Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Lakshadweep and Daman, and Diu (https://icar.org.in). The Weights and Measures Act was passed in the year 1976. It is to ensure the use of only standardized, tested, and stamped weights and measures in the nation. The uniform metric system introduced in 1958 was made it easier by removing varied different weighing and measurement systems (https://icar.org.in). The Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marketing) Act came into force in 1937. Under this act, the agricultural produce is defined as \"to include all produce of agriculture or horticulture, and all articles, food or drink, wholly or partly manufactured from any such produces, and fleeces and the skins of animals\" (https://icar.org.in). Under this act 119, grading and marketing rules covered almost 181 commodities. This acts as a certifying agency. There are well-defined standards and guidelines for grading of food products that have to be followed and given the certification popularly known as 'AGMARK'. Through this government acts as a third party that certifies and assures the quality of commodities. No need for cross-checking by both seller and buyer as AGMARK guarantees the quality. Hence AGMARK becomes a symbol to describe the quality of commodities (https://icar.org.in). 64 Sachin V. R, Prasanta Mishra & Shridevi S. V Impact Factor (JCC): 8.3083 NAAS Rating: 4.13 As recent developments, on April 14th, 2016 the central government initiated e-National Agricultural Market (eNAM intending to integrate 585 APMC (Agriculture Produce Marketing Committee) mandis or wholesale markets across 16 states under a common electronic platform. In the first phase, 20 mandis launched across the eight states. Later, the intended goal was achieved i.e., reached 585 APMCs. There are about 7566 APMC mandis that exist across the country. However e-NAM would be",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Marketing Committee) mandis or wholesale markets across 16 states under a common electronic platform. In the first phase, 20 mandis launched across the eight states. Later, the intended goal was achieved i.e., reached 585 APMCs. There are about 7566 APMC mandis that exist across the country. However e-NAM would be a good platform to bring transparency in trading with competitive e-auctions (www.enam.gov.in). The model act got many reforms to make out defects and to bring feasible changes so that farmers could get a better share in consumer's rupee. Like the Model Act, 2003/ Model Rules, 2007 and later Model Rules, 2010 and a very recent one came in 2017. In these reforms, the government started to create a conducive environment for direct marketing by farmers, contract farming, and also encouraging setting up of private markets (Reddy, 2016). The model APMC act is based on seven pillars. They are as follows; “(i) Allowing the direct sale of farm produce to contract farming (ii) Setting up of special markets (iii) Allowing private persons, farmers, and consumers to establish new markets outside the established APMCs (iv) Single levy of market fee on the sale of any product within the notified area (v) To replace license with registrations (vi) Facilitate the direct sale of farm produce and (vii) Creation of market infrastructure from revenue earned by the APMC\" (Reddy, 2016). Legislations in the Livestock Sector The livestock sector is the most promising sector which provides employment and income all over the year. The government of India has taken many measures to develop the livestock sector, important among are; The Livestock Improvement Act, Glanders and Farcy Act, and Milk and Milk Product Order. The Livestock Improvement Act was passed in the year 1898. As per this act, measures had been taken to eradicate the defective",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of India has taken many measures to develop the livestock sector, important among are; The Livestock Improvement Act, Glanders and Farcy Act, and Milk and Milk Product Order. The Livestock Improvement Act was passed in the year 1898. As per this act, measures had been taken to eradicate the defective breeding bulls by compulsory castration. The act had been amended in 2001 to regulate the import of livestock. Quarantine stations have been set up to import livestock from abroad through the Animal Quarantine and Certification Services (AQ&CS) (https://icar.org.in). In 1899, another act came into force called Glanders and Farcy Act. Intended to prevent, control and eradicate some infectious and contagious diseases of livestock. Some other acts like Cattle Trespass Act came in 1871 and amended in 1921. It is to check the stray cattle damages to crops. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act came in 1890 and amended in 1960. Under which the Animal Welfare Board has been established and the actions have been taken to reduce or prevent unnecessary damages, pain, and sufferings caused to livestock (https://icar.org.in). The very important law in this sector is the Milk and Milk Product Order passed by the government in the year 1992. Under this, the milk was considered under essential commodity. Also, a step has been taken forward to the delicensing of the dairy sector. This decision indirectly pushed the production and productivity of fresh liquid milk and milk products as per the objective of this order. However, there are rules and regulations to maintain the quality of dairy products and health safety measures (https://icar.org.in). Legislations of Agricultural Credit and Finance India is dominated by small and marginal farmers. Agriculture demands some investments to carryout crop cultivation but they are resource-poor. For them, finance is always a challenge to carry out the",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "regulations to maintain the quality of dairy products and health safety measures (https://icar.org.in). Legislations of Agricultural Credit and Finance India is dominated by small and marginal farmers. Agriculture demands some investments to carryout crop cultivation but they are resource-poor. For them, finance is always a challenge to carry out the agricultural production activities. Overexploitation by the moneylenders with very high-interest rates besides, monsoon failures led them to fall into indebtedness. To overcome these problems, the government took many policy measures to empower farmers with easier Emergence and Development of Agricultural Legislation IN India 65 www.tjprc.org editor@tjprc.org access to institutional credit. The Deccan Agriculturist Relief Act was the first attempt found in this sector. It came into force in 1879 in Bombay province. Through this act, measures had been taken to regulate and to control the money lenders. Licensing and registration of the money lenders were made mandatory. The maximum levels of interest rate that can be charged by the moneylender have been fixed. Through these measures of this act, the government tried to prevent farmers from overexploitation (https://icar.org.in). Legislations in the Cooperative Sector Cooperative societies made tremendous changes in credit accessibility to farming communities. Also, they are fulfilling the need for input requirements along with marketing facilities for agricultural produce. India is the country with 5.49 lakh various types of cooperative societies. Coverage reached almost 100 percent of villages and about 75 percent of rural households. The National Policy on Cooperatives was framed to facilitate the all-round development of cooperatives all over the nation (https://icar.org.in). Some other acts governing this cooperative sector are as follows; “(i) Multi-unit Co-operative Societies Act passed in 1942 to govern multi-state cooperatives activities (ii) National Co-operative Development Corporation (NCDC) Act came in 1962 by replacing the National Cooperatives Development Board (iii) RBI Acts, 1934 passed",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "all over the nation (https://icar.org.in). Some other acts governing this cooperative sector are as follows; “(i) Multi-unit Co-operative Societies Act passed in 1942 to govern multi-state cooperatives activities (ii) National Co-operative Development Corporation (NCDC) Act came in 1962 by replacing the National Cooperatives Development Board (iii) RBI Acts, 1934 passed and amended in the year 2006 to keep the expert employees and to coordinate activities of commercial banks in lending agricultural loans and to maintain its connection with cooperative banks (iv) RRBS Act passed in the year 1976 through which Regional Rural Banks were established all over the country (v) Agricultural Refinance and Development Corporation Act -1963 and (vi) Central State Warehousing Corporations, 1956 through this act Warehousing Corporations were established” (https://icar.org.in) CONCLUSIONS The legislation is very essential to regulate activities of the democratic society. Through proper legislation better development along with an intention of welfare and wellbeing of the country could be achieved. The same is true when it comes to the agriculture sector also. India has well established and well-structured agrarian legislation framed with accumulated experience and ideas since the historical period. However, glancing of these agricultural laws gives complete understanding along with bringing updates to knowledge. The agrarian legislation needs to be understood since its origin until today. Its evolution path gives enormous opportunities to bring future changes more fruitfully. Our existing Indian agrarian legislation is providing social justice to all stakeholders without discriminating against anyone. Being aware and understanding of these laws is the responsibility of everyone to take needful advantage of them whenever the situation demands. REFERENCES 1. Barba, M., & James, D. (2017). Quarantine and certification for viroids and viroid diseases. In Viroids and satellites (pp. 415424). Academic Press. 2. http://dialogue.hubpages.com/hub/Zamindari-System accessed on 25th October 2019. 3. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/66477/17/17_chapter%2011.pdf accessed on 9th November 2019. 4.",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "everyone to take needful advantage of them whenever the situation demands. REFERENCES 1. Barba, M., & James, D. (2017). Quarantine and certification for viroids and viroid diseases. In Viroids and satellites (pp. 415424). Academic Press. 2. http://dialogue.hubpages.com/hub/Zamindari-System accessed on 25th October 2019. 3. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/66477/17/17_chapter%2011.pdf accessed on 9th November 2019. 4. http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/tena_agr.htm accessed on 1st November 2019. 66 Sachin V. R, Prasanta Mishra & Shridevi S. V Impact Factor (JCC): 8.3083 NAAS Rating: 4.13 5. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/legislation accessed on 9th November 2019. 6. https://dolr.gov.in/sites/default/files/National%20Rehabilitation%20%26%20Resettlement%20Policy%2C%202007.pdf accessed on 14th October 2019. 7. https://dolr.gov.in/sites/default/files/THE%20LAND%20ACQUISITION%20ACT.pdf accessed on 12th October 2019. 8. https://hubpages.com/education/Mahalwari-system accessed on 25th October 2019. 9. https://hubpages.com/education/Ryotwari-System accessed on 25th October 2019. 10. https://icar.org.in/files/Agril-Legislation.pdf accessed on 20th October 2019. 11. https://indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/6705/1/india-forest-act.pdf accessed on 20th October 2019. 12. https://indiankanoon.org/doc/7832/ accessed on 9th November 2019. 13. https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2014/12/the-economy-of-mauryan-empire.html accessed on 11th November 2019. 14. https://www.academia.edu/11843118/Aggrian_Reforms_in_Mughal_Period accessed on 9th November 2019. 15. https://www.britannica.com/topic/agriculture accessed on 25th October 2019. 16. https://www.economywatch.com/agrarian/india/abolition-intermediaries.html accessed on 9th November 2019. 17. https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/pdf/indus-agricultural-terms.pdf accessed on 20th October 2019. 18. https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol44_4_2_MRoy.pdf accessed on 29th October 2019. 19. https://www.justia.com/real-estate/agricultural-law/ accessed on 9th November 2019. 20. Nene, Y.L. (2002). “Modern Agronomic Concepts and Practices Evident In Kautilya's Arthasastra” (c. 300 BC). Asian Agril. History. 6(3): 231-242. 21. Reddy, A. (2016). Status of Market Reforms in India. Indian Farming 66(8): 33–37. 22. Kanagarathinam, M. \"Problems of unorganized (agricultural) workers in Coimbatore.\" International journal of HRM and Research 4.6 (2014): 87-90. 23. Maurya, G. P., et al. \"An economic analysis of cucumber cultivation in Sultanpur District of Uttar Pradesh (India).\" Int J Agric Sci Res 5 (2015): 23-27. 24. Patel, Thaneswer, et al. \"Socio-economic and environmental changes with transition from shifting to settled cultivation in North-Eastern India: an ergonomics perspective.\" International Journal of Agricultural Science and Research 3.2 (2013): 117-136. 25. Subbireddy, K. B., K. G. Kanjariya, and A.",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(India).\" Int J Agric Sci Res 5 (2015): 23-27. 24. Patel, Thaneswer, et al. \"Socio-economic and environmental changes with transition from shifting to settled cultivation in North-Eastern India: an ergonomics perspective.\" International Journal of Agricultural Science and Research 3.2 (2013): 117-136. 25. Subbireddy, K. B., K. G. Kanjariya, and A. N. Tharun. \"Carbon dioxide under high pressure: A safe method for the stored grain pest management.\" International Journal of Agricultural Science and Research 7.3 (2017): 427-432. 26. Scheeren, B. R., et. al. (2010). Physiological quality of soybean seeds and productivity. Revista Brasileira de Sementes, 32(3), 35-41. 27. www.enam.gov.in/web/ accessed on 10th January 2020 View publication stats",
    "source": "agriculture_laws.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Rural Development Division, Sustainable Development Department FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2005 Guidelines from the Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development – Farming Systems Evolution Project Rural Development Division, Sustainable Development Department FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2005 Guidelines from the Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development – Farming Systems Evolution Project Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to: Chief Publishing Management Service Information Division FAO Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to: copyright@fao.org © FAO 2005 These Guidelines were written by: Marcelino Avila with Frederic Deve and Paul Mundy, FAO consultants Format and design: Magda Morales, FAO consultant i Foreword There will be no viable rural development if rural people, and especially the poor, have no voice in the design of policies and institutions that affect them. This manual describes an approach that will help give them a voice. It shows how to involve the poor and disadvantaged, along with a range",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "be no viable rural development if rural people, and especially the poor, have no voice in the design of policies and institutions that affect them. This manual describes an approach that will help give them a voice. It shows how to involve the poor and disadvantaged, along with a range of other stakeholders, in designing agricultural and rural development policies. “Sustainable agriculture and rural development” (SARD) is a global action programme. It is a key chapter of Agenda 21. It was adopted by the international community at the Earth Summit in Rio, and ten years later reaffirmed and revitalized in Johannesburg at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development. Two of the major features of this global action programme are: (1) the design and implementation of actions undertaken under it must be based on a participatory approach; and (2) it considers not just one aspect of development, but is holistic: it takes economic, social, environmental and cultural dimensions into account. This manual describes this approach, and provides tools to develop policies that can help achieve a more sustainable rural development. The manual is based on a series of case studies that analyse the policy and institutional constraints of farming systems development conducted in Honduras, Mali and the Philippines. These case studies enabled local stakeholders to explore the changes – both positive and negative – that have occurred around them. The procedures used in the case studies enabled the stakeholders to suggest ways to improve policies and to move towards goals they themselves had set. Their policy recommendations encompassed a whole range of topics: from enhancing the competitiveness of agricultural products to focusing agricultural research and improving extension services, and from regulating the use of roads by heavy vehicles to conducting literacy campaigns. These recommendations will be of value not just",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "they themselves had set. Their policy recommendations encompassed a whole range of topics: from enhancing the competitiveness of agricultural products to focusing agricultural research and improving extension services, and from regulating the use of roads by heavy vehicles to conducting literacy campaigns. These recommendations will be of value not just to local and regional authorities, ministries of agriculture and rural development, but also to those responsible for planning and finance, environment, land, education, etc. This manual is conceived as a handbook for those mandated to promote and carry out participatory policy development to address agricultural and rural problems. It is intended to be of interest to all those who are interested in involving a broad range of stakeholders, including local people and particularly the rural poor, in the development of local, regional or national policies. They may include policymakers at the national and local government levels, staff of non-governmental organizations who hope to influence the policymaking process, research institutions and universities, and donor agencies. Parviz Koohafkan Director Rural Development Division Sustainable Development Department ii Acknowledgements The Rural Development Division of FAO is grateful to the many farmers, producers and rural communities who participated in the various phases of this project in Honduras, Mali and the Philippines. They contributed valuable knowledge, perspectives and time in particular to the farming systems analysis and formulation of priority recommendations. A very special appreciation for: • Carlos Alberto Pineda, Dario Madrid and Javier Gomez Pineda of Santa Barbara and Candelaria, Honduras. • Moulaye Diabaté, Logona Traoré, Seydou Coulibaly, Gessira Samoura and Yacouba Berthé of Sikasso, Mali. • Rudolfo Undan, Patricio Faylon, Schubert Ciencia, Lito Tambalo, Justo Canare, Sesinado Dela Cruz, Serafin Santos, Joe Torres, Felix Dulay, and Diosdado Gagarin, Philippines. National teams participated in the planning and implementation of the case studies and related activities",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Traoré, Seydou Coulibaly, Gessira Samoura and Yacouba Berthé of Sikasso, Mali. • Rudolfo Undan, Patricio Faylon, Schubert Ciencia, Lito Tambalo, Justo Canare, Sesinado Dela Cruz, Serafin Santos, Joe Torres, Felix Dulay, and Diosdado Gagarin, Philippines. National teams participated in the planning and implementation of the case studies and related activities in each country. A special appreciation is given to the following: • In Honduras, Manuel Martinez (National Coordinator, PASOLAC), Jaime Salinas (team leader), Norman Sagastume, Oscar Vaquedano, Fabio Rodríguez, Edgardo Navarro and Edwin Perez. • In Mali, Bino Témé (Director, IER), Alpha Oumar Kergna and Ibrahima Cissé (team leaders), Mamadou Komota, Amadou Modi Diall, Zana Jean Luc Sanogo and Amadou Samake. • In the Philippines, Fr. Francis Lucas (Chairperson, ANGOC), Nathaniel Marquez (Executive Director, ANGOC), Antonio B. Quizon and Danilo S. Vargas (team leaders), Meredith Bravo, Arnulfo Garcia, Roel Ravanera, Florentino Monsalud, Digna Orduna-Manzanilla, Beatriz de Rosario, Teresa S. Agarrado, Maricel AlmojuelaTolentino and Catherine L. Liamzon. Overall guidance and support were provided by Jennie Dey De Pryck, Chief of the Rural Institutions and Participation Service. The project would not have proceeded so smoothly and efficiently without the unstinting support, timely reviews and technical advice of: • The Project Steering Committee members: Claire Gaudot and Ryuko Inoue (representatives of France and Japan, respectively), Maximiliano Cox (former Director, Rural Development Division) and the representatives of the Assistant Directors General of FAO’s Economic and Social, Agriculture, and Technical Cooperation Departments. • The Inter-Departmental Task Force: John Dixon, Frédéric Dévé, Materne Maetz, Aidan Gulliver, Ester Zulberti, Dominique di Biase, Kazumasa Watanabe, Jan Johnson, David Kahan, Randy Stringer, Doyle Baker and Monica Zurek; Ian Cherrett, Pamela Pozarny and Wim Polman (FAO officers in Latin America and the Caribbean, West Africa, and Asia and the Pacific, respectively). The FAO representatives in each country, Compton Paul in",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Ester Zulberti, Dominique di Biase, Kazumasa Watanabe, Jan Johnson, David Kahan, Randy Stringer, Doyle Baker and Monica Zurek; Ian Cherrett, Pamela Pozarny and Wim Polman (FAO officers in Latin America and the Caribbean, West Africa, and Asia and the Pacific, respectively). The FAO representatives in each country, Compton Paul in Honduras, Miriam M. Nour in Mali, and Sang Mu Lee in the Philippines and their officers provided effective support and participated in critical phases of project negotiation, planning and implementation. The Governments of France and Japan provided generous funding to the SARD–FSE Project (GCP/INT/819/MUL). iii Contents Foreword i Acknowledgements ii Introduction 1 The SARD-FSE Project 1 What is in this book? 1 Part 1 Sustainable agriculture and rural development 3 What is SARD? 3 Pillars and objectives of sustainable agriculture and rural development 4 SARD components and interventions 5 Why participatory policy development? 6 Part 2 How to do participatory policy development 9 1 Get organized 10 2 Select the focus area 13 3 Analyse the current situation 15 4 Identify scenarios for the future 20 5 Identify recommendable policy changes 24 Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 31 1 Checklist of indicators for sustainable development 31 2 Brainstorming 35 3 Diagramming and mapping techniques 36 4 Semi-structured interviews 38 5 Card sorting 39 6 Focus group discussion 40 7 Stakeholder analysis 41 8 Historical trends and milestones 42 9 SWOT analysis 43 10 Agri-food value chain analysis 44 11 Scenario analysis 45 12 Stakeholder negotiation encounters 47 13 Policy action matrix 48 14 Writeshops 49 15 Project logical framework analysis 51 Part 4 Resources 53 SARD and SARD-FSE 53 How to organize 53 Diagnosis of territories and farming systems 54 Policy and institutional issues 54 Decision-support tools 54 1 Introduction Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "13 Policy action matrix 48 14 Writeshops 49 15 Project logical framework analysis 51 Part 4 Resources 53 SARD and SARD-FSE 53 How to organize 53 Diagnosis of territories and farming systems 54 Policy and institutional issues 54 Decision-support tools 54 1 Introduction Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Introduction THE SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT FARMING SYSTEMS EVOLUTION (SARD-FSE) PROJECT This manual is based on the experiences and techniques developed through an FAO project entitled “Sustainable agriculture and rural development: Institutional, social, economic and environmental aspects influencing farming systems evolution” (SARD-FSE). This project was undertaken in 2002–2005 with funding support from the governments of France and Japan. The SARD-FSE project had three aims: • To enhance the capacity of government and non-government institutions to plan, implement and evaluate sustainable agriculture and rural development policies and strategies. • To develop capacities of stakeholder groups concerned by rural development to participate in the processes of decision-making. • To promote an environment favourable to open policy dialogue among stakeholders, particularly those at the local and regional levels, and to ensure that the necessary conditions are in place to foster such dialogue. The project conducted case studies in three countries: Honduras, Mali and the Philippines. Partner organizations in each country worked with a range of stakeholders at the local, regional and national levels to analyse a selected farming system and develop policy recommendations that would steer it towards the goal of sustainable agriculture and rural development (as defined by the stakeholders themselves). The partners followed broad common guidelines for the steps in the process, but experimented with and developed their own procedures. The capacity building occurred through key activities such as making institutional arrangements, field implementation and comparative analysis at critical stages with national teams, and regional workshops with some",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "stakeholders themselves). The partners followed broad common guidelines for the steps in the process, but experimented with and developed their own procedures. The capacity building occurred through key activities such as making institutional arrangements, field implementation and comparative analysis at critical stages with national teams, and regional workshops with some eight countries in each region to assess the methodology and recommendations. The three farming systems were: • Maize/bean-based farming system, Honduras – This traditional food production system is pervasive throughout Central America. In Honduras, 80 percent of the land planted to this system is found on sloping terrain. Two of the poorest departments, Lempira Sur and Santa Barbara, in mountainous northwest Honduras, were selected for the study. • Cereal/root crop-based farming system, Mali – This farming system is crucial for food security and poverty reduction in West Africa. The Sikasso region in south Mali was selected for the case study. This is an area where a cash crop, cotton, has intensified land use, altered the ecosystem balance, and driven the socio-cultural transformation of the region. • Lowland rice-based farming system, the Philippines – This system feeds 860 million people throughout the world. It covers 44 percent of the rice cultivation area in the Philippines. Nueva Ecija in central Luzon was selected for the study. The evolution of this system at the local level has to be managed within the broader development objectives of reducing poverty and ensuring environmental sustainability. WHAT IS IN THIS BOOK? This manual draws on these experiences, as well as on other sources. It presents them as a series of steps and a set of tools that you can follow to conduct your own participatory policy planning exercise. 2 Introduction Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development The manual is divided into four Parts. •",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "as well as on other sources. It presents them as a series of steps and a set of tools that you can follow to conduct your own participatory policy planning exercise. 2 Introduction Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development The manual is divided into four Parts. • Part 1 introduces the principles and concepts of sustainable agriculture and rural development. • Part 2 describes the steps that you can use to ensure that local people can provide inputs into developing policies for sustainable agriculture and rural development. • Part 3 outlines some tools that are useful in the various steps. • Part 4 lists some resources that you can use for more information about the approaches and techniques in this book. This manual is intended for all those who are interested in involving a broad range of stakeholders, including local people, in the development of policies. They may include policymakers at the national and local government levels, staff of non-governmental organizations who hope to influence the policymaking process, research institutions and universities, and donor agencies. The approach described in this manual is very flexible. This is necessary because situations vary from place to place and from topic to topic. An approach that works well with stakeholders in highland Central America may not work at all with farmers in semi-arid Africa or lowland Southeast Asia. There can be no “one size fits all”. Be prepared to select, adapt, experiment and introduce new techniques. The approach has been designed for sustainable agriculture and rural development, but there is no reason that it cannot be adapted for other situations. For example, urban planners may want to use a similar set of procedures to encourage local participation in planning the provision of water, sewerage and other services. The manual also describes",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for sustainable agriculture and rural development, but there is no reason that it cannot be adapted for other situations. For example, urban planners may want to use a similar set of procedures to encourage local participation in planning the provision of water, sewerage and other services. The manual also describes a number of tools that can be applied in several different contexts. Many of these (such as logframes or focus groups) are already widely known. Others may be less familiar. Feel free to use and adapt them for other circumstances too. The case studies in Honduras, Mali and the Philippines took over 15 months and involved a large number of consultations and stakeholder workshops at different levels. In part this was because of the nature of the topic covered: agriculture and rural development is a complex subject. But it was also because the project was learning and experimenting with new procedures. By drawing on the techniques in this manual, you should be able to shorten the time needed considerably. The duration of such studies depends on the depth of analysis that is requested by the sponsors, and on the resources available. The most rapid, low-cost studies of this nature probably would require only a few weeks. 3 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 1 Sustainable agriculture and rural development PART 1 Sustainable agriculture and rural development WHAT IS SARD? The definition of sustainable agricultural and rural development – SARD – was agreed upon by FAO member countries in 1989 (Box 1). “Agriculture” is defined broadly to include production, conservation, processing and marketing of crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries products. “Rural development” is understood as a process of transformation of the rural areas. It encompasses a wide scope of activities and actions by various actors, in addition",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "countries in 1989 (Box 1). “Agriculture” is defined broadly to include production, conservation, processing and marketing of crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries products. “Rural development” is understood as a process of transformation of the rural areas. It encompasses a wide scope of activities and actions by various actors, in addition to agriculture: • Development of other productive sectors – non-agricultural industry, mining, tourism, natural resources, environmental management, etc. • Development of services – education, health, training, research and extension, credit, environment, transportation, etc. • Enhancement of governance at the local, district and provincial levels, including linkages with the private sector, civil society and government line agencies. • Development of rural infrastructure – roads, electricity, telecommunications, housing, water, sanitation, etc. The concern to promote such rural and agricultural development led the international community at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio (United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development) to adopt a global action programme on sustainable agriculture and rural development. This programme is Chapter 14 of the Agenda 21. It constitutes an overall framework for designing policies, programmes and other endeavours that aim at satisfying human needs for the present and future generations, while managing and conserving the natural resource base. The implementation of the Agenda 21 action programme for sustainable agriculture and rural development is the responsibility of national governments as well as of regional (or provincial) and local authorities and other stakeholders in civil society and the private sector. Ten years after the Rio Summit, all participants in the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002) reaffirmed the relevance and the urgent need to continue the implementation of this action programme. Box 1. Definition of sustainable agriculture and rural development Sustainable agriculture and rural development is “the management and conservation of the natural resource base, and the orientation of",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002) reaffirmed the relevance and the urgent need to continue the implementation of this action programme. Box 1. Definition of sustainable agriculture and rural development Sustainable agriculture and rural development is “the management and conservation of the natural resource base, and the orientation of technological and institutional change so as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations. Such sustainable development (in the agriculture, forestry and fisheries sectors) conserves land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable”. Source: FAO (1989) 4 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 1 Sustainable agriculture and rural development Two founding principles of the Agenda 21 programme’s approach on SARD are the following: • It is people-centred, which entails that the design and implementation of policies, programmes and other actions must be based on participatory methods. • It considers not just one aspect of development, but is holistic: it takes key economic, environmental and social dimensions into account. These dimensions are often referred to as the “pillars” of sustainable agriculture and rural development. The basic goal is to improve the livelihoods of rural people in a sustainable manner. PILLARS AND OBJECTIVES OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT The approach recommended by this manual relies on four “pillars”, adding the “cultural” to the previous three of Agenda 21, to underline the critical importance of culture as the source of people’s values, aspirations, etc, in driving this analysis since it is generally neglected. Each pillar has at least two specific objectives: • Economic – To improve competitiveness and to promote economic growth. To be viable, farm and other non-farm economic activities have to be profitable. Farmers and rural workers need to use",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "aspirations, etc, in driving this analysis since it is generally neglected. Each pillar has at least two specific objectives: • Economic – To improve competitiveness and to promote economic growth. To be viable, farm and other non-farm economic activities have to be profitable. Farmers and rural workers need to use local and external resources efficiently, manage their enterprises and markets well, and diversify their options so they can optimize their income and minimize their risks. • Environment – To conserve natural resources (e.g., land, water, forests, biodiversity) and to protect the environment (e.g. prevent air and water pollution, manage wastes, provide environmental services). • Social – To reduce rural poverty and food insecurity and to improve social equity among citizens, irrespective of gender, religion or race. Equity requires a special focus on the poor and vulnerable groups in rural society in terms of greater access to resources and greater involvement in local governance institutions. • Culture – To promote cultural freedom and diversity and to enrich the positive values of local cultures. This involves considering what people treasure in their lives, their values, or what they mean by “wealth” in human, social or physical terms. Culture is expressed in religious beliefs, perceptions, community relations, creative arts, as well as in people’s food and nutritional practices. Cultural freedom embraces all these dimensions. FIGURE 1 Pillars and objectives of sustainable agriculture and rural development 5 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 1 Sustainable agriculture and rural development Promoting sustainable agriculture and rural development requires an approach that is participatory, holistic, interdisciplinary, cross-sectoral and gender-sensitive: • Participatory and bottom-up – Involving and building ownership among local people and stakeholders in the public, private, and non-government sectors. Though the primary focus is on the poor and marginalized (e.g. women, indigenous",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "sustainable agriculture and rural development requires an approach that is participatory, holistic, interdisciplinary, cross-sectoral and gender-sensitive: • Participatory and bottom-up – Involving and building ownership among local people and stakeholders in the public, private, and non-government sectors. Though the primary focus is on the poor and marginalized (e.g. women, indigenous people, disabled, young people, landless), the constructive participation of the elite, powerful and middle classes is also essential to bring about meaningful change. Donor agencies are another key group of stakeholders. Awareness of possible conflicts and of measures to negotiate and build consensus is essential. • Holistic – Covering all four pillars, taking into account their interactions and tradeoffs, as well as the interdependence between the local, regional, national and global systems. • Cross-sectoral – Focusing on a wide spectrum of potentials and opportunities in agriculture, natural resources, industry and services, and including the linkages among these sectors and synergies with the urban sector. • Interdisciplinary – Promoting interaction among biophysical, social and other disciplines to gain an understanding of complex systems, people’s needs and objectives, and development potentials. • Gender-sensitive – Recognizing the importance of gender issues (men/women, children/ adults/elderly) in terms of public policy and development programmes, access to assets, management of production, distribution of benefits, and their potential roles for sustainable development. SARD COMPONENTS AND INTERVENTIONS Rural society, its environment and economy can be analysed as consisting of five major components: i) people, ii) natural resources, iii) production of goods and services, iv) markets for inputs and products and, v) finance and investment. • People – The human resources (human capital) of rural areas (and people in cities who interact with them): their skills, knowledge, wants, needs, values, and interactions and networks (social capital). “People” include men and women, children and the elderly, the rich and powerful,",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "products and, v) finance and investment. • People – The human resources (human capital) of rural areas (and people in cities who interact with them): their skills, knowledge, wants, needs, values, and interactions and networks (social capital). “People” include men and women, children and the elderly, the rich and powerful, small producers, workers and the vulnerable (the poor and very poor, the landless, the disabled, indigenous people). A focus on the poor should not exclude the important roles the rich and the powerful must play in addressing poverty. It is the people – rural communities, households and individuals – who define the values, priorities and tradeoffs in sustainable agriculture and rural development. The government and other development actors should listen to their problems, and build on, strengthen and promote the solutions they propose. • Natural resources – This includes land, water, forests, minerals, petroleum and biodiversity. Development should be based on the rational management of local resources taking account of market constraints and opportunities, and then improved with external resources and inputs. The potential of natural resource management for income and employment generation is also crucial. • Production of goods and services – Improving production involves a combination of agricultural and non-agricultural options. Diversification is a key way of increasing productivity of labour, enhancing assets and reducing risks. Linkages between the countryside and towns and cities can enhance productivity and sustainability of production by generating employment, income and investment. • Markets for inputs and products – The structure and functioning of markets for produce, inputs, land, capital, etc.; the transaction costs involved, and who sets prices, what standards are set by the market and consumers, and whether farmers and other producers have the market facilities (transport, storage) and standards to meet them. • Finance and investment – This involves how",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of markets for produce, inputs, land, capital, etc.; the transaction costs involved, and who sets prices, what standards are set by the market and consumers, and whether farmers and other producers have the market facilities (transport, storage) and standards to meet them. • Finance and investment – This involves how resources are mobilized from taxation, central government, the private sector, foreign direct investment, overseas development assistance and international financing institutions, and remittances from abroad. It also includes how 6 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 1 Sustainable agriculture and rural development resources are invested, e.g. on human, social and physical capital. Infrastructure is always a major constraint for attracting investment, e.g. roads, electricity, telecommunications, energy, irrigation and marketing. There are many possible interventions by governments, civil society and other key stakeholders to achieve the goals of sustainable agriculture and rural development. Here are some major types of interventions: • Policy and legislation – National government and local authorities set directions or courses of action to establish rules of the game, or to achieve specific objectives in areas such as macro-economics, taxes, natural resources, etc. Other organizations such as firms, NGOs and donors have policies too, and these may have significant impact on rural areas. • Institutional development – Many different formal and informal organizations work in rural areas: government (national, regional and local), schools and universities, churches and mosques, the police and courts, research and development agencies, banks and credit organizations, communications providers, and so on. The structure and funding of these organizations, the types of services they provide, their personnel, how they interact with their clients, their capacity and responsiveness – all these may be subject to control or influence by government or donors. With the right approach, rural people may also be able to",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "The structure and funding of these organizations, the types of services they provide, their personnel, how they interact with their clients, their capacity and responsiveness – all these may be subject to control or influence by government or donors. With the right approach, rural people may also be able to influence them to some degree. • Programme priorities and implementation – It may be possible to adjust programme priorities and activities – for example, by switching the focus of a credit programme from one group to another that is more deserving. Possible interventions include redefining objectives, managing operations and resources, engaging with stakeholders in a different way, focusing on the scope and quality of work, and ensuring that services are delivered in a timely way. • Technology promotion – It may be possible to develop new technologies (or improve the dissemination and increase the use of existing ones). Technologies are not just agricultural production practices; they may also include innovations in management, marketing, communications, training and other services. Innovations may come from research institutions or universities, as well as from farmers and other rural people themselves. Rather than trying to introduce something new, it may be better to promote indigenous technologies that are appropriate to a particular area. • Partnership development – Much can be achieved through partnerships between different organizations that have mutual interests and opportunities. Partnerships may consist of “light” interaction (sharing information, networking) or “heavier” interaction (e.g. coordination, mobilizing resources and joint investment, joint implementation). They also create valuable opportunities for learning from each other. Different organizations have different roles and strengths; partnerships should build on these. Table 1 shows how the components and interventions described above can be related to each other. The specific combination of actions in each cell (technical assistance, capacity building, implementation, infrastructure",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "create valuable opportunities for learning from each other. Different organizations have different roles and strengths; partnerships should build on these. Table 1 shows how the components and interventions described above can be related to each other. The specific combination of actions in each cell (technical assistance, capacity building, implementation, infrastructure development, etc.) depends on the circumstances and priority goals in each country and rural community. WHY PARTICIPATORY POLICY DEVELOPMENT? Policies are often set by national, regional or municipal governments after a series of consultations, e.g. with parliaments, “experts” (such as academics or industry insiders) and lobby groups. The decision-making process often fails to take into account the views and experience of a wider range of stakeholders. In particular, it often neglects the rural poor and disadvantaged – who are often the very people most affected. Participatory policy development aims to bring these stakeholders into the policymaking process. It creates an environment where various stakeholders can define their goals, express their opinions, consider the options, and come up with a set of recommendations that government can implement. 7 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 1 Sustainable agriculture and rural development Sustainable development in a rural area is complex. It is necessary to look simultaneously at cultural, social, economic and environmental factors. The process described in Part 2 of this manual helps stakeholders analyse the current situation in their area, identify the changes that have taken place in the past and the factors that have caused these changes, set their goals, and then determine what changes in policies are needed to achieve those goals. The process involves a broad range of stakeholders at all stages. Because of this, it stands a good chance of producing recommendations that are realistic and acceptable to all involved. Involving policymakers and other",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "set their goals, and then determine what changes in policies are needed to achieve those goals. The process involves a broad range of stakeholders at all stages. Because of this, it stands a good chance of producing recommendations that are realistic and acceptable to all involved. Involving policymakers and other actors at all stages increases the likelihood that the policy recommendations are actually adopted. Participatory policy development can be done in many ways. The process in Part 2 is based on a particular location or farming system. It is also possible to use the same general approach to focus on a different topic, such as a particular commodity or set of institutions. Components Examples of key interventions Policy Institutions Programmes Technologies Partnerships People On governance, human rights, rural people, education, culture, youth, indigenous peoples, gender For capacity building for farmers & communities, gender, youth, HIV/AIDS, advocacy For governance, education, skill development, health, housing, etc. For education, health, knowledge management, preparedness Among national and local governments, NGOs, community organizations, religious organizations Natural resources & environment On land use, tenure, natural resources, energy, livestock, fisheries, protected areas, biodiversity, climate change For land tenure, natural resource management, environmental protection, climate change For integrated natural resources management, water, livestock, forests, fisheries, bio-prospecting For agro-forestry, land rehabilitation, sustainable forest/livestock/ fisheries, water use, energy use, waste management Among national and local governments, NGOs, community and grassroots organizations, research institutes, universities Production & income generation On foreign exchange rate, interest rate, labour laws, migration, remittances For credit, research, extension, input and business services For indigenous knowledge, good agricultural practices, technology development, diversification, production services For germplasm efficient use of labour, soil, water, energy, livestock, integrated pest management, processing, tourism, environmental service payments Among government, private sectors, research institutions, universities, FAO Markets & trade On agricultural and food",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "research, extension, input and business services For indigenous knowledge, good agricultural practices, technology development, diversification, production services For germplasm efficient use of labour, soil, water, energy, livestock, integrated pest management, processing, tourism, environmental service payments Among government, private sectors, research institutions, universities, FAO Markets & trade On agricultural and food prices, risk management, trade agreements, food safety, exports For marketing, price stability, governance and management of food chains, fair trade For market development, marketing information and services, trade promotion For communication, market promotion, diversification, food safety and standards Among governments, private sectors, World Trade Organization, FAO, etc. Finance & investment On fiscal expenditure, investment, interest rate, foreign investment, debt, remittances For savings, credit, banking, insurance, contract farming, mortgages, infrastructure For foreign investment, user/tourist fees, environ-mental service payments, Kyoto “clean development mechanism” For supply and access to food, monitoring and evaluation, enterprise/financial management Among national government, multilateral and bilateral, business sector, local governments TABLE 1 Matrix for defining action programmes for sustainable agriculture and rural development 9 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development PART 2 How to do participatory policy development This Part describes a process you can follow to ensure that local people contribute to developing policies that promote sustainable agriculture and rural development. There are five steps in this process. Each step consists of several sub-steps. 1 Get organized 2 Select the focus area 3 Analyse the current situation 4 Identify scenarios for the future 5 Identify recommendable policy changes The examples used to illustrate the steps come from Honduras, Mali and the Philippines. They are taken from case studies conducted by the SARD-FSE project in these countries. There is no one “right” way to do participatory policy development. Adapt the procedure described here to suit your own",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "policy changes The examples used to illustrate the steps come from Honduras, Mali and the Philippines. They are taken from case studies conducted by the SARD-FSE project in these countries. There is no one “right” way to do participatory policy development. Adapt the procedure described here to suit your own situation and needs. You may have to spend more time on some steps so that participants can contribute effectively to the process. You may have to repeat some steps – for example, hold meetings or conduct workshops in several places so that different groups of people can attend. Or you may be able to skip some steps altogether if you already have the information you need – e.g. if a development project in your area has already generated this information. Make sure you document the results of each step. This is important so that other people (such as managers in another ministry or staff of a development project) can learn what has been said and done. If you do not document and disseminate the results, do not be surprised if they ignore your work! You may want to report the activities and findings in the order that you do them: one step in each chapter of your report. The approach here is designed to develop policies for sustainable agriculture and rural development. But the same general approach might be useful also for developing policies in other sectors – such as urban development, health or education. Feel free to adapt the process as necessary if you want to use it in these sectors. FIGURE 2 Steps in the participatory policy development process 10 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development How much time will it take to run through the process?",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "process as necessary if you want to use it in these sectors. FIGURE 2 Steps in the participatory policy development process 10 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development How much time will it take to run through the process? That depends on many things: the scope and depth of the activity, the number of different locations you include, the complexity of the issues involved. It may be possible to run through a process like this in a few weeks by combining several of the workshops into one. Or it may take several months. Plan accordingly! How does the whole process begin? The kick-start is generally a political decision taken by the government or by the regional or local authorities. Such a decision can be instigated or suggested by donors. Generally, the concern is twofold: • To understand a specific problem, such as a social conflict in a marginal area that lacks development prospects; soil erosion in a given watershed that provokes frequent landslides or floods; accelerating deforestation in an arid zone that needs to be tackled to fight desertification; or declining farmers’ income linked to the farm-gate prices of a cash crop or staple food. • To involve stakeholders, and particularly the poor, in the search for relevant policy measures. The purpose is also to make sure that rural communities and households take an active, substantial part in implementing the recommended policies and programmes. Generally, the authorities may delegate the responsibility for carrying out the participatory policy analysis process to a specific governmental institution or other partner. This can be a university, an NGO, a private firm, etc. This manual is primarily directed to them. 1 GET ORGANIZED It is important to be well organized in order to conduct",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the responsibility for carrying out the participatory policy analysis process to a specific governmental institution or other partner. This can be a university, an NGO, a private firm, etc. This manual is primarily directed to them. 1 GET ORGANIZED It is important to be well organized in order to conduct an effective participatory policy development process. There are many ways of organizing. The approach described here is one possibility. Adapt it to suit your own situation. You will need the following: • A small core team of people to manage and implement the policy development process. • A set of institutional partners. • A steering committee to guide the process. • A set of stakeholders who are involved in the process. • An agreed approach or set of procedures. • Sufficient resources to do the job. Organizing is presented here as a single step, but in reality it is an ongoing activity that occurs throughout the policy development process. It is not possible to plan every detail in advance. You must be flexible, and you will need to fine-tune each activity. For example, you may discover it is necessary to hold extra meetings with key stakeholders to ensure their views are heard and decisions on roles are taken jointly. Make sure that your organization is flexible and participatory enough to deal with these needs as they arise. Warning: Getting organized takes time. In particular, building a team, convening a steering committee and creating partnerships require detailed attention. Do not underestimate the time and effort needed. 1a Form a core team and decide on responsibilities The core team will consist of a relatively small group which manages and implements the policy development process. How many people depend on the scale of the task. For a small region or limited scope of",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the time and effort needed. 1a Form a core team and decide on responsibilities The core team will consist of a relatively small group which manages and implements the policy development process. How many people depend on the scale of the task. For a small region or limited scope of work, three or four people will be enough. For a larger region or scope, you will need more people – perhaps up to ten. Do not have too many people in the core team, as coordinating and managing a large group is too difficult. Name a team leader who will have overall responsibility for managing the core team and implementing the process. The leader should be competent in policy analysis, and have facilitator skills. His/her role is that of a neutral, independent broker having the capacity to convene key players and to be credible in the eyes of government, donors and other stakeholder groups. 11 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development The team members should have a range of skills and backgrounds. They may include people with skills in policy and institutional analysis, farming systems, participatory approaches, and economic, social and environmental fields of rural development. At least one team member should be based in the region chosen for study (see Step 2). The core team may be staff of a single organization, or they may be drawn from several different organizations (see Step 1c below). You may need to bring in short-term consultants to strengthen the team in particular areas, such as environment, facilitation or communication. The team must be neutral and open to ideas – and the various groups of stakeholders must see them as such. Choose team members who are objective, open, and able to work",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to bring in short-term consultants to strengthen the team in particular areas, such as environment, facilitation or communication. The team must be neutral and open to ideas – and the various groups of stakeholders must see them as such. Choose team members who are objective, open, and able to work well together. Make sure that the team includes both men and women. Once you have identified the core team, orient them on their tasks and responsibilities. Make sure they have a common understanding of the overall approach, and assign an initial set of tasks to each person. 1b Form a steering committee The steering committee has three main roles: • Guide the core team – for example, determine the focus of the study. • Provide information and facilitate contacts – for example, arrange meetings with senior government officials or identify participants in workshops. • Ensure “buy-in” – ensure that their own organizations support the process, learn from it, incorporate its findings into their own work, and if appropriate, adopt or adapt the approach in the future. The steering committee should represent the major categories of stakeholders in the process. These may include: • Government – ministries or departments and their line agencies at local level in charge of agriculture, agrarian reform, environment, rural development, education, etc. • Local authorities – district authorities, agricultural services, etc. • Civil society – national or local NGOs, farmers’ organizations, religious groups, etc. • Private enterprise – industry, input suppliers, bankers, other service providers • Research and development organizations – universities, national research institutes, extension organizations. • International organizations – international agricultural research institutions, UN agencies, international NGOs, donors. How big should the steering committee be? Here are two options: • A small number of highly involved participants (8–10), drawn from the groups listed above.",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Research and development organizations – universities, national research institutes, extension organizations. • International organizations – international agricultural research institutions, UN agencies, international NGOs, donors. How big should the steering committee be? Here are two options: • A small number of highly involved participants (8–10), drawn from the groups listed above. This small group may be complemented by roundtables, regular information from and consultation with a wider group of other stakeholders. • A larger committee including all relevant stakeholders, aiming to inform and involve all of them. Identify representatives of each of the stakeholder categories, and then include a selection of them in the steering committee. Choose people who have the capacity to contribute, are interested in being involved, and have the time. Try to ensure that the steering committee is balanced in terms of gender, opinions (for example, supporters and opponents of particular policies), ethnicity, etc. Consult the steering committee at key stages in the process, keep them informed about progress, and seek their help in solving problems that may arise. You may also decide to ask certain influential, high-level, well-known individuals for assistance. Such people may be able to provide advice, assistance or objective reviews of your outputs. They may also be able to open doors (for example, to senior policymakers) that would otherwise remain closed to you. 12 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development 1c Identify partner organizations The core team will probably need to work closely with several partner organizations in the study areas. For example, you may want to ask a local NGO to help organize meetings with villagers in the area. Or you may need staff of a local government unit to help gather data. If you are working in a minority area, your",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "with several partner organizations in the study areas. For example, you may want to ask a local NGO to help organize meetings with villagers in the area. Or you may need staff of a local government unit to help gather data. If you are working in a minority area, your partners should include representatives of the minority, or at least have people who speak the local language. You may be able to obtain these services without cost, or you may have to pay for them through a subcontract. When choosing partner organizations, you will have to decide: • What type of organization should be involved? • What should their responsibility be? • What level of “ownership” should they have in the process? • How should the team work with the partner organization? If appropriate, include a representative of each partner organization in the core team. 1d Identify stakeholders Many different groups of people have an interest in, or are affected by, agricultural and rural development policies. These people are known as “stakeholders”. The participatory policy development approach tries to ensure that policies reflect their views. Make a list of the various stakeholders at each level in the study: national, regional and farming system. First, think of the various categories of stakeholders and then identify specific organizations that represent them. You will use this list later to invite these organizations to workshops or meetings. Note: You will not be able to identify specific organizations until you have selected your focus area (Step 2). Table 2 shows some examples of stakeholder categories and organizations at each level. Adapt it as necessary to suit your own situation. 1e Decide on your approach Early on, you should decide how you are going to set about managing the process of participatory policy development. You need",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(Step 2). Table 2 shows some examples of stakeholder categories and organizations at each level. Adapt it as necessary to suit your own situation. 1e Decide on your approach Early on, you should decide how you are going to set about managing the process of participatory policy development. You need to decide: • Who should be involved (see Step 1d above). • Who is responsible for what aspect of the process. • The types of activities to undertake: workshops, consultations, surveys, etc. • How to manage the flow of information, and make sure that it is documented appropriately. • The overall time frame and schedule of activities. • How to monitor progress. You may have to fine-tune your approach several times during the process, based on your monitoring of progress. Make sure you have the flexibility to do this. 1f Ensure you have the resources you need The amount and type of resources will depend on the scale of your task. You may have to reduce what you are trying to achieve (for example, cut down on the number of areas you include in the study, or reduce the number of workshops). Do not try to be too ambitious! Here are some of the resources you will need: • Mandate – A clear mandate from the government (or your organization), and support from a high level to enable you to get cooperation from other parts of the organization or from outside. • Staff – Qualified members of the core team, and capable support staff (see Step 1a) 13 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development • Facilities – Office space, computers, vehicles, etc. • Information – Access to relevant data and information: for example, production and trade data, information on",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and capable support staff (see Step 1a) 13 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development • Facilities – Office space, computers, vehicles, etc. • Information – Access to relevant data and information: for example, production and trade data, information on policies, or results of research. • Budget – Sufficient funds to complete the tasks. • Time – A realistic timeframe and schedule. 2 SELECT THE FOCUS AREA The initial focus area is generally set by the organization that commissioned the study. The governmental agency that initiates the study generally has decided on the region, farming system, or commodities to focus on. Some examples: • A specific farming system. For example, what should be done to promote development in pastoralist areas? Concern in the government and among donors may lead to a university or NGO being commissioned to promote participatory policy development on pastoral farming systems. Stakeholder category National Regional Farming system Government Prime Minister’s Office Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Agrarian Reform Ministry of Rural Development Ministry of Environment National Planning Agency Ministry of Finance Provincial government District council Municipal authority Village council Civil society and groups National NGOs Religious organizations National farmers’ association Consumer associations National cooperative organizations Local NGOs Religious organizations District farmers’ association Regional cooperatives Community organizations Local cooperatives Farmers’ associations Consumers Informal leaders Marginalized groups Women Youths Indigenous people Private sector Industry associations Large firms Supermarkets Exporters Banks Medium-sized firms Input wholesalers Transport firms Processing companies Small firms Input retailers Millers Traders Veterinarians Research, extension, education National research institute Extension agency Universities Universities Local extension service Development projects Agricultural schools Extension agents TABLE 2 Examples of stakeholders at national, regional and farming system levels 14 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Small firms Input retailers Millers Traders Veterinarians Research, extension, education National research institute Extension agency Universities Universities Local extension service Development projects Agricultural schools Extension agents TABLE 2 Examples of stakeholders at national, regional and farming system levels 14 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development • A specific region. For example, what are the best policies to promote development in rural Northeastern Province? A local authority will naturally want to find ways to support sustainable agriculture and rural development in its own region, and may ask a research institute to assist. • A specific commodity in a geographic area. For example, what should the policies be on sugar in the central provinces: research, extension, trade, subsidies, marketing, infrastructure, etc? The Ministry of Agriculture may want to rely on a commodity association or research institute to focus on the commodity it has a mandate for. • A particular policy area. For example, what should the country’s policy be for developing sugar exports? A project to enhance competitiveness, based in the Office of the Prime Minister, may choose a consultancy firm to instigate participatory policy development. Based on this initial general focus, there will be a need to further select and refine it. If you are studying a particular commodity, which region and farming system should you select to gather information and people’s opinions? If your focus is on a region, which farming systems and commodities are important, and in which districts or villages should you choose to gather information? Here are some criteria to help you decide. • Poverty and food security – Prevalence of poverty or food insecurity in a region; poverty reduction strategies, and how they affect the farming system and local people; self-sufficiency in major staple foods.",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "districts or villages should you choose to gather information? Here are some criteria to help you decide. • Poverty and food security – Prevalence of poverty or food insecurity in a region; poverty reduction strategies, and how they affect the farming system and local people; self-sufficiency in major staple foods. • Land type, natural resources and infrastructure – Climate and biophysical factors – for example, irrigated land, hilly uplands, remote mountain areas, arid and semi-arid lands; availability of infrastructure (roads, markets, telecommunications, irrigation, input supplies, etc.) and government services (extension, education, security, etc.). • Commodities – Major commodities in the country or region, as a source of cash or subsistence (e.g., cotton in Mali, coffee in Honduras, rice in the Philippines); roles of these commodities in creating income and employment. • Shocks – Major recent shocks (drought, hurricanes, conflict, structural adjustment, devaluation, HIV/AIDS, etc.) and vulnerabilities (factors that make people more likely to be affected by these shocks) that might affect the region or farming system. • Politics – Political and economic stability of the area, causes of actual or potential conflicts, pressure from political parties or interest groups. • Demography – Population density and trends, pressure on key natural resources (as revealed by soil erosion, water supplies, deforestation, etc.), urbanization and migration. • Culture – Cultural diversity and indigenous values attached to the farming system, its farming practices and agricultural products. • Economics – Roles of agriculture and the farming system for employment, added value, industry, and environmental externalities (such as watershed protection). Economic potential of the region or commodity. Overall importance of the system for rural and urban economic development (employment, income, foreign exchange generation, etc.). Suggested procedure The procedure below is an example applied to a particular farming system that the study sponsors have already chosen. Adapt",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "(such as watershed protection). Economic potential of the region or commodity. Overall importance of the system for rural and urban economic development (employment, income, foreign exchange generation, etc.). Suggested procedure The procedure below is an example applied to a particular farming system that the study sponsors have already chosen. Adapt the procedure if you are focusing on a specific region, commodity, or theme. 1 Select those criteria that are important for your situation. 2 List the sub-farming systems, commodities or regions that are relevant. 3 Gather data on these from secondary sources (e.g. planning documents; global, national and sectoral reports; surveys, databases and maps). 4 Where needed, discuss with key informants (relevant ministries, NGOs, stakeholders, researchers, etc.). 5 Rank the sub-farming systems according to your criteria and select the most important. 15 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development 6 Select a region that best represents the farming system you have chosen. Choose more than one region if you suspect that there may be major differences among different parts of the country. 7 Contact the local authority in the region (or other key stakeholders, such as an NGO active there). Ask for their assistance in implementing the study. 8 With the help of the local authority or NGO, identify districts or villages where you can meet with local people to elicit their views. Feasibility Make sure that it is feasible to study the farming system (or commodity or region or theme) you have chosen. It may be difficult for various reasons: lack of time or money, remoteness, lack of information, or security problems in a particular area. Make sure that you can overcome these problems before deciding on a particular area. However, do not fall into the trap of studying",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "theme) you have chosen. It may be difficult for various reasons: lack of time or money, remoteness, lack of information, or security problems in a particular area. Make sure that you can overcome these problems before deciding on a particular area. However, do not fall into the trap of studying a particular region or topic merely because it is convenient. Areas close to the capital city are likely to have much better access to markets or government services than remote regions. Policies based on a study of an easily accessible area may not be appropriate for remote areas. 3 ANALYSE THE CURRENT SITUATION This step has four aims: • To find out what local people see as goals for agriculture and rural development in their area. • To identify suitable indicators for accountability on these goals, and for monitoring and evaluation of SARD. • To find out the current situation in agriculture and rural development. • To diagnose the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for sustainability in the current situation. 3a Find out people’s development goals What do people want for themselves and their village? What do they see as desirable, as a “good thing”? These development goals should be realistic and attainable, given the types of interventions and policy changes that government is able to make. Different people face different problems and have different ideas of what is a good thing. Make sure you get the views of as many different groups as possible. Table 2 has a list of some potential stakeholders. It is the poor, disadvantaged and vulnerable who have the fewest chances to make their voices heard. Put extra effort into getting the views of the poor, women, youths, and indigenous people. How to get their views? Here are some options on how to proceed (see",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of some potential stakeholders. It is the poor, disadvantaged and vulnerable who have the fewest chances to make their voices heard. Put extra effort into getting the views of the poor, women, youths, and indigenous people. How to get their views? Here are some options on how to proceed (see also Box 2): • Support from local leaders – Meet with local formal and informal leaders. Inform them of the proposed work, incorporate their ideas, and secure their commitment and support. • Stakeholder consultations – Call a meeting of representatives of the various stakeholder groups in your region. Explain the concept of sustainable agriculture and rural development Box 2. Useful tools to find out people’s development goals • Participatory appraisal • Brainstorming • Focus groups • Small group interviews (see Part 3 for details on how to do these) 16 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development to them. Ask them to describe what they see as a desirable goal for agriculture and rural people in their area. You may find it necessary to call several meetings of different groups of people. For example, women may find it difficult to express their views if men are present. Poor, uneducated people may be reluctant to talk in the presence of senior government staff. People in remote villages may not be able to come to town. Be prepared to hold separate meetings for each group, perhaps near people’s homes so it is easy for them to attend. • Focus groups – Hold a series of focus group meetings with representatives of each stakeholder group. • Interviews – Interview individuals or small groups of key informants. Prepare a guide to make sure you (and other interviewers) remember to ask all the right questions.",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "easy for them to attend. • Focus groups – Hold a series of focus group meetings with representatives of each stakeholder group. • Interviews – Interview individuals or small groups of key informants. Prepare a guide to make sure you (and other interviewers) remember to ask all the right questions. • Secondary information – Projects working in the region you have chosen may have generated relevant information. Talk to project staff and ask for copies of their reports. Projects and NGOs working in the area may also be able to provide valuable contacts or help set up stakeholder meetings and discussions. • Survey – If all else fails, you may need to do a survey to collect the information you need. Be warned: surveys take time, can be expensive, and there is a danger of collecting more data than you can analyse easily. Through such techniques, the SARD-FSE project case studies identified development goals in its focus areas in Honduras, Mali and the Philippines (Box 3). 3b Identify and select relevant indicators You will need a way to measure progress towards the above goals, and towards sustainable agriculture and rural development in general. Two levels of indicators might be required. The first level is necessary for accountability with stakeholder groups. For this, a set of basic indicators are needed that reflect the aspects that people think are important. For example, in the Philippines, the total amount and value of rice produced might be a good measure of agricultural production. To measure social cohesion (“community and family togetherness, peace and harmony in the agricultural and rural sectors”), you might need data on the number of households headed by single women, permanent outmigration by men or women, the frequency of conflicts over land Box 3. Goals in Honduras, Mali and the Philippines",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "measure social cohesion (“community and family togetherness, peace and harmony in the agricultural and rural sectors”), you might need data on the number of households headed by single women, permanent outmigration by men or women, the frequency of conflicts over land Box 3. Goals in Honduras, Mali and the Philippines In the SARD-FSE project, local stakeholders formulated the following goals for sustainable agriculture and rural development: • Honduras – A productive and organized municipality with food security, health and capacity for marketing, diversification and profitability for sustainable life conditions. • Philippines – Improved quality of life, community and family togetherness, and peace and harmony in the agriculture and rural sectors. • Mali – Higher incomes, food self-sufficiency and maintenance of soil fertility. The stakeholders identified three strategic objectives for the public, civil society and private sector to pursue: • Empowerment of rural people – Providing them with a political voice, access to land and other key resources, education and training, entrepreneurial and financial capacity, and basic social services, with special attention to women and young people. • Production and wealth creation – Intensification based on traditional and modern knowledge, technologies that use local resources efficiently, diversifying production and valueadding in the agri-food chain, and expanding options in off-farm employment, environmental services and rural/agri-tourism. • Reduced vulnerability – Strategies to manage and recover from natural hazards, economic shocks and conflicts. 17 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development or other issues, crimes, etc. To measure the empowerment of rural people, key indicators might be the frequency of consultations between local government and stakeholder groups, land tenure data, data on investment from local initiatives, etc. Select these indicators in a participatory way, perhaps by brainstorming or through a stakeholder workshop. You will",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "crimes, etc. To measure the empowerment of rural people, key indicators might be the frequency of consultations between local government and stakeholder groups, land tenure data, data on investment from local initiatives, etc. Select these indicators in a participatory way, perhaps by brainstorming or through a stakeholder workshop. You will need indicators for each of the main areas that people think are important – in other words, for their development goals. Choose enough indicators to give a reasonably complete picture of the situation over time, but do not choose too many (a dozen core indicators might be more than enough). Prioritize them! The second level might be required by the institution that has commissioned the study, for a complete and more “technocratic” monitoring and evaluation of progress. For example you may need indicators in each of these five areas: environmental, economic, socio-cultural, technological and institutional. Depending on the scope of the problem, your indicators may also need to cover one, two or three levels: national, regional and local. See Table 3 and Tool 1 in Part 3 for a draft list of indicators. Use these tables as a starting point, and select those indicators that are relevant for you. Adapt them or add new indicators to reflect people’s development goals and the overall monitoring and evaluation needs. National-level stakeholders should be involved in selecting the national-level indicators, and (naturally enough) regional and local stakeholders should be involved in selecting regionaland local-level indicators. The indicators should be: • Meaningful and easy to explain. • Relevant to policy and institutional analysis and action: it should be possible to draw useful conclusions from them. • Reliable – they must reflect what they are supposed to measure, and the data must be more or less accurate (though don’t expect them to be free of",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to explain. • Relevant to policy and institutional analysis and action: it should be possible to draw useful conclusions from them. • Reliable – they must reflect what they are supposed to measure, and the data must be more or less accurate (though don’t expect them to be free of errors!). • Available – there is no point in choosing an indicator that cannot be measured, or would be too expensive to measure. You may list the indicators you have chosen in a table like this: Once you have selected an initial set of indicators, test them to make sure that they are appropriate, and that it is possible to gather the information needed. Ask the stakeholders to assess each indicator, asking these questions: • Are the indicators relevant and useful? • Are data available, and if not, is it possible to generate them? • Are any other indicators needed? If you are conducting the study in several different areas, you may divide the indicators into three groups: • Obligatory – It is vital to collect these data. • Optional – Collect these data if possible or relevant. • Local or specific – Collect these data in particular areas or situations. The SARD-FSE study in the Philippines adapted this approach slightly. Table 4 shows the indicators chosen for monitoring and evaluation of sustainable agriculture and rural development in the Philippine study. Criteria Environmental Economic Social Cultural Institutional National Regional Local TABLE 3 Indicators for sustainable development 18 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development 3c Analyse the national situation You will need to link the analysis of the local situation with a review of the “bigger picture” of the problem at national and regional level, before “zooming in” on the",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development 3c Analyse the national situation You will need to link the analysis of the local situation with a review of the “bigger picture” of the problem at national and regional level, before “zooming in” on the focus area. Environmental Economic Socio-cultural Technological Institutional Key principles Ecologically sound Economically viable Socially just/ acceptable; culturally appropriate Technologically appropriate Socially just/ acceptable; develops full human potential National Land use & conversion – land use area by category; annual conversion rate & total area converted Annual deforestation rate & changes in forest land area; total area reforested by government & private sector Population – urban & rural growth rate Average family income & expenditure Poverty incidence Literacy rate Rice area harvested & yield/ha Distribution & use of rice production Population growth rates Low dependency ratio Migration rates % of landless Quality of life index Availability of technology on water resources management Watershed condition (status & trend) Water quantity and quality (irrigation) Major risks from natural disasters Existence of national sustainable development strategies Ratification and implementation of ratified global agreements Expenditures on R&D Regional Soil fertility: soil organic matter, soil pH (soil acidity), chemical fertilizer use Water quality; depth of water table; surface water from rivers, dams & creeks Land use & land conversion, land use area by category; total area legal & illegally converted into non-agri uses Labour Farming inputs Other expenses Yield Price of products Land tenure Membership in orgs Credit & interest rates Subsidies to production and market Population growth rates Low dependency ratio Migration rates % of landless Availability of technology on water resources management Watershed condition (status & trend) Water quantity and quality (irrigation) Major risks from natural disasters Climate and biophysical factors Typology of selected",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "orgs Credit & interest rates Subsidies to production and market Population growth rates Low dependency ratio Migration rates % of landless Availability of technology on water resources management Watershed condition (status & trend) Water quantity and quality (irrigation) Major risks from natural disasters Climate and biophysical factors Typology of selected farming system Governance: Identification and analysis of modalities and effectiveness of governance and participation of local populations (services provided, resources, interrelationships, devolution, transparency, participation, level of accountability, facilitating and hindering factors for sustainable agriculture integration, etc.) Public awareness and information Role of civil society organizations Farming systems Soil fertility – soil pH (soil acidity); amount of chemical inorganic fertilizer used. Water quality – depth of ground water table for irrigation and domestic use. Pesticide use – amount of pesticide use; decrease in beneficial and edible farm dwelling organisms Household income Income sources Yield % of on-, offand non-agricultural income sources Labour Farming inputs; Other costs Price of products Fertility rate Migration rates % of landless Soil acidity and organic matter (status & trend) Availability of technology to correct soil constraints to rice production Availability of crops that can tolerate adverse soil conditions Use of external & internal inputs Practices, management & performance for: Agriculture Fishery Forestry Identification & analysis of governance modalities, effectiveness & participation of local populations, (services provided, resources, interrelationships, devolution, transparency, accountability, facilitating & hindering factors for sustainable agriculture integration Asset reform laws & implementation, e.g. for land, water, credit Participation of farmers in decision-making processes Farming system sustainable development strategies Source & investment in R&D & other development activities at farming system level TABLE 4 Key indicators used in the SARD-FSE study in the Philippines 19 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development The depth and",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "system sustainable development strategies Source & investment in R&D & other development activities at farming system level TABLE 4 Key indicators used in the SARD-FSE study in the Philippines 19 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development The depth and scope of the national overview (and the next step, a regional overview) will depend on several factors: the capacity of the institution that has commissioned the study, the nature of the problem, the expected outputs and resources available, and factors such as donors’ views. Gather information on the national situation from various sources, then (resources permitting) hold a workshop with key stakeholders to analyse the national situation. Here are some things to look at: • History, population and culture. • Institutions, programmes or projects and policies adopted (or planned) that impact on agriculture and rural development. Examples include food security and sustainable development programmes, environmental conservation activities, agricultural and rural development schemes, and poverty reduction projects. • Major risks and shocks that people have to cope with (for example, AIDS and other diseases, drought and armed conflicts). • Government, its characteristics, levels, services and effectiveness, and the local population’s participation in it (including disadvantaged people, women and youth). • Selection of the regions, farming systems and local areas to study (if you have not already done this). • Identify key trends, challenges and trade-offs for the sustainability of agriculture and rural areas at the national level. It may be useful to compare the national context with the situation in neighbouring countries. 3d Analyse the regional situation Once you have understood the national situation, you can focus on your selected region. Again, you can do this by gathering information from different sources, then convening a workshop of stakeholders to discuss the",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to compare the national context with the situation in neighbouring countries. 3d Analyse the regional situation Once you have understood the national situation, you can focus on your selected region. Again, you can do this by gathering information from different sources, then convening a workshop of stakeholders to discuss the regional situation. Some items to consider (some of these are the same as at the national level): • Institutional landscape at the regional and local levels, projects or policies that may affect agriculture and rural areas, and the identity and profile of various groups of stakeholders. • Major risks and shocks. • Government characteristics and involvement of local people. • Indigenous culture, demography and social characteristics. • Food security in the community. • Climate and biophysical factors. • Environment and natural resources. • Economic factors, including extent and distribution of poverty, markets and non-farm employment, infrastructure and access to resources. • Criteria for selecting specific localities or farming systems for study (if you have not done this already). • Sustainability of agriculture and rural areas at the regional level. Identify key trends, challenges and trade-offs. 3e Analyse the local situation You can now analyse the situation in the local area or for the farming system you have selected. Again, do this in a participatory manner. For example, you can gather information through semistructured interviews or focus groups, and do the analysis through a stakeholder workshop. Here are some things to check (select those that are relevant for your situation): • Household assets and priorities. • Land tenure, land use and distribution. • Agricultural, livestock, fishery and forestry practices, management and performance. • Food security at the household level, including human nutrition issues. 20 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Household assets and priorities. • Land tenure, land use and distribution. • Agricultural, livestock, fishery and forestry practices, management and performance. • Food security at the household level, including human nutrition issues. 20 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development • Culture – heritage (building, landscapes, products), identification and conservation of indigenous knowledge, traditional technologies and know-how. Consider cultural diversity and social or cultural features hampering sustainable development (such as attitudes towards technology, risk, change and environment). • Social aspects – equity, vulnerability or resilience of communities, management and conditions of work (wages, duration, difficulty, safety), access to information, training and basic social services (health, education, housing, sanitation), involvement in decision-making, social stability at the community level, gender balance and youth roles. • Economy – household income, food grown by the household for home consumption, access to resources such as land, water, credit, inputs, infrastructure (roads, transport, water, irrigation, energy, markets), technological innovations (use of improved varieties, commercial inputs, irrigation, integrated pest management, intensification, etc.), value-adding and processing of products (post-harvest handling, diversification of products, packaging, etc.), product marketing (market access, networks and services for local markets and export), profitability of farm enterprises (income, production costs, net income per hectare, labour units, options for increased profitability), non-farm and off-farm enterprises or income sources (such as work in town), food quality and safety, economic organization of farmers and producers, outside investment, research and development, extension and information services, and linkages with other sectors (e.g., industry, tourism, services), animal well-being. • Environment – status and management of renewable and non-renewable natural resources: water (quality and amount), soil fertility and erosion, biodiversity (wild and domesticated, animal and plant), air (quality, climate change), energy (consumption of fossil fuel, production or use of renewable energies),",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "other sectors (e.g., industry, tourism, services), animal well-being. • Environment – status and management of renewable and non-renewable natural resources: water (quality and amount), soil fertility and erosion, biodiversity (wild and domesticated, animal and plant), air (quality, climate change), energy (consumption of fossil fuel, production or use of renewable energies), landscapes, prevention of natural hazards (fires, avalanches, floods, landslides), and environmental risks and management of their causes. • Sustainability of agriculture and rural areas at the local level. Identify key trends, challenges and trade-offs for the sustainability of agriculture and rural areas. 3f Analyse strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats Now you have gathered the information, you can work with the stakeholders to analyse the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) in agriculture and rural development in your region and location. See Part 3 Tool 9 (SWOT analysis) for how to do this. You may choose to do a SWOT analysis just for the local area, or for the local and regional levels, depending on the nature of the problem. The SWOT analysis provides a basis for planning strategies in subsequent stages of the process. 4 IDENTIFY SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE 4a Identify long-term trends in the locality or farming system The aim of this step is to trace how the locality or farming system has changed over time and to identify the trends and forces that have caused this change (see also Box 4). Changes may be: • Structural – land use, availability of natural, human and financial resources, assets, type of production. • Operational – farm practices, animal management and forestry techniques, use of inputs and management levels, land management, etc. • Functional – use of products and processing, proportion of production sold, market location (local, distant, exported), yield and profits, use of credit, amount of income or savings,",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "type of production. • Operational – farm practices, animal management and forestry techniques, use of inputs and management levels, land management, etc. • Functional – use of products and processing, proportion of production sold, market location (local, distant, exported), yield and profits, use of credit, amount of income or savings, linkages with non-agricultural and urban activities. 21 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development Strengths Technological-economic – Both crops are used for food security and for social, economic and cultural reasons. The region is endowed with fertile, clayey soils, and both crops are managed in a rotational and integrated system. Family labour is extensively used. The “quetzungual” agro-forestry system performs well as an option to traditional slash-andburn. Political-institutional – The municipality is gaining experience with strategic community and economic planning. Producer training and skill development programmes are gaining in strength. The rather lengthy cropping period keeps family labour on farms. Vulnerable groups, such as women and youth, are pro-active in social, cultural and productive activities. Opportunities Technological-economic – Water resources are adequate for home consumption and production. Irrigation projects are starting with profitable crops such as vegetables, plantains and pineapples. A dynamic land market is developing with remittances sent from abroad. The region has potential for commercial development due to its proximity to an attractive market in El Salvador and tourists’ demand for handicrafts. The mountainous terrain has potential for providing environmental and rural/agri-tourism services. The “questzungual” system is ready for up-scaling because it improves the yield, viability and sustainability of the maize-bean system. Political-institutional – Handicrafts are a competitive option for export development. Local people are excited about participating in the government’s decentralization process, and this augurs well for local ownership of strategies, enterprise development and a more equitable",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for up-scaling because it improves the yield, viability and sustainability of the maize-bean system. Political-institutional – Handicrafts are a competitive option for export development. Local people are excited about participating in the government’s decentralization process, and this augurs well for local ownership of strategies, enterprise development and a more equitable distribution of resources. The region seems attractive to public and private institutions that provide savings and credit services. The dissemination of cultural heritage through fairs, dances and foods can be accelerated with the help of government and NGOs. Weaknesses Technological-economic – Land is used more to produce for home consumption, there are issues of legal ownership and land use, lack of storage facilities for native seeds, excessive use of chemicals and residues in coffee production, and problems of with high input costs and unstable product prices. Overall production is low because of low yields and small farm size. In agriculture, job opportunities are limited, unlike in the thriving clothing industry. Political-institutional – Farmers do not perceive maize and bean production as a commercial activity. Local Institutions including educational and health services are limited, and so also are the road infrastructure and public investment. The region lacks planned technical and financial assistance and storage facilities. For all the above reasons, the rural people, especially the young, are migrating to urban areas and abroad. Threats Natural-technological – Natural disasters in the region seem to be occurring with greater frequency: major hurricanes, flooding and landslides in 1974, 1983 and 1998; El Niño in 1997 and drought in 1999, and erratic rainfall. These have damaged coffee, livestock, food crops, roads and bridges, and basic social and family infrastructure, costing millions of dollars in direct and indirect effects. The high level of slash-and-burn agriculture and accompanying deforestation, with population pressure, threatens the long term sustainability",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "1997 and drought in 1999, and erratic rainfall. These have damaged coffee, livestock, food crops, roads and bridges, and basic social and family infrastructure, costing millions of dollars in direct and indirect effects. The high level of slash-and-burn agriculture and accompanying deforestation, with population pressure, threatens the long term sustainability of the maize/beans-based system. Political-institutional – Up to the 1980s, inadequate health facilities resulted in serious human diseases (scarlet fever, tuberculosis, diphtheria) affecting especially children and young people. The lack of adequate education and training of rural producers and people result in high rates of illiteracy and limited capacity to participate in development of the region. 5 years of low international coffee prices have drastically affected the income of farmers, workers and others up the chain. Areas close to El Salvador were affected by the armed conflict in that country, families were disrupted, lands and production were abandoned, and tenure problems ensued. Source: Extracted from Honduras SARD-FSE case study TABLE 5 Summary of the SWOT analysis for the maize/beans-based farming system in Lempira Sur and Santa Barbara, Honduras. 22 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development This step should produce the following: • A list of the main historical milestones in agricultural and rural development in the country and region. • Long-term trends in the farming system over the last 50 years (or longer). This would include a summary of interventions made by various institutions over this period (both successes and failures), and their favourable or unfavourable impacts. It is important to discover the types of changes that have occurred, how they came about, or who made the key decisions and made the change possible, what elements facilitated the changes (e.g., education, extension services, shocks or emergencies), and what has",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and failures), and their favourable or unfavourable impacts. It is important to discover the types of changes that have occurred, how they came about, or who made the key decisions and made the change possible, what elements facilitated the changes (e.g., education, extension services, shocks or emergencies), and what has been the scale of the changes (community, region, or the whole country). Useful techniques include review of secondary data and the literature (including historical records); semi-structured interviews with key informants such as academics and elderly farmers, multi-stakeholder workshops and focus group interviews with knowledgeable people. See Part 3 Tool 8 (Historical trends and milestones) for one way of handling this step. 4b Identify the causes of changes What has caused these changes? Analyse your data and ask the stakeholders to identify possible causes of the changes. These causes can be divided into two categories: • Internal factors, which the people or government in region or location might be able to control. • External factors, beyond their control. Box 5 lists some potential causes of changes in farming systems. After identifying the most important causes of change, you can investigate these causes in more detail to understand their context and sources, and their effects on the farming system. 4c Identify future scenarios: probable and desirable The previous step identified the past and current trends in the locality or farming system. You can now ask the stakeholders to predict what is likely to happen in the future if these trends continue. Think of a point in time, from 10 to 25 years into the future. What will the area look like then, given “business-as-usual”? What will the agricultural production system be like? How about the society and economy? You can then ask stakeholders to think of a more desirable situation for the",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "of a point in time, from 10 to 25 years into the future. What will the area look like then, given “business-as-usual”? What will the agricultural production system be like? How about the society and economy? You can then ask stakeholders to think of a more desirable situation for the same point in the future. This optimistic scenario should be based on their development goals (Step 3a), but it should be plausible. Ask them to describe the scenario in detail. See Part 3 Tool 11 (Scenario analysis) for suggestions on how to do this. Box 4. Examples of general trends in tropical farming systems • From long fallows to short fallows, to permanent land use • From low-intensity to high-intensity crops • From rainfed to irrigated farming • From natural grazing to cultivated fodder for ruminants • From arable farming to perennial cropping • From single to multiple cropping • From natural regeneration of soil fertility to intensive systems of manuring and fertilizing • From hoe cultivation to animal traction to tractorization. Adapted from Ruthenberg (1971) 23 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development Ask the stakeholders to suggest changes in policies that would help achieve the desirable scenario. These suggestions form input into the next stage in the process. Box 5. Possible causes of changes in farming systems Natural resources and climate • Resource depletion and degradation (forests, water, soil fertility and erosion, biodiversity), climate, energy consumption, and landscapes. Cultural and social • Inter-household and community organization, cultural/indigenous values and norms, religious beliefs, concepts of wealth, gender issues, demographics, migration, class structure, etc. Political, institutional and public goods • Policies – fiscal and monetary, trade and exchange rate, labour and employment, investment and foreign aid, population, income and equity,",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Cultural and social • Inter-household and community organization, cultural/indigenous values and norms, religious beliefs, concepts of wealth, gender issues, demographics, migration, class structure, etc. Political, institutional and public goods • Policies – fiscal and monetary, trade and exchange rate, labour and employment, investment and foreign aid, population, income and equity, property rights, agriculture and rural development, natural resources and environmental protection. • Decentralization, people’s participation and empowerment, role of non-state actors, valuation and monitoring of the various functions of agriculture and land. • Education and health. • Credit, input supply, product processing and marketing. • Research and development, extension, training, information and communication. • Links among civil society/NGOs, community organizations, the public and private sectors, and external agencies. Trade and market development • Land and labour markets changes. • Investment – public, private and external donors. • Financial tools, e.g., credit for farm production, infrastructure and marketing. Science and technology • Improved germplasm, management practices, farming systems research, extension, promotion through development projects. Disasters and vulnerability • Droughts, storms, floods, civil disturbance, armed conflict, drug trade, violence and insecurity, access to foreign exchange, etc. Adapted from Dixon et al. (2001) 24 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development 5 IDENTIFY RECOMMENDABLE POLICY CHANGES The “business-as-usual” scenario shows where the region or locality is heading. The optimistic scenario shows where people would like it to head. What policy changes are needed in order to achieve the desirable scenario? It is risky to recommend changes in national policies based on the analysis of a single district or farming system. So consider recommendations at a lower level – for example, changes the regional government can make. Below is a suggested procedure to develop and prioritize a series of policy recommendations. You can do",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to recommend changes in national policies based on the analysis of a single district or farming system. So consider recommendations at a lower level – for example, changes the regional government can make. Below is a suggested procedure to develop and prioritize a series of policy recommendations. You can do this through a stakeholder workshop (you may need several workshops so you can obtain inputs at the regional as well as the national level). The workshop participants should include national and local government staff, staff of NGOs and community organizations, private enterprise, research and educational institutions, and donor agencies. Box 7 lists some policy areas to consider during the workshops. The participants’ experience will highlight those policy areas that are sensitive, feasible and strategic for the problem under review. Identify clearly those policy areas that are most “critical” and might deserve considering changes or specific measures. Box 6. Stakeholders’ analysis of future scenarios to 2030 in Mali Workshops were organized in Sikasso, Mali, to identify trends and drivers in the long term evolution of the cereal and root crops-based farming system where cotton is the main cash crop. Stakeholders involved at both regional and national levels were government officials, elected authorities, farmers and producers, public and private technical agricultural support services, civil society, private sector representatives and donors. Two plausible scenarios over the coming 25 years were developed, discussed and endorsed at these stakeholder workshops: 1 The status quo or business-as-usual scenario is based on the hypothesis that historical and current trends will continue. Sustainable agriculture and rural development is a matter of serious concern. An ecological crisis is very likely in the short run because there is a need for immediate activities to protect and restore the natural resource base, and need for a reduction of the policy priority",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "current trends will continue. Sustainable agriculture and rural development is a matter of serious concern. An ecological crisis is very likely in the short run because there is a need for immediate activities to protect and restore the natural resource base, and need for a reduction of the policy priority granted to cotton at the expense of other productive systems, including cereal and tubers. A major social crisis is threatening; there is an urgent need to accelerate decentralization and to delegate administrative authority effectively to the regional level. The traditional cereal and root crop system will be affected to the point that its mere existence could be interrupted; there is a need to consider such a prospect and its social, ecological and economic consequences in policy making. 2 The positive evolution or optimistic scenario, in which the natural resources base and the environment are protected, may materialize if two key conditions are met: (a) reforms to delegate administrative authority and decentralization are effectively implemented; and (b) actions to build the technical and institutional capacity of local stakeholders (public, private, producers and farmers and other groups of the civil society) are strongly accelerated. In this scenario, local stakeholders are expected to manage sustainable agriculture and rural development programmes and practices, after having been involved in policy design and implementation. The “Chambres d’Agriculture” and producers’ organizations are empowered and capable of playing a lead role in sustainable agriculture and rural development policy design and delivery Extracted from Mali SARD-FSE case study 25 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development FAO experience has demonstrated that progress towards sustainable agriculture and rural development almost everywhere requires certain common prerequisites (Box 8). Try to have the workshop participants review the extent of the “critical” policies",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development FAO experience has demonstrated that progress towards sustainable agriculture and rural development almost everywhere requires certain common prerequisites (Box 8). Try to have the workshop participants review the extent of the “critical” policies listed in Box 7 and fulfil these requirements. Box 7. Policies areas of possible relevance to farming systems General economic and social policies • Fiscal and monetary policies • Trade and exchange rate policies • Income, labour and employment policies • Investment and foreign aid • Population policies • Basic social services (education, health, housing and sanitation) Policies related to agricultural and rural development • Rural infrastructure • Building human capital for rural sector • Agricultural research and technology development • Agricultural prices • Stabilization and risks in agriculture • Direct government involvement • Sustainable livelihoods • Food security, food safety and nutrition Policies related to rural markets and property rights • Agricultural products marketing policies • Land tenure and other resource property rights (e.g. water, forest and biodiversity) Policies aimed at establishing democratic and participatory processes • Local institutional development • Decentralization, accountability and roles of non-state actors • People participation and empowerment Policies focused specifically on natural resource use and environmental protection • Direct government environmental action • Control instruments • Economic incentives Adapted from Hardaker (1997) 26 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development Box 8. Requirements for progress towards sustainable agriculture and rural development Approaches and actions • Involve rural communities, and different stakeholder groups, as leaders and stakeholders in decision making. • Develop partnerships, timely and transparent information flows, and networking links among civil society, public and private sectors, in support of decision-making and policy-making",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "for progress towards sustainable agriculture and rural development Approaches and actions • Involve rural communities, and different stakeholder groups, as leaders and stakeholders in decision making. • Develop partnerships, timely and transparent information flows, and networking links among civil society, public and private sectors, in support of decision-making and policy-making processes. • Develop and apply ways to value, monitor and evaluate the various functions of agriculture and land, as well as progress towards sustainable agriculture and rural development. • Enhance the capacities of stakeholders and relevant groups. Availability and access to resources and opportunities • Improve and secure access to land and other resources. • Make appropriate technical information available to farmers and other users. • Improve access to credit and other financial instruments. • Improve access to markets. • Ensure political voice and influence for local people. Adapted from FAO (1999) Box 9. Potential institutional strategies and approaches for improved services • Multi-sectoral, sector-wide, multi-institutional and interdisciplinary approaches. • Decentralization and empowerment at the regional and local levels. • Co-management models involving government agencies with the poor, weaker or disenfranchised beneficiaries, women, youth and indigenous people. • Technology transfer, dissemination and information networking among marginalized groups. • Participatory and action research approaches for poor households. • Innovative agricultural service delivery (e.g., seed and input supply, rural finance, marketing). • Institutional services to support micro, small, and medium-size enterprises. • Farmers’ associations to develop agricultural enterprises to strengthen farmers’ participation in the food chain, and contribute to food security and proverty reduction in rural areas. 5a Identify and prioritize strategic objectives Ask the stakeholders to identify strategic ways to steer the local area or farming system towards the optimistic scenario. You may have done this already as part of Step 4c. If not, use brainstorming to generate a list of",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "proverty reduction in rural areas. 5a Identify and prioritize strategic objectives Ask the stakeholders to identify strategic ways to steer the local area or farming system towards the optimistic scenario. You may have done this already as part of Step 4c. If not, use brainstorming to generate a list of strategic objectives (see Part 3 Tool 2, Brainstorming). Ask the participants to rank the objectives in order of importance. Table 6 shows the results of such an exercise in the Philippines SARD-FSE study. Government agencies and other development actors can use various institutional strategies and approaches to improve their services. Box 9 lists some options to consider. 27 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development Box 10. Example of specific objectives from the Philippines SARD-FSE study Strategic objective • Increase agricultural productivity Specific objectives 1 Develop high yielding varieties of rice and other crop species and livestock breeds well-suited for rainfed lowland environments. 2 Conduct other related research on crops, livestock, and social components that will influence the agricultural productivity. 3 Develop irrigation facilities and provide alternative sources of irrigation water. 4 Identify and promote cultural management practices that improve soil fertility, with emphasis on organic production. 5 Introduce crop diversification and mixed cropping. 6 Ensure non-conversion of agricultural lands for other uses. 7 Protect and restore watershed areas. 8 Increase farmers’ access to agricultural resources and support services. Recommendations Priority Increase agricultural productivity 1 Increase investment in agriculture 2 Improve trade and market linkages 3 Strengthen people’s organizations 4 Strengthen extension and farmer education 5 TABLE 6 Strategic objectives and priorities from the Philippines SARD-FSE study 5b Identify specific objectives Select the top-priority objective, and ask participants to suggest specific objectives that will help achieve it. Again, you can",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Improve trade and market linkages 3 Strengthen people’s organizations 4 Strengthen extension and farmer education 5 TABLE 6 Strategic objectives and priorities from the Philippines SARD-FSE study 5b Identify specific objectives Select the top-priority objective, and ask participants to suggest specific objectives that will help achieve it. Again, you can use brainstorming to do this. It is likely that many of the ideas will already have emerged during previous steps in the policy development process. Box 10 lists eight specific objectives that emerged in the Philippines when participants were discussing the top-priority objective of increasing agricultural productivity. When the participants have finished working on the top priority strategic objective, ask them to turn their attention to the second-priority strategic objective. Ask them to suggest specific objectives for this too. Repeat this procedure until you have covered all of the strategic objectives. To save time, you can ask small groups of participants to discuss different strategic objectives, and then to report back to the plenary. 5c Identify and prioritize potential policy measures The participants should now start to discuss each specific objective in more detail. For each of these objectives: 1 List the relevant policy measures recommended by local stakeholders (Step 4c above). 2 Ask participants to identify existing policies that are relevant to this specific objective. 3 Ask them to say whether those existing policies help achieve the objective. Are they favourable, neutral or unfavourable? 4 Ask them to identify gaps in the policies that should be filled. If the policies are unfavourable or neutral, it is likely that these gaps will be large. But even if the policies are favourable, there are still likely to be gaps. Ask the participants to identify these. 28 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "policies are unfavourable or neutral, it is likely that these gaps will be large. But even if the policies are favourable, there are still likely to be gaps. Ask the participants to identify these. 28 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development Strategic objective 1 Specific objective 1 Specific objective 2 Specific objective 3 Recommended policy measures of local stakeholders Existing policy instruments that are relevant Evaluation of existing policy instruments (favourable, unfavourable, neutral) Adjusted/refined recommendations for implementation Priority ranking of recommendations (high, medium, low) TABLE 7 Policy ranking matrix Table 8 shows an example of the results of this exercise, developed by the SARD-FSE project in the Philippines. The columns in the table show three of the eight specific objectives participants identified, to achieve the strategic objective of increasing agricultural productivity (Table 6 and Box 10 above). 5d Determine who should do what Who should do what in order to implement the recommendations? And how much will it cost? Ask the stakeholders to identify the level at which each recommendation should be implemented, which organization is responsible for decision making and execution, the cost over several years, and the timeframe. Part 3 Tool 13 (Policy action matrix) suggests a way of doing this. 5e Validate the results Depending on how you have organized the process, it may be necessary to validate the results. This can be done through workshops during which the findings are presented and reviewed by key stakeholders, and possibly adjusted. Two groups are particularly important: • Local stakeholders. Make sure that you keep them informed, and make sure they agree with what you say they said! Do not be surprised if they ask for more information and support to involve and mobilize more participation at grassroots",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "stakeholders, and possibly adjusted. Two groups are particularly important: • Local stakeholders. Make sure that you keep them informed, and make sure they agree with what you say they said! Do not be surprised if they ask for more information and support to involve and mobilize more participation at grassroots levels. • National-level policy makers and donors, and senior regional policymakers. They hold the purse-strings, and they have to approve your findings and start the bureaucratic wheels rolling to put them into action. You will have to convince them that the ideas that have emerged from the process are good ones. 5 Ask participants to consider the local stakeholders’ recommendations and refine them in light of the existing policies and the gaps they have identified. 6 Ask participants to rank the recommendations. Tell them to consider things like feasibility and cost when they make the ranking. You can use Table 7 as a basis for this exercise. 29 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 2 How to do participatory policy development Specific objective 1. Develop high yielding varieties of rice and other crop species and livestock breeds well suited for rainfed lowland environments 2. Conduct other related research on crops, livestock, and social components that will influence agricultural productivity 3. Develop irrigation facilities and provide alternative sources of irrigation water Existing policy instruments AFMA, National Rice Production Programs DA-BAR Research programme AFMA, NIA, DA-LGU Valuation of existing policy measures Favourable Favourable Favourable Policy gap Strengthen breeding research at the regional level On-site testing of suitable varieties and crop species Limited to national thrusts programme Policy on credit with lower interest Alternative sources of irrigation water Recommendations Allocate more resources to regional breeding centre Localize testing of appropriate varieties and crops Give equal importance to organic farming",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "research at the regional level On-site testing of suitable varieties and crop species Limited to national thrusts programme Policy on credit with lower interest Alternative sources of irrigation water Recommendations Allocate more resources to regional breeding centre Localize testing of appropriate varieties and crops Give equal importance to organic farming Look at the policy gaps: government has not documented community efforts on crop improvement Research community developed seeds Generate more technology on water management and utilization Explore other sources of irrigation water Consider possible dislocation of communities, emerging water problems, participation of communities Priority ranking (1 is highest) 3 4 1 Key result areas Adoption of new cultivars by the farmers or users Adoption of organic farming technologies Efficient and equitable water supply and distribution Execution level National, regional, farming system National, regional National, regional, farming system Responsible stakeholders Philippine Rice Research Institute, Bureau of Agricultural Research, Fruits and Vegetables Research Centre at Central Luzon State University, Bureau of Animal Industry NGO, people’s organizations NIA, DA, local government units, Irrigators’ Association Time frame Medium term Medium term Short term TABLE 8 Example of analysis and prioritization of three specific recommendations from the Philippines SARD-FSE study 31 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis PART 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis This Part describes various tools and techniques that you can use in the participatory policy development process. Many of them were used during the SARD-FSE project in Honduras, Mali, and the Philippines. Most of these tools are designed for use with groups of stakeholders, ranging from villagers to government officials. Select those that are suitable for your own situation, and adapt them as required. Good facilitation is essential. The facilitator must be able to design and conduct activities that",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and the Philippines. Most of these tools are designed for use with groups of stakeholders, ranging from villagers to government officials. Select those that are suitable for your own situation, and adapt them as required. Good facilitation is essential. The facilitator must be able to design and conduct activities that involve people and enable each person to express his or her opinion. It is important to guide the process so that it achieves its purpose, in an efficient and if possible enjoyable manner. The facilitator must be able to build trust among participants from diverse backgrounds, encourage them to share their views, and deal with difficult situations that may arise. He or she must be able to synthesize the ideas expressed in a way that motivates participants to move the process forward. With all of these tools, try to get the participants to take control as much as possible. For example, once you have explained how to do the exercise and perhaps worked through the first round, you may be able hand over the facilitation (and the marker pen!) to one of the participants, then guide from the background. That saves you work, and allows them to feel in control of the process and results. Many other tools can be used in participatory policy development. For example, many of the methods used in participatory rural appraisal and in participatory training sessions can be adapted for policy analysis and development. For further details, see the References after the description of each tool and in Part 4. 1 CHECKLIST OF INDICATORS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Table 9 to Table 11 show a list of indicators that can be used to track progress towards sustainable development at various levels: national, regional and local. These indicators fall into various types: • Pressure – e.g. intensified",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "tool and in Part 4. 1 CHECKLIST OF INDICATORS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Table 9 to Table 11 show a list of indicators that can be used to track progress towards sustainable development at various levels: national, regional and local. These indicators fall into various types: • Pressure – e.g. intensified use of a resource such as land or water • Status – describes the condition • Impact – the effects of previous action • Response – the response to pressure, status or impact conditions. These indicators can be measured in quantitative or qualitative terms. 32 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis Theme/sub-theme or criteria Indicators Type of indicator Social Population growth and life expectancy Rates of population growth over time in urban & rural areas; Mortality rate of children < 5 years old; Average life expectancy Pressure Poverty index Number and % of families below poverty threshold, Gini index of income inequality; Human development index; % Absolute poverty Status Food security Agricultural land per person (ha); food production index; annual export & import of basic food staples Pressure Cultural Ethnic or indigenous population & customs % composition of ethnic population; traditional culture festivals, educational programmes, etc for promoting indigenous customs/ languages Status Environmental Land use & land use conversion % area abandoned or converted to specific uses (residential, industrial, etc.) Impact Biodiversity % forest area, arable land, permanent crop land and protected areas; protected area as % of total area Status Economic and human loss from natural disasters Number of threatened species; number and type of natural disasters (typhoons, flooding, drought, earthquake, etc.) Status Water quality Presence of water-borne diseases; sources of water for domestic & agric purposes; agricultural pesticide use (quantity) Impact Atmosphere Emission of greenhouse gases (depends",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "area Status Economic and human loss from natural disasters Number of threatened species; number and type of natural disasters (typhoons, flooding, drought, earthquake, etc.) Status Water quality Presence of water-borne diseases; sources of water for domestic & agric purposes; agricultural pesticide use (quantity) Impact Atmosphere Emission of greenhouse gases (depends on available data) Impact Economic GDP per capita Average income, amount Response Debt/GNP ratio Debt/GNP ratio Response Fossil energy use Annual energy consumption per capita Investment Rate of investment as share in GDP Status Trade in goods and services Balance of trade in goods and services Status Food exports/imports Balance of food exports and imports Response Institutional Existence of national sustainable development strategy Yes/no on existence; national mechanism for coordinated planning & evaluation; existence of programme for national sustainable development, e.g. leading to publication & dissemination of state agenda, document, report, compilation of strategies Response Ratification and implementation of global agreements Number of agreements signed on sustainability-related issues, e.g. climate change, desertification, biological diversity, hazardous wastes and toxic chemicals Response Policy to protect indigenous knowledge Yes/no Response Expenditure on research and development Total domestic expenditure on scientific research and development as a % of GDP Response TABLE 9 National level indicators 33 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis Theme/sub-theme or criteria Indicators Type of indicator Social Literacy rate Children of school age attending school; Adult and child literacy rate Status Access to safe drinking water % households with access to potable water Status Malnourished children Mortality rate < 5 years age/1000 population Impact Population density Inhabitants/km2 Impact Poverty intensity % of poor Pressure Population growth Population growth rate Pressure Cultural Existence of policy & conservation effort of cultural heritage Existence of local government policies, laws & programme to protect",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to potable water Status Malnourished children Mortality rate < 5 years age/1000 population Impact Population density Inhabitants/km2 Impact Poverty intensity % of poor Pressure Population growth Population growth rate Pressure Cultural Existence of policy & conservation effort of cultural heritage Existence of local government policies, laws & programme to protect and promote indigenous peoples, R&D on their knowledge systems on agriculture. Response Ethnic & indigenous population % ethnic composition; existence of cultural institutes or businesses to promote indigenous customs, practices, cuisine and handicrafts Status Environmental Area affected by erosion, degradation and salinization Soil erosion rate; Area affected severe soil erosion, % of arable land; Soil fertility level Impact Deforestation / reforestation Past (30 yrs back ) and present forest area; Forest as % of land area Impact Water quality Water sources; Presence of water-borne diseases Impact Water resources Irrigated land (% of total agricultural land) Impact Biodiversity Number of crop & animal species and varieties; Protected area (%) Impact Economic Structure of employment % employed in agriculture Status Public investment Budget allocation for local government, $/capita; Number of external development assistance projects; Km on road network Response Institutional Territorial sustainable development strategy and capacity Existence of strategy; capacity to plan, execute and evaluate sustainable agriculture and rural development programmes Response Expenditure on R&D and extension $ per capita expended on research and extension Response TABLE 10 Regional level indicators 34 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis Theme/sub-theme or criteria Indicators Type of Indicator Social Access to safe drinking water % households with access to potable water (source) Response Ratio of the poor Households by main sources of livelihood (%) Impact Organizations on women & gender issues Number/% of women at decision level in local organizations Status Resource tenure Average",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Indicators Type of Indicator Social Access to safe drinking water % households with access to potable water (source) Response Ratio of the poor Households by main sources of livelihood (%) Impact Organizations on women & gender issues Number/% of women at decision level in local organizations Status Resource tenure Average farm size per household (ha) Status Literacy rate % literacy Impact Cultural Cultural activities and indigenous issues Important cultural, indigenous or religious festivals, shows, activities; economic importance of traditional handicraft, dances, foods, or other; existence of programmes, conflicts or other issues with indigenous people Status Environmental Biodiversity Number of species or varieties/ha used in crops and livestock Status Water quality Kg/ha/year chemical fertilizer used; Kg/ha/year pesticide used Pressure Soil & water resource conservation Soil fertility level; Amount of organic fertilizer/ha/year Response Economic Onand off-farm income Amount of household income per source (local currency) and % of on-farm household income Status Home consumption % of farm production consumed at household level Status Access to credit % of farmers use formal credit; Estimated total cost of credit Response Evolution of market prices Prices indexes for crops and inputs Animal well-being OECD agri-environmental indicators, if needed Structure of export Quantity and composition of exports Type of farming systems % of farmers with subsistence, commercial and/or export objectives; % of family income generated from farming. Status Institutional Municipal or village participation in decision making Capacity for developing, implementing & monitoring strategies for sustainable agriculture Status Associations & literacy centres Number and types of associations and literacy centres working with farmers, women, youth, and others Response Civil society involved in production Number of producer or farmer organizations involved; number of other types of NGOs Response TABLE 11 Local or farming system level indicators References CIAT, 2000; European Commission, 2001a. 35 Participatory policy development for sustainable",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "and literacy centres working with farmers, women, youth, and others Response Civil society involved in production Number of producer or farmer organizations involved; number of other types of NGOs Response TABLE 11 Local or farming system level indicators References CIAT, 2000; European Commission, 2001a. 35 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 2 BRAINSTORMING Objectives To generate a range of ideas, perspectives or priorities from participants. Brainstorming is often a first step in a discussion of policies and strategies. It may be followed by more formal data collection and analytical methods. Methodology Brainstorming can be carried out individually, in small or large groups. Here are some ground rules to make it successful. 1 Get someone to facilitate the brainstorming. 2 Define the question or issue to address. Write this on a flipchart or chalkboard so everyone can see it. The more clearly stated the problem, the better the session will be. 3 Ask each participant to think of as many ideas as she can about this topic. Give them time to think. Some participants may ask for clarification. This usually “breaks the ice”. Make sure everyone understands the problem or issue. 4 Go around the group, asking each person to briefly state one of his or her ideas. As each person speaks, the facilitator can jot down the idea on the flipchart or chalkboard so everyone can see. Ask speakers to avoid repeating ideas that someone else has already expressed. Each person should state his or her idea as briefly as possible. Other participants should listen to each idea, suspend judgement and avoid criticizing. Do not allow any discussion at this stage. 5 When you have gone round the group once, go round again to allow each person to state",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Each person should state his or her idea as briefly as possible. Other participants should listen to each idea, suspend judgement and avoid criticizing. Do not allow any discussion at this stage. 5 When you have gone round the group once, go round again to allow each person to state another idea, and so on until all the ideas have been expressed. Since the aim is a large number of ideas, try to keep the ideas flowing. Do not limit the total number of ideas. Make sure all participants have contributed their ideas before allowing any discussion. 6 Ask the participants if they need clarification of a particular item. Ask the person who stated that item to explain. (Again, do not allow discussion at this stage.) 7 Check the items you have written up to see if any are similar enough to be merged. Delete any duplicates. 8 Now you can invite discussion, comments, criticism, etc. about the items. Try to make sure that everyone participates in the discussion. Try to establish consensus among participants in terms of the scope of the issues, priorities, actions to follow, or other points of their interest. 9 If you need to identify priorities, you can ask the participants to rank the items in the list. Give each person one vote, and ask them to state which item they think is the most important. Mark their votes on the list. (Alternatively, you can give them three votes each.) The item that gets the most votes wins. Suggestions for use Brainstorming is effective and fun. It stimulates involvement and cross-fertilization of ideas. To prevent a few quick-thinking participants from dominating, you can ask participants to write down their ideas first on cards during Step 3 above. You can also form sub-groups to allow more interaction",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "votes wins. Suggestions for use Brainstorming is effective and fun. It stimulates involvement and cross-fertilization of ideas. To prevent a few quick-thinking participants from dominating, you can ask participants to write down their ideas first on cards during Step 3 above. You can also form sub-groups to allow more interaction if there are many participants. Make sure you enforce the rule of “no comments” while people are stating their ideas. Brainstorming is a good way to generate a lot of ideas quickly. It can also be used to generate ideas for prioritizing (Step 9). In participatory policy development, brainstorming may be useful to list people’s problems, goals, indicators, policy options, etc. References IAC, undated; Mycoted, 2003; Start and Hovland. 2004. 36 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 3 DIAGRAMMING AND MAPPING TECHNIQUES Objectives To understand relationships among institutions, system components, processes or actors. Various types of diagrams and maps can be used in participatory policy development. Below are some examples of using these methods in policy analysis. Methodology Venn diagrams for institutional analysis Venn diagrams show how organizations, policies, programmes or services interact with each other, and the importance of their activities. 1 Make a number of ovals or circles from coloured card. Make them different sizes, ranging from about A4 to half-A4 sized. 2 Ask participants to identify all organizations that are relevant to the farming system. Write the name of each organization on one of the ovals. Choose a large oval for an important or powerful organization, a smaller oval for one that is less important. 3 Ask the participants to place the ovals on the floor or table. The position of each oval shows its relationship to the other institutions: close together or overlapping for close",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Choose a large oval for an important or powerful organization, a smaller oval for one that is less important. 3 Ask the participants to place the ovals on the floor or table. The position of each oval shows its relationship to the other institutions: close together or overlapping for close interaction, further away for a more distant relationship. 4 Different stakeholder groups can do their own diagrams and then see how they are different. This can reveal different perceptions and expectations of the different groups. 5 Other useful analyses are to compare how these organizations currently interact, how they should interact, and how changes, new linkages or capacity building can improve their effectiveness for achieving greater coordination and effectiveness. You can also use rectangular cards instead of ovals. Or you can draw ovals on a large piece of paper or a chalkboard. Venn diagram: Proposals of producers to achieve a SARD goal (Honduras case study) 37 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis Cause–effect analysis of a driving factor Cause–effect mapping identifies and explains the causes or reasons for particular programmes or problems, and the effects or impacts of particular interventions. 1 Start by explaining what a driving factor is, and why it is important to analyse. Take time to explain so everyone understands what you mean. (Examples of a driving factor might be population growth, an improved breed or variety, falling cotton prices.) 2 Write the factor on a card and put it on the table or floor. 3 Ask the participants what happened (or happens) as a result of that factor. For example, ask them to identify events, or positive and negative changes that occurred. Write each of these consequences on a separate card and put them below",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "card and put it on the table or floor. 3 Ask the participants what happened (or happens) as a result of that factor. For example, ask them to identify events, or positive and negative changes that occurred. Write each of these consequences on a separate card and put them below the card showing the driving factor. Use sticks or short pieces of string to show the linkages between the items, or position them closer or further apart, depending on how closely they were linked. 4 Ask participants what happened as a result of these new events. Again, write the consequences on cards, put the cards below the events that caused them, and show the linkages with sticks or string. In this way, you build up a tree of causes and effects, all resulting from the original driving factor. 5 You can ask participants to explain in more detail about specific causes and effects. Such discussion can show, for example, whether the impact has been the same for different groups – perhaps women or the poor have been affected by something, but men or richer people have not. Flow diagrams Flow diagrams identify and analyse the positive and negative consequences of particular forces or policy actions. You can construct a flow diagram using a similar series of steps as in cause–effect analysis, for example to show many other relationships: between institutions (as in a Venn diagram), the results of particular policies or actions, the flows of resources in a farming system or of money in an economy, and so on. Suggestions for use Instead of cards, you can draw a series of boxes on a large piece of paper. This allows you to draw arrows between the boxes, but it is difficult to move the boxes once you have drawn them.",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "or of money in an economy, and so on. Suggestions for use Instead of cards, you can draw a series of boxes on a large piece of paper. This allows you to draw arrows between the boxes, but it is difficult to move the boxes once you have drawn them. You can use different types of diagrams to compare the effects on different systems, groups or time periods. Drawing the diagrams can stimulate rich discussions on how people perceive the issues. Diagramming and mapping techniques can be simple, or as complex as you want. They are easy to construct and to understand. They can be developed by farmers and other villagers, or by highly qualified technicians. They can be developed using cards and markers, scratching with a stick in the ground, or with a mouse on a computer screen. They are excellent for building stakeholder interaction and interdisciplinary teamwork. References IAC, undated; Start and Hovland, 2004. 38 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 4 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS Objective To obtain information quickly from key individuals (or a relatively small number of people) on a specific topic. Methodology 1 Develop a checklist of relevant topics or issues. Ensure the list is not too long, so that you can cover it in an interview in an hour or less. This list will guide the conversation. You can add new issues if necessary as you go on. 2 Pre-test the questions with a few people before conducting the real interviews so you can practise. This pre-test also helps you ensure the questions are easy to understand, relevant to the local situation, and are not politically or culturally sensitive. 3 You can interview individuals, couples (e.g. a farmer and her husband) or small groups.",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "few people before conducting the real interviews so you can practise. This pre-test also helps you ensure the questions are easy to understand, relevant to the local situation, and are not politically or culturally sensitive. 3 You can interview individuals, couples (e.g. a farmer and her husband) or small groups. It is usually best to have a team of two interviewers: one to ask questions and lead the discussion, and one to take notes. 4 At the beginning of the interview, introduce yourself, and briefly describe the study and why you are doing it. Ask permission to take notes. Use simple language, and avoid jargon. Repeat questions if necessary to be certain the interviewee understands what you mean. 5 Use the checklist as a guide during the interview. It is not necessary to follow the exact order of questions, but try to cover them all. Aim for an informal, relaxed discussion. 6 Encourage the interviewees to express their opinions during the discussion. Ask questions that lead to topics that interest them. 7 At the end of the interview, ask the interviewees if there is anything they want to ask you. This can often lead to some very useful further discussions. Suggestions for use Open-ended questioning is more difficult and time-consuming to analyse than structured, closedended questions. It can be difficult to keep interviews focused, and comparing responses between groups of interviewees may be difficult – but it is usually feasible. These disadvantages are offset by the richness of the information you can obtain through this approach. If you need to gather numerical data (for example, to do a statistical analysis), you can combine a short series of closed-ended questions with your semi-structured interviews. Or you can use semistructured interviews to generate ideas for questions to include in a closed-ended questionnaire",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "you can obtain through this approach. If you need to gather numerical data (for example, to do a statistical analysis), you can combine a short series of closed-ended questions with your semi-structured interviews. Or you can use semistructured interviews to generate ideas for questions to include in a closed-ended questionnaire survey. Conducting semi-structured interviews requires some training and practice. If you have a team of interviewers, make sure that you train them all in the correct approach so the results of their interviews will be comparable. One way to do this is to train them by observing each other during practice interviews. References Chambers, 2002; IAC, undated. 39 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 5 CARD SORTING Objectives To gather, sort and rank information. This method enables many ideas to be gathered, organized and prioritized quickly. Methodology There are many different ways of organizing this activity. Here is one example: 1 Identify and explain the topic or question – perhaps a problem that the community is facing. Brainstorm on it a few minutes so all understand meaning of the topic and why it is being discussed. 2 Ask the participants to think of an idea (for example, a way to solve the problem you have identified). Ask them to write it in a few words on a card or small price of paper. Each participant writes one idea on a card. They should write large enough so it can be read at a distance. 3 Collect all the cards and lay them out on a table or the floor. Read out each card so everyone knows what is written. If something is unclear, ask the person who wrote it to explain. 4 Ask the participants to group the cards",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "be read at a distance. 3 Collect all the cards and lay them out on a table or the floor. Read out each card so everyone knows what is written. If something is unclear, ask the person who wrote it to explain. 4 Ask the participants to group the cards – for example, to put all of the cards that contain the same thing into a pile. They can then put piles of cards that contain similar ideas close to each other to make clusters. Get them to give a title to each cluster. 5 If meaningful, ask the participants to rank the clusters (and ideas within clusters) according to their own criteria (such as importance to the community, ease of implementation, etc.). Suggestions for use Card sorting is quick and easy, and fun to do. It is often used in workshops to decide what issues to focus on, or to introduce questions that require more detailed discussions and consensus building. References IAC, undated; Cadiz, 2004. 40 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 6 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION Objectives To clarify details and analyse an issue in depth. Focus groups can be composed of members of a particular social group (such as women farmers) or several different groups. They can be used to build consensus on specific issues among stakeholders who represent different viewpoints. Methodology 1 Define the specific topic for the discussion. This will determine who should participate in the focus group – i.e. whether one or more groups should be represented. For example, you may wish to analyse the issue only with the group directly involved (e.g. women or youth). Or perhaps it would be better to discuss it with others who are indirectly concerned. 2 Identify five",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the focus group – i.e. whether one or more groups should be represented. For example, you may wish to analyse the issue only with the group directly involved (e.g. women or youth). Or perhaps it would be better to discuss it with others who are indirectly concerned. 2 Identify five to ten people to participate in the focus group. 3 Explain the topic to ensure everyone understands. 4 Invite the participants to discuss the topic. The facilitator can stimulate discussion by asking questions or bringing up new specific issues. Intervene as little as possible, but make sure that everybody has a say. An hour should be long enough for the discussion. 5 Have a note-taker take detailed notes of the discussion. Suggestions for use If you have several facilitators, you can hold several focus groups at the same time, each composed of different types of people. Then compare their results. You can then mix the groups so they are composed of different types of people, and continue the discussion. It is easy to tailor the topic and process to the types of stakeholder involved. If the groups are mixed, some people may be tense or shy: for example, women or young people may be reluctant to speak up. In such cases the facilitator must be skilled to keep the discussion going and make sure everyone’s voice is heard. References Start and Hovland, 2004. 41 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 7 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS Objectives To understand characteristics of various groups of stakeholders: their values and attitudes, knowledge and skills, priorities and perspectives, and areas of mutual interest and potential conflict. Methodology 1 Identify the topic or problem to be analysed. 2 Identify stakeholder groups relevant to the topic. Keep",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "analysis 7 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS Objectives To understand characteristics of various groups of stakeholders: their values and attitudes, knowledge and skills, priorities and perspectives, and areas of mutual interest and potential conflict. Methodology 1 Identify the topic or problem to be analysed. 2 Identify stakeholder groups relevant to the topic. Keep in mind the differences and potential conflicts among them. 3 Develop a strategy on how to engage the different groups. This strategy may include investigations, literature reviews, workshops, project planning exercises, and so on. 4 Organize a series of stakeholder workshops – either where all the stakeholders are involved, or perhaps one workshop for each group. These workshops should progressively analyse the similarities, differences, mutual objectives and collaboration of the various groups. It is usually necessary to hold special workshops for women and for young people to allow enough time to focus on issues they are specifically interested in. 5 Investigate how the stakeholder groups differ in their roles, interests, strengths. Study how each can contribute to addressing the topic or solving the problem. 6 Carry out further analysis to understand how certain interventions would affect specific groups. Who would lose or gain? In terms of power and influence, resources or benefits? Table 12 may be helpful to organize and compare the characteristics and opinions of the various groups. Suggestions for use Stakeholder workshops are a good way to get members of a policy team to understand and work with each other. There may be tension across the different groups to begin with – for example, between those in control of key resources and those who have none. In such a case, it helps to work first with each group separately and then join forces. Culturally, women, young people and ordinary people may not feel at ease when men, older",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to begin with – for example, between those in control of key resources and those who have none. In such a case, it helps to work first with each group separately and then join forces. Culturally, women, young people and ordinary people may not feel at ease when men, older people or political leaders are present. Communities often contain potential conflicts, sensitivities and jealousies, so stakeholder workshops require good facilitation skills. They also need time. It may be necessary to hold several such workshops before reaching a conclusion. Consult widely with local people and involve key players who have a positive disposition and personal commitment. References DFID, 2002; European Commission, 2001b. TABLE 12 Stakeholder analysis form Possible stakeholder categories Roles and strengths Priorities and incentives for participation Effects/impacts of problem or project Potential contributions to solutions Government Civil society Private sector Pastoralists Farmers Women Young people Indigenous people Rural workers 42 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 8 HISTORICAL TRENDS AND MILESTONES Objectives To understand the history and causes of how rural communities, production systems and institutions evolve. Understanding how and why change has occurred helps us understand the constraints in the current situation and what is likely to happen in the future. Methodology 1 Decide on the topic of interest, e.g. the history of the district, or of land reform in the area. 2 Identify stakeholders who should participate. Usually a small group of about six participants could start the exercise. Later on, more can join in to improve the historical trend analysis. For example, if the analysis focuses on lowland rice-based farming system, those who know and have worked with the system must be involved. 3 Set up a table with rows and columns on a blackboard",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "start the exercise. Later on, more can join in to improve the historical trend analysis. For example, if the analysis focuses on lowland rice-based farming system, those who know and have worked with the system must be involved. 3 Set up a table with rows and columns on a blackboard or a large sheet of paper. The columns show periods of time. For example, one column might represent 10 years, so you would need 5 columns to show 50 years. Put topics in the rows. Label these as “key events”, “external events”, “internal factors”, “legislation”, “president in power”, or whatever item is relevant. Agree on the column and row headings with the participants. 4 Fill in the table with the group as far as possible based on their memory. People may disagree on the timing of events or the nature of changes, so keep probing when there are differences. After exhausting the group’s knowledge, check the literature and consult with key informants to complete and enrich the analysis of historical trends and milestones. 5 After filling the gaps and checking the accuracy of the group work, present the complete table to the group for further discussion and improvement. Suggestions for use Local people can contribute very well to this exercise, since they know what has happened in their community, in farming, and can point to disasters or trends that impact on their lives. Elderly people are a particularly good source of information on the more distant past. A few hours or days are needed for this exercise, and it can be enriched with information from other sources, such as official records. The tool enables stakeholders to analyse the big picture over time. It strengthens their understanding of the driving forces in agriculture and development, and helps them identify what they",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "or days are needed for this exercise, and it can be enriched with information from other sources, such as official records. The tool enables stakeholders to analyse the big picture over time. It strengthens their understanding of the driving forces in agriculture and development, and helps them identify what they themselves can do to affect the future. It is an extremely valuable first step for future scenario analysis. References IAC, undated. 43 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 9 SWOT ANALYSIS Objectives To identify Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats of policies, organizations, systems, programme, districts, etc., as a basis for planning strategies and actions. Methodology 1 Identify the organization, programme, system or project to be analysed. 2 Identify a small group to carry out the exercise. 3 Work with the group to fill in the cells in Table 13. Ensure that the participants agree on each item. Strengths and weaknesses are internal to the organization or project; opportunities and threats come from outside. 4 Review what is in each cell in the table to ensure that there is coherence and agreement across all four cells. 5 Discuss how stakeholders can work together to address the recommendations made in the table. Try to identify who, what, how and when. Suggestions for use SWOT analysis is practical and easy to do. People easily understand the concepts of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Stakeholders, in particular, find it very useful to improve their institutions, systems, etc. The time and resources required depends on the depth of analysis or quantitative information required. A rough SWOT can be produced in less than an hour. Strengths Things that are working well in the organization or project; things that people are proud of. Opportunities Opportunities to",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "their institutions, systems, etc. The time and resources required depends on the depth of analysis or quantitative information required. A rough SWOT can be produced in less than an hour. Strengths Things that are working well in the organization or project; things that people are proud of. Opportunities Opportunities to improve or change that build on strengths and overcome weaknesses. Weaknesses Things that have not worked so well and need to be addressed. Threats Actual or potential problems from outside that may prevent the organization or project from performing. TABLE 13 SWOT analysis 44 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 10 AGRI-FOOD VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS Objectives To identify and analyse constraints to the production, processing and business operations in the commodity chain from farmers to consumers, and to identify commercially viable solutions. Methodology 1 Choose a sub-sector or product: examples might be parboiled rice, dried peppers, fresh vegetables for export, or wooden furniture. Criteria for selection include potential demand for the product, its impact on growth, income and employment, international competitiveness, or the interest of the government or donors. 2 Identify all actors in the value chain: those who buy and sell from each other in order to supply the particular commodity to the final consumers. 3 Identify the constraints and opportunities at each stage in the chain: production of raw materials, input supplies, transport, food safety and quality control, management, infrastructure, finance, policy, etc. This will require a review of the literature, mapping of the sub-sector, interviews with key informants, etc. 4 Identify solutions that overcome the constraints you have identified. These solutions must be commercially viable: they may well be attractive to private sector producers or service providers. Examples might include the provision of low-cost irrigation equipment,",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "review of the literature, mapping of the sub-sector, interviews with key informants, etc. 4 Identify solutions that overcome the constraints you have identified. These solutions must be commercially viable: they may well be attractive to private sector producers or service providers. Examples might include the provision of low-cost irrigation equipment, development of markets or information systems, processing to create alternative products, use of by-products, and extension and training for new operations. 5 Prioritize the proposed solutions using criteria such as employment and income generation for the poor, potential profitability, and potential for fair treatment and equity for stakeholders in the value chain. 6 Determine the priority interventions. Do this in a participatory way with the relevant stakeholders (producers, service providers, government, donors, etc.) to leverage their commitment and resources. Obtain their agreement on operational strategies and mechanisms for implementation. 7 Develop an operational plan and timeline showing specific activities, responsibilities and targets for measuring progress and fine-tuning operations. Suggestions for use Value chain analysis is a good way to identify profitable enterprises for development, so is of value primarily for the private sector. For the government, NGOs and donors, it is becoming more necessary because of the need to provide an enabling environment, deliver effective programmes and provide funding to develop small businesses. Research, extension and educational institutions should be involved to introduce technologies and train people with appropriate skills. Market-driven production systems will require more attention to value chain analysis. This analysis is complex, requires good information on all the links from farmers to consumers, and needs effective participation of the various actors in the chain. The relative bargaining power of the actors and governance issues are critical. References Prahalad and Hart, 2005; Lesby, 2005. 45 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "the links from farmers to consumers, and needs effective participation of the various actors in the chain. The relative bargaining power of the actors and governance issues are critical. References Prahalad and Hart, 2005; Lesby, 2005. 45 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 11 SCENARIO ANALYSIS Objectives To look into the future and predict what is likely to happen if current trends continue, and what may happen if certain policies are put into place. Scenario analysis extrapolates from current trends (identified through an historical analysis – see Tool 8), and tries to predict what the situation will be at some point in the near future – say, 10 years from now. This is the “business-as-usual” scenario. Given current trends in, say, environmental degradation, it is often pessimistic. It then identifies policy changes and other interventions that might steer the situation in a more desirable direction, and predicts what the effects of those interventions may be. This is an optimistic scenario. Methodology 1 Brainstorm the focus of the scenario options, including the key themes and variables, and a checklist of issues to be analysed in each scenario. 2 Identify representatives of relevant stakeholder groups. These might include government agencies, farmers, and support or service groups in the NGO and private sectors. Ensure that women, the young and marginalized people are included if appropriate. There should be no more than about 10 in each group. 3 Meet with each stakeholder group separately to discuss the “business-as-usual” scenario. Ask them to look at the historical trends and driving forces, and predict what the situation will be at the selected time in the future. Ask the group to describe the scenario in as much detail as possible. Each of these meetings should last",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "separately to discuss the “business-as-usual” scenario. Ask them to look at the historical trends and driving forces, and predict what the situation will be at the selected time in the future. Ask the group to describe the scenario in as much detail as possible. Each of these meetings should last no more than 3 hours. 4 Meet again with each group to discuss the optimistic scenario. First, ask them to identify a desirable goal from their point of view, for their area. This goal should relate to the same time in the future as the “business-as-usual” scenario. It should be plausible, and based on changes that the stakeholders themselves can control, or decisions that the government or other actors might conceivably make. Ask the group to describe the scenario in as much detail as possible and then identify the changes that are necessary to achieve it. These meetings should also last no more than 3 hours each. 5 Pull together the draft business-as-usual and optimistic scenarios from the different stakeholder groups so they can be compared easily. Gather information from other sources to support or explain the views, assumptions and implications they contain. Involve a couple of members from each stakeholder group on the “drafting team” that does this. 6 Hold a mini-workshop with representatives of all stakeholder groups: 3–5 members from each group. This workshop reviews the draft scenarios, discusses the differences across the drafts, and reconciles them into two master scenarios: business-as-usual and optimistic. The focus is on teasing out the implications for policy and institutional strategies. The workshop output is a description of the two master scenarios, an identification of the driving factors, and a set of policy and institutional recommendations. 7 Present the results to policy makers and institutional leaders at the national level. Obtain their",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "teasing out the implications for policy and institutional strategies. The workshop output is a description of the two master scenarios, an identification of the driving factors, and a set of policy and institutional recommendations. 7 Present the results to policy makers and institutional leaders at the national level. Obtain their feedback and suggestions. Report on the scenarios and the national-level responses to the local communities and stakeholders who participated in the previous steps. Suggestions for use Scenario analysis can be used in a wide range of contexts: to predict economic growth, environmental damage and preservation, social changes, and so on. It can be used to analyse the results of a specific project (such as a dam or road) or a broader policy (such as removing price controls). 46 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis Scenario analysis can help different institutions, levels of government and local people to understand each other’s points of view, mandates and goals. It helps professionals who do not usually work outside their own field to think about the bigger picture and their role in it. Various organizations have used scenario analysis. Shell used it to understand powerful forces of change, globalization and technological advance; the Intergovernmental Panel on Climatic Change applied it to describe the effects of greenhouse gases and global warming, and FAO and others used it in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Scenario analysis helps identify driving forces, policies and programmes and their interactions from the perspectives of different stakeholders. It is a good way for stakeholders to look at what is likely to happen in the future under particular assumptions, and to identify actions they can take to achieve their goals. References Alcamo, J., 2001; EC, ADB and FAO, 2003; FAO, 2003; Reid",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "from the perspectives of different stakeholders. It is a good way for stakeholders to look at what is likely to happen in the future under particular assumptions, and to identify actions they can take to achieve their goals. References Alcamo, J., 2001; EC, ADB and FAO, 2003; FAO, 2003; Reid et al, 2002. 47 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 12 STAKEHOLDER NEGOTIATION ENCOUNTERS Objectives To promote understanding, learning, trust and consensus on sensitive issues among competing stakeholders. Methodology The negotiation process has three main phases. Prepare for negotiations 1 Identify a team to plan and facilitate the negotiations. 2 Develop an initial agenda, and let stakeholders know how the process is likely to work. 3 Establish personal relationships with stakeholder groups to build their confidence, foster effective communication, and avoid resistance. 4 Identify influential players and hidden agendas so you can anticipate barriers and identify possible opportunities for agreement. 5 Anticipate the possible outcomes of negotiations so you can clarify the stakeholders’ perspectives, commitments and expectations. 6 Select a neutral venue and appropriate setting for the negotiations. Arrange logistics. 7 Collect relevant opinions, attitudes, options and facts that can help in decision making. Conduct the negotiations 1 Initiate the process: use ice-breaking techniques to release tension, and exchange information, perspectives, etc. 2 Use leverage points, prior commitments and obligations to influence positions and alternatives. 3 Frame persuasive arguments and alternatives in order to create added value and win–win outcomes. 4 Shift the balance of forces within and across stakeholders to build momentum. Prevent “blame games”. 5 Initiate activities such as breakout sessions, side events or small group discussions to facilitate dialogue and achieve agreements in individual areas. 6 Obtain agreement on an action plan to implement recommendations. After",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "outcomes. 4 Shift the balance of forces within and across stakeholders to build momentum. Prevent “blame games”. 5 Initiate activities such as breakout sessions, side events or small group discussions to facilitate dialogue and achieve agreements in individual areas. 6 Obtain agreement on an action plan to implement recommendations. After the negotiations 1 Assess the outcomes of the negotiations to see how the team’s performance might be improved. 2 Implement the activities in the agreed timeframes to ensure credibility and effectiveness. 3 Monitor, evaluate and communicate feedback to relevant parties. Suggestions for use Negotiation encounters are necessary when there are major sources of conflict between specific groups of stakeholders, e.g., between government and NGOs, landowners and landless peasants, farmers and market intermediaries, donor X and donor Y. Such encounters take time to build confidence and trust, analyse the issues involved, and exchange perceptions. The amount of effort required (and that is worth putting in) depends on the nature of the problem. Negotiations are essential to arrive at lasting solutions acceptable to all. In business management, negotiation skills are highly prized. Success depends largely on the skills of the facilitating team, so good training for facilitators is vital. References Braham et al, undated; Anon., undated. 48 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 13 POLICY ACTION MATRIX Objectives To relate policy objectives to specific policy actions, responsibility for execution, costs and timeframes. Methodology Through workshops with stakeholders: 1 Specify policy objectives that are recommended by the project, and select one for further analysis. 2 Identify the specific recommendations for achieving this policy objective. Then select the most important recommendations for possible action. 3 Define at what level (local, regional or national) each recommendation would be implemented. 4 Determine who is responsible",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "that are recommended by the project, and select one for further analysis. 2 Identify the specific recommendations for achieving this policy objective. Then select the most important recommendations for possible action. 3 Define at what level (local, regional or national) each recommendation would be implemented. 4 Determine who is responsible for deciding on each recommendation, and who is responsible for executing the recommendation. (These are normally different people or institutions.) 5 Determine a strategy to implement each recommendation. 6 Cost each recommendation, taking into account staffing, operational and infrastructure requirements for the next 3–5 years. 7 Decide on the time frame for execution. Fill in Table 14 as you develop the proposed plan of action for your policy objective. Suggestions for use The policy action matrix works well to establish interactions among national, regional and local level stakeholders to make decisions on policy objectives, actions, costs, and timelines. NGOs, community-based organizations, farmers and private-sector service providers can make significant inputs and decide on their roles in policy planning and implementation. With minimal guidance, all stakeholders can participate effectively in the construction of this action matrix. TABLE 14 Policy action matrix Strategic objective 1: Specific objective 1 Recommendation 1 Recommendation 2 Recommendation 3 Achievement targeted Execution level • Local • Regional • National Responsible stakeholder for: • Decision making • Execution Strategy to implement recommendations Cost • 2006 • 2007 • 2008 + Timeframe for execution • Short (1–2 yrs) • Medium (3–5 yrs) • Long (5+ yrs) 49 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 14 WRITESHOPS Objectives To generate information materials, revise them and put them into final form as quickly as possible. Writeshops bring together various stakeholders to create a document that reflects everyone’s knowledge and opinions. Because",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 14 WRITESHOPS Objectives To generate information materials, revise them and put them into final form as quickly as possible. Writeshops bring together various stakeholders to create a document that reflects everyone’s knowledge and opinions. Because they bring everyone together to work on the same document at the same time, they can produce results in a completed, agreed, peer-reviewed document very quickly. Methodology Writeshops can be managed in different ways. Here is one possibility (to produce an illustrated extension manual or set of booklets). 1 Before the writeshop, a steering committee lists potential topics and invites resource persons to write first drafts on each topic. The steering committee provides them with guidelines to help them do this. These resource persons bring the drafts and various reference materials with them to the writeshop. 2 Invite participants to the writeshop. Participants should include the resource persons, users of the document, members of the intended audience, and others who are knowledgeable about the topic. 3 During the writeshop itself, each participant presents the first draft of his or her paper, perhaps using a computer projector or overhead transparencies of each page. Copies of each draft are also given to all other participants. After each presentation, the facilitator invites participants to comment on and critique the draft, and suggest revisions. 4 After each presentation, an editor helps the author revise and edit the draft. If artwork is needed (e.g. for an extension manual), an artist draws illustrations to accompany the text. The edited draft and artwork are then desktop-published to produce a second draft. Meanwhile, other participants also present papers they have prepared. Each, in turn, works with the team of editors and artists to revise and illustrate the materials.",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "an extension manual), an artist draws illustrations to accompany the text. The edited draft and artwork are then desktop-published to produce a second draft. Meanwhile, other participants also present papers they have prepared. Each, in turn, works with the team of editors and artists to revise and illustrate the materials. 5 Each participant then presents his or her revised second draft to the group. Again, the audience critiques it and suggests revisions. After the presentation, the editor and artist again help revise it and develop a third draft. 6 Towards the end of the writeshop, the third draft is made available to participants for final comments and revisions. 7 The final version can be completed, printed and distributed soon after the writeshop. Suggestions for use This process is very flexible. Here are some adaptations: • A small group of people can follow the same general sequence to develop a project proposal or position paper. Each person writes part of the document, presents it to the others, who critique it. The authors then revise their drafts and present them a second time to the group. No editors, artists or computer staff are needed here, though a facilitator is useful to guide the process. • It is not necessary to prepare any written drafts beforehand. The writeshop begins with a brainstorming of topics to include in the document. Each person (or pair of participants or small group) is allocated a topic to write about. They write a first draft, then present it to the plenary, which critiques it. The authors then revise their drafts and present them a second time. Writeshops are an excellent way to promote interaction among scientists, extensionists, farmers, and policy makers, and to focus their energies on creating a document that everyone agrees to and feels is theirs.",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "to the plenary, which critiques it. The authors then revise their drafts and present them a second time. Writeshops are an excellent way to promote interaction among scientists, extensionists, farmers, and policy makers, and to focus their energies on creating a document that everyone agrees to and feels is theirs. They are useful for drafting documents such as mission statements, strategy documents and future scenario analysis. 50 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis Writeshops can work with as few as five people or as many as 100, depending on the topic and type of document to be produced. They can be as short as 2–3 days, or as long as 2 weeks, depending on the scale of the task and the nature of the material to be developed. The writeshop process was developed by the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) in the Philippines to produce user-friendly extension and information materials. It has also extensively been used by IIRR and other organizations in eastern Africa, Latin America and South Asia. References Mundy, undated. 51 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis 15 PROJECT LOGICAL FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS Objectives To assist in designing development projects in a systematic way. The project objectives are related systematically to the expected outputs, indicators of achievement, and underlying assumptions. The logical framework, or “logframe”, later guides project implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Methodology 1 Identify and gather key stakeholders to participate in developing the logframe. Involve them in the discussion of each of the following steps, and in filling the “logframe table” with the elements you have agreed upon. This exercise requires a facilitator who is already familiar with logframe development and analysis. 2 Determine the",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "gather key stakeholders to participate in developing the logframe. Involve them in the discussion of each of the following steps, and in filling the “logframe table” with the elements you have agreed upon. This exercise requires a facilitator who is already familiar with logframe development and analysis. 2 Determine the project goal, i.e. the long-term development impact that is desired (such as poverty reduction or food security), where, and for whom. 3 Define the specific objectives or the intended immediate effects of the project (e.g. capacity building, changes in productivity or family income, improvements in natural resources), and decide on which objectives have priority. These are shown as a–d in the table below. 4 Fill in Table 15 with the group. In this table, each objective determines the expected outputs (what the project is expected to deliver; g–k in the table), the activities that must be implemented to achieve those outputs (m–q), and the costs of implementing the activities (w– z). There may be several outputs for each objective, and several activities for each output. 5 At this stage, decisions can be made about the project scope, depth and costs. Objectives Expected outputs Activities Costs a g h m n o w b i j k p q x y z c … … … d … … … 6 The team can now start filling in the logframe matrix (Table 16). Complete the table step by step, in the order indicated by the numbers: first, the overall goal (1), then the specific objectives (2), outputs (3) and activities (4). These are taken from Table 15. Add extra rows to the logframe for each objective, output or activity. 7 Fill in the preconditions and assumptions (5–8) that must be fulfilled in order to implement the activities, produce the outputs, and",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "then the specific objectives (2), outputs (3) and activities (4). These are taken from Table 15. Add extra rows to the logframe for each objective, output or activity. 7 Fill in the preconditions and assumptions (5–8) that must be fulfilled in order to implement the activities, produce the outputs, and achieve the objectives and the goal. These assumptions are external factors (not controlled by the stakeholders participating in the project). For example, “continued stable government or smooth transfer of power in next election” might be necessary for the project to achieve its objectives. 8 Now fill in the indicators and sources of verification for each row in the table (9–16). The indicators must be “objectively verifiable” – they may be qualitative or quantitative, but you must be able to measure them in an objective way. The sources of verification are where to TABLE 15 Project objectives, outputs, activities and costs 52 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 3 Tools for policy and institutional analysis collect the data. For example, if your specific objective is to reduce child malnutrition, an indicator might be data on child weights, and the source of verification might be the weight records of children in health clinics. TABLE 16 Logical framework matrix Project narrative Objectively verifiable indicators Sources of verification Assumptions Overall goal 1 9 10 8 Specific objectives 2 11 12 7 Outputs 3 13 14 6 Activities 4 Costs 15 16 Preconditions 5 Suggestions for use Logical framework analysis is a powerful tool for leveraging participation of stakeholders. It can organize thinking, promote information exchange, enhance commitment and ownership, and improve the execution and impact of development projects. It is used in planning projects, as well as in managing and evaluating them. Many donors require a detailed logframe before they",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "a powerful tool for leveraging participation of stakeholders. It can organize thinking, promote information exchange, enhance commitment and ownership, and improve the execution and impact of development projects. It is used in planning projects, as well as in managing and evaluating them. Many donors require a detailed logframe before they will fund a project. References DFID, 2002. European Commission, 2001b. 53 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 4 Resources SARD and SARD-FSE PART 4 Resources SARD AND SARD-FSE ANGOC, 2004. Policy and institutional priorities for sustainable agriculture and rural development. Report of a regional workshop of the SARD-FSE Project, 19-21 July, Antipolo City, Philippines. Asian NGO Coalition for Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (ANGOC) and FAO. 27 p. + annexes. ANGOC, 2005. The evolution of lowland rainfed rice-based farming systems towards sustainable agriculture and rural development, A case study of Nueva Ecija, Philippines. The Asian NGO Coalition for Agrarian Reform and Rural Development, Manila, Philippines, and FAO. 138 p. FAO, 1989. Sustainable development and natural resources management. Twenty-fifth Conference, paper C 89/2, Supp. 2. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. www.fao.org/docrep/W7541E/ w7541e04.htm FAO, 1999. Cultivating our Futures: FAO/Netherlands conference on the Multifunctional Character of Agriculture and Land, 12–17 September, 1999, Maastricht, Netherlands.www.iisd.ca/sd/agr/ FAO, 2000. Project memorandum SARD – Institutional, social, economic and environmental aspects influencing farming systems evolution (GCP/INT/819/MUL). Rome. 32 p. + Annex. FAO, 2004. Socio-economic analysis and policy implications of the roles of agriculture in developing countries. Research Programme Summary Report. FAO, Rome. 22 p. FAO, 2005. The sustainable agriculture and rural development (SARD) initiative: People shaping their sustainable futures. FAO. Rome. 6 p. IER, 2005. Priorités politiques et institutionnelles pour une agriculture et le developpement rural durables. Atelier regional de l’etude de cas du Mali, 26-28 octobre, Bamako, Mali. Institut d’économie rurale et FAO.",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "FAO, 2005. The sustainable agriculture and rural development (SARD) initiative: People shaping their sustainable futures. FAO. Rome. 6 p. IER, 2005. Priorités politiques et institutionnelles pour une agriculture et le developpement rural durables. Atelier regional de l’etude de cas du Mali, 26-28 octobre, Bamako, Mali. Institut d’économie rurale et FAO. 41 p. IER, 2005. The evolution of cereal-root crop-based farming systems towards sustainable agriculture and rural development, A case study of Sikasso, Mali. Institut de economie rurale, Bamako, Mali 130 p PASOLAC, 2004. Prioridades políticas e institucionales para la agricultura y el desarrollo rural sostenibles. Resultados del taller regional, 13–15 julio, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. Programa para la Agricultura Sostenible de Laderas de América Central (PASOLAC), Secretaria de Agricultura y Ganadería de Honduras y FAO. 88 p. PASOLAC, 2005. The evolution of maize-beans based farming systems towards sustainable agriculture and rural development, A case study of Lempira Sur and Santa Barbara, Honduras. Programa para la Agricultura Sostenible en Laderas de America Central. Tegucigalpa, Honduras. 120 p World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), 2002. Political Declaration. Johannesburg, South Africa, 4 September, 2002. 4 p. HOW TO ORGANIZE Ashley C. and S. Maxwell, 2001. “Rethinking rural development.” Development Policy Review, 19 (4): 395-425. Nuijten, M. “Institutions and organising practices: Conceptual discussion.” SD Dimensions website, Sept 1999.www.fao.org/sd/index_en.htm Sanchez, P. et al., 2005. Halving hunger: It can be done. Final report of the Millennium Task Force on Hunger. Millennium Project. Washington DC. UNDP, 2005. Human development report 2004: Cultural liberty in today’s diverse world. United Nations Development Programme, New York. 159 p. Uphoff, N. (1986). Local institutional development: An analytical sourcebook with cases. Kumarian Press, West Hartford, Connecticut. 54 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 4 Resources SARD and SARD-FSE DIAGNOSIS OF TERRITORIES AND FARMING SYSTEMS Anon, 1999. Successful farming systems in",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Development Programme, New York. 159 p. Uphoff, N. (1986). Local institutional development: An analytical sourcebook with cases. Kumarian Press, West Hartford, Connecticut. 54 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 4 Resources SARD and SARD-FSE DIAGNOSIS OF TERRITORIES AND FARMING SYSTEMS Anon, 1999. Successful farming systems in the Philippines: A documentation. Farming Systems and Soil Research Institute and Bureau of Agriculture Research, Los Baños, Philippines. 208 p. Collinson, M. (ed.), 2000. A history of farming systems research. FAO and CABI Publishing, London. 432 p. Dixon, J. et al., 2001. Farming systems and poverty – Improving farmers’ livelihoods in a changing world. FAO and World Bank, Rome. 412 p. Khor, M and Lim Li Pin (eds), 2001. Good practices and innovative experiences in the South: Vol 2. Social policies, indigenous knowledge and appropriate technology. UNDP and Third World Network. Penang, Malyasia. 215 p. Pretty, J. 1995. The living land and regenerating agriculture. Littlehampton Book Services, UK. Ruthenberg, H, 1971. Farming systems in the tropics. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 287 p. POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES Avila, M. 2004. “Policies for sustainable agriculture and rural development: A time for action.” GFAR Newsletter, August 2004. 7 p. Commission for Africa, 2005. Our common interest. Report of the Commission for Africa (The Blair Commission). UK Government, London. 253 p. De Janvry, A. 2003. “Achieving success in rural development: toward implementation of an integral approach.” GFAR Conference, Dakar, Senegal. Echeverría, R., editor. 2003. Desarrollo territorial rural en América Latina y el Caribe: Manejo sostenible de recursos naturales, acceso a la tierra y finanzas rurales. Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, Washington, DC. 232 p. FAO, 1981. The Peasants Charter. The Declaration of Principles and Programme of Action of the World Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development. FAO, Rome. 35 p. FAO, 1999. Decentralized rural development",
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    "text": "de recursos naturales, acceso a la tierra y finanzas rurales. Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, Washington, DC. 232 p. FAO, 1981. The Peasants Charter. The Declaration of Principles and Programme of Action of the World Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development. FAO, Rome. 35 p. FAO, 1999. Decentralized rural development and the role of self-help organizations. A regional workshop, 4–6 Nov 1998 in Chang Mai, Thailand. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok. 170 p. Gordillo, G. and Anderson, K., 2004. “From policy lessons to policy actions: Motivation to take evaluation seriously.” Public Administration and Development, 24 (4): 305–20. Gunter, B.C., M.J. Cohen and H. Lofgren, 2005. “Analyzing macro-poverty linkages: An overview.” Development Policy Review, 23 (3): 243–65. Hardaker, J.B., 1997. Guidelines for the integration of SARD into agricultural policies. FAO, Rome. 53 p. IFAD, 2002. The rural poor: Survival or a better life? The choice between destruction of resources and sustainable development. International Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome. 36 p. Kydd, J. and A. Dorward, 2001. “The Washington consensus on poor country agriculture: analysis, prescription and institutional gaps.” Development Policy Review, 19 (4): 467–78. Prahalad, C.K. and S.L. Hart, 2005. The fortune at the bottom of the pyramid. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. USAID, 2004. USAID agriculture strategy: Linking producers to markets. United States Agency for International Development, Washington, DC. 23 p. World Bank, 2002. Reaching the rural poor: A Renewed strategy for rural development. A summary. Washington DC. 34 p. . Full document at www.worldbank.org/rural. World Commission on Globalization, 2004. A fair globalization: Creating opportunities for all. International Labour Organization, Geneva. DECISION-SUPPORT TOOLS Anon., “Team negotiation skills: Finding an acceptable compromise.” www.mindtools.com/stress/cwt/ TeamNegotiationSkills.htm Alcamo, J., 2001. Scenarios as tools for international environmental assessments. European Environmental Agency, Copenhagen. 31 p. Braham, B., and C. Wahl, undated. Be your",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "on Globalization, 2004. A fair globalization: Creating opportunities for all. International Labour Organization, Geneva. DECISION-SUPPORT TOOLS Anon., “Team negotiation skills: Finding an acceptable compromise.” www.mindtools.com/stress/cwt/ TeamNegotiationSkills.htm Alcamo, J., 2001. Scenarios as tools for international environmental assessments. European Environmental Agency, Copenhagen. 31 p. Braham, B., and C. Wahl, undated. Be your own coach. Crisp Publications. 106 p. 55 Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development Part 4 Resources SARD and SARD-FSE Cadiz, M.C.H., 2004. “Isang bagsak: A south–south collaboration.” College of Development Communication, Los Baños, Philippines; SADC Center of Communication for Development, Harare, Zimbabwe. Brochure. 6 p. www.isangbaksak.org. Chambers, Robert, 2002. Participatory workshops: A sourcebook of 21 sets of ideas and activities. Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex. 242 p. CIAT. 2000. Developing indicators: Experience from Central America. www.ciat.cgiar.org/indicators/ index.htm DFID, 2002. Tools for development: A handbook for those engaged in development activity. Performance and Effectiveness Dept., Department for International Development, London. www. dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/toolsfordevelopment.pdf EC, ADB and FAO, 2003. African forests: A view to 2020. Forestry Department, FAO, Rome. 92 p. European Commission. 2001a. A framework for indicators for the economic and social dimensions of sustainable agriculture and rural development. Luxembourg, Office of Official Publications European Commission, 2001b. Manual project cycle development. EuropeAid Cooperation Office. 44 p. FAO, 2003. Forestry outlook study for Africa: Regional report – Opportunities and challenges towards 2020. Rome, Italy. 68 p. FAO, 2005. Rapid guide for institutional analysis: A Field Guide for practitioners. Food and Agriculture Orgnaization. Rome, Italy. 19 p. IAC, undated. Building capacity for sustainable development: Resource portal on multi-stakeholder processes. International Agricultural Center (IAC), Wageningen University, Netherlands. www.iac. wur.nl. Kunstler, James H., 2005. “The long emergency: What’s going to happen as we start running out of cheap gas to guzzle?” Rolling Stone, 24 March 2005. 5 p. Lesby, Frank, 2005.",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Building capacity for sustainable development: Resource portal on multi-stakeholder processes. International Agricultural Center (IAC), Wageningen University, Netherlands. www.iac. wur.nl. Kunstler, James H., 2005. “The long emergency: What’s going to happen as we start running out of cheap gas to guzzle?” Rolling Stone, 24 March 2005. 5 p. Lesby, Frank, 2005. “Promoting commercially viable solutions to sub-sector and business constraints.” Presentation of Action for Enterprise (AFE), 25 January at FAO, Rome. www.actionforenterprise. org Mundy, P, undated. Development communications. www.mamud.com/devcomm.htm Mundy, P, undated. Producing information materials through participatory writeshops. www.mamud. com/writeshop.htm Mycoted, 2003. Creativity and innovations for science and technology. www.mycoted.com/index.htm Reid, W., et al, 2002. Millennium ecosystems assessment methods. MA Secretariat, ICLARM Office, Penang, Malaysia. 81 p. Start D., and I. Hovland, 2004. Tools for policy impact: A handbook for researchers. Research and Policy in Development Programme, London. 68 p. UN-CSD, 2001. Indicators of sustainable development: Guidelines and methodologies. 9th session of UN Committee on Sustainable Development (CSD), April 2001. Rural Development Division, Sustainable Development Department FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2005 The Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development Farming Systems Evolution project of FAO (GCP/INT/819/MUL) aims to strengthen the capacity of government and non-government stakeholders to improve policies and institutions to achieve sustainable agriculture and rural development. The project studied how selected farming systems in Honduras, Mali and the Philippines have evolved over the long term. Each case study identified the driving forces, current strengths and weaknesses of these farming systems, analyzed future scenarios, and identified policy priorities and actions for achieving sustainable agriculture and rural development. The project used participatory, bottom-up approaches and tools to ensure that the knowledge, priorities and views of stakeholders at all levels, including local rural communites and poor people, were taken into account. The case study integrates the cultural, social, economic",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "priorities and actions for achieving sustainable agriculture and rural development. The project used participatory, bottom-up approaches and tools to ensure that the knowledge, priorities and views of stakeholders at all levels, including local rural communites and poor people, were taken into account. The case study integrates the cultural, social, economic and environmental dimensions in the analysis of sustainability at local, territorial and national levels. The SARD-FSE project, supported by the governments of France and Japan, was implemented with the Programme for Sustainable Agriculture on Sloping Lands of Central America (PASOLAC) in Honduras, the Institute of Rural Economics (IER) in Mali and the Asian NGO Coalition for Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (ANGOC) in the Philippines. Participatory policy development for sustainable agriculture and rural development",
    "source": "rural_policy.pdf",
    "domain": "Agri life sciences"
  },
  {
    "text": "Give to AgEcon Search The World’s Largest Open Access Agricultural & Applied Economics Digital Library This document is discoverable and free to researchers across the globe due to the work of AgEcon Search. Help ensure our sustainability. AgEcon Search http://ageconsearch.umn.edu aesearch@umn.edu Papers downloaded from AgEcon Search may be used for non-commercial purposes and personal study only. No other use, including posting to another Internet site, is permitted without permission from the copyright owner (not AgEcon Search), or as allowed under the provisions of Fair Use, U.S. Copyright Act, Title 17 U.S.C. No endorsement of AgEcon Search or its fundraising activities by the author(s) of the following work or their employer(s) is intended or implied. CONTENTS List of Acronyms and Abbreviations List of Tables List of Illustrations Foreword Acknowledgements Executive Summary 1 Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 Objectives 1.3 Outline of the report 2 The National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems 2.1 Historical perspectives 2.1.1 Agricultural research and education system 2.1.2 Agricultural extension system 2.2 Contemporary institutional structure of the NARES 2.2.1 Agricultural research and education system 2.2.2 Agricultural extension system 3 Investments in Agricultural Research, Extension and Education 3.1 Investment in Agricultural Research and Education 3.1.1 The investment intensity: All India 3.1.2 Factor shares in research and education investment 3.1.3 Agricultural research and education investment by states 3.1.4 Allocation of research investment by commodity groups 3.2 Investment in agricultural extension 3.2.1 Trends in extension investment: All India 3.2.2 Extension intensity: States 4 Determinants of Agricultural Research and Extension Investments 4.1 Model specification 4.2 Results 5 Strengthening the Agricultural Research and Extension Systems 5.1 Increase research and extension investment 5.2 Diversify the institutional structure 5.3 Improving research and extension efficiency 6 Conclusions References Appendices ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AgGDP Agricultural gross domestic product AICRP All India Coordinated Research Project ARIS Agricultural research information",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "specification 4.2 Results 5 Strengthening the Agricultural Research and Extension Systems 5.1 Increase research and extension investment 5.2 Diversify the institutional structure 5.3 Improving research and extension efficiency 6 Conclusions References Appendices ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AgGDP Agricultural gross domestic product AICRP All India Coordinated Research Project ARIS Agricultural research information system CAG Comptroller and Auditor General CGIAR Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research CIFE Central Institute of Fisheries Education CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre CMIE Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial Research CSO Central Statistical Organisation DAC Department of Agriculture and Cooperation DARE Department of Agricultural Research and Education DBT Department of Biotechnology DES Directorate of Economics and Statistics DRDO Defence Research and Development Organisation DST Department of Science and Technology DVM Dummy variable model ECM Error components model FTC Farmers Training Centre FTE Full-time equivalent GCA Gross cropped area GDP Gross domestic product GLS Generalised least squares GOI Government of India IARI Indian Agricultural Research Institute IASRI Indian Agricultural Statistical Research Institute ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research IPR Intellectual property rights IVRI Indian Veterinary Research Institute KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendra LLP Lab-to-Land Programme MANAGE National Institute for Agricultural Extension Management MOA Ministry of Agriculture MOF Ministry of Finance NAARM National Academy of Agricultural Research Management NARES National agricultural research and extension systems NARP National Agricultural Research Project NAEPV National Agricultural Extension Project NARS National agricultural research system NATP National Agricultural Technology Project NB National Bureau NCAP National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research ND National Demonstration NDRI National Dairy Research Institute NGO Non-governmental organisation NRC National Research Centre OLS Ordinary least squares ORP Operation Research Project PD Project Directorate PME Priority setting, monitoring and evaluation RBI Reserve Bank of India R&D Research and development SAU State Agricultural University TTC Trainers'",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Policy Research ND National Demonstration NDRI National Dairy Research Institute NGO Non-governmental organisation NRC National Research Centre OLS Ordinary least squares ORP Operation Research Project PD Project Directorate PME Priority setting, monitoring and evaluation RBI Reserve Bank of India R&D Research and development SAU State Agricultural University TTC Trainers' Training Centre T&V Training and visit (system of extension) USAID United States Agency for International Development WTO World Trade Organisation ZARS Zonal Agricultural Research Station 2SLS Two stage least squares TABLES 2.1 Major activities of ICAR and SAU research system 3.1 Annual compound growth rates of government real investment in research and education 3.2 Share of central and state governments in the national investment 3.3 Intensity of government research and education investment: All India 3.4 Agricultural research intensity: All India 3.5 Composition of ICAR expenditure 3.6 Sate-wise growth rates and intensity ratios of government investment in research and education 3.7 Actual and normative share of states in the national research and education investment 3.8 Activityand commodity-wise break-up of ICAR plan allocations 3.9 Activity-wise allocations of total expenditure (Plan and non-Plan) 3.10 Growth and intensity of agricultural extension investment by government: All India 3.11 Agricultural extension intensity: All India 3.12 Growth and intensity of government investment in agricultural extension by states 4.1 Means and standard deviations of data set 4.2 2SLS estimates for government research and extension investments model 5.1 Returns to investment in research and extension 5.2 Efficient provision of agricultural research and extension services Appendices I Regions for the ICAR-state coordination in research and development II Data and their sources III Government investment in agricultural research and education by states IV Government investment in agricultural extension by states V 2SLS estimates for government research and extension intensity model ILLUSTRATIONS 1 Trends in government real investment in research, extension and",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "ICAR-state coordination in research and development II Data and their sources III Government investment in agricultural research and education by states IV Government investment in agricultural extension by states V 2SLS estimates for government research and extension intensity model ILLUSTRATIONS 1 Trends in government real investment in research, extension and education (at 1981/82 prices) 2 Actual and normative research investment by states 2.1 Institutional structure of the Indian agricultural research and education system 2.2 Location of ICAR institutions and SAUs 2.3 Institutional structure of the Indian agricultural extension system 3.1 Trends in government real investment in research and education in India (at 1981/82 prices) 3.2 Allocation of ICAR and SAUs funds (Plan and non-Plan) by activity 3.3 Trends in government real investment in extension in India (at 1981/82 prices) 4.1 Share of agriculture research and education in total plan outlays for agriculture FOREWORD Analytical work on agricultural research investments has been constrained by lack of reliable data. This report seeks to fill this void by providing detailed time-series data on research and extension investments. This takes our work in NCAP Policy Paper 3 'Research Priorities in Indian Agriculture' further. Analyses of growth in and determinants of research and extension investments would be useful for policy makers and researchers. The authors have also attempted to review and highlight ongoing reforms in the national agricultural research and extension systems, which are intended to improve the efficiency of these investments. We hope the intended audience will find this work useful. We solicit your comments. December, 1997 Dayanatha Jha New Delhi Director ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The seeds of this study were sown in preparation of background material on agricultural research and extension for the Ninth Plan and National Agricultural Technology Project. Dr. Dayanatha Jha, Director, NCAP provided all necessary support, encouragement and guidance to complete this",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "comments. December, 1997 Dayanatha Jha New Delhi Director ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The seeds of this study were sown in preparation of background material on agricultural research and extension for the Ninth Plan and National Agricultural Technology Project. Dr. Dayanatha Jha, Director, NCAP provided all necessary support, encouragement and guidance to complete this work. We are grateful to him and to Dr. Mruthyunjaya and Dr. Derek Byerlee for encouragement and suggestions. Special thanks are due to Dr. Rasheed Sulaiman V. for his patience in answering several queries on agricultural extension. Help and cooperation received from the Head, Library Services of the Ministry of Finance, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, and Indian Council of Agricultural Research during data collection are gratefully acknowledged. Dr. Derek Byerlee, Dr. Carl E. Pray, Dr. C. Ramasamy and Dr. Dayanatha Jha were kind enough to comment on an earlier draft of this report. Their comments have been extremely useful in improving the report. We are highly grateful to them. Thanks are also due to Ms Umeeta Ahuja for help in proper presentation of the manuscript. Needless to say, there remain errors and omissions, which are our responsibility. December 1997 Authors EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Agricultural research and education system is a three-tier system in India. At the centre, there is Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) with its 89 institutions to plan, promote, coordinate and execute research in the country. At the state level, there are 28 state agricultural universities (SAUs) and one central agricultural university to impart education and conduct research for the respective states. Affiliated to the SAUs are 120 zonal research stations to conduct adaptive research for the zone. Responsibility of extension lies with the state Department of Agriculture. The ICAR/SAU system undertakes only front-line extension activities. Funding to the ICAR is from the Union Government,",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and conduct research for the respective states. Affiliated to the SAUs are 120 zonal research stations to conduct adaptive research for the zone. Responsibility of extension lies with the state Department of Agriculture. The ICAR/SAU system undertakes only front-line extension activities. Funding to the ICAR is from the Union Government, while SAUs and extension system are mainly funded by the State governments. Some ICAR funds are also transferred to SAUs in the form of regular grants and research schemes. Participation of corporate sector (both public and private) in funding or execution of agricultural research is nascent, confined to embodied technologies like machinery, fertilizers, pesticides, hybrids and food processing. The national research agenda is growing rapidly in size and complexity. Acceleration in the growth of food products is still required to feed the growing population. Superimposed to this are the issues of sustainable use of natural resources, diversification towards high value crops, better product quality, bringing fragile areas into main stream of development, exportled growth, etc. These call for much higher degree of research and extension efforts in an efficient institutional and funding framework. The concern is whether current investment levels are adequate to address new, complex research needs of the country? What best can be done to make research and extension systems more efficient? We present estimates of current investments in research, extension and education, and argue for enhanced funding support, diversified institutional structure and improved management decision support system to increase technical (cost) and allocative efficiency of research and extension systems. Aggregate public investment in research and education, at 1981/82 prices, has shown consistently high growth (5.4 per cent) since 1960s (Figure 1). The major impetus came in the 1970s when the investment grew at the rate of 9.5 per cent, mainly because of manifold increase in the central",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "extension systems. Aggregate public investment in research and education, at 1981/82 prices, has shown consistently high growth (5.4 per cent) since 1960s (Figure 1). The major impetus came in the 1970s when the investment grew at the rate of 9.5 per cent, mainly because of manifold increase in the central funds. The investment, in terms of percentage of AgGDP (excluding forestry) increased from 0.21 per cent in the early 1960s to 0.39 per cent in the early 1980s, which further rose to 0.49 per cent in the early 1990s. The central and state funds contributed almost equally to the national investment. 'Research' intensity (net of education) is 0.42 per cent and the contribution of private sector is only 15 per cent. This level of 'research' intensity is much lower in India compared to 2.4 per cent in the developed countries. Figure 1 Trends in government real investment in research, extension and education in India (at 1981/82 prices) In spite of impressive growth in the aggregate, research and education intensity remained 0.21 per cent of AgGDP or less in large and low productivity states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. In the states of Orissa and Rajasthan, the intensity improved because of higher ICAR expenditure in these states. However, there is hardly any attempt to raise the intensity by allocating relatively higher resources to the remaining three states and there remain deviations between actual and desired resource allocations among the states (Figure 2). Similarly, there is a need for higher allocations to livestock, horticulture and social science research. Research efficiency is also impaired by the lack of operational expenses, which registered a sharp decline in the ICAR and SAUs. During the triennium ending 1994/95, annual nominal expenditure per scientist was as low as Rs 145 thousand in Madhya",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "for higher allocations to livestock, horticulture and social science research. Research efficiency is also impaired by the lack of operational expenses, which registered a sharp decline in the ICAR and SAUs. During the triennium ending 1994/95, annual nominal expenditure per scientist was as low as Rs 145 thousand in Madhya Pradesh and the national average was Rs 432 thousand. Given comparatively higher cost of capital, it is proposed that a ratio of 60:40 for salary to non-salary expenditure should be maintained. Efforts to increase operational funds under the National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) is a welcome step. The problem of inadequate investment is much more serious in extension. The intensity of public investment in extension increased moderately from 0.09 per cent of AgGDP in the early 1960s to 0.15 in the early 1990s. Adding the investment made by public and private industries to government investment, extension intensity reached 0.20 per cent (1992-94). Of the total, 92 per cent is public investment with the states' share being 93 per cent. Extension intensity is 0.06 per cent of AgGDP or less in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Punjab. Annual nominal expenditure per extension worker is as low as Rs 25 thousand. Even making allowances for low qualified extension workers, the low expenditure indicates lack of operational funds, questioning the effectiveness of extension system. In order to improve the efficiency of research and extension systems, concerted efforts on three fronts are indispensable. First, research and extension should be accorded high priority for government investment and the level of intensity should be doubled to correct imbalances in the factor shares and to rationalise allocation of resources across states and research programmes/commodities. Impressive rates of return to the past investments support the case for enhanced investments. Secondly, efforts",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "should be accorded high priority for government investment and the level of intensity should be doubled to correct imbalances in the factor shares and to rationalise allocation of resources across states and research programmes/commodities. Impressive rates of return to the past investments support the case for enhanced investments. Secondly, efforts should be made to diversify the institutional structure. The principles of institutional economics and experience of developed countries suggest that myriad forms of institutions like public, private, voluntary and farmers organisations and some combination thereof, may be more efficient for the provision of research and extension services because the degree of subtractability and excludability differs at different stages of research and extension spectrum. Public research institutions may be more efficient in the provision of upstream or basic and strategic research. The ICAR and SAUs should, therefore, concentrate on upstream and crop and resource management research, besides education. Within the ICAR/SAU system, location specific research on crop and resource management should be concentrated in SAUs. Accumulating body of evidence indicates increasing trend of private investment in applied research, i.e., development and dissemination of embodied technologies. This trend should be encouraged by liberal industrial and regulatory policies, placement and effective enforcement of intellectual property rights, besides providing basic research support. As the private sector become competitive, public research programme should withdraw from applied research activities like mechanical and chemical technologies and hybrids. This would also imply reduction in the public sector's involvement in transfer of embodied technologies. Adaptive research can be provided by private sector, and non-governmental and producers' organisations. Figure 2 Actual and normative allocation of national research investment Research coordination by the ICAR will be a difficult task in a multi-institutional set up. Networking, contract research and regulatory mechanism may help coordinate and link upstream, applied and adaptive research. Equally",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "by private sector, and non-governmental and producers' organisations. Figure 2 Actual and normative allocation of national research investment Research coordination by the ICAR will be a difficult task in a multi-institutional set up. Networking, contract research and regulatory mechanism may help coordinate and link upstream, applied and adaptive research. Equally important task would be to neutralise the externalities of proprietary technologies like neglect of sustainability issues and research needs of marginal areas and confusion arising from contradicting publicity to increase sales. Thus, the ICAR has to play a far more active and challenging role in the governance of research. Third important issue is institutionalisation of improved research planning, monitoring and evaluation mechanism. Given the size and complexity of research system, a well structured information and decision support system is indispensable for improving the technical and allocative efficiency. Entire process of research planning including priority setting, monitoring and evaluation should be based on the principles of relevance, objectivity, transparency and simplicity. Present top-down planning process should be replaced with client focused, bottomup approach. Similarly research approach should be system oriented and multidisciplinary. Evaluation process should have teeth and effective link with the incentive structure. As regards extension, rigidity of extension approach and lack of incentive have constrained extension workers to innovate and respond to client needs. A need-based and flexible extension approach, making extension workers accountable to stakeholders and performance based incentive structure are critical to improve the efficiency of extension system. There should be additional incentives for extension workers in remote, difficult areas so as to make these areas attractive to work. Also, diversification of funding and delivery system involving private (for profit and non-profit sector should be encouraged through appropriate regulatory policies. Some reforms like provision of contract research, increasing operating funds and developing information system have been initiated",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "remote, difficult areas so as to make these areas attractive to work. Also, diversification of funding and delivery system involving private (for profit and non-profit sector should be encouraged through appropriate regulatory policies. Some reforms like provision of contract research, increasing operating funds and developing information system have been initiated on the above suggested lines, particularly under the NATP. The success of these and other suggested reforms would depend on government's will and wherewithals to implement and ability of scientists and extension workers to avail them. 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background The development of the national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES) in India can be traced back to substantial investment made by the central and state governments, particularly since Independence. In the successive five year plans, concerted efforts were made to strengthen the central and state level research system. As a result, the NARES could grow in size and intensity of efforts. The accumulating body of evidence indicates that the Indian NARES have successfully addressed research needs of the country through the development and dissemination of appropriate technologies. Technological advancements have accelerated and sustained appreciable growth in agricultural production and the country is not only self sufficient in food production but also a net exporter of agricultural products. It has been shown empirically that the investment in agricultural research and extension is the main source of growth in agricultural total factor productivity in India and the rates of return are impressive (Evenson and Jha, 1973; Evenson and McKinsey, 1991; Rosegrant and Evenson, 1992; Kumar and Rosegrant, 1994). It is believed that compared to other alternatives, the investment in agricultural research and extension is much more productive in terms of accelerating the pace of development. In India, unlike many other countries which witnessed decline in research funding, high rates of return",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Evenson, 1992; Kumar and Rosegrant, 1994). It is believed that compared to other alternatives, the investment in agricultural research and extension is much more productive in terms of accelerating the pace of development. In India, unlike many other countries which witnessed decline in research funding, high rates of return ensured continuous higher allocations of public funds to research and extension. However, the development of certain economic forces in the recent past may result in reduced funding to the NARES in future. The most important among these forces is the policy of fiscal discipline adopted by the Indian government, emphasising substantial reduction in government expenditure to bring down fiscal deficit. Second, alternative sources of funding, particularly increasing participation of private sector in agricultural research and extension, have developed a psychological impression that the growth in public funding to the NARES could be slowed down. Third, it is believed that the size of the public NARES has reached its maxima. Emphasis should now be placed more on improving the efficiency of the system rather than its horizontal expansion. At the same time, there are several new, complex research problems related to the development of Indian agriculture that need immediate attention. Research agenda has expanded further due to growing demand for conservation of natural resources for their sustainable use, besides acceleration of growth in productivity and alleviation of poverty. There is also urgent need for appropriate technologies to break yield barriers, improve product quality, and diversify product-mix towards high value products for attaining the household food and nutrition security Also, higher efficiency in production through technological advancements is necessary to compete in world market and to initiate export led growth in agriculture. The development of fragile areas, comprising arid, semi and hill zones, has to be accorded high priority for balanced regional",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "attaining the household food and nutrition security Also, higher efficiency in production through technological advancements is necessary to compete in world market and to initiate export led growth in agriculture. The development of fragile areas, comprising arid, semi and hill zones, has to be accorded high priority for balanced regional development. In other words, sustainable agricultural development nee a complete shift from natural resource based to science based agriculture In this process, the development and transfer of information and s intensive technologies is critical. Obviously, all these call for higher deg of research and extension efforts, both in terms of intensity and quality Reliable information on levels of funding and stock of research c extension thrust needs is necessary for resolving these conflicting view points. Research and development agenda is well articulated on several fora (DARE/ICAR, 1996 and Planning Commission, 1996). However, there is dearth of information on the levels of research and extension investment on regional basis. There have been some attempts to assess research intensity in the country. Mohan et al. (1973) developed research expenditure series from 1950 to 1968. These data were subsequently updated by Boyce and Evenson (1975) and Pardey and Roseboom (1989). In these studies research expenditure is delineated from the total expenditure which also includes education and extension, on the basis of share of research in the total expenditure of select institutions. This has underestimated research expenditure (Rajeswari, 1995). These studies have two critical gaps. First, regional investment dimension is adequately addressed. Even at the national level, it is difficult to comp the intensity with that in other countries because of differences in indicators of intensity. Second, These studies do not cover investment education and extension. A good amount of research is carried out postgraduate programmes and therefore exclusion of education may underestimate research",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the national level, it is difficult to comp the intensity with that in other countries because of differences in indicators of intensity. Second, These studies do not cover investment education and extension. A good amount of research is carried out postgraduate programmes and therefore exclusion of education may underestimate research efforts. There has been tremendous growth in NARES and the research and development thrusts are changing rapidly. It is, therefore, important to assess the current research and extension efforts with adequate emphasis on their regional dimension. Apart from investment levels, there are several other issues investment in different research activities (basic, applied and adaptive research), factor shares and functional allocation (allocation across commodities and research problem areas) of research investment, and sources of funding which need indepth analysis. An insight into these issues is essential for augmenting and efficient use of research funds. Interactions between sources of funding and execution of research is important for raising the funding and developing appropriate institutional structure (Echeverria et al., 1996). For example, private sector can fund and conduct mostly applied or adaptive research. Therefore, adequacy of investment levels and institutional arrangements can be assessed only when research needs in terms of their levels, viz. basic and strategic, applied, and adaptive are made explicit. This study is an attempt to fill this information gap. 1.2 Objectives The following are the specific objectives of this study: I. To estimate the levels and pattern of the investment in agricultural research, extension and education; II. To examine research resource allocations across states and commodities; III. To study the determinants of public investment in agricultural research, extension and education, and IV. To suggest measures to improve the efficiency of the national agricultural research and extension systems. 1.3 Outline of the report The next chapter presents a historical perspective",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "research resource allocations across states and commodities; III. To study the determinants of public investment in agricultural research, extension and education, and IV. To suggest measures to improve the efficiency of the national agricultural research and extension systems. 1.3 Outline of the report The next chapter presents a historical perspective and contemporary institutional structure of the NARES. The estimates of research, extension and education investments are given in chapter 3. This chapter also gives regional and commodity allocations of research investment. Chapter 4 analyses the determinants of public investment in research, extension and education. Necessary adjustments in institutional arrangements for efficient provision of research and extension services and their funding implications are suggested in chapter 5. Finally, chapter 6 summarises main conclusions of the study. 2 THE NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION SYSTEMS 2.1 Historical Perspectives Historically, agricultural research, extension and education in India have been in the public domain. The theory of public goods holds true for research and therefore, agricultural research was conducted in the research organisations which were administered and funded by the state. Besides this, lack of capital in private sector and low appropriability of technologies did not attract significant private investment in agricultural research in the country. The research and extension policies and regulations also were framed in the context of public institutions. However, research environment has gone a sea change over time and therefore, funding and execution of agricultural research and extension have changed accordingly. This chapter reviews the major developments in the Indian NARES. 2.1.1 Agricultural research and education system (This section is largely based on the information available in Randhawa (1979, 1983 and 1986)) In the early stage of education system in India, agricultural science was in the domain of public funded general universities, as a part of natural sciences. With advancements",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "NARES. 2.1.1 Agricultural research and education system (This section is largely based on the information available in Randhawa (1979, 1983 and 1986)) In the early stage of education system in India, agricultural science was in the domain of public funded general universities, as a part of natural sciences. With advancements in science, agriculture, mainly crop science, was separated from natural sciences, but was still taught in the general universities. Crop research to some extent was also conducted. The development of independent agricultural research and education institutions can be traced back to the late 19th century. The process started with the pioneering efforts of Lord Mayo, the then Governor General of India, leading to the establishment of Department of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce in the Imperial and Provincial Governments in 1871. The Department was strengthened by adding staff after the report of Famine Commission (1880). Main functions of the Department of Agriculture, as defined in the resolution of 1881, were agricultural enquiry, improvement and famine relief. During the last decade of the 19th century, experts were recruited in the Department of Agriculture, and research and teaching in agriculture and forestry was started at few places. The foundation of the Imperial Bacteriological Laboratory (now Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly) was laid at Pune in 1890, to start organised livestock research. It was subsequently shifted to Mukteswar in the Kumaon hills in 1893. The Civil Veterinary Department was created in 1889 and five veterinary colleges were also established at Babugarh (1877), Lahore (1882), Bombay (1886), and Madras and Calcutta (both in 1893). Agricultural research and education got major support in the first decade of the 20th century when Lord Curzon was the Viceroy of India. The most significant milestone was the establishment of the Imperial (now Indian) Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) at Pusa",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Bombay (1886), and Madras and Calcutta (both in 1893). Agricultural research and education got major support in the first decade of the 20th century when Lord Curzon was the Viceroy of India. The most significant milestone was the establishment of the Imperial (now Indian) Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) at Pusa in Bihar in 1905. The 'Pusa' institute suffered from a devastating earthquake in 1934 and was therefore, shifted to New Delhi, a central place, in 1936. The development of research work at the IARI over time led to the origin of a number of research institutions. Also in 1905, six agricultural colleges were established in important provinces at Pune (Maharashtra), Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh), Sabour (Bihar), Nagpur (Maharashtra), Faisalabad (now in Pakistan) and Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) with an annual grant of Rs 2 million from the Government of India. These colleges were adequately equipped with staff and laboratories and were charged with the responsibility of research and teaching. Another significant development was the establishment of the Imperial (now Indian) Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1929, an autonomous body, on the recommendation of the Royal Commission on Agriculture (1926). The ICAR was mandated to promote, guide and coordinate agricultural research in the country. With a non-lapsing fund of Rs 5 million, the ICAR was expected to supplement research activities of provinces and train scientific manpower. However, the ICAR had no administrative control over research institutions in the provinces. The establishment of the ICAR, in a way, was empowerment of agricultural research in India. Concomitantly, a number of central commodity committees were constituted, mainly for commercial crops (cotton, 1921; lac, 1931; jute, 1936; sugarcane, 1944; coconut, 1945; tobacco, 1945; oilseeds, 1947; arecanut, 1949; and spices and cashewnut, 1958). These committees were semi-autonomous bodies financed by grants from the Government of India and/or",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in India. Concomitantly, a number of central commodity committees were constituted, mainly for commercial crops (cotton, 1921; lac, 1931; jute, 1936; sugarcane, 1944; coconut, 1945; tobacco, 1945; oilseeds, 1947; arecanut, 1949; and spices and cashewnut, 1958). These committees were semi-autonomous bodies financed by grants from the Government of India and/or by income from cesses and were expected to promote overall commodity development, including research. In fact, many committees established research stations. These committees had representation of various stakeholders like producers, trade and industry, agricultural department, etc., and Vice-President of the ICAR was ex-officio President of the committee. The funding of these committees from cesses was the first attempt to link research funding with the beneficiaries. The commodity approach to research lacked coordination between commodities and neglected research areas applicable across commodities like soil management. The need was, therefore, recognised to initiate research on cross-commodity basis. Also, the idea of regionalisation research was getting momentum. These forces led to the establishment of Composite Regional Stations for research on cotton, oilseeds millets in 17 regions in 1956. These stations were under the administrative control of the ICAR and research progress was monitored by the regional coordination committees. The research expenditure was shared by Indian Central Cotton Committee, the Indian Central Oilseeds Committee and the ICAR. Although the ICAR was established as a coordinating body, effective research coordination was missing because the ICAR did not have administrative control over many of the central or any of the provincial research stations. In order to provide effective coordination to commodity research, the concept of coordinated research project for improvement was introduced. In 1957, the first All India Coordinated Project on maize was started with the technical support from Rockfeller Foundation. The project was multidisciplinary in nature pooled staff working in different regions. This was the",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "provide effective coordination to commodity research, the concept of coordinated research project for improvement was introduced. In 1957, the first All India Coordinated Project on maize was started with the technical support from Rockfeller Foundation. The project was multidisciplinary in nature pooled staff working in different regions. This was the beginning research planning on the basis of agro-climatic zones, cutting ac political boundaries. The project was extremely successful and paved way for establishment of a series of all India coordinated research projects. On the recommendation of the Agricultural Research Review T (1964), the ICAR was reorganised in 1965 for coordinating, directing promoting agricultural research in the country. All the commodity committees were abolished and research institutes under these committees and Central Department of Agriculture and Food gradually transferred to the ICAR. This led to centralisation of funding execution and management of agricultural research with greater autonomy and empowerment to the ICAR. A Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE) was created in 1973 in the central Ministry Agriculture to establish direct linkages of the ICAR with central and state governments, and international organisations. The Director General of ICAR, a scientist, was concurrently designated as Secretary to the DARE For centre-state coordination, eight regional committees were formed. Several new research institutions under the ICAR came into existence However, major expansion under the ICAR took place on the line commodity research. Funds for these research institutes were channelled through the ICAR from the central government. Research stations under the administrative control of the state governments continued to be funded by state governments. Although a number of agricultural and veterinary colleges were functioning under the Department of Agriculture in the states, agricultural education maintained a low profile. These colleges were crippled with administrative and financial constraints. There was virtually no coordination between agricultural",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the state governments continued to be funded by state governments. Although a number of agricultural and veterinary colleges were functioning under the Department of Agriculture in the states, agricultural education maintained a low profile. These colleges were crippled with administrative and financial constraints. There was virtually no coordination between agricultural and veterinary colleges. The University Education Commission (1949) felt the need for establishing rural (agricultural) universities in the states. Subsequently, the two Joint Indo-American Teams (1955 and 1960) endorsed the establishment of state agricultural universities (SAUs). The SAUs were set up on land-grant pattern of the American universities. The first one was started in 1960 at Pantnagar in Uttar Pradesh. The SAUs were given autonomous status and direct funding from the state governments. These universities imparted education on all aspects of agriculture on the same residential campus and integrated teaching with research and extension. The US Agency for International Development (USAID) and the American land-grant universities helped development of SAUs in India. Subsequently, implementation of the recommendations of the Education Commission (1964-66) and Review Committee on Agricultural Universities (1977/78) streamlined their functioning and all matters related to agricultural research in the states were transferred to the universities. The regional research capacity in the states was further strengthened by establishing the regional agricultural research stations under the National Agricultural Research Project (NATP) in 1979 with assistance from the World Bank. These research stations, in different agro-climatic zones of the states, were under the administrative control of SAUs. Addressing zonal research needs and fostering linkages between research, extension and farmers were the main responsibilities of these research stations (Ghosh, 1991). Meanwhile, there has been tremendous growth in non-agricultural universities and other scientific organisations, notably, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and fostering linkages between research, extension and farmers were the main responsibilities of these research stations (Ghosh, 1991). Meanwhile, there has been tremendous growth in non-agricultural universities and other scientific organisations, notably, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Department of Science and Technology (DST). These organisations also continued to strengthen, directly or indirectly, agricultural research and education. The participation of industries both in public and private sectors in agricultural research was absent until 1950s. With the adoption of new seed-fertilizer technology in the mid-sixties, there was phenomenal growth in the industrial sector for the production of inputs. However, research activities in these industries were at the margin. The entry of private sector in seed research started in the 1970s with the popularisation hybrids. The passage of new policy on seed development in ' streamed seed research in the private sector, allowing participation transnational seed companies. 2.1.2 Agricultural extension system The national agricultural extension system also evolved with establishment of the Department of Agriculture in the Imperial provincial governments. Efforts to strengthen this Department continued up to the time of Independence. Agricultural extension was one of activities of the Department and no special attention was paid accelerate transfer of technology efforts. However, some isolated attempts were made to start special rural development programmes, including improvement of agriculture (Prasad, 1989). Soon it was realised sporadic and adhoc programmes might not be effective and that there was a need for sustained rural (including agricultural) development programmes. A nationwide, multi-purpose extension network backed with professionals became indispensable. Consequently, 55 Comma Development Projects were started in 1952. Each project covered villages with a village level worker for a group of 10 villages. For e project, extension officers-technical persons in agriculture, animal husbandry, cooperation,",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "rural (including agricultural) development programmes. A nationwide, multi-purpose extension network backed with professionals became indispensable. Consequently, 55 Comma Development Projects were started in 1952. Each project covered villages with a village level worker for a group of 10 villages. For e project, extension officers-technical persons in agriculture, animal husbandry, cooperation, village industries and rural engineering-w provided. The programme was based on the philosophy of integrated rural development. In 1953, the National Extension Service Program identical to the community development programme but with less resource intensity, was launched with a view to cover the entire country 1960/61. The programme aimed to accelerate the pace of rural development, including increased employment and production by application of scientific methods in agriculture. The programme greatly emphasised the principle of development through selfhelp and peoples participation. The central government largely bore the cost of programme. Front-line extension work also was initiated as agricultural research system grew in the ICAR and SAUs. A department or directorate extension was established in the ICAR institutes and SAUs. The basic objective of these departments was to conduct extension research demonstrate latest technologies, provide feedback to scientists, a provide training support to State Department of Agriculture. Besides, the ICAR started three major front-line extension projects, viz. National Demonstration Project (1965), Operational Research Project (1972) and Lab-to-Land Project (1979). Another significant development in front-line extension was the establishment of Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) and Trainers' Training Centres (TTCs) in 1974. These KVKs and TTCs were aimed to improve technical literacy of farmers including rural women on the principle of 'teaching by doing and learning by doing'. These KVKs are currently managed by the ICAR institutes, SAUs and nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) with financial support from the ICAR. The central government also launched several schemes to achieve self-sufficiency in food production. The important",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "farmers including rural women on the principle of 'teaching by doing and learning by doing'. These KVKs are currently managed by the ICAR institutes, SAUs and nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) with financial support from the ICAR. The central government also launched several schemes to achieve self-sufficiency in food production. The important programmes were: Intensive Agricultural District Programme (1961) and Intensive Agricultural Areas Programme (1964). These programmes concentrated on the transfer of 'package of practices' and supply of critical inputs to farmers. In other words, extension strategy combined technical information with the supply of inputs. However, this strategy was discontinued with the reorganisation of the extension system under the Training and Visit (T&V) System in 1974-75. The T&V system emphasised single-purpose professional extension workers, regular training of extension personnel and transfer of technology through personal contact with farmers. This concept was further strengthened through establishing research-extension-farmer linkages under the National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP) in 1979. Another significant component of the extension system is the input industry, both in the public and private sectors. As noted earlier the industrial sector entered in a big way in the dissemination of chemical and mechanical technologies in the 1960s. The late 1980s marked real beginning of private sector in seed business. Input industry promotes the use of modern inputs through mass media and linking information with the supply of inputs. Several NGOs also got involved in agriculture and rural development activities during the period. 2.2 Contemporary Institutional Structure of the NARES 2.2.1 Agricultural research and education system The national agricultural research and education system (NARS), as evident from the historical developments reviewed above, is dominated by the public sector. Although agriculture is a state subject in the constitution of India, major components of the research system were initiated and funded by the Union Government. The",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "education system The national agricultural research and education system (NARS), as evident from the historical developments reviewed above, is dominated by the public sector. Although agriculture is a state subject in the constitution of India, major components of the research system were initiated and funded by the Union Government. The NARS has three main institutional set up with different mandates. These are: ICAR institutes to cater to upstream research needs, SAUs engaged in teaching and research for respective states, and ZARSs to undertake zonal-specific research. A structural diagram depicting these institutions and their linkages with other actors like public research organisations, international research centres and private sector is shown in Figure 2.1. The direction of research linkages is shown with arrows. The ICAR is the apex body at the centre to promote, undertake and coordinate research in all fields of agriculture in the country. The ICAR is linked with the Union Ministry of Agriculture through the DARE. The Council also coordinates directly with state governments and international organisations through the DARE. The Governing Body consisting of eminent agricultural scientists, academicians, legislators and farmers' representatives as its members, is the chief executive and policy making authority and the General Body is the supreme body of the ICAR. By the end of the Eighth Plan, the ICAR had established a network of 45 research institutes, 10 project directorates (PDs), 30 national research centres (NRCs), 4 national bureaux (NB) and 86 all India coordinated research projects (AlCRPs), etc. Four research institutes have the status of national institute and the rest are named as central institutes. The major research activities of these ICAR institutions are given in Table 2.1. A large number of the ICAR research institutes conduct basic/strategic, and applied research in discipline-based divisional set-up (Table 2.1). IARI, NDRI, IVRI, CIFE with the",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "status of national institute and the rest are named as central institutes. The major research activities of these ICAR institutions are given in Table 2.1. A large number of the ICAR research institutes conduct basic/strategic, and applied research in discipline-based divisional set-up (Table 2.1). IARI, NDRI, IVRI, CIFE with the status of 'deemed university' also undertake post-graduate teaching in agriculture. The AlCRPs have their research centres at the SAUs and are engaged in applied research. Some AlCRPs are elevated to the status of project directorate to provide backstopping research. The NRCs conduct research on specific problems in mission mode, non-divisional set-up. Although ICAR institutes are mandated to do basic and strategic research, a good deal of applied research is also conducted due to low research intensity in the SAUs. All the ICAR research institutions are managed by the management committee and research advisory committee. The management committee has wide representation, while research committee is a body of research professionals. Most of the ICAR institutions are organised on commodity pattern and very few are resource or discipline based. The SAUs are autonomous institutions for meeting educational and research needs of the states and these are managed by the board of management and academic council. All the states have at least one SAU. The ZARSs under the SAUs are mandated to cater to research needs of the zones. The SAUs are largely funded by state governments, but they also get regular grant from the ICAR. One Central Agricultural University with funding from the Union Government is also established for northeastern states. Figure 2.1 Institutional structure of the Indian agricultural research and educational system Table 2.1 Major activities of the ICAR and SAUs research system Institution Number Main activities Budget (1994/95)* (Rs, million) ICAR National research institute 4 Basic and strategic research of",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the Union Government is also established for northeastern states. Figure 2.1 Institutional structure of the Indian agricultural research and educational system Table 2.1 Major activities of the ICAR and SAUs research system Institution Number Main activities Budget (1994/95)* (Rs, million) ICAR National research institute 4 Basic and strategic research of national importance, education, man-power training 827 Central research institutes 41 Commodity/resource specific basic and strategic research with divisional set-up, education 1526 National bureaux 4 Conservation and exchange of germplasm, soil survey 113 Project directorates 10 To fill critical research gap in All India Coordinated Research Projects, research coordination 319 National research centres 30 Commodity/resource/discipline based strategic research in mission mode 228 All India coordinated research projects 86 Coordination of commodity/resource specific research in different zones of the country 861 Agricultural universities 5327 Central agric. university 1 Applied research and education for north eastern states SAUs 28 Applied research for the state and education Zonal research stations** 120 Adaptive research for the zone Source: ICAR (1996/97), ** Ghosh (1991); * ICAR (1995/96) Figure 2.2 shows geographical spread of ICAR institutions and SAUs in the country. All important states have at least one SAU and most of the SAUs are multi-campus. Some states have established new SAUs by elevating old campus to university. Although efforts were made to establish ICAR institutions in the major producing state of the mandated commodity, there appear to be some influence of political-economic factors. For example, a large number of institutions were established in the northern and southern statesthe states having larger representation in the Union Ministry of Agriculture, while western and north-eastern states were given low priority. Only recently, one agricultural university with the central assistance has been established. A large number of non-agricultural universities, government organisations and public sector undertakings are also involved directly or",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "southern statesthe states having larger representation in the Union Ministry of Agriculture, while western and north-eastern states were given low priority. Only recently, one agricultural university with the central assistance has been established. A large number of non-agricultural universities, government organisations and public sector undertakings are also involved directly or indirectly in agricultural research. Some universities like Banaras Hindu University, have independent faculty for agricultural research and education, while government departments or scientific organisations like DST, DBT, CSIR, DRDO, etc. conduct or support agricultural research directly or indirectly. The public sector industrial units are also involved in agricultural research, mainly on inputs, to some extent. Private sector undertakes research for the development of embodied technologies, viz. chemical, mechanical and biological (only hybrids). However, private sector research so far is adaptive in nature and is expected to intensify in the years to come with the adoption of favourable industrial and regulatory policies. Several private foundations, both national and international, also conduct and/or invest in agricultural research in the country. Research linkages and coordination Considering the size and multi-institutional set-up of the NARS, developing research linkages and coordination is a formidable challenge. The task is further complicated by the fact that the responsibility of agricultural research and development lies with state governments. The ICAR as an apex body, coordinates research and promotes inter-institutional research linkages. Since the ICAR supports SAUs through regular grants, it has direct participation in the management of the SAUs. Besides, regional committees were formed in 1975 to assess the status of research, extension and education in the ICAR institutes and SAUs in the eight regions of the country. These committees also make recommendations to undertake research on immediate problems of the region. Officials from the ICAR, ICAR institutes, SAUs, state line department, NGOs, members of parliament and farmers",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the status of research, extension and education in the ICAR institutes and SAUs in the eight regions of the country. These committees also make recommendations to undertake research on immediate problems of the region. Officials from the ICAR, ICAR institutes, SAUs, state line department, NGOs, members of parliament and farmers representatives are members of these committees. The geographical coverage of these regions is given in Appendix I. Another informal but effective link between various research institutions is the cross-nomination of members in various committees and scientific panels. As noted above, these committees and scientific panels have major say in planning and management of research. Efforts are made to ensure effective use of research resources and to avoid duplication of research efforts. Research collaboration with the CGIAR system, NARSs and research foundations overseas, etc. is operationalised by the ICAR through the DARE. However, SAUs can also directly collaborate with these international organisations. Linkages with the national private research organisations are direct. Public research institutions extend support such as supply of germplasm and training facilities to the private sector. Also, private research companies can collaborate directly with multinational companies or private research foundations abroad under the existing regulations which recently have been liberalised to a great extent (for detailed discussion, see Singh et al., 1995). 2.2.2 Agricultural extension system Broadly, there are four major components of the Indian extension or transfer of technology system: (i) agricultural extension service with the state governments, (ii) extension education system of ICAR and SAD system, (iii) extension programme of input industries in public and private sectors and NGOs, and (iv), special rural development programmes of the central and state governments. However, main responsibility of transfer of technology rests with the state governments as agriculture is a state subject. The central government also implements several schemes having",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "extension programme of input industries in public and private sectors and NGOs, and (iv), special rural development programmes of the central and state governments. However, main responsibility of transfer of technology rests with the state governments as agriculture is a state subject. The central government also implements several schemes having transfer of technology component, through the state governments. Institutional structure of the Indian extension system is shown in Figure 2.3. The main extension system comprises the Directorate of Extension in the Union Ministry of Agriculture at the centre and T&V system under the state Department of Agriculture. In the T&V system, professional extension workers work with contact farmers for the transfer of information and skill. Training support to the T&V system is provided by the ICAR/SAU system (for details of T&V system, see Misra, 1990). The Directorate of Extension plans extension activities at national level and disseminates information through mass media and publication of literature. For training of extension staff, there is a three-tier training system. At the national level for training of senior and middle level staff, an autonomous institute, namely, National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) was established. There are four regional extension training institutes and several state training institutes for training of extension workers. Several development programmes like integrated rural development programme, watershed development programme, operation flood, technology mission for crops, etc. sponsored by other government departments contain transfer of technology component. In 1994, the scope of extension was widened under the broadbased agricultural extension' in farming system approach to include all landbased activities. Figure 2.3 Institutional structure of the Indian agricultural extension system The ICAR/SAU front-line extension system plays a catalytic and supportive role. It develops extension methodology, refines and transfers front-line technologies, and provides feedback to scientists. This system has three approaches. First is",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "farming system approach to include all landbased activities. Figure 2.3 Institutional structure of the Indian agricultural extension system The ICAR/SAU front-line extension system plays a catalytic and supportive role. It develops extension methodology, refines and transfers front-line technologies, and provides feedback to scientists. This system has three approaches. First is the special transfer of technology programmes like National Demonstration (ND), Operation Research Project (ORP), and Lab-to-land Programme (LLP). Most recent in the series is the Institute-Village Linkage Programme started in 1995/96 for technology assessment and refinement. The second approach comprises the transfer of technology and training by the KVKs and TTCs on the principle of 'learning by doing'. There are 261 KVKs functioning in the country under the ICAR institutes, SAUs and NGOs. Front-line extension programmes (ND, ORP, LLP) are presently merged with the KVKs. Eight TTCs provide training to the KVK staff. In the third approach, ICAR/SAU system provide training to the master trainers (subject matter specialists) working in the state line department through monthly workshops. Private input companies are involved only in the transfer of chemical (fertilizers, pesticides), mechanical and biological (hybrid seeds) technologies developed/produced by them. Public sector companies and seed corporations also undertake transfer of technology activities related to the sale of their products i.e., farm inputs. Commodity groups/boards also promote commodity specific extension activities. Many NGOs also undertake extension activities as part of their development programmes. Some NGOs are also managing ICAR-supported KVKs. Research-extension linkages Efforts have been made to institutionalise research-extension linkages at national, regional, state and zonal levels. At the national level, under the ICAR-DAC interface joint meetings of the senior officers from the ICAR and Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC) are organised twice a year to discuss critical research and development issues. At the regional level, eight regional committees were constituted",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "regional, state and zonal levels. At the national level, under the ICAR-DAC interface joint meetings of the senior officers from the ICAR and Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC) are organised twice a year to discuss critical research and development issues. At the regional level, eight regional committees were constituted to review research and development status in the ICAR institutes and SAUs located in the region. These committees represented by the senior research and extension officers, farmers representatives and NGOs meet once in two years. The Zonal Agricultural Research and Extension Advisory Committee meetings and seasonal workshops at the zonal level facilitate close interaction between researchers, extension workers and farmers. In the T&V system, research-extension linkages are institutionalised through monthly/bimonthly workshops for the training of master trainers or subject matter specialists in state line department by the researchers. To sum up, it may be concluded that although the Indian NARES have grown in size and efforts, they are still dominated by government funded and administered institutions. There have been some initiatives like provision of contract research, rationalisation of seed regulations and entry of transnationals, in the recent past to diversify the NARES by encouraging private sector and NGOs. These efforts should be strengthened in future for efficient provision of research and extension services to farmers through diversified institutional arrangements. 3 INVESTMENTS IN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH, EXTENSION AND EDUCATION As seen in chapter 2, the national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES) in India are dominated by government-funded institutions. This chapter, therefore, mainly presents the estimates of government or public investments in agricultural research, extension and education (hereafter, research, extension and education). An attempt also is made to assess private investment in research and extension in the country. First, combined investment in research and education is discussed as research and education are",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "mainly presents the estimates of government or public investments in agricultural research, extension and education (hereafter, research, extension and education). An attempt also is made to assess private investment in research and extension in the country. First, combined investment in research and education is discussed as research and education are highly complementary activities and the national agricultural research system (NARS) is pursuing both these activities jointly. Moreover, the distinction between research and education expenditures was not uniformly maintained in the government accounts, making delineation of 'research' expenditure difficult. This is followed by analysis of public investment in extension. Government investment includes the expenditure made by the Union and all the State governments, and Union Territories. These data were compiled from various official accounts of the Union and State governments (GAG, MOF and RBI) and contain all plan and non-plan expenditures on revenue as well as on capital accounts. The sources of data are given in Appendix II. The terms, investment and expenditure, are used interchangeably throughout this report, as all expenditure (revenue or capital) generate new knowledge or technology, i.e., research assets. 3.1 Investment in Agricultural Research and Education Funds from the Union Government support the ICAR, the apex body charged with the responsibility of policy planning, execution and coordination of research. Besides supporting a network of ICAR institutions, a part of funds are transferred to SAUs in the form of research schemes and annual grants. The State governments support SAUs which are entrusted with the responsibility of imparting education and conducting state or location specific research. Some government funds are also used to support research in public organisations like Agro-economic Research Centres and commodity research stations outside the ICAR and SAU system. Research funding from commodity boards like tea, coffee, etc. are not included here. Actual year-wise expenditure on",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and conducting state or location specific research. Some government funds are also used to support research in public organisations like Agro-economic Research Centres and commodity research stations outside the ICAR and SAU system. Research funding from commodity boards like tea, coffee, etc. are not included here. Actual year-wise expenditure on research and education incurred by the Union and State governments since 1960/61 is given in Appendix III. 3.1.1 The investment intensity : All India The trends in total government investment in research and education at 1981/82 prices in the country since 1960/61 are shown in Figure 3.1. This figure shows impressive growth in real investment made by the central and state governments. The real investment (centre+state) in 1994/95 registered more than five-fold increase since the 1960s. The phases of change in the real investment correspond to organisational changes in the NARS. The low and declining central investment during the late 1960s coincides with the shift from multi-channel research funding (various commodity committees, ICAR, etc.) to centralised funding to the ICAR. The establishment of the SAUs accelerated the state funding in the 1960s and the state funds contributed all the growth in total investment in the country. Reorganisation of the ICAR in 1973 and substantial increase in the investment in the Fifth Plan (197478) set a sharp uptrend in the central funds. Efforts to strengthen the decentralised research capacity with the implementation of the National Agricultural Research Project and much higher allocations in the Eighth Plan (Table 3.8) have further accelerated the growth in total investment. The decade-wise growth rates (Table 3.1) indicate that the total investment, in real terms grew at the rate of 5.4 per cent since 1960s. The investment made by the states grew much faster than the central in the 1960s and 1980s, whereas the growth in",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the growth in total investment. The decade-wise growth rates (Table 3.1) indicate that the total investment, in real terms grew at the rate of 5.4 per cent since 1960s. The investment made by the states grew much faster than the central in the 1960s and 1980s, whereas the growth in the latter was remarkably high during the 1970s. Table 3.1 Annual compound growth rates of government real investment in research and education (%) Period Centre States Total 1960/61 to 1969/70 -16.71 9.07 6.52 1970/71 to 1979/80 6132 -0.05 9.57 1980/81 to 1994/95 5.88 6.83 6.29 1960/61 to 1994/95 11.99 3.46 5.38 The changing emphasis on the structure of the NARS over time has changed the share of centre and state governments in the national investment. As seen from Table 3.2, during the 1960s and 1970s state governments' funds contributed most of the total investment. Their share rose from 80 per cent in the early sixties to 97 per cent in the early seventies. However, more than proportionate increase in the central funding raised the center's share substantially (55 per cent) in the early nineties. Figure 3.1 Trends in government real research and education investment in India (at 1981/82 prices) Table 3.2 Share (%) of central and state governments in the national investment Period (three-year average) Centre States 1960/61 to 62/63 20.1 79.9 1970/71 to 72/73 3.3 96.7 1980/81 to 82/83 46.9 53.1 1991/92 to 93/94 44.6 55.4 As seen from Table 3.3, research and education intensity, as measured by the investment as percentage of agricultural (excluding forestry) gross domestic product (AgGDP), rose from 0.23 in the early seventies to 0.39 in the early eighties and to 0.49 in the early nineties. Also, the real investment per ha of gross cropped area (GCA) increased over time, reaching Rs 20.65 in the",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "investment as percentage of agricultural (excluding forestry) gross domestic product (AgGDP), rose from 0.23 in the early seventies to 0.39 in the early eighties and to 0.49 in the early nineties. Also, the real investment per ha of gross cropped area (GCA) increased over time, reaching Rs 20.65 in the early nineties. These intensity ratios indicate that the investment in research and education is growing since 1960s, but the major jump came in the 1980s, almost doubling research intensity in the country. Another important investment indicator is the number of scientists, which is not readily available. Recent data compiled by the ICAR (ICAR, 1995/96) and Rao and Muralidhar (1994) indicate that there are about 22,249 scientists engaged in research and teaching in ICAR/SAU system. With these data annual nominal investment per scientist during the early nineties works out be Rs 0.4 million. Apart from governments, industries in public and private sectors also invest in research on seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, machinery, drugs, sugar, and food and leather processing. Adding this industrial investment to government investment, gives aggregate 'research' intensity (net of education) in the country. Government 'research' expenditure was obtained by taking out education expenditure from the total. The share of 'research' is 86.9 per cent in ICAR and 53.5 per cent in SAUs (Arrived at by charging all and half of administrative expenses to research for the ICAR and SAUs, respectively) (Table 3.9). Aggregate 'research' intensity (Table 3.4) shows that during 1992-94 (three-year average), governments contributed 80 per cent to national research investment. The contribution of public sector industries was only 5 per cent, raising the share of public investment to 85 per cent. Table 3.3 Intensity of government research and education investment: All India Indicator 1960-62 1970-72 1980-82 1992-94 1. Investment at current prices (Rs, million) 142 409 1858",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "national research investment. The contribution of public sector industries was only 5 per cent, raising the share of public investment to 85 per cent. Table 3.3 Intensity of government research and education investment: All India Indicator 1960-62 1970-72 1980-82 1992-94 1. Investment at current prices (Rs, million) 142 409 1858 9617 2. Investment at 1981/82 prices (Rs, million) 729 1081 1887 3831 3. Ratio of investment to AgGDP (%) 0.21 0.23 0.39 0.49 4. Investment/ha of GCA (Rs) at current prices 0.93 2.47 10.49 51.85 at constant prices 4.77 6.57 10.65 20.65 5. Number of scientists * * * 22249 6. Investment/scientist (000 Rs) at current prices * * * 432.27 at constant prices * * * 172.18 7. Area/scientists (000 ha of GCA) * * * 8.34 Note: Figures are three-year averages * number of scientists are not available Only 15 per cent investment came from the private sector. All together the country spends 0.42 per cent of AgGDP on research, which is quite low as compared to other countries. It is about 0.5 per cent for developing countries and 2.4 per cent for developed countries. Efforts should be made to raise the intensity to at least a commonly described norm of 1 per cent of AgGDP (Previously the World Bank followed a norm of 2 per cent, but now a goal of 1 per cent of AgGDP is suggested for low-income developing countries (Derek Byerlee, personal communication)) Another important indicator of research intensity is the annual research expenditure per scientist. There are 11,048 full-time equivalent (FTE) scientists in the country. Of these, 3,977 are working with the ICAR and 7,071 with the SAUs. Annual nominal research expenditure per scientist is much higher in the ICAR Rs 0.9 million as against Rs 0.4 million in the SAUs, giving an",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "per scientist. There are 11,048 full-time equivalent (FTE) scientists in the country. Of these, 3,977 are working with the ICAR and 7,071 with the SAUs. Annual nominal research expenditure per scientist is much higher in the ICAR Rs 0.9 million as against Rs 0.4 million in the SAUs, giving an average expenditure of Rs 0.6 million per FTE scientist. 3.1.2 Factor shares in research and education investment It is important to balance the factor shares in total investment. Shortage of funds for a critical factor may seriously impair the efficiency of the system. The share of various factors, namely, salary, capital and operating expenses are not readily available, especially for SAUs. The data compiled from ICAR budget book (1994/95) give some idea about factor share in the total expenditure. As seen from Table 3.5, salary or establishment cost cornered 46 per cent of the total funds and 37 per cent went to meet operating and equipments cost in the 1980/81. The share of salary rose to 63 per cent in the midnineties, whereas the share of operating and equipments cost decreased to 23 per cent. Expenditure analysis done during the preparation of Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) also indicates substantial reduction in the share of 'operating expenses' (net of equipment cost) in the ICAR expenditure. The share of 'operating expenses' is even lower in (about 20 per cent) the SAUs (ICAR/World Bank NATP documents, personal communication) Furthermore, infrastructure maintenance constitutes large part of operating cost, leaving operating funds for research projects at margin. Thus the share of operating expenses in India is much lower than that in other developing countries which is 25 per cent of total expenses and 30 per cent of total recurring expenses. The corresponding figures for the US are 23 per cent and 25 per cent, respectively",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "at margin. Thus the share of operating expenses in India is much lower than that in other developing countries which is 25 per cent of total expenses and 30 per cent of total recurring expenses. The corresponding figures for the US are 23 per cent and 25 per cent, respectively (Pardey et al., 1991). Given comparatively higher prices of capital goods, there is a strong case for correcting the current factor shares by raising operating and capital expenses. This can be done by improved financial planning and by encouraging scientists to raise research funds. Table 3.4 Agricultural research intensity: All India Indicator 1992-94* 1. Research investment (Rs, million at current prices) Public research investment 6993 (85) Government investment 6578 (80) Centre (86.9% of the total) 3728 (45) States (53.5% of the total) 2850 (35) Public sector industries** 414 (5) Private sector** 1223 (15) Total investment (public and private) 8216 (100) 2. Number of scientists (FTE)*** ICAR 3977 SAUs 7071 3. Annual research expenditure/ FTE scientist (000 Rs) ICAR 905 SAUs 421 Average (ICAR and SAUs) 595 4. Research investment/ha of GCA (Rs) 44.30 5. Research investment as % of AgGDP India 0.42 Asia and Pacific (1991)**** 0.55 China (1991)**** 0.36 Developing countries (1991)**** 0.51 Developed countries (1991)**** 2.39 All countries (1991)**** 0.81 Note: Figures in parentheses are percentage to the total investment. * Three-year average Source: ** CMIE (1994) for 1992-93 and for seed, Pray and Umali (1997) *** Computed from the data available in ICAR (1995/96) and Rao and Muralidhar (1994) **** Alston era/. (1997) Table 3.5 Composition of ICAR expenditure Per cent share Factor 1980/81 1995-96' Establishment costs 46.29 63.39 Travelling costs 1.56 0.98 Operating cost including cost of equipments 37.47 23.28 Civil works 12.54 10.71 Other costs 2.13 1.64 Total 100.00 100.00 * Two-year average Source: Based",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Muralidhar (1994) **** Alston era/. (1997) Table 3.5 Composition of ICAR expenditure Per cent share Factor 1980/81 1995-96' Establishment costs 46.29 63.39 Travelling costs 1.56 0.98 Operating cost including cost of equipments 37.47 23.28 Civil works 12.54 10.71 Other costs 2.13 1.64 Total 100.00 100.00 * Two-year average Source: Based on data in ICAR Budget Book (various years) 3.1.3 Agricultural research and education investment by states Since state-wise data on government investment in research and education are available over time, and government investment dominates the national investment, state-wise analysis is done for the government investment. State-wise annual compound growth rates and the intensity ratios are presented in Table 3.6. This table reveals that only the state of Tamil Nadu maintained steady growth in the investment since the 1960s. Growth in real investment became negative in the 1970s in some states, notably, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. All the states showed impressive investment growth in the 1980s. In the 1980s, in majority of the states the annual growth was more than 6 per cent and the growth was remarkably high in the states of Madhya Pradesh (13.3 per cent) and Tamil Nadu (12.3 per cent), whereas the growth was moderate in West Bengal (2.35 per cent). Impressive growth maintained during the 1980s can be attributed to the investment made under the NARP. However, in spite of appreciable investment growth, the investment intensity remained well below 1 per cent of AgGDP in all the states, except Himachal Pradesh. Only five states, namely, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra have achieved an intensity which is comparable with or higher than that for the country as a whole (0.49 per cent). Large and less developed states of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Orissa have",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Himachal Pradesh. Only five states, namely, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra have achieved an intensity which is comparable with or higher than that for the country as a whole (0.49 per cent). Large and less developed states of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Orissa have very low research and education intensity (less than 0.2 per cent). Although the investment in Punjab was increasing about 7 per cent per annum, its intensity was still low. The low intensity in Punjab may be because of specialised cropping system (rice-wheat) of the state which, to some extent, provides economy of size to research efforts. In contrast, the establishment of four SAUs in Maharashtra, mainly on socio-political grounds, and two SAUs in Himachal Pradesh have raised their research and education intensity. The increased intensity was also reflected in terms of research and education investment per hectare. Real investment per hectare increased in 1990s over 1980s in all the states, with marked increase in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. On the other hand, marginal increase in the expenditure gave very low intensity on per hectare basis in the states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Table 3.6 further shows that there is wide variations in the annual expenditure per scientist across the states. The nominal annual expenditure ranged from Rs 145 thousand in Madhya Pradesh to Rs 545 thousand in West Bengal. Only in three states, viz. West Bengal, Kerala and Maharashtra, expenditure per scientist is close to that for the country as a whole. Interestingly, none of the states has per scientist annual expenditure equal to that in the ICAR (Rs. 0.9 million), indicating that scientist in ICAR institutes are better funded. As seen earlier, low per",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Bengal, Kerala and Maharashtra, expenditure per scientist is close to that for the country as a whole. Interestingly, none of the states has per scientist annual expenditure equal to that in the ICAR (Rs. 0.9 million), indicating that scientist in ICAR institutes are better funded. As seen earlier, low per scientist expenditure also indicates low operating expenses in the SAUs, reducing overall research efficiency. Regional congruence Another important aspect of research efforts is the congruence between actual and desired allocation of research resources across states. Normative resource allocation pattern suggested by Jha et al. (1995) was computed by considering efficiency, equity, sustainability and export as research objectives. The actual investment by states is arrived at by pooling the State and ICAR investments. Investment on ICAR institutes was added to the state in which they are located (Expenditure on ICAR institutes can also be allocated on the basis of state's share in total area under mandate crops. But this crop area share basis allocation would bias the analysis as crop area is one of the criteria for computing normative allocation. Further, in the absence of well established priority setting mechanism at institute level, institutes largely focus on addressing regional problems). This is a weak assumption as it implies that technologies originating from ICAR institutes have equal regional spill-over/in effects. Expenditure for seven institutes, viz. IARI, NDRI, IVRI, NAARM, CIFE, IASRI and NCAP having national mandates of strategic research, was allocated among all the states. Following three criteria were used for the allocation: IARI, IASRI, NCAP : state's share in total gross cropped area NDRI, IVRI : state's share in total livestock population NAARM : state's share in the number of scientists CIFE : state's share in total fish production Table 3.6 Statewise growth rates and intensity ratios of government investment in",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "allocation: IARI, IASRI, NCAP : state's share in total gross cropped area NDRI, IVRI : state's share in total livestock population NAARM : state's share in the number of scientists CIFE : state's share in total fish production Table 3.6 Statewise growth rates and intensity ratios of government investment in research and education Investment (Rs)/ha Growth rate (%) of real investment Investment as % of AgGDP (at 1981 / 82 prices) (at current prices) States 1960s 1970s 1980s 198082 199294 198082 199294 198082 199294 Investment scientist (000 Rs, at current prices) 1992-94 Andhra Pradesh -0.09 12.18 7.48 0.17 0.26 5.40 12.90 5.32 32.23 357 Assam 7.49 -0.09 6.25 0.30 0.41 11.19 20.88 11.12 291 Bihar 1.37 12.30 6.26 0.14 0.16 4.60 9.94 4.50 24.93 222 Gujarat 12.33 -0.01 7.17 0.21 0.38 5.94 13.34 5.84 33.41 355 Haryana 31.25 4.69 0.30 0.31 11.52 17.91 11.31 44.86 227 Himachal Pradesh -0.12 9.39 0.67 1.23 21.59 51.88 21.21 130.16 225 Jammu & Kashmir 18.34 -0.12 6.85 @ @ 12.87 69.93 12.64 68.70 152 Karnataka -0.15 13.75 7.79 0.20 0.29 4.99 10.88 4.90 27.34 240 Kerala 2.06 21.12 7.42 0.33 0.49 18.10 42.94 17.77 107.50 488 Madhya Pradesh -0.08 -0.08 13.32 0.07 0.14 1.08 3.36 1.06 8.35 145 Maharashtra 16.62 -0.01 5.65 0.42 0.46 9.27 16.16 9.11 40.57 453 Orissa -0.05 7.19 7.01 0.11 0.21 2.40 4.67 2.36 11.64 196 Punjab -0.01 4.70 7.16 0.26 0.30 10.62 20.57 10.42 51.66 262 Rajasthan -0.02 4.46 9.32 0.13 0.21 1.92 4.45 1.90 11.16 241 Tamil Nadu 1.37 3.68 12.28 0.23 0.42 7.67 24.57 7.56 61.62 329 Uttar Pradesh 12.19 -0.11 4.88 0.14 0.16 4.78 7.42 4.68 18.73 316 West Bengal 5.58 13.52 2.35 @ @ 8.31 9.68 8.19 24.53 545 All India (centre+state) 6.52 9.51 6.29 0.39 0.49 10.65 20.65 10.49 51.85 432 Note: Except growth",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "1.37 3.68 12.28 0.23 0.42 7.67 24.57 7.56 61.62 329 Uttar Pradesh 12.19 -0.11 4.88 0.14 0.16 4.78 7.42 4.68 18.73 316 West Bengal 5.58 13.52 2.35 @ @ 8.31 9.68 8.19 24.53 545 All India (centre+state) 6.52 9.51 6.29 0.39 0.49 10.65 20.65 10.49 51.85 432 Note: Except growth rates, data are three-year averages; @ Consistent AgGDP data were not available. Congruence index (Cl) was computed to assess the closeness of existing investment with the near optimal one, assuming equal per unit pay offs. The index is derived as: Cl = 1-Σi (Ri-Vi)2; where Ri is the actual share of ith state in the national investment, and Vi is the normative share of ith state. The value of Cl is 0.99, indicating high congruency in regional investment pattern. But, last two columns of Table 3.7 indicate that the current investment pattern differed with the near optimal one in some states. For instance, the share of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal in the national investment is much lower. Interestingly, in these low intensity states, the share of state in the total investment is comparatively lower. On the other hand, the current share is comparatively higher than the desired in the states of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala and Maharashtra. In contrast to general belief, the share of small states comprising north eastern states, except Assam, is not less than the optimal one. The deviations between the current and optimal shares appear to be small in percentage points, but in nominal terms, one per cent change in current investment level implies a reallocation of Rs 66 million. Therefore, an enhanced research investment in the low research intensity states would maximise research benefits in the country. It is essential to raise the investment in these states. However, there is",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "but in nominal terms, one per cent change in current investment level implies a reallocation of Rs 66 million. Therefore, an enhanced research investment in the low research intensity states would maximise research benefits in the country. It is essential to raise the investment in these states. However, there is hardly any visible attempt in the planning process to increase research investment in the low intensity states. The share of these states in the total plan investment and ICAR grants and expenditure is comparatively lower. The state of Maharashtra, which has four SAUs claimed about 14 per cent of the total ICAR grants, indicating that states with higher research investment were also getting higher ICAR financial support. Similarly, the states of Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Kerala and Maharashtra received higher ICAR expenditure. This strategy may not optimise research benefits. A judicious approach would be to develop regional research capacity which can maximise overall research benefits, avoiding problems of research overlapping and 'free riding'. The ICAR can temporarily bridge the gap, but a lasting solution would be to allocate higher plan funds to those states which have low research intensity and a share lower than the desired one in the national investment. Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal are in this category. Table 3.7 Actual and normative share of states in the national research and education investment % share in national investment ICAR grants to SAUs # ICAR institutes expenditure $ (Rs, million) Total (State+ ICAR+gran t) ARI as % of AgGDP % share of State funds in the total % share in in Plan funds *** Actual Optimal& States (199296)* (1993/94) (1992-94)** (1993/94) (1992-94)** Andhra Pradesh 4.8 (3.8) 307 (10.7) 723 0.46 56.8 3.5 8.7 9.8 Assam 5.4 (4.3) 20 (0.7) 223 0.46 88.6 8.9 2.7 3.6",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "as % of AgGDP % share of State funds in the total % share in in Plan funds *** Actual Optimal& States (199296)* (1993/94) (1992-94)** (1993/94) (1992-94)** Andhra Pradesh 4.8 (3.8) 307 (10.7) 723 0.46 56.8 3.5 8.7 9.8 Assam 5.4 (4.3) 20 (0.7) 223 0.46 88.6 8.9 2.7 3.6 Bihar 5.0 (4.0) 82 (2.8) 320 0.22 72.8 2.6 3.8 7.1 Gujarat •6.7 (4.5) 71 (2.4) 444 0.46 82.7 5.8 5.3 4.8 Haryana 6.3 (5.0) 286 (10.0) 555 0.65 47.3 3.0 6.6 2.8 Himachal Pradesh 9.8 (7.8) 64 (2.2) 200 1.94 63.1 5.1 2.4 0.5 Jammu & Kashmir 4.2 (3.4) 10 (0.3) 89 @ 84.0 3.6 1.1 0.7 Karnataka 10.4 (8.3) 134 (4.6) 484 0.42 70.2 12.9 5.8 6.8 Kerala 7.0 (5.5) 242 (8.4) 576 0.86 56.8 5.3 6.9 3.9 Madhya Pradesh 8.5 (6.8) 179 (6.2) 386 0.27 51.4 7.2 4.6 8.8 Maharashtra 13.7(10.9) 271 (9.4) 1138 0.61 74.9 4.5 13.7 7.6 Orissa 5.1 (4.1) 141 (4.9) 256 0.49 42.9 2.9 3.1 4.7 Punjab 4.9 (3.9) 40 (1.4) 435 0.34 89.6 6.2 5.2 4.4 Rajasthan 7.0 (5.6) 240 (8.4) 472 0.43 47.6 4.2 5.6 5.8 Tamil Nadu 9.1 (4.8) 100 (3.5) 545 0.53 80.0 14.7 6.5 6.5 Uttar Pradesh 13.5 (10.8) 450 (15.7) 945 0.32 50.9 3.9 11.3 12.8 West Bengal 5.2 (4.1) 140 (4.9) 355 @ 59.1 2.9 4.2 7.3 Others ~ 89 (3.1) 171 @ 47.9 2.5 2.1 1.9 * Fiver-year average; ** three-year average; @ AgGDP data are not available. Source: # Education Division, ICAR; $ Based on data in ICAR Budget Book (1994/95); *** Data compiled from Planning Commission; & Jha et al. (1995). 3.1.4 Allocation of research investment by commodity groups Allocation of plan funds in the successive plans indicates the changing research emphasis among the commodities. Plan-wise allocation of ICAR funds, given in Table",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "on data in ICAR Budget Book (1994/95); *** Data compiled from Planning Commission; & Jha et al. (1995). 3.1.4 Allocation of research investment by commodity groups Allocation of plan funds in the successive plans indicates the changing research emphasis among the commodities. Plan-wise allocation of ICAR funds, given in Table 3.8, shows that reseated claimed nearly three-fourth of ICAR resources since the Sixth Plan. Within research, traditionally, focus has been on crop research which accounted for one-third of total research outlay. The share of crop research went down in the eighties but it was restored in the Eighth Plan. Since 1980, major expansion has taken place in non-commodity, resource-related research, which now accounts for one-third of total plan outlay for research. The Eighth Plan emphasised research on horticulture and fisheries, raising their share in the total research outlay. Animal science research, after a period of expansion in the seventies, continued to account for 10 per cent of the total plan outlay. Education, which accounted for nearly one-third of ICAR plan allocations in the seventies, now accounts for nearly 12 per cent. There has been a remarkable growth in the allocations for front-line extension and transfer of technology programmes which currently claims nearly 13 per cent of ICAR plan funds. The plan expenditure constitutes a small proportion of the national investment and major share comes from the non-plan funds. Activity-wise breakup of current total investment (plan and non-plan) for ICAR and SAUs during the early nineties (Figure 3.2 and Table 3.9) revealed that about three-fourths of the ICAR funds are spent on research. Within research, 27 per cent of total ICAR funds went to field crops followed by 15 per cent to animal sciences, 12 per cent to soil, agronomy and agroforestry, 9 per cent to horticultural crops, and 7 per",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "revealed that about three-fourths of the ICAR funds are spent on research. Within research, 27 per cent of total ICAR funds went to field crops followed by 15 per cent to animal sciences, 12 per cent to soil, agronomy and agroforestry, 9 per cent to horticultural crops, and 7 per cent to fisheries. About 11 per cent resources are spent on information management, administration, etc. It is interesting that equal amount (6 per cent) was spent on education and extension. Higher expenditure on extension is the result of more than proportionate allocation of plan funds to extension during the Seventh and Eighth Plans, mainly at the cost of education (Table 3.8). As expected, the SAUs spent 33 per cent of their resources on education, as teaching is the primary mandate of SAUs. Research claimed 45 per cent resources followed by administration (17 per cent), much higher than the ICAR, and extension (5 per cent). The SAUs placed greater emphasis on research on soils, agronomy and agro-forestry presumably because of their location specificity, followed by crops and livestock. Fisheries research received very little attention in the SAUs. The proportion of ! resources devoted exclusively to economics and statistics in the SAUs appears to be higher than that in the ICAR. But if we include economics component in agro-biological research institutes, resources spent on economics and statistics would be equal or higher than those in SAUs. Table 3.8 Activity-wise and commodity-wise breakup of (CAR plan allocations (Rs, million) Research Plan Crop Horticulture Animal science Fisheries other Total Education Extension Other Total IV Plan (196974) 200 (21.9) 74 (8.1) 152 (16.6) 34 (3.8) 119 (13.0) 579 (63.4) 316 (34.6) 18 (1.9) 1 (0.1) 914 (100.0) V Plan (197478) 319 (20.8) 93 (6.1) 259 (16.9) 81 (5.3) 179 (11.7) 932 (60.7) 525 (34.2) 71",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Animal science Fisheries other Total Education Extension Other Total IV Plan (196974) 200 (21.9) 74 (8.1) 152 (16.6) 34 (3.8) 119 (13.0) 579 (63.4) 316 (34.6) 18 (1.9) 1 (0.1) 914 (100.0) V Plan (197478) 319 (20.8) 93 (6.1) 259 (16.9) 81 (5.3) 179 (11.7) 932 (60.7) 525 (34.2) 71 (4.6) 07 (0.4) 1535 (100.0) VI Plan (198085) 698 (20.5) 222 (6.5) 356 (10.5) 178 (5.2) 1042 (30.6) 2497 (73.4) 739 (21.7) 149 (4.4) 14 (0.4) 3400 (100.0) VII Plan (198590) 904 (21.3) 237 (5.6) 446 (10.5) 188 (4.4) 1396 (32.9) 3172 (74.6) 78 (16.7) 321 (7.5) 49 (1.2) 4250 (100.0) VIII Plan (199297) 3228 (24.8) 1000 (7.7) 1400 (10.8) 650 (5.0) 3233 (24.9) 9512 (73.2) 1554 (11.9) 1600 (12.6) 334 (2.6) 13000 (100.0) Note: Figures in parentheses are percentage of total outlays. Source: Jha et al. (1995) Figure 3.2 Allocation Of ICAR And SAUs Funds (Plan and non-plan) by activity Table 3.9 Activity-wise allocations (%) of total expenditure (Plan and non-Plan) Head ICAR * (1994/95) SAUs ** (1991/92) Research 75.5 (100) 45.0 (100) Crops 26.8 (35.5) 10.6 (23.6) Horticulture 9.2 (12.2) 4.2 (9.4) Soil, agronomy and agro-forestry 12.3 (16.3) 18.7 (41.6) Agricultural engineering 4.2 (5.6) 2.5 (5.6) Animal sciences 14.9 (19.7) 5.3 (11.8) Fisheries 6.9 (9.1) 0.6 (1.3) Agricultural economics and statistics 1.2 (1.6) 3.0 (6.7) Education 6.3 33 Extension 6.8 5 Others 11.4 17 Notes: i) Figures in parentheses are percentage of respective total 'research' funds. ii) The allocation of research funds by SAUs is based on information compiled from research projects for which expenditure data were available. Source: * ICAR Budget Book 1995/96, ** Rao and Muralidhar (1994). Although the allocation of research funds in the ICAR and SAUs is quite wide-spread among disciplines, some adjustments are necessary. For example, allocations to agricultural engineering can be rationalised",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "compiled from research projects for which expenditure data were available. Source: * ICAR Budget Book 1995/96, ** Rao and Muralidhar (1994). Although the allocation of research funds in the ICAR and SAUs is quite wide-spread among disciplines, some adjustments are necessary. For example, allocations to agricultural engineering can be rationalised as corporate investment (public and private) is substantial in this area. Similarly, there is scope for reduction in the expenditure on front-line extension. On the other hand, allocations to research on livestock and horticulture may be increased to achieve optimal resource allocation (Jha et al., 1995). Social science research is another area which needs greater emphasis in the ICAR/SAU system. Currently, we are spending 7.5 per cent on social sciences (economics, statistics, extension education and management research) as against 18 per cent in the CGsystem (Farrington et al., 1997). 3.2 Investment in Agricultural Extension Extension activities are supported with funds from revenue account of the state governments, and expenditure on capital account is absent, except negligible expenditure on animal husbandry for few years in some states. The estimates of government extension investment reported here, therefore, cover only expenditure on the revenue account. State-wise extension investment data since 1960/61 are given Appendix IV. 3.2.1 Trends in extension investment: All India Primary responsibility of transfer of technology rests with the state governments, and ICAR and SAUs are involved only in front-line extension. This fact is clearly visible from the sources of extension investment, indicating that more than 90 per cent investment is made by the states. Most of the expenditure was channelled through the 'Department of Agriculture' of state governments. As shown in Figure 3.3, government investment on extension has grown since 1960/61, except abrupt changes in two years. In 1966/67, the investment rose sharply because of substantial increase in the investment",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "made by the states. Most of the expenditure was channelled through the 'Department of Agriculture' of state governments. As shown in Figure 3.3, government investment on extension has grown since 1960/61, except abrupt changes in two years. In 1966/67, the investment rose sharply because of substantial increase in the investment in Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. On the contrary, there was drastic fall in the investment in 1974/75, particularly in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Kerala, Punjab and Tamil Nadu (Appendix IV). In fact, this fall is more because of changes in the accounting heads of the governments, rather than systematic efforts on the part of state governments to reduce the investment (A careful study of expenditure under 'education and training' head indicates some amount of education expenditure in some states up to 1973/74).Since 1974/75 extension investment by the governments maintained steady growth of 7 per cent. As shown in Table 3.10, extension intensity increased from 0.09 per cent of AgGDP in the early 1960s to 0.14 per cent in the early 1970s, which further rose marginally to 0.15 per cent in the early 1990s after slight fall in the early 1980s. Annual investment in extension by governments during the triennium 1992-94, in nominal terms, is Rs 3008 million, giving an investment of Rs 16.22 per ha. Annual expenditure per extension worker is 26 thousand (average of all departments), whereas it is as low as Rs 15 thousand for the main extension system, i.e., Department of Agriculture. Even making allowances for high proportion of low qualified extension workers (70 per cent of the total wooers are intermediate or below; Misra, 1990), there are hardly any operational funds which are essential for mobility of extension workers. Macklin (1992) estimated that the share of non-salary component in total extension expenditure in Tamil Nadu",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "high proportion of low qualified extension workers (70 per cent of the total wooers are intermediate or below; Misra, 1990), there are hardly any operational funds which are essential for mobility of extension workers. Macklin (1992) estimated that the share of non-salary component in total extension expenditure in Tamil Nadu decreased from 48 per cent in 1981/82 to 4 per cent in 1990/91. Figure 3.3 Trends in government real investment in extension in India (at 1981/82 prices) Like research, private and public sector companies also undertake extension work to promote sales of their products, however, their extension expenditure data are not available. The private companies spend slightly higher amount on publicity and on an average they spend about 4 per cent of their turnover on research and 1 per cent on publicity (Singh et a/., 1995; Pray and Ribeiro, 1990). We have, therefore, taken 20 per cent and 25 per cent of research expenditure of the public and private companies, respectively, as extension expenditure. This is very crude, underestimation of private expenditure on extension, as private companies also spend on marketing of inputs and maintaining of field staff. Adding the private expenditure to the government investment gives an extension intensity of 0.2 per cent of AgGDP and Rs 21.32/ha in the country (Table 3.11). This level of extension intensity in India is much lower than that in developing and developed countries (0.4 per cent and 0.9 per cent, respectively, Judd et al., 1986) in the early eighties. Of the total investment, 92 per cent is public investment and the rest 8 per cent is made by the private sector. Among the public funds, about 76 per cent of the national expenditure is spent by the state departments, 14 per cent by the ICAR/SAU system and 2 per cent by the",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "investment, 92 per cent is public investment and the rest 8 per cent is made by the private sector. Among the public funds, about 76 per cent of the national expenditure is spent by the state departments, 14 per cent by the ICAR/SAU system and 2 per cent by the public sector companies. Thus, unlike research, extension is the major responsibility of the state governments. Private sector's participation in extension will grow along with the increase in its research investment and with the increase in farmers' ability to pay for extension services. 3.2.2 Extension intensity : States Trends in the intensity of government or public investment in extension by states are given Table 3.12. State-wise intensity is presented since 1974/75 as uniformity in accounting of investment data across states was observed since 1974/75. The growth in extension investment during the period 1974/75 to 1994/95 was negative in the high productivity states of Haryana and Punjab. These states were joined by the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa and West Bengal during the period 1984/85 to 1994/95. In contrast, the states of Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat and Assam, registered impressive growth in the investment during the second period. Although the nominal expenditure production environment of other states needs higher level of extension efforts. Even in Punjab and Haryana, there is a need for intensive extension work as there would be greater role of crop and resource per ha increased in all states in the early nineties, it declined in real terms in the states of Haryana, Orissa, Punjab and West Bengal. The proportion of AgGDP spent on extension also declined in Bihar, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa and Punjab, and this decline is serious because the intensity was already very low (0.06 per cent or less) in these states,",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in real terms in the states of Haryana, Orissa, Punjab and West Bengal. The proportion of AgGDP spent on extension also declined in Bihar, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa and Punjab, and this decline is serious because the intensity was already very low (0.06 per cent or less) in these states, except Bihar. Extension intensity in Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu was more than twice of that for the country as a whole. These results, thus, underline the need for increasing extension intensity in low productivity states, particularly in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. Table 3.10 Growth and intensity of agricultural extension investment by government: All India Intensity indicator 196062 197072 198082 199294 1. Investment (Rs, million) Current prices 59 243 513 3008 Constant prices 306 645 524 1201 2. Investment as % of AgGDP 0.09 0.14 0.11 0.15 3. Investment/ha (Rs) Constant prices 2.00 3.89 2.96 6.48 4. Investment/extension worker Overall @ @ @ 25.58 (in 1988, 000 Rs, current prices) Main department 15.29 5. Deparment allocation of investment (%) Agriculture 100 100 76.66 90.66 Soil & water conservation * * 1.67 2.17 Animal husbandry * * 13.43 2.53 Dairy * * 1.16 0.97 Fisheries * * 7.00 3.70 6. Share of states in national investment (%) 97.87 99.80 94.33 92.87 7. Growth in real investment** (%) 10.74 -0.07 7.02 Note: Figures are three-year averages; ® Number of extension workers is not available. * investment started since 1974/75; ** The growth rates are for 1960-69, 1970-79 and 1980-94. Table 3.11 Agricultural extension intensity: All India Indicator Investment (Rs., million) 1992-94 1. Public investment 3649 (92.3) Government: Main extension system 3008 (76.1) ICAR/SAU system 558 (14.1) Public sector industries (20% of R&D cost) 83 (2.1) 2. Private investment (25% of R&D cost) 306 (7.7) 3. Total investment (public",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "1980-94. Table 3.11 Agricultural extension intensity: All India Indicator Investment (Rs., million) 1992-94 1. Public investment 3649 (92.3) Government: Main extension system 3008 (76.1) ICAR/SAU system 558 (14.1) Public sector industries (20% of R&D cost) 83 (2.1) 2. Private investment (25% of R&D cost) 306 (7.7) 3. Total investment (public and private) 3955 (100.0) 4. Total investment as % of AgGDP 0.20 5. Investment (Rs)/ha of GCA 21.32 Note: Data are three-year average for government investment. Figures in parentheses are percentage to the total investment. The wide variations in extension intensity across the states are rather puzzling. These variations can partly be attributed to inter-state differences in the funding under the NAEP. Nevertheless, these differences need further discussion. For instance, the case of Punjab and Haryana is interesting in the sense that these states have high technology adoption levels, despite of very low extension intensity. The plausible reason could be the dominance of irrigated production environment in these states which is conducive for rapid adoption of technology. Farmer-to-farmer spread of technology is much faster in the homogeneous, irrigated production environment. Moreover, these states have very high levels of inputs use, inviting greater attention of private input companies which also undertake transfer of technology activities. Thus, heterogenous management technologies in these states and farmer-tofarmer spread of management technology is comparatively slow. Table 3.12 Growth and intensity of government investment in agricultural extension by states Investment/000 ha (Rs. at 1981/82 prices) Nominal investment (000Rs) Growth rate (%) of real investment Investment as % of AgGDP State 1980-82 1992-94 1992-94 19741994 19841994 1980-82 1992-94 Andhra Pradesh 645 1045 33876 5.30 4.00 0.02 0.02 Assam 4043 11155 106080 11.30 5.70 0.11 0.11 Bihar 12421 16469 389462 7.40 4.40 0.37 0.27 Gujarat 3777 8002 221042 11.50 5.80 0.13 0.23 Haryana 1895 1634 24222 0.90 0.03",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "% of AgGDP State 1980-82 1992-94 1992-94 19741994 19841994 1980-82 1992-94 Andhra Pradesh 645 1045 33876 5.30 4.00 0.02 0.02 Assam 4043 11155 106080 11.30 5.70 0.11 0.11 Bihar 12421 16469 389462 7.40 4.40 0.37 0.27 Gujarat 3777 8002 221042 11.50 5.80 0.13 0.23 Haryana 1895 1634 24222 0.90 0.03 0.05 0.03 Himachal Pradesh 3430 22961 55321 14.50 1.90 0.11 0.54 Jammu & Kashmir 4520 26500 70854 17.20 7.50 @ @ Karnataka 1200 1330 41798 2.90 0.01 0.05 0.04 Kerala 2627 3253 24965 2.40 0.01 0.05 0.04 Madhya Pradesh 734 1527 87185 3.20 2.60 0.05 0.06 Maharashtra 1396 8005 422141 12.90 1.70 0.06 0.23 Orissa 1681 1274 29812 5.60 0.05 0.08 0.06 Punjab 1817 823 15552 3.50 0.09 0.04 0.01 Rajasthan 3353 5326 269811 12.20 4.00 0.23 0.25 Tamil Nadu 9022 24195 830267 11.60 8.30 0.27 0.42 Uttar Pradesh 257 6436 413421 18.70 24.50 0.01 0.14 West Bengal 6423 4354 91923 6.20 0.06 @ @ All India 2958 6475 3008317 9.14 4.37 0.11 0.15 Note: Except growth rates, figures are three-year averages; @ Consistent AgGDP data were not available. It is difficult to suggest some desired level of extension intensity, however, one can judge current extension intensity vis-a-vis the task ahead. Given current stock of technologies, there is tremendous scope for yield increase. It is estimated that excepting few states, there is untapped yield potential of 40-94 per cent in most important crops of the states (Jha et al., 1995). This, coupled with complexity of second generation technologies and heterogeneity of production environments warrant much more intensive extension efforts. Extension services should be strengthened by scaling up investment levels and improving the quality of extension. This is especially important for low extension intensity states like Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. The first step in this direction should",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of production environments warrant much more intensive extension efforts. Extension services should be strengthened by scaling up investment levels and improving the quality of extension. This is especially important for low extension intensity states like Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. The first step in this direction should be to enhance the availability of operating funds. 4 DETERMINANTS OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION INVESTMENTS Research, extension and education compete with other investment opportunities for scarce public resources. Decision makers wish to maximise total benefits by allocating public resources among alternatives. If one follows the principle of neo-classical economics, total benefits would be maximum when resources are allocated to equate marginal benefits with marginal costs. In reality this situation can hardly be realised, as benefits of most of the investment options, particularly social benefits, are difficult to measure. Long gestation period, coupled with uncertainty of benefits in some investment alternatives, especially research, further complicate the measurement problem. Therefore, availability of total investible resources and politico-economic factors are more important for making resource allocation decisions. Some economists have measured the effects of above mentioned factors on research and extension investments (see Fox, 1987). Guttman (1978) used a theory of public interest groups in the study of research expenditure in the US. Some researchers also applied the Hayami-Ruttan's induced innovation hypothesis to study research investment behaviour. In a large number of studies, political-economy model was used to study the determinants of research investments in developed and in developing countries (Important studies using this model are Huffman and Miranowski (1981), Rose-Ackerman and Evenson (1985), Judd et al. (1987), Pardey et at. (1989), Dinar (1991), and Evenson (1991)). In the Indian context, Rajeswari (1995) considered historical development of the NARS to explain temporal changes in research investment. 4.1 Model Specification (Useful discussion with",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "using this model are Huffman and Miranowski (1981), Rose-Ackerman and Evenson (1985), Judd et al. (1987), Pardey et at. (1989), Dinar (1991), and Evenson (1991)). In the Indian context, Rajeswari (1995) considered historical development of the NARS to explain temporal changes in research investment. 4.1 Model Specification (Useful discussion with NCAP scientists in a seminar and Dr Carl E. Pray on this topic is gratefully acknowledged) Considering the planning process in India, it is realistic to assume that both economic and political factors influence allocation of public resources across sectors and states. We have, therefore, used a political-economy model to study research and extension investment behaviour. In this model three sets of variables, viz. economic, economic-political and political are used. Specific variables included in the model are discussed below. Economic variables: The most important variable in this category is per capita AgGDP which shows the demand for agricultural commodities. It is expected that an increase in the demand for agricultural commodities will induce more investment in research and extension. Per capita AgGDP represents the induced innovation hypothesis as high demand for a commodity, reflected through higher commodity prices, will induce more research and extension. Similarly, as alternate sources of agricultural growth, notably land, become scarce, there will be more demand for research to save scarce land by developing new land-saving technologies. Thus, per capita GCA was used to capture the effect of alternative sources of growth. Irrigation expansion is another possible source of growth. But this is also reflected by GCA as irrigation expansion increases GCA through higher cropping intensity. Besides alternate source of growth, an increase in irrigated area will also decrease the demand for extension because of high farmer-to-farmer spread of technologies. Therefore, per capita irrigated area (GCA) was included in the extension model as one of the",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "GCA as irrigation expansion increases GCA through higher cropping intensity. Besides alternate source of growth, an increase in irrigated area will also decrease the demand for extension because of high farmer-to-farmer spread of technologies. Therefore, per capita irrigated area (GCA) was included in the extension model as one of the explanatory variables. Another important economic variable included in the model is agricultural terms of trade which is defined as the ratio of implicit deflators of agricultural to non-agricultural GDP. It is expected to have positive effect on research and extension investments as favourable terms of trade will increase the returns to research and extension investments compared to other investments. Agricultural diversification is another important variable. It is expected that the more diversified agricultural production the more will be the demand for research. The diversification may not be so important for extension as critical minimum extension efforts can cater to diversified extension needs. The diversification index was computed as 1/Σ Si 2 where Si is the share of ith crop area in total GCA. Economic-political variables: These variables are the share of agriculture expenditure in total government expenditure and per capita government revenue. Per capita government revenue is expected to have positive effect on research and extension investments. An increase in per capita government revenue indicates that more resources are available with government for investment and therefore government is likely to invest more. The share of government expenditure on agriculture can affect research and extension investments both ways. It can have positive effect if higher agriculture allocations are also going to research and extension. On the other hand, if other investment options in agriculture get high priority, an increase in total allocations for agriculture may not increase research and extension expenditure. Some researchers have also included other economic-political variables like share",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "positive effect if higher agriculture allocations are also going to research and extension. On the other hand, if other investment options in agriculture get high priority, an increase in total allocations for agriculture may not increase research and extension expenditure. Some researchers have also included other economic-political variables like share of agricultural exports in total exports or share of exports in total agricultural production. Since state-wise data on agricultural exports are not readily available, this variable was not included in the model. Political variable: Rural population (per cent of total population) was included in the model to indicate influence of rural interest groups. A high proportion of rural population shows strong rural constituency, influencing public investment decision in their favour. For extension, positive influence of higher rural population is also expected because more resources are needed to contact large number of farmers. Rural literacy, a proxy for farmers' education, is expected to accelerate adoption of new technology. Educated farmers which are more informed about research benefits, can form interest groups to influence resource allocations in favour of research and extension. Apart from above mentioned variables, technology spillin effects also influence research investment decisions. This is best captured by research investment in the regions with similar agro-climatic conditions. Given the agro-climatic variability within states, it was difficult to find out groups of states with homogeneous agro-climatic conditions. The same was true for international agricultural research. Therefore, variables capturing the 'free-riding' behaviour or the effect of technology spillin possibilities were not included in the model. Model estimation: The model was estimated using state level cross-section and timeseries data from 1981/82 to 1993/94. The dependent variable was per capita expenditure. For research it includes expenditure made by state governments and ICAR on research and education (for state-wise allocation of ICAR expenditure, see chapter",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the model. Model estimation: The model was estimated using state level cross-section and timeseries data from 1981/82 to 1993/94. The dependent variable was per capita expenditure. For research it includes expenditure made by state governments and ICAR on research and education (for state-wise allocation of ICAR expenditure, see chapter 3). In the case of extension, only state governments' expenditure is considered as it constitutes almost entire extension investment in the country. All monetary variables in the model were deflated using implicit GDP deflator with 1980/81 as base year. Necessary data pertaining to different variables were compiled from various sources (Appendix II). Means and standard deviations (SD) of data set are given in Table 4.1. Pooling of cross-section and time-series data poses some estimation problem. Two methods, namely, dummy variables model (DVM) and error components model (ECM) can be used for the estimation. The DVM is estimated by ordinary least squares (OLS) using dummy variables for cross-section units (in our case states), whereas generalised least squares (GLS) method is used for ECM. The choice of model mainly depends upon relative sizes of N (cross-section units) and T (time-series units), and possible relationship between immeasurable individual attributes and measurable time-varying attributes (explanatory variables). The estimates of ECM will be consistent and efficient when T≥3 and N-K≥ 9, where K is number of parameters excluding dummy variables (Judge et al., 1988, p 489-490). In our case T = 13, N = 14 and K = 10. The relative sizes of N and T does not satisfy the condition of applying ECM as N-K is less than 9. Also, we suspect some association between unmeasurable state attributes and explanatory variables, supporting the use of DVM. We have therefore used DVM. State dummy variables are used taking the state of Andhra Pradesh as base.",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "T does not satisfy the condition of applying ECM as N-K is less than 9. Also, we suspect some association between unmeasurable state attributes and explanatory variables, supporting the use of DVM. We have therefore used DVM. State dummy variables are used taking the state of Andhra Pradesh as base. Second problem in the estimation was of simultaneity bias. It is reasonable to expect the problem of simultaneity between per capita AgGDP and research and extension investments. This problem was overcome by taking per capita AgGDP as lagged (one year) variable. We may also expect simultaneity bias between research and extension equations. The Hausman Specification test was used to test the simultaneity between research and extension equations, which confirmed the presence of simultaneity bias. Under this situation, both the equations were estimated simultaneously using Two Stage Least Squares (2SLS) estimation procedure. Table 4.1 Means and standard deviations of data set Variable Mean SD 1. Per capita real research and education expenditure (Rs) 4.41 3.29 2. Per capita real extension expenditure (Rs) 0.99 0.90 3. Per capita real AgGDP (Rs) 804.94 376.47 4. Per capita GCA (ha) 0.27 0.11 5. Per capita irrigated area (ha) 0.10 0.09 6. Diversification index 5.89 2.26 7. Terms of trade (%) 95.74 10.73 8. Share of Ag expenditure (%) 11.01 6.15 9. Per capita real government revenue (Rs) 539.19 199.03 10. Rural literacy (%) 44.99 14.75 11. Share of rural population (%) 74.80 11.66 4.2 Results The results, given in Table 4.2, show that the model is successful in explaining inter-state differences in research and extension investments in the country. With some exceptions, variables included in the model have expected sign. Presence of endogeneity in research and extension model is consistent in view of concomitant efforts made to strengthen the research and extension system, particularly",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "model is successful in explaining inter-state differences in research and extension investments in the country. With some exceptions, variables included in the model have expected sign. Presence of endogeneity in research and extension model is consistent in view of concomitant efforts made to strengthen the research and extension system, particularly under the NARP and NAEP. Among the economic variables, per capita AgGDP and per capita irrigated area have significant impact. The negative and significant effect of per capita AgGDP on extension investment is contrary to our expectations. This perhaps indicates economies of scale in the provision of extension services. The negative and significant coefficient of per capita irrigated area in the extension model is consistent with our expectations. This supports our hypothesis that low extension efforts are required in irrigated areas as there is rapid farmer-to-farmer spread of technologies. Also, expansion of irrigation is an alternate source of growth in agricultural production, reducing the need for higher extension investment. However, this relation was not found in the research model. Surprisingly, neither diversification index nor agricultural terms of trade has significant coefficient. The share of agricultural expenditure in total government expenditure has positive and significant coefficient for research and negative and significant for extension. This shows that increased expenditure for agriculture was also allocated to research, but extension was not investment priority. Extension expenditure increased only when there was increase in government resources as shown by positive and significant coefficient of per capita government revenue. Consistent to our expectations, rural literacy has very strong positive effect on research investment. It was difficult to estimate the extension model with rural literacy variable because of multicollinearity problem and therefore the model was estimated excluding rural literacy. Rural population has significant coefficient only in the extension model and the coefficient was positive, indicating that",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "has very strong positive effect on research investment. It was difficult to estimate the extension model with rural literacy variable because of multicollinearity problem and therefore the model was estimated excluding rural literacy. Rural population has significant coefficient only in the extension model and the coefficient was positive, indicating that farmers were able to lobby for higher extension investment through extension system which is in direct touch with farmers. Also, higher rural population requires more extension efforts in the T&V system which works through contact farmers and therefore the coefficient is positive. The coefficient of rural population was not significant for research as stronger farmers organisations which can lobby for specialised activities like research are absent in India. Table 4.2 2SLS estimates for government research and extension investments model Variables Per capita real research & education investment Per capita real extension investment 1. Per capita real research & education 'investment (Rs) 0.487*** (6.30) 2. Per capita real extension investment (Rs) 0.976*** (2.65) Economic variables 3. Lagged per capita real AgGDP (Rs) 0.002*** (2.56) -0.001*** (3.84) 4. Per capita GCA (ha) -0.684 (0.27) 1.183 (0.65) 5. Per capita irrigated area (ha) -19.571** (1.96) 6. Diversification index -0.090 (0.73) 7. Terms of trade (%) -0.002 (0.26) -0.005 (1.20) Economic-political variables 8. Share of agril. expenditure in total govt. expenditure (%) 0.030** (2.39) -0.014* (1.72) 9. Per capita real government revenue (Rs) -0.0004 (0.54) 0.0008**(2.14) Political variable 10. Rural literacy (%) 0.146***(2.51) 11. Share of rural population (%) -0.069 (0.73) 0.123*** (2.99) 12. State dummy Bihar -2.052** (2.26) -0.011 (0.02) Gujarat -3.942*** (7.05) 2.017***(4.72) Haryana 5.643***(6.47) 0.141 (0.06) Himachal Pradesh 2.803 (1.11) -4.852*** (4.52) Karnataka -2.099*** (2.93) 0.401 (1.01) Kerala -5.380* (1.69) -2.610*** (3.85) Madhya Pradesh -1.310** (1.96) -0.062 (0.18) Maharashtra -4.727**(1.93) 3.631*** (2.53) Orissa -1.808 (1.09) -0.974* (1.77) Punjab -2.064** (2.27) 5.806**",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "State dummy Bihar -2.052** (2.26) -0.011 (0.02) Gujarat -3.942*** (7.05) 2.017***(4.72) Haryana 5.643***(6.47) 0.141 (0.06) Himachal Pradesh 2.803 (1.11) -4.852*** (4.52) Karnataka -2.099*** (2.93) 0.401 (1.01) Kerala -5.380* (1.69) -2.610*** (3.85) Madhya Pradesh -1.310** (1.96) -0.062 (0.18) Maharashtra -4.727**(1.93) 3.631*** (2.53) Orissa -1.808 (1.09) -0.974* (1.77) Punjab -2.064** (2.27) 5.806** (2.06) Rajasthan 0.052 (0.06) 1.364** (2.22) Tamil Nadu -5.861***(9.65) 2.741*** (5.05) Uttar Pradesh -0.895 (1.55) 0.447 (1.13) 13. Constant 2.960 (0.35) -8.011** (2.27) Adjusted R2 'F' value 0.97 273.65*** 0.79 34.26*** N = 14, T= 13 ***, **, * significant at 1, 5 and 10 per cent level, respectively. Figures in parentheses are T values. The coefficients of nine state dummy variables are significant in both the models, indicating the importance of unmeasurable state attributes. These coefficients can be explained taking Andhra Pradesh as base. Most of the coefficients are negative in the research model, indicating higher levels of per capita research expenditure in Andhra Pradesh because of higher expenditure on ICAR institutes. Both the models were also estimated using trend as one of the explanatory variables (results not reported here). Trend variable did not make any change in the extension model, whereas it was significant and negative in the research model and rural population has negative and significant coefficient, which is rather unexpected. Investment intensity model In order to test the consistency of results, we have also estimated the investment intensity model. Here dependent variables in the research and extension models are defined as research and education expenditure as percentage of AgGDP and extension expenditure as percentage of AgGDP, respectively. In this specification, real AgGDP is also taken as one of the explanatory variables to test economies of scale. Alternate sources of agricultural growth were defined as growth in GCA (ratio of current GCA to GCA in 1980/81) and",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "percentage of AgGDP and extension expenditure as percentage of AgGDP, respectively. In this specification, real AgGDP is also taken as one of the explanatory variables to test economies of scale. Alternate sources of agricultural growth were defined as growth in GCA (ratio of current GCA to GCA in 1980/81) and per cent irrigated area. The results (Appendix V) show that although real AgGDP has negative sign in both the models, it was not significant showing absence of economies of scale. The results, however, are largely consistent with the per capita investment model, except agricultural terms of trade which has unexpected negative coefficient in the extension model, and government expenditure variables which are nonsignificant in both the models. Rural literacy has positive and significant effect on extension intensity which was not captured in the per capita investment model. One can infer from the results presented here that the demand for agricultural products has significant effect on research and extension investments decisions. Alternate sources of growth influenced extension investment adversely, whereas there were concerted efforts to invest in research and education irrespective of alternate sources of growth. Political and economic-political factors also affected the investment decisions, particularly for extension. However, extension was given low priority in agricultural investments. Had there been a very strong influence of political factors like lobbying by farmers, there would have been constant increase in the share of research and education in total plan allocations to agriculture. On the contrary, as seen from Figure 4.1, there is a sharp decline in the share of research and education in total outlays on agriculture in spite of the share of agriculture and allied activities remaining constant around ,14 per cent. The share of research and education outlays decreased from 7.2 per cent in the Fourth Plan (1969-74) to 2.6 per",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "sharp decline in the share of research and education in total outlays on agriculture in spite of the share of agriculture and allied activities remaining constant around ,14 per cent. The share of research and education outlays decreased from 7.2 per cent in the Fourth Plan (1969-74) to 2.6 per cent in the Sixth Plan (1985-90) which further rose marginally to 3.2 percent in the Eighth Plan (1992-97). Marginal improvement in the share in the Eighth Plan might be because of greater awareness about research benefits, thereby consolidating of interest group of farmers as well as researchers. Another plausible reason for low plan outlays for research and education could be reasonably well development of research and education system in the past and presently most of the expenditure is non-plan. But this does not mean that the intensity should not be increased by allocating more resources to research and extension. Figure 4.1 Share of agricultural research and education in tital plan outlays for agriculture 5 STRENGTHENING THE NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION SYSTEMS The national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES) in India have evolved over time, incorporating several innovative organisational and funding concepts. The accumulating body of evidence indicates impressive rates of return to investment in research and extension. Nevertheless, there are certain operational problems, typical of public organisations. Recently, a number of reforms were initiated in the NARES, particularly in the research system. This chapter assesses the current process of reforms and its consistency with the measures required to strengthen the NARES in the changing scientific and economic environment. A number of changes have taken place at the national and at international levels. New trade regime under the WTO, trade-led growth, integration of i the economy with rest of the world, declining role of state, increasing reliance on market",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "strengthen the NARES in the changing scientific and economic environment. A number of changes have taken place at the national and at international levels. New trade regime under the WTO, trade-led growth, integration of i the economy with rest of the world, declining role of state, increasing reliance on market forces, etc. are some of the 'new rules of the game'. Obviously, these new rules have major implications on the national research and development (R&D) policy, as technological advancement is going to be decisive factor in economic development. The NARES have to be more strong, efficient and client oriented. Necessary measures required in this direction are discussed below. 5.1 Increase research and extension investments The present level of research and extension intensity is inadequate to meet the emerging R&D challenges. Early signals of new stresses in agricultural production call for immediate increase in research and extension intensity, lest these multiply beyond repair. The increase in research and extension intensity should address three main issues: (i) increasing research and extension intensity, (ii) rationalising resource, allocation across regions and commodities, and (iii) correcting factor shares in the expenditure. In view of the higher intensity in other countries, efforts should be made to double the public investment in research and extension. The concomitant growth in the private investment would give a intensity level which is comparable to other countries. Higher research and extension investment is justified on economic grounds. As seen from Table 5.1, rates of return to past investments in research and extension are impressive. It is important to note here that these rates of return are for the sectoral or sub-sectoral level and not for few successful technologies, thereby justifying the higher investment. Further, these rates of return are much higher than those realised in other investments. For example, rates of",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "extension are impressive. It is important to note here that these rates of return are for the sectoral or sub-sectoral level and not for few successful technologies, thereby justifying the higher investment. Further, these rates of return are much higher than those realised in other investments. For example, rates of return to investment in irrigation for the World Bank funded projects were less than 10 per cent and the minimum acceptable rate of returns suggested by the Nitin Desai committee for investment in irrigation is 9 per cent (cited from Gulati et al., 1994). Even making allowance for low utilisation of irrigation potential, rates of return from research and extension are still higher, justifying a quantum increase in public investment in research and extension. Table 5.1 Returns to investment in research and extension Rate of return Study Commodity Research Extension Evenson and Jha (1973) Aggregate 50 14 Feder et al. (1987) Farm level 15 World Bank (1990)* NAEP 50 Evenson and Mckinsey (1991) Aggregate 218 177 Rosegrant and Evenson (1992) Aggregate 63 52 Kumar and Rosegrant (1994) Rice 60 * cited from Macklin (1992). The states of Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Orissa should get high priority for increased research investment. For extension, priority states are, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. In terms of commodity focus, research on horticulture and livestock should be strengthened. Social science research has been at the periphery in ICAR/SAU system. Higher allocations for social sciences would not only strengthen social science research per se but also improve the relevance and efficiency of agrobiological research, as social scientists are better equipped to articulate client needs, emerging demand patterns, and research strategies to address these. The need for enhanced research and extension funding is also necessary for correcting imbalances in",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "strengthen social science research per se but also improve the relevance and efficiency of agrobiological research, as social scientists are better equipped to articulate client needs, emerging demand patterns, and research strategies to address these. The need for enhanced research and extension funding is also necessary for correcting imbalances in the factor shares. There has been a sharp decline in the non-salary expenses. The attempt to correct these imbalances under the NATP with a target ratio of 30:70 for nonsalary and salary expenses is timely. However, in view of high capital cost, the ratio of 40:60 would be more appropriate. This ratio should be even better for extension which requires high mobility of field workers. 5.2 Diversify the institutional structure There will always be need for public sector's participation in the provision of research and extension services. Provision of education and basic research, and interaction between research and education will always justify public investment in research. Similarly, transfer of information-based technologies having low appropriability will need public investment. This implies that much of the increased research and extension efforts have to be supported by governments. This does not mean that there is no role for other organisations in the provision of research and extension services. The principles of institutional economics have been applied to identify role of various organisations in the provision of goods and services. The issues involved are formation of interest groups, collective action, organisation theory, transaction cost, and technological change. Besides growing opportunities and information, transaction cost is also influenced by nature of goods and services. The characteristics of subtractability or non-rivalry (extent to which a product can be consumed by one person) and excludability (exclusion of nonauthorised users) give dichotomy of public and private goods (For details, see Coase (1960), Williamson (1975 and 1985) and North",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "is also influenced by nature of goods and services. The characteristics of subtractability or non-rivalry (extent to which a product can be consumed by one person) and excludability (exclusion of nonauthorised users) give dichotomy of public and private goods (For details, see Coase (1960), Williamson (1975 and 1985) and North (1990)). This simple dichotonomy is inadequate to describe the role of various forms of organisations. Picciotto (1995) and Gerrard (1995) classified the institutional arrangements into hierarchy (government), market (firms) and collective action (NGOs, cooperatives, etc.). Political and social theory explains the behaviour with hierarchy, whereas neo-classical theory explains market behaviour. Collective action to achieve common goals are governed by conventions, customs and code of conduct. The application of above stated concepts to three stages of research, viz. basic and strategic or upstream research (generating new knowledge or intermediate research products), applied research (developing usable technologies and information) and adaptive research (adapting technology to specific, local environment), suggests appropriate institutional arrangements. As shown in Table 5.2, research products at these three stages differ in the degree of subtractability and exludability, inviting myriad forms of institutions. The presence of public research organisations is essential to provide basic and strategic, and applied management research support, as these may have characteristics of public good (low or negligible subtractability and excludability). Other applied research developing embodied technologies like hybrids, pesticides, machines and fertilizers, can be provided efficiently by private organisations. Embodied technologies have two components, viz. input which is a private good and technology or process (e.g., parents of hybrid) which is a public good. In these embodied technologies, private investment grows to minimise transaction cost. If market transaction cost of technology is high, private firms integrate technology production and sale with technology development i.e. research. However, private research investment would be sub-optimal and therefore",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "process (e.g., parents of hybrid) which is a public good. In these embodied technologies, private investment grows to minimise transaction cost. If market transaction cost of technology is high, private firms integrate technology production and sale with technology development i.e. research. However, private research investment would be sub-optimal and therefore some degree of public sector involvement is essential. Apart from public and private sectors, there are several organisations like NGOs, para-statal agencies, farmers associations, etc. which can also undertake and/or support research and extension (Echeverria et al., 1996). Unfortunately, participation of these organisation is in low profile and they largely depend on public financial support. Efforts should be made to encourage their active participation. The presence of private sector in research is growing, albeit at slow pace. The size of market for technology and scientific opportunities or probability of research success which also affect appropriability (Roe and Pardey, 1991), are very much favourable in India. Efforts have been made to attract private research investment by exempting research investment from corporate tax. Recently, policy reforms lifting restrictions on entry of foreign-owned companies in seed research and import of germplasm for research purposes, supported with economy-wide reforms have encouraged private research investment (Singh et al., 1995 and Pray and Umali, 1997). Private research investment can be further increased by institutionalisation and effective enforcement of intellectual property rights (IPRs) (Roe and Pardey, 1991). The Indian Patent Act of 1970 excludes products, and agriculture and horticulture from patentability. The revised IPRs consistent with the WTO requirement is under debate. The placement and enforcement of new IPRs is expected to accelerate the pace of private research investment, particularly in biotechnology. Till such time when participation of private sector and other voluntary organisations is strong, public sector (ICAR/SAUs) will remain involved in all kinds of research.",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "WTO requirement is under debate. The placement and enforcement of new IPRs is expected to accelerate the pace of private research investment, particularly in biotechnology. Till such time when participation of private sector and other voluntary organisations is strong, public sector (ICAR/SAUs) will remain involved in all kinds of research. Eventually, it should concentrate on basic and strategic research, applied management research, manpower training and regulation and coordination of research. Public research on post-harvest, mechanical, chemical and to some extent on biological technologies will need to be scaled down. The SAUs should provide applied research support, besides education. Post-graduate teaching and research may serve the link between basic and strategic, and applied research in the SAUs. In research, crop and resource management research which is mostly location specific, should largely be concentrated in the SAUs and ZARSs, as these institutions are mandated to location specific problems. Table 5.2 Efficient provision of agricultural research and extension services Stage Type of product Degree of Subtractability and excludability Appropriate institution Example Research Basic and strategic research Knowledge Low Public New knowledge, methodology Applied research Biological Embodied technology Embodied technology Low Medium to high Public Public/private Varieties Hybrids Mechanical Embodied technology Medium to high Public/private Machines Chemical Embodied technology Medium to high Public/private Fertilizers, pesticides Management Disembodied technology or information Low Public Crop and resource management practices Adaptive research Embodied technology Medium to high Local organisations, NGOs, private Information on seeds Disembodied technology or information Low Local organisations, NGOs, public Management practices Extension Information Low Public Weather & market information Specialist information Low to medium Public, NGOs, private Soil and water analysis Skill Medium to high Private, NGOs Use of technology (e.g., grafting) Source: Based on information in Morris et al. (1998), Smale and Gerrard (1995), Umali (1992), Thirtle and Echeverria (1994) and Umali",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Low Public Weather & market information Specialist information Low to medium Public, NGOs, private Soil and water analysis Skill Medium to high Private, NGOs Use of technology (e.g., grafting) Source: Based on information in Morris et al. (1998), Smale and Gerrard (1995), Umali (1992), Thirtle and Echeverria (1994) and Umali (1997). It is difficult to maintain research linkages in a multi-institutional setup. The most crucial aspect would be linking basic/ strategic and applied research. This is particularly important when basic and strategic research will be in public domain and applied research in the private. The ICAR should continue to formulate and enforce national research policy/ regulations. Research linkages and networking will help coordinate research with SAUs and even with international research systems. But a mix of regulations, strategic research support, manpower training, contract research, etc. may be effective in coordinating research in private for-profit and non-profit sectors. Private sector can also provide specialised extension services and can charge for transfer of specialised information and skills, besides promoting adoption of embodied technologies (Umali, 1997). But majority of resource poor farmers may not be able and/or willing to pay for private extension services. The demand for private extension services will, therefore, initially come from commercial, large farmers. Private extension have to be more efficient as margin between price (charge per visit) and cost which is usually low (Dinar, 1996), may further erode due to low demand. Another serious limitation of private extension services is that in the wake of competition, they can send conflicting messages to farmers on the use of technology. Also technologies originating from private sector may have some negative externalities which should be known to farmers (Sulaiman, 1995). Therefore, some degree of public sector involvement in extension is essential to ensure competition and quality of extension services. In addition",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "send conflicting messages to farmers on the use of technology. Also technologies originating from private sector may have some negative externalities which should be known to farmers (Sulaiman, 1995). Therefore, some degree of public sector involvement in extension is essential to ensure competition and quality of extension services. In addition to the public and private sectors, extension through NGOs, farmers groups, etc. should be encouraged. Efforts on this line in Rajasthan are found to be encouraging (Farrington et al., 1997). 5.3 Improving research and extension efficiency Research: The issues involved in improving research efficiency are funding procedures, research planning and management, information system, human capital development and incentive and reward system. Present practice of assured funding with non-plan funds does not ensure efficient utilisation of research resources. On the other hand, competitive funding is costly in terms of time and money spent on the preparation and review of research proposals (Huffman and Just, 1994). Therefore, a balance between core and competitive funding should be maintained. Allocation of core-funds within the ICAR and SAUs to various institutes and divisions should be objective and transparent. Formal resource allocation criteria used in macro-level priority setting can help in this regard. The move to shift from institute to project-based funding under the NATP is a welcome step in this direction. Also implementation of the Johl Committee recommendations to raise resources through contract research (ICAR, 1997) is a great leap forward to sustain research funding. There is a scope for improving research planning and monitoring. Efforts are initiated to strengthen perspective planning (Vision 2020 document of ICAR institutes) and to institutionalise formal priority setting, monitoring and evaluation (PME) mechanism in the ICAR and SAD system. Success of these efforts would depend upon the use of simple, objective and transparent PME methods, and integration of PME",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Efforts are initiated to strengthen perspective planning (Vision 2020 document of ICAR institutes) and to institutionalise formal priority setting, monitoring and evaluation (PME) mechanism in the ICAR and SAD system. Success of these efforts would depend upon the use of simple, objective and transparent PME methods, and integration of PME into research management process. Improved PME would not only ensure rational allocation and efficient use of resources but also integrate clients' needs into research programmes. However, demand driven research programmes developed through improved PME would require a shift from commodity and discipline oriented to multi-disciplinary, system oriented research approach. This implies that top-down approach of research planning should be replaced with bottom-up approach. A pre-requisite of institutionalisation of improved PME is development of agricultural research information system (ARIS). A well structured ARIS not only serves as decision support system but also improves communication in the system. Efforts to create ARIS with the NATP support would go a long way in strengthening research management process. Another important aspect of institutional efficiency is human capital development and personnel policies, including incentive and reward system. Human capital development activities are being strengthened through in-house training and training under the World Bank aided Agricultural Human Resource Development Programme. There is, however, uniform recruitment procedure, performance assessment criteria and incentive structure for the scientists engaged in basic, applied and adaptive research. Basic research requires higher level of scientific calibre, which can't be attracted with an incentive structure at par with other scientists. Uniform performance assessment criteria like number of publications alienates main research from farm realities. Scientists, in general, do not prefer on-farm research for their professional advancement. Researchers engaged in basic research should, therefore, be assessed based on their contribution to new knowledge e.g., scientific publications, methodological developments, etc., whereas applied researchers should be",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "criteria like number of publications alienates main research from farm realities. Scientists, in general, do not prefer on-farm research for their professional advancement. Researchers engaged in basic research should, therefore, be assessed based on their contribution to new knowledge e.g., scientific publications, methodological developments, etc., whereas applied researchers should be best judged by his contribution to the development of usable technologies. Thus, it is necessary to have appropriate scientific skill, performance evaluation criteria and merit based incentive system in place for different stages of research spectrum. Extension: Extension system is fraught with many problems and misconceptions. Extension system of the Department of Agriculture feels encroachment of its domain by research system, while researchers feel gap in transfer of technologies to farmers. As noted above, ICAR and SAUs should slice down front-line extension activities. It would be more appropriate if KVKs are transferred to or merged with ZARSs. The results of extension diversification involving private sector, NGOs, farmers groups and para-extension workers have been very encouraging and therefore support the case of institutional diversification (Keynan et al., 1997 and Picciotto and Anderson, 1997). The main extension system, viz. T&V system, has several operational problems. Besides lack of operational funds, ritualistic nature of extension approach and inadequate training for skill up-gradation constrain the effectiveness of the system (Picciotto and Anderson, 1997). Frequent changes in placement of extension workers and high proportion of vacant posts in remote areas have further reduced the efficiency of the system (Farrington et al., 1997). Immediate action to correct these problems would give tremendous boost to the system. Some measures in this direction are proposed under transfer of technology component of the NATP. Heavy reliance on contact farmers needs to be rationalised by making use of mass media for dissemination of general information on new technologies. For the",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "correct these problems would give tremendous boost to the system. Some measures in this direction are proposed under transfer of technology component of the NATP. Heavy reliance on contact farmers needs to be rationalised by making use of mass media for dissemination of general information on new technologies. For the provision of specialised information and skills, some combination of personal contact and farmer-led extension approach may be used. The approach should be flexible enough to allow extension workers to identify farmers needs and respond them in a bottom-up approach. Further, the approach should be flexible enough to suit to local conditions. For example, greater emphasis on landbased, non-crop activities may be more appropriate for rainfed areas, whereas crop or commodity based extension may be useful for highly specialised, irrigated production areas. Financial viability and incentive structure are other areas which need some improvement. Currently, there is hardly any merit based promotion scheme for extension workers, discouraging them to innovate and improve their efficiency. Perhaps making extension workers accountable to client groups and incorporating their feed back into performance evaluation can help improve the efficiency. To make remote areas attractive, there should be provision of additional incentives. Once extension system is efficient and accountable to clients, there could be a provision of charging for specialised extension services. In addition to this, extension agencies should be encouraged to raise resources to sustain financial viability. In light of the foregoing discussion, recent changes initiated in the research and extension systems are significant. However, in some areas de novo approach is essential. Success of these changes is contingent upon the way senior managers perceive and implement them. In order to create a conducive environment, commitment at the highest level and strengthening of training capacity to implement the reforms is indispensable. 6 CONCLUSIONS Acceleration and",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in some areas de novo approach is essential. Success of these changes is contingent upon the way senior managers perceive and implement them. In order to create a conducive environment, commitment at the highest level and strengthening of training capacity to implement the reforms is indispensable. 6 CONCLUSIONS Acceleration and sustenance of agricultural growth is a prerequisite for alleviating poverty and transforming Indian rural economy. Accordingly, a target of 4.5 per cent agricultural growth is fixed in the Ninth Plan. In order to achieve this target, investment in agriculture, particularly research and extension, has to be stepped up. Research and extension merit special attention as these activities can raise productivity and attain competitiveness in international market in a cost effective manner. At the same time, available resources should be utilised efficiently. With this background, this paper traces the historical development of research and extension systems, analyses investment intensities and their determinants and suggests broad areas of reforms to improve research and extension efficiency. This chapter summarises important conclusions of the study. Research and extension systems in India are dominated by government funded institutions. At the centre, the ICAR and its research institutions are funded by the Union Government. The SAUs engaged in education and applied research are funded by the State governments. Some funds from the ICAR are also transferred to SAUs in the form of regular grants and research schemes. Extension system is with the states and therefore is funded by the State governments. Public investment intensity in research and education has increased from 0.21 per cent of AgGDP in the early 1960s to 0.49 per cent in the early 1990s. Adjusting this intensity with the proportion of total expenditure spent on Education in the ICAR and SAUs, and adding private research investment, gives a research intensity of 0.42",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and education has increased from 0.21 per cent of AgGDP in the early 1960s to 0.49 per cent in the early 1990s. Adjusting this intensity with the proportion of total expenditure spent on Education in the ICAR and SAUs, and adding private research investment, gives a research intensity of 0.42 per cent in the early 1990s, which is far below that in developed countries. Of the total investment, 85 per cent is public and the rest 15 per cent is private. The intensity of public investment in extension is 0.15 per cent of AgGDP. Adding to this private extension investment gives the intensity of 0.2 per cent, which is also very low compared to other countries. There are wide inter-state variations in the public investment in research and extension. Research intensity is very low in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. In the states of Orissa and Rajasthan, although the intensity of State research funds is low, overall research intensity is higher because of higher ICAR expenditure in these states. Extension intensity is low in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. Punjab and Haryana are also spending less on extension, but in view of homogenous production system and greater concentration of private input companies, levels of public expenditure on extension appear to be adequate. Research and extension systems have witnessed a persistent reduction in the share of nonsalary expenses in the total expenditure. It is suggested that research and extension intensity should be doubled and the ratio of salary to non-salary expenses should be at least 60:40. The intensity can be increased by three ways. First and foremost is the higher plan allocations for research and extension in the Ninth Plan. Obviously, most of these funds would be utilised by government funded institutions in the ICAR and SAU",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "salary to non-salary expenses should be at least 60:40. The intensity can be increased by three ways. First and foremost is the higher plan allocations for research and extension in the Ninth Plan. Obviously, most of these funds would be utilised by government funded institutions in the ICAR and SAU system, and state line department. Some public funds can be used to sub-contract private sector for research and/or extension services. Secondly, public funded research institutions can raise funds through commercialisation of their research products. This would not only help augment research resources, but also foster demand driven research agenda. As initiated by the ICAR, public research institutions can also raise funds through contract research with corporate sector, both in public and private sectors. Third option is to attract private investment in research and extension directly. For this, basic and strategic research support of public research institutions, protection of proprietary material and conducive regulations are essential. Lessons from other sectors like pharmaceutical, communication, etc. indicate that entry of private sector including multinationals, has increased use of technology and lowered prices. In agriculture too, liberalisation of seed sector in the late 1980s has paid dividends. This trend should be encouraged to allow private sector to play its due role in agricultural development. The analysis of determinants of public investment in research and extension indicates that the investment is positively associated with the demand for agricultural commodities and negatively with the alternate sources of growth. Interestingly, the effect of economic-political factors shows that unlike research, extension is not a priority for government investment. Extension investment is enhanced only when additional investible resources are available with state governments. This should be corrected by treating extension at par for investment purposes. Economic theory and experience of developed countries suggest that a diversified funding and institutional",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "unlike research, extension is not a priority for government investment. Extension investment is enhanced only when additional investible resources are available with state governments. This should be corrected by treating extension at par for investment purposes. Economic theory and experience of developed countries suggest that a diversified funding and institutional arrangements can provide research and extension services more efficiently. Apart from public and private institutions, NGOs, para-statal agencies, farmers organisations, etc. can undertake or support research and extension. All these institutions should undertake those activities in which they have comparative advantage. For example, the ICAR can concentrate on basic and strategic research and SAUs can focus on applied research, besides education. Private sector can efficiently conduct applied research for developing embodied technologies. Similarly, private sector and voluntary groups can provide extension services. Public sector should ensure competition and quality of research and extension services through enforcement of appropriate regulatory policies like pricing of public services, exchange of material and information and IPRs. Present research resource allocation process is informal and influenced by past investment decisions, leading to imbalances in regional and commodity research focus. Since formal research priority setting and resource allocation methods are considerably developed, these should be institutionalised to bring more objectivity, transparency and relevance to research. On-going efforts in this direction should be given unconditional support at all levels. Scientific performance evaluation criteria giving high weightage to number of publications may alienate main research system from ground realities, as scientists do not prefer on-farm research for their professional advancement. Therefore, performance evaluation criteria should be according to the nature of research work and incentives should be linked with performance. The experience from all over the globe has shown that provision of merit-based incentive with adequate transparency is essential for scientific excellence. In the extension system, rigidity in",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "professional advancement. Therefore, performance evaluation criteria should be according to the nature of research work and incentives should be linked with performance. The experience from all over the globe has shown that provision of merit-based incentive with adequate transparency is essential for scientific excellence. In the extension system, rigidity in approach and lack of incentives for good performance has constrained extension workers to take initiative to respond to farmers needs. Absence of adequate information system hinders management and evaluation of research and extension efforts. Progress is evaluated simply based on quantum of efforts, e.g., number of programmes initiated or resources committed to various programmes. Given the size and complexity of research and extension systems, a well structured information and decision support system is indispensable. The proposal on development of ARIS and technology information depository under the NATP is significant. To sum up, several measures on institutional, investment and management fronts are suggested to improve allocative and cost efficiency of research and extension systems in the country. A number of steps have been initiated and many more are on the anvil. These steps are de novo, deviating from past top-down to system oriented, bottom-up approach. Efficiency of these steps are contingent upon government's will and wherewithal to implement, and ability of scientists and extension workers to avail them. An early action in this direction would benefit millions of farmers and consumers in the country. REFERENCES Alston, J. M.; P. G. Pardey and J. Roseboom (1997), 'Financing agricultural research: International investment patterns and policy perspectives', paper presented at the conference of the International Association of Agricultural Economists, Sacramento, California, August, 1997. Boyce, J. K. and R. E. Evenson (1975), National and International Agricultural Research and Extension Programmes, Agricultural Development Council, New York. CMIE (1993 & 1994), Basic Statistics Relating to the Indian",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
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  {
    "text": "and policy perspectives', paper presented at the conference of the International Association of Agricultural Economists, Sacramento, California, August, 1997. Boyce, J. K. and R. E. Evenson (1975), National and International Agricultural Research and Extension Programmes, Agricultural Development Council, New York. CMIE (1993 & 1994), Basic Statistics Relating to the Indian Economy, Bombay. CMIE (1996a), India's Agricultural Sector, Bombay. CMIE (1996b), Public Finance: India's Central and State Governments, Bombay. Coase, R. (1960),The problem of social cost', Journal of Law and Economics, 3(1): 1-44. Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG, various issues), Combined Finance and Revenue Accounts of the Union and State governments, New Delhi. CSO, National Accounts Statistics, New Delhi. Dinar, A. (1991),'Research allocation for agricultural research', Research Policy, 20: 145-152. Dinar, A. (1996),'Extension commercialization: How much to charge for extension services', American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 78(1): 1-12. DES, Area and Production of Principal Crops in India, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi (various years). Echeverria, R.G.; E. J. Trigo and D. Byerlee (1996), Institutional Change And Effective Financing of Agricultural Research in Latin America, World Bank technical paper no 330, Washington, D.C. Evenson, R. E. (1991),'IARCs, aid and investment in national research extension programmes', in Research and Productivity in Asian Agriculture, R. E. Evenson and C. E. Pray (eds), Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London. Evenson, R. E. and D. Jha (1973),The contribution of agricultural research system to agricultural production in India, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 28(4): 212-230. Evenson, R. E. and J. W. McKinsey (1991), Research, extension, infrastructure and productivity change in Indian agriculture, in Research and Productivity in Asian Agriculture, R. E. Evenson and C. E. Pray (eds), Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London. Farrington, J.; R. V. Sulaiman and Suresh Pal (1997), Improving the effectiveness of research and extension systems: An analysis of institutional and",
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    "text": "Book , New Delhi. ICAR (1997), Training, Consultancy, Contract Research and Contract Service in ICAR SystemRules and Guidelines, New Delhi. Jha, D.; P. Kumar; Mruthyunjaya; S. Pal; S. Selvarajan and A. Singh (1995), Research Priorities in Indian Agriculture, NCAP policy paper 3, New Delhi. Judd, M. A.; J. K. Boyce and R. E. Evenson (1986), Investing in agricultural supply: the determinants of agricultural research and extension investment, Economic Development & Cultural Change, 35(1): 77-113. Judge, G. G.; R. C. Hill; W.i E. Griffiths; H. Lutkepohl and T. C. Lee (1988), Introduction to Theory and Practice of Econometrics, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Keynan, G.; M. Olin and A. Dinar (1997),'Cofinanced public extension in Nicaragua', The World Bank Research Observer, 12(2): 225-247. Kumar, P. and M. W. Rosegrant (1994), Productivity and sources of growth for rice in India, Economic and Political Weekly, Dec. 31, 1994: A 183-188. Macklin, M. (1992), Agricultural Extension in India, World Bank Technical Paper No. 190, Washington, D. C. Ministry of Finance (MOF, Various issues), Finance Accounts, New Delhi. Misra, D.C. (1990), Training and Visit System of Agricultural Extension in India in Action, Directorate of Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi. Mohan, R.; D. Jha and R. E. Evenson (1973),The Indian agricultural research system', Economic and Political Weekly, 8(13): A21-26. Morris, M. L; J. Rusike and M. Smale (1998), 'Maize seed industries: A conceptual framework', in Maize Seed Industries in Developing Countries, M. L. Morris (ed.), Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner/CIMMYT (forthcoming). North, D. (1990), Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pardey, P. G. and J. Roseboom (1989), ISNAR Agricultural Research Indicator SeriesA Global Database on National Agricultural Research System, The Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pardey, P. G.; J. Roseboom and J. R. Anderson (1991), Regional perspectives on national agricultural research, in Agricultural",
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    "text": "Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pardey, P. G. and J. Roseboom (1989), ISNAR Agricultural Research Indicator SeriesA Global Database on National Agricultural Research System, The Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pardey, P. G.; J. Roseboom and J. R. Anderson (1991), Regional perspectives on national agricultural research, in Agricultural Research PolicyInternational Quantitative Perspectives, P. G. Pardey; J. Roseboom and J. R. Anderson (eds), Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge. Pardey, P. G.; M. S. Kang and H. Elliott (1989), Structure of public support for national agricultural research systems: A political economy perspective, Agricultural Economics, 3: 261-78. Picciotto, R. (1995), Putting Institutional Economics to Work: From Participation to Governance, World Bank discussion paper No 304, Washington, D.C. Picciotto, R. and J. R. Anderson (1997),'Reconsidering agricultural extension', The World Bank Research Observer, 12(2): 249-259. Planning Commission (1996), Draft approach paper to the Ninth Five Year Plan, New Delhi. Prasad, C. (1989),'Agricultural extension services', in 40 Years of Agricultural Research and Education in India, ICAR, New Delhi. Pray, C. E. and S. Ribeiro (1990), Government seed policy, the development 6f the private seed industry and the impact of private R&D in India, Deptt of Agric. Economics and Marketing, Rutgers University, New Jersey. Pray, C. E. and D. Umali-Deininger (1997),'Private agricultural research: Will it fill the gap?', paper presented at the conference of the International Association of Agricultural Economists, Sacramento, California, August, 1997. Rajeswari, S. (1995), Agricultural research effort: conceptual clarity and measurement, World Development, 23(4): 617-35. Randhawa, M. S. (1979), A History of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, ICAR, New Delhi. Randhawa, M. S. (1983), A History of Agriculture in India vol. Ill, ICAR, New Delhi. Randhawa, M. S. (1986), A History of Agriculture in India vol. IV, ICAR, New Delhi. Rao, D. R. and U. Muralidhar (1994), A Study on Agricultural Universities",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
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    "text": "Indian Council of Agricultural Research, ICAR, New Delhi. Randhawa, M. S. (1983), A History of Agriculture in India vol. Ill, ICAR, New Delhi. Randhawa, M. S. (1986), A History of Agriculture in India vol. IV, ICAR, New Delhi. Rao, D. R. and U. Muralidhar (1994), A Study on Agricultural Universities Information System , NAARM, Hyderabad. RBI (various issues), Finances of State Governments in India, Bombay. Roe, T. L. and P. G. Pardey (1991), Economic policy and investment in rural public goods: A political economy perspective, in Agricultural Research PolicyInternational Quantitative Perspectives, P. G. Pardey; J. Roseboom and J. R. Anderson (eds), Cambridge Univ. Press., Cambridge. Rose-Ackerman, S. and R. E. Evenson (1985),The political economy of agricultural research and extension: Grants, votes and reapportionment', American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 67:1-14. Rosegrant, M. W. and R. E. Evenson (1992), Agricultural productivity and sources of growth in south Asia, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 74: 757-761. Singh, R. P.; Suresh Pal and Michael L. Morris (1995), Maize Research, Development, and Seed Production in India: Contributions of the Public and Private Sectors, CIMMYT Economics working paper 95-3, Mexico. Smale, M. and C. Gerrard (1995), The new institutional economics and the efficient provision of improved agricultural technology: The case of hybrid maize in Malawi, Paper presented at the EDI, Curriculum Development Workshop, Washington, D.C., Dec. 6-7, 1995. Sulaiman, R. V. (1995), Priyatising farm extensionNeed for a cautious approach, NCAP Policy Brief 2, New Delhi. Thirtle, C. and R. G. Echeverria (1994), 'Privatization and the roles of public and private institutions in agricultural research in SubSaharan Africa', Food Policy, 19(1): 31-44. Umali, D. L. (1992), Public and Private Sector Roles in Agricultural Research: Theory and Experience, World Bank discussion paper 176, Washington, D.C. Umali-Deininger, D. (1997),'Public and private agricultural extension: Partners or rivals?', The World Bank",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of public and private institutions in agricultural research in SubSaharan Africa', Food Policy, 19(1): 31-44. Umali, D. L. (1992), Public and Private Sector Roles in Agricultural Research: Theory and Experience, World Bank discussion paper 176, Washington, D.C. Umali-Deininger, D. (1997),'Public and private agricultural extension: Partners or rivals?', The World Bank Research Observer, 12(2): 203-224. Williamson, O. E. (1975), Markets and Hierarchies: Analysis and Antirust Implications, Free Press, New York. Williamson, O. E. (1985), The Economic Institutions of Capitalism, Free Press, New York. Appendix I Regions for the ICAR-state coordination in research and development Region States covered I Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, hills of Uttar Pradesh II Assam, West Bengal III Sikkim, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur, Andaman & Nicobar Islands IV Bihar, Punjab, plains of Uttar Pradesh, Delhi V Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, east Madhya Pradesh VI Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, UTs: Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu VII Maharashtra, west and central Madhya Pradesh, Goa VIII Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Lakshadeep Islands Source: ICAR (1966/97) Appendix II Data and their sources Data Period Source 1. Research and education invest Government investment Revenue and capital accounts 1960/6194/95 CAG, MOF, RBI Corporate investment 1992-93 CMIE*, Pray and Umali (1997) 2. Extension investment Revenue account 1960/6194/95 CAG, MOF 3. AgGDP, GDP (new series) 1980/8193/94 CSO, computer cell 4. Number of scientists ICAR 1996 ICAR (1996/97) SAUs 1992 Rao and Muralidhar (1994) 5. Number of extension workers 1988 Misra (1990) 6. Gross cropped area, rural population and literacy, price indices, irrigated area 1980/8194/95 CMIE (1996a) 7. Government expenditure on agriculture, total government expenditure, government revenue 1980/811994/95 CAG, CMIE (1996b) 8. State-wise crop area 1980/811994/95 DES** 9. Plan allocations to research and education, and agriculture and allied activities various plans Planning Commission CMIE (1994) 10. Commodity-wise allocations of research investment ICAR",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "irrigated area 1980/8194/95 CMIE (1996a) 7. Government expenditure on agriculture, total government expenditure, government revenue 1980/811994/95 CAG, CMIE (1996b) 8. State-wise crop area 1980/811994/95 DES** 9. Plan allocations to research and education, and agriculture and allied activities various plans Planning Commission CMIE (1994) 10. Commodity-wise allocations of research investment ICAR 1994/95 ICAR (1995/96) SAUs 1992 Rao and Muralidhar (1994) * These data are compiled by the DST. ** Thanks are due to Dr. P. S, Birthal for providing the data set. Appendix III Government investment in agricultural research and education by states (000 Rs at current prices) Year Centre Arunachal Pradesh Goa, D&D Mizoram Pondichery Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar 1960/61 25,414 9,891 10,517 8,517 1961/62 30,309 8,833 6,645 9,524 1962/63 29,990 9,851 9,667 9,758 1963/64 30,253 39 9,509 14,393 1 1 ,233 1964/65 35,275 57 9,380 15,577 1 1 ,734 1965/66 31 ,865 16 64 9,125 29,473 11,544 1966/67 57,275 11 151 9,600 29,474 13,653 1967/68 12,316 1,526 275 6,977 22,979 15,754 1968/69 14,367 1,435 236 7,804 26,642 16,921 1969/70 13,284 146,225 77 9,184 22,580 18,655 1970/71 12,313 873 71 9,801 19,722 16,626 1971/72 14,040 1,506 95 11,845 22,347 5,396 1972/73 14,229 1,621 184 12,266 46,320 6,289 1973/74 17,405 1,670 234 16,251 32,548 7,335 1974/75 302,846 516 78 1,517 24,588 9,818 22,817 1975/76 396,562 122 818 162 551 31 ,328 1 1 ,476 25,873 1976/77 463,339 83 568 469 1,014 34,978 13,957 26,029 1977/78 589,719 79 427 741 919 40,112 21 ,429 29,849 1978/79 693,184 125 581 366 1,321 46,115 26,990 33,492 1979/80 741,016 359 1,196 326 1,575 51 ,736 31,710 43,475 1980/81 730,356 246 637 807 977 56,227 29,329 45,449 1981/82 872,884 120 689 1,184 803 73,374 39,214 51,122 1982/83 1,019,476 248 688 249 1,418 73,354 53,183 44,904 1983/84 1,175,330 531 761 782 1,570 87,447 52,414 36,413 1984/85 1,319,000",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "26,990 33,492 1979/80 741,016 359 1,196 326 1,575 51 ,736 31,710 43,475 1980/81 730,356 246 637 807 977 56,227 29,329 45,449 1981/82 872,884 120 689 1,184 803 73,374 39,214 51,122 1982/83 1,019,476 248 688 249 1,418 73,354 53,183 44,904 1983/84 1,175,330 531 761 782 1,570 87,447 52,414 36,413 1984/85 1,319,000 937 865 1,003 1,691 112,423 66,770 50,679 1985/86 1 424,902 1,264 1,022 1,392 1,611 132,745 96,748 113,283 1986/87 1621 ,837 1,869 1,529 205 1,692 145,628 140,543 184,045 1987/88 1,718,937 1,581 4,644 1,491 4,929 121,744 130,683 114,112 1988/89 2,046,442 1,299 2,085 1,494 4,298 190,341 79,952 114,112 1989/90 2,512,755 1,270 3,792 482 6,160 219,646 152,193 126,085 1990/91 3,172,036 16,208 5,211 544 13,124 250,189 224,700 159,948 1991/92 3,429,096 4,600 3,599 900 14,038 315,228 181,000 182,600 1992/93 3,644,272 5,900 3,146 1,100 na 395,702 212,400 195,300 1993/94 4,270,473 12,200 5,840 1,600 na 401 ,497 193,400 250,900 1994/95 4,956,300 8,900 3,500 1,300 na 435,900 190,600 253,600 Year Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh 1960/61 5,366 753 3,908 3,991 10,879 1961/62 6,598 1,141 4,688 1,771 9,102 1962/63 6,802 1,630 5,765 3,549 1 1 ,641 1963/64 10,592 3,809 1,975 7,298 2,195 13,818 1964/65 13,185 6,647 2,559 8,765 2,468 12,325 1965/66 20,837 7,522 3,102 9,591 3,172 10,779 1966/67 23,753 1,187 7,976 3,751 781 4,176 7,252 1967/68 21,121 2,541 10,719 3,204 1,281 5,103 9,486 1968/69 24,015 2,891 11 ,049 6,219 1,469 5,261 9,058 1969/70 23,779 2,854 14,085 8,898 9,503 5,923 11,242 1970/71 29,370 2,668 17,897 9,028 10,768 6,716 12,687 1971/72 33,147 3,005 16,231 5,642 10,455 7,268 17,592 1972/73 31,263 4,086 22,343 13,145 12,319 1,837 22,725 1973/74 31,746 4,482 25,728 13,030 13,090 3,602 27,956 1974/75 31,606 24,094 12,875 3,418 25,726 15,064 11,414 1975/76 33,015 26,376 10,264 4,223 36,760 21 ,476 13,502 1976/77 47,420 29,662 11,179 3,435 37,558 26,108 17,576 1977/78 52,201 29,942 1 1 ,767 5,311",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "7,268 17,592 1972/73 31,263 4,086 22,343 13,145 12,319 1,837 22,725 1973/74 31,746 4,482 25,728 13,030 13,090 3,602 27,956 1974/75 31,606 24,094 12,875 3,418 25,726 15,064 11,414 1975/76 33,015 26,376 10,264 4,223 36,760 21 ,476 13,502 1976/77 47,420 29,662 11,179 3,435 37,558 26,108 17,576 1977/78 52,201 29,942 1 1 ,767 5,311 44,120 27,456 18,799 1978/79 47,279 33,698 12,682 7,327 48,098 37,138 16,865 1979/80 61 ,383 49,209 21,413 9,061 54,965 33,174 17,711 1980/81 61,019 55,555 18,731 8,167 52,315 45,513 20,387 1981/82 55,502 58,422 19,862 12,968 52,011 59,575 22,509 1982/83 73,416 64,983 21 ,909 16,631 60,068 48,248 26,430 1983/84 95,910 79,073 22,623 27,674 64,472 71,201 29,371 1984/85 120,428 87,499 24,553 41 ,086 83,843 90,100 38,838 1985/86 132,592 108,284 29,497 43,710 85,197 131,884 51,585 1986/87 146,468 112,733 28,720 63,707 99,419 109,383 1,564 1987/88 185,406 128,425 59,478 61 ,994 120,900 112,220 71,465 1988/89 208,342 147,866 90,541 53,153 163,400 122,651 100,521 1989/90 250,650 165,506 83,442 53,981 172,162 149,959 111,852 1990/91 263,102 177,958 88,857 82,452 182,599 178,464 177,476 1991/92 325,636 223,168 106,574 80,800 237,931 278,977 179,905 1992/93 340,770 238,378 110,148 54,600 269,133 305,522 208,796 1993/94 357,309 259,501 128,195 63,600 374,346 314,261 182,523 1994/95 404,700 289,600 141,600 107,100 374,400 362,900 205,400 Year Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan 1960/61 11 ,892 2,097 8,090 4,556 1961/62 18,594 2,898 8,730 4,962 1962/63 19,178 3,088 8,638 8,729 1963/64 28,242 45 4,777 7,664 3,086 1964/65 38,323 93 6,895 10,764 3,741 1965/66 56,867 76 3,605 11,622 4,803 1966/67 69,098 73 3,190 9,231 6,120 1967/68 74,700 81 3,356 13,020 7,597 1968/69 80,300 99 3,432 11,253 6,794 1969/70 79,118 155 3,186 14,738 6,996 1970/71 74,181 176 4,424 6,281 15,066 7,631 1971/72 77,595 178 3,984 2,335 7,089 20,198 9,465 1972/73 80,745 3,355 6,244 0 6,021 28,095 1 1 ,266 1973/74 71 ,341 223 6,318 0 6,296 34,577 13,981 1974/75 89,353 546 1,145 1,010 8,624 32,697",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "3,432 11,253 6,794 1969/70 79,118 155 3,186 14,738 6,996 1970/71 74,181 176 4,424 6,281 15,066 7,631 1971/72 77,595 178 3,984 2,335 7,089 20,198 9,465 1972/73 80,745 3,355 6,244 0 6,021 28,095 1 1 ,266 1973/74 71 ,341 223 6,318 0 6,296 34,577 13,981 1974/75 89,353 546 1,145 1,010 8,624 32,697 14,388 1975/76 98,339 490 1,022 1,125 10,650 40,125 21 ,401 1976/77 105,481 590 1,005 1,240 8,552 41 ,907 20,723 1977/78 109,406 652 1,187 1,187 17,581 44,108 20,582 1978/79 131,088 1,175 1,234 112 34,643 51,125 21 ,995 1979/80 135,788 896 1,571 2,165 15,049 57,330 25,050 1980/81 167,588 3,630 1,954 3,353 18,290 66,694 28,910 1981/82 177,984 4,123' 2,103 2,564 22,179 73,120 36,897 1982/83 192,831 387 2,356 5,199 20,440 74,951 37,199 1983/84 232,330 4,149 2,779 4,173 28,531 96,494 42,192 1984/85 241 ,732 5,102 3,123 24,178 32,829 104,994 47,406 1985/86 271 ,435 5,851 3,580 23,720 29,175 121,352 54,516 1986/87 326,058 6,048 185 6,066 39,105 139,615 63,934 1987/88 445,738 16,177 10,300 8,672 48,313 186,263 92,335 1988/89 472,869 23,023 13,800 8,531 44,469 184,700 115,604 1989/90 534,090 22,300 9,200 6,572 55,433 406,962 132,492 1990/91 613,221 17,600 11,800 9,064 87,155 270,738 168,163 1991/92 642,243 19,100 11,400 13,800 119,526 302,959 188,511 1992/93 751 ,980 12,000 16,400 14,000 114,697 337,482 192,858 1993/94 828,799 15,700 14,500 13,300 98,515 384,695 231 ,278 1994/95 978,800 13,500, 21,300 15.500 115,600 448,300 250,800 Year Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal All India 1960/61 6,021 11,198 2,904 125,997 1961/62 4,630 21,111 2,876 142,415 1962/63 4,585 23,152 2,445 158,470 1963/64 4,709 1,246 27,320 2,617 184,825 1964/65 5,505 1,199 36,040 2,728 223,263 1965/66 5,167 1,513 43,378 2,804 266,931 1966/67 6,886 2,119 46,101 4,606 306,467 1967/68 7,652 2,514 55,779 6,314 284,300 1968/69 8,001 2,768 61 ,980 7,354 309,353 1969/70 12,518 3,251 74,861 6,847 487,965 1970/71 13,333 4,950 86,128 9,901 370,618 1971/72 14,541 6,236 90,091 11,116 391 ,403",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "1964/65 5,505 1,199 36,040 2,728 223,263 1965/66 5,167 1,513 43,378 2,804 266,931 1966/67 6,886 2,119 46,101 4,606 306,467 1967/68 7,652 2,514 55,779 6,314 284,300 1968/69 8,001 2,768 61 ,980 7,354 309,353 1969/70 12,518 3,251 74,861 6,847 487,965 1970/71 13,333 4,950 86,128 9,901 370,618 1971/72 14,541 6,236 90,091 11,116 391 ,403 1972/73 15,393 13,675 98,585 12,224 464,237 1973/74 15,538 12,044 108,876 15,284 479,562 1974/75 26,41 1 1,052 25,277 22,483 709,368 1975/76 121 28,661 790 39,092 30,844 885,174 1976/77 620 30,479 896 42,620 38,175 1,005,671 1977/78 453 27,096 836 69,312 54,709 1,219,984 1978/79 664 35,906 948 87,981 41,917 1,414,056 1979/80 373 35,047 1,012 77,970 52,862 1,523,427 1980/81 355 40,125 979 114,574 51,428 1,623,598 1981/82 1,745 53,781 1,206 118,505 61,113 1 ,875,567 1982/83 1,413 52,845 1,205 113,615 67,762 2,075,414 1983/84 1,509 50,404 898 142,272 81 ,451 2,432,759 1984/85 2,088 79,589 1,043 158,814 90,272 2,830,890 1985/86 2,818 70,018 1,024 163,661 94,339 3,197,211 1986/87 2,330 88,768 na 197,421 115,907 3,645,810 1987/88 na 105,284 600 80,168 110,478 3,944,670 1988/89 na 170,101 1,900 331 ,656 130,098 4,825,582 1989/90 5,297 202,393 1,400 300,700 138,968 5,825,746 1990/91 5,065 325,060 2,000 481 ,500 152,791 7,137,029 1991/92 na 296,955 2,700 392,900 158,769 7,717,982 1992/93 5,573 369,614 3,000 359,114 153,511 8,329,437 1993/94 5,403 463,617 2,200 510,945 200,967 9,599,607 1994/95 6,069 473,200 3,500 573,300 274,000 10,923,708 na: Not available Appendix V 2SLS estimates for government research and extension intensity model Research & education intensity (%) Extension intensity (%) 1. Research and education intensity (%) No endogeneity 2. Extension intensity (%) 1.171*** (4.80) Economic variables 3. Lagged real AgGDP (000 Rs) -9.346E-10 (0.45) -1.611E-09 (1.19) 4. Growth in GCA (%) -0.106 (0.60) -0.739*** (5.15) 5. Percent irrigated area -0.013*** (4.92) 6. Diversification index -0.020 (0.97) 7. Terms of trade (%) -9.917E-04 (0.86) -0.001* (1.65) Economic-political variables 8. Share of agril. expenditure in total govt.",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "variables 3. Lagged real AgGDP (000 Rs) -9.346E-10 (0.45) -1.611E-09 (1.19) 4. Growth in GCA (%) -0.106 (0.60) -0.739*** (5.15) 5. Percent irrigated area -0.013*** (4.92) 6. Diversification index -0.020 (0.97) 7. Terms of trade (%) -9.917E-04 (0.86) -0.001* (1.65) Economic-political variables 8. Share of agril. expenditure in total govt. expenditure (% 1.222E-04 ) (0.06) -0.002 (1.44) 9. Per capita real government revenue (Rs) 5.223E-05 (0.43) 3.314E-05 (0.40) 10. Rural literacy (%) 0.009** (1.92) 0.027***(7.69) Political variable 11. Share of rural population (%) 0.029*** (3.97) 12. State dummy Bihar -0.587***(5.27) -0.144 (1.49) Gujarat -0.406***(4.27) -0.269*** (3.23) Haryana 0.167* (1.65) 0.122 (1.03) Himachal Pradesh 0.485*** (2.71) -1.158*** (5.27) Karnataka -0.149 (1.28) -0.337*** (5.05) Kerala -0.172 (0.58) -1.856*** (7.83) Madhya Pradesh -0.194*** (3.46) -0.330*** (4.89) Maharashtra -0.239*** (2.93) 0.334 (1.51) Orissa -0.325*** (2.87) -0.742*** (5.40) Punjab -0.412** (3.11) 0.373** (2.44) Rajasthan -0.203*** (2.60) 0.063 (1.35) Tamil Nadu -0.728*** (7.07) 0.253***(3.52) Uttar Pradesh -0.161 (1.46) 0.092 (1.09) 13. Constant 0.499** (2.40) -1 .638*** (2.52) Adjusted R2 0.94 0.82 'F' value N = 14, T = 13 139.23*** 41.54*** ***, **, * significant at 1, 5 and 10 percent level, respectively Figures in parenthesis are 't' values.",
    "source": "Agricultural Research and Extension in India- Institutional Structure and Investments.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "INNOVATIONS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION | © 2021 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY | MSU EXTENSION | 2-1 CHAPTER 2 Global Experiences in Agricultural Extension, Community Outreach & Advisory Services Sunil Madan, Outreach Specialist, International Programs, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA Karim Maredia, Director, International Programs, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, MSU, East Lansing, Michigan, USA Introduction Extension, community outreach, and advisory services play a vital role in transferring new knowledge and technologies to farmers and end users. Globally, governments and international development agencies have invested large resources for developing agricultural extension systems. During the past six decades, the national governments and international development agencies have supported and implemented numerous extension models and programs (Birner et al., 2006). The nature of these programs has varied from country to country. These programs continue to evolve (Zivkovic et al., 2009). Many of these programs have been successful and created a great impact in enhancing the agricultural productivity and livelihoods of rural communities. The following sections describe various examples and models of extension that have been implemented in various regions of the world. They provide rich experiences on agricultural extension and advisory services from around the world. Case Studies of Global Experiences in Agricultural Extension Training & Visit Model of Extension in Developing Countries The Training and Visit (T&V) system of extension was one of the early innovations in agricultural extension. This model was developed and 2-2 | CHAPTER 2 advocated by Daniel Benor in the early 1970s. The World Bank formally launched the T&V extension model in India and Turkey in 1974. Initially, this model was implemented on a pilot scale at Sehan in Turkey and at Chambal in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh states in India (Benor & Harrison, 1977; Benor & Baxter, 1984). The T&V",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "1970s. The World Bank formally launched the T&V extension model in India and Turkey in 1974. Initially, this model was implemented on a pilot scale at Sehan in Turkey and at Chambal in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh states in India (Benor & Harrison, 1977; Benor & Baxter, 1984). The T&V model was later implemented in several countries of Asia and Africa. Under the T&V model, systematic training programs were developed and implemented for village extension workers including regular visits to family farms in villages. This model was adopted in more than 70 developing countries as a national public extension program (Anderson et al., 2006). The T&V model promoted locally developed technologies to farmers at the village level with a goal of delivering the latest technologies developed by the national agricultural research systems to local farmers and end users. The main feature of the T&V model of extension was a single line of command and a well-defined geographical boundary of operation for each extension program. The extension agents were trained to offer skills and share their knowledge for implementing best practices in crop management, evaluate production constraints, and provide advisory services to farmers. The trained extension workers visited local farmers every 15 days through a fixed schedule. The other features of the T&V system of extension encompassed regular training of extension staff, provision of feedback to research institutes on farmers’ problems, and a continuous supervision, monitoring, and evaluation of extension activities. For the local farmers, the T&V model was found effective and led to agricultural growth and high rates of returns. The model was also helpful for staff training and increased extension services in additional geographical areas that further improved linkages between research and extension. Like many other agricultural extension models, the T&V model also had several weaknesses. The national governments",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and led to agricultural growth and high rates of returns. The model was also helpful for staff training and increased extension services in additional geographical areas that further improved linkages between research and extension. Like many other agricultural extension models, the T&V model also had several weaknesses. The national governments faced multiple challenges to implementing the T&V model of extension. The T&V model was a top-down model. Several implementing agencies and officials found it rigid and financially unsustainable. The cost included for training a large number of trainers and other personnel and their overall management was high. There was a lack of organizational structure, so a penetration at the village level was low. There was also a lack of coordination in regular farm visits by educators and extension agents and a lack of systematic supervision and support to extension staff. The communication between research departments, extension agents, and farmers was weak. Transportation facilities were lacking to visit farmers and demonstration sites, which severely impacted extension agent mobility. Also, few women extension agents existed, and technical expertise was lacking (Dejene, 1987). There was also a lack of political commitment to support the overall extension programs in many countries (Rivera & Alex, 2004). Learning from these challenges and impact studies of the T&V model, the intention, discussions, and debates were shifted to developing new models of agricultural extension, such as Farmer Field Schools. Farmer Field School Model of Extension The Farmer Field School (FFS) model of agricultural extension emerged in Asia in 1980 and was implemented by several institutions and organizations in over 90 countries with around 10 to 20 million farmers benefiting GLOBAL EXPERIENCES IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION | 2-3 globally (Braun & Duveskog, 2008, as cited in Phillips et al, 2014). The FFS model was an intensive, season-long program that focused",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "1980 and was implemented by several institutions and organizations in over 90 countries with around 10 to 20 million farmers benefiting GLOBAL EXPERIENCES IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION | 2-3 globally (Braun & Duveskog, 2008, as cited in Phillips et al, 2014). The FFS model was an intensive, season-long program that focused on experiential learning where farmers met frequently and developed experiments, learned, and shared their skills and knowledge with other farmers in a village. The FFS was called a school without borders. It was a driving force in community engagement, rural participation, knowledge sharing, skill acquisition, and adoption of technologies in rural farming communities. The FFS model successfully facilitated Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices in Asia and in Africa. Using a people-centric approach, the FFS approach focused on learning via participation, using community-based learning systems with local people supported by technologies and methods developed by outside organizations and institutions. FFS activities were completely nonformal education (learning by doing), a school without walls, where adult male and female participants had an opportunity to learn new science-based agricultural practices and technologies through communication in local languages. The FFS addressed several topics since its inception, such as IPM, agricultural cultural practices, sustainable production system to value chain development, and nutrition. More recently, the FFS has helped address emerging agricultural problems such as fall armyworm and several other issues in agricultural systems (Food and Agriculture Organization, n.d.). Through FFS in Indonesia, millions of smallholder farmers were trained in rice production (Pretty & Bharucha, 2015). This program was later expanded to vegetable production. Bangladesh conducted large FFS projects and trained hundreds of thousands of farmers on integrated fish culture and integrated rice IPM in FFS curricula through the INTER FISH project. Learning from Bangladesh’s experience, this model expanded to Colombia, Brazil, and six Caribbean countries on",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "program was later expanded to vegetable production. Bangladesh conducted large FFS projects and trained hundreds of thousands of farmers on integrated fish culture and integrated rice IPM in FFS curricula through the INTER FISH project. Learning from Bangladesh’s experience, this model expanded to Colombia, Brazil, and six Caribbean countries on rice and aquaculture. FFS contributed tremendously to farmers’ knowledge and skill development that resulted in increased productivity (Van Den Berg, 2004). In Nepal, the FFS approach was applied to community forest management (Miagostovich, 2004), gender issues in Indonesia (Fakih, 2002), HIV/AIDS in Cambodia (Yech, 2003), women’s self-help groups in India (Tripathi & Wajih, 2003), and many other areas of farmer and community empowerment. In Africa, FFSs were launched in many countries with a focus on crop production and practices in pesticide management as there were comparatively low levels of production and pesticide use. In addition to the IPM, FFSs helped create awareness in additional areas such as nutrition and health, and combating HIV/AIDS and malaria in rural communities. In West Africa, the FFS approach to education regarding vector-borne diseases was undertaken by the Wageningen University and Research Centers, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and other institutions (Van Den Berg, 2004). In Kenya, the International Livestock Research Institute adapted the FFS approach in 2001 for animal health and production (Braun et al., 2006) with the help of several pilot programs established in nine countries including Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Nigeria that resulted in increased livestock production. Additionally, FFSs provided training and capacity-building support to the farmers. Through FFSs, FAO in partnership with International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and the national research system, actively promoted environmentally friendly practices such as minimum tillage, conservation agriculture, water harvesting, and irrigation 2-4 | CHAPTER 2 systems (Hughes & Venema, 2005; FAO, 2008).",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "capacity-building support to the farmers. Through FFSs, FAO in partnership with International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and the national research system, actively promoted environmentally friendly practices such as minimum tillage, conservation agriculture, water harvesting, and irrigation 2-4 | CHAPTER 2 systems (Hughes & Venema, 2005; FAO, 2008). The FFSs became the foundation of the food security program in Nigeria, Kenya, and Sierra Leone. In central and eastern Europe, through FFSs, the IPM approach was introduced in 2003 by FAO to tackle the western corn rootworm problem in maize. In Peru and Bolivia, FAO established a national program on FFS to effectively scale up IPM strategies. FFS long-term contributions were successful in many countries to strengthen the farmers, management of farm enterprises, and ecosystems (Jiggins et al., 2005). Numerous studies conducted by various international organizations, universities, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and other public and private institutions highlight multiple benefits that FFSs have created. These include the following:  Increase in crop production, productivity, and income generation  Significant decrease in the use of chemical pesticides  Enhanced market and value chain linkages for farmer groups and elimination of intermediary for marketing  Favorable local policies and strengthening relationships among communities and local government authorities  Enhanced farmers capacities and empowerment as well as leadership skills, program management skills, and problem-solving skills of farmers Krishi Vigyan Kendra Model of Agricultural Extension In 1974, the Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) (farm science center) model of extension was first established in the Pondicherry region of Tamil Nadu, India, under the auspices of the Tamil Nadu Agriculture University. With the success of the pilot KVK, this model was replicated in every district of India. Currently, 675 KVKs cover every district. These KVKs operate under various platforms. Of these, 456 are under agriculture universities, 63",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "region of Tamil Nadu, India, under the auspices of the Tamil Nadu Agriculture University. With the success of the pilot KVK, this model was replicated in every district of India. Currently, 675 KVKs cover every district. These KVKs operate under various platforms. Of these, 456 are under agriculture universities, 63 under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) institutions, 102 under NGOs, 36 under state governments, three under public sector universities, and 15 under other educational institutions (Ramsunder, 2019). The KVKs are financed by the Government of India. KVKs have become an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System (NARS) in India. KVKs have played an active role in assessment of location-specific technologies for agriculture and allied enterprises, through technology assessment, refinement, and on-farm demonstrations. KVKs act as knowledge and resource centers of agricultural technology helping initiatives of public, private, and voluntary sectors for improving the agricultural economy of the districts. They link the NARS with the extension system and with farmers. KVKs have specific mandates and have important features as outlined following (Ramsunder, 2019):  To assess the location-specific agricultural technologies  To establish demonstrations of farms and fields to display the potential of technologies, information, and inputs  To enhance capacities of the farmers and extension personnel to update and improve their skills and knowledge in modern agriculture technologies as well as capacity building of various stakeholders  To work as a knowledge resource center of agriculture technologies GLOBAL EXPERIENCES IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION | 2-5  To provide farm advisories services using information and communication technology (ICT)-based tools and other means on various subjects of interest to farmers  To show participatory approaches in planning, implementing, executing, and evaluating In addition, KVKs are also responsible for production of quality seeds, planting materials, and livestock. They also make",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "provide farm advisories services using information and communication technology (ICT)-based tools and other means on various subjects of interest to farmers  To show participatory approaches in planning, implementing, executing, and evaluating In addition, KVKs are also responsible for production of quality seeds, planting materials, and livestock. They also make these resources available to farmers and link them with current and ongoing government programs. KVKs have developed need-based training and frontline technology demonstration programs for farmers to empower them with knowledge and skills in crop management practices, which includes use of quality seeds, efficient irrigation practices, fertilizers and pesticides use, quality production, and assessment of markets for their produce. KVKs serve woman farmers, self-help groups, district extension workers, and other volunteers in their mandated regions. In India, KVKs also facilitate linkages among various programs implemented by the government departments and ministries at the district level including the Agriculture Technology Management Agency, Rastriya Krishi Vikas Yojana, and National Horticulture Mission of the Department of Agriculture as well as the Ministry of Rural Development`s national programs such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act. KVKs have created a tremendous impact on farming communities. They have been active in demonstrating and communicating the benefits of new technologies through various training programs. Training conducted by KVKs on improved technologies has been adopted and implemented immediately by nearly 40% of the farmers. Nearly 80% of the farmers changed their agricultural practices patterns, diversified their crops, and implemented new cropping patterns as recommended by KVKs (National Institute of Labour Economics Research and Development, 2015). Through experts’ advisory services of KVKs, farmers have used good quality seeds; changed their seed planting patterns, and applied appropriate pesticides, chemical and biofertilizers; adopted organic agriculture approaches; and implemented irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and sprinklers. Through KVKs’",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "KVKs (National Institute of Labour Economics Research and Development, 2015). Through experts’ advisory services of KVKs, farmers have used good quality seeds; changed their seed planting patterns, and applied appropriate pesticides, chemical and biofertilizers; adopted organic agriculture approaches; and implemented irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and sprinklers. Through KVKs’ intervention, nearly 50% of the farmers have mechanized their farm operations either by purchasing or renting machines on a seasonal basis (Ramsunder, 2019). However, despite the KVKs’ excellent work in many districts of India, few studies have reported great variations in their effectiveness on serving local farming communities. Several of the KVKs face insufficient infrastructure and field staff as well as constraints in reaching out to their mandated locations. Due to the remote location of many KVKs, some struggle to recruit and retain talented staff with advanced skills and knowledge in emerging technologies. NGO-Operated Extension Programs NGOs, often referred to as civil society organizations, play a vital role in agriculture and rural development globally. The NGOs have diverse origins (Padron, 1987). They are social charities or service organizations, and many of them emerge through social movements and specific group activities. NGOs vary in size and professional capacities. They work locally, nationally, regionally, and internationally. NGOs have played a legitimate and niche role 2-6 | CHAPTER 2 in agriculture development, focusing on local farmers and communities at grassroots levels. In the absence of public and governmental extension services, the activities and services offered by NGOs have filled the gaps. In several countries, the public extension system does not effectively reach poor farmers (Ashby et al., 1995; Howell, 1985; Rivera, 1996). To such poor farmers and communities, NGOs have provided effective support at the grassroots level. Several NGOs refer to themselves as self-help groups and are proactive in providing support when there",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "countries, the public extension system does not effectively reach poor farmers (Ashby et al., 1995; Howell, 1985; Rivera, 1996). To such poor farmers and communities, NGOs have provided effective support at the grassroots level. Several NGOs refer to themselves as self-help groups and are proactive in providing support when there is a demand for extension and other services. Often, many of these NGOs working in agricultural extension have limited funding, facilities, and human resources (de Treville, 1991). Many local and regional NGOs working at the grassroots level are effective in communication, have built trust with communities, and provide extension advisory services to farmers. They are flexible and responsive, and they maintain their on-the-ground presence at the field level, whereas public or private sector extension service providers who are not as close to the community may not be as responsive or effective at communication. NGOs’ rapport with farmers help them disseminate knowledge and technologies to farmers easily (Chaguma & Gumbo, 1993). For example, in Bangladesh, an NGO developed an innovative technology for Soya Production (Buckland & Graham, 1990). In the Philippines, a technology on sloping agriculture land was developed by NGOs (Watson & Laquihon, 1985). In India, an NGO called PRADAN has been providing agricultural extension and technology transfer services (Aguirre & Namdar-Irani; 1992; Sotomayor, 1991). The major strengths of NGOs are in their group formation and responsiveness for the disadvantaged groups. While many NGOs have been effective in providing extension and advisory services, the majority of stakeholders working in agricultural extension believe that NGOs and government organizations should work together for delivering extension and outreach services (de Janvry et al., 1989; Jordan, 1989; Korten, 1987). However, many of these NGOs want to keep their own autonomy and identity and focus on their priorities. Numerous NGOs have limitations in size, nature",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "extension believe that NGOs and government organizations should work together for delivering extension and outreach services (de Janvry et al., 1989; Jordan, 1989; Korten, 1987). However, many of these NGOs want to keep their own autonomy and identity and focus on their priorities. Numerous NGOs have limitations in size, nature of funding, and mandates. The majority of NGO programs are supported through short-term external funding, and the donors have specific goals to create a short-term impact on specific communities or geographic areas, which often affects long-term sustainability and impact. Private Extension Services & Crop Consultants Agriculture is developing rapidly and increasingly becoming a commercial activity in many parts of the developing world. The demands for processed food and value-added products are rapidly growing. As the agricultural sector evolves, the demand for new skills, market information, and new technologies are increasing and changing day by day. In recent decades, the agri-food industry has been transforming, linking small-scale farmers to high-value markets through global supply chains (Reardon et al., 2009). Private extension services are growing and have been adopted by millions of farmers globally. In many countries, private sector extension and advisory services are provided by subject specialists, company agents, dealers, and GLOBAL EXPERIENCES IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION | 2-7 retailers of private seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, and chemical companies. They offer their private extension services along with selling and marketing their company’s products. Often, the private extension and advisory services are fee-based services. The fees are either paid individually or through a group of farmers or through a farmer association. The private extension specialists, companies, consultancies, and products suppliers offer these services. The strengths of the private sector extension services include delivering their services through the use of modern ICTs and promoting new and emerging agricultural technologies and products that have shown potential",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of farmers or through a farmer association. The private extension specialists, companies, consultancies, and products suppliers offer these services. The strengths of the private sector extension services include delivering their services through the use of modern ICTs and promoting new and emerging agricultural technologies and products that have shown potential benefits for increased yields and quality production. These private extension service providers support farmers through connections to scientists and scientific institutions as well as annual farmer field days that demonstrate irrigation and crop management practices. Also, private extension service providers visit individual farms and offer their advisory services. In recent years, private sector extension services in agriculture and allied sectors have increased tremendously. A few examples follow:  The New Zealand`s Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries agricultural advisory services established the user pay commercial criteria (Hercus, 1991). It now runs a commercial consultancy business model owned by a private company called Wrightson LTD (Ritchie, 1995).  The Netherlands has privatized one-half of its public agricultural extension system, where earlier it was a public extension system and used to run through government financial support (Le Gouis, 1991). Dutch farmers access extension services through the membership and farmers association.  In Mexico, a fee-based private extension system has been developed for large-scale farmers (Wilson 1991).  In Chile, the government pays for private extension services thorough vouchers (Cary, 1993).  In the United States, the emergence and use of private extension services and private consultants has increased in recent years. With the expectation of higher crop yield and use of advanced machineries, technologies, and scientifically proven methods and practices, farmers are in great need of information, skills, and advisory services that the private sector can offer effectively. However, several challenges are observed with private extension advisory services. Since demands for private sector",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "expectation of higher crop yield and use of advanced machineries, technologies, and scientifically proven methods and practices, farmers are in great need of information, skills, and advisory services that the private sector can offer effectively. However, several challenges are observed with private extension advisory services. Since demands for private sector agents have increased, they are not able to reach every farmer or each farm. Their advisory charges have increased multifold, so sometimes small-scale farmers are not able to afford their expensive services and are left out. It has been observed that, with private extension services, there is a pressure to buy their companies’ products regardless of quality and high prices. e-Extension: ICT-Based Extension With rapid advances in ICTs, emerging technology has become an essential tool in agriculture extension systems and has received enormous attention globally. Access to timely and relevant information is critical to remain competitive in market-driven agriculture. ICTs are playing a key role in agricultural extension development and advisory services. Through ICTs’ platforms, connections between farmers to farmers, farmers to extension specialist and scientists, and farmers to input suppliers and markets have increased. 2-8 | CHAPTER 2 With advances in ICT tools, timely, live, reliable, and accurate information is affordable and at the fingertips of producers. ICTs include electronic and social media, mobile phones, email, video and audio signals, and other information technologies (Celebic & Rendulic, 2011). With ICTs’ tools, women and youth engagement has increased in the agricultural extension system. Currently, several public and private organizations are promoting ICTs to reap benefits in agricultural extension. In the future, ICTs will be used widely on a large scale. Several new tools and technologies are currently on the market and many more are in the development pipeline. Keeping this in mind, several national governments have developed polices, regulations, and",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "promoting ICTs to reap benefits in agricultural extension. In the future, ICTs will be used widely on a large scale. Several new tools and technologies are currently on the market and many more are in the development pipeline. Keeping this in mind, several national governments have developed polices, regulations, and guidelines on the effective use of ICTs. Currently, numerous ICTs are helping extension specialists, agricultural scientists, and farmers in predicting crop yield and weather conditions, forecasting pests and diseases, and collecting and analyzing crop data, along with supplying automatic advisory services on irrigation applications and crops management practices (Hafkin & Odame, 2007). Through ICT tools, farmers can enhance their agricultural production and productivity, and increase access to local, regional, and international markets and commodity prices. ICTs are greatly contributing to the communication and capacitybuilding activities of extension workers and farmers as well as entrepreneurs in rural and underprivileged regions. Several examples of the use of ICTs in agricultural extension follow:  In India, agricultural extensions services such as e-Choupal and KHETI (Knowledge Help Extension Technology Initiative) were developed with the aim to facilitate speedy communication among stakeholders such as farmers, communication specialists, agricultural scientists, and local communities.  In Afghanistan, “eAfghan Ag” provides credible relevant information to those helping farmers in Afghanistan.  In Rwanda, YEAN (Youth Engagement in Agriculture Network) project is encouraging communities and supporting young farmers through social media platforms.  In Sri Lanka, agricultural extension officers are using ICTs and social media platforms for offering trainings and other skill development programs (Gowda, 2018; Jayathilake et al., 2017). The use of ICTs in agricultural extension and community advisory services is increasing worldwide, but with several challenges. ICTs are not utilized fully, and scale-up programs remain challenging due to internet connectivity issues in remote areas. ICTs can help",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and other skill development programs (Gowda, 2018; Jayathilake et al., 2017). The use of ICTs in agricultural extension and community advisory services is increasing worldwide, but with several challenges. ICTs are not utilized fully, and scale-up programs remain challenging due to internet connectivity issues in remote areas. ICTs can help illiterate and resource-poor farmers with land records assessment, pest and diseases management, farm management, and market information; however, these services are inaccessible to these resource-poor communities in many parts of the world (Meera et al., 2004). ICT-based tools are not easy to navigate, handle and manage; therefore, many older people are not comfortable using them due to lack of digital literacy. GLOBAL EXPERIENCES IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION | 2-9 Land-Grant University Model of Agriculture Extension: An Example of Michigan State University Extension Michigan State University was founded in 1855 as the Agricultural College of the State of Michigan. In 1914, the U.S. Congress established the Cooperative Extension System through the Smith-Lever Act, making MSU Extension the longest-established university extension service in the U.S. The mission of MSU Extension follows: Michigan State University Extension helps people improve their lives by bringing the vast knowledge resources of MSU directly to individuals, communities and businesses. Although MSU Extension originally focused on agricultural extension, it has now expanded into many content areas, including health and nutrition, youth development, entrepreneurship and finance, community, civics, and government. MSU Extension brings translational science into communities, creating evidence-based programming to communities via its 600 plus faculty and staff members throughout the state of Michigan. MSU Extension is a part of the MSU College of Agriculture and Natural Resources and is organized both topically and by geographic region. There are 14 geographic districts (see Figure 2-1) and four institutes, which are organized by content areas. Each district has a district",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "throughout the state of Michigan. MSU Extension is a part of the MSU College of Agriculture and Natural Resources and is organized both topically and by geographic region. There are 14 geographic districts (see Figure 2-1) and four institutes, which are organized by content areas. Each district has a district director, and each institute has a director and associate director. The employees most frequently work within one institute, but also may work across multiple or all institutes. Thus, in one district, there are employees who report to different institutes, with different content-area expertise. The four institutes are:  Agriculture and Agribusiness Institute  Children and Youth Institute  Community, Food and Environment Institute  Health and Nutrition Institute Every county but one (of 83) in the state has at least one MSU Extension county office, ranging in size from a few employees to dozens. MSU Extension educators, who were in the past referred to as MSU Extension agents, specialize in a specific content area. Educators usually serve multiple counties across the state or may even cover the entire state. MSU Extension staff and programs are supported through a variety of sources, including federal, state, local, and grant sources. In recent years, grant funding has increased to become the largest sector of funding (see Figure 2-2). 2-10 | CHAPTER 2 Figure 2-1. Michigan State University Extension districts. GLOBAL EXPERIENCES IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION | 2-11 Figure 2-2. Michigan State University Extension total revenue for fiscal year 2020. Self-Help Groups: Community-Based Organizations/Farmers Helping Farmers A Self-Help Group (SHG) is a small group of people that come together to help each other at local levels for mutual benefits. SHGs are usually made up of 10 to 15 people or more. The first SHG was formed in 1975 based on an idea conceptualized by the",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Farmers A Self-Help Group (SHG) is a small group of people that come together to help each other at local levels for mutual benefits. SHGs are usually made up of 10 to 15 people or more. The first SHG was formed in 1975 based on an idea conceptualized by the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. Later, the SHG model flourished in India, and in 1987, the SHG model was adopted by the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development in India. The SHGs are found in various categories, such as farmers’ groups, savings groups, or women’s groups, which all have specific goals and objectives. The majority of SHGs are found in rural areas where farming is a major activity. Several of these SHGs come together, collect their saved money, and deposit it in a nearby bank to support the development and implementation of their group. Their linkages to the local bank help to empower them financially and socially (Selvaraju & Vasanthi, 1999). Many state governments in India and several civil society organizations and NGOs reach out to the SHGs to implement local programs in various areas. The SHGs’ platforms help strengthen agricultural extension programs in disseminating information, sharing good agricultural practices, enhancing crop production, and supporting access to market (Munshi, 2004). Through SHGs, private organizations reach out to farmers to market their agricultural products, machineries, inputs, and technologies at discounted prices. At the local level, SHGs benefit from various government-supported programs for agriculture. Recently, many SHGs have developed their own production, processing, and marketing networks. With their growing capacities to repay loan payments, several banks are now offering credit plans for SHGs and connecting them with regional business and entrepreneurs to expand their agriculturalrelated businesses. SHG members have great potential to learn new skills, adopt knowledge and technologies, and deliver agricultural",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "processing, and marketing networks. With their growing capacities to repay loan payments, several banks are now offering credit plans for SHGs and connecting them with regional business and entrepreneurs to expand their agriculturalrelated businesses. SHG members have great potential to learn new skills, adopt knowledge and technologies, and deliver agricultural extension services to women farmers. Learning from India’s and other south Asian 2-12 | CHAPTER 2 countries’ experiences in SHGs, several other countries in Asia and Africa are adopting the SHG model of agricultural extension. Farmer Business School Model of Extension The Farmer Business School (FBS) is a new model of agricultural extension services developed by the FAO. This model evolved from the experiences of experiential learning of the FFSs model of extension. The FBS model helps farmers to develop their capacities and knowledge in farm businesses, decision-making skills, and entrepreneurship skills (FAO, 2011). This model is designed for marginal and smallholder farmers who aim to manage their farms professionally and profitably. The FBS model of agriculture extension can be started by public and private enterprises, farmer group and farmer producer companies, advisory services, cooperative and farmer associations, NGOs, and educational institutes. These institutions need to have capacity to effectively run the FBS as it is a long-term learning and mentoring program for individual farmers to develop their capacity in business development and entrepreneurship. Often, FBS training programs provide training materials, manuals, to-do lists, and future tasks to the participants in local languages. FBS takes place at individual farms, community places, village schools, village training centers, and in meeting rooms of village leaders. These learning and training programs are managed professionally with excellent management plans created by district level trainers who facilitate training programs in FBSs at the village level. FBS is a unique platform where farmers learn practical experience",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "places, village schools, village training centers, and in meeting rooms of village leaders. These learning and training programs are managed professionally with excellent management plans created by district level trainers who facilitate training programs in FBSs at the village level. FBS is a unique platform where farmers learn practical experience and can plan their crop production, management practices, and marketing strategies. The key approach of the FBS is to develop business plans and create an attitude among farmers that they can develop a vision and goals along with the best marketing plan for their produce. With the increased interest, FBS is emerging in several countries in Asia and Africa. Countries such as Indonesia, India, the Philippines, Nigeria, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Togo, Côte d’Ivoire, Benin, Tanzania, Burkina Faso, Malawi, Cameroon, Zambia, and Mozambique are exploring opportunities in developing businesses and entrepreneurship skills among farmers in a variety of cash crops. The FBS model of agricultural extension is at the preliminary stages in many countries and needs support from successful farmers, communities, local government officials, and public and private institutions. FBSs highlight several challenges. Among these include (a) a lack of skilled trainers who can communicate business development and strategies with farmers in local languages, (b) practical implementation of skills gained through training, (c) financial support, and (d) lack of courage and positive attitude among the FBS members. GLOBAL EXPERIENCES IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION | 2-13 Summary/Lessons Learned & Way Forward Over the past six decades, several models of agricultural extension have been developed and implemented to support farmers and rural communities around the world. Every model has its strengths and weaknesses, and the success of these programs have varied from country to country and from region to region depending on sociocultural aspects and institutional support structures. No single model fits everywhere. Globally, the",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and implemented to support farmers and rural communities around the world. Every model has its strengths and weaknesses, and the success of these programs have varied from country to country and from region to region depending on sociocultural aspects and institutional support structures. No single model fits everywhere. Globally, the nature of farming is changing. Agriculture is transforming from a production-driven to a market-driven enterprise. Agriculture is becoming more technology and information intensive. This transformation is demanding new sets of extension and advisory services requiring new and innovative approaches to serve farmers and stakeholders along the value chains. The recent advances in information and communication technologies are providing new and innovative tools for rapidly delivering timely and relevant information to farmers and stakeholders. These exciting new developments are offering tremendous opportunities for transforming extension and advisory services. Additionally, there is a growing interest in urban agriculture and urban food systems. Innovative approaches and programs will be needed to meet the growing demand of extension and advisory services for urban agriculture and urban food systems. Extension and advisory services will always remain a key pillar of agriculture in rural and urban development programs worldwide. References & Resources References Aguirre, P., & Namdar-Irani, M. (1992). Complementarities and tensions in NGO-state relations in agricultural development: The trajectory of AGRARIA (Chile). Anderson, J. R., Feder, G., & Ganguly, S. (2006). The rise and fall of training and visit extension: An Asian mini-drama with an African epilogue (Policy Research Working Paper 3928). World Bank. Ashby, J. A., Gracia, T., Gurrero, M .P., Quiros, C. A., Roa, J. I., & Beltran, J.A. (1995). Institutionalizing farmer participation in adaptive technology testing with the ‘CIAL.’ (Agricultural Research and Extension. Network Paper No. 57). Overseas Development Institute. Benor, D., & Baxter, M. (1984) Training and visit extension. World Bank.",
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    "text": "J. A., Gracia, T., Gurrero, M .P., Quiros, C. A., Roa, J. I., & Beltran, J.A. (1995). Institutionalizing farmer participation in adaptive technology testing with the ‘CIAL.’ (Agricultural Research and Extension. Network Paper No. 57). Overseas Development Institute. Benor, D., & Baxter, M. (1984) Training and visit extension. World Bank. Benor, D., & Harrison, J. (1977). Agricultural Extension: The training and visit system. World Bank. Birner, R., Davis, K., Pender, J., Nkonya, E., Anandajayasekeram, P., Ekboir, J., Mbabu, A., Spielman, D., Horna, D., Benin, S., & Cohen, M. (2006). From “best practice” to “best fit”: A framework for analyzing pluralistic agricultural advisory services worldwide (DSGD Discussion Paper No. 37). IFPRI. https://bit.ly/3oEF5mD Braun, A., Jiggins, J., Roling, N. G., Van den Berg, H., & Snijders, P. (2006). A global survey and review of farmer field schools experiences. International Livestock Research Institute. 2-14 | CHAPTER 2 Buckland, J., & Graham, P. (1990). The Mennonite Central Committee’s experience in agricultural research and extension in Bangladesh. (Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper 17). Overseas Development Institute. Cary, J. W. (1993). Changing foundations for government support of agricultural extension in economically developed countries. Sociologia Ruralis, 33(3/4), 334–345. Celebic, G., & Rendulic, D. I. (2011). ITdesk.info: Project of computer e-education with open access. Open Society for Idea Exchange (ODRAZI). Chaguma, A., & Gumbo, D. (1993). ENDA-Zimbabwe and community research. In K. Wellard & J. G. Copestake, J. (Eds.). NGOs and the state in Africa: Rethinking roles in sustainable agricultural development. Routledge. de Janvry, A., Marsh, R., Runsten, D., Sadoulet, E., & Zabin, C. (1989). Impacto de la crisis en la economia campesina de América Latina y el Caribe. In F. Jordan (Ed.), La economía campesina: Crisis, reactivación, políticas (pp. 91–205). Institute Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura. Dejene, A. (1987) Peasants, agrarian socialism, and rural development",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
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    "text": "Runsten, D., Sadoulet, E., & Zabin, C. (1989). Impacto de la crisis en la economia campesina de América Latina y el Caribe. In F. Jordan (Ed.), La economía campesina: Crisis, reactivación, políticas (pp. 91–205). Institute Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura. Dejene, A. (1987) Peasants, agrarian socialism, and rural development in Ethiopia. Westview Press. de Treville, D. (1991). Toward sustainable agriculture in East Africa: The role of NGOs in participatory research. [Unpublished proposal]. Winrock International. Fakih, M. (2002). Gender mainstream in IPM [Paper presentation]. International Learning Workshop on FFS: Emerging Issues and Challenges, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Food and Agriculture Organization. (n.d.). Fall armyworm. https://bit.ly/2JiQ0Cq Food and Agriculture Organization. (2008). FFSs on integrated pest management for cotton in India. Rome. Food and Agriculture Organization. (2011). The state of food and agriculture. Women in agriculture: Closing the gender gap for development. https://bit.ly/3oGVOpB Gowda, N. K. (2018). Agricultural extension systems in India. Hafkin, N., & Odame, H. H. (2007, January). Gender, ICTs and agriculture. A situation analysis for the 5th Consultative Expert Meeting of CTA’s ICT Observatory meeting on gender and agriculture in the information society. Hercus, J. M. (1991). The commercialization of government agricultural extension services in New Zealand. In W. M. Rivera & D. J. Gustafson (Eds.), Agricultural extension: Worldwide institutional evolution and forces for change. Elsevier. Howell, J. (1985). Recurrent costs and agricultural development. Overseas Development Institute. Hughes, O., & Venema, J. H. (Eds.). (2005). Integrated soil, water and nutrient management in semi-arid Zimbabwe. Farmer Field Schools Facilitators’ Manual (Vol 1). FAO. Jayathilake, H. A. C. K., Jayasinghe-Mudalige, U. K., Perera, L. D. R. D., Gow, G. A., & Waidyanatha, N. (2017). Fostering technology stewardship approach to promote knowledge sharing among farming communities in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agricultural Research, 28(3), 238–246. http://doi.org/10.4038/tar.v28i3.8228 Jiggins, J., Governatori, G., & Roggero, P. P. (2005).",
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    "text": "FAO. Jayathilake, H. A. C. K., Jayasinghe-Mudalige, U. K., Perera, L. D. R. D., Gow, G. A., & Waidyanatha, N. (2017). Fostering technology stewardship approach to promote knowledge sharing among farming communities in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agricultural Research, 28(3), 238–246. http://doi.org/10.4038/tar.v28i3.8228 Jiggins, J., Governatori, G., & Roggero, P. P. (2005). Integrated pest management for western corn rootworm in central and eastern Europe. GTFS/RER/017/ITA Project. Mid Term Review. 4–20. FAO. Jordan, F. (Ed.). (1989). La economía campesina: Crisis, reactivación, políticas. Institute Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura. GLOBAL EXPERIENCES IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION | 2-15 Korten, D. (1987). Third generation NGO strategies: A key to people-centred development. World Development, 75(Supplement), 145–159. Le Gouis, M. (1991). Alternative financing of agricultural extension: Recent trends and implications for the future. In W. M. Rivera & D. J. Gustafson (Eds.), Agricultural extension: Worldwide institutional evolution and forces for change. Elsevier. Meera, S. N., Jhamtani, A, & Rao, D. U. M (2004, January). Information and communication technology in agriculture: A comparative analysis from three projects of India. (AgREN network paper No.135) ODI. Miagostovich, M. (2004). Forest management learning groups: Building forest users’ capacity to develop silvi-cultural practices to address local needs. Unasyva, 216, 46–49. Munshi, K. (2004). Social learning in a heterogeneous population: Technology diffusion in the Indian green revolution. Journal of Development Economics, 73, 185–213. National Institute of Labour Economics Research and Development. (2015, December). KVKs impact on dissemination of improved practices and technologies. https://bit.ly/3kBpgL4 Padron, M. (1987). Non-governmental development organizations: From development aid to development cooperation. World Development, 15(Supplement 1), 69–77. Phillips, D., Waddington, H., & White, H. (2014). Better targeting of farmers as a channel for poverty reduction: A systematic review of Farmer Field Schools targeting. Development Studies Research: An Open Access Journal, 1(1), 113–136. https://bit.ly/34Fu2lm Pretty, J., & Bharucha, Z. P. (2015), Integrated",
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  },
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    "text": "cooperation. World Development, 15(Supplement 1), 69–77. Phillips, D., Waddington, H., & White, H. (2014). Better targeting of farmers as a channel for poverty reduction: A systematic review of Farmer Field Schools targeting. Development Studies Research: An Open Access Journal, 1(1), 113–136. https://bit.ly/34Fu2lm Pretty, J., & Bharucha, Z. P. (2015), Integrated pest management for sustainable intensification of agriculture in Asia and Africa. Insects, 6(1), 152–182. Ramsunder. (2019, February 13). Role of KVK in agricultural extension. https://bit.ly/37TLNza Reardon, T., Barrett, C. B., Berdegue, J. A., Swinnen, J. F. M. (2009), Agrifood industry transformation and small farmers in developing countries. World Development, 37(11), 1717–1727. Ritchie, I. (1995). From the public to the private sector: The Agriculture New Zealand story. Agricultural Science, 29–31. Rivera, W. M. (1996). Agriculture extension in transition worldwide: Structural, financial and managerial strategies for improving agricultural extension. Public Administration and Development, 6(868), 1–11. Rivera, W. M., & Alex, G. (2004). The continuing role of the public sector in pluralistic extension systems. Proceeding of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education. Dublin: AIAEE 20th Annual Conference. Selvaraju, R., & Vasanthi, G. (1999, June). Role of self-help groups in entrepreneurial development. Tamil Nadu Journal of Co-operation, 91(3), 50–53. Sotomayor, O. (1991). GIA and the new Chilean public sector: The dilemmas of successful NGO influence over the state. (Agricultural Research and Extension Network Paper No. 30). Overseas Development Institute. Tripathi, S., & Wajih, S. (2003). The greening of self-help groups. LEISA Magazine, 19(1), 24–25. Van Den Berg, H. (2004). IPM farmer field schools. A synthesis of 25 impact evaluations. Wageningen University. https://bit.ly/2Jjqxc1 2-16 | CHAPTER 2 Watson, H. R., & Laquihon, W. (1985, September). Sloping agricultural land technology (SALT) as developed by the Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center. In Workshop on Site Protection 99 and Amelioration. Institute of Forest Conservation, UPLB, Los",
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  },
  {
    "text": "schools. A synthesis of 25 impact evaluations. Wageningen University. https://bit.ly/2Jjqxc1 2-16 | CHAPTER 2 Watson, H. R., & Laquihon, W. (1985, September). Sloping agricultural land technology (SALT) as developed by the Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center. In Workshop on Site Protection 99 and Amelioration. Institute of Forest Conservation, UPLB, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. Wilson, M. (1991). Reducing the costs of public extension services: Initiatives in Latin America. In W. M. Rivera & D. J. Gustafson (Eds.), Agricultural extension: Worldwide institutional evolution and forces for change. Elsevier. Yech, P. (2003). Farmer life schools: Learning with farmer field schools. LEISA Magazine, 19(3), 11–12. Zivkovic, D., Jelic, S., & Rajic, Z. (2009). Agricultural extension service in the function of rural development, 113th Seminar, December 9–11, 2009, Belgrade, Serbia 57507. European Association of Agricultural Economists. Resources  e-afghan app: https://afghanag.ucdavis.edu/  e-Choupal: https://www.itcportal.com/businesses/agri-business/e-choupal.aspx  Farmer Business School: https://bit.ly/2HCFHZv  Michigan State University Extension: www.extension.msu.edu/  YEAN (Youth Engagement in Agriculture Network) project: https://bit.ly/2HMvxVT MSU is an affirmative-action, equal-opportunity employer, committed to achieving excellence through a diverse workforce and inclusive culture that encourages all people to reach their full potential. Michigan State University Extension programs and materials are open to all without regard to race, color, national origin, gender, gender identity, religion, age, height, weight, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, marital status, family status or veteran status. Issued in furtherance of MSU Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Jeffrey W. Dwyer, Director, MSU Extension, East Lansing, MI 48824. This information is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names does not imply endorsement by MSU Extension or bias against those not mentioned. The 4-H name and emblem have special protections from Congress, protected by Title 18 USC 707. Printed on",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Extension, East Lansing, MI 48824. This information is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names does not imply endorsement by MSU Extension or bias against those not mentioned. The 4-H name and emblem have special protections from Congress, protected by Title 18 USC 707. Printed on recycled paper. 1P-200/Web-01/2021-AP/Web-PA/RM/LG WCAG 2.0 AA",
    "source": "Ch02-Madan_GlobalExperiences_2021-01-13aa.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "1 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Course No.: EXTN -122 Credit: 3(2+1) Semester-II Course title: Fundamentals of Agricultural Extension Education Teaching Schedule a) Theory Lecture Topic Weightage (%) 1 Education: Meaning, definition and types – Formal, informal and non formal education 2 2, 3, 4 Extension EducationMeaning, definition, need, scope and process; history, objectives, philosophy, principles and approaches. 10 5, 6 Extension Programme PlanningMeaning, process, principles and steps in programme development 5 7, 8 Extension systems in India:  Extension efforts in pre-independence era : Sriniketan, Marthandam, Firka Development Scheme, Gurgaon Experiment  Post-independence era : Etawah Pilot Project, Nilokheri Experiment  Present extension System : Department of Agriculture : Structure, Function 5 9, 10 Various extension/ agriculture development programmes launched by ICAR/ Government of India : Introduction, Objectives and Salient Achievements  Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP)  Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP)  High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP)  Institution-Village Linkage Programme (IVLP)  Operational Research Project (ORP)  National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP)  National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP)  Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY). 10 11, 12 New trends in agricultural extension: Meaning , Objectives, Salient features  Privatization in extension,  ICT in Extension education Cyber extension/ e-extension,  Market-led extension,  Farmer-led extension, 5 13 Rural Development: Concept, meaning, definition, objectives and genesis 5 14, 15, 16 Various rural development programmes launched by Government of India : Introduction, Objectives and salient features  Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY) 10 2 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Lecture Topic Weightage (%)  Indira Awas Yojana (IAY)  Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act  Prime Ministers’ Rozgar Yojana (PMRY)",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "features  Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY) 10 2 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Lecture Topic Weightage (%)  Indira Awas Yojana (IAY)  Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act  Prime Ministers’ Rozgar Yojana (PMRY)  District Rural Development Agency (DRDA)  Integrated Watershed Development Programme (IWDP)  Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Area (PURA)  Rashtriya Mahila Kosh – (National Credit Fund for Women)  Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal (MAVIM) 17 Community Development. : Meaning, definition, concept, principles and philosophy 3 18 Democratic Decentralization (Panchayati Raj) : Meaning, Constitution and functions 2 19 Extension administration and management: Meaning and concept, principles, functions and differences 3 20 Evaluation in Extension : Meaning, definition, types of evaluation, monitoring and evaluation 2 21, 22 Transfer of technology programmes : Lab to Land programme (LLP), National Demonstration (ND), Front Line Demonstration (FLD), KrishiVigyanKendras (KVK), Technology Assessment and Refinement Programme (TARP) of ICAR 5 23, 24 Capacity building of extension personnel and farmers : Meaning, Training and Education, Types of training, Training institutes in India, Concept of Human Resource Development 5 25, 26, 27 Extension Teaching Methods and Audio-Visual Aids : Meaning, definition, importance, classification, media mix strategies; Factors affecting selection and use of methods and aids 10 28, 29 Communication: Meaning and definition; elements, selected models and barriers to communication 10 30 Agriculture journalism : Meaning, definitions, news writing 3 31, 32 Diffusion and adoption of innovation: Concept and meaning, Attributes of innovation, Innovation decision process, adopter categories. 5 Total 100 Suggested Readings 1) Dahama, O.P. and Bhatnagar, O.P. 1980. Education and Communication for Development. Oxford &lBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 2) Dudhani, C.M.; Hirevenkatgoudar, L.V., Manjunath, L.; Hanchinal, S.N. and Patil, S.L. (2004). Extension Teaching",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and meaning, Attributes of innovation, Innovation decision process, adopter categories. 5 Total 100 Suggested Readings 1) Dahama, O.P. and Bhatnagar, O.P. 1980. Education and Communication for Development. Oxford &lBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 2) Dudhani, C.M.; Hirevenkatgoudar, L.V., Manjunath, L.; Hanchinal, S.N. and Patil, S.L. (2004). Extension Teaching Methods and Communication Technology, UAS, Dharwad. 3) Kamat, M.G. (1985). Writing for Farm Families. Allied Publishers, New Delhi. 3 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 4) Kelsey, L.D. and Hearne, G.C. (1963). Cooperative Extension Work, Comstar Publishing Associate, New York. 5) Mehta, D.S.(1981). Mass Communication and Journalism in India. Vikas Publication, New Delhi. 6) Ray, G.L. (1991). Extension Communication and Management. Noya Prakash, Calcutta. 7) Reddy, A.A 2005 Extension Education. Sri Lakshmi Press, Bapatla. 8) Rogers, E.M. 2003. Diffusion of Innovations. Free Press, New Delhi. 9) Samanta, R.K. (1990). Development Communication for Agriculture. BR Publishing Corporation, Delhi. 10) Sandhu, A.S. (1993).Textbbok on Agricultural Communication : Process and Methods. Oxford and IBH Publishing Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi. 11) Singh, A.K., Lakhan Singh, R. and Roy Burman (2006). Dimensions of Agricultural Extension. Aman Publishing House, Meerut 4 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik EDUCATION Meaning, definition and types – Formal, informal and non formal education Definition of Education: Education is the process of bringing desirable change into the behavior of human beings. It can also be defined as the process of imparting or acquiring knowledge and habits through instruction or study. The modern definition of education is the production of desirable changes in human behaviorin knowledge (things known), attitudes (things felt) and skills (things done), in all of them or in one or more of them. Knowledge: It includes",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "process of imparting or acquiring knowledge and habits through instruction or study. The modern definition of education is the production of desirable changes in human behaviorin knowledge (things known), attitudes (things felt) and skills (things done), in all of them or in one or more of them. Knowledge: It includes facts, concepts, principles and relationship Knowledge or cognitive e.g.: Extension worker educates a farmer on cultivation practices in sweet corn (change in knowledge). Attitude: An attitude can be loosely defined as a feeling towards some object, person, and situation or idea. Attitude or affective e.g.: Extension worker changes the negative attitude of a women farmer and makes them adopts Mushroom cultivation (things felt). Skills: Ability to do things. Skills or psychomotor: Extension worker improves skills of a cotton farmer on stem application of pesticide (things done). When learning is progressive towards goals that have been established in accordance with a philosophy which has been defined for, and is understood by the learner, it is called education. The behavioral changes must be directed towards a desirable end. They should be accepted socially, culturally and economically and result in a changes in knowledge, skill, attitude and understanding. Thus in education, the greatest emphasis should be placed on the behavioral components of an individual TYPES OF EDUCATION With the development of society, Types of education Child education Adult education Technical education Education in the arts and crafts Physical education Health education 5 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Education is the Humanities and social sciences Formal education Non-formal education Informal education. 1. Formal education Formal education is basically an institutional activity, uniform and subject oriented, full time, Sequential, hierarchically structured, leading to certificates degrees and diplomas. eg: Education in schools &",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Education is the Humanities and social sciences Formal education Non-formal education Informal education. 1. Formal education Formal education is basically an institutional activity, uniform and subject oriented, full time, Sequential, hierarchically structured, leading to certificates degrees and diplomas. eg: Education in schools & colleges Characteristics of Formal Education: • Hierarchically structured • Full time education. • Technical and professional training. • A variety of specialized programmes. • Running from primary school through the university. • Chronologically graded education system. 2. Non-formal education Any organized education activity outside the established formal system whether operation separately or as an important feature of some broader activity that is intended to serve Identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives eg: Extension Education. Extension worker improves the skills in cotton farmers on stem application of pesticides  It is flexible.  It is life, environment and learner oriented  It is diversified in content and method.  It is non-authoritarian  It is built on learner-participation  It organizer human and environmental potential  It enhances human and environmental potential. 3. Informal education The truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitude, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative inferences and resources in his or her environment from family and the educative inferences and resources in his or her environment 6 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik from family and neighbors, form work and play, from the market place, the library and the mass media. eg: Little baby, as she grows up, learns how to recognize her parents and how to eat • Informal education is the least controlled, that’s why this type of education cannot be excluded of somebody’s life. • It consists",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "play, from the market place, the library and the mass media. eg: Little baby, as she grows up, learns how to recognize her parents and how to eat • Informal education is the least controlled, that’s why this type of education cannot be excluded of somebody’s life. • It consists of accidental, unclear, quantitative information. • It usually has a quantitative aspect that a qualitative one • Informal education refers even to emotions, feelings, beliefs, superstitions etc. • It offers responsiveness ready response when interact with environment. • It offers possibility to freely act in unknown situation. • It offers freedom of self-formation. Difference between Formal education and Extension Education Sr Formal Education Extension Education 1 Teaching is largely confined to the premises of the institution. Teaching is largely outside the four walls of the institution 2 Students study subject Learners study problem 3 Authority rest with the teacher Authority rest with the farmers 4 Class attendance is compulsory Participation is purely voluntary 5 Teaching is largely vertical Teaching is largely horizontal 6 The student must adopt themselves to the fixed curriculum offered It has no foxed curriculum or course of study, the learners helps to formulate the curriculum 7 The learners are homogeneous with common goals The learners are heterogeneous and have diverse goals 8 It is rigid It is flexible 9 It is more theoretical It is more practice 10 Degree or diploma are offered No degree or diploma are offered 11 Strict norms of institution & no choice for the learners Freedom and choice of subject matter left to the learners 12 Knowledge flows from teacher to learner The extension agent teaches a great deal through local leaders 7 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "choice for the learners Freedom and choice of subject matter left to the learners 12 Knowledge flows from teacher to learner The extension agent teaches a great deal through local leaders 7 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Difference between Formal and Informal Education Sr Formal Education Informal Education 1 Educational growth of children and youth for their future career It signifies working with adults and youth in actual life situation. 2 Participation is compulsory Participation is voluntary 3 No variations in learners age, educational level, experience, interest etc. Variations in age, educational level, experience, interest, intensity of need etc. 4 No flexibility in plan of teaching Flexibility of plan in teaching 5 It is imparted in class room No class rooms and imparted in actual life situation 6 Have prescribed books, fixed periods and examinations and having fixed curriculum. No any prescribed books, fixed periods and examinations and no fixed curriculum. 7 In this education the teachers alone instructs the students. In this education the teachers also learn from those he teaches. 8 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik EXTENSION EDUCATIONMeaning, definition, Need, Scope and process; history, objectives, philosophy, principles and approaches. Extension – Meaning The word ‘extension’ is derived from the Latin roots, ‘ex’ – meaning ‘out’ and ‘tensio’ meaning ‘stretching’. Stretching out is the meaning of extension. The term Extension originated in England in 1866 with a system of university extension which was first taken by Cambridge & Oxford Universities. The term ‘Extension Education’ was first used in 1983 by Cambridge University. Education is an integral part of extension. The basic concept of extension is that it is education. Extension means that type",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in 1866 with a system of university extension which was first taken by Cambridge & Oxford Universities. The term ‘Extension Education’ was first used in 1983 by Cambridge University. Education is an integral part of extension. The basic concept of extension is that it is education. Extension means that type of education, which is stretched out, to the people in rural areas, beyond the limits of the educational institutions to which the formal type of education is normally confined. Definitions:Extension is an out of school system of education in which adults & young people learn by doing.( Kelsey & Hearne) Extension is an education & its purpose is to change the attitude & the practice of the people with whom the work is done. ( Ensminger). Extension Education is a process of teaching rural people how to live better by learning ways that improve their farm, home, and community. Extension education is an applied social science consisting of relevant content derived from physical, biological and social sciences and in its own process synthesised into a body of knowledge, concepts, principles and procedures oriented to provide non-credit out of school education largely for adults. Paul Leagans (1971). Extension is an out of school education & services of the member of the farm family & others directly or indirectly engaged in farm production enable them to adopt improved practices in production, management, conservation & marketing. ( Agril. Commission) Extension Education is a defined as an educational process to provide knowledge to the rural people about the improves practices in a convincing manner & to help them to take decisions within their specific local condition. Extension process is that of working with rural people through out of school education along those lines of their current interest and need which are closely related to",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "rural people about the improves practices in a convincing manner & to help them to take decisions within their specific local condition. Extension process is that of working with rural people through out of school education along those lines of their current interest and need which are closely related to 9 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik gaining a livelihood improving the physical level of living of rural families and fostering rural community welfare. Need of the Extension Education • To bridge the gap created by advising means of adjustment in the environment. • To demonstrate new agricultural technologies to the farmers for the purpose of raising their yield. • To educate the people / farmer about agriculture, industry, home science, veterinary science or public health. • To understand & find out the solution for the rural problems. • To contribute to the national development programme. • Transfer of technology to the beneficiaries. Objectives: objectives are the expression of the ends towards which our efforts are directed. Principle: is a statement of policy to guide decision & action in a consistent manner. Or A principle is a fundamental truth & a settled rule of action. Objectives of Extension Education:• The fundamental objective of extension education is to raise the standard of living of the rural people by helping them in using their natural resources in the right way. • It should also help in providing minimum health, recreational, and educational facilities for improving family living conditions in the village. • To increase the net income of farmers by more production and proper marketing system. • To raise the standard of living of rural people. • Development of rural areas. • To increase the facilities for social, cultural and",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and educational facilities for improving family living conditions in the village. • To increase the net income of farmers by more production and proper marketing system. • To raise the standard of living of rural people. • Development of rural areas. • To increase the facilities for social, cultural and entertainment programmes for rural people. • To develop rural leadership. • To develop the feeling of self-dependence among rural people. • To provide educational and health facilities in rural areas. • To train rural youth for development works. • To help farmer in processing & marketing his products. 10 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Philosophy of Extension Education Philosophy: Philosophy is a body of general principles or laws of a field of knowledge; it provides guidelines for performing the activities in life in a particular way. Different individuals have different philosophies of life, e.g. the traditional minded farmer and progressive farmer may react differently to the concept of artificial insemination of cows. Philosophy of extension education includes the principles or guidelines with which to shape or mould the developmental programmes relating to that field. It provides to extension worker the basis for working out the programmes and the policies to be adopted in extension work. The basic philosophy of Extension is how to do not what to do. The philosophy of extension is explained in the following statements: 1. Extension has a philosophy of culture: a. It respects culture of people. b. It brings about cultural change through cultural development. 2. Extension has philosophy of social progress: a. Its works is based on needs and desires of the people b. It facilitates change and help people to adjust with them. 3. Extension has philosophy of education for",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "respects culture of people. b. It brings about cultural change through cultural development. 2. Extension has philosophy of social progress: a. Its works is based on needs and desires of the people b. It facilitates change and help people to adjust with them. 3. Extension has philosophy of education for all: a. Disseminates useful knowledge to all people. b. Regardless of personal, social and economic characteristics. 4. Extension has philosophy concerning teaching: a. It teaches by doing: i) Hearing – doubtful ii) Seeing – possibly doubtful iii) Do – believe b. It reaches people to practice them. c. Teaching is inadequate till the knowledge is put into practice. 5. Extension has philosophy of leadership: a. Teaches, educates, and stimulates people through local leaders. 11 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik b. Utilizes assistance of voluntary leaders. c. Locates, trains and uses functional leaders. d. Extension trusts in what it can get others to do. 6. Extension has philosophy of local responsibility: a. Encourages people to contribute increasingly in their own affairs. b. Prepares suitable leaders to determine programmes and plans. 7. Extension has philosophy about truth: a. Sells only proven facts. b. Realize that going beyond truth will loose people’s faith in extension. c. Continuously seeks new truth as today’s whole truth may be tomorrow’s partial truth. 8. Extension has philosophy of democracy: a. Functions only with voluntary co-operation of the people. b. Co-operation with the individuals, groups and institutions interested in common welfare. c. Selects and solves the problems based on the felt needs through group action. d. Democratic in organization. 9. Extension has philosophy of a dignity of individual and his profession: a. Believes that each individual is endowed certain inalienable rights. b. Dignifies the farm,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and institutions interested in common welfare. c. Selects and solves the problems based on the felt needs through group action. d. Democratic in organization. 9. Extension has philosophy of a dignity of individual and his profession: a. Believes that each individual is endowed certain inalienable rights. b. Dignifies the farm, home and family. c. Holds that changed man is more important than the changed practice. 10. Extension personnel have philosophical characteristics: a. Extension personnel have the right attitude, integrity and high sense of service. b. Extension personnel have deep faith that man does not alive with bread alone. Extension Educational Process An effective extension educational programme involves five essential and interrelated steps. This concept of the extension educational process is intended only to clarify the steps necessary in carrying out a planned educational effort. It does not imply that these steps are definitely separate from each other. Experience shows that planning, teaching and evaluation take place continuously, in varying degrees, throughout all phases of extension activities. 12 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik First step: The first step consists of collection of facts and analysis of the situation. Facts about the people and their enterprises; the economic, social, cultural, physical and technological environment in which they live and work. These may be obtained by appropriate survey and establishing rapport with the people. The responses obtained are to be analyzed with the local people to identify the problems and resources available in the community. For example, after a survey in a community and analysis of the data, the problem was identified as low income of the farm family from their crop production enterprise. Second step: The next step is deciding on realistic objectives which may be accomplished by the",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "resources available in the community. For example, after a survey in a community and analysis of the data, the problem was identified as low income of the farm family from their crop production enterprise. Second step: The next step is deciding on realistic objectives which may be accomplished by the community. A limited number of objectives should be selected by involving the local people. The objectives should be specific and clearly stated, and on completion should bring satisfaction to the community. Objectives should state the behavioural changes in people as well as economic and social outcomes desired. In the example, the problem was identified as low income from the crop production enterprise. A deeper probe into the date revealed that low income was due to low yield of crops, which was attributed to the use of local seeds with low yield potential, application of little Fertilizer and lack of protection measures. By taking into consideration the capacity and competency of the people in the community and the availability of resources, the objective was set up to increase the crop yield by 20 per cent within a certain period of time. It was estimated that the increased yield shall bring increased income, which shall enhance the family welfare. Third step: The third step is teaching, which involves choosing what should be taught (the content) and how the people should be taught the methods and aids to be used. It requires 13 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik selecting research findings of economic and practical importance relevant to the community, and selection and combination of appropriate teaching methods and aids. Based on the problems identified in the particular example, technologies like use of HYV seeds, application of fertilizer and plant",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik selecting research findings of economic and practical importance relevant to the community, and selection and combination of appropriate teaching methods and aids. Based on the problems identified in the particular example, technologies like use of HYV seeds, application of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals were selected as teaching content. Result demonstration, method demonstration, farmers' training and farm publications were chosen as teaching methods, and tape recorder and slides were selected as teaching aids. Fourth step: The fourth step is evaluating the teaching i.e, determining the extent to which the objectives have been reached. To evaluate the results of an educational programme objectively, it is desirable to conduct a re-survey. The evidence of changed behavior should be collected, which shall not only provide a measure of success, but shall also indicate the deficiencies, if any. In the example, the re-survey after the fixed period of time, indicated that the crop yield had increased by 10 percent. It, therefore, indicated that there was a gap of 10 per cent in crop yield in comparison to the target (objective) of 20 per cent fixed earlier. The re survey also indicated that there had been two important deficiencies in carrying out the extension educational program, such as, there was lack of proper water management and the farmers could not apply the fertilizer and plant protection chemicals as per recommendation due to lack of funds. Fifth step: The fifth step is re-consideration of the entire extension educational programme on the light of the results of evaluation. The problems identified in the process of evaluation may become the starting point for the next phase of the extension educational programme, unless new problems have developed or new situations have arisen. After re-consideration of the results of evaluation with the",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "programme on the light of the results of evaluation. The problems identified in the process of evaluation may become the starting point for the next phase of the extension educational programme, unless new problems have developed or new situations have arisen. After re-consideration of the results of evaluation with the people, the following teaching objectives were again set up. For example, they were, training the farmers on proper water management practices and putting up demonstrations on water management. The people were also advised to contact the banks for obtaining production credit in time to purchase critical inputs. Thus, the continuous process of extension education shall go on, resulting in progress of the people from a less desirable to more desirable situations. Principles of Extension Education:1) Principle of interests and needs 2) Grass-roots principle 3) Principle of cultural differences 14 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 4) Principle of cultural change 5) Principle of cooperation and participation 6) Principle of learning by doing 7) Adaptability principle in the use of extension teaching methods 8) Principle of leadership 9) Whole family principle 10) Principle of trained specialist 11) Principle of satisfaction 12) Principle of evaluation 1) Principle of interests and needs: To be effective, extension work must begin with the interest and needs of the people. Many times the interests of the rural people are not the interests of the extension worker. Even though he sees the needs of the people better than they do themselves, he must begin with the interests and needs as they (the people) see them. In this way only can the extension agency mould the needs and interests of the people into realistic needs. Needs that can satisfy the individuals, groups, community and national interests,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "people better than they do themselves, he must begin with the interests and needs as they (the people) see them. In this way only can the extension agency mould the needs and interests of the people into realistic needs. Needs that can satisfy the individuals, groups, community and national interests, needs that can be fulfilled with the available resources should be fulfilled first. eg: Extension work is successful if it is according to people’s needsDemonstration on cotton cultivation in low lying areas eg Extension work fails if it is not according to people’s needsDemonstration on grapes cultivation in low lying areas 2) Grass-roots principle: For extension work to be effective and real, it has to be synthesis of democracy obtained at the level of the family and more particularly at the village level. Things must spring from below and spread like grass. At the same time, modern science calls for an advanced stage of organization of wiser coordination of thinking and action than is feasible in a single family or a single village. Aim of extension should be on local or existing situation. Programmes should start from grass root level.eg: Extension worker should train illiterate farmers initially on marketing aspects rather than training on complicated topic like WTO or GATT. 3) Principle of cultural differences: Cultural differences exist between Extension worker and farmer. In order to make extension programmes effective, the approach and procedure must be suited to the culture of the people who are taught. Different cultures require different 15 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik approaches. A blueprint of work designed for on part of the globe cannot be applied effectively to another part, mainly because of the cultural differences. These differences can be perceived in",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "15 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik approaches. A blueprint of work designed for on part of the globe cannot be applied effectively to another part, mainly because of the cultural differences. These differences can be perceived in the way of life of the people, their attitudes, values, loyalties, habits and customs. eg: A demonstration on Mushroom recipes should not be conducted in a village where Mushrooms are not eaten. 4) Principle of cultural change: The cultures undergo changing while performing extension work. The change is also possible without extension work as it is necessary fro growth and development of the society. The extension worker must gain the confidence of rural people so that they could believed that, what extension agents says, it is for their benefit. It has relevance to their life. When people will see the beneficial results of improved technology, they will share their problems with extension worker to find out solution. Hence, the extension worker has to work with changing situation to help the people. 5) Principle of cooperation and participation: The participation of the people is of fundamental importance for the success of any educational Endeavor. People must share in the development of a programme and must feel that it is their own programme. eg : Success of Annahazare water shed in Ralaegoan sidhi is due to peoples participation 6) Principle of learning by doing: Learning by doing involves use of maximum number of senses, hence it is very effective in changing behavior. eg: Demonstration on soft wood grafting on mango is very effective than lecture method. In extension work, farmers should be encouraged to learn new things by doing and by direct participation. 7) Adaptability principle in the use of extension teaching",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of senses, hence it is very effective in changing behavior. eg: Demonstration on soft wood grafting on mango is very effective than lecture method. In extension work, farmers should be encouraged to learn new things by doing and by direct participation. 7) Adaptability principle in the use of extension teaching methods: No single extension teaching method is effective under all situations. The use of teaching methods must have flexibility to be adapted to the members of a community who differ in age, education, economic status, sex and proneness to change etc. Extension agents have found that they need a large number of teaching methods out of which they can select and revise the one effective for the purpose and best suited to the culture of the people. eg: LCD power point presentations are not to be used in a interior village where electricity is uncertain, instead posters, charts, live samples can be used. 8) Principle of leadership: A good rule in extension work is never do anything yourself that you can get someone to do for you. The involvement of leaders in extension programmes is the 16 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik one single factor that determines the success or failure of those programmes. Local leaders are the guardians of local thought and action and can be trained and developed to best serve as interpreters of new ideas to the villagers. eg; Farmers gets easily convinced about latest technology if it is adopted by a local leader than taught by a extension worker. 9) Whole family principle: The family is the unit of any society. All the members of the family have to be developed equally by involving all of them. This is because of the following",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "latest technology if it is adopted by a local leader than taught by a extension worker. 9) Whole family principle: The family is the unit of any society. All the members of the family have to be developed equally by involving all of them. This is because of the following reasons: The extension programme effects all members of the family, the family members have great influence in decision-making, it creates mutual understanding, it aids in money management, it balances farm and family needs, it educates the younger members, it provides an activity outlet for all, it unifies related aspects, such as the social, economic and cultural issues of the family, it assures family service to the community and society 10) Principle of trained specialist: Extension is the bridge between scientist and farmer. Extension worker has to keep himself touch with recent findings of the research in all branches of science. Without trained specialist, extension work cannot thrive. These specialists are the link between research and application of researcher on farmer’s field. The specialist should have a broad outlook and should know other subject matter of the whole family and making his special contribution. 11) Principle of satisfaction: Satisfaction of the people is very essential in extension work. Unless the people are satisfied with the end product of any programme, it is not going to be able to run. They must continue to act out of their own conviction and that is possible only when they derive full satisfaction through adoption of innovations well suited to their needs and resources. eg: If an farmer is satisfied by seeing strawberry cultivation in a exposure visit he tries to adopt it. 12) Principle of Evaluation: The evaluation of extension work in an unbiased way is necessary. Evaluation gives an idea whether the extension",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of innovations well suited to their needs and resources. eg: If an farmer is satisfied by seeing strawberry cultivation in a exposure visit he tries to adopt it. 12) Principle of Evaluation: The evaluation of extension work in an unbiased way is necessary. Evaluation gives an idea whether the extension work is going in right direction or not. The corrective measures should be adopted it the direction of work is wrong. Extension work is of educational in nature. Its effectively can be measured by measuring the changes in people resulting from teaching process. It is necessary to determine the teaching results by scientific way. The result of such evaluations would help extension workers in improving quality of programmes in future. 17 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 13) Principle of applied science and democracy:Agriculture science is an applied science and has two way process. It carries the findings of research to the farmer and feedbacks of the problems to the scientist to find out solutions. In democracy, freedom of through and unbiased objectives approach of scientists, is used in the solutions of problem. The result of research gives a factual basis for the correction of common superstitions and unfounded beliefs that arouse in the past from inaccurate observations. Axinn (1988) identified 8 different approaches to extension work. These are briefly summarized below: 1. The general agricultural extension approach:The purpose is to help farmers increase their production. Planning is done on a national basis by the central government \"which knows better than farmers\". This is a typical case of top-down planning. Field personnel tend to be large in number and high in cost, with the central government bearing most of the cost. The rate of adoption of important recommendations",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "done on a national basis by the central government \"which knows better than farmers\". This is a typical case of top-down planning. Field personnel tend to be large in number and high in cost, with the central government bearing most of the cost. The rate of adoption of important recommendations and increases in national production are the measures of success. A survey of agricultural extension programmes indicated that agricultural extension generally was part of the Ministry of Agriculture, with field extension officers at the bottom of the hierarchy and a minister at the top (FAO, 1971). This approach lacks a two-way flow of information. It fails to adjust messages for each different locality. Only farmers who seek advice benefit and these tend to be large-scale wealthier farmers. This approach does provide farmers with information on a number of production alternatives from one single source. 2. The commodity specialized approach: All functions related to a particular commodity are grouped together, including extension, research, input supply, output marketing, and prices. Planning is controlled by a commodity organization for the purpose of increasing production of a particular commodity. Highly trained scientific personnel equipped with expensive vehicles and field scientific apparatus are employed. Techniques recommended must produce financial benefits for farmers, and be demonstrable on a farmer's own field. New inputs must be accessible, a credit scheme established, and the ratio between farm-gate inputs and commodity prices considered. Technology tends to be appropriate and distributed in a timely manner because it focuses on a narrow range of technical concerns. Interests of farmers, however, may have less priority than those of commodity production organizations. 3. The training and visit approach: The purpose of the training and visit approach (often called T & V) is to induce farmers to increase production of specified crops. Planning is",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "narrow range of technical concerns. Interests of farmers, however, may have less priority than those of commodity production organizations. 3. The training and visit approach: The purpose of the training and visit approach (often called T & V) is to induce farmers to increase production of specified crops. Planning is 18 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik controlled centrally and field personnel tend to be numerous and dependent on central resources. There is a rigid pattern of visits to farmers and in-service training of field staff. Success is measured in terms of production increases of the particular crops covered by the programme. The training and visit approach is another top-down approach. The emphasis is on disseminating unsophisticated, low-cost improved practices, and teaching farmers to make best use of available resources. There is pressure on the government to reorganize into a more integrated service, and to send extension officers into the field to meet with farmers. It provides closer technical supervision and logistic support, but at a high cost. Actual two-way communication is lacking and there is little flexibility. 4. The agricultural extension participatory approach:-This approach assumes that farmers are skilled in food production from their land, but their levels of living could be improved by additional knowledge. Active participation by farmers themselves is necessary and produces a reinforcing effect in group learning and group action. Much of the work is through group meetings, demonstrations, individual and group travel, and local sharing of appropriate technologies. Success is measured through numbers of farmers actively participating, and the continuity of the programme. There is much to be gained by combining indigenous knowledge with science. Expressed needs of farmers are targeted. The system requires that extension workers, who are also animators and",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and local sharing of appropriate technologies. Success is measured through numbers of farmers actively participating, and the continuity of the programme. There is much to be gained by combining indigenous knowledge with science. Expressed needs of farmers are targeted. The system requires that extension workers, who are also animators and catalysts, stimulate farmers to organize for group efforts. Local people evaluate their own programmes and play a role in establishing research agendas. The agricultural extension participatory approach costs less, fits needs well, and is more efficient. However, it is more work for extension agents to organize and motivate farmers. It requires agents to live and to socialize with farmers. Where a government job is seen as a reward for good friends, the \"hardship\" implied by this approach dooms it to failure. The agent will be there only \"part time\" and have no personal stake in the outcome. 5. The project approach: This approach uses large infusions of outside resources for a few years to demonstrate the potential of new technologies. Control is at the central government level and there are often considerable financial and technical inputs from an international development agency. Short-term change is the measure of success. In the aquaculture project in Nepal, for example, a loan from the Asian Development Bank was used by the Ministry of Agriculture to support extension work by fisheries officers in many different locations throughout the country. They were able to introduce pond fisheries through an effort which 19 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik combined the project approach with the specialized commodity approach. One problem with this approach, however, is that a flow of ideas outside the project rarely occurs. 6. The farming systems development approach: This approach assumes that",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik combined the project approach with the specialized commodity approach. One problem with this approach, however, is that a flow of ideas outside the project rarely occurs. 6. The farming systems development approach: This approach assumes that technology which fits the needs of farmers, particularly small-scale farmers, is not available and needs to be generated locally. Planning evolves slowly and may be different for each agro climatic farm ecosystem. This approach is implemented through a partnership of research and extension personnel using a systems approach. Analyses and field trials are carried out on farmers' fields and in homes. The measure of success is the extent to which farm people adopt technologies developed by the programme and continue to use them over time. Control of the programme is shared jointly by local farm families, extension officers and researchers. Advantages of this system include strong linkages between extension and research personnel, and the commitment of farmers to using technologies they helped to develop. Costs can be high, and results can be slow in coming. 7. The cost sharing approach:-This approach is based on local people sharing part of the cost of the extension programme. Control and planning is shared by various entities and is responsive to local interests. Success is measured by farmers' willingness and ability to provide some share of the cost, be it individually or through local government units. Problems may arise if local farmers are pressured into investing in unproven enterprises. 8. The educational institution approach: In the educational institution approach, planning is controlled by those determining the curriculum of the educational institution. Implementation is through non formal instruction in groups or individuals through a college or university. Attendance and the extent of participation by farmers",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "into investing in unproven enterprises. 8. The educational institution approach: In the educational institution approach, planning is controlled by those determining the curriculum of the educational institution. Implementation is through non formal instruction in groups or individuals through a college or university. Attendance and the extent of participation by farmers in agricultural extension activities are the measures of success. Ideally researchers learn from extension personnel who, in turn, learn from farmers. However, this rarely occurs in practice. The advantage of this approach is the relationship of specialized scientists to field extension personnel. 20 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION: MEANING, DEFINIOTIONS AND DIMENSIONS Definitions:Agricultural Extension is the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education. The process of extension education when applied to subject matter of agriculture, it is known as agricultural extension. It is a process of transfer of agricultural technology to bring desirable change in the individual or community. Task of Agricultural Extension • It includes timely supply of required quantity of inputs. • There is increasing production through double /multiple cropping and productivity through improved technology • There is firm linkage between scientist and farmer and feedback from farmers to scientists • It is professional method and professional extension workers are engaged. • It is non formal education process and emphasis on transfer of technology. • It includes behavioral changes in farmer • The proven methods of communication are used for speedy adaption and diffusion of innovations. Scope of Agricultural Extension The following nine areas of programme emphasis indicate the scope of Agricultural Extension work: 1. Efficiency in agricultural production. 2. Efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilization. 3. Conservation, development and use of natural resources. 4. Management on",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "are used for speedy adaption and diffusion of innovations. Scope of Agricultural Extension The following nine areas of programme emphasis indicate the scope of Agricultural Extension work: 1. Efficiency in agricultural production. 2. Efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilization. 3. Conservation, development and use of natural resources. 4. Management on the farm and in the home. 5. Family living. 6. Youth development. 7. Leadership development. 8. Community development. 9. Public affairs. 21 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik EXTENSION PROGRAMME PLANNINGMeaning, process, principles and steps in programme development Definition:Programme is proclamation, prospectus, listing of events to be done in chronological fashion. Programme is Total educational job being done in particular settings. Planning is designing a course of action to achieve desired ends. Planning is a process, which involves studying the past, and present in order to forecast the future and in the light of that forecast determining the goals to be achieved and what must be done to reach them. Project is a specification of work to be done or procedure to be followed in order to accomplish a particular object. Extension Programme is a statement of situation, objectives, problems and solutions. Programme Planning is a decision making process involving critical analysis of the existing situation and the problems, evaluation of the various alternatives to solve these problems and the selection of the relevant ones, giving necessary priorities based upon local needs and resources by the cooperative efforts of the people both official and non-official with a view to facilitate the individual and community growth and development. Programme Planning is a continues series of activities operations leading to the development of a definite plan of action to accomplish particular objectives. Problem is condition that the people after study",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the people both official and non-official with a view to facilitate the individual and community growth and development. Programme Planning is a continues series of activities operations leading to the development of a definite plan of action to accomplish particular objectives. Problem is condition that the people after study with or without outside help, have decide needs changing Solution is a course of proposed action to change an unsatisfactory condition to one that is more satisfying. Plan is predetermined course of action. Plan of work is an outline of activities so arranged as to enables efficient executing of the progrmme . Calendar of work is a plan of activities to be undertaken in a particular time sequence. IMPORTNACE OF PROGRAMME PLANNING Rural development work is basically a joint effort of many agencies. It is essential to coordinate the activities of various agencies involved in the work. Programme planning helps in 22 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik understanding the statement of purpose both by the extension workers and the people. The reasons for having a programme may be specifically stated as follows (Kelsey and Hearne, 1967). (1) To ensure careful consideration of what is to be done and why. (2) To furnish a guide against which to judge all new proposals. (3) To establish objectives towards which progress can be measured and evaluated. (4) To have a means of choosing the important (deep rooted) from incidental (minor, less important) problems and the permanent form temporary changes. (5) To develop a common understanding about the means and ends between various functionaries and organizations. (6) To ensure continuity during changes in personnel. (7) To help develop leadership. (8) To avoid waste of time and money and promote efficiency. (9)",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "less important) problems and the permanent form temporary changes. (5) To develop a common understanding about the means and ends between various functionaries and organizations. (6) To ensure continuity during changes in personnel. (7) To help develop leadership. (8) To avoid waste of time and money and promote efficiency. (9) To justify expenditure and to ensure flow of funds. (10) To have available in written form a statement for public use. PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMME PLANNING Principals are the fundamental truths and settled rules of action. There are some basic principals which are generally applicable before starting any extension programme. These are as follows: 1. Extension Programmes should be based on an analysis of the past experiences, present situation and future needs. For programme determination adequate information about the people and their situation has to be collected. The present situation is to be analyzed and interpreted on the basis of past experiences, by taking local people into confidence. This shall help in arriving at the future needs. 2. Extension programmes should have clear and significant objectives, which could satisfy important needs of the people. The ultimate objective of programme building is to satisfy the needs of the people. For this purpose, significant objectives pertaining to important needs of the people should be selected and clearly stated. The emphasis shall be on what is attainable rather than on what is ideal, although one should not lose sight of the later. 3. Extension programmes should fix up priority on the basis of available resources and time. The rural people, particularly in the developing countries, have a multitude of problems. 23 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik All problems cannot be taken up at a time for solution, because of the limitations",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "resources and time. The rural people, particularly in the developing countries, have a multitude of problems. 23 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik All problems cannot be taken up at a time for solution, because of the limitations of trained personnel, availability of funds, facilities and other resources. Time is also a limiting factor as both the people and the funding agencies cannot wait for an indefinite period of time to get the results. Considering all these parameters, it is essential to fix up priorities in the programme. 4. Extension programmes should clearly indicate the availability and utilization of resources. All extension programmes should clearly state where from the funds, facilities, supplies and the needed personnel shall be made available and how these shall be utilized. This shall make the programme practical and workable. 5. Extension programme should have a general agreement at various levels. Programmes prepared at various levels such as village, district, state and national levels should conform to each other and shall not work at cross purposes. Similarly, extension programmes of a particular department should not be in conflict or contradiction with the extension programme of another department. 6. Extension programme should involve people at the local level. Extension programmes are implemented at the local level. Local people should, therefore, be involved all through, from programme formation to programme implementation. 7. Extension programmes should involve relevant institutions and organizations. Extension programmes cannot be implemented in isolation. It requires the support of many institutions and organizations. The programme should broadly indicate the institutions and organizations to be involved and how they shall contribute in attaining the programme objectives. 8. Extension programme should have definite plan of work. The plan of work may be separately drawn up",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "isolation. It requires the support of many institutions and organizations. The programme should broadly indicate the institutions and organizations to be involved and how they shall contribute in attaining the programme objectives. 8. Extension programme should have definite plan of work. The plan of work may be separately drawn up or incorporated in the programme. The programme should broadly indicate how it will be executed. Unless the plan of work is drawn up, the programme remains a theoretical exercise. 9. Extension programmes should provide for evaluation of results and reconsideration of the programme. Extension programme is not a static outline of activities. The programme should make provision for periodical monitoring and evaluation of results to judge its progress. On the basis of the findings of evaluation, the programme should be suitably modified to facilitate its reaching the objective within the stipulated period of time. 24 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 10. Extension programmes should provide equitable distribution of benefits amongst the members of the community. It has been found that, in a community generally the resource rich persons benefit more in comparison to the resource poor, from the implementation of extension programmes. The gap between rich and poor is getting widened. As this may generate social disparity and social tensions, the planning of extension programmes should give adequate emphasis on the weaker sections of the community. STEPS IN EXTENSION PROGRAMME PLANNING 1. Collection of facts It is the starting point of programme planning process. Pertinent data may be collected from the available records and survey of the area. Information relating to the people, their enterprises, levels of technology, facilities and constraints, values etc. relevant to programme building may be collected. Information may also be collected from Panchayats,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the starting point of programme planning process. Pertinent data may be collected from the available records and survey of the area. Information relating to the people, their enterprises, levels of technology, facilities and constraints, values etc. relevant to programme building may be collected. Information may also be collected from Panchayats, Cooperatives and other organizations in the area. 2. Analysis of situation The data and information collected are then analyzed with the local people. This shall help in understanding the situation in its proper perspective. 3. Identification of problems A proper analysis and interpretation of the data shall help in correctly identifying the problems. There may be many problems, but only the urgent and significant ones, which may be 25 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik solved with the available resources and within the limits of time, should be selected. Selections of a large number of problems, which cannot be properly managed, lead to a failure of the programme and generate frustration among the people. 4. Determination of objectives and goals The objectives are then set forth on the basis of the significant needs identified. The objectives should be direct and stated in clear terms. To make the objectives realistic and actionable, there is need to state them in terms of specific goals. In the determination of goals it may be necessary to again go through the data and information analyzed; to find out what could actually be done in the existing situation, with the available resources and time, which will be compatible and with which the people shall cooperate. It is necessary to discuss with the local people and local institutions, which shall also legitimize the programme planning process. 5. Developing plan of work and calendar of operations",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the existing situation, with the available resources and time, which will be compatible and with which the people shall cooperate. It is necessary to discuss with the local people and local institutions, which shall also legitimize the programme planning process. 5. Developing plan of work and calendar of operations The plan of work should be in written form and shall indicate who shall do what job i.e. what the change agent system and the client system shall do; which institutions, organizations, service departments shall be involved; what will be the financial requirement and how it shall be met; what arrangements shall be made for marketing of the produce, training of the farmers and so on. The plan should have all the essential details and no important point should be left out. The calendar of operations shall be prepared on the basis of the plan of work and shall specify when a particular work shall be done, preferably mentioning date and time; how much quantity of different inputs including credit shall be required and when these must be made available; when, where and for how many days the farmers and farm women shall be trained, who are the specialists to be involved in training and preparing the handouts, when the publications shall be ready for distribution etc. That is, the calendar of operations shall specifically state how and when all the significant activities shall be performed. This should be at least for one season or for a period of one year. In that case, they may be termed as ‘seasonal plan’ or ‘annual plan’. 6. Follow through plan of work and calendar of operations This is not a routine type of work as many people may think. Training of participants, communication of information, conducting method demonstrations, making regular visits and",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "year. In that case, they may be termed as ‘seasonal plan’ or ‘annual plan’. 6. Follow through plan of work and calendar of operations This is not a routine type of work as many people may think. Training of participants, communication of information, conducting method demonstrations, making regular visits and monitoring are some of the important functions the extension agent shall perform at this stage. 26 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik The work shall include solving unforeseen problems and taking corrective steps where needed. The performance of the extension agent and the organizational support received at this stage may make the difference between success or failure of a programme. Obtaining feed back information as to what is happening to the farmers after introduction of new technology is extremely important at this stage. 7. Evaluation of progress Evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which we have been able to attain our objectives. All programmes must have an inbuilt system of evaluation to know how well the work is done. It should be a continuous process not only to measure the end result but also to ensure that all the steps are correctly followed. Evaluation may be formal or informal, depending on the importance of the programme and also on the availability of trained manpower, funds, facilities and time. Programme evaluation involves the following three essential steps – i) Setting up of some standards or criteria in relation to the objectives. ii) Collection of information. iii) Making judgment, and drawing some unbiased and valid conclusions. 8. Reconsideration and revision of the programme On the basis of the results of evaluation, the programme should be reconsidered and revised, if needed. This reconsideration should be done not only",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in relation to the objectives. ii) Collection of information. iii) Making judgment, and drawing some unbiased and valid conclusions. 8. Reconsideration and revision of the programme On the basis of the results of evaluation, the programme should be reconsidered and revised, if needed. This reconsideration should be done not only with the participants; but also with the scientists, administrators in extension organization and local bodies like Panchayats, etc. Reconsideration shall help in making necessary corrections and modifications in the programme. In reconsideration, emphasis should be on the removal of technical defects if any and how to obtain more cooperation and involvement of the participants and various organizations. The purpose of such an exercise is to make the extension programme more effective by removing the defects. 27 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik EXTENSION SYSTEMS IN INDIA:  Extension efforts in pre-independence era : Sriniketan, Marthandam, Firka Development Scheme, Gurgaon Experiment  Post-independence era : Etawah Pilot Project, Nilokheri Experiment  Present extension System : Department of Agriculture : Structure, Function Developmental programmes-pre-independence era In 1947 before achieving freedom in India, many programmes have started which are mainly as follows. Looking at a vast country like India, during British rule, some selected social workers had started some programmes of rural development. For the clarity in study, we can divide these Development Programmes in two parts. First-Pre-Independence Programmes (1866 1947) and Second-Post-Independence Programmes (1947 1952) Pre-independence programmes 1. SHRI NIKETAN PROJECT (1921) Early effort at rural development was initiated by Shri. Rabandranath Tagore in 1908 by establishing youth organization in the Kaligram Progana of his Zamindari, He tried to create a class of functionary workers who could learn to identify themselves with the people. In 1921 he established a Rural",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "PROJECT (1921) Early effort at rural development was initiated by Shri. Rabandranath Tagore in 1908 by establishing youth organization in the Kaligram Progana of his Zamindari, He tried to create a class of functionary workers who could learn to identify themselves with the people. In 1921 he established a Rural Reconstruction Institute at Shantiniketan in West Bengal. A group of eight villages was the centre of the programme. This project, co-incidentally, had many elements of extension education in both spirit and action. Activities like demonstration on scientific methods of agriculture, training of youths, adult education and health co-operatives were important aspects of the work aimed to make a group of villages self-reliant. This was a very comprehensive programme combining culture, health, education and economic aspects of village life together. Concept of village level workers and regeneration of village organization were put to work. This project was closely guided by Mr. Leonard Elmhirst, an Englishman trained in economics from USA. Objectives of the Programme:  To create a real interest in people for rural welfare work.  To study rural problems and to translate conclusions into action. 28 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  To help villagers develop their resources and to improve village sanitation. Activities:  Survey of selected Villages  Demonstration of improved practices  Arranging campaigns for the eradication of Malaria, T.B., and other infectious diseases.  Development of cottage industries.  Weaver’s cooperatives were organized  Night schools for male and female.  Establishment of social welfare centre in each village.  Establishment of cooperative societies.  Establishment of community centers.  Mobile library for rural people.  Organization of village Scout called Brati Balika  Management of pure drinking water.  Village sanitation",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "organized  Night schools for male and female.  Establishment of social welfare centre in each village.  Establishment of cooperative societies.  Establishment of community centers.  Mobile library for rural people.  Organization of village Scout called Brati Balika  Management of pure drinking water.  Village sanitation works. Shortcomings:  The institute could not get much help from the government.  It could not conduct research as planned by R. N.Tagore.  The work remained limited to eight villages only.  The project was idealistic but the practical aspect of the project was neglected. 2. GURGAON EXPERIMENT (1920) Mr. F.L. Brayne Deputy Commissioner has started the rural upliftment movement in 1920 in Gurgaon district of Haryana state. and he began this project of in his district, which became famous as “Gurgaon Project”. According to him the main principle of this experiment was rural development on practical basis. This was the 1st programme started on a mass scale for rural upliftment by state in Gurgaon district. Objectives: 1. To bring villagers out of old grooves by convincing them that improvement is possible 2. To kill their fatalism demonstrating disease and insect control through scientific means. 3. To deal with whole life of the villagers 29 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 4. The work should be started in whole district at a time. 5. Development work should be taken at campaign level. Method of work:  Propaganda was done by drama and music.  Guides were appointed to organise the programme at village level.  The teacher of village schools used to teach food production. Areas of work: 1) Agricultural development & increasing 2) Health improvement. 3) Village sanitation. 4) Social improvement (Reforms). 5) Reforms in",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Propaganda was done by drama and music.  Guides were appointed to organise the programme at village level.  The teacher of village schools used to teach food production. Areas of work: 1) Agricultural development & increasing 2) Health improvement. 3) Village sanitation. 4) Social improvement (Reforms). 5) Reforms in rural institutions 6) Emphasis on women education. 7) Organization of cooperative societies. 8) Coordination and publicity. 9) Home development works. 10) Controlling extra expenditure. Although this project got some success, yet this scheme could not survive for a long time because this project was also based upon the sentiments of F.L. Brayne and when he was transferred, gradually this programme also stopped. 3. MARTHANDAM PROJECT (1921) This programme was started in 1921 by Dr. Spencer Hatch, an American Agricultural expert. In Trivendrum at some places, people used to cultivate only paddy and coconut. To overcome this weakness, it was thought that some developmental work should be done, so that the Christian faith could spread. Consequently Dr. Hatch made agreement with Y.M.C.A. and Christian Church Association for his work and initiated this project in neighboring village Marthandum. From the demo centre at Marthandam, about 100 villages were covered through YMCA centers. It was having a 3 fold programme development of spirit, mind and body. But later it evolved a fivefold programme-development of the physical, spiritual, mind, economic and social aspects of life. Objectives: 30 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Self help and cooperation.  Helping people to help in their own work.  Opening the demonstration centers. Method of work  Before launching the programme, surveys are made to know the needs of that area and on the basis of their needs the programmes were introduced. ",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Nashik  Self help and cooperation.  Helping people to help in their own work.  Opening the demonstration centers. Method of work  Before launching the programme, surveys are made to know the needs of that area and on the basis of their needs the programmes were introduced.  The rural dramas, rural exhibition, inter-rural competition, demonstration were also organized to attract the people  Religious programmes were also organized for developing the religious feelings.  All-round development of rural life and individual’s progress were the subjects of importance in the programme i.e., Farming, rural industry, cooperation and development of Panchayat were initiated.  For bringing economic development among the rural people, many programmes as soap making and the educational programmes etc. were organized.  6 weeks Short training courses to villagers and school teachers. Main Shortcomings:  Project was inadequate funds and government help.  The activities were mainly organized bat Mathandum. About hundred villages were covered through YMCA. But the workers did not stay in villages.  The religious bios of the institution were also a reason of hindrance in activities. 4. SEVA GRAM (1920) Mr. M.K. Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi) started this programme in 1920 at Sewagram. Later it was extended to Wardha in 1938 after 2nd non-cooperation movement. This programme was totally based on the concept of “Helping the people to help themselves”.Mahatma Gandhiji is a great social worker. He knew very well that as long as people are suppressed, their society and their nation cannot progress. For ending this suppression, he began this welfare project “SEVA GRAM” by establishing his Ashram in Wardha. The programme mainly focuses on prevention of the economic and social suppression of the people and creating feeling of patriotism among them. M. Gandhi also insisted that all extension workers should have",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "progress. For ending this suppression, he began this welfare project “SEVA GRAM” by establishing his Ashram in Wardha. The programme mainly focuses on prevention of the economic and social suppression of the people and creating feeling of patriotism among them. M. Gandhi also insisted that all extension workers should have 3 principles in practice viz., self purification, self reliance and self exemplary conduct. For 31 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik fulfilling this objective, Gandhiji made this programme which became famous as “Gandhian Constructive Programme”. The main objectives of this project were as follows:  To use khadi clothe.  To initiate programmes on sanitation, women welfare, health, economic help and social harmony in the village.  To uplift the backward classes.  Primary and adult educational programmes  The programme of economic help.  To improve the conditions of poor people  To popularize the mother tongue and other national dialects.  To serve the under privileged villagers.  To make the villagers self sufficient and self reliant.  To develop the power and courage in rural people. For Gandhi, independence of country would be meaningless without eco development. For making his programme successful and effective, he established All India Village Industry Association, All India Spinners Association, Hindustani Education Association and Kasturba Gandhi Association etc. Other activities are: 1. Economic equality: (a) Equal distribution of wealth. (b) Eliminate middle men and exploiters. (c) Use of khadi clothes 2. Education: Basic education through “learning by doing and earning while learning\" 3. Social equality (a) Removal of untouchability (b) Equal opportunity for women (c) Community unity. (d) Hindu-Muslim equality Principles 1. Self help 2. Dignity of labour e.g. Sharamdan, etc. 32 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "2. Education: Basic education through “learning by doing and earning while learning\" 3. Social equality (a) Removal of untouchability (b) Equal opportunity for women (c) Community unity. (d) Hindu-Muslim equality Principles 1. Self help 2. Dignity of labour e.g. Sharamdan, etc. 32 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 3. Self respect 4. Truth and non-violence Gandhaji’s constructive programme was not fully successful because hand made products were dominated by machine made products which attracted common man more. The single cause of failure of Gandhiji’s programme was Industrialization in the country. Post-independence era programmes 1. FIRKA VIKAS YOJANA OR FIRKA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (1946) It is a Government sponsored programme and aimed at attainment of Gandhian ideal of “Gram Swaraj”. It was launched in the last quarter of 1946 in 34 Firkas throughout Madras state. It was extended to another 50 additional Firkas at the rate of two Firkas per district on April 1950. The selection of Firkas based on consideration of general backwardness of area and initiating possibility of production of handloom cloth and other cottage industries. The collector was the incharge of the scheme. He was assisted by Rural Welfare Officer of the rank of Naib Tahasildar, who was Incharge of 2-3 firkas. Under Naib Tahasildar, there were 5-10 Gram sevakas. Each firka was divided into 5-10 groups of villages and village level worker was the incharge. Each firka or group of firkas was provided with special staff such as Agricultural field man, Demonstration worker, PWD supervisor and minor irrigation overseers. In each firka there was Development committee, consisting of officials and non officials to associate people with implementation of programme. At state level there was state Rural Welfare Board comprising heads of department, influential and constructive social",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "such as Agricultural field man, Demonstration worker, PWD supervisor and minor irrigation overseers. In each firka there was Development committee, consisting of officials and non officials to associate people with implementation of programme. At state level there was state Rural Welfare Board comprising heads of department, influential and constructive social workers. Objectives: 1. Preparation of short term plans for the development of rural communication, water supply. 2. Long term plan to make the area self sufficient through agricultural, irrigational and livestock improvements. 3. Formation of panchayats and organization of cooperatives. 4. Introduction and development of Khadi and Cottage Industries. 5. All-round development of rural people 2. ETAWAH PILOT PROJECT: 1948 The ideal of this project was conceived and born in 1947. Actually this projected was put into action in September, 1948 with headquarter a Mahewa village about 17 miles from 33 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Etawab (U. P.) First 64 villages which were then increased to 97 were covered under it. Lt. Col. Albert Mayer was the originator of this project. He started this project with the aim of introducing work on the rural reconstruction front. The Government of U.P. helped him in setting up machinery at district level and with extra staff for the project. Objectives: 1. To develop the mental power of people. 2. Arousing their interest and initiative. 3. To awaken the desires of rural people and to make them laborious. 4. The develop agriculture and animal husbandry. 5. Development of Panchayat 6. To development the feeling of self-confidence, co-operation and mass participation. 7. To seek the possibility of transferring this project elsewhere in the country. 8. To make villagers sanitation minded. 9. To measure the extent of agriculture development in terms of",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "develop agriculture and animal husbandry. 5. Development of Panchayat 6. To development the feeling of self-confidence, co-operation and mass participation. 7. To seek the possibility of transferring this project elsewhere in the country. 8. To make villagers sanitation minded. 9. To measure the extent of agriculture development in terms of social improvement, initiative and self confidence. 10. To buildup the sense of community living. 11. To build up a spirit of self help in villagers. 3. NILOKHERI PROJECT: In 1948, Shree S.K. Dey prepared this project for the purpose of providing shelter for 7000 immigrants from Pakistan. The name of this project was “Majdoor Manzil”. Later, S K Dey became the Union Minister of Community Development in 1965. It was built around the vocational training centre that was transferred from Kurukshetra in July 1948 Objectives: 1. Self sufficiency for rural cum urban township in all essential requirements of life. 2. Making provision of work and professional training for the people according to their experience. 3. To eliminate middle men. 4. To make 700 acres of Swampy land cultivable. Activities: Polytechnic training for B.D.O. and S.E.O. and V.L.W, Housing and marketing facilities. Management of schools, hospitals, recreation centers and cooperative credit facilities and small scale industries were run on cooperative basis. 34 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik VARIOUS EXTENSION/ AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES LAUNCHED BY ICAR/ GOVERNMENT OF INDIA: Introduction, Objectives and Salient Achievements Agricultural Development Programmes 1 IADP Intensive Agricultural District Programme 196061 Package programme, to increased agricultural productivity that lead to economic growth 2 IAAP Intensive Agricultural Area Programme 1964 Extend the benefit of improved tech. in agri. in large areas at less cost and reduced staff strength 3 HYVP High Yielding Varieties Programme 196465 Highly input",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Intensive Agricultural District Programme 196061 Package programme, to increased agricultural productivity that lead to economic growth 2 IAAP Intensive Agricultural Area Programme 1964 Extend the benefit of improved tech. in agri. in large areas at less cost and reduced staff strength 3 HYVP High Yielding Varieties Programme 196465 Highly input intensive, attained self sufficiency sopped import grain resulting green revolution 4 I V L P Institution Village Linkage Programme 199596 Based on scientist farmer participatory mode tech. intervention in small prod. System 5 ORP Operational Research Project 1974 To test performance of new research on farmers field on operational level under their existing recourses 6 N A T P National Agriculture Technology Project 1998 Location specific, demand driven TOT to farmers with research.– extn. – farmers linkages 7 NAIP National Agricultural innovation Project 2006 Promote research in the prod. To consumption mode, provide livelihood security in selected disadvantages regions, 8 RKVY Rastriy Krishi Vikas Yojana 2007 Provide incentive to the state to achieve 4%groeth rate in agril. & allied sector in 11 plan 1. Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP): It was felt that the increase in agriculture production under the community development programme was for less than necessary to feed the rapidly increasing population of this country.  To tackle this urgent problem the government in collaboration with Ford Foundation launched the intensive agricultural district programme (1960-61) which is popularly known as the package programme. 35 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  The significant feature of this programme is that the cooperative institutions have become the agency for distribution of credit and supply of agricultural inputs which were essential for implementing the programme.  The district selected throughout the country under this programme are pali, thanjavur, West-Godavari,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "College of Agriculture, Nashik  The significant feature of this programme is that the cooperative institutions have become the agency for distribution of credit and supply of agricultural inputs which were essential for implementing the programme.  The district selected throughout the country under this programme are pali, thanjavur, West-Godavari, Shahabad, Raipur, Aligarh, Ludhiana, Aleppey, palght, Mandga, Surat, Sambalpur, Bardwan, Bhandeva and Cochar. Objectives: 1. To increase the income of the cultivator and his family. 2. To increase the economic resources and potential of the village. 3. To create employment facilities. 4. To demonstrate the most effective ways of expansion of the national food production technology by co-operative efforts between officials and not-officials, villagers and individual cultivators. Criteria for selection of the district for IADP: a. Districts have adequate supply of water. b. Should have minimum natural hazards. c. They have well developed village industry. d. They have maximum potential to increase agricultural and animal production The Distinctive features of IADP :1. To provide factors of production simultaneously, timely and adequately 2. Essential inputs like fertilizers, etc. to be made available 100 per cent of the requirement. 3. Credit to be provided to any farmer who joins the programme and has the potentials of the requirement. 4. More agricultural and cooperative staff to be posted 5. Provision of composite demonstrations instead of single factor demonstrations. 6. Periodical training of staff. 7. Analysis and evaluation. The various activities under taken by IADP were: 1. Adequate and timely supply of credit and inputs (seed and fertilizers etc) 2. Provision of services such as market, storage and transport. 3. Emphasis on food and cash crops, livestock etc 36 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 4. Strengthening of cooperatives and panchayats above",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "inputs (seed and fertilizers etc) 2. Provision of services such as market, storage and transport. 3. Emphasis on food and cash crops, livestock etc 36 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 4. Strengthening of cooperatives and panchayats above efforts were made sincerely, but IADP suffered from the following limitations Limitations:1. Educational approach to reach the cultivators was lacking 2. Poor trainings to staff 3. Staff was not clear about the methods of reaching the cultivators. 4. Posting of staff was not adequate 5. Workshop, seed testing and soil testing laboratories were not functioning to the required level and 6. Transport and land development programmes were not progressing satisfactory 2. Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) Intensive Agriculture Area programme (IAAP) was launched in 1964-65. The core philosophy of the IAAP was that “much greater emphasis should be given to the development of scientific and progressive agriculture in an intensive manner in the areas which have High production potentials”. The idea was to cover at least 20% of the cultivated area of the country. The emphasis was on import crops such as Wheat, Rice, Millets, Cotton, Sugarcane, Potato, Pulses etc. The Intensive Agriculture Area programme (IAAP) paved the way for Green Revolution in the country. 3. High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP)  HYVP is launched in 1966, which helped the country in attaining self-sufficiency in food.  The technological development did not remain confined to the introduction of high yielding crop varieties alone.  These were combined with the application of high analysis and balanced fertilizer, irrigation, plant protection, improved implements etc, which made a 'green revolution' possible in the country.  The pervasive influence of high yielding technology spread to other areas of farm production such as animal production,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "crop varieties alone.  These were combined with the application of high analysis and balanced fertilizer, irrigation, plant protection, improved implements etc, which made a 'green revolution' possible in the country.  The pervasive influence of high yielding technology spread to other areas of farm production such as animal production, such as animal production, fishery, sericulture, social forestry etc. Punjab, Haryana and Western parts of UP were initially selected for the phased launching of this strategy. 37 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  The cultivation of HYV since 1966-67 had resulted in a substantial increase in food grains production. Wheat production was doubled. Rice production also had a substantial increase, though not as much as in the case of wheat.  The target of coverage of 2.5 crore hectares of area under HYVs of cereals and millets under fourth five year plan was exceeded. The coverage was more than four crore hectares Objectives: 1. To boost up agricultural production by using high yielding varieties with appropriate inputs. 2. To cover maximum areas with high yielding varieties of five crops i.e. Rice, Wheat, Jowar, Bajara & Maize. 3. To make necessary arrangements for inputs like fertilizer, pesticides, plant protection equipments & credits on the basis of proper need assessment. 4. Attaining self sufficiency in cereal foods by the end of 1970-71. Salient features 1. Supply of inputs like seed, fertilizer & pesticides. 2. Supply of credit to the cultivators. 3. The programme was initiated in the areas having necessary organizations & other facilities as essential prerequisite. 4. Demonstration was started with existing staff. 5. Necessary training to the staff was provided. 6. High Yielding varieties are not high yielding but also early maturing, photointensive, nonlodging & suitable under",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "cultivators. 3. The programme was initiated in the areas having necessary organizations & other facilities as essential prerequisite. 4. Demonstration was started with existing staff. 5. Necessary training to the staff was provided. 6. High Yielding varieties are not high yielding but also early maturing, photointensive, nonlodging & suitable under multiple cropping fertilizers responsive. 4. Institution-Village Linkage Programme (IVLP): It is an innovative programme initiated by the Indian council of Agricultural Research (ICRA) on a pilot basis form 1995-96.  To help scientists to have direct interaction with the farming community so that appropriate technologies are developed for farmers.  Here research, extension and farmers establish firm links by carrying together the assessment and refinement functions in the technology development and dissemination process. 38 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  This helps the research system to generate a cafeteria of technologies, which are more productive in small production system, more profitable in commercial production system and gender sensitive for removal of drudgery of farm women. Objectives: 1. To introduce technological interventions with emphasis on stability and sustainability along with productivity of small farm production system. 2. To introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to sustain technological interventions and their integration to maintain productivity and profitability taking environmental issues into consideration in a comparatively well defined farm production systems. 3. To introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to increase the agricultural productivity with marketable surplus in commercial on and off farm production system. 4. To facilitate adoption of appropriate post-harvest technologies for conservation and onfarm value addition of agricultural products, by products and wastes for greater economic dividend and national priorities. 5. To facilitate adoption of appropriate technologies for removal of drudgery increased efficiency and higher income of",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and off farm production system. 4. To facilitate adoption of appropriate post-harvest technologies for conservation and onfarm value addition of agricultural products, by products and wastes for greater economic dividend and national priorities. 5. To facilitate adoption of appropriate technologies for removal of drudgery increased efficiency and higher income of farm women. 6. To monitor socio-economic impact of the technology intervention for different farm production system. Salient features: 1. Conducting on farm research on the field of farmers. 2. Developing linkage between scientist & farmer for actual adoption of technology. 3. Incorporating modifications in the technology on the basis of experience & need of the farmer 4. Assessing feasibility & appropriateness of technologies to the farming system according to micro farming situation. 5. Operational Research Project (ORP):ORP was initiated in 1975 to identify technological as well as socio-economic constraints and to formulate and implement a combination of technology modules on area/watershed/target group basis. The performance of the new technology is to be tested on farmers‟ fields at operational level under the existing resources and socio-economic and cultural conditions to address the 39 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik common agricultural problems affecting the existing farm production system on community basis. Objectives:1. To test, adopt and demonstrate the new agricultural technology on farmer’s fields in whole village or in a cluster of few technologies and their pace of spread among the farmers. 2. To determine the profitability of the new technological, 3. To identify the constrains both technological, as well as socio-economic which are barriers to rapid change. 4. To demonstrate group action as a method of popularizing the modern technologies at a faster rate. 6. National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP): This project was launched by the ICAR 30th",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "new technological, 3. To identify the constrains both technological, as well as socio-economic which are barriers to rapid change. 4. To demonstrate group action as a method of popularizing the modern technologies at a faster rate. 6. National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP): This project was launched by the ICAR 30th June, 1998 with a support of World Bank to strengthen & complement the existing resources.  N A T P was the world biggest World Bank assisted agriculture project. Objectives: 1. To accelerate the flow of technology from research & research & extension to farmer. 2. Improve the dissemination of location specific & sustainability enhancing technologies. 3. To address key constraints which limit the use of public sources 4. To improve the relevance of technology generation, refinement, assessment and transfer & process of programme 5. To improve technology to contribute towards key national objectives i.e. food security, economic growth, equity. 6. Step up the privatization of certain technology transfer activities. 7. Decentralize technical and decision making authority to the district level. Salient Features:  Pilot testing new institutional arrangements for technology dissemination at the district level and below through establishment of district Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA).  Moving towards integrated extension delivery.  Bottom up planning procedures for setting the Research Extension agendas. 40 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Addressing Increasing use of information technology for effective dissemination. Gender concern in agriculture. NATP has three major components 1. Development of ICAR organization & Management system. 2. Support of Agro-Ecosystem Research 3. Innovations of Technology Dissemination Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA)  ATMA is a society of key stake holders engage in agricultural activities for sustainable agricultural developmental in the district  The registered office of",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "major components 1. Development of ICAR organization & Management system. 2. Support of Agro-Ecosystem Research 3. Innovations of Technology Dissemination Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA)  ATMA is a society of key stake holders engage in agricultural activities for sustainable agricultural developmental in the district  The registered office of ATMA is located in the premises of district collector.  A Centrally sponsored scheme ‘Support to State Extension Programmes for Extension Reforms’ was launched by the ICAR in 1999.  This scheme is a major initiative towards revitalizing agricultural extension in the States to make the extension system decentralized and demand driven  ATMA is managed by Project Director at district level. Objectives of ATMA 1. To decentralized decision making at district level 2. To identify location specific problems /needs of the farming community 3. To increase farmers inputs into resources allocation & programme planning 4. To set up priorities for sustainable development 5. To prepare production based activities plans to be carried out by farmer 6. To execute plan through the line departments, training institutions, farmers organization, NGOs and allied institutions. 7. To promote coordination & collaboration between various state funded technical department 8. To facilitate empowerment of farmer through association 9. To facilitate market interventions fro value addition to farm produce. ATMA networking:  It would have linkage with all the line departments, research organizations, NGOs, and agencies associated with agricultural development in the district. 41 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Research and Extension Units within the project districts such as ZRS or substations, KVKs and the key line departments of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Horticulture and Fisheries etc. would become constituent members of ATMA. ATMA Governing Board: The ATMA Governing Board is a policy",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Research and Extension Units within the project districts such as ZRS or substations, KVKs and the key line departments of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Horticulture and Fisheries etc. would become constituent members of ATMA. ATMA Governing Board: The ATMA Governing Board is a policy making body and provides guidance as well as review the progress and functioning of the ATMA. The composition of the ATMA Governing Board is as follows. • Chairman: District Magistrate/Collector • Vice-Chairman: Chief Executive Officer (CEO)/Chief Development Officer (CDO) Members: 1 Joint Director/Deputy Director Agriculture 6 Representative of Women Farmers Interest 2 A representative from ZRS/KVK, 7 One SC/ST farmer representative, 3 One farmer representative, 8 A representative of NGO, 4 One livestock producer, 9 Lead Bank Officer of the district, 5 One horticulture farmer 10 A representative of District Industrial Centre Note • Sub-divisional Agricultural Officers are nominated as members. • On the basis of local requirement other members may be nominated. 42 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Key functions of ATMA Governing Board 1. Review and approve Strategic Research and Extension Plan (SREP) and annual work plans that are prepared and submitted by the participating units. 2. Receive and review annual reports presented by the participating units, providing feedback and direction to them as needed, for various research and extension activities being carried out within the district. 3. Receive and allocate project funds to carry out priority research, extension and related activities within the district Advantages 1. ATMA is more effective in technology generation as it encourages locationspecific solutions, keeping the resources of the farmers in mind. 2. As ATMA ensures a greater coordination among sister departments, it helps in better management of farms by",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "out priority research, extension and related activities within the district Advantages 1. ATMA is more effective in technology generation as it encourages locationspecific solutions, keeping the resources of the farmers in mind. 2. As ATMA ensures a greater coordination among sister departments, it helps in better management of farms by the farm families. 3. Participation is the basic principle of ATMA. Involvement of women in both ATMA Governing Board and Management Committee would bring about women empowerment. 4. ATMA seeks a greater linkage with research and extension. 5. ATMA provides a single window extension system by creating FIAC at the block level. Farmer can get any advice and suggestions from there only. 6. ATMA has an effective feedback mechanism. 6. Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC) The Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC) is a “single window” support system linking the various units of a research institution with intermediary users and end users (farmers) in decision making and problem solving exercise. Agricultural Technology Information Centre are started in 1998-99 under NATP, sponsored by World Bank & implemented through more than forty ICAR & SAUs. Objectives  To build up required confidence among farmers and to strengthen linkage between the institute and the farmers.  To provide diagnostic and advisory services such as soil testing, plant health clinic, and disease identification and veterinary services etc. 43 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  To sale and distribute improved products emerging as a result of research being done at the institute like seed, plants, livestock, breeds, fish seeds, poultry trains and processed products etc.  To provide an overview of improved technology through published literatures and other communication materials.  To overcome technology dissemination loss and to provide direct access to farmers",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "a result of research being done at the institute like seed, plants, livestock, breeds, fish seeds, poultry trains and processed products etc.  To provide an overview of improved technology through published literatures and other communication materials.  To overcome technology dissemination loss and to provide direct access to farmers to improved expertise as well as products of technology.  To provide an opportunity to different divisions as well as the centers to have resource generation through sale of their technologies. The important criteria of Agricultural Technology Information are • availability (or accessibility) of new technologies; • relevance of new technologies; • responsiveness of new technologies to the needs of different categories of farmers; and • sustainability of such unit within the overall institutional system ATIC’S are located in 21 states viz., Andhra Pradesh (1), Andaman & Nicobar(1), Assam(1), Bihar(1), Gujarat(1), Haryana(2), Himachal Pradesh(3), Jammu & Kashmir(1), Karnataka(3), Kerala(5), Madhya Pradesh(3), Maharashtra(5), Meghalaya(1), New Delhi(1), Orissa(1), Punjab(1), Rajasthan(2), Uttaranchal(1),Uttar Pradesh(3), West Bengal(1), Tamilnadu(2). Maharashtra Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC), 1. Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Ratnagiri (dist.), Dapoli 415 712, , 2. Agricultural Technology Information Centre(ATIC), Directorate of Extension Education Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth (MPKV), Ahmednagar, Rahuri 431 722, Maharashtra 3. Agricultural Technology Information Centre(ATIC), Central Institute for Cotton Research (CICR), Nagpur,Maharashtra 4. Agricultural Technology Information Centre(ATIC), Marathwada Agricultural University (Mau), Parbhani 431 402, Maharashtra 5. Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC), Dr Punjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth (PDKV), Akola 444 104, 44 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 7. National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP):The Government of India has launched the National Agricultural Innovation project with a credit support of the World Bank. The project will run up to June 2012. The ICAR is operating the Project. The overall objective of the",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 7. National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP):The Government of India has launched the National Agricultural Innovation project with a credit support of the World Bank. The project will run up to June 2012. The ICAR is operating the Project. The overall objective of the project is to facilitate accelerated and sustainable transformation of Indian agriculture for rural poverty alleviation and income generation by the application of agricultural innovations through collaboration among public research organizations, farmers’ groups, NGOs, the private sector and the civil societies and other stakeholders. The India National Agricultural Innovation Project contributes to the sustainable transformation of Indian agricultural sector to more of a market orientation to relieve poverty and improve income. The specific aim is to accelerate collaboration among public research organizations, farmers, the private sector and stakeholders in using agricultural innovations. The project has four objectives. 1. Strengthens the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) as the catalyzing agent for managing change in the Indian National Agricultural Research System (NARS) by focusing on:  Information, communication and dissemination system;  Business planning and development;  Learning and capacity building;  Policy and gender analysis and visioning;  Remodeling financial management and procurement systems; and  Project implementation. 2. Funds research on production-to-consumption systems. 3. Funds research on sustainable rural livelihood security. 4. Supports basic and strategic research in the frontier areas of agricultural science features Salient Features:  The project will have a strong and transparent governance strategy for efficient working.  Institutional and implementation arrangement will be fully streamlined to follow modern financial management, procurement system, knowledge management, and a results framework and monitoring which will ensure continuous progress and achieving the expected output. 45 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "working.  Institutional and implementation arrangement will be fully streamlined to follow modern financial management, procurement system, knowledge management, and a results framework and monitoring which will ensure continuous progress and achieving the expected output. 45 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Systematic economic and financial analysis will be pursued along with close monitoring of environmental and social safe guards.  Another major component of the project is a strong institutional learning and capacity building plan for self-renewal of National Agricultural Innovation System.  The plan includes comprehensive training need assessment, harnessing modern ICT in knowledge and education dissemination management for agriculture, capacity building to deal with globalize agricultural market and economy, capacity building for visioning and foresight etc. 8. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY):Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (रा\u0003\u0004\u0005य कृ ष वकास योजना) is a special Additional Central Assistance Scheme which was launched in August 2007 to orient agricultural development strategies, to reaffirm its commitment to achieve 4 per cent annual growth in the agricultural sector during the 11th plan. The scheme was launched to incentivize the States to provide additional resources in their State Plans over and above their baseline expenditure to bridge critical gaps. Sponsored by Central Government Funding Pattern 100% funded by centre Ministry/Department Agriculture Department Beneficiaries Individual, Family, Community, Women, Benefit Type Material, Loan, Subsidy, Eligibility criteria To all the farmer in the state How to Avail Agriculture Department ( Nodal Department) or other allied sector (Fisheries Department, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry etc) The main objectives of the scheme are: 1. To incentivize the states so as to increase public investment in Agriculture and allied sectors. 2. To provide flexibility and autonomy to states in the process of planning and executing Agriculture and allied",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "other allied sector (Fisheries Department, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry etc) The main objectives of the scheme are: 1. To incentivize the states so as to increase public investment in Agriculture and allied sectors. 2. To provide flexibility and autonomy to states in the process of planning and executing Agriculture and allied sector schemes. 3. To ensure the preparation of agriculture plans for the districts and the states based on agro-climatic conditions, availability of technology and natural resources. 46 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 4. To ensure that the local needs/crops/priorities are better reflected in the agricultural plans of the states. 5. To achieve the goal of reducing the yield gaps in important crops, through focused interventions. 6. To maximize returns to the farmers in Agriculture and allied sectors. 7. To bring about quantifiable changes in the production and productivity of various components of Agriculture and allied sectors by addressing them in a holistic manner. Areas of Focus under the RKVY Integrated Development of Food crops, including coarse cereals, minor millets and pulses, Agriculture Mechanization, Soil Health and Productivity, Development of Rain fed Farming Systems, IPM, Market Infrastructure, Horticulture, AH, Dairying & Fisheries, Concept to Completion Projects that have definite time-lines, Support to Institutions that promote Agriculture and Horticulture, etc, Organic and Bio-fertilizers, Innovative Schemes Sectors Covered The RKVY covers all sectors such as Crop Cultivation, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries, Dairy Development, Agricultural Research and Education, Forestry and Wildlife, Plantation and Agricultural Marketing, Food Storage and Warehousing, Soil and Water Conservation, Agricultural Financial Institutions, other Agricultural Programmes and Cooperation. 47 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik NEW TRENDS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION: Meaning, Objectives, Salient features 1.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Wildlife, Plantation and Agricultural Marketing, Food Storage and Warehousing, Soil and Water Conservation, Agricultural Financial Institutions, other Agricultural Programmes and Cooperation. 47 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik NEW TRENDS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION: Meaning, Objectives, Salient features 1. Privatization in extension 2. ICT in Extension education Cyber extension/ e-extension 3. Market-led extension 4. Farmer-led extension Privatization in Extension Definition: Privatization of Agricultural Extension Service may be defined as the service rendered in the area of agriculture and allied sectors by extension personnel working the private agencies or organizations for which farmers are expected to pay a fee (or fee), and it can be viewed as supplementary and complementary to public extension services. Privatization as a system of agricultural extension is gradually being adopted in Indian agricultural because of the following reasons: 1. Declining trend in government expenditure in public extension due to heavy financial burden; 2. Perception of public extension service as less effective in meeting the current needs of the farmers; 3. A shift in agriculture from subsistence level to commercialized agribusiness; 4. To meet the challenges of globalization and liberalization of the farm sector 5. Demand of the farmers for specialized knowledge, information and assistance. Concepts about the privatization emphasizes three aspects, they are: 1. It involves extension personnel from private agency/organization 2. Clients are expected to pay the service fee (sometimes private extension may not expect fee from clients e.g. NGOs). 3. Act as supplementary or alternative to public extension service. 48 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Characteristics of Private Extension system 1. Objectives: Private extension mainly concern with maximum possible profit to the clients through advisory services. Private agencies survival depends",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "or alternative to public extension service. 48 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Characteristics of Private Extension system 1. Objectives: Private extension mainly concern with maximum possible profit to the clients through advisory services. Private agencies survival depends upon nature of their performance, so try to become more efficient and effective in providing services. Their remuneration is obviously linked with increased income of the farmers. 2. Target group: Private extension mostly concentrates on big farmers, farmers producing commercially and in favorable environment. They will not be interested in investing on small, marginal and resource poor farmers as they cannot pay for private extension high charges. 3. Clients: In private extension system, clients are more committed and careful about extension services, because they are paying for the services. Clients make best use of the private extension workers time. 4. Offerings: Profit oriented services included not only technology transfer but also supply of critical inputs. Offerings are based on seasonal needs and convenience of the farmers. 5. Technologies: Private extension services transfers the location specific and demand driven technologies. Technologies are specialized and costly, but are profitable. Private extension ensures timely supply of inputs. 6. Organizations: Private extension personnel become more accountable to clients and highly motivated because they are getting remuneration from their clients. They become professionally sound and will put efforts to upgrade their knowledge and technical know-how. 7. Funding: Private extension service gets funds from framer’s contribution and developmental agencies. 8. Extension Service: Advisory nature of service. Extension becomes pursed inputs and it generates new income to farmers. 9. Methods: Private consultancy mostly adopts personal contact methods, as group approach will reduce their chances of getting consultancy fee. Strategies for privatizing extension 1. Commercialization of extension services.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and developmental agencies. 8. Extension Service: Advisory nature of service. Extension becomes pursed inputs and it generates new income to farmers. 9. Methods: Private consultancy mostly adopts personal contact methods, as group approach will reduce their chances of getting consultancy fee. Strategies for privatizing extension 1. Commercialization of extension services. Complex, demand driven technologies in the public extension system should be provided for particular cost. 2. Introducing contact extension system. Public extension system can make contract with registered private agricultural consultancy agencies to transfer the agricultural technology 49 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 3. Introducing share cropping system. Private/Public extension agents are provided with remuneration in the form of share crop. It will increase the extension personnel’s accountability ad commitments to the service. 4. Giving partnership rights and more responsibility to private sector and NGOs. Private sector and NGOs are entering in a big way in recent years to provide agricultural consultancy. They may be given more responsibility in agricultural technology transfer. 5. Gradual withdrawal of public extension system. Gradual withdrawal can be done in two ways: area –wise and or commodity wise. Extension service reasonability in areas having favorable environment like high soil fertility, high irrigation potential, satisfactory infrastructure facility, commercial farming and commodities which provide high profit to farmers can be given to the private sector. 6. Creating and strengthening farmers groups and cooperatives. Through farmers groups and cooperatives, extension agents are appointed and the cost will be share by the members, for this purpose, existing village cooperatives clubs, mahila mandals, and water management committees are used. Private organizations such as the agricultural consultancy, commercial firms, agro based industries, input agencies organization etc. will enter the area of extension services Problems of Privatization of Extension:",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "cost will be share by the members, for this purpose, existing village cooperatives clubs, mahila mandals, and water management committees are used. Private organizations such as the agricultural consultancy, commercial firms, agro based industries, input agencies organization etc. will enter the area of extension services Problems of Privatization of Extension: 1. The consequence of privatization in user’s fee, i.e. collection of cost from the beneficiaries. 2. The feasibility of charging fee for extension service raises a question on the paying capacity of the farmer. 3. In case the message does not yield the desired result, i.e. projected profit, the service will be rejected for future 4. Privatization does not care for sustainability; instead advocate exploitation of natural resources to the maximum extent. 5. Private extension concentrates big and progressive farmers and areas having favorable environment. 6. Private extension is less education oriented and more commercial in nature. 7. The human resources development role of organizing, motivating and guiding farmers for empowerment will be sidelined by the private extension agencies. 50 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 8. Private extension restricts flow of information among the fellow farmers. Merits of Privatization: 1. Extension generates new income, extension become economic input. 2. Provides demand-driven service. 3. Increases the voice of farmers in the extension service. 4. Extension service becomes more cost effective with efficient and quality service. 5. Privatization complements or supplements the efforts of public extension. 6. Extension personnel become more clients accountable. 7. Private extension increases staff professionalism. 8. Clients (farmers) are more committed to service. ICT in Extension education Cyber extension/ e-extension A few areas where ICT can play a transformational role are agricultural research and extension, location specific modules of research and extension, market extension, sustainable",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "become more clients accountable. 7. Private extension increases staff professionalism. 8. Clients (farmers) are more committed to service. ICT in Extension education Cyber extension/ e-extension A few areas where ICT can play a transformational role are agricultural research and extension, location specific modules of research and extension, market extension, sustainable agriculture, participatory research, etc. Information Technology can help in collecting, storing, retrieving, processing and disseminating a broad range of information needed by the farmers. A mix of strategic planning with knowledge management can give results to least-cost inputs, better storage facilities, improved transportation links and collective negotiations with buyers. ICT also plays an important role in documenting both traditional and organic cultivation practices thus acting as a bridge between traditional and modern knowledge systems. Cyber Extension Cyber extension is extension of agricultural development with the help of Information and Communication Technologies over cyber space. Cyber space is an imaginary space behind networked computers through telecom means. This kind of a strong information sharing network is made possible through power of networks, computer communications and interactive multimedia. Tools of Cyber Extension As Cyber Extension means Extension over cyber space, all the internet tools for developing and accessing Agricultural Information constitute the tools of Cyber Extension 1. Email 2. Expert systems providing information on pests and diseases 51 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 3. Internet browsing for extension information 4. Video conferencing 5. Call centers and Satellite communication networks 6. News and Discussion groups Market Led Extension: During last 50 years emphasis was given on ProductionLedExtension.  But the farmers at individual’s level are not realizing remunerative prices of their produce.  They prone to sell their produce As Is Where basis.  Globalization of the market demanded paradigm",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "6. News and Discussion groups Market Led Extension: During last 50 years emphasis was given on ProductionLedExtension.  But the farmers at individual’s level are not realizing remunerative prices of their produce.  They prone to sell their produce As Is Where basis.  Globalization of the market demanded paradigm shift form production to market Led Extension.  For the best realization of their investments, risks and efforts, a farmer has to develop market strategies for trade globally.  Keeping this in view MANAGE started working on the concept of Marked Led Extension and beginning was made through Three day National workshop on Marked Led Extension at MANAGE during 18-20, December, 2001. Market: Refers to a place where the trading of goods takes place. The place can be a market yard or a street market. Marketing: Marketing involves finding out what customers want and supplying it to them at a profit. Extension: It is spreading/ reaching out to the mass. Market Led Extension: Marked Led Extension is the market ward orientation of Agriculture and economics coupled with extension is the perfect blend for reaching at the door steps of common man with extension person and market agencies. Why Marked Led Extension?  Increasing productivity is the traditional role of extension.  Individual farmers not realize remunerative price  Build the capacity of farmers to earn more  The manufacturer is keen to get reliable suppliers in term of quality, timing and cost.  Need for efficiency and innovation in both production and marketing.  Translation of consumers demand in non-subsistence sector 52 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Marketing extension is complementary to other system  Interdependence between rural credits, inputs and farmers organization.  Farmers need",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "production and marketing.  Translation of consumers demand in non-subsistence sector 52 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Marketing extension is complementary to other system  Interdependence between rural credits, inputs and farmers organization.  Farmers need to transform themselves from more producers’ sellers in the domestic market to producer cum sellers in a wider market. Paradigm shifts from Production Led extension to Market Led Extension Aspects Production Led extension Market Led Extension Purpose/ objective Transfer of technologies Optimum returns out of the investment Expected results Adoption of package of practices High returns to investment Farmers seen as High producers Farmers as an entrepreneurs Agriprenuers Focus Productivity/ yields seed to seed Whole process as an enterprise. High returns Money to Money Technology Fixed package recommended for an agro climatic zone Diverse baskets of practices that are location specific Extensionists interactions Messages, training, Motivation based on recommended technology Joint analysis of the issues, varied choices for adoption, consultation Linkages/ Liaison Research – Extension – Farmers Research – Extension – FarmersMarket Extensionists role Limited to delivery mode and feed back to research system Enriched with market intelligence besides the TOT function. Establishment of marketing and agro-processing linkages between farmers groups, market and processors Contact with farmers Individuals FIG/ Focused group/ SHG Maintenance of Records Not much importance as the Very important as agriculture 53 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik focus was on production viewed as enterprise to understand the cost benefit ratio and the profits generated Objective of Market – Led – Extension  Conversion of Agriculture and allied sector into a profit oriented business  Strengthening REF linkages between various levels at various departments ",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Agriculture, Nashik focus was on production viewed as enterprise to understand the cost benefit ratio and the profits generated Objective of Market – Led – Extension  Conversion of Agriculture and allied sector into a profit oriented business  Strengthening REF linkages between various levels at various departments  Strengthening market linkages to farmers – IT application in agricultural marketing  Wider use for electronic mass media for Extension. Functions of Market – Led – Extension 1. To provide advice on product planning 2. To gather marketing information 3. To secure markets for farmers 4. To advice on alternate marketing 5. To proved advice on improved marketing practices Procedure of conducting Market-Led-Extension For an effective market led extension, the following procedure should be followed by an extension worker in a stage wise manner 1. Audit of local recourses and facilities: This involves carrying out an investigation of the area/ region/ country. The extension officer should be thoroughly familiarized with both problems as well as opportunities. The extension officer can have a clear idea of the crops, the marketing system, the individuals and the problems of the area. 2. Determining what the market wants in terms of product now and in future: This is finding out of the market, what product or products are wanted and in what from. 3. The Marketing system: In this stage, the extension worker needs to understand product distributed system, Understanding how marketing system works, Marketing margins at various levels, Wholesalers and middlemen selection as trade partners, Information services, etc. 4. Decision making and agreeing on an action plan: This involves deciding on what to do by choosing the best course of action. 5. Implementation of action plan: The extension officer must advice the farmers at various stages of crop production besides marketing aspects like",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "trade partners, Information services, etc. 4. Decision making and agreeing on an action plan: This involves deciding on what to do by choosing the best course of action. 5. Implementation of action plan: The extension officer must advice the farmers at various stages of crop production besides marketing aspects like preproduction advice and production planning. 54 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 6. Review stage: In this stage the progress will be compare with the action plan drawn. The deviations will be identified and analyzed for further modification of the action plan. Role of Agricultural Extension Personnel in light of Market Led Extension 1. SWOT analysis of the market: Strengths (demand, high marketability, good price etc.), Weaknesses (the reverse of the above), Opportunities (export to other places, appropriate time of selling etc.) and Threats (imports and perishability of the products etc.) need to be analyzed about the markets. Accordingly, the farmers need to be made aware of this analysis for planning production and marketing. 2. Organization of Farmers’ Interest Groups (FIGs) on commodity basis and building their capabilities with regard to management of their farm enterprise. 3. Supporting and enhancing the capacities of locally established groups under various schemes / programmers like watershed committees, users groups, SHGs, water users’ associations, thrift and credit groups. These groups need to be educated on the importance, utility and benefit of self-help action. 4. Enhancing the interactive and communication skills of the farmers to exchange their views with customers and other market forces (middlemen) Market Led Agricultural Extension – Challenges and Opportunities for getting feedback and gain the bargaining during direct marketing ex. Rythu Bazars, Agri-mandi and Uzavar Santhaigal etc. 5. Establishing marketing and agro-processing linkages between farmers’ groups, markets and private",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "farmers to exchange their views with customers and other market forces (middlemen) Market Led Agricultural Extension – Challenges and Opportunities for getting feedback and gain the bargaining during direct marketing ex. Rythu Bazars, Agri-mandi and Uzavar Santhaigal etc. 5. Establishing marketing and agro-processing linkages between farmers’ groups, markets and private processors 6. Advice on product planning: selection of crops to be grown and varieties suiting the land holding and marketability of produce will be the starting point of agri-enterprise. Extension system plays an important role in providing information in this regard 7. Educating the farming community: to treat agriculture as an entrepreneurial activity and accordingly plan various phases of crop production and marketing 8. Direct marketing: farmers need to be informed about the benefits of direct marketing. In some of the states, RytuBazars in AP, Apni Mandis in Punjab and Haryan and Uzavar Santhaigal in Tamilnadu have shown success 9. Capacity building of FIGs in terms of improved production, post harvest operations, storage and transport and marketing. 10. Acquiring complete market intelligence regularly on various aspects of markets 55 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 11. Regular usage of internet facility through computers to get updated on market intelligence. 12. Publication of agricultural market information in news papers, radio and Television besides internet. 13. Organization of study tours of FIGS: to the successful farmers/ FIGs for various operations with similar socio-economic and farming systems as the farmers learn more from each other. 14. Production of video films of success stories of commodity specific farmers. 15. Creation of websites of successful FIGs in the field of agribusiness management with all the information to help other FIGs achieve success. FARMER LED EXTENSION Introduction:The present day agriculture is defined by key",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "more from each other. 14. Production of video films of success stories of commodity specific farmers. 15. Creation of websites of successful FIGs in the field of agribusiness management with all the information to help other FIGs achieve success. FARMER LED EXTENSION Introduction:The present day agriculture is defined by key concept of stability, sustainability, diversification and commercialization. In the last decade, the agricultural situation in India had undergone a tremendous change in the light of liberation and establishment of World Trade Organization (WTO). India’s signing of General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT) in 1914 and joining of WTO has put our agriculture into a frame work of global market. Low productivity of crops added to less remunerative market prices of agricultural commodities are the major causes of worry. Thus, agricultural enterprise is found to be not very profitable although a large majority is depending on it. With the globalization of agriculture, major emphasis has been given on Productionled Extension. Initially in India, through main thrust for development was laid on Agriculture, communication, education, industry, health and allied sector but later on it was realized that accelerated development can be provided only if governmental efforts are adequately supplemented by direct and indirect involvement of people at the gross root level. Over time, extension provision has been supplydriven, with little direct consultation with the farmers to whom the extension technologies, information and associated services are intended. The linear model of technology transfer (researcherextensionfarmers) has been the dominant approach to agriculture and rural development, resulting in the delivery of technologies that have failed to alleviate farmers’ problems. Clearly, more locally controlled organizations, governments and donors throughout Asia, Africa and Latin America have been experimenting 56 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "rural development, resulting in the delivery of technologies that have failed to alleviate farmers’ problems. Clearly, more locally controlled organizations, governments and donors throughout Asia, Africa and Latin America have been experimenting 56 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik with a range of approaches to extension. These include the campesino-a-campasino movement of Central America, Farmers field schools in Southeast Asia, problem census approaches in South Asia and information facilitation progrmame in Africa. Recently, farmer –led-extension approaches have come to be considered as appropriate for framers need. These approaches increase farmer’s basic knowledge and ability to make their own choices and decision on particular technologies. Farmers assume a central role and become key players in technology identification, generation, adaptation and dissemination. Farmers innovate due to necessity, to changing conditions and also simply as a result of curiosity. Innovations result from doing informal experiments on new ideas either from their own ingenuity or learned from other farmers, researchers, extensionists and other information sources like the mass media. However, research and extension normally pay little attention to the importance of local innovation for agricultural development. Meaning of Farmer Led Extension (FLE):Farmer Led Extension is promising approach where in farmer leaders were utilized as extensionists to transfer the technologies they learned with a view to boost up the production. The FLE approach gives farmers the opportunity to share their experiences and practices through a method demonstration with fellow framers in the area. Concepts of FLE:1. Farm Schools 2. Farmer Field Schools. 1. Farm School: Farm school is a field where latest technology was demonstrated to progressive and interested farmers who undergo training for a certain period of time. Farm schools help in speedy dissemination and adoption of technologies through training of progressive",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Concepts of FLE:1. Farm Schools 2. Farmer Field Schools. 1. Farm School: Farm school is a field where latest technology was demonstrated to progressive and interested farmers who undergo training for a certain period of time. Farm schools help in speedy dissemination and adoption of technologies through training of progressive farmers on the latest production technology. The farm school was established by E. I. D. Parry and Co. near their sugar factory at Nellikuppam, South Arcot district of Tamilnadu. Objective of Farm Schools: To establish a costeffective system of on farm training to farmers in every village of the country.  To doubled agricultural productivity and farm incomes by dissemination of advanced agricultural technologies for plant management and water conservation. 57 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  To demonstrate that annual income of 50,000 or more can be achieved by application of advances agricultural production methods on irrigated land. Anticipated Benefits: Cost effective system for training 25 million farmers a year in advanced methods of agricultural production.  Speedy transfer of technology by demonstrating advanced agricultural production practices on farmers lands in the village. Strategy: Establishment of 50,000 village based farm schools throughout the country, mostly as private institutions supported and supervised by government.  All agro industries, KVK,s agricultural colleges and research institutes to set up village based farm schools on lands leased from farmers.  Agricultural graduates and lead farmers to be certified as instructors and offered incentives for establishing private farm schools to train local farmers.  Establish central and satellite farm production training institutes in each state to train and certify farm school instructors.  Farmers to pay for training received on a per visit, per training session basis.  Multimedia training materials",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and offered incentives for establishing private farm schools to train local farmers.  Establish central and satellite farm production training institutes in each state to train and certify farm school instructors.  Farmers to pay for training received on a per visit, per training session basis.  Multimedia training materials to be developed for training farm school instructors and for farmer training.  Computerized expert systems to be developed for crop selection, soil nutrition, identification and treatments of pests.  Farm schools to be linked to Rural Knowledge Centers or Information kiosks to provide access to multimedia training materials, computerized expert systems, and web based technical and marketing information. Issues to be addressed:  Credibility of the farm school instructors  Quality of training provided to farmers  Cost of training to the farmers  Training of the farm school instructors 58 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Actions required by Government:  Introduce farm management in addition to agriculture production as mandatory course for all agricultural graduates.  Develop certification programmes for each major crop to verify the competency of agricultural graduates and / or lead farmers to provide consulting services.  Establish centralized crop production training centers in each state for farm school instructors.  Establish monitoring system to verify the quality of training provided by the farm schools  Make enrolment in farm school programmes a condition for farmers to qualify for crop insurance.  Provide incentives to farm schools for each farmer trained  Provide bank loans for agricultural graduates who complete certification programmes to established farm schools, soil testing labs and Rural Knowledge Centers Programme. Cost and Funding: Establishment and operation of central farm training institutes to training farm school instructors to be",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Provide incentives to farm schools for each farmer trained  Provide bank loans for agricultural graduates who complete certification programmes to established farm schools, soil testing labs and Rural Knowledge Centers Programme. Cost and Funding: Establishment and operation of central farm training institutes to training farm school instructors to be funded by Government. Farmers Field Schools:  Farmer Field School (FFS) is non-formal educational activity.  All learning is a group activity and field based.  Empowers farmers to solve their field problems by themselves.  Fosters participation, interaction and joint decision making.  Farmers learn by carrying out activities through constant observation  The Farmer Field School is a form of adult education, which evolved from the concept that farmers learn optimally from field observation and experimentation.  It was developed to help farmers tailor their Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices to diverse and dynamic ecological conditions  In regular sessions from planting till harvest, groups of neighboring farmers observe and discuss dynamics of the crop’s ecosystem. Simple experimentation helps farmers further improve their understanding of functional relationships (e.g. pests-natural enemy population dynamics and crop damage-yield relationships). In this cyclical learning process, farmers develop the 59 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik expertise that enables them to make their own crop management decisions. Special group activities encourage learning from peers, and strengthen communicative skills and group building.  IPM Farmer Field Schools were started in 1989 in Indonesia to reduce farmer reliance on pesticides in rice.  Policy-makers and donors were impressed with the results and the program rapidly expanded.  Follow-up training activities were added to enhance community-based activities and local program ownership. Eventually, IPM Farmer Field School programs for rice were carried out in twelve",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Indonesia to reduce farmer reliance on pesticides in rice.  Policy-makers and donors were impressed with the results and the program rapidly expanded.  Follow-up training activities were added to enhance community-based activities and local program ownership. Eventually, IPM Farmer Field School programs for rice were carried out in twelve Asian countries and gradually branched out to vegetables, cotton and other crops.  From the mid-nineties onwards, the experience generated in Asia was used to help initiate IPM Farmer Field School programs in other parts of the world.  New commodities were added and local adaptation and institutionalization of these programs was encouraged.  At present, IPM Farmer Field School programs, at various levels of development, are being conducted in over 30 countries world wide  These diverse programs have generated a variety of data on the impact of the IPM Farmer Field School.  Such data generally are presented in project reports that have a limited circulation.  Impact studies that are published in official literature tend to focus on specific aspects of impact.  Impact studies varied in focus, approach, methodology and robustness. Some lack description of methods.  The nature of impact studies typically varies with the developmental stages of programs.  Pilot projects often compared pesticide use and yields or profits of field plots grown with IPM practices and those under regular farmer practice, to demonstrate the merit of the approach.  More advanced projects evaluated the adoption of IPM practices, studied expertise or recorded the developmental impacts resulting from farmer empowerment. Principles 1. “Grow a healthy crop” allows plants to recover better from environmental or pest injury, avoids nutrient deficiencies related with pest attack (insects and disease), and promotes natural 60 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "developmental impacts resulting from farmer empowerment. Principles 1. “Grow a healthy crop” allows plants to recover better from environmental or pest injury, avoids nutrient deficiencies related with pest attack (insects and disease), and promotes natural 60 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik defences to many insects and diseases inherent in plants. Proper crop and plant management methods used [Academic term: cultural controls]. 2. “Conserve natural enemies” provides free biological control of insects and diseases. Parasites, predators and pathogens have long been recognized to control pest insects, but recent research shows microbial antagonists, and competitors of plant diseases are also important. Vertebrate natural enemies are also essential for control systems. Conservation usually implies avoiding inappropriate pesticide applications (herbicides, fungicides and insecticides all have impact on insect and disease natural enemies) or improving soil organic matter necessary for beneficial soil micro-organisms. Natural enemy habitat protection and development are more active methods of conserving natural enemies (e.g. owl houses, mulching for spiders, and floral nectarines for parasites). Inoculation or inundation of reared natural enemies may be possible under special circumstances but usually only after conservation efforts have already been implemented. [Academic term: biological control]. 3. “Observe crops regularly” means informed decision making for appropriate interventions to be made quickly for water, soil, and plant management. Inputs used are based on an ecologic economic assessment. [Academic term: Input analysis]. 4. “Farmers become experts” in their own fields is crucial for long term management of soils, pests and crops. Expertise implies a basic understanding of the agro-ecological system, and decision making processes. Simple rules and directives may provide short term benefits but cannot sustain long term local developments. Basic Concepts 1. Adult non-formal education: Field Schools assume that farmers already have a wealth",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "management of soils, pests and crops. Expertise implies a basic understanding of the agro-ecological system, and decision making processes. Simple rules and directives may provide short term benefits but cannot sustain long term local developments. Basic Concepts 1. Adult non-formal education: Field Schools assume that farmers already have a wealth of experience, and knowledge. It also assumes that there may be misconceptions and bad habits learned during intensification programmes (e.g. little knowledge of natural enemies, basic fear of any insect that is seen in the field, etc.). Therefore the field Schools are oriented to providing basic agro-ecological knowledge and skills, but in a participatory manner so that farmer experience is integrated into the programme. For example, when observing in the field, facilitators will ask farmers what something is such as a natural enemy and ask who know what it might eat. Farmers give their response, and the facilitator adds his/her knowledge. If there is a disagreement between anyone, the facilitator and participants will set up simple studies to find the correct answer. In one field school farmers were discussing whether a certain lady beetle was 61 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik a predator of pests or a pest of the plant. One farmer bet another on their choice. The facilitator showed how to put the lady beetle in a jars one jar with pest prey and the other with leaves. The result was that the lady beetle ate the insects and the loser had to carry the winner around the village on his back! In fact there are both kinds of lady beetles but one type is ‘hairy’ and the other not. This was seen by the farmers. 2. Technically strong facilitator: The field school is usually",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "ate the insects and the loser had to carry the winner around the village on his back! In fact there are both kinds of lady beetles but one type is ‘hairy’ and the other not. This was seen by the farmers. 2. Technically strong facilitator: The field school is usually initiated by an extension staff member of the government, farmers’ organization, or NGO. But in all cases the person must have certain skills. Most important is that the person is skilled at growing the crop concerned. In most countries, the extension staffs have never grown crops ‘from seed to seed’ and most often lack confidence. For this reason, most IPM programmes have begun with training field staff in season-long courses which provide basic technical skills for growing and managing an IPM crop. Some people have called this the “Farmer respect course” in that field staff comes to realise how difficult farming is, and why farmers do not immediately “adopt” their “extension messages”. Facilitation skills and group dynamic/group building methods are also included in this season to strengthen the education process in the field Schools. An uncertain trainer is a poor trainer. A confident trainer can say “I don’t know let’s find out together” much easier when the inevitable unknown situation is encountered in the field. 3. Based on crop phenology and time limited: The field Schools and season long training for trainers are based on the crop phenology; seedling issues are studied during the seedling stage, fertiliser issues are discussed during high nutrient demand stages, and so on. This method allows to use the crop as a teacher, and to ensure that farmers can immediately use and practice what is being learned. Meeting on a weekly basis means that farmers are participating in a course for a whole season, but",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "during high nutrient demand stages, and so on. This method allows to use the crop as a teacher, and to ensure that farmers can immediately use and practice what is being learned. Meeting on a weekly basis means that farmers are participating in a course for a whole season, but from an administrative/financial point of view, the same 40 hours as in an intensive one week programme. The educational benefits of meeting when problems are present (learner readiness), and on a recurrent basis have been studied and shown to be far more effective that intensive courses. Also the courses are delimited by the crop cycle. There is a definite beginning and end. The present system of many extension programmes of unending two week cycles removes focus, and excitement. field schools may extend beyond one season if groups agree, but rarely can be effective when less than the phenological cycle of the crop. 4. Group study: Most field Schools are organised for groups of about 25 persons with common interests can support each other, both with their individual experience and strengths, 62 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik and to create a “critical mass”. As individuals, trying something new is often socially inappropriate (e.g. reducing sprays, cover crops), but with group support, trying something new becomes acceptable. The number of 25 is roughly the number that can comfortably work together with one facilitator. Usually these 25 are sub-divided into groups of five persons so that all members can better participate in field observations, analysis, discussion, and presentations. 5. Field School Site: The field Schools are always held in the community where farmers live so that they can easily attend weekly and maintain the field school studies. The extension officer",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "groups of five persons so that all members can better participate in field observations, analysis, discussion, and presentations. 5. Field School Site: The field Schools are always held in the community where farmers live so that they can easily attend weekly and maintain the field school studies. The extension officer travels to the site on the day of the field school 6. Building groups: One of the jobs of the facilitator is to assist the field school to develop as a support group so that participants can support one another after the field school is over. This is done by having elected officers (head, treasurer, and secretary), and group identity. The field school needs its own name never the name of the founding organization! No hats, or shirts are given out. A budget may be prepared for this, but the group should make the design and have their own name on these. During the season, the field school includes group building exercises to build group trust and coherence. The field school may also include such activities as long-term planning (log frames), and proposal writing to find funding for activities groups decide to do together. Funding may come from a number of sources including from within the group itself, local shop owners, local governments, NGOs, or national programmes. 7. Basic science: Field Schools try to focus on basic processes through field observations, season-long research studies, and hands-on activities. It has been found that when farmers have learned about basics, combined with their own experiences and needs, they make decisions that are effective. When farmers have this basic knowledge they are better clients for extension and research systems because they have more specific questions and demands. They also are able to hold these systems accountable for their output and benefits. And finally",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "their own experiences and needs, they make decisions that are effective. When farmers have this basic knowledge they are better clients for extension and research systems because they have more specific questions and demands. They also are able to hold these systems accountable for their output and benefits. And finally they are able to protect themselves from dubious sources. 8. Study fields [non-risk]: The field school has a small (usually about 1000 m2) field for group study. This is the core of the Field Schools. This field is essential for a field school because farmers can carry out studies without personal risk allowing them to take management decisions that they might not otherwise attempt in trials on their own farm. This provides farmers a way of testing a new method themselves before applying it to their own fields. It also allows for more interesting research topics such as defoliation simulations in which leaves are removed. 63 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik The arrangement for this field varies based on local conditions. Some villages have communal lands that can be used for free, some villages may request on inputs, others areas may request compensation in case of lower yields in experiments, etc.. It is important to remember however that this land is to be maintained by the group not by the facilitator alone and is not a typical “demo-plot” as traditionally used in many programmes. Characteristics: 1. Farmers as Experts: Learning by doing is the training approach used. Farmers learn by carrying out for themselves the various activities related to the particular farming practice they want to study and learn about. This could be related to annual crops, livestock/fodder production, orchards or forest management. The key thing is",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "as Experts: Learning by doing is the training approach used. Farmers learn by carrying out for themselves the various activities related to the particular farming practice they want to study and learn about. This could be related to annual crops, livestock/fodder production, orchards or forest management. The key thing is that farmers conduct their own field studies. Their training is based on comparison studies (of different treatments) and field studies that they, not the extension/ research staff conduct. In so doing they become experts on the particular practice they are investigating. 2. The Field is the Primary Learning Material: All learning is based in the field. The field is where the farmers learn. Working in small sub-groups they collect data in the field, analyse the data, make action decisions based on their analyses of the data, and present their decisions to the other farmers in the field school for further discussion, questioning, and refinement. 3. Extension Workers as Facilitators Not Teachers: The role of the extension worker is very much that of a facilitator rather than a conventional teacher. Once the farmer know what it is they have to do, and what it is that they can observe in the field, the extension worker takes a back seat role, only offering help and guidance when asked to do so. Presentations during meetings are the work of the farmers not the extension worker, with the members of each working group assuming responsibility for presenting their findings in turn to their fellow farmers. The extension worker may take part in the subsequent discussion sessions but as a contributor, rather than leader, in arriving at an agreed consensus on what action needs to be taken at that time. 4. The curriculum is Integrated: The curriculum is integrated. Crop husbandry, animal husbandry, horticulture, silviculture,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "farmers. The extension worker may take part in the subsequent discussion sessions but as a contributor, rather than leader, in arriving at an agreed consensus on what action needs to be taken at that time. 4. The curriculum is Integrated: The curriculum is integrated. Crop husbandry, animal husbandry, horticulture, silviculture, land husbandry are considered together with ecology, economics, sociology and education to form a holistic approach. Problems confronted in the field are the integrating principle. 64 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 5. Trainings Follows the Seasonal Cycle: Training is related to the seasonal cycle of the practice being investigated. For annual crops this would extend from land preparation to harvesting. For fodder production would include the dry season to evaluate the quantity and quality at a time of year when livestock feeds are commonly in short supply. For tree production and such conservation measures as hedgerows and grass strips training would need to continue over several years for farmers to be able to see for themselves the full range of costs and benefits. 6. Regular Group Meetings: Farmers meet at agreed regular intervals. For annual crops such meetings may be every 1 or 2 weeks during the cropping season. For other farm/forestry management practices the time between each meeting would depend on what specific activities need to be done, or be related to critical periods of the year when there are key issues to observe and discuss in the field. 7. Learning materials are learner generated: Farmers generate their own learning materials, from drawings of what they observe, to the field trials themselves. These materials are always consistent with local conditions, are less expensive to develop, are controlled by the learners and thus can be discussed by",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the field. 7. Learning materials are learner generated: Farmers generate their own learning materials, from drawings of what they observe, to the field trials themselves. These materials are always consistent with local conditions, are less expensive to develop, are controlled by the learners and thus can be discussed by the learners with others. Learners know the meaning of the materials because they have created the materials. 8. Group dynamics/team building: Training includes communication skill building, problem solving, leadership, and discussion methods. Farmers require these skills. Successful activities at the community level require that farmers can apply effective leadership skills and have the ability to communicate their findings to others. Limitation 1. Time consuming activity 2. Cost intensive process 3. Women involvement 4. It demands lot of preparations on the part of facilitators 5. Requires trained facilitators 6. Reach of farmers – A group of 20-25 7. Facilitator’s ability to enable farmers 65 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Training and Visit Comparision with Farmer Field School Point Classical Training and Visit Farmer Field School evolution Field-level extension officer’s job Deliver pre-packaged “messages” from a research-extension linkage. Primary job is information transfer, not technical expertise, which is reserved for Specialists not at the field level. Technical Facilitator: Every FFS trainer should have basic technical skills (at least able to grow the crop, or rear animals, etc.). Secondly, every FFS trainer should have group oriented training and management skills. These skills are typically learned in a season-long Training of Trainers where they learn what they will teach. Experience of trainers Variable, but most often lacking basic farming skills and experience. Field level staff given communication skills. Master trainer with farming experience gained during Training of Trainer programmes in which",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "These skills are typically learned in a season-long Training of Trainers where they learn what they will teach. Experience of trainers Variable, but most often lacking basic farming skills and experience. Field level staff given communication skills. Master trainer with farming experience gained during Training of Trainer programmes in which each person is required to grow crops and carry out field studies so that they test what they will use in Field Schools later. Information Primarily top-down messages from distant research stations about situations presumed to be representative of farms. Recommendations are tested against conventional practices and new information about to the site emerges. Promotes local creativity. Contact point Contact farmers that are supposed to train other farmers by passing on external information. Groups of interested farmers that farm on a daily basis through generating local study circles. Time frame Continuously, forever, on a two-week regular cycle not based on any natural phenology. A pre-defined period. Usually on a weekly basis over a season. FFS may be longer than a season, but never less than one season integrated with the crop phenology. Pedagogy Training: Use of static pre-determined demonstrations and in field examples to show and tell. Education: A focus on underlying principles that allow farmers to derive and adopt recommendations within their own dynamic their ecological, social, and economic realities. Evaluation At best indirect: based on measuring delivery and funds spent. Preand post-testing. Community self-surveying. Identifiable indicators defined in terms of system-critical factors. Internal rates of return. Training site Demonstration field, training centers, home of Contact Farmer, static not revisited in time or observed in terms of any on going process. A shared field in which the FFS uses to dynamically validate and test new management methods over the entire season (e.g. decisions during one part of the season",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Demonstration field, training centers, home of Contact Farmer, static not revisited in time or observed in terms of any on going process. A shared field in which the FFS uses to dynamically validate and test new management methods over the entire season (e.g. decisions during one part of the season can be verified by yield cuts) Long term objectives Increase food production, etc. “Farmer’s attitudes, lack of knowledge, and practices are an object/constraint of a development process” Nurture groups that will continue to address agricultural and community problems on their own and with technical backstopping. “Farmers as the subject of development” Research Primary source of information is research stations assumed to develop representative models that are widely applicable. A process and consequence of local testing and within-community/ecosystem learning. 66 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Rural Development: Concept, meaning, definition, objectives and genesis The word rural development is used in different ways in vastly divergent contents. The rural development is not merely agriculture development but it is rural transformation. It includes improvement in production, income, standard of living, wages, housing, village planning, education, public health, communication, literacy and other aspects of rural people. Rural Development is a strategy to improve the economic and social life of a specific group of peoplethe rural poor, including small and marginal farmers, tenants and landless. Rural development is overall (social, economical, political and spiritual) development of rural areas to improve quality of life of rural people. Rural Development is an improvement in the living standards of the masses of low income population residing in rural areas and making the process self sustaining The term rural development combines two words Rural and Development. The term Rural and Developmentis used in different ways: As",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "life of rural people. Rural Development is an improvement in the living standards of the masses of low income population residing in rural areas and making the process self sustaining The term rural development combines two words Rural and Development. The term Rural and Developmentis used in different ways: As a Concept –Development of Rural areas  As a phenomenonInteraction between institutional factors  As a StrategyApproach to bring positive change in rural life Ultimate Objective of rural development is: Improving the quality of life of rural poor and the rural weak. CONCEPTS OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT: According to World Bank (1975) – the rural development in general terms, is a strategy designed to improve economic and social life of people in a rural settlement and in particular, it focuses attention on the rural poor comprising the small and marginal farmers, tenants, and landless laborers. Rural development is the dynamic process of development of the rural people through various programmes and projects so that they can become self-reliant citizens of the country. The work is done by involving various agencies and organizations, and above all, the local people themselves. 67 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik It involves extending the benefits of development to the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas. The group includes small scale farmers, tenants and the landless. As a phenomenon, rural development is the end result of interaction between various physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors. motivate the people for adoption. As a strategy, it is designed to improve the economic and social wellbeing of a specific group of people – the rural poor. As a discipline, it is multidisciplinary in nature, representing an interaction of agricultural, social, behavioral,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors. motivate the people for adoption. As a strategy, it is designed to improve the economic and social wellbeing of a specific group of people – the rural poor. As a discipline, it is multidisciplinary in nature, representing an interaction of agricultural, social, behavioral, engineering and management sciences. In the words of Robert Chambers (1983), Rural development is a strategy to enable a specific group of people, poor rural women and men, to gain for themselves and their children more of what they want and need. It involves helping the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more of the benefits of rural development. The group includes small-scale farmers, tenants and landless. Rural Development is a process of developing and utilizing natural and human resources, technologies, infrastructural facilities, institutions and organizations, and government policies and programmes to encourage and speed up economic growth in rural areas, to create jobs and to improve the quality of rural life towards self-sustenance. OBJECTIVES OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT The main objectives of rural development in all societies, irrespective of their economic, political and socio-cultural systems are. 1) Providing goods and services in terms of social and economic infrastructure 2) Increasing the income of every rural family on a self sustaining basis 3) Creation of additional employment opportunities in rural areas. 4) It implies a broad based reorganization and mobilization of the rural masses so as to enhance their capacity to cope effectively with the daily tasks of their lives and with changes consequent upon this. 5) Improvement of services or rural masses in the process. 6) Improvement of know-how, which is to be implemented to the rural people. 7) To make available and improve the distribution of life-sustaining goods, such as",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "effectively with the daily tasks of their lives and with changes consequent upon this. 5) Improvement of services or rural masses in the process. 6) Improvement of know-how, which is to be implemented to the rural people. 7) To make available and improve the distribution of life-sustaining goods, such as food, clothes, shelter, health and security; 68 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 8) To raise per capita purchasing power and improve its distribution by providing better education, productive and remunerative jobs and cultural amenities; and 9) To expand the range of economic and social choices to individuals by freeing them from servitude and dependence. IMPORTANCE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT Majority of people in the developing countries live in villages and their main occupation is agriculture. The important agenda of rural development programme is the improvement in quality of life of rural people. Rural development implies increase in per capita income and level of living of rural people. This can be achieved only through planned programme of non formal education. PROBLEMS IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT 1) Most people are illiterate. 2) Inadequate communication channels especially Mass Media in rural areas. 3) Limitation of Funds and staff for training the farmers. 4) As a traditional society with old ways and practices does not want to take risk unless they see the results. 5) In an illiterate traditional society real leadership could not come forward. 6) Poor linkage between the scientist and extension agencies. 7) Organizational constraints 8) Field staffs have inadequate transport and other facilities in rural area. 9) Unexperienced, unskilled staff in extension linkage cannot provide satisfactory help to the rural people. 10) There is no cooperation between different programms. 69 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "extension agencies. 7) Organizational constraints 8) Field staffs have inadequate transport and other facilities in rural area. 9) Unexperienced, unskilled staff in extension linkage cannot provide satisfactory help to the rural people. 10) There is no cooperation between different programms. 69 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Various rural development programmes launched by Government of India: Introduction, Objectives and salient features  Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY)  Indira Awas Yojana (IAY)  Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act  Prime Ministers’ Rozgar Yojana (PMRY)  District Rural Development Agency (DRDA)  Integrated Watershed Development Programme (IWDP)  Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Area (PURA)  Rashtriya Mahila Kosh – (National Credit Fund for Women)  Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal (MAVIM) Rural Development Programmes 1 SGSY Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana 1999 To bring the assisted poor families above poverty line by providing income generating assets through bank credit , govt subsidy through group approach (SHG) 2 IAY Indira Awas Yojana 1996 Centrally sponsored scheme to provide houses to rural BPL families 3 MGNRE GA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2006 Employment guarantee programme which provide 100 days of wage employment in a year to every rural household, both male and female, whose adult member are willing to do unskilled manual work 4 PMRY Prime Ministers’ Rozgar Yojana 15th August, 1993. providing self-Employment to Educated Unemployed Youth 70 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 5 DRDA District Rural Development Agency 1st April, 1999 to strengthen and professionalize the DRDAs so that they can effectively enhance the quality of implementation 6 IWDP Integrated Watershed Development Programme 1989 Promotion of the overall economic development and improvement",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 5 DRDA District Rural Development Agency 1st April, 1999 to strengthen and professionalize the DRDAs so that they can effectively enhance the quality of implementation 6 IWDP Integrated Watershed Development Programme 1989 Promotion of the overall economic development and improvement of the socio-economic conditions of the resource poor sections of people inhabiting the programme areas. 7 PURA Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Area 2004 To bring the rural urban divide and achieve balanced socio-economic development 8 RMK Rashtriya Mahila Kosh – (National Credit Fund for Women) 1993 To assist women in BPL in undertaking income generating activities through financial package and SHG formation 9 MAVIM Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal 24th February, 1975 overall development of women 1. Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) Introduction: Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojagar Yojana is centrally sponsored  Launched 01 April, 1999.  Scheme basically emphasizes on self-employment.  Scheme covers all aspect of selfemployment like capacity building, subsidy, and infrastructure facility, and credit, skill up gradation, insurance & marketing.  SGSY is combination of 6 earlier programmes namely Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans (SITRA), Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY) and Million Well Scheme (MWS). 71 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  SGSY is financed on 75:25 cost sharing base between Centre and State Governments.  Poor Families below the Poverty Line (BPL) in rural areas constitute the target group of the SGSY.  Within the target group, special safeguards have been provided to vulnerable sections, by way of reserving 50% benefits for SCs/STs, 40%for women and 3% for disabled persons.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Centre and State Governments.  Poor Families below the Poverty Line (BPL) in rural areas constitute the target group of the SGSY.  Within the target group, special safeguards have been provided to vulnerable sections, by way of reserving 50% benefits for SCs/STs, 40%for women and 3% for disabled persons.  Its main purpose is to ensure that the net and monthly income of the family should be at a minimum of Rs. 2000  The Projects may involve different strategies to provide long term sustainable self employment opportunities either in terms of organization of the rural poor, provision of support infrastructure, technology, marketing, training etc. or a combination of these. Objectives:1. To assist rural people especially women and youth in self employment by organizing them into SHG’s 2. To established large number of micro enterprises like vermicompost, poultry, mushroom etc. 3. Identification of 4-5 such micro enterprises per block depending upon skills, recourses and marketing facilities in that area. 4. To provide technical support, market support, credit support for the newly formed SHG’s. Characteristics of this project: 1. The beneficiaries may be individuals or groups but the emphasis is given to SHG’s 2. SGSY is a credit cum subsidy programme. 3. The programme emphasizes skill development through well organized trainings. 4. The objectives of this scheme is to established small industries based on working capacity of poor people in the rural areas. 5. The implementation of this scheme will be carried out by District Rural Development Agency through Panchyat Samithis. In the implementation and supervision of this project, the banks of district and other financial institutions, Panchayat Raj Institutions, non government organization will be involved. 2. Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) Introduction: 72 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Samithis. In the implementation and supervision of this project, the banks of district and other financial institutions, Panchayat Raj Institutions, non government organization will be involved. 2. Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) Introduction: 72 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Housing is one of the basic requirements for human survival.  With a view to meeting the housing needs of the rural poor, Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) was launched in May 1985 as a sub-scheme of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana.  It is being implemented as an independent scheme since 1 January 1996.  The Indira Awaas Yojana aims at helping rural people below the poverty-line (BPL) belonging to SCs/STs, freed bonded labourers and non-SC/ST categories in construction of dwelling units and up gradation of existing unserviceable kutcha houses by providing assistance in the form of full grant  It is funded by the Centre and State in the ratio of 75:25. 3. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act  Evolving the design of the wage employment programmes to more effectively fight poverty, the Central Government formulated the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) in 2005.  With its legal framework and rights-based approach, MGNREGA provides employment to those who demand it and is a paradigm shift from earlier programmes.  Notified on September 7, 2005, MGNREGA aims at enhancing livelihood security by providing at least one hundred days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.  The Act covered 200 districts in its first phase, implemented on February 2, 2006, and was extended to 130 additional districts in 20072008.  All the remaining rural areas have been notified with effect from April 1,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "every rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.  The Act covered 200 districts in its first phase, implemented on February 2, 2006, and was extended to 130 additional districts in 20072008.  All the remaining rural areas have been notified with effect from April 1, 2008. Salient features of the Act  Right based Framework: For adult members of a rural household willing to do unskilled manual work.  Time bound Guarantee: 15 days for provision of employment, else unemployment allowance Upto 100 days in a financial year per household, depending on the actual demand  Labour Intensive Works: 60:40 wage and material ratio for permissible works; no contractors/machinery.  Decentralized Planning 1. Gram Sabhas to recommend works 2. At least 50% of works by Gram Panchayats for execution 73 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 3. Principal role of PRIs in planning, monitoring and implementation  Work site facilities : drinking water, first aid and shade provided at worksites  Women empowerment: At least one-third of beneficiaries should be women  Transparency & Accountability: Proactive disclosure through Social Audits, Grievance Redressed Mechanism,  Implementation:Under Sec 3, States are responsible for providing work in accordance with the Scheme. Under Sec 4, every state government is required to make a scheme for providing not less than 100 days of guaranteed employment in a financial year, to those who demand work  Funding 1. Central Government -100% of wages for unskilled manual work, 75% of material cost of the schemes including payment of wages to skilled and semi skilled workers. 2. State Government25% of material including payment of wages to skilled and semi skilled workers cost. 100% of unemployment allowance by state government Non Negotiable",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Government -100% of wages for unskilled manual work, 75% of material cost of the schemes including payment of wages to skilled and semi skilled workers. 2. State Government25% of material including payment of wages to skilled and semi skilled workers cost. 100% of unemployment allowance by state government Non Negotiable  Only Job Card holders to be employed for MGNREGA works  To provide employment within 15 days of application  No contractor  Task to be performed by using manual labour & not machines  Muster rolls to be maintained on work sites  Proactive disclosure of information.  Wage payments to be through accounts in banks/post offices  Wage material ratio60:40  At least 50% of the works in terms of cost under a Scheme to be implemented through GPs 4. Prime Ministers’ Rozgar Yojana (PMRY)  Prime Minister Employment Yojana for providing self-Employment to Educated Unemployed Youth was announced by the Prime Minister on 15th August, 1993.  To provide self-employed opportunities to one million educated unemployed youth in country.  The Scheme has been formally launched on 2nd October, 1993. 74 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Objectives:  The PMEY has been designed to provide employment to more than a million People by setting up of 7 lakhs micro enterprises by the educated unemployed youth.  It relates to the setting up of the self-employment ventures through industry, service and business routes.  The scheme also seeks to associate reputed non-governmental organizations in implementation PMEY scheme especially in the selection, training of entrepreneurs and preparation of project profiles. Criteria for selection:  Coverage: Whole of the country since 1994-95.  Eligibility:Any unemployed educated person  Age:18-40 years (SC/ST-45)  Qualification:Matric (passed or failed)",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "The scheme also seeks to associate reputed non-governmental organizations in implementation PMEY scheme especially in the selection, training of entrepreneurs and preparation of project profiles. Criteria for selection:  Coverage: Whole of the country since 1994-95.  Eligibility:Any unemployed educated person  Age:18-40 years (SC/ST-45)  Qualification:Matric (passed or failed) IIT etc.  Residency: permanent resident of the area at least for 3 years.  Family income:Up to RS.40,00/per annum  Reservation:-Weaker section, SC/ST: 22.5%, OBC-27%  Funding Pattern:Rs. 1.00 lakh for business sector. Rs. 2.00 lakhs for other activities, loan to be of composite nature. If two or more eligible persons joins together in a partnership, project upto Rs. 10.00 lakhs are covered. Assistance shall be limited to individual admissibility.  Project cost up to Rs. 1lakh are covered  Entrepreneurs contribution is 5 %, loan up to 95%, by bank  Subsidy by GOI @ 15% ceiling limit Rs.7500/ Repayment 3-7 years  Trainingcompulsory  Implementation agency: District Industry centers, District level tasks forces. 75 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 5. District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) Objective / purpose  The DRDA is the principal organ at the district level to manage and oversee the implementation of different anti -poverty programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development.  It is a supporting and facilitating organization which plays a very effective role as a catalyst in development process Mission / Vision Statement The objective of the scheme is to strengthen and professionalize the DRDAs so that they can effectively enhance the quality of implementation. Brief history  DRDA Administration Scheme was introduced from 1st April, 1999 under which the salary and administrative expenses of DRDAs are funded on a 75:25 basis between Centre and State Governments.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "scheme is to strengthen and professionalize the DRDAs so that they can effectively enhance the quality of implementation. Brief history  DRDA Administration Scheme was introduced from 1st April, 1999 under which the salary and administrative expenses of DRDAs are funded on a 75:25 basis between Centre and State Governments.  However, from 2008 09 the funding pattern for N.E. States has been changed from 75: 25 to 90: 10.  In the case of UTs,the Centre provides entire (100%) funds under the Scheme. Duties Dealing with all issues related to DRDA policy and all matters, in so far as it relates to administration of DRDAs. Main activities / functions  To formulate policy guidelines for DRDAs  Release of funds under DRDA Administration Scheme  List of services being provided with a brief write –up on them  Allocation of funds under DRDA Administration Scheme  Organization of Conference of Project Directors of DRDAs Organizational Structure Diagram at various levels namely State, directorate, region, district, block etc. Minister (RD) MOS (RD-PJ) Secretary (RD) 76 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Addl. Secretary (RD) Joint Secretary (SA) Director (DRDA) Under Secretary (DRDA) DRDA Section 6. Integrated Watershed Development Programme (IWDP) Introduction  The Watershed approach has conventionally aimed at treating degraded lands with the help of low cost and locally accessed technologies such as in-situ soil and moisture conservation measures, afforestation etc. and through a participatory approach that seeks to secure close involvement of the user-communities.  The broad objective was the promotion of the overall economic development and improvement of the socio-economic conditions of the resource poor sections of people inhabiting the programme areas.  Many projects designed within this approach were, at different points of time,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "seeks to secure close involvement of the user-communities.  The broad objective was the promotion of the overall economic development and improvement of the socio-economic conditions of the resource poor sections of people inhabiting the programme areas.  Many projects designed within this approach were, at different points of time, taken up by the Government of India. Brief History  The Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) and the Desert Development Programme (DDP) were brought into the watershed mode in 1987.  The Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP) launched in 1989 under the aegis of the National Wasteland Development Board also aimed at the development of wastelands on watershed basis.  All these three programmes were brought under the Guidelines for Watershed Development with effect from 1.4.1995.  Other major programmes now being implemented through this approach are the National Watershed Development Project in Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) and the Watershed Development in Shifting Cultivation Areas (WDSCA) of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA).  The focus of these programmes has, with the advent of the Department of Land Resources (DoLR) shifted to the enhancement of the viability and quality of rural livelihood support systems. 77 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  While the programmes of DoLR are designed to address areas characterized by a relatively difficult terrain and preponderance of community resources, those of Ministry of Agriculture are expected to aim at increasing production and enhancing productivity in cultivated areas largely privately owned.  While the focus of these programmes may have differed, the common theme that underpinned their structure has been the basic objective of land and water resource management for sustainable development of natural resources and community empowerment.  The Prof. Hanumantha Rao, Committee, constituted by the",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "areas largely privately owned.  While the focus of these programmes may have differed, the common theme that underpinned their structure has been the basic objective of land and water resource management for sustainable development of natural resources and community empowerment.  The Prof. Hanumantha Rao, Committee, constituted by the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) studied the implementation and impact of the Drought Prone Areas Programme and the Desert Development Programme all over the country and recommended a common set of operational guidelines, objectives, strategies and expenditure norms for watershed development projects integrating the features of the three programmes under the MoRD.  Accordingly, the Guidelines for Watershed Development were framed and brought into force with effect from 1st April 1995. Objectives The objectives of Watershed Development Projects will be:  Developing wastelands/degraded lands, drought-prone and desert areas on watershed basis, keeping in view the capability of land, site-conditions and local needs.  Promoting the overall economic development and improving the socio-economic condition of the resource poor and disadvantaged sections inhabiting the programme areas.  Mitigating the adverse effects of extreme climatic conditions such as drought and desertification on crops, human and livestock population for their overall improvement.  Restoring ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and developing natural resources i.e. land, water, vegetative cover.  Encouraging village community for : Sustained community action for the operation and maintenance of assets created and further development of the potential of the natural resources in the watershed.  Simple, easy and affordable technological solutions and institutional arrangements that make use of, and build upon, local technical knowledge and available materials. 78 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Employment generation, poverty alleviation, community empowerment and development of human and other economic",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "solutions and institutional arrangements that make use of, and build upon, local technical knowledge and available materials. 78 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Employment generation, poverty alleviation, community empowerment and development of human and other economic resources of the village. 7. Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Area (PURA)  PURA in the shorter version of Providing Urban amenities in Rural Areas to tackle the problem of migration of people from rural to urban areas for employment.  It is the former President APJ Abdul Kalam, Who has proposed the concept of PURA in the VISION 2020 project initiated by him.  Its objective is to make rural areas as attractive as cities are.  This concept was presented by Dr. Kalam in Indian National Science Congress’s 90th conference in Chandigarh in January 2004.  It’s goal and objectives are to provide India new heights and achievements, developed status and economy. Some of its major objectives are given below: 1. Providing high cost advanced technology to village. 2. Linking a loop of villages by a ring road about 30 km in circumference with frequent bus services. That will integrate the population of all connected village into one market. Then, those villages could become a virtual city with a potential to expand and accommodate 3-5 lakhs people. 3. Treating rural development as corporate social responsibility. 4. Replacing agriculture by connectivity as the Driving Force of rural development. 5. Rural fund are for investment not for consumption. 6. Industry and services should be given priority in job creation and employment in farm sector should decrease. 7. Compensation to farmers should be given for the land acquired by an annual fee equal to twice the price of the produce they",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Rural fund are for investment not for consumption. 6. Industry and services should be given priority in job creation and employment in farm sector should decrease. 7. Compensation to farmers should be given for the land acquired by an annual fee equal to twice the price of the produce they grow, not by a lump sum amount. 8. Land to employers sub-leased for both, Business and for residences for employee within walking distance. This will solve the problem of commuting daily to work, a compusion for the city living. 9. Providing same per capita investment to rural areas as cities do. 79 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 10. PURA priorities rural development, because ¾ of our population lives in rural areas, by neglecting them India cannot be a developed nation by 2020. 8. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh / National Credit Fund for Women  Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK), established in 30th March 1993 is a national level organization as an autonomous body under the aegis of the Ministry of Women and Child Development, for socio-economic empowerment of women.  The operating model currently followed by RMK is that of a facilitating agency wherein RMK provides loans to NGO-MFIs termed as Intermediary Organizations (IMO) which on-lend to Self Help Groups (SHGs) of women.  In addition, RMK also has appointed nodal agencies and franchisees for furthering of its objectives of reaching out to the women beneficiaries with easy access of micro credit for income generating activities.  RMK extends micro-credit to the women in the informal sector through a client friendly, without collateral and in a hassle-free manner for income generation activities.  RMK has taken a number of promotional measures to popularize the concept of micro financing, enterprise",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of micro credit for income generating activities.  RMK extends micro-credit to the women in the informal sector through a client friendly, without collateral and in a hassle-free manner for income generation activities.  RMK has taken a number of promotional measures to popularize the concept of micro financing, enterprise development, thrift and credit, formation and strengthening of WomenSHGs through intermediary organizations. Vision:  To be a financial service and capacity enhancement institution for social and economic empowerment of poor and marginalized women Mission:  To be a single window facilitator for provision of financial services with backward and forward linkages for women in the unorganized sector through Intermediary Micro Finance Organizations (IMOs) and Women Self Help Groups (SHGs) and to augment their capacities through multi-pronged efforts. Aims & Objectives: 1. Socio-economic empowerment through multi-pronged effort 2. Providing micro-credit facilities. 3. Capacity building of IMOs and women beneficiaries 80 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 4. To promote or undertake activities for the promotion of or to provide credit as an instrument of socioeconomic change and development through the provision of a package of financial and social development services for the development of women. 5. To promote and support schemes for improvement of facilities for credit for women:a. for sustenance of their existing employment b. for generation of further employment c. for asset creation d. for asset redemption and e. for tiding over consumption, social and contingent needs 6. To demonstrate and replicate participatory approaches in the organization of women’s groups for effective utilization of credit resources leading to self-reliance. 7. To promote and support experiments in the voluntary and formal sector using innovative methodologies to reach poor women with credit and other social services. 8. To sensitize",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "6. To demonstrate and replicate participatory approaches in the organization of women’s groups for effective utilization of credit resources leading to self-reliance. 7. To promote and support experiments in the voluntary and formal sector using innovative methodologies to reach poor women with credit and other social services. 8. To sensitize existing government delivery mechanisms and increase the visibility of poor women as a vital and viable clientele with the conventional institutions. 9. To promote research, study, documentation and analysis, including provision of fellowships and scholarships, of credit and its management and of successful experiences at various levels in order to promote replication and dissemination of successful credit extension and management methodologies. 10. To promote the federation and net working of women’s organisations for shaping & exchange of experience and information and to develop skills in response management & social mobilization. 11. To promote and support the expansion of entrepreneurship skills among women. 12. To cooperate with and secure the cooperation of the Central Government, State Governments and Union Territory Administration, credit institutions, industrial and commercial organisations and non-governmental, voluntary and other organisations and bodies in promoting the objects of the Kosh. 13. To accept subscriptions, grants, contributions, donations, loans, guarantees, gifts, bequests etc. on such terms and obligations not inconsistent with the aims and objects of the Kosh, and 81 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 14. To do all such lawful acts & things as may be necessary or conducive for furthering the objects of the Kosh. 9. Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal( MAVIM) Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal was established on 24th February, 1975 on the occasion of International Women s Year. Objectives  Building organization of women  Building capacities of women by training  Building confidence",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "necessary or conducive for furthering the objects of the Kosh. 9. Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal( MAVIM) Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal was established on 24th February, 1975 on the occasion of International Women s Year. Objectives  Building organization of women  Building capacities of women by training  Building confidence of women  Building linkage between employment opportunities and market possibilities.  Strengthening entrepreneurship among women  Increase participation of women in decision making & education 82 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Community Development Meaning, definition, concept, principles and philosophy Community: A community is a group of people living in a geographical area and has some sort of common interest in them. It is form of social organization existing between the family and state. Development: Orderly movement of individual from lower level of functioning to the higher level of functioning. Community Development:Community Development is a movement designed to promote better living for the whole community with the active participation and on the initiative of the community Community Development is technically aided and locally organized Self-help Community Development has been described as a (Mukherji) Process of change from the traditional way of living of rural communities to progressive ways of living; Method by which people can be assisted to develop themselves on their own capacity and resources, Programme for accomplishing certain activities in fields concerning the welfare of the rural people and Movement for progress with a certain emotional and ideological content Concept of community development • Developing potential abilities and qualities of people living in the community. • Improvement in economic, social, and cultural conditions of the community. • Assessing their common and individual needs and problems. • Organizing formally and informally for democratic planning and action.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "emotional and ideological content Concept of community development • Developing potential abilities and qualities of people living in the community. • Improvement in economic, social, and cultural conditions of the community. • Assessing their common and individual needs and problems. • Organizing formally and informally for democratic planning and action. • Supplement their resources with services and material. Philosophy behind Community Development: • Programme should be based on the felt needs of the community. • There should be change in attitude, habits, ways of thinking, relationships among people in knowledge, skill.etc. • Participation of people in improvement activities so that they become develop. 83 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik • People actually plan and work on the solution of their problems themselves. • Democratic approach in the programme. • Fulfill all wishes of peoples i.e. food, shelter, security, response etc. • Standard of living, free from poverty. Principles of community development: • It is a programme of continuous education. The need and the problem once settled new may arise. • Programme should be based on the felt needs of the community. • It is necessary to understand the community and its social structure before initiating the programme. • The village leader must involve in the programme when development work in village. • People must be motivated by the programme of their village. • There should be flexibility in the procedure of the organization. • The basic approach is to change the attitude and living standard of people by adopting educational means. • The programme, which is initiated, must have goals and methods of high acceptability. • There should be active and effective lines of communication within active members and between organization and village peoples. Objectives of Community",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "is to change the attitude and living standard of people by adopting educational means. • The programme, which is initiated, must have goals and methods of high acceptability. • There should be active and effective lines of communication within active members and between organization and village peoples. Objectives of Community Development Programme The fundamental or basic objective of Community Development in India was the Development of people. Its broad objectives were: (i) economic development (ii) social justice and (iii) democratic growth. Basic objectives: i. The all-round development of the rural community. ii. To develop the feeling of communitarian life style among the rural people. iii. To develop the feeling of responsibility, to create confidence, to create inspiration for working by self decision among the rural people and establishing local leadership and institutions this can tackle the problems of that area. Objectives: 1. To increase the agricultural production 84 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 2. Community and integrated development 3. The extension of the new scientific knowledge 4. Development of small and medium irrigation projects 5. Development of co-operative organizations 6. Construction of roads. 7. To increase the adult education and primary education. 8. Facility for entertainment. 9. Development and construction of primary health care centre and the public health service. 10. To inspire the youth for the development programme. Difference between extension education and community development Extension Education Community Development 1. Emphasis on individual 1. Emphasis on co-operation 2. Its main them is the needs of the individuals. 2. Its main them is the needs of the communities. 3. Emphasis on decision making for change by individuals and families. 3. Emphasis on decision making by groups & representatives of groups. 4. Education aims at economic & social",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "co-operation 2. Its main them is the needs of the individuals. 2. Its main them is the needs of the communities. 3. Emphasis on decision making for change by individuals and families. 3. Emphasis on decision making by groups & representatives of groups. 4. Education aims at economic & social development of individual. 4. Education aims at economic & social development of groups of individual. 5. It concentrates more on agricultural production & home economics. 5. It is directly responsible for attacking all elements of human welfare. 6. It is govt. approach through educational institutions & other government. department. 6. It is direct govt. approach to straight line organization. 7. Emphasize organizations carrying out educational services or transmits knowledge to the people. 7. Emphasize co-ordination of service agencies by working team of representative of different services. 8. It permits co-operation between departments & agencies. 8. Compels departments & agencies to participate. 9. It is branch of Agricultural Department. 9. It is branch of government serving various govt. dept. 10. It is not directly involved on promotion of local units of government. 10. Tied into promotion of local units of government. 85 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 11. It represents transfer of responsibility from administering government organization to another Educational group. 11. There is tight control held by govt. administering agency to cut across participating government departments. Similarities between extension education and C.D. 1. Both the processes are essentially educative 2. For both central objectives is the “Growth of people” 3. Both processes are inter disciplinary in chapter 4. Both aim at bringing about change 5. Both are involvement processes 6. Both are relatively slow processes 7. Both are government sponsored and supported organizations. 8. Both emphasize on",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "essentially educative 2. For both central objectives is the “Growth of people” 3. Both processes are inter disciplinary in chapter 4. Both aim at bringing about change 5. Both are involvement processes 6. Both are relatively slow processes 7. Both are government sponsored and supported organizations. 8. Both emphasize on cooperation 9. Both are concerned with social and economic development 86 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik PANCHYAT RAJ SYSTEM: MEANING, POWERS, FUNCTIONS AND SET UP What is Democratic decentralization? Democracy: The word democracy is derived from the greek roots ‘cracy’ meaning ‘rule of’ and ‘demos’ means ‘the people’. Hence democracy means governance of the people, by the people, and for the people. The emphasis is on the people. Decentralization: It means distribution of function and powers from central authority to local and regional authority. Democratic Decentralization: It means government which has derived its authority from the people, redistributes it to same extend to the people fro decision and action at local level. Three Tier system of Panchayat Raj System The community development programme was started on 2 nd October 1952. It was executed about five years (1952-1957) in the county in 1957, a study team was appointed by the planning commission to renew the working of community development programme and to examine the question of reorganization the district administration to provide for proper organization between the village and state level. This study team was headed by Balwant Rai Mehta and recommended the setting up of elected bodies at village, block and district levels. The committee was found that the peoples participation was less and result were disappointing. The committee suggested that unless the people take initiative in planning and implementation of their own programme, community development cannot",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Rai Mehta and recommended the setting up of elected bodies at village, block and district levels. The committee was found that the peoples participation was less and result were disappointing. The committee suggested that unless the people take initiative in planning and implementation of their own programme, community development cannot be satisfactory realized with this thinking, the committee suggested Panchayat Raj. Panchayat Raj is a system of democratic local self government, discharging developmental, municipal and regulatory function. It is basically a democratic decentralization process. Basic Principles: The basic principles emphasized in Panchayat Raj are: 1. It should be a three tier structure of local self governing bodies from village to district and organizationally linked up. 2. There should be a genuine transfer of power and responsibility to these bodies. 3. Adequate resources should be transferred to the new bodies to enable them to discharging their responsibilities. 4. The system evolved should facilitate further devolution, dispersal of powers and responsibilities in further. 87 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik The recommendations of the Mehta team gave a stimulus all over the country to an active consideration of decentralization through democratic bodies. In Maharashtra village Panchayats were already established under Bombay Village Panchayat Act 1958. State Rajasthan became the pioneer to bring the whole of Rajasthan under democratic decentralization on 2 nd October 1959. On 1 st November 1959, Andhra Pradesh state introduced this scheme of democratic decentralization in the entire state by the enactment of the Andhra Pradesh Panchayat Samiti and Zilla Parishad Act 1959. In 1961, Government of Maharashtra appointed a committee headed by Shri Vasantrao Naik to examine the question of democratic decentralization in Maharashtra. On the recommendation of Naik committee, the government of Maharashtra enacted the",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "entire state by the enactment of the Andhra Pradesh Panchayat Samiti and Zilla Parishad Act 1959. In 1961, Government of Maharashtra appointed a committee headed by Shri Vasantrao Naik to examine the question of democratic decentralization in Maharashtra. On the recommendation of Naik committee, the government of Maharashtra enacted the Maharashtra zilia parishad and Panchayat samiti Act. 1961 according to their act, threetier system was established in Maharashtra on 1 st May 1962. The Maharashtra became 9 th state accepting Panchayat Raj System will operate at district taluka /block and village level. Gram Panchayat or Village Panchayat Gram Panchayat: It is a basic formal and democratic organization and primary local unit of local self –government. It is a cabinet of the village leaders. A village or group of villages is the jurisdiction of gram panchayat Structural aspect of Grampanchayat: The Grampanchayat is formed by election procedure. The villager attaining age of 18 year has right vote in the Grampanchayat election. The entire village is divided into wards and ward wise leaders are elected as a member of grampanchayat. There is a provision for reservation of seats for women (33%) but now a days (50%), SC/ST/OBC (27%) etc. The elected members then elect their chief leader called as sarpanch. The number of members usually varies from 7 to 17 on the strength of population. The tenure of the sarpanch and members is of five years. Every member has been assigned to grampanchayat. Sarpanch conducts meeting of members once in a month. Gramsevak: The secretary of Grampanchayat is employee/ official person appointed by Zilla Parishad on salary basic. He assists sarpanch in his working and maintains record of grampanchayat. He performs various extension activities in the village. He reports periodically, the working of gram panchayat to the higher authorities whenever called. There",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Gramsevak: The secretary of Grampanchayat is employee/ official person appointed by Zilla Parishad on salary basic. He assists sarpanch in his working and maintains record of grampanchayat. He performs various extension activities in the village. He reports periodically, the working of gram panchayat to the higher authorities whenever called. There is peon and sweeper as employee of grampanchayat. 88 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Gramsabha: Gramsabha is the meeting of voters and the elected members of grampanchayat. Gramsabha is empowered to support or topple down the grampanchayat body and to modify the decisions taken by grampanchayat. Earlier at least two gramsabha were to be organize per year. Now there is a compulsion to organized four gramsabha ie. on 26th January, 1st May, 15th August and 2nd October. Committees: Each grampanchayat have functional committee’s viz., Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Public works, Social welfare, Health and Sanitation in grampanchayat. Functions of Grampanchayat: Every grampanchayat has to perform following functions: a. Representative Function: The sarpanch, members and gramsevak represents the voice of the village people to the Taluka and district level on the behalf of grampanchayat by attending meeting and sending official reports. b. Regulatory and Administrative Functions: i. Solve the dispute of village people as individual or groups. ii. Implementation of official programme assigned by the authority. iii. Conducting regular meetings and maintaining records of the grampanchayat. iv. Authentic documentation of birth, death, marriage and other details of the village people. v. Enforcing measures of safety and sanitation. vi. Collection of house tax. C. Service and development Function i. To provide educational , communication and health facilities ii. To provide drinking water facilities iii. To look after general welfare and immediate development to village e.g. road, light, market. etc. iv.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "people. v. Enforcing measures of safety and sanitation. vi. Collection of house tax. C. Service and development Function i. To provide educational , communication and health facilities ii. To provide drinking water facilities iii. To look after general welfare and immediate development to village e.g. road, light, market. etc. iv. To promote agriculture and irrigation development. Sources of Funds: Grampanchayat received the funds through the following sources i. Local taxes. ii. Government grants in Aid. iii. Loans. iv. Subsidies through government programme like Jawahar Rojagar Yojana. 89 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 2. Panchayat Samiti This is a second tire above the grampanchayat and below the zilla parishad. It is an intermediate or middle tire of administration at block level. The jurisdiction of panchayt samiti is taluka or block area. The tenure of Panchayat Samiti is of five years. A block development officer (BDO) is appointed by the government as a chief executive of the panchayat samiti. He is a leader of the team of block level officials. There are subject matter specialist and other ministerial staff to assists BDO. The meeting of Panchayt samiti is held once in two months. The chairman and vice chairman of panchayt samiti are elected, amongst the members of panchayt samiti. Sarpanch Committee: Besides these, there is one sarpanch committee at panchayt samiti level. ViceChairman of panchayt samiti is the chairman of this committee. This committee includes sarpanchs of the grampanchayat to represent the problems of village and peoples. Members of sarpanch committee are changed every year by rotation and representation is given to other grampanchyats. In this way, the all the sarpanchas of grampanchayat in the blocks gets opportunity to represents village problems in panchyat samiti. Powers of Sarpanch Committee",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to represent the problems of village and peoples. Members of sarpanch committee are changed every year by rotation and representation is given to other grampanchyats. In this way, the all the sarpanchas of grampanchayat in the blocks gets opportunity to represents village problems in panchyat samiti. Powers of Sarpanch Committee i. To convey and conduct the meeting of grampanchayat ii. To verify the records and documents of grampanchayat as and when required. iii. To monitor the work of grampanchayat Powers of grampanchayat committee members: i. To supervise the record of grampanchayat during office hours after giving due notice to sarpanch ii. To exercise inspection over all works undertaken by the grampanchayat. iii. To supervise all institutions working under grampanchayat. iv. To bring to the notice of the sarpanch, the irregularities in the grampanchayat. One member for every 15000-20000 population is elected for Panchayat samiti. There are 6-14 members in the P.S. from all categories as per reservation i.e. Male/ Female and reservation, OBC (27%). There are various selections, departments in the Panchayat Samiti to tackle the problem and to carry out development work in the block/ tahsil. 90 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 1 Agriculture Section : Agriculture technology crops production 2 Animal Husbandry : Animal breeding, Veterinary dispensary 3 Health and nutrition : Dispensary, Vaccination, Family welfare 4 Financial : Financial matter of P.S. 5 Works : Construction, maintenance of roads 6 Statistics : Information of block 7 Irrigation : Irrigation to agriculture section 8 Education : Primary education, Schools, Scholarship/ Stipend, etc. 9 Swarna Jayanti Gram Rojagar Yojana : Self employment, Self-Help groups, credits etc. 10 Panchayat section : Social welfare, women/child welfare etc. Supervision and control on grampanchyats in the block. Constitutional Structure of",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "block 7 Irrigation : Irrigation to agriculture section 8 Education : Primary education, Schools, Scholarship/ Stipend, etc. 9 Swarna Jayanti Gram Rojagar Yojana : Self employment, Self-Help groups, credits etc. 10 Panchayat section : Social welfare, women/child welfare etc. Supervision and control on grampanchyats in the block. Constitutional Structure of Panchayt Samiti The administrative body of Panchayat Samiti includes the following members. i. Sarpanch of all grampanchayat under the jurisdiction of development block. ii. Local MLAs and MLCs with right to vote but not to hold office. iii. All elected members of Panchayat Samiti. iv. One person nominated by District Collector. One person nominated by District Collector remains present at the time of election of chairman and vice-chairman of Panchayat Samiti. v. Chairman of co-operative agriculture marketing society in the blocks as an associate member. vi. Chairman of agriculture co-operative society in the block as an associate member. vii. Representative from ladies as per reservation (50%) viii. Representative from SC (Male/ Female 13%) ix. Representative from ST (Male/ Female 07%) x. Block Development officer xi. Chairman and Vice chairman of Panchayt Samiti. Powers and Functions of Panchayt Samiti i. To list out the needs of each village in the block. ii. To list out the latent potential iii. To harness available and potential resources. iv. To exercise all powers conferred on and perform all functions entrusted by government. 91 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik v. To prepare plans, schedule budget etc. of village development work at various locations and government for sanctioned also to submit to Z.P. vi. To act as inter –mediator for implementation of programmes sanctioned by government at village level. vii. To submit the demand of people to the higher authority. viii. Execution planning",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "plans, schedule budget etc. of village development work at various locations and government for sanctioned also to submit to Z.P. vi. To act as inter –mediator for implementation of programmes sanctioned by government at village level. vii. To submit the demand of people to the higher authority. viii. Execution planning and supervision of developmental programmes related to agriculture, education, health, sanitation, social welfare, women welfare, emergency relief, communication, public work etc. in the block. ix. To advance and recover loans from the individual and institutions. 3. Zilla Parishad The zilla parishad in Maharashtra is constituted by article 6 of the zilla parishad and Panchayt samiti act of 1961. It is apex tier of Panchayt Raj System operating at district level. Generally one member for 35000 populations is elected for the zilla parishad. Male/ Female members are elected as per reservations i.e. female (50%), SC (13%), ST (7%), OBC (27%) on the basis of population of the district. The tenure of zilla parishad of five years and can be increased up to 6 months. President and Vice president are elected from the members of the zilla parishad. Chief executive officer (CEO) is the administrator of the zilla parishad. Deputy chief executive officer is a secretary of Zilla parishad. There are subject matter specialist and ministerial staff to assist various activities in Zilla parishad. In all there are 55 to 75 members in the body of zilla parishad. Constitutional Structure of Zilla Parishad The body of zilla parishad is constituted by following members: i. All president of panchayt samiti in the district. ii. The collector of the district iii. MLA, MLC’s and MP are in the district. They have voting powers but not hold office. iv. Representative from ladies as per reservation (50%), ST (7%) v. Chief executive officer vi. Four deputy",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "members: i. All president of panchayt samiti in the district. ii. The collector of the district iii. MLA, MLC’s and MP are in the district. They have voting powers but not hold office. iv. Representative from ladies as per reservation (50%), ST (7%) v. Chief executive officer vi. Four deputy chief executive officers ( One from the general, Panchayt, Women/ child welfare and Jalswaraj). vii. District head of development officer viii. Two cooperative members from any of the following institution in the district. 92 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik a. Industrial Co-operatives b. Land Development Bank c. Co-operative Educational Institutes d. Processing Cooperatives e. Credit societies f. President and Vice president of zilla parishad Constitution of standing committee: Each zilla parishad has one standing committee consist 10-12 members. The district collector is the chairman of standing committee. i. President ii. The chairman of subject committee’s two presidents shall be chairman reserved for SC/ST/OBC of standing committee. Constitution of subject committee: There are eight subject committees in the zilla parishad as under i. Finance Committee ii. Works Committee iii. Health Committee iv. Agriculture Committee v. Animal husbandry and dairy Committee vi. Social welfare Committee vii. Education Committee viii. Women and child welfare Committee Every subject committee consists of nine members, out of which seven are elected and two members are coopted. The need of subject matter committee is the secretary of subject committee. There shall be water management and sanitation committee constituted in accordance with the provision of section 79-A. Powers and Functions of Zilla Parishad i. Functions as advisory body over the Panchayat samiti with powers to a) Approve their budget b) Co-ordinate their plans 93 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and sanitation committee constituted in accordance with the provision of section 79-A. Powers and Functions of Zilla Parishad i. Functions as advisory body over the Panchayat samiti with powers to a) Approve their budget b) Co-ordinate their plans 93 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik c) Distribute funds given by government to blocks ii. Responsible for Performing all functions related to agriculture development, health, water supply, social welfare, women and child welfare education , construction, etc. iii. To prepare plans for all items of development activities in the district. iv. Assign duty to declare “Progressive farmer” the best block and the best village worker. v. Execution of developmental plans in the block vi. Implementation of developmental programmes as per directives of government vii. Approve the plans and budgets of Panchayat samiti viii. Operating, running primary and secondary schools, stipends scholarship to SC, ST, OBC girls and boys. ix. To performs the functions of in non samiti blocks x. Construction of Roads Bridge in the block. xi. Establishment and maintenance of agricultural training centers, breeding farm, veterinary dispensary etc. xii. Supervision on works and activities undertaken by Panchayat samiti xiii. Promotion of small dams and soil and water conservation practices. xiv. Organizing meetings of members and officers xv. Maintain documentation and record of office, various programmes, and publishing statistics, budgeting and reporting to the government. 94 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Extension administration and management: Meaning and concept, principles, functions and differences The word administration is derived from latin word ad and ministraire means care for or look for after people manage affairs. Extension administration: is an effort to direct, guide and integrate associated human strivings",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Extension administration and management: Meaning and concept, principles, functions and differences The word administration is derived from latin word ad and ministraire means care for or look for after people manage affairs. Extension administration: is an effort to direct, guide and integrate associated human strivings towards some specific ends. Administration as a process whereby all the different parts of an agency or an organization are orderly brought together to function, in reaching objectives. Extension Management Management is the art of knowing what you want to do and then seeing that it is done in the best and cheapest way. (Tylor1948) Mary Parker Follet termed management as “the act of getting things done through people”. Fayol outlined fourteen Principles of Management: 1. Division of work: Work specialization results in improving efficiency of operations. The concept of division of work can be applied to both managerial and technical functions. 2. Authority and responsibility: Authority is defined as “the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience.” Authority can be formal or personal. Formal authority is derived from one’s official position and personal authority is derived from factors like intelligence and experience. Authority and responsibility go hand – in – hand. When a manager exercises authority, he should be held responsible for getting the work done in the desired manner. 3. Discipline: Discipline is vital for running an organization smoothly. It involves obedience to authority, adherence to rules, respect for superiors and dedication to one’s job. 4. Unity of command: Each employee should receive orders or instructions from one superior only. 5. Unity of direction: Activities should be organized in such a way that they all come under one plan and are supervised by one person. 6. Subordination of the individual interest to the general interest:",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "4. Unity of command: Each employee should receive orders or instructions from one superior only. 5. Unity of direction: Activities should be organized in such a way that they all come under one plan and are supervised by one person. 6. Subordination of the individual interest to the general interest: Individual interests should not take precedence over the goals of the organization. 95 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 7. Remuneration: The compensation paid to employees should be fair and based on factors like business conditions, cost of living, productivity of employees and the ability of the firm to pay. 8. Centralization: Depending on the situation, an organization should adopt a centralized or decentralized approach to make optimum use of its personnel. 9. Scalar chain: This refers to the chain of authority that extends from the top to the bottom of an organization. The scalar chain defines the communication path in an organization. 10. Order: This refers to both material and social order in organizations. Material order indicated that everything is kept in the right place to facilitate the smooth coordination of work activities. Similarly, social order implies that the right person is placed in the right job (this is achieved by having a proper selection procedure in the organization). 11. Equity: All employees should be treated fairly. A manager should treat all employees in the same manner without prejudice. 12. Stability of tenure of personnel: A high labor turnover should be prevented and managers should motivate their employees to do better job. 13. Initiative: Employees should be encouraged to give suggestions and develop new and better work practices. 14. Esprit de corps: This means “a spirit in its employees. Functions central to management are often associated with",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "labor turnover should be prevented and managers should motivate their employees to do better job. 13. Initiative: Employees should be encouraged to give suggestions and develop new and better work practices. 14. Esprit de corps: This means “a spirit in its employees. Functions central to management are often associated with the acronym POSDCORB, or Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting. 1. Planning  The planning phase is regarded as one of the most fundamental steps a manager engages in, as it can be the determinant of the organization’s success and productivity.  Planning consists of determining the goals and objectives of the organization, considering the costs, and making the provisions for achieving the objectives.  Organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting, in short, are the means of carrying out the decisions made in the planning phase.  The types of planning managers will exercise will depend on the manager’s level in the organization and on the size and type of the organization (Waldron, et al., 1997). 96 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 2. Organizing  Organizing, or the process of assigning roles and connecting people and resources in order to meet the goals and objectives of the unit, is founded on five organizing principles (Marshall 1992, as cited in Waldron et al., 1997): 1. unity of command; 2. span of control; 3. delegation of authority; 4. homogenous assignment; and 5. flexibility.  An organizational structure can best be represented by an organizational chart, which delineates who is in charge of what and how it is to be carried out (Waldron et al., 1997). 3. Staffing  Matching the best candidate to a specific job is necessary for success.  The staffing stage consists of",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "structure can best be represented by an organizational chart, which delineates who is in charge of what and how it is to be carried out (Waldron et al., 1997). 3. Staffing  Matching the best candidate to a specific job is necessary for success.  The staffing stage consists of human resource planning and recruitment.  The selected person should complete the recruitment process knowing the mission and objectives of the unit, the levels of responsibilities and authority, the degree of accountability and the systems and procedures followed to accomplish job tasks (Waldron et al., 1997). 4. Directing  Once thought of as autocratic, directing is now more congruent with leadership, and refers to the process “whereby a work environment is created in which people can do their best work and feel a proprietary interest in producing a quality product or service” (Waldron, et al., 1997). 5. Coordinating  Coordinating links various work components.  Coordination of various job roles and responsibilities is conducted between staff members, the unit and other units within the organization.  Coordination is described as either vertical reporting, as to supervisors, or horizontal reporting, as to colleagues and the management team. 6. Reporting  Reporting is closely related to coordinating.  It refers to keeping those who you are responsible or obligated to, informed. 97 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  In an age where information is increasingly being transmitted from different sources, information flow has become increasingly important for successful management 7. Budgeting  Budgeting plays into planning and includes fiscal planning, accounting, revenue and expense controls.  Budgeting is a continual process of review and revision, and sets a good manager apart from a poor one.  Two important components",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "sources, information flow has become increasingly important for successful management 7. Budgeting  Budgeting plays into planning and includes fiscal planning, accounting, revenue and expense controls.  Budgeting is a continual process of review and revision, and sets a good manager apart from a poor one.  Two important components in budget management are budget determination (allocating revenue in accordance to priorities and by line item), and budget accountability (how well the anticipated budget matches reality Difference between Management and Administration Basis for Comparison Management Administration Meaning An organized way of managing people and things of a business organization is called the Management. The process of administering an organization by a group of people is known as the Administration. Authority Middle and Lower Level Top level Role Executive Decisive Concerned with Policy Implementation Policy Formulation Area of operation It works under administration. It has full control over the activities of the organization. Applicable to Profit making organizations, i.e. business organizations. Government offices, military, clubs, business enterprises, hospitals, religious and educational organizations. Decides Who will do the work? And How will it be done? What should be done? And When is should be done? Work Putting plans and policies into actions. Formulation of plans, framing policies and setting objectives Focus on Managing work Making best possible allocation of limited resources. Key person Manager Administrator Represents Employees, who work for remuneration Owners, who get a return on the capital invested by them. Function Executive and Governing Legislative and Determinative 98 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Evaluation in Extension Meaning, definition, types of evaluation, monitoring and evaluation MONITORING MEANING AND DEFINATION Monitoring is a continuous/ periodic review and surveillance by management, at every level of the implementation of an activity",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Evaluation in Extension Meaning, definition, types of evaluation, monitoring and evaluation MONITORING MEANING AND DEFINATION Monitoring is a continuous/ periodic review and surveillance by management, at every level of the implementation of an activity to ensure that input, deliveries, work schedules, targeted outputs and other required actions are proceeding according to plan. Monitoring is a process of measuring, recording, collecting, processing and communicating information to assist project management decision making. To be precise and brief, monitoring system in an information system for management decision making. A project's operation and performance are the aspects of concern in monitoring with a view to keep track of the technical and economic 'efficiency' of the project. In monitoring, the purpose is to ascertain whether project objectives are achieved. This is carried out in terms of  Whether the various tasks are carried out according to schedule.  Whether project impact is in accord with project objectives.  Whether project objectives/ targets/ execution needs adjustments. Thus, monitoring is a management function and begins with the start of a project and ends with the completion of project. EVALUATION MEANING Evaluation is an activity we engage in every day because we are always making judgments relating to the value or worth of things we do or experience. For example, we are constantly evaluating the food we eat, the jobs we do, the programmes we listen to on radio, and so forth. The following sequence of steps is usually involved in all evaluations: 1. Evaluations are usually prompted by the need to make a decision about the value or potential value of something. For example, if we are listening to a programme on the radio for entertainment, we may need to decide",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "The following sequence of steps is usually involved in all evaluations: 1. Evaluations are usually prompted by the need to make a decision about the value or potential value of something. For example, if we are listening to a programme on the radio for entertainment, we may need to decide whether such a programme is likely to provide the type of entertainment we are looking for. Or, at the end of the programme we may want to decide whether we would listen to similar programmes in the future. 99 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 2. We define criteria as to what constitutes an entertaining programme for us (type of music, amount of certain type, etc.) 3. We make observations or collect evidence relating to the criteria (what type of music is being played and how often) 4. We form judgments relating to the value or potential value of the programme (not valuable or not likely to be valuable because the music we like is hardly being played). In our day to day activities we may hardly be aware of these steps. However, in systematically evaluating extension programmes, explicit attention must be given to each step in the process. DEFINITIONS The term 'evaluation' is a derivative of the Latin word 'Valere' which means strength of. From 'Valere' comes the word 'Value' meaning worth or quality of something. In simple words evaluation may be defined as the process or method of determining the worth or quality of something. This something in extension may be an activity, a programme, a situation, a process, a procedure, a method, an innovation, a practice, an organization, a person, a group of persons and the like. Evaluation is defined in the following manner :",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "method of determining the worth or quality of something. This something in extension may be an activity, a programme, a situation, a process, a procedure, a method, an innovation, a practice, an organization, a person, a group of persons and the like. Evaluation is defined in the following manner :  Extension evaluation can be defined as a continuous and systematic process of assessing the value or potential value of extension programmes.  Evaluation is the process of assessing the degree through which one is achieving his objectives.  Evaluation is the comparison of two situations before and after a developmental programme, has operated within it for a predetermined period. In other word, evaluation measures performance against a predetermined goal. TYPES OF EVALUATION (a) Informal and Formal Evaluations There are several degrees of evaluation. This can be illustrated by means of a continuum. At one end of the continuum there are \"casual every day evaluation\" or informal evaluations, and at the opposite end, \"scientific research\" or formal evaluations 100 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Casual Everyday Evaluations Self Checking Evaluations Do-ItYourself Evaluations Extension Studies Scientific Studies It can be done so casually that we are hardly aware of doing it, such as looking out the window to decide whether or not to carry an umbrella. At the other extreme is scientific research in complicated problems to get information which people can use. Somewhere in between will fall most kinds of evaluation undertaken by extension personnel. Casual everyday evaluations: They are like the first impressions of Extension Worker about his meeting or the umbrella decision. They are the ones we ordinarily make without much consideration of the principles of evaluation in the decisions we make about simple problems.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "most kinds of evaluation undertaken by extension personnel. Casual everyday evaluations: They are like the first impressions of Extension Worker about his meeting or the umbrella decision. They are the ones we ordinarily make without much consideration of the principles of evaluation in the decisions we make about simple problems. Self-checking evaluations: It includes further checking on our ordinary observations. It includes talking further with others, writing to others for their judgement, sending out a brief questionnaire having one filled out at a meeting and so on. Do-it-yourself evaluations: They are more systematically done; more carefully planned and usually require some technical help. Each step in the evaluation is considered, planned and carried out with due consideration to evaluation principles. These evaluations are not complex and involved. They are usually surveys which produce usable results and which can be easily with some training in evaluation or with some technical help. Extension studies: These are more involved and complicated to plan and carry out than any of the preceding locations on the scale. They are broader in scope. They require greater attention to sound principles of scientific procedure in order to secure the accuracy needed. Theses for Master's degrees usually fall in this location. Scientific research: it is at the \"top\" of the scale, involving very complex problems and techniques for getting information from which conclusions can be drawn. Long-time and experimental studies to determine cause and effect relationships are characteristics of this location. For example, atomic research, satellite research or cancer research. (b) Formative and Summative Evaluations Formative evaluation attempts to identify and remedy shortcomings during the developmental state of a programme. Formative evaluations are conducted before programme completion, more particularly, during programme implementation. Such evaluations provide 101 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "cancer research. (b) Formative and Summative Evaluations Formative evaluation attempts to identify and remedy shortcomings during the developmental state of a programme. Formative evaluations are conducted before programme completion, more particularly, during programme implementation. Such evaluations provide 101 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik early feedback on programme weakness, which can be used to modify or adjust the remaining stages of a programme. Summative evaluation assesses the worth of the final version when it is offered as an alternative to other programs. Summative evaluations are conducted after the completion of the programme to assess the accomplishments and whether intended objectives are achieved. (c) On-going and Ex-post Evaluation Ongoing evaluation is an action-oriented analysis of project effects and impacts, compared to anticipations, to be carried out during implementation. Ex-post evaluation would resume this effort several years after completion of the investment, to review comprehensively the experience and impact of a project as a basis for future policy formulation and project design. ADVANTAGES OF EVALUATION  It helps to establish a bench mark the situation at the start of the programme  It shows how far our plans have progressed.  It shows whether we are proceeding in the right direction.  It indicates effectiveness of a programme.  It helps to locate strong and weak points in any programme.  It improves our skills in working with the people.  It helps to determine priorities for activities in plan of work.  It brings confidence and satisfaction to our work. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MONITORING AND EVALUATION MONITORING EVALUATION Continuous : starts and ends with a programme One shot operation; at a point of time (Usually after completion or mid way of a programme) Required for immediate use and mid course",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of work.  It brings confidence and satisfaction to our work. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MONITORING AND EVALUATION MONITORING EVALUATION Continuous : starts and ends with a programme One shot operation; at a point of time (Usually after completion or mid way of a programme) Required for immediate use and mid course correction Used for future planning Done by implementing agency Usually by outside agency Quick but covers all units In-depth; covers a sample Correcting/ managing process Learning process Symptomatic; early warning system Diagnostic 102 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Transfer of technology programmes : Lab to Land programme (LLP), National Demonstration (ND), Front Line Demonstration (FLD), KrishiVigyanKendras (KVK), Technology Assessment and Refinement Programme (TARP) of ICAR Sr. Name of Programme Year Objectives 1 LLP Lab to Land Programme 1979 To improve economic condition of small, marginal farmers, landless laboures, and SC, ST by transfer of technology developed by agricultural universities 2 ND National Demonstration 1964 to show the genetic production potentiality of new technology of major crops per unit of land and per unit of time and to encourage the farmers 3 FLD Front Line Demonstration to demonstrate the production potentiality of improved package of various crops under the farmer’s conditions and resources. 4 KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendras 1974 To provide a strong training support for bringing about production breakthrough in agri. with some mandates ie. Specific\\c responsibility to perform 5 TARP Technology Assessment and Refinement Programme 1995 1. Lab to Land Programme  The Lab to Land Programme (LLP) was launched by the ICAR in 1979 as a part of its Golden Jubilee celebration.  The overall objective of the programme was to improve the economic condition of the small and marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "1. Lab to Land Programme  The Lab to Land Programme (LLP) was launched by the ICAR in 1979 as a part of its Golden Jubilee celebration.  The overall objective of the programme was to improve the economic condition of the small and marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers, particularly scheduled castes and 103 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik scheduled tribes, by transfer of improved technology developed by the agricultural universities, research institutes etc. The specific objectives of the Lab to Land programme, according to Prasad, Choudhary and Nayar (1987) werea. Study and understand the background and resources of the selected farmers and landless agricultural labourers. b. To introduce low-cost relevant agricultural and allied technologies on their farms and homes for increasing their employment, production and income. c. Assist the farmers to develop feasible farm plans keeping in view the availability of technologies, needs and resources of the farmers and the resources which could be made available from external sources and agencies. d. Guide and help the farmers in adopting improved technologies as per their farm plans and demonstrate to them the economic viability of those technologies as well as methods of cultivation and farm management. e. Organize training programmes and other extension activities, in relation to their adopted practices and prepare them for active participation in agricultural development programmes of the state. f. Make the farmers aware of the various opportunities and agencies which they could utilize to their economic advantage. g. Develop functional relations and linkages with the scientists and institutions for future guidance, advisory services and help. Utilize this project as a feedback mechanism for the agricultural scientists and extension functionaries. 2. National Demonstration: National Demonstration is a programme based on the concept",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "could utilize to their economic advantage. g. Develop functional relations and linkages with the scientists and institutions for future guidance, advisory services and help. Utilize this project as a feedback mechanism for the agricultural scientists and extension functionaries. 2. National Demonstration: National Demonstration is a programme based on the concept of increasing the productivity per unit area and time by using proven agricultural technology.  ICAR’s National demonstration programme on major food crops was launched in 1964.  The basic purpose of programme was to show the genetic production potentiality of new technology of major crops per unit of land and per unit of time and to encourage the farmers to adopt and popularize the technologies for accelerating production and improved cultivation practices. 104 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Objective The main objective of this programmes are 1. To demonstrate convincingly to farmers the production potentialities of a unit area of the land by using high yielding varieties of crops and adopting a multiple cropping programme with full package of practices such as balanced use of fertilisers and effective water management techniques. 2. To demonstrate use of implement for different operations and use of soil testing laboratories for use of balanced fertiliser doses. 3. To fully exploit these demonstrations for the purpose of training farmers in improved cultivation practices and to use them as recognized and effective audio visual aids for the flow of latest research technology and results to farmers. 4. To provide research workers a first hand knowledge of the problems faced by farmers in growing high yielding varieties and to identify the constraints limiting the crop production. 5. To minimize the time lag between the research generated and its application in field.  At",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and results to farmers. 4. To provide research workers a first hand knowledge of the problems faced by farmers in growing high yielding varieties and to identify the constraints limiting the crop production. 5. To minimize the time lag between the research generated and its application in field.  At this juncture in 1965-66 the ministry of Agriculture, Government of India initiated a nationwide programme in which demonstrations are connected on farmer’s fields.  This was the beginning of National Demonstration project (NDP).  Demonstrations under this project were carried out mainly by the scientists of the SAU’s and ICAR institutes in neighboring villages.  The scientists were required to demonstrate the potentiality of new seeds and package of practice on an area varying from 0.4 ha to 1.0 ha on farmers field single crop demonstration are carried out for crops like wheat, paddy, sorghum, pearl millet and maize. 3. Front Line Demonstration  The field demonstrations conducted under the close supervision of scientists of the National Agriculture Research System are called front-line demonstrations  Because the technologies are demonstrated for the first time by the scientists themselves before being fed into the main extension system of the State Department of Agriculture.  “Seeing believes” is the main principle behind the demonstrations.  The main objective is to demonstrate the production potentiality of improved package of various crops under the farmer’s conditions and resources. 105 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  The FLD’s are conducted on various major crops of the district viz., sorghum, maize, pigeon pea, castor, paddy etc.  The main emphasis was to introduce new crop genotypes along with improved practices and critical inputs which were new and hitherto not adopted by the farmers.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Agriculture, Nashik  The FLD’s are conducted on various major crops of the district viz., sorghum, maize, pigeon pea, castor, paddy etc.  The main emphasis was to introduce new crop genotypes along with improved practices and critical inputs which were new and hitherto not adopted by the farmers. Roles of Front-Line Demonstration:  Demonstrate the newly released production technologies on the farmers’ fields.  Exploit their maximum potential in a given farming system.  Prepare technical leadership in the villages by imparting desired training.  Organize the need based training programmes for subject matter specialists and farmers, after identification of problems.  About 54,000 front line demonstrations were organized to demonstrate the production potential of newly released production technologies in 2009. 4. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK)  The KVK is designed to impart need based and skill oriented vocational training of the practicing farmers, in-service field level extension workers and those who wish to go in for self employment.  The KVK project is sponsored by ICAR and implemented by the ICAR institutes, agricultural universities , selected voluntary organizations and some state department of Agriculture  The ICAR, implemented KVK on the recommendation of 1973 headed by Dr. Mohan Singh Mehta committee .  The first KVK was established in 1974 at Puducherry (Pondicherry) under the administrative control of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.  At present there are 668 KVKs, out of which 458 are under State Agricultural Universities (SAU) and Central Agricultural University (CAU), 55 under ICAR Institutes, 100 under NGOs, 35 under State Governments, and the remaining 17 under other educational institutions.  The objective of KVK is to provide a strong training support for bringing about production breakthrough in agri. with some mandates ie. Specific responsibility to perform. 106 Notes compiled by Prof.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "under ICAR Institutes, 100 under NGOs, 35 under State Governments, and the remaining 17 under other educational institutions.  The objective of KVK is to provide a strong training support for bringing about production breakthrough in agri. with some mandates ie. Specific responsibility to perform. 106 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Mandate of KVK The mandate of KVK is Technology Assessment and Demonstration for its Application and Capacity Development. To implement the mandate effectively, the following activities are envisaged for each KVK.  Conduct on-farm testing for identifying technologies in terms of location specific sustainable land use systems.  Conduct Frontline demonstrations to establish production potential of technologies on the farmers’ fields  Capacity development of farmers and extension personnel to update their knowledge and skills on modern agricultural technologies  Organized short and long term vocational training courses in agriculture and allied vocations for farmers and rural youths.  Provide farm advisories using ICT and other media means on varied subjects of interest to farmers. In addition, KVK would produce quality technological products (seed, planting material, bio-agents, livestock) and make it available to farmers, organize frontline extension activities, identify and document selected farm innovations and converge with ongoing schemes and programmes within the mandate of KVK. 5. Technology Assessment and Refinement Programme  In 1995, the ICAR launched this innovative programme.  Introduce technological interventions with emphasis on stability and sustainability along with productivity of small-farm production systems;  Introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to sustain technological interventions and their integration to maintain productivity and profitability taking environmental issues into consideration in a comparatively well defined farm production system;  Introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to increase the agricultural productivity with marketable surplus in",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "production systems;  Introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to sustain technological interventions and their integration to maintain productivity and profitability taking environmental issues into consideration in a comparatively well defined farm production system;  Introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to increase the agricultural productivity with marketable surplus in commercial on and off farm production system; 107 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Capacity building of extension personnel and farmers Meaning, Training and Education, Types of training, Training institutes in India, Concept of Human Resource Development Meaning and Definition Capacity Building can be defined as \"activities which strengthen the knowledge, abilities, skills and behaviour of individuals and improve institutional structures and processes such that the organization can efficiently meet its mission and goals in a sustainable way. Training is one of the components of capacity building. Training:Training is a process by which an individual’s efficiency and effectiveness in the given context of a job can maximized. Training is the education to person so as to become proficient, qualified and fitted for doing the skills. Training is the process of acquiring specific skills to perform a job better. The process of aiding employees to gain effectiveness in their presence or future work through the development of appropriate habits of thought and action, skills, knowledge and attitude. Types of Training: 1. Pre-Service Training: It is type of training which is given to the individual prior joining the job. It prepares the person for the job which he is going to join. 2. Orientation Training: It is the type of training which is given to employee soon after joining the job to make them to know about the philosophy, activities, code of conduct of an organization. 3. InService Training: In-service",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "prepares the person for the job which he is going to join. 2. Orientation Training: It is the type of training which is given to employee soon after joining the job to make them to know about the philosophy, activities, code of conduct of an organization. 3. InService Training: In-service training it is given to the individual during his job to make him up to date and for improving his abilities. It includes all types of training given all phases of job. 4. InHouse Training: In house training it is the type of training which is organized within the organization to develop employee. 5. Out Door Training: It is opposite of classroom training. Outdoor training is an opportunity to organize training that call for physical involvement outside classroom to give a sense of reality. It also helps to deduce lessons out of immediate experience. 108 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 6. Conventional Training: In this type of training trainer planed and implement the training without the involvement of participants in planning and implementation, participants only have to learn through the training. 7. Experiential Training: In this training trainer organizes experiences for trainees so they can learn things by experiencing them. Trainer facilitates trainees to involve 76 themselves in and learn from these experiences. The trainer and trainees together decides the objectives and other elements of training. 8. Participatory Training: Participatory training is born out of the understanding that knowledge does not belong to one person and cannot be transferred. Learning calls for action, experience, reflection and exchange. Unlike conventional training, trainer act as coordinator to facilitate discussion exchange and problem solving through mutual decisions. Open, interactive, inviting learning atmosphere is created to learn through co-operation and selfinitiative.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "that knowledge does not belong to one person and cannot be transferred. Learning calls for action, experience, reflection and exchange. Unlike conventional training, trainer act as coordinator to facilitate discussion exchange and problem solving through mutual decisions. Open, interactive, inviting learning atmosphere is created to learn through co-operation and selfinitiative. 9. Co-Training / Team Training: It is type of training in which two or more trainers plan conduct and evaluate training together. Since training alone is quite taxing and leaves no room to attend to the process of training. In order to teach through media or group method team of trainers share roles and support each other harmoniously. This helps in creating variety of interaction and getting feedback. 10. Management Development Training: It is an attempt to improve current and future managerial performance by imparting knowledge changing attitudes or increasing skills. It includes in-house programmes like courses coaching, rotational assignment, seminars, executive MBA programmes, etc. 11. Sensitivity Training / T-Group: Sensitivity training aims to increase participants‟ insight into his or her behaviour and behaviour of others by an open expression of feelings lead by specially trained trainers. Known by different terms such as L group or T group, it basically sensitizes the participant about behaviour of self, others and interpersonal relationships. 12. On-the-job Training: On the job training refers to methods of training used to develop employers while on the job through job-rotation (assigning different department), mentoring (coaching /understudy) action, learning, etc. TRAINING PROCESS:Training has been conceived as a process of three phases, viz. pretraining, training and post-training. Pre-training:This is preparatory phase prior to actual training. It involves planning of training. 109 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik The considerations like date and place of training, providing teaching",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of three phases, viz. pretraining, training and post-training. Pre-training:This is preparatory phase prior to actual training. It involves planning of training. 109 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik The considerations like date and place of training, providing teaching aids and required facilities at the place of training etc. are important aspects of preparation for training. A training organisation has to assess individual need for training and decide appropriate course content as well as methods. Arrangements to select participants, inform about course details and make necessary preparation are completed during this phase. Training:The actual implementation of training is done in this phase according to plan drawn before. There are many different activities executed simultaneously like reception of trainees, lodging and boarding, organisation of instruction, field trip and monitoring. Due care needs to be taken to create a relaxed atmosphere for the participants to interact freely and practice new skills. The group interactive exercise and methods of training like buzz group, workshop, role-play and simulation games increase the participation of trainees. A good rapport with participants, personal attention and feedback ensure interests and enthusiasm of participants. Post-training:Training does not really end with a course. Post-training test, measurement of impact and follow-up of participants at work place are important elements of good training. Good organisations prepare report and put efforts to bring improvements in training on the basis of evaluation. Training of Extension Personnel: Extension personnel are links between organizations and farmers. Therefore quality of this human resource must be upgraded to manage extension service more effectively in changing times. Agricultural development in present era of globalization calls for urgent attention on developing abilities of extension personnel not only in latest technologies of agriculture but also in management and communication. In",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "farmers. Therefore quality of this human resource must be upgraded to manage extension service more effectively in changing times. Agricultural development in present era of globalization calls for urgent attention on developing abilities of extension personnel not only in latest technologies of agriculture but also in management and communication. In India there have been tremendous changes in economic policies, technologies and nature of extension programmes. The challenges before extension are enormous keeping in view the regional imbalances in agricultural production, large number of small, marginal farmers, fragile natural resources and need for value added quality agricultural products for exports. This was amply emphasized under World Bank support Training & Visit System in which systematic efforts had been made to enhance quality of training, rewards and facilities for enhancing productivity. No doubt the country has benefitted from the systems and effort has been made to strengthen training quality and infrastructure in the country. 110 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Village Extension Workers: People in this category 1. Make regular and systematic visit to village and farm to develop rapport with clientele and to understand their problems; 2. Undertake educational activities in the form of meetings, campaigns, demonstration, field days, training sessions, and exhibitions; and 3. Provide advisory services to farmers and solve their production problems. 4. They must require knowledge and skills in general agriculture and as well as in general aspects of agricultural development such as credit, input supply and marketing. Subject-Matter Specialists: There role is to 1. Keep abreast of current recommendations and findings related to farm production by maintaining continuous contact with agricultural research stations; 2. provide feedback to the research system about farmers‟ problems which need solutions; and 3. Train and backstop village extension",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "input supply and marketing. Subject-Matter Specialists: There role is to 1. Keep abreast of current recommendations and findings related to farm production by maintaining continuous contact with agricultural research stations; 2. provide feedback to the research system about farmers‟ problems which need solutions; and 3. Train and backstop village extension workers on the latest farm technology and help them in solving field problems. 4. They are in touch with researches carried out in State Agricultural Universities, and demonstrate technologies. 5. Thus, they should be sound in technical, managerial and communication skill strain field staff. Supervisory Staff or Extension Officers: People holding these positions 1. Plan, organize, coordinate and implement extension programmes and activities 2. Supervise and monitor the work of field staff, providing guidance, motivation and evaluation of performance; and 3. Coordinate the programme with inter and interdepartmental agencies. 4. Thus they have to play leadership roles, their training should include more of conceptual and managerial contents focus on their job responsibilities. Farmers and Rural Youth:  There is a regular farmer training programme in all agricultural universities.  There are training centers for young farmers. In some states, they also arrange short courses for the farmers.  The training includes crop raising, animal feeding and management, plant protection. 111 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik For such training the following points should be considered. 1. Time of holding the training: It should be at the convenience of the farmers i.e., when they are comparatively free from such of the agricultural operations. This will differ 78 according to the seasons and climate. In case A.P., March to May for Kharif crop and August to September for rabi crop is ideal time for conducting training courses in Agriculture. 2.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the farmers i.e., when they are comparatively free from such of the agricultural operations. This will differ 78 according to the seasons and climate. In case A.P., March to May for Kharif crop and August to September for rabi crop is ideal time for conducting training courses in Agriculture. 2. Duration of course: For farmers who are engaged in farming, a one week course is sufficient for special topics such as use of irrigation facilities and water management, operation of implements and plant protection etc, it may be of two or three days duration. 3. Venue of course: Besides physical facilities, the appropriate environment under which the course is to be conducted i.e, where the farmers car see the actual crop, method demonstrations, operations with some machines and implements or some treatments such as fertilizer application, venue has to be given due considerations. 4. Production cum demonstration camps and discussion groups of the farmers: These should be arranged in the villages because the farmers cannot afford to remain away from their farms and homes. These should be organized before each main crop. The duration should be 1-2 days only, and the trainees or participants should be from the same village or groups of nearby villages, so that the farmers can walk back to their home the same evening. This will provide technical knowledge to the farmers right in their villages, and the topics can be related to their local problems. Farmer Training Organizations: 1. State Agricultural Universities: The main extension activities of the central autonomous Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) are achieved through the 40 Agriculture Technology Information Centres (ATICs) and 569 district-level Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), or farm science centers. Additionally, each state has a state agricultural university (SAU), which provides extension and training activities through the Directorate",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "activities of the central autonomous Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) are achieved through the 40 Agriculture Technology Information Centres (ATICs) and 569 district-level Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), or farm science centers. Additionally, each state has a state agricultural university (SAU), which provides extension and training activities through the Directorate of Extension and Education but activities and organizational setup differ widely by state. 2. Farmers Training Centres (FTCS): Started in the hey days of 1960s, in the wake of new agricultural strategies these FTCs were meant to be the grassroots training institutions to train farmers in the knowledge and skill about new agricultural technologies. Arrangements had also been made for peripetic team of trainers to go from village to village. 112 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 3. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (Farm Science Centres): Indian Council of Agricultural Research hit upon a novel idea in 1976 to initiate grassroots training institution to impart needbased skill-oriented systematic training to farmers, farmwomen, youth and grass roots extension functionaries. The plan is a foot to make at least one KVK in each district of the country. The KVKs boost boast of highly trained experts, adequate training infrastructure and technical back stopping by academic / research institutions. Concept of HRD:According to M.M. Khan, \"Human resource development is the across of increasing knowledge, capabilities and positive work attitudes of all people working at all levels in a business undertaking.\" Human resource development in the organisation context is a process by which the employees of an organisation are helped, in a continuous and planned way to: 1. Acquire or sharpen capabilities required to perform various functions associated with their present or expected future roles; 2. Develop their general capabilities as individuals and discover and",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the organisation context is a process by which the employees of an organisation are helped, in a continuous and planned way to: 1. Acquire or sharpen capabilities required to perform various functions associated with their present or expected future roles; 2. Develop their general capabilities as individuals and discover and exploit their own inner potentials for their own and/or organisational development purposes; and 3. Develop an organisational culture in which supervisor-subordinate relationships, teamwork and collaboration among sub-units are strong and contribute to the professional well being, motivation and pride of employees. 113 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Communication: Meaning and definition; elements, selected models and barriers to communication ORIGIN The word 'communication' comes from the Latin word communis, meaning common. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish 'commonality' with someone through a message. Communication then, is a conscious attempt to establish commonality over some idea, fact, feelings and the like, with others. In essence, it is a process of getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of messages. DEFINING COMMUNICATION Definitions of communication are many. But a few selected ones are given : 1. Communication is anything that conveys meaning, that carries a message from one person to another (Brooker, 1949). 2. Communication is all of the procedures, by which our mind can affect another (Weaver, 1966). 3. Communication is the mutual interchange of ideas by any effective means (Thayer, 1968). 4. Communication may be defined as a process by which an individual the communicator, transmits (usually verbal symbols) to modify the behaviour of other individuals communicatees ( Hovland, 1964). 5. Communication is a process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "by any effective means (Thayer, 1968). 4. Communication may be defined as a process by which an individual the communicator, transmits (usually verbal symbols) to modify the behaviour of other individuals communicatees ( Hovland, 1964). 5. Communication is a process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings, or impression in ways that each gains a common understanding of meaning, intent and use of message (Leagans, 1961). 6. Communication is the process by which messages are transferred from a source to receiver (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971). 7. Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages through channels which establishes common meanings between a source and a receiver (Van den Ban and Hawkins, 1988). Most of these definitions imply involvement of the actors over a message or content, some sort of interaction, by some commonly understood means, and with some effect. Analysis has also shown that several elements are involved in a communication encounter. Because of our interest in technology transfer, we can define communication as a process by which extension workers individually, in a group or through a medium, exchange attitudes and share knowledge 114 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik and / or skills on behalf of an organization with farmers/ farm women, through such a ways that each gains comprehension, understanding and use of the message. Communication is usually thought of as taking place by means of verbal symbols but a socio-psychological analysis requires that attention be paid to the full range of symbols that may be used by human beings, including gestures, tone, facial expressions, drumbeats, telegraphic click, flags, smoke signals, colour, size, distance etc. Models of communication 1 Aristotle’s model According to Aristotle, communication has three ingredients 1. Speaker – the",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "requires that attention be paid to the full range of symbols that may be used by human beings, including gestures, tone, facial expressions, drumbeats, telegraphic click, flags, smoke signals, colour, size, distance etc. Models of communication 1 Aristotle’s model According to Aristotle, communication has three ingredients 1. Speaker – the person who speaks 2. Speech – the speech that the individual produces 3. Audience – the person who listens Speaker Speech Audience 2 ShannonWeaver’s model The Shannon-weaver (1949) model is consistent with Aristotle’s proposition. According to them, the ingredients of communication are: 1. Source 2. Transmitter 3. Signal 4. Receiver 5. Destination Source Transmitter Signal Receiver Destination 3 Berlo’s model According to Berlo (1960) the model of communication consists of 1. Source 2. Encoder 3. Message 4. Channel 5. Decoder 6. Receiver Source Encoder Message Channel Decoder Receiver 115 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 4 Schramm’s model According to Schramm (1961), the communication process involves – 1. Source 2. Encoder 3. Signal 4. Decoder 5. Destination Source Encoder Signal Decoder Destination 5 Leagan’s model The communication model forwarded by Leagans (1963) has the following elements1. Communicator 2. Message 3. Channel 4. Treatment 5. Audience 6. Response Communicator Message Channel Treatment Audience Response 6 Rogers and shoemaker’s model Rogers and shoemaker (1971) thought of the communication process in terms of the S-M-C-R-E model, the components of which are – 1. Source 2. Message 3. Channel 4. Receiver 5. Effects Source Message Channel Receiver Effects ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS Successful communication involves six key elements: a skillful communicator sending a useful message through proper channels effectively treated to an appropriate audience to evoke the desired response. 116 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Effects Source Message Channel Receiver Effects ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS Successful communication involves six key elements: a skillful communicator sending a useful message through proper channels effectively treated to an appropriate audience to evoke the desired response. 116 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 1. The Communicator This is the person who starts the process of communication in operation. He is the source or originator of messages. He is the first to give expression to messages intended to reach an audience in a manner that results in correct interpretation and desirable response. The communicator may be a Village Development Officer, a Principal or an Instructor in a Training Centre, a Block Development Officer, a villager, an administrator or any other person. In order to be effective the communicator should possess the following characteristics. 1. He should have knowledge of message, objective and the audience. 2. People should have faith on the communicator. 3. He should have interest in his audience and their welfare. 4. He should select and treat the message properly. 5. He prepare a plan for communication 6. He knows how to organize his message. 7. His language and cultural compatibility should be in the line with the receiver. 8. He should have positive attitude towards the message and the audience. 2. Message A message is the information a communicator wishes his audience to receive, understand, accept and act upon. Messages, for example, may consist of statements of scientific facts about agriculture, sanitation or nutrition; description of action being taken by individuals, groups or committees; reasons why certain kinds of action should be taken; or steps necessary in taking given kinds of action. The key objective of communication is to transmit useful message so that all",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "statements of scientific facts about agriculture, sanitation or nutrition; description of action being taken by individuals, groups or committees; reasons why certain kinds of action should be taken; or steps necessary in taking given kinds of action. The key objective of communication is to transmit useful message so that all receivers understand clearly and successfully. A good message should have the following characteristics. 1. In line with the objectives to be attained. 2. Clear and understandable by the audience. 3. In line with mental, socio-economic and physical capabilities of the audience 4. Related to economic and social needs, interests and values of the audience. 5. Specific, factual, correct and no irrelevant material should be included. 6. Appropriate to the channel selected. 7. Relevant to the audience. 8. Cover only one point at a time. 117 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 3. Channels of Communication Channels are the physical bridges between the sender and the receiver of messages the avenues between a communicator and an audience on which messages travel to and fro. They are the transmission lines used for carrying messages to their destination. Thus, the channels serve as essential tools of the communicator. A channel may be anything used by a sender of message to connect him with intended receivers. The crucial point is that he must get in contact with his audience. The message must get through. Common channels of communication in the extension situation are the 'Extension Teaching Methods'. Certain characteristics of channels are identified and are delineated below. 1. It specifies the direction of message flow 2. It gives the message accuracy. Low (in interpersonal) and high (in mass media) 3. It selects the recipient depending upon the channel 4. It produces feedback",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "are the 'Extension Teaching Methods'. Certain characteristics of channels are identified and are delineated below. 1. It specifies the direction of message flow 2. It gives the message accuracy. Low (in interpersonal) and high (in mass media) 3. It selects the recipient depending upon the channel 4. It produces feedback to the sender of the message 5. It overcomes the selectivity processes 6. It is capable of bringing desirable effects as the part of the audience. 4. Treatment of Messages It is the way of handling the message in such a way that the treated message be sent over the channels with the maximum probability of reaching the destination effectively. It relates to the techniques or details of procedure or manner of performance essential to have expertise in presenting the message. Hence treatment deals with the design of method for presenting the message. The purpose of the treatment of message is to make the message clear, understandable and realistic to the audience. It usually requires original thinking, deep insight into the principle of human behaviour and skill in creating and using refined techniques of message presentation. At this point, the effective teacher is separated from the less effective one, and the art of teaching comes into play. The message should be treated in the following manner. a. Method of general organization 1. Repetition of ideas and concepts. 2. Contrast of ideas (positive and negative things). 3. Chronological – compared to logical and psychological. 4. Presenting one side compared to two sides of an issue. 118 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 5. Emotional compared to logical appeals. 6. Starting with strong arguments compared to saving them until the end of presentation. 7. Let the audience draw the conclusion.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "sides of an issue. 118 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 5. Emotional compared to logical appeals. 6. Starting with strong arguments compared to saving them until the end of presentation. 7. Let the audience draw the conclusion. b. Use of symbols, variation and devices for presenting the ideas. c. Message should be treated by giving quotation, jokes and contrary against the common opinion during the communication process. 5. The Audience An audience is the intended receiver of messages. It is the consumer of messages. An audience may consist of one person or many. It may comprise men, women, or both; youth groups, villagers or their leaders. An audience may be formed according to occupation groups as farmers or artisans; professional groups, as engineers, educators, administrators etc. The more homogenous an audience, the greater the chances of successful communication. Likewise, the more a communicator knows about his audience and can pinpoint its characteristics the more likely he is to make an impact. Communication to be successful, must be target oriented. The communicator must know the target, their needs, interests, resources, facilities, constraints and even their approximate number and location. Following specified aspects will help a communicator to clarify the exact nature of an audience and how to reach it. 1. Communication channels established by the social organization. 2. The system of values held by the audience. 3. Individual personality factors. 4. Original and acquired abilities. 5. Educational, social and economic levels. 6. Attitude of the audience. 7. How the audience view the situation. 6. Audience Response Response by an audience to messages received is in the form of some kind of action to some degree, mentally or physically. Action, therefore, should be viewed as a product, not as",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and economic levels. 6. Attitude of the audience. 7. How the audience view the situation. 6. Audience Response Response by an audience to messages received is in the form of some kind of action to some degree, mentally or physically. Action, therefore, should be viewed as a product, not as a process; it should be dealt with as an end, not as a means. 1. Mass communication intensifies propaganda conflicts 2. Much available information is imperfectly absorbed 119 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 3. Lack of primary experience affects communication 4. Communication builds on existing attitudes 5. Mass communication increases the communality of experience 6. Communication devices have the ability for thought control 7. Books, Newspapers, Magazines, Leaflets have effects like instrumental, prestige, reinforcement, enriched aesthetic experience and respite. 8. Cultural values and the social organisation are determinants of communication. Barriers of Communication Barriers of communication can be classified under broad headings as follows a. Relating to communicator 1. In-effective environment 2. Unorganized efforts to communicate 3. Standard of correctness 4. Standard of social responsibility 5. Cultural values and social organisations 6. Incorrect concept of communication process b. Relating to the transmission of message 1. Incorrect handling of the channels 2. Wrong selection of channels 3. Physical distraction 4. Use of inadequate channels in Parallel c. Relating to receiver 1. Attention of the listeners 2. Problems of cooperation, participation and involvement 3. Problem of homogeneity 4. Attitude of the audience towards the communicator 120 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Agriculture journalism: Meaning, definitions, news writing AGRICULTURAL JOURNALISM MEANING Agricultural Journalism is the task of collecting, writing, editing and publishing agricultural information, scientific facts, agricultural",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the audience towards the communicator 120 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Agriculture journalism: Meaning, definitions, news writing AGRICULTURAL JOURNALISM MEANING Agricultural Journalism is the task of collecting, writing, editing and publishing agricultural information, scientific facts, agricultural technology events or agricultural news through newspaper, magazine, radio and television or any media of communication. It will be seen that agricultural journalism is a profession of writing and framing news for newspaper. Therefore, in this job it is necessary to collect news from various sources like research, publications, events in agriculture sector etc. After collection of the news, it is to be edited and published in some communication media so that it will reach the intended audience. This audience may be farmers, traders, extension workers, policy makers, planners etc. Sometimes the reporter may present the news by discovering it in the interest of the public. SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE In the modern age there is a need to inform millions of people quickly and accurately about scientific, technical and recent developments. The popular publications are showing desire to publish news of interest of the people. One can develop his ability to get information and write for the people. The scope for news writing is increasing day-by-day. The knowledge (past and present) of the people will be increased by journalism. The agricultural journalism will help in spreading technical knowledge. This knowledge will help in increasing agricultural production, irrigation facilities, drinking water facilities, public health and sanitation, increase and development of rural industries, spread of education, communication, animal husbandry, child welfare, youth and women welfare work. By developing these areas good and well developed community can be created. There is large population in India which is unemployed. New knowledge and technology can",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "facilities, public health and sanitation, increase and development of rural industries, spread of education, communication, animal husbandry, child welfare, youth and women welfare work. By developing these areas good and well developed community can be created. There is large population in India which is unemployed. New knowledge and technology can help in solving this problem and increasing per capita income. With agriculture cottage and small industries can also flourish. There is need to increase the productivity by the use of modern techniques and methods. This will improve the economic conditions of the people. The cultural development can be brought out by removing the old outdated customs and traditions. New thinking in line with the 121 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik modern trends is necessary. In order to maintain good health, balanced diet, cleanliness etc. people need to be educated. In order to bring development in the above areas communication media can play important role. There is great scope for agricultural journalism in bringing these new technologies to the attention of the farmers. They can write and publish material for changing the insight of the people. Thus agricultural journalism will help in educating the people and boosting the development of the area. Publicity to the development programmes will help in increasing participation of the people. NEWS NEWS News is any timely information that interests a number of persons. The news is an account of a current idea, event or problem that interests people. The news is a new thing or publication of a recent event. It is an accurate, unbiased account of the main facts of a current event that is of interest to the readers of a news paper. The event may be old but should not",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "or problem that interests people. The news is a new thing or publication of a recent event. It is an accurate, unbiased account of the main facts of a current event that is of interest to the readers of a news paper. The event may be old but should not have been reported earlier. The news should be of interest and important from the point of view of farmers. If the news is close to the local farmers then it is read with great interest. The technical words may be avoided or explained in simple language. SOURCES The very conduct of extension teaching generates news and good news material is available always. Some of the sources of news material are result of demonstration, review of research publications, accomplishment of farmers, account of meetings etc. TYPES There are different kinds of news stories. According to their nature and character, they can be classified as follows. a) Hard news : These are general in nature. Some can be breaking news. These are news items that require immediate publication. These cannot wait. e.g. Accident news b) Soft news : These are light stories. They are not urgent news stories. But soft stories can make interesting reading. Readers like such stories. These can be about a person, an event or about a developing situation. e.g. Science &Tech. Development news 122 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik c) Features: These are detailed, in-depth stories. In newspapers, they are carried in the magazine section. d) Profiles of Newsmakers: These are generally about people in the news. Readers may not be aware of such persons. So through their profiles, they are introduced. e) Human interest : These are often stories about the plight of individuals",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "stories. In newspapers, they are carried in the magazine section. d) Profiles of Newsmakers: These are generally about people in the news. Readers may not be aware of such persons. So through their profiles, they are introduced. e) Human interest : These are often stories about the plight of individuals or families. eg. When tsunami waves struck the coastal areas, there were touching stories about people who lost their near and dear ones, houses etc. f) Backgrounders: If a major event happens, readers are curious to know whether there is any precedent or background to that. In other words, they are eager to know the history of such incidents. Backgrounders provide such information. ADVANTAGES 1. Low cost. 2. Large coverage in short time. 3. Efficient source of timely information. 4. Carries the prestige and confidence of the printed word. 5. Reinforcing effect on the other extension methods. LIMITATIONS 1. Of no value if people are illiterate or do not read a newspaper. 2. Difficult to check the results. 3. Requires special training to write good article. 123 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Diffusion and adoption of innovation: Concept and meaning, Attributes of innovation, Innovation decision process, adopter categories. DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF INNOVATION DIFFUSION Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. It is a process by which innovations are spread to the members of social system. In this process new ideas are spread from its source of invention or creation to its ultimate users or adopters. Diffusion is a special type of communication. It is concern with new ideas or messages, whereas communication includes all type of message or ideas. INNOVATION Innovation",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "members of social system. In this process new ideas are spread from its source of invention or creation to its ultimate users or adopters. Diffusion is a special type of communication. It is concern with new ideas or messages, whereas communication includes all type of message or ideas. INNOVATION Innovation is an idea, practice, or object perceived as new by an individual. If the idea seems new to the individual, it is an innovation. Newness of an innovation may be expressed in terms of knowledge, persuasion or a decision to adopt. The technologies, practices developed through research are innovations. ADOPTION Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available. Adoption is the use of new idea continuously on a full scale. Adoption is essentially a decision making process. Decision making is a process which may be divided into a sequence of stages with a distinct type of activity occurring during each stage. Similarly, the way in which individual adopts an innovation is viewed by most researchers as a process, a series of related events in a time sequence. Attributes of innovation:Attributes are qualities, characteristics or traits possed by an object. An innovation has some qualities or characteristics. It is not the intrinsic quality, but the quality of character of the innovations as people see to them. 1. Relative Advantage: This is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes. The innovations which have more relative advantage are likely to be adopted speed. 124 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik The relative advantage may have a number of dimensions. For example, if a new technology or practice gives more yield or income’ or",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "relative advantage are likely to be adopted speed. 124 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik The relative advantage may have a number of dimensions. For example, if a new technology or practice gives more yield or income’ or saves time, labour and cost; or has less risk than the existing one; it has more relative advantage. Multiple use of an innovation may be a form of relative advantage. For example, an equipment or material which may be used for a number of activities has more advantage than an equipment or material which can be used for a single purpose. The advantage of location for specific enterprises in specific areas may provide some relative advantage. The innovations which have more relative advantage are likely to be adopted quickly. 2. Compatibility: This is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters. Compatibility has at least two dimensions – situational compatibility and cultural compatibility. When a new crop variety suits the agro climatic condition of the farmer, it indicates situational compatibility. When a breed of livestock advocated to the farmer is in agreement with their beliefs and values, it is cultural compatibility. The name given to an innovation may affect its compatibility. Compatibility of an innovation is essential for its adoption 3. Complexity: This is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use. An innovation should, as far as possible, be less complex for the farmers to understand and use. However, complexity of an innovation may not deter its adoption, provided it has more relative advantage. For example, many of the high yielding technologies like HYV crops, crossbred cattle, composite fish",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and use. An innovation should, as far as possible, be less complex for the farmers to understand and use. However, complexity of an innovation may not deter its adoption, provided it has more relative advantage. For example, many of the high yielding technologies like HYV crops, crossbred cattle, composite fish culture etc., are quite complex. Still, their diffusion have been quite high, which may be due to their high relative advantage in terms of more yield and income and shorter gestation period. Complex technologies often require complementary adoption. For example, adoption of high yielding technologies 125 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik require adoption of balanced nutrition practices, appropriate protection technology and better management methods, to get the best results. Complex technologies, because of their complicated and intricate nature, require consistent training and communication support for the clientele, for their adoption and continued use. 4. Trialability: This is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis. Adoption of new seeds and fertilizers are more, compared to new farm machinery, simply because seeds and fertilizers may be purchased in small units and tried, whereas, purchase of farm machinery, requires large investment and cannot be tried in parts. The minikit demonstrations have helped in spreading the cultivation of high yielding variety crops as this method involves small scale trial by the farmers. Earlier adopters appear to be more concerned about the trialability of an innovation than later adopters. 5. Observability: This is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others. The visible impact of an innovation facilitates its diffusion in the social system. For example, application of balanced fertilizer in crop plants has almost always been recommended to the",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "innovation than later adopters. 5. Observability: This is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others. The visible impact of an innovation facilitates its diffusion in the social system. For example, application of balanced fertilizer in crop plants has almost always been recommended to the farmers. In practice, farmers generally use more of nitrogenous fertilizers. It is because, the effect of nitrogenous fertilizer is very obvious in the eyes of the farmers – the plants “jump” the leaves turn green, whereas, the effects of phosphatic and potassic fertilizers are not so evident. Understanding the beneficial effects of balanced fertilization by the farmers, which is more profitable in the long run, requires high level comprehension, which may be brought about by intensive training and communication. 6. Predictability refers to the degree of certainty of receiving expected benefits from the adoption of an innovation. Disease control has two aspects-preventive and curative. Preventive innovations in disease control are generally less costly than the curative innovations, but the results of preventive innovations are not so obvious, compared to those of the curative innovations. That is why technologies like treatment of seeds; preventive vaccinations etc. have been less adopted. Treatment of seed potato has, however, very high rate of diffusion, because 126 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik preventing disease in this high investment crop brings higher return, i.e., has high relative advantage. Predictability has also been perceived as an attribute of innovations (Napier, 1991). Subsistence farmers are often very cautious while making adoption decisions, because crop failure or substantial reduction in output due to failure of agricultural innovations to achieve expected production goals, can result in loss of meager landholdings and starvation of the family. It may",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "as an attribute of innovations (Napier, 1991). Subsistence farmers are often very cautious while making adoption decisions, because crop failure or substantial reduction in output due to failure of agricultural innovations to achieve expected production goals, can result in loss of meager landholdings and starvation of the family. It may be generalized that the attributes relative advantage, compatibility, trialability, observability and predictability of an innovation, as perceived by the members of a social system are positively related to its rate of adoption. The complexity of an innovation, as perceived by the members of a social system, is negatively related to its rate of adoption. STAGES IN ADOPTION PROCESS Five stages of adoption identified by the North Central Rural Sociology Sub Committee for the study of Diffusion of Farm practices (1955) are widely accepted and received worldwide attention. The five stages of adoption process are: (1) Awareness (2) Interest (3) Evaluation (4) Trial (5) Adoption They also indicated that adoption of an innovation by the farmers is not an instantaneous act. It is a process that occurs over a period of time and consists of a series of actions. Let us look at how a farmer does at each stage and passes through one stage to another over a period of time. 1. Awareness Stage This is the starting stage wherein the farmer comes to know the existence of the new idea but he doesn’t have full information about the idea. At this stage farmer is aware of the idea, but lacks detailed information about it. For instance, the farmers may know SRI cultivation in Rice only the name and may not know what 127 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik (SRI) is, what it will do and how",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "lacks detailed information about it. For instance, the farmers may know SRI cultivation in Rice only the name and may not know what 127 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik (SRI) is, what it will do and how it will work. 2. Interest Stage The farmer develops interest in the innovation and seeks additional information about it either from extension officer or from fellow farmers or from any source, which he feels credible. That means the farmer at the interest stage acquires more information about an innovation or idea. Farmer wants to know, what the innovation/idea is, how it works and what its potentialities are. 3. Evaluation Stage The farmer here makes mental application of the new idea in the present and anticipated future situations and decides whether or not to try it. The farmer at this stage judges the utility of the innovation. He/she makes an assessment whether the idea is applicable to own situation and if applied what would be the result. For instance, the farmer after hearing to SRI (System of Rice Intensification)cultivation in Rice and acquiring more information at the interest stage what are the components and how they improve yield and save water, he/she mentally judge whether SRI cultivation improves rice yields if adopted. 4. Trial Stage You are aware that at the first instance, the farmers may not take up any new idea & an innovation right away on a large scale because he/she doesn’t want to take risk even though the potential of the idea has been proved. The farmer actually applies the new idea on a small scale in order to determine its utility or feasibility & applicability in own situation. Even though, the farmer takes a decision to try",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "because he/she doesn’t want to take risk even though the potential of the idea has been proved. The farmer actually applies the new idea on a small scale in order to determine its utility or feasibility & applicability in own situation. Even though, the farmer takes a decision to try the idea by virtue of its plus points or merits, generally the effectiveness of the idea is tested taking this as small scale trials in their own field standards, even though farmers has thought about it for longtime and gathered information concerning it. 5. Adoption Stages Being satisfied with the performance of the new idea tested on small scale in his own situation, the farmer uses the new idea continuously on a full scale. Trial may be considered as the practical evaluation of an innovation. The innovation becomes a part of his normal farming activity. It provides the advantage of the innovation and hence the farmer takes final decision and applies the innovation in a scale appropriate to own situation on a continued basis. INNOVATION-DECISION PROCESS The Innovation Decision process is the process through an individual (or other decision 128 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik making unit) passes (1) from first knowledge of an innovation, (2) to forming an attitude toward the innovation, (3) to a decision to adopt or reject, (4) to implementation of the new idea, and (5) to confirmation of this decision. This process consists of series of actions and choices over time through which an individual or an organization evaluates a new idea and decides whether or not to incorporate the new idea into the ongoing practice. The innovation-decision is a special type of decision-making; it has certain characteristics not found in other",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "consists of series of actions and choices over time through which an individual or an organization evaluates a new idea and decides whether or not to incorporate the new idea into the ongoing practice. The innovation-decision is a special type of decision-making; it has certain characteristics not found in other kinds of decision-making situations. In the case of the adoption of an innovation, an individual must choose a new alternative over those previously in existence. Stages in Innovation-Decision process 1. Knowledge Stage Innovation-decision process begins with knowledge stage, which commences when the farmer is exposed to the innovation’s existence and gains some understanding of how it functions. The innovation-decision process is essentially an information-seeking and information – processing activity in which the individual is motivated to reduce uncertainty about the advantages and disadvantages of an innovation. The individual wishes to understand the innovation, and give meaning to it. A need can motivate an individual to seek information about an innovation and the knowledge of an innovation may develop the need. 2. Persuasion Stage At the persuasion stage in the innovation-decision process, the individual forms a favourable or unfavourable attitude towards the innovation. Whereas the mental activity at the knowledge stage was mainly cognitive (or knowing), the main type of thinking at the persuasion stage is affecting (or feeling). Until the individual knows about a new idea, of course, he cannot begin to form an attitude toward it. At the persuasion stage the individual becomes more psychologically involved with the innovation. Now he actively seeks information about the idea. His personality as well as the norms of his social system may affect where he seeks information, what messages he receives, and how he interprets the information he received. Thus, selective perception is important in determining the receiver’s communication behaviour at the",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Now he actively seeks information about the idea. His personality as well as the norms of his social system may affect where he seeks information, what messages he receives, and how he interprets the information he received. Thus, selective perception is important in determining the receiver’s communication behaviour at the attitude formation stage. For it is at the persuasion stage that a general perception of the innovation is developed. Such perceived 129 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik attributes of an innovation as its relative advantage, compatibility, and complexity are especially important at this stage. In developing a favourable or unfavourable attitude toward the innovation, the individual may mentally apply the new idea to his present or anticipated future situation before deciding whether or not to try it. This might be thought of as a vicarious trial. 3. Decision Stage At the decision stage in innovation-decision process, the individual engages in activities which lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation. The individual puts the innovation to a small scale trial in own situation. Considering the relative advantage, risk involved and many factors like availability of market, need for the family etc. the individual takes a decision to adopt or reject the innovation. Adoption is a decision to make full use of innovation as the best course of action available. Rejection is a decision not to adopt an innovation. Innovations, which can be divided for trial use, are generally adopted more rapidly. Most farmers who try an innovation then move to an adoption decision, if the innovation has a certain degree of relative advantage. 4. Implementation Stage Implementation occurs when an individual (or other decision making unit) puts an innovation into use. Until the implementation stage,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "use, are generally adopted more rapidly. Most farmers who try an innovation then move to an adoption decision, if the innovation has a certain degree of relative advantage. 4. Implementation Stage Implementation occurs when an individual (or other decision making unit) puts an innovation into use. Until the implementation stage, the innovation-decision process has been a strictly mental exercise. But implementation involves overt behaviour change, as the new idea is actually put into practice. At this stage the individual is generally concerned with where to get the innovation, how to use it and what operational problems will be faced and how these could be solved. Implementation may involve changes in management of the enterprise and/or modification in the innovation, to suit more closely to the specific needs of the particular person who adopts it. 5. Confirmation Stage At the confirmation stage the individual (or some decision making unit) seeks reinforcement of the innovation-decision already made or reverse a previous decision to adopt or reject the innovation if exposed to conflicting message about the innovation. 130 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Most of the researchers indicated that a decision to adopt or reject is not the terminal stage in the innovation-decision process. Human mind is in a dynamic state and an individual constantly evaluates the situation. If the individual perceives that the innovation is consistently giving satisfactory or unsatisfactory results the person may continue to adopt or reject the innovation as the case may be. At the confirmation function the individual seeks reinforcement for the innovation-decision he has made, but he may reverse his previous decision if exposed to conflicting message about the innovation. The confirmation stage continues after the decision to adopt or reject for an indefinite",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the innovation as the case may be. At the confirmation function the individual seeks reinforcement for the innovation-decision he has made, but he may reverse his previous decision if exposed to conflicting message about the innovation. The confirmation stage continues after the decision to adopt or reject for an indefinite period in time. Throughout the confirmation function the individual seeks to avoid a state of internal disequilibrium or dissonance or to reduce it if it occurs. Farmer seeks to accomplish it by changing his knowledge, attitude or actions. Rejection is decision not to adopt an innovation. This may be of two types, active rejection and passive rejection. When a farmer rejects after adopting the innovation including even its trial is called Active Rejection and simply nonadoption is called Passive Rejection. ADOPTER CATEGORIES There are different categories of farmers. According to Rogers (1971), the farmers based on their innovativeness can be classified as 1. Innovators (Venturesome) 2. Early adopters (Respectable) 3. Early majority (Deliberate) 4. Late majority (Skeptical) 5. Laggards (Traditional) All individuals in a social system do not adopt an innovation at the same time. Rather, they adopt in an ordered time sequence, and they may be classified into adopter categories on the basis of when they first begin using a new idea. In technology transfer programme, it is of great practical utility for the extension workers to identify the individuals who are likely to adopt innovations early and who may lag behind. The adoption of an innovation over time follows a normal, bell-shaped curve when plotted over time on frequency basis. Characteristics of adopter categories The detailed information on the characteristics of adopter categories is presented below 1. Innovators: (Venturesome) 131 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "follows a normal, bell-shaped curve when plotted over time on frequency basis. Characteristics of adopter categories The detailed information on the characteristics of adopter categories is presented below 1. Innovators: (Venturesome) 131 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik a) Have larger farms. b) High net worth and risk capital. c) Willing to take risks. d) Usually not past middle age e) Generally well educated f) Have respect and prestige in progressive communities but not in conservative type of communities. g) Mentally alert and actively seeking new ideas. h) They have many formal and informal contacts outside the immediate locality. i) They often by-pass the local extension worker in getting information from the originating sources, and may learn about new things even before he does. They sometimes manage to get samples of seeds or chemicals even before they are released for public use. j) They subscribe to many farm magazines and specialised publications. k) Other farmers may watch the innovators and know what they are doing but the innovators are not generally named by other farmers as “neighbours and friends” to whom they go for information. 2. Early Adopter: (Respectable) a) Younger than those who have a slower adoption rate, but not necessarily younger than the innovators b) They are quickest to use tried ideas in their own situations. c) Have large farms. d) Higher education than those who adopt more slowly. e) High income. f) They participate more in the social activities of the community. g) They also participate more in government programmes. h) This group usually furnishes a disproportionate amount of the formal leadership (elected positions) in the community. i) They read papers and farm journals and receive more bulletins than people who adopt later. j) They",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the social activities of the community. g) They also participate more in government programmes. h) This group usually furnishes a disproportionate amount of the formal leadership (elected positions) in the community. i) They read papers and farm journals and receive more bulletins than people who adopt later. j) They may be regarded as community adoption leaders. 3. Early Majority: (Deliberate) 132 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik a) Slightly above average in age, education and farming experience. b) They take a few more farm journals and bulletins than the average. c) They have medium high social and economic status. d) Less active in formal groups than early adopters, but more active than those adopting later. e) In many cases, they are not formal leaders in the association f) They also attend extension meetings and farm demonstrations. g) They are most likely to be informal resources than early adopters and innovators, and so cannot afford to make hasty or poor decisions. h) They associate mainly with people of their own community. i) They value highly the opinions their neighbours and friends hold about them; for this is their main source of status and prestige. j) They are mostly mentioned as “neighbours and friends” k) Limited resources 4. Late Majority: (Skeptical) a) Adopt new ideas just after the average members. b) Those in this group have less education and are older than the early majority. c) They participate less in formal groups. d) They take fewer leadership roles than the earlier adopters. e) They take and read fewer papers, magazines and bulletins, than the early majority. f) They do not participate in as many activities outside the community as do people that adopt earlier. 5. Laggards: (Traditional) a) Least",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in formal groups. d) They take fewer leadership roles than the earlier adopters. e) They take and read fewer papers, magazines and bulletins, than the early majority. f) They do not participate in as many activities outside the community as do people that adopt earlier. 5. Laggards: (Traditional) a) Least education. b) Oldest. c) Participate least in formal organisations, cooperatives and government programmes. d) They hardly read farm magazines and bulletins. e) Most localite. f) Do not have opinion leadership. g) Resource-poor people. h) Little land holding. i) Live in disadvantaged area and having least urban influence. 133 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Fig. Adopter categories on the basis of Innovativeness FACTORS INFLUENCING ADOPTION PROCESS Broadly, the factors influencing the adoption of innovations can be discussed under the following subheads. 1. Personal Why some people adopt new ideas and practices more quickly than others relates in part to the characteristics of individual himself. a. Age: Elderly farmers seem to be somewhat less inclined to adopt new practices than younger ones. (However, the findings of several Indian studies do not support the existence of a negative relationship between the age and adoption) b. Education: More than eight years schooling is almost always associated with higher adoption rates than lesser amounts. c. Psychological characteristics: i) Exposure to reliable sources of farm information may create a state of rationality which in turn predisposes an individual to the adoption of new practices ii) A mentally flexible person has higher adoption rates than one with mental rigidity. iii) Some people are found to be more prone to change than others d. Values and attitudes (cultural characteristics): i) Values found to be positively related to farm practice adoption rates are: a desire by",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "practices ii) A mentally flexible person has higher adoption rates than one with mental rigidity. iii) Some people are found to be more prone to change than others d. Values and attitudes (cultural characteristics): i) Values found to be positively related to farm practice adoption rates are: a desire by farmers to provide a high school or college education for their children, a high emphasis on science and material comfort, and also wide contacts within and beyond the community. 134 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik ii) A high emphasis on traditionalism, isolationism, and security (e.g., owning farm free of debt) has been found to be negatively associated with adoption of improved practices. 2. Situational Reasons why farmers adopt farm practices more quickly at one time than another relate to the situation in which they find themselves when alternative course of action becomes known. I . The nature of the practice: The speed with which adoption will take place is partly dependent on the nature of practice itself. A) Complexity: Generally speaking, the more complex a practice and the more change it requires in the existing operations, the more slowly it will be adopted. The following classification of practices in terms of their complexity roughly represents the decreasing order of speed with which acceptance may be expected to occur. i) A simple change: A change in materials and equipment only, without a change in techniques or operations (e.g. new variety of seed) ii) Improved practice: Change in existing operation with or without a change in materials or equipment (e.g., change in rotation of crops) iii) Innovation: Change involving new techniques or operations ( e.g., contour cropping) iv) Change in total enterprise: e.g., from crop to livestock farming B)",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "new variety of seed) ii) Improved practice: Change in existing operation with or without a change in materials or equipment (e.g., change in rotation of crops) iii) Innovation: Change involving new techniques or operations ( e.g., contour cropping) iv) Change in total enterprise: e.g., from crop to livestock farming B) Cost: Less costly inputs seem to be adopted more rapidly than those, which are more expensive. C) Net returns: Those practices which yield the greatest marginal returns per rupee invested, and in the shortest time seem to be adopted most readily. The above two characteristics viz., cost and net returns are also referred to as “relative advantage” or “profitability”. D) Compatibility: It is the degree to which an innovation is consistent with existing values and past experiences of the adopters. An idea that is not compatible with the cultural norms of a social system will not be adopted so rapidly as an idea that is compatible e.g., the lack of compatibility of beef production with cultural values in India. 135 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik E) Divisibility (Trialability): It is the degree to which an innovation may be tried on a limited basis. New ideas that can be tried on a small scale or on the installment plan will generally be adopted more rapidly than innovations that are divisible, e.g. new seeds or fertilizers can be tried on a small scale, but new machines cannot be tried so. F) Communicability (Observability): It is the degree to which the results of an innovation may be diffused to others. The results of some practices are easily observed (e.g., application of nitrogenous fertilizer to plants), while the results of some innovations are not easily observed (e.g., pre-treatment of seeds, or",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "so. F) Communicability (Observability): It is the degree to which the results of an innovation may be diffused to others. The results of some practices are easily observed (e.g., application of nitrogenous fertilizer to plants), while the results of some innovations are not easily observed (e.g., pre-treatment of seeds, or soil conservation measures). II. Farm income: High farm income nearly always is associated with high adoption level. III. Size of farm: Size of farm is nearly always positively related to the adoption of new farm practices IV. Tenure status: Adoption scores are usually higher for owner cultivators than for tenant cultivators. V. Sources of Farm information used: i) The number of sources used or the number of contacts with information sources is positively related to adoption rates. ii) A high positive correlation is particularly evident with the use of such sources as Government agencies iii) High dependence on relatives and friends as sources of information is usually negatively associated with the adoption of new farm practice. VI. Level of living: Since successful farm practice adoption is instrument in providing the means for supporting a higher level of living, a positive correlation between the two would be expected and is generally found. 3. Social Community standards and social relationships provide the general framework wherein the process of change occurs, and they account for the differences between one community (or group) and another. 136 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 1) Social values: In some groups and communities, people place a higher value upon material gains and money than they do in others. In some other groups; changes in farming are encouraged and expected, prestige is attached to the adoption of new ideas and techniques. In others, more value is",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "1) Social values: In some groups and communities, people place a higher value upon material gains and money than they do in others. In some other groups; changes in farming are encouraged and expected, prestige is attached to the adoption of new ideas and techniques. In others, more value is placed upon tradition and little freedom is allowed for the individual to deviate from the group’s pattern in adopting innovations. If the adoption of new practices goes contrary to the established customs and traditions of the people, the innovator may be ridiculed or lose prestige. 2) Local Leadership: The acceptance of change is also influenced by the nature of leadership and control in the group or community. In some communities, none would accept a new idea, unless and until the leader the community is sold on the idea. 3) Social contacts: The nature and extent of social contact within and outside the community is important in the diffusion of new ideas and techniques. CONCEPTS RELATING TO ADOPTION AND DIFFUSION 1. DISSONANCE: An internal disequilibrium or an uncomfortable state of mind of an individual to adopt or reject an innovation. a. REJECTION: It is a decision not to adopt an innovation. Rejection may take two forms. b. Active rejection: It consists of considering adoption of innovation (including even its trial) butthen deciding not to adopt it. c. Passive rejection (also called Non-adoption): It consists of never really considering the use of the innovation 2. DISCONTINUANCE: It is a decision to reject an innovation after having previously adopted it. Discontinuance is of 2 types a. Replacement discontinuance: It is a decision to reject an idea in order to adopt a better idea that supersedes it. b. Disenchantment discontinuance: It is a decision to reject an idea as a result of 137 Notes",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "an innovation after having previously adopted it. Discontinuance is of 2 types a. Replacement discontinuance: It is a decision to reject an idea in order to adopt a better idea that supersedes it. b. Disenchantment discontinuance: It is a decision to reject an idea as a result of 137 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik dissatisfaction with its performance. E.g.: Crop varieties generally deteriorate after a number of years, they are replaced by superior varieties, if available or may not be cultivated at all. 3. RATE OF ADOPTION: It is the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by members of a social system. 4. OVER ADOPTION:: People continue to adopt an innovation rather vigorously, when experts feel that it should not be so done. e.g., Excessive use of pesticides. Over adoption produces -ve effect and causes distortion of the systems. 5. INNOVATION: It is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. 6. INNOVATIVENESS: It is the degree to which an individual is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than other members of a system. 7. ADOPTION PERIOD: The period that takes from awareness stage to the adoption stage by the individual. 8. INNOVATION-DECISION PERIOD: The innovation – decision period is the length of time required to pass through the innovation – decision process. The time elapsing form awarenessknowledge of an innovation to decision for an individual is measured in days, months, or years. This period is thus a gestation period in which a new idea is fermenting in the individual’s mind. 9. PERSONAL LOCALITE: The person who is directly influencing the farmers decisions within the system i.e. neighbourers, friends, local leaders, peers etc. 10. PERSONAL",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "individual is measured in days, months, or years. This period is thus a gestation period in which a new idea is fermenting in the individual’s mind. 9. PERSONAL LOCALITE: The person who is directly influencing the farmers decisions within the system i.e. neighbourers, friends, local leaders, peers etc. 10. PERSONAL COSMOPOLITE: The persons who are directly influencing the farmers decisions and belong to outside the system e.g. Extension agents 11. IMPERSONAL COSMOPOLITE: Indirectly Influencing the farmers decisions e.g Mass media 138 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Extension Teaching Methods and Audio-Visual Aids: Meaning, definition, importance, classification, media mix strategies; Factors affecting selection and use of methods and aids EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS MEANING AND DEFINATION A method is a way of doing something, an orderly arrangement of a set of procedures. Thus it involves a sequence of progressive steps in an orderly and logical regularity in order to accomplish some task or purpose. An extension teaching method may, then, be defined as a sequence of progressive steps, undertaken to create situations that are conducive to effective learning. According to Leagans (1961), extension teaching methods are the devices used to create situations in which communication can take place between an instructor and that learner. As Ensminger (1957) said, before an extension worker can become efficient in the use of methods, he must know what methods are available, when to use a given method, and become effective in using each. However, normally no extension worker has ability to use all methods with equal skill. Further, there is no one method that is best for all situations alike and hence calls for different method (s). It is also obvious that no one method can reach all the audience. Behavioural changes required",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "However, normally no extension worker has ability to use all methods with equal skill. Further, there is no one method that is best for all situations alike and hence calls for different method (s). It is also obvious that no one method can reach all the audience. Behavioural changes required on the part of the learners may also require several exposures with the same, different or a combination of methods. Research bears ample evidence to suggest that a combination of methods or media-mix is required for effective technology transfer. FUNCTIONS The following are the functions of extension teaching methods : (1) To provide communication so that the learner may see, hear and do the things to be learnt. (2) To provide stimulation that causes the desired mental and or physical action on the part of the learner. (3) To take the learner through one or more steps of teaching-learning process, viz. attention, interest, desire, conviction, action and satisfaction 139 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Classification of extension teaching methods Wilson and Gallup (1955) classified extension teaching methods according to their use and form. Bains (1987) attempted to classify them according to their use, form, stages of learning process, stages of adoption process, categories of adopters, initial cost involved, cost per unit of results obtained, skill required in using them, time consumed in using them and according to behavioural changes intended. However, most of these classifications are only of academic interest. The most widely used as well as useful classification of extension teaching methods is according to use. 1. Classification of extension teaching methods according to use Individual Contact Group Contact Mass Contact Farm and home visits Result demonstration Farm publications Farmer's call Method demonstration Mass meeting Personal",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of academic interest. The most widely used as well as useful classification of extension teaching methods is according to use. 1. Classification of extension teaching methods according to use Individual Contact Group Contact Mass Contact Farm and home visits Result demonstration Farm publications Farmer's call Method demonstration Mass meeting Personal letter Group meeting Campaign Telephone call Small group training Exhibition Field day Newspaper Another classification of extension teaching methods which is very common in extension publications is according to their form 2. Classification of extension teaching methods according to form Written Spoken Visual Spoken and Visual Bulletins Meetings Result demonstrations Method demonstrations Leaflets Farm and home visit Exhibits Result demonstrations Personal letters Office calls Posters Television Circular letters Radio and recordings Charts Movies Farm journals Telephone calls Slides Film strips Flash cards Flannel graphs Bulletin boards Puppets Campaigns A) ACCORDING TO USE One way of classifying the extension methods is according to their use & nature of contact. In other words, whether they are used for contacting people individually, in groups or in masses. Based upon the nature of contact, they are divided into individual, group & masscontact methods. 1. Individual-contact methodExtension methods under this category provide opportunities for face-to-face or person-to-person contact between the rural people & the extension workers. These methods are very effective in teaching new skills & creating goodwill between farmers & the extension workers. 140 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik The advantages of the individual method are:  It helps the extension agent in building rapport.  It facilitates gaining first hand knowledge of farm and home.  It helps in selecting administrators and local leaders.  It helps in changing an attitude of the people.  It helps in teaching complex",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the individual method are:  It helps the extension agent in building rapport.  It facilitates gaining first hand knowledge of farm and home.  It helps in selecting administrators and local leaders.  It helps in changing an attitude of the people.  It helps in teaching complex practices, and  It facilitates transfer of technology effectively. The limitations of the individual method are:  This method is time consuming and relatively expensive.  It has low coverage of audience, and  Extension agent may develop favoritism or bias towards some persons. FARM AND HOME VISIT Farm and home visit is a direct, face-to-face contact by the extension agent with the farmer or homemaker at their farm or home for extension work. Objectives 1. To get acquainted with and gain confidence of farmers and homemakers. 2. To obtain and/or give firsthand information on matters relating to farm and home. 3. To advice and assist in solving specific problems and teach skills. 4. To sustain interest. Technique Planning and preparation  Decide on the audience and the objectivewhom to meet and what for?  Get adequate information about topic. Contact research if needed.  Collect relevant publications and materials to be handed over.  Make a schedule of visits to save time and energy.  If possible, send advance information. Implementation  Visit on scheduled date and time or according to convenience of the farmer and the person is likely to listen.  Create interest of the farmer and allow the individual to talk first. 141 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Present the message or point of view and explain up to the satisfaction of the farmer.  Answer to questions raised and clarify doubts.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "allow the individual to talk first. 141 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Present the message or point of view and explain up to the satisfaction of the farmer.  Answer to questions raised and clarify doubts. Hand over publications.  Try to get some assurance for action. Follow-up  Keep appropriate record of visit.  Send committed information or material.  Make subsequent visits as and when necessary. Advantages  Provides extension worker with first hand knowledge  Builds confidence  It helps to identify local leaders  Develops good public relations  Useful in contacting those who do not participate in extension activities and who are not reached by mass media Limitations  Only limited number of contacts may be made  Time consuming and costly method  Attention may be concentrated on a few big and progressive farmers; neglecting the large number of small, marginal, tribal farmers, landless labour and backward people; which may prejudice them. 2. Farmer’s Call Farmer’s Call is a call made by farmers or homemaker at the working place of the extension agent for obtaining information and assistance. Objectives:i. To get quick solution of problems 3. Personal letter:Personal letter is written by the extension agent to a farmer or homemaker regarding extension work. But this is not so applicable in present situation of India because here most of farmers are illiterate. Objectives: i. To answer queries of farmers by agriculturists or experts for solving their problems. 142 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik ii. To provide information to the farmers and to seek their cooperation for making extension activities effective. Techniques to be followed: i. Promptness: The letter",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "or experts for solving their problems. 142 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik ii. To provide information to the farmers and to seek their cooperation for making extension activities effective. Techniques to be followed: i. Promptness: The letter should be answered as soon as possible. ii. Content of the letter should be clear, complete, concise, and applicable to farmer’s own situation. iii. While writing personal letter simple and courteous language should be used. 4. Field trials  Field trials are the trials to fit the general recommendations derived from applied research to different farm situations in an area.  These trials are to find out, how far the recommendations fit into different farming systems in the area.  Field trials are the final testing ground for the recommendations from the angle or its relevance to a specific area.  This may be regarded as an on-farm participatory technology development process in which farmer’s choice and farmer’s opinion about the practice are most important. Objectives 1. To test a new and promising practice under the resources, constraints and abilities of the farmer. 2. To find out the benefits of the new practice in comparison to the existing one. 3. To build up confidence of the extension agents, research workers and farmers. 4. To act as a precaution against insignificant, faulty recommendations. Technique Planning and preparation  Select new and promising practices suitable for the area in consultation with research workers and farmers.  Select a small number of innovative farmers for conducting the trials. Implementation  Explain the objective to the farmers. Make it clear that it is a simple trial in a small portion of the plot and does not involve great risk.  Supply the critical inputs",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "workers and farmers.  Select a small number of innovative farmers for conducting the trials. Implementation  Explain the objective to the farmers. Make it clear that it is a simple trial in a small portion of the plot and does not involve great risk.  Supply the critical inputs in time and supervise all important steps personally. 143 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Assist the farmers to maintain accurate records. Follow-up  Get the reactions of the farmers.  Discuss the results with research worker and farmers and explore the suitability or otherwise of the practice for the area.  If required, repeat the trial for one or two years more.  On the basis of the performance, take a decision to recommend the practice for general or not. Limitations  Being scattered, the trials may suffer from lack of adequate supervision of the extension agent.  Satisfactory results depend on the clarity of objective and careful selection of the practice and the farmers. 2. Group-contact methodsUnder this category, the rural people or farmers are contacted in a group which usually consists of 20 to 25 persons. These groups are usually formed around a common interest. These methods also involve a face-to-face contact with the people & provide an opportunity for the exchange of ideas, for discussions on problems & technical recommendations & finally for deciding the future course of action. The advantages of the group methods are:  It enables, extension agent to have face to face contact with a number of people at a time.  It can reach a select part of the target group.  It facilitates sharing of knowledge and experience and thereby strengthen learning of the group members. ",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "group methods are:  It enables, extension agent to have face to face contact with a number of people at a time.  It can reach a select part of the target group.  It facilitates sharing of knowledge and experience and thereby strengthen learning of the group members.  It satisfies the basic urge of people for social contacts.  It motivates people to accept a change due to group influence.  It is less expensive than individual method due to more coverage. The limitations of the group methods are :  Wide diversity in the interest of the group members may create a difficult learning situation.  Holding the meeting may be regarded as an objective in itself and 144 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Vested interests, caste groups and village fractions may hinder free interaction and decision making by the group members. Demonstration means showing by seeing and doing I. RESULT DEMONSTRATION  Result demonstration is a method of motivating the people for adoption of a new practice by showing its distinctly superior result.  The demonstrations are conducted in the farm or home of selected individuals and are utilized to educate and motivate group of people in their neighbourhood.  This is a very effective method for the transfer of technology in a community.  Demonstration may stimulate farmers to try out innovations themselves, or may even replace a test of the innovation by the farmers.  They can show the causes of problems and their possible solutions without complicated technical details.  A great advantage of demonstration is seeing how an innovation works in practice. Objectives 1. To show the advantages and applicability of a newly recommended practice in farmer’s own",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "innovation by the farmers.  They can show the causes of problems and their possible solutions without complicated technical details.  A great advantage of demonstration is seeing how an innovation works in practice. Objectives 1. To show the advantages and applicability of a newly recommended practice in farmer’s own situation. 2. To motivate groups of people in a community to adopt a new practice by showing its results. 3. To build up confidence of the farmers and extension agents. 4. To develop innovation leadership. Technique Planning and preparation  Analyse farmers’ situation and select relevant profitable practices, in consultation with research worker and farmers.  Select a few responsible and cooperating farmers having adequate resources and facilities and having acceptance in the local community for conducting the demonstration. This, however, does not mean that big farmers are to be selected.  Select representative locations for conducting the demonstrations where it will be easily visible to a large number of people in the community.  Prepare a calendar of operations. 145 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Implementation  Explain the objectives and steps to the demonstrating farmers.  Organize materials and equipments necessary for conducting the demonstrations.  Give adequate publicity about the demonstrations.  Start the demonstration on the scheduled date and time, in front of those who may be present. Explain the objectives to those who are present.  Arrange method demonstration where a new skill is involved.  Put up suitable signboard for each demonstration in prominent places. The signboard should be colourful and visible from a distance. Local language should invariably be used on the signboard.  Ensure that all critical operations are done in time and try to supervise them personally. ",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "skill is involved.  Put up suitable signboard for each demonstration in prominent places. The signboard should be colourful and visible from a distance. Local language should invariably be used on the signboard.  Ensure that all critical operations are done in time and try to supervise them personally.  Conduct field day around successful demonstrations.  Take photograph. Help the demonstrating farmers to maintain records.  Motivate as many farmers as possible to remain present at the time of final assessment of the result.  Let the demonstrating farmers explain to the visitors as far as possible.  Analyze and interpret the result, and compare them with the farmers’ existing practice.  Emphasize applicability of the new practice in the farmers’ own situations. Follow-up  Use the result of demonstrations in future extension work and also pass on to the mass media for further dissemination.  Utilise demonstrating farmers in farmers’ meetings and training programmes.  Prepare visual aids, particularly photographs, coloured slides, charts etc. on the demonstrations for future extension programmes.  Avoid conducting subsequent demonstrations with the same farmers. Advantages  Create confidence among extension worker and farmers about new recommendations  Useful in introducing new practice  Contribute in locating local leaders  Provide teaching material 146 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Limitations  Need more time, energy and funds for extension work.  Unsuccessful demonstrations may cause some setback to extension work. II. Method Demonstration: Method demonstrations, oldest form of teaching basically show farmers how to do something. In the method demonstration, the farmer is shown step by step how, for example, to plant seeds in line, to use a mechanical duster to control insects, or to prune grapes. The agent will",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "II. Method Demonstration: Method demonstrations, oldest form of teaching basically show farmers how to do something. In the method demonstration, the farmer is shown step by step how, for example, to plant seeds in line, to use a mechanical duster to control insects, or to prune grapes. The agent will probably be dealing with farmers who have already accepted the particular practice being demonstrated, but who now want to know how to do it themselves. Basic Principle:-. The basic principle of Demonstration is learning by doing. Purpose:  To teach basic skills involved in agriculture to small groups of people  To teach how to do certain things, (rather than why they should be done, as in a result demonstration. Technique Planning and preparation  Decide on the topic, target audience and venue of the demonstration.  Select the topic which is importance and needed by the group for immediate use.  Contact subject specialist and ensure their participation  Collect relevant information and equipments.  Identify the steps conducting in demonstration. Practice the demonstration, to be sure about its correct presentation  Decide on the date and time in consultation with the local leaders and give timely intimation to all concerned  Complete all arrangements for the demonstration.  Display diagrams, charts, graphs etc. at the demonstration site. Implementation  Start the demonstration on the scheduled date and time.  Show each operation step-by-step, explaining clearly why and how it is being done.  Ensure that all the participants have seen the demonstration and have understood it.  Repeat difficult steps, if required.  Invite and participants one by one in small batches to practice the skill. Clarify doubts 147 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik and",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "have seen the demonstration and have understood it.  Repeat difficult steps, if required.  Invite and participants one by one in small batches to practice the skill. Clarify doubts 147 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik and answer to their questions.  When everybody has practiced the skill and has expressed confidence, emphasize on the key points again  Hand over the relevant publications. Follow-up  Keep a record of the participants and maintain contact with them.  Assist the participants in getting the required materials and equipment Advantages  Suited to teach skill  Seeing, hearing, doing and discussion stimulate interest and action  Costly ‘trial and error’ procedure is eliminated  Builds confidence  Introduces changes at low cost  Provides publicity Limitations  Suitable mainly for practices involving skills  Needs good deal of preparation, equipment and skill of the extension agent III. Group Discussion:Group discussion is a very significant method for extension work. It assumes that the members involved in discussion are equal in status and every participant has some experience or information to contribute. It is specially suited to work with adults who prefer sharing of information than being instructed. The members are free to question to each other. Objectives 1. To exchange of experience and information. 2. To gain better understanding of a problem. 3. To find solution to a problem felt by the group. 4. To training people in leadership skills. 5. To plan a programme of action. Technique Planning  Make arrangements for physical facilities viz. sitting place, furniture, public address 148 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik system, drinking water etc.  Inform everyone about time",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "skills. 5. To plan a programme of action. Technique Planning  Make arrangements for physical facilities viz. sitting place, furniture, public address 148 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik system, drinking water etc.  Inform everyone about time and place.  Circulates materials needed for discussion.  Arrange for someone to present the issue for discussion alongwith requisite background.  Keep minimum visual aids like chart or chalk board for presenting important points.  As farmer do not easily open up before expert, it is necessary to plan use of technique to help every member to share his point and feel a sense of belonging to the group. Conducting  Make group comfortable by exchanging greetings and general conversation.  Seat the group in circle so that each one can see others.  Motivate silent ones to come up.  Discourage those who try to monopolise discussions.  Clarify doubts or vague statements.  Summarise group’s views from time to time.  Recognise and interpret different point of views present in the group.  Analyse facts provided by the members.  Encourage critical thinking among members by challenging the assumption and seeking evidences.  Motivate members to take leading role one by one. Role of Chairman  Introduce members  Announce the topic and purpose of discussion  Listen to the contributions made by each member carefully.  Build conductive climate to motivate members to speak freely.  Keep discussion on moving track.  Promote evaluation of all generalizations.  Protect view points of minority.  Get balanced participation.  Promote group cohesion.  Give summary. 149 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Role of Members",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Keep discussion on moving track.  Promote evaluation of all generalizations.  Protect view points of minority.  Get balanced participation.  Promote group cohesion.  Give summary. 149 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Role of Members  Members should talk one at a time and contribute only one point at a time.  They should listen attentively and say on the subject.  Members may ask critical questions whenever essential.  They should try to promote group harmony. Role of Experts  In situations when the group does not have requisite technical information, expert may be called in.  He should not suggest his own solution rather help the group understand the problem in their location and visualize possible solutions. Advantages  It is democratic method giving equal opportunity to each participant  It create high degree of interest  It helps people gain skills to work in teams  It develops group morale  It enhance knowledge and critical thinking Limitations  Villages may have factions and hence it may difficult to group discussion  It is difficult to conduct discussion on new topic  Requires understanding of group dynamics and skill of the extension agent  A slow process and may not be suitable in crises and emergency situations GROUP DISCUSSUION TECHNIQIUS: 1. LECTURE: The lecture method is most suited to the literate population. But it can be adapted to all types of audience. It is used to present authoritative information to a large audience in the shortest time. A wide range of subjects can be covered using the lecture method. The speaker makes a presentation on the topic allotted to him for a definite period of time. Its weakness is that people are",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "It is used to present authoritative information to a large audience in the shortest time. A wide range of subjects can be covered using the lecture method. The speaker makes a presentation on the topic allotted to him for a definite period of time. Its weakness is that people are not likely to master as much of the information as the speaker is likely to assume; because for the most part it is a one way communication. Members of audience listen in terms of their interest and remember in termsof their motivation and memory. It is the cheap method and the results are easy to check. 150 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 2. SYMPOSIUM This is a short series of lectures; usually by 2 to 5 speakers. Each one speaks for a definite amount of time, and presents different phases or subdivisions of a general topic. The topic should be large enough or general enough to permit two or more subdivisions that are sufficiently significant to justify separate discussion by speakers. The subject may or may not be controversial. It is important that the speakers are of approximately equal ability, to avoid one speaker dominating the meeting or giving the audience a distorted view of the subject. The symposium is used primarily for information gathering, at the professional level. The advantage of symposium over a lecture is that two or more experts present different facts of the topic. 3. PANEL It is an informal conversation put on for the benefit of the audience, by a small group of speakers, usually from 2 to 8 in numbers. They are selected on the basis of the information and experiences they have. Members are seated so that they can see",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "topic. 3. PANEL It is an informal conversation put on for the benefit of the audience, by a small group of speakers, usually from 2 to 8 in numbers. They are selected on the basis of the information and experiences they have. Members are seated so that they can see one another and face the audience. The panel is generally rehearsed before it is presented to the public. The leader introduces the members of the panel to the audience and announces the topic. He has the responsibility to see that the conversation keeps going, by asking questions or making brief comments, and encouraging the less talkative members. The special advantage of panel is that a spontaneous conversation about some subject may have more interest for the audience than a lecture. 4. DEBATE On a controversial subject two teams of usually 2 to 3 persons present their point of view. Each speaker has time allotted for speech to make his main speech and defense after the main speeches have been completed. In this case, there is two way communication between the debaters, but one way communication for the audience. The range of subjects for the debate is limited to controversial topics. The big advantage in a debate is that more than one side of a question is presented. There is however, one danger. If it is a decision debate there is the temptation for the debate to become highly antagonistic. In such a case, the motive to win the debate by means may lead to distortion of information, ignoring the primary need to inform the audience. This objection to the debate is overcome by holding nondecision debates or by having a forum after the debate. 5. FORUM 151 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "means may lead to distortion of information, ignoring the primary need to inform the audience. This objection to the debate is overcome by holding nondecision debates or by having a forum after the debate. 5. FORUM 151 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik It is a discussion period that may follow any one of the above methods of presentation. It consists of a question period in which members of the audience may ask questions or make brief statements. The forum provides an opportunity for the audience to clear up ambiguous points and to raise questions for additional information. It is also gives individuals an opportunity to state briefly their understanding of a point and see whether they have interpreted correctly the material presented. It is primarily a means of understanding information. 6. BUZZ GROUP Also known as Phillips 66 format or hurdle system. With large group when there is limited time for discussion, the audience may be divided into smaller unites for a short period. Groups of 6 to 8 persons get together after receiving instructions to discuss about a specific issue assigned. The secretary of each small group will report the findings or questions to the entire audience when they are reassembled. This technique can be successfully used for defining or clarifying the problem. It can help in developing a list of possible goals, standards, and activities for the consideration of the total group. It also helps in refining ideas and developing solutions to the problems. 7. WORKSHOP Workshop is a special type of working conference of a week or more duration. In workshop emphasis is given on lecture, individual conference and working in group. Under the guidance of the consultants work sessions the individual participant can",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in refining ideas and developing solutions to the problems. 7. WORKSHOP Workshop is a special type of working conference of a week or more duration. In workshop emphasis is given on lecture, individual conference and working in group. Under the guidance of the consultants work sessions the individual participant can work on a special problem either individually or as a member of group. This method is used for professional improvement and inservice training. The main item of the workshop are lectures by staff members, group meeting with selected groups, individual consultation and study, informal discussion on problems, arranging inspirational or special events and providing library and other resources for the study. 8. BRAIN STORMING It is a creativity of generating ideas to solve a problem. It is the unstructured generation of idea by a group of people. The group is selected for their creativity and knowledge to seek solutions to particular problem or simply find better ways of meeting project objectives. Suggestions are encouraged and follow during a creativity session and everything is acceptable. From this, many ideas, some entirely new are brought forward for analysis and ranking. Brainstorming is less structured than problem solving meetings. It seeks to generate entirely new ideas. People get involved and make positive contributions. It is good for team building and 152 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik working together. It requires good facilitator to conduct the brain storming session. 9. SEMINAR It is one of the most important forms of group discussion. The discussion leader introduces the topic to be discussed. Members of the audience discuss the subject to which ready answers are not available. A seminar may have two or more plenary sessions. This method has the advantage of pooling",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "It is one of the most important forms of group discussion. The discussion leader introduces the topic to be discussed. Members of the audience discuss the subject to which ready answers are not available. A seminar may have two or more plenary sessions. This method has the advantage of pooling together the opinions of a large number of persons. 10. CONFERENCE Pooling of experiences and opinion among a group of people who have special qualifications in an area. The conference method mainly consists of small and large group discussion, steering committee and open plenary session. The conference help in clarifying various issues involved in a particular area as different points of view are expressed by experts in the conference. 3. Mass or community-contact method An extension worker has to approach a large number of people for disseminating a new information & helping them to use it. this can be done through mass-contact methods conveniently. These methods are more useful for making people aware of the new agricultural technology quickly Advantages of mass contact method are :  It is suitable for creating general awareness among the people.  It helps in transferring knowledge on farming and changing opinions.  Large number of people are communicated within a short span of time.  Facilitates quick communication in times of emergency.  Less extensive due to more coverage. Few limitations in mass contact methods are  It is less intensive method.  Little scope for personal contact with the audience.  Generalized recommendations hinder application by individuals.  Little control over the responses of the audience and  Difficulty in getting feedback information and evaluation of results. CAMPAIGN A Campaign is an intense educational activity for motivating and mobilizing a community to action, to solve a problem or satisfy a need urgently",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "recommendations hinder application by individuals.  Little control over the responses of the audience and  Difficulty in getting feedback information and evaluation of results. CAMPAIGN A Campaign is an intense educational activity for motivating and mobilizing a community to action, to solve a problem or satisfy a need urgently felt by it. The duration of campaign may be for a single day on a theme like‘water for life’ for a few weeks as in ‘rat control’ or ‘family 153 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik planning’ for few months as in ‘Vanmohotsava’ (tree planting) and for few years as in ‘Grow More Food’ campaign. A campaign may be held by involving small number of people in a few villages, or by involving entire community or the entire nation over the whole country. Campaign around a theme may be organized only once, or may be repeated year after year, till the goal is satisfactorily reached. Objectives 1. To create mass awareness about an important problem or felt need of the community and encourage them to solve it. 2. To induce emotional participation of the community at the local level and create a favourable psychological climate for adoption of new practices. Technique Planning and preparation  Identify with the local leaders an important problem or needs of the community.  List out specialists, local leaders and other persons who could be involved in solving it.  Decide with the local leaders about the time of holding the campaign and its duration.  Arrange necessary inputs, services and transport.  Prepare a written programme of the campaign.  Give wide publicity and put up posters at strategic points throughout the area. Use mass media to warm up the community. Make",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "local leaders about the time of holding the campaign and its duration.  Arrange necessary inputs, services and transport.  Prepare a written programme of the campaign.  Give wide publicity and put up posters at strategic points throughout the area. Use mass media to warm up the community. Make use of personal appeal. Implementation  Carry out the campaign as per programme  Hold group meeting with the people and discuss about the origin and nature of the problem. Suggest practical and effective solution.  Arrange method demonstration and training programme for the participants.  Maintain supply of critical inputs and services.  Keep close watch on the campaign and take corrective steps, if necessary  Arrange mass media coverage.  Conclude the campaign in time. Follow-up  Contact participants and find out their reactions.  Assess the extent of adoption of the practice. 154 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Publicize successful campaigns.  Analyze deficiencies and failures.  Give due recognition to the local leaders. Advantages  Specially suited to stimulate mass scale adoption of an improved practice in the shortest time possible.  Facilitates exploitation of group psychology for introducing new practices.  Successful campaign create conductive atmosphere for popularizing other methods.  Builds up community confidence. Limitations  Applicable only for topics of community interest.  Success depends on cooperation of the community and their leaders.  Requires adequate preparation, concerted efforts and propaganda techniques, and uninterrupted supply of critical inputs.  Less suitable for practices involving complicated techniques. EXHIBITION  An exhibition is a systematic display of models, specimens, charts, photographs, posters, pictures, information etc. in a sequence around a theme to create awareness and interest in the community.  This",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and propaganda techniques, and uninterrupted supply of critical inputs.  Less suitable for practices involving complicated techniques. EXHIBITION  An exhibition is a systematic display of models, specimens, charts, photographs, posters, pictures, information etc. in a sequence around a theme to create awareness and interest in the community.  This method is suitable for reaching all types of people. Exhibitions may be held at the village, block, district, state, national and international levels. Exhibitions are used for wide range of topics, such as planning a model village, demonstrating improved practices, different feeding methods, showing high –producing animals, new technologies and the best product of village industries. Objective 1. To provide visual literacy. 2. To acquaint people with better standards. 3. To create interest in a wide range of people. 4. To motivate people to adopt better practices. Technique Planning and preparation 155 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Form a steering committee with specialist, local leaders and administrators.  Decide on the theme and organizations to be involved.  Prepare a budget estimate and procure funds.  Decide on the venue, time and duration.  Prepare a written programme and communicate to all concerned in time.  Get the site ready within the scheduled date.  Reserve a stall for display of exhibits to be brought by the farmers.  Arrange a pandal for holding meeting, training and entertainment programme.  Display posters at important places and publicize about the exhibition through mass media.  Decorate the stalls simply and tastefully. Make adequate arrangement for lighting.  Display the exhibits at eye-level.  If possible, arrange action and live exhibits.  Train up interpreters and allot specific duties. Implementation  Organize formal opening of the exhibition by",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "publicize about the exhibition through mass media.  Decorate the stalls simply and tastefully. Make adequate arrangement for lighting.  Display the exhibits at eye-level.  If possible, arrange action and live exhibits.  Train up interpreters and allot specific duties. Implementation  Organize formal opening of the exhibition by a local leader or a prominent persons  Arrange smooth flow of visitors.  Let the interpreters briefly explain the exhibits to the visitors so that the intended message is clearly communicated.  Organize a panel of experts to be present nearby, so that the visitors who would like to know more or discuss some problems could get the desired information.  Conduct meetings, training programmes etc. as per schedule during the day time and use the stage for entertainment during nights.  Judge the stalls on the basis of their quality of display, ability to draw visitors and effectiveness in communicating message.  Keep the exhibits and the premises clean. Replace exhibits as and when necessary.  Conclude the exhibition as per the schedule. Follow-up  Meet some visitors personally and maintain a visitor’s book for feedback information.  Talk to local leaders and assess success of the exhibition. 156 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Ensure availability of critical inputs and facilities emphasized during the exhibition  Look for changes in practice in the community in the future. Advantages  Eminently suited to teach illiterates  Promotes public relations and goodwill towards extension  It can be fit into festive occasions and serve recreational purposes  Can be used to stimulate competitive spirit  Can create market for certain products. Limitations  Requires lots of fund and preparation  Can not be held frequently FARMERS",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": " Promotes public relations and goodwill towards extension  It can be fit into festive occasions and serve recreational purposes  Can be used to stimulate competitive spirit  Can create market for certain products. Limitations  Requires lots of fund and preparation  Can not be held frequently FARMERS RALLY  It is a purposeful activity undertaken at an appropriate time for creating awareness and interest among the community in a concerted manner on a particular problem. For arranging the farmers rally following points should be considered. Objectives 1. To create awareness about a problem and offer a solution. 2. To provide accurate information through experts to the participants. 3. To motivate people for the adoption of improved practices. 4. To provide opportunity for interaction among people in social gathering. Technique Planning and preparation  Decide on the topic, venue and target audience.  Select a limited number of experts.  Decide with the local leader on the date and time and communicate the same to all the concerned well in advance.  Prepare a agenda of the programme.  Give wide publicity and put up posters at important points throughout the area.  Use mass media to warm up the community. Implementation 157 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Start the rally on the scheduled time and cut down the formalities to a minimum.  Allow the experts to deliver the talk and after that keep the question answer session for clarification of doubts of the participants.  Make the use of audio-visual aids.  Arrange the mass media coverage.  Conclude the rally in time. Follow-up  Contact the participants and find out their reactions.  Assess the extent of adoption of the practice.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "keep the question answer session for clarification of doubts of the participants.  Make the use of audio-visual aids.  Arrange the mass media coverage.  Conclude the rally in time. Follow-up  Contact the participants and find out their reactions.  Assess the extent of adoption of the practice.  Publicize the rally.  Give due recognition to the local leaders. Advantages  It appeals to the practical type of individuals  It create interest among the participants  It motivate the people to adopt improved practice Limitations  It is costly  Requires good deal of preparation and propaganda techniques  Applicable for topics of community interest  Can not be held frequently RADIO  When you want to reach people who can not read or write, or people who live in remote villages, and when you want to reach people speedily, you make use of radio. It is a 'personal' medium, received in private by the listener in the company of his family members or by himself. In some cases, of course, there is group listening.  Use the radio to inform, alert, suggest, direct, interest, stimulate and motivate people. It is effective when you supplement it with other media or methods. But the radio has some 'cannot' too, which you have to understand well. The radio cannot teach, it cannot go into details, it cannot specify. Writing for radio :Writing for the radio is different from writing it for the newspaper. The 158 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik reader of the newspaper has your words before him and he can read them at his pace. He can go back and read it all over again if he misses any point or fails to",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik reader of the newspaper has your words before him and he can read them at his pace. He can go back and read it all over again if he misses any point or fails to understand you fully. Not so with the radio. There is no chance for him to go back and start from the beginning. General principles for writing a script  It is writing in spoken form.  Simplicity is essential  It must start strongly, perhaps provocatively and end strongly with a concluding statement  Repetition of key ideas is essential  Avoid overuse of statistics (Spell out figures in the script)  Careful planning is essential  Use research based information  Maintain continuity of narration in writing Before writing the script  Determine the purpose of your writing  The type of learners to whom you are presenting  Decide upon the mode of presentation  Select a topic which is of interest to large number of listeners and which can be covered in few minutes. A talk should never go beyond ten minutes.  Since you have a limited time, select only one phase of the subject. Writing the script  Write out the central fact or point as a complete and definite statement before composing your talk.  Select two or three supporting points which will strengthen the main statement.  State your idea plainly at the beginning.  Enlarge on the main idea provide the supporting ideas.  Avoid referring to the listener in the third person. Use 'you' and 'we'.  Whenever you want to make an important statement, alert the reader in advance.  Make your facts and statements convincing. Give logical reasons for",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "beginning.  Enlarge on the main idea provide the supporting ideas.  Avoid referring to the listener in the third person. Use 'you' and 'we'.  Whenever you want to make an important statement, alert the reader in advance.  Make your facts and statements convincing. Give logical reasons for making them.  Give examples. Quote authorities. Give instances. 159 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Point out the results of experiments/ demonstration.  Give local places, names of local people, local examples.  Spell out large figures in the script. Write two lakhs, rather than 2,00,000.  Avoid giving specific numbers. Round them up. Nobody will remember \"24,858 hectares\" but about \"25,000 hectares\" is easy enough to remember.  Providing all the information on a subject is not the job of the radio. Make the listener seek further information about it either by contacting the specialist or asking for a leaflet.  After you have written the script, check it.  See whether you have presented the subject correctly, clearly and briefly.  See that all the words are short, simple and easy to pronounce or listen to.  See whether the sequence is logical.  Read the script aloud. See if you sound as you should, as if you are talking to someone.  Then write the script on a soft, non-crackling paper.  Provide a broad margin. Use plenty of space between lines. Indent your paragraph properly.  Do not carry a part of a sentence on to the next page. Otherwise listeners will hear a pause somewhere in the middle of the sentence.  Correct your script carefully for mistakes and mark the places where you want to give a pause, like this",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "your paragraph properly.  Do not carry a part of a sentence on to the next page. Otherwise listeners will hear a pause somewhere in the middle of the sentence.  Correct your script carefully for mistakes and mark the places where you want to give a pause, like this : / .  When you want to emphasise a word, underline it.  Mark your pages and put them in proper order. Delivering the talk  Rehearse the talk aloud  The rate of delivery should be , on an average, 140 words a minute and it should be kept uniform  Use tone, accentuation, modulation, silence, volume and pitch in your voice  Just talk to the people and don't read.  Observe mike manners  Start and finish in time Advantages 160 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  It can stimulate and motivate.  Relatively cheap.  It can quickly transmit messages in most remote areas.  It can persuade, it can create or change attitudes.  It strongly appeals to the ear.  The radio voice appears to the listener as authentic and real.  It is good medium for illiterate people. Limitations  People must listen when you are talking.  If they miss some of your words, they cannot ask you to repeat them.  Over the radio, you cannot make use of your smile or frown. You cannot gesticulate or use visuals. All you have to rely on your words and your voice.  Difficult to check on results. TELEVISION The following method of developing a television programme is not the only way, but it offers briefly a logical step by step production. As you become more familiar with television",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "use visuals. All you have to rely on your words and your voice.  Difficult to check on results. TELEVISION The following method of developing a television programme is not the only way, but it offers briefly a logical step by step production. As you become more familiar with television and develop more confidence in your presentation, you may discard some of the steps. Prepare your TV programme the way that is easiest for you and yet gives you an effective television programme. Script  It is a blue print from which a television programme is made.  In fact, it is precise description of visuals, scene by scene, along with commentary. It should also include instructions for the production team on time segments, camera movements, shots etc.  The final process of preparing a programme with shot-by-shot descriptions along with sound, music and camera instructions etc. is known as writing or shooting script. Before writing the script  Decide who are the audience  What are the specific objectives of the programme  Select a need based subject matter from rural audience point of view. 161 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Choose a phase of that subject matter. This may be called topic.  Determine the main point to be made in the programme. List all the items that you will make to support this point.  Get a picture of the overall programme in your mind before you proceed further.  Divide the programme into important steps and list these steps in logical order.  Consult resource material or a resource person if you need more information or if you need to check the information for accuracy.  Select a format or a method",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "your mind before you proceed further.  Divide the programme into important steps and list these steps in logical order.  Consult resource material or a resource person if you need more information or if you need to check the information for accuracy.  Select a format or a method of presenting the television programme. This may be a demonstration, an illustrated report, a dramatic presentation, an interview, a forum or a variety of format, using several of these methods combined.  Determine the need for other participants and contact possible participants (farmers, homemakers, boys and girls, specialists and other persons).  Determine the audio-visual aids, equipment, materials and properties that best show the points to be made. Make a list of all of the visuals. Writing the shooting script  Make an outline of the programme. Divide a sheet of paper into two columns. In the left column write the things you want to show. In the right column put the things you want to say or talk about. Label the left column \"video\" and the right column \"audio\".  Divide the programme in as many small shots as possible·  Describe the visuals shot by shot.  Provide the information about shot number, indoor or outdoor shooting, site of shooting, time of shooting, duration of shot etc.  Maintain the continuity from one shot to the next shot. It is often necessary to use a special device to get from one segment of the programme to another. This is called a transition. It may be done visually, orally or both. Don't jump from one idea to another without a transition. Transitions must be indicated in the script if used.  Describe the area of object to be seen by the camera as  Long shot (LS)  Medium",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "is called a transition. It may be done visually, orally or both. Don't jump from one idea to another without a transition. Transitions must be indicated in the script if used.  Describe the area of object to be seen by the camera as  Long shot (LS)  Medium long shot (MLS)  Medium shot (MS) 162 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Medium close up (MCU)  Close up (CU)  Tight close up (TCU)  If the camera angle is other than the normal eye level view, it should be described as upward angle or downward angle.  Describe shot wise action and objects.  Sate the camera movements called for within the shot  Panning horizontal movement  Tilting vertical movement  At the extreme left of the page indicate the amount of time in minutes and seconds you think it will take to do each important step of the programme.  Correct the outline script in view of the programme producer's suggestions. Provide a copy of the script to programme producer, the participants and others as needed. While recording the programme  Concentrate on the subject, not on the way you are or are not looking at the camera, moving your hands, and the like. Attempt to get an informal approach and to treat your audience as one individual, not as a group of thousands. Present the programme as it was outlined and as the programme producer expects it. Trust the programme producer and the technical crew to produce as good a show as they possibly can.  If something unexpected happens or you make a mistake or drop something, don't let it bother you. Recognise the mistake and continue your programme",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and as the programme producer expects it. Trust the programme producer and the technical crew to produce as good a show as they possibly can.  If something unexpected happens or you make a mistake or drop something, don't let it bother you. Recognise the mistake and continue your programme as planned.  Facial expressions are very important. A smile on the face makes a lot of difference. Gestures should be used effectively in the communication process.  Unnecessary movements should be avoided. Check the habits of playing with a paperweight, pen, chalk or scratching your head or cleaning your eyes or nose. Avoid those movements also, which will express your nervousness.  Face the camera while talking to the viewers. Look into the lens of the camera for having eye to eye contact with the viewers. However, this does not mean that one should continuously stare at the camera. Acknowledge the presence of the other participants of the programme by looking at them from time to time. 163 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik  Neat physical appearance is very important. Dark grey apparel and colourful designed shirts have been found well suited. Oily hair or face reflect light and appear to be shiny. Avoid use of excess hair oil and wash your face  Visual aids, samples, models, working models, specimens etc. makes your programme interesting. Visual aids should be precise, to the point and drawn and coloured with sharp colours. Graphic material, charts, slides, film-strips etc. should also be used to make the programme more intelligible.  Pronunciation should be very clear and be audible. Proper speed should be maintained while speaking. Proper word should be selected to communicate the message. Avoid fad words and",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and coloured with sharp colours. Graphic material, charts, slides, film-strips etc. should also be used to make the programme more intelligible.  Pronunciation should be very clear and be audible. Proper speed should be maintained while speaking. Proper word should be selected to communicate the message. Avoid fad words and slang. Metaphors, phrases, jargon and flown language should not be used.  Don't have apologetic opening tone. Let your voice show emotions. Do not sound weary and depressed. Let your voice have vitality, vigour, energy and enthusiasm. FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION AND USE The following are some of the factors that may influence the selection and use of extension teaching methods 1. The behavioural changes expected in people i.e. change in knowledge, skills or attitude : We all know that most mass media methods are good for effecting changes in attitude and knowledge of the people, while most individual and group methods are useful for bringing about changes in knowledge and skills. 2. Nature of subject matter being taught particular aspect of the technology and whether understanding depends on seeing or not. 3. Nature of audience their age, education, interest, experience, knowledge, intelligence etc. 4. Number of persons to be covered: Individual and group contact methods are slow and cannot cover a large population in a relative short period. Hence if the population to be covered is large and time available is relatively short, mass contact methods may be more effective. 5. Availability of mass media to the clientele: If farmers own radio, TV and subscribe to farm journals, newspapers and buy extension publications, they can be effectively reached through such media. However, if the availability of any or all sources of information is limited in any area, it will be difficult to communicate with them, unless the information sources available",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "own radio, TV and subscribe to farm journals, newspapers and buy extension publications, they can be effectively reached through such media. However, if the availability of any or all sources of information is limited in any area, it will be difficult to communicate with them, unless the information sources available to them are utilized. 164 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik 6. Skill on the part of extension worker for the use of different extension methods: All extension workers are not equally efficient in the use of all the extension teaching methods. Hence they will tend to use relatively more of those methods with which they are familiar. 7. Cost involved: Some methods are relatively more costly to use than others. Hence the initial investment required and the availability of related equipment and facilities may encourage or discourage the use of some methods. 8. Basic facilities needed: Some methods need electricity, dark room, projection screen, projectors and so forth. Hence such methods can only be used if such facilities are available at a place and time when needed. Classification of Audio-Visual Aids The instructional devices through the message can only be heard are known to be Audio Aids. The instructional devices which help to visualize the message are known as VISUAL AIDS. The instructional devices through which the message can be heard and seen simultaneously are known as AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS. The audio-visual aids may be classified into three categories as follows: Audio aids Visual aids Audio – visual aids 1. Tape Recorder 2. Public address system 3. Telephone Non projected 1. Chalk board 2. Bulletin board 3. Picture and photograph 4. Flannel graph, flash card, flip chart 5. Poster 6. Diagram, map, chart and graph 7. Specimen, model,",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "categories as follows: Audio aids Visual aids Audio – visual aids 1. Tape Recorder 2. Public address system 3. Telephone Non projected 1. Chalk board 2. Bulletin board 3. Picture and photograph 4. Flannel graph, flash card, flip chart 5. Poster 6. Diagram, map, chart and graph 7. Specimen, model, diorama 8. Translide Non projected 1. Drama, Puppet show, taking doll Projected 1. Slides 2. Filmstrip 3. Opaque projection 4. Overhead projection Projected 1. Motion picture 2. ( Cinema) 3. Video Tape Recorder: Picture A tape recorder is a portable electronic gadget to record, reproduce, erase and re record sound on a magnetic tape. This device can be used without much fuss by anybody by operating the 165 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik following press buttons at-tached to the recorder, viz, stop, play, wind, rewind, record, pause, and eject. Public Address System (PA system) : Picture It is an electronic sound amplification and distribution system with a microphone, amplifier and loudspeakers, used to allow a person to address a large public. Chalk board: Picture Chalkboard is perhaps one of the oldest visual teaching aids widely used in schools, colleges, universities and training centres through-out the world. Even though it has given way to modern sophisticated and effective visual teaching aids in the advanced countries, the chalkboard is still widely used in most training centres, extension officers, primary and secondary schools in Sub Sahara African countries. Because of it familiarity and availability in the rural communities, extension field officers make use of chalkboards in carrying out farmer training workshops and Farmer Field School (FFS) classes where chalkboards provide platform for text, drawings and sketches to be displaced for farmers to learn. Bulletin Board: Picture A bulletin board (pinboard",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "it familiarity and availability in the rural communities, extension field officers make use of chalkboards in carrying out farmer training workshops and Farmer Field School (FFS) classes where chalkboards provide platform for text, drawings and sketches to be displaced for farmers to learn. Bulletin Board: Picture A bulletin board (pinboard or pin board, noticeboard, or notice board in British English) is a surface intended for the postingof public messages, for example, to advertise items wanted or for sale, announce events, or provide information. Bulletin boards are often made of a material such as cork, plywood, in rural communities, walls of buildings and barks of trees serve the purpose of bulletin boards. For development workers such health or agricultural extension workers, bulletin boards is used for the display of educational and information materials. How to use Bulletin Boards Bulletin Boards can be used to give announcement about an event or inform the general public about a product, project or policy. It can also be used by extension agent to call for meeting or community forum. Extension field officers can also use bulletin boards to provide seasonal information such time of land preparation, planting, weeding and harvesting. Bulletin boards are also useful in explaining important events, or reports special activities. One inherent weakness of bulletin board is that is not effective for illiterate group and also it re-quire a lot of time in designing writing it. 166 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Picture and Photograph Picture is a representation made by drawing, painting or photography which gives single accurate idea of an object. A picture may tell a story without using a single word. Picture may be in black and white or in colour pictures and blowup photographs have",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Agriculture, Nashik Picture and Photograph Picture is a representation made by drawing, painting or photography which gives single accurate idea of an object. A picture may tell a story without using a single word. Picture may be in black and white or in colour pictures and blowup photographs have more appeal. Photography has been considerably improved with the application of digital technology. Pictures and photographs are used in various ways in extension work such as training programme, farm publication, campaign, exhibition, slide, filmstrip, motion picture, television newspaper and display etc. photographs pasted with synthetic adhesive on thick board and cut to shape by ferret machine can produce good display material with 3-dimensional effect. Flannel Graph: Picture It is a simple training aid with an apple in its action and suspense. Most useful in communication for a group. In this method information is written on piece of the paper or cardboard which have flannel or send paper pasted at the back. These can be pressed against a flannel board for presentation. Flannel graph is like a dream. It has a history or plot. It has a background or set. It has parts that can be moved around an actor. Flash Cards: Picture These are brief visual messages on poster board cards, displayed to emphasize important points in a presentation. Drawing, cartoons and photographs can also be used with brief messages on flash cards. The story is told as each card is held before the group. Flip Chart: Picture A flipchart is a series of sheets of paper, fastened together at the top. When a sheet has been used, it can be „flipped‟ over the top so that the next sheet can be used. Development educators may purchase ready-made flipcharts, or they can make own flipcharts easily. Flipchart when being used",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "is a series of sheets of paper, fastened together at the top. When a sheet has been used, it can be „flipped‟ over the top so that the next sheet can be used. Development educators may purchase ready-made flipcharts, or they can make own flipcharts easily. Flipchart when being used will need to be held by the teacher or trainer. If the fastened papers are perforated at top with a hard card board or plywood covering, can be hung from a wall or hooked over another board, such as a chalkboard. Flip charts are quick, inexpensive visual aids For briefing small groups charts, felt-tip markers and graphic materials are readily available, and with a modest ability at lettering, the presenters can compose the desired visual aid in-house. 167 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Strength: 1. Help the speaker proceed through the material 2. Convey information 3. Provide the audience with something to look at in addition to the speaker. 4. Can be prepared prior to, as well as during, the presentation 5. Demonstrate that the speaker has given thought to his or her remarks 6. Can be used to record audience questions and comments 7. Can be converted to slides Poster: Poster is a placard displayed in a public place with the purpose of creating awareness amongst the people. A poster is generally seen from a distance and the person glancing at it seldom has the time or inclination to stop and read. The job of the poster is to stop the hurriedly passing persons, thrust the massage upon them quickly and lead them to action immediately or eventually. A good poster should have the following properties1. It must be able to attract attentionthe hurriedly passing person",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "or inclination to stop and read. The job of the poster is to stop the hurriedly passing persons, thrust the massage upon them quickly and lead them to action immediately or eventually. A good poster should have the following properties1. It must be able to attract attentionthe hurriedly passing person must be stopped by some attractive feature in the poster to take a look at it. 2. It must convey the massage quicklywording must be brief and illustrations easily understood, so that the massage of the poster is quickly absorbed. 3. It must lead to action either immediately or eventually. This requires a forceful idea, strongly presented by the content of the poster. Diagram, map, chart and graph Diagram, map, chart and graph are visuals where information is summarized and presented in a more or less abstract form. For exampleA diagram: is line drawing of an object or an idea. A map: is an informative diagram of an area. A chart: contains information in tabular form A graph :is a diagrammatic representation of the relationship between variables. In diagram, map, chart and graph information is presented in abstract form, such as, a higher level of education and intelligence of the audience is required to understand and absorb the information. Specimen, Model, Diorama Specimen is a sample which represents the whole. 168 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik Model is miniature replica of an object. Diorama is a scenic representation of the original, with specimen, model and painting. The term „diorama‟ is derived from the Greek which means „to see through‟. Translide Translides are transparent big size photographs which are displayed by providing light at the back.for this purpose, shallow wooden boxes are made with front side open and",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "representation of the original, with specimen, model and painting. The term „diorama‟ is derived from the Greek which means „to see through‟. Translide Translides are transparent big size photographs which are displayed by providing light at the back.for this purpose, shallow wooden boxes are made with front side open and backside fixed with hinge. On the frontside two glasses are fitted, of which the outer one is fixed transparent sheet glass and the inner on removable ground glass sheet. Two tubelights are fitted on two opposite sides inside the box, with their switches outside. The boxes are painted and arrangements are made to fix them on the wall or on display stand. Transparent photographic sheets, known as translides, are then inserted between the two sheets of a glass from the back sideside. Lights are put on when there are visitors or an extension programme is going on. Translide are costly, but produce beautiful life-like values. These may be used in communication centre, information centre and exhibitions, or placed in the lobby. Filmstrips: Filmstrips are a series of black-and-white or coloured pictures depicting a single idea, and instead of being individually mounted are printed on a single length of strip of 35mm film. Such strips can be shown to an audience of about a 100 people. Slide projectors are use to show images on filmstrip to audience. One advantage of film strip show over a still photograph is that the pictures are shown in a motion and as such stimulate connection between the pictures in a series of show in the mind of audience. The additional advantage in using the film-strips is that the film can be stopped any-time during the show to explain or discuss a difficult or interesting point. This helps stimulate discussion and enhance understanding and effective participation",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "between the pictures in a series of show in the mind of audience. The additional advantage in using the film-strips is that the film can be stopped any-time during the show to explain or discuss a difficult or interesting point. This helps stimulate discussion and enhance understanding and effective participation of learners. Opaque Projector: The opaque projector, epidioscope, epidiascope or episcope is a device which displays opaque materials by shining a bright lamp onto the object from above. A system of mirrors, prisms and/or imaging lenses is used to focus an image of the material onto a viewing screen. Because they must project the reflected light, opaque projectors require brighter bulbs and larger lenses than overhead projectors. Care must be taken that the materials are not damaged by the 169 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik heat generated by the light source. Opaque projectors are not as common as the modern \"overhead\". Opaque projectors are typically used to project images of book pages, drawings, mineral specimens, leaves, etc. They have been produced and marketed as artists‟ enlargement tools to allow images to be transferred to surfaces such as prepared canvas, or for lectures and discourses. Overhead Projector: Roger Appledorn invented the overhead projector in the early1960's as part of his daily job in the thermal fax department. An overhead projector usually includes a large box with a bright light, cooling fan, and a Fresnel lens, which magnifies the image. A mirror is attached up and over the box. When transparencies, or clear plastic sheets, are put on top of the lens, the light travels into the mirror that shines what is written on the transparencies forward onto a screen. The presenter can continue to see the transparency by",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "image. A mirror is attached up and over the box. When transparencies, or clear plastic sheets, are put on top of the lens, the light travels into the mirror that shines what is written on the transparencies forward onto a screen. The presenter can continue to see the transparency by looking down, while the viewers can see the information on the screen. Overhead projector (OHP) is still probably the most useful and versatile visual aid that is available for use by extension practitioners, lecturer and trainers. It has long since replaced the traditional chalkboard as the main teaching aid in almost all lecture theatres, and training workshops. Slides Slide is a transparent mounted picture which is projected by focusing light through it. The projection may be made on roll back screen or on white wall. Slides of 35 mm. films mounted on individual cardboard frames are more common and are extensively used in extension programme. Glass slides are generally used in cinema halls. Puppet A puppet is a small figure representing a person or animal, which moved by various means. Hand puppets are excellent for entertaining an audience. In teaching and development work they are particularly useful for conveying a particular message in a fun and stimulating way. One of the main ad-vantages of using puppets is that they can say things which (a) may not be considered acceptable for live actors a particular community, because of cultural sensitivity or the likelihood of stigmatization or (b) children may be reluctant to talk about. The fact that it is the puppet who is speaking creates a useful distance. Puppetry has played an important role in disseminating knowledge in most parts of the world. Puppetry imbibes elements of all art forms 170 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to talk about. The fact that it is the puppet who is speaking creates a useful distance. Puppetry has played an important role in disseminating knowledge in most parts of the world. Puppetry imbibes elements of all art forms 170 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik such as literature, painting, sculpture, music, dance, drama and enables stu-dents to develop their creative abilities. Puppetry has been used traditionally in many countries as a popular and an inexpensive medium to transmit knowledge about countries‟ myths and legends. Since Puppetry is a dynamic art form that appeals to all age groups, this medium of communication has a great potential in disseminating agricultural information and an effective tool for engineering social change. Puppets can bring a new dimension to teaching and provide teachers and students with a vibrant dynamic way to communicate and express ideas, information, literature, and feelings. Puppets make a strong link to literacy and social skills. Puppets can provide a way to assess student learning and how much learners have internalized what they have been taught or read. Learners express what they know about a situation, a character, a piece of literature, an area of science or social studies and most important they express something about themselves. Role Play and Drama Drama and role play have things in common. Both involve two or more people playing a role in a story, in which they portray a situation that is fictional but reflecting situations that those watching and taking part might easily relate to. But there are also important differences. A drama is prepared beforehand and usually has a storyline with a clear beginning and end. A group of actors or actress presents the drama to audience. The words spoken",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "fictional but reflecting situations that those watching and taking part might easily relate to. But there are also important differences. A drama is prepared beforehand and usually has a storyline with a clear beginning and end. A group of actors or actress presents the drama to audience. The words spoken by the actors may have been written down in detail, in the form of a script; and the actors will have rehearsed the drama before presenting it to an audience. Those presenting the drama may be professional actors or may have been selected from among the audience who will see the drama. A drama can be used for two main purposes: To get a message across to an audience in an entertaining way which clearly reflect the lives and environment of the audience. To stimulate discussion among the audience, or between the audience and those presenting the drama. In this case, the drama may have no clear ending: the actors may ask the audience to suggest how the drama might end and then act out several alternative endings. This would bring the drama close to a role play. An example of the first would be a drama to show the importance of hygiene in milking cow. Purpose of Drama in Extension Communication: \"Tell me and I will forget. Show me and I will remember. Involve me and I will understand.\" So say a Chinese Proverb Dramatic Arts education is an important means of stimulating creativity in problem solving. it can challenge learners' perceptions about their world and about themselves. Dramatic exploration can provide learners with an outlet for emotions, 171 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik thoughts, and dreams that they might not otherwise have means to express.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "challenge learners' perceptions about their world and about themselves. Dramatic exploration can provide learners with an outlet for emotions, 171 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik thoughts, and dreams that they might not otherwise have means to express. Also if learners (farmers) take part in drama it helps them develop tolerance and empathy. In order to play a role competently, an actor must be able to fully inhabit another's soul. An actor must be able to really under-stand how the world looks through another person's eyes. In addition to its intrinsic educational value, Drama can reinforce learning and previous experience. Also Drama can be used to promote active learning in any subject-to give learners a kinesthetic and empathetic understanding as well as an intellectual understanding of a topic. Media Mix Strategies for Effective Transfer of Technology Media: These are the channels or tools through which a message is passed on to receivers from its source. Media Mix: It refers to combination of different of different media of communication used to disseminate information. The media is an instrument in defining what we think, who we are and what one’s place in society is? It has an impact on how issues are interpreted and evaluated. Various communication media and channels are being utilized for educating community. Effective communication through need based media or media mix is the basis of success of any programme. Media inform rural people about projects and programme through newspapers, radio, television and videos, posters and variable message signs, mass mailings of brochures or newsletters and distributions of fliers. Media Mix Strategies: Studies have proved that there is no one best medium of communication. No single medium can effectively meet the goals because each medium has its",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "programme through newspapers, radio, television and videos, posters and variable message signs, mass mailings of brochures or newsletters and distributions of fliers. Media Mix Strategies: Studies have proved that there is no one best medium of communication. No single medium can effectively meet the goals because each medium has its own characteristic strengths and weaknesses. However, combination of media can help in complementing and supplementing each other. The strength of certain media can help to compensate the weaknesses of other media in combination. Some of the well tried media combinations include use of mass media with interpersonal channels such as information disseminated through radio can be well supported by discussion among listeners of rural listener club called as rural radio forum. The difficulties of 172 Notes compiled by Prof. P. B. Pawar, Dept. of Extension Education, K K Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik language and abstraction of ideas can be overcome in this way if the leader helps in relating information with local examples. In Peru, the strategy of communicating agricultural information to farmers include use of flyer with radio programmes, reinforcement radio programmes, learning guide, group training demonstration and individual training. Here flyers constituted basic text on technologies with well illustrated graphics. These contents were explained through radio programmes in step by step manner. These instructional radio programmes were supplemented by reinforcement radio programmes, containing suggestions and alternative, as a result of responses received from the field. Learning guides were printed and distributed for each crop in order to see details after listening to radio programmes. The farmers attended training programmes and they also had opportunities to participate in individual training and see demonstrations. Thus, there was enough opportunity to get feedback also helped radio station in redesigning programmes with appropriate cases. Another communication project supported by Food and",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "see details after listening to radio programmes. The farmers attended training programmes and they also had opportunities to participate in individual training and see demonstrations. Thus, there was enough opportunity to get feedback also helped radio station in redesigning programmes with appropriate cases. Another communication project supported by Food and Agricultural Organization in Peru, used video in combination with printed guides and discussion led by the extension agents followed by demonstration and practice. While video was the major medium to provide information specific to target group. In order to make terms and process clear, printed guides were prepared for both learners and extension agents to help at the time of viewing. Extension agents had instructions to stop video at designated points while playing it before the farmers so that farmers can discuss their doubts and problems. Required implements and inputs were kept ready so that extension agents can demonstrate the practices to the farmers. Farmers got chance to practices also and learn the required skills. Thus, a series of video were produced to meet information and skill needs of farmers.",
    "source": "Fundamentals_of_Extension_Education.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "1 Intelligent Infrastructure for Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Food, Energy and Water System Shashi Shekhar University of Minnesota Joe Colletti Iowa State University Francisco Muñoz-Arriola University of Nebraska-Lincoln Lakshmish Ramaswamy The University of Georgia Chandra Krintz University of California, Santa Barbara Lav Varshney University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Debra Richardson University of California, Irvine Abstract: Agriculture provides economic opportunity through innovation; helps rural America to thrive; promotes agricultural production that better nourishes Americans; and aims to preserve natural resources through healthy private working lands, conservation, improved watersheds, and restored forests. From agricultural production to food supply, agriculture supports rural and urban economies across the U.S. It accounts for 10% of U.S. jobs and is currently creating new jobs in the growing field of data-driven farming. However, U.S. global competitiveness associated with food and nutrition security is at risk because of accelerated investments by many other countries in agriculture, food, energy, and resource management. To ensure U.S. global competitiveness and long-term food security, it is imperative that we build sustainable physical and cyber infrastructures to enable self-managing and sustainable farming. Such infrastructures should enable next generation precision-farms by harnessing modern and emerging technologies such as small satellites, broadband Internet, tele-operation, augmented reality, advanced data analytics, sensors, and robotics. 1. Agriculture: A Vital Economic Engine and National Resource Agriculture provides economic opportunity through innovation, helps rural America to thrive, promotes agricultural production that better nourishes Americans, as well as provides new jobs and aims to preserve natural resources through healthy private working lands, conservation, improved watersheds, and restored forests. This vital sector affects each American and is an economic engine that provides approximately 1 in 10 U.S. jobs. U.S. agricultural productivity and profitability are the envy of the world. Notably, many new jobs are appearing in the fast-growing area of data-driven farming1.",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "lands, conservation, improved watersheds, and restored forests. This vital sector affects each American and is an economic engine that provides approximately 1 in 10 U.S. jobs. U.S. agricultural productivity and profitability are the envy of the world. Notably, many new jobs are appearing in the fast-growing area of data-driven farming1. However, U.S. global competitiveness associated with food and nutrition security is at risk because of accelerated investments in agriculture, food, energy, and resource management by countries such as China, Brazil, and India. Technological innovation in agriculture, food manufacturing, energy production, and water conservation by the private and public sectors have been key drivers of our international competitiveness. A renewed private-public effort is needed to develop and deploy advanced technologies that will ensure food and nutrition security; address workforce, malnutrition and obesity; foster energy independence; manage critical natural resources, especially water; and improve our ability to adapt to environmental and market shocks that jeopardize food, energy, and water security. 2. The Potential for Intelligent Agriculture Infrastructure An intelligent agriculture infrastructure that leverages private development and public R&D is the key to addressing these grand challenges and increasing our competitive position globally. 2 Interconnecting existing and new models 1 The Seeds of Innovation – Big Data Reshaping U.S. Agriculture, US Chamber of Commerce, March 2014, https://www.uschamberfoundation.org/blog/post/seeds-innovation-big-data-reshaping-us-agriculture/34140 2 Mynatt et al. (2017) “A National Research Agenda for Intelligent Infrastructure” CCC Led Whitepapers http://cra.org/ccc/resources/ccc-led-whitepapers/, last accessed April 12, 2017. 2 (e.g., crop, soil, water and weather), creating public-private spaces for data sharing, and developing technologies distributed across all scales of food, energy, and water systems will create data-based assets that can be used to optimize agricultural productivity and the food pipeline all the way to consumer behavior and waste management, while increasing jobs, wages, and wealth creation opportunities in both rural and urban America.",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "technologies distributed across all scales of food, energy, and water systems will create data-based assets that can be used to optimize agricultural productivity and the food pipeline all the way to consumer behavior and waste management, while increasing jobs, wages, and wealth creation opportunities in both rural and urban America. Data-based assets detailed in Box 1 include raw data, processed data, tools for real-time decision-making, and tools for models that stand alone and hopefully in the future will be interconnected. Further, these data-based assets need to be generated and shared across the private and public sectors. Box 1. Data-based Assets • Raw and processed data from farm equipment, field sensors, UAS, weather stations, and satellite resources. Some data originate with the farmers and agribusiness and other data originate in the public sector. Data typically captured include production inputs, fertility and moisture content of soil, topographic attributes, temperature, relative humidity, wind, precipitation, solar input, images of crops at various growth stages, crop yield, and crop health/quality traits (e.g., chlorophyll, moisture content). • Decision support tools that use raw and/or processed data to assist the farmers or agribusiness in real time with respect to input and crop management needs (seed, fertilizers, pesticides, soil amendments [e.g., lime], cultivation, and harvest). • Decision support tools that use raw and/or processed data in prediction models to assist the farmers with spatially-connected yield estimates and forecasting cost of production, profitability, and return on investment. Over last few decades, computing research has unleashed game-changing capabilities in precision agriculture, including enabling farmers to optimize farm returns, reduce unnecessary applications of fertilizers and pesticides, preserve natural resources, and contend with impending weather events. Precision agriculture represents a holistic view of agriculture as an integrated food, energy and water system. Farmers monitor crop or animal growth and productivity, while sensing",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "agriculture, including enabling farmers to optimize farm returns, reduce unnecessary applications of fertilizers and pesticides, preserve natural resources, and contend with impending weather events. Precision agriculture represents a holistic view of agriculture as an integrated food, energy and water system. Farmers monitor crop or animal growth and productivity, while sensing the efficient use of water and energy resources. Precision agriculture uses a blend of computing components such as global positioning systems, sensors to monitor soil and crop health, computerized map visualization to understand interand intra-field variability, spatial and temporal databases to collect and query farm data, spatial statistical analysis to delineate management zones, and spatial decision support systems to optimize yield while preserving natural and farm resources. These components and capabilities enable service-based operations and decision making at multiple levels, namely, descriptive, prescriptive, predictive and proactive levels: • Descriptive: For precision agriculture and high throughput phenotyping applications, data collection aims to characterize spatial and temporal variability in soil, crop and weather characteristics and identify stressors and traits that need better management. • Prescriptive: Using collected data and associated maps of individual characteristics or traits, a prescriptive analysis is conducted to determine necessary farm management interventions. • Predictive: Similarly, a predictive analysis that uses historic data as well as integrated soil, crop and weather models may forecast crop yield at the end of the season. • Proactive: Proactive involves observations of crop development and stress on multiple farms over large regions and time scales. Data from these observations are pooled and mined to obtain relationships between site characteristics, weather and crop performance under a range of management conditions. These relationships can be used to customize management practices and seed selection to local conditions. Ultimately, farmers want to maximize production/revenues while minimizing costs and use of resources. Data scientists and software engineers",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "mined to obtain relationships between site characteristics, weather and crop performance under a range of management conditions. These relationships can be used to customize management practices and seed selection to local conditions. Ultimately, farmers want to maximize production/revenues while minimizing costs and use of resources. Data scientists and software engineers can collaborate with farmers, educators and researchers to create tools that optimize the use of resources. The creation of such tools evidences the need for continuous, solid and reliable production of data; the design of analytics that translate such data into information; and the ability to synthesize and deliver the right information in time and space. 3 3. Smart Agriculture Challenges 3.1. Smart Agriculture as an Integrated Food-Energy-Water System Figure 1 shows five major activities – namely, food production, processing, distribution, consumption and waste management – for food system outcomes such as food security. Food production can be characterized by three broad categories of food: fish, meat, and crops (e.g., grains, vegetables, fruits). Figure 1. Food systems and their drivers3 It is not sufficient to consider the food system in isolation since many economic, social, and environmental drivers affect food security. In addition, the interactions among these drivers, activities and outcomes are complex. These drivers include weather/climate, land use change, urbanization, and population growth. As elements of such drivers, water and energy availability regulate sustainable development and infrastructure’s resilience. Further, in a dynamic, yet complex system, effects of changing weather and climate, reflected in water scarcity, altered pest pressure, and increasing energy demands, can influence food availability from its production to its delivery, and likely observe cumulative or magnified effects on communities with restricted economic power and access to food, water and energy resources4. In summary, agriculture is an integrated Food-Energy-Water system with many components and processes that regulate flows",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "increasing energy demands, can influence food availability from its production to its delivery, and likely observe cumulative or magnified effects on communities with restricted economic power and access to food, water and energy resources4. In summary, agriculture is an integrated Food-Energy-Water system with many components and processes that regulate flows of mass, energy, and water across its components. Such flows are seen in water relocation to fulfill intra-seasonal and inter-annual deficits in agricultural working lands. At the same time, water relocation requires energy use and the adequate and timely availability of energy may represent the success of production or transport of food. Adverse economic factors such as an excessive food stock may deplete the price of produce or a climate spell may increase it in places with average climate conditions. Thus assessments of socioeconomic and physical vulnerability are essential to build resilient and sustainable integrated Food-Energy-Water systems. 3.2 Current Agriculture Infrastructure Existing agriculture infrastructure may be classified by activities – namely, production, processing, distribution, consumption and waste management – with the exception of cross-cutting cyberinfrastructure and workforce development. For instance, food production infrastructure includes farm equipment such as tractors, combine-harvesters, irrigation infrastructure and duster airplanes. Support services for food production including germplasm5 (e.g., seed banks), fertilizer production, and farm equipment manufacturing. In food processing, infrastructure includes food factories, packing houses, grain storage facilities, barns, feeding 3 Conceptualizing food sys. for global env. change research, P. Ericksen, Gl. Env. Change, 18:234-245, Elsevier, ‘08. 4 Climate Change and Food Systems, S. Vermerulen, et al., Annual review of Env. & Resources, 37:195-222, ‘12. 5 GRIN NPGS Germplasm Resources Information Network, http://www.ars-grin.gov 4 operations and processing plants. Food distribution infrastructure includes transportation systems (e.g., railroads, trucks, barges, ships, etc.), supply chain and retail stores. In addition, agriculture also needs water and energy infrastructure. Water",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "et al., Annual review of Env. & Resources, 37:195-222, ‘12. 5 GRIN NPGS Germplasm Resources Information Network, http://www.ars-grin.gov 4 operations and processing plants. Food distribution infrastructure includes transportation systems (e.g., railroads, trucks, barges, ships, etc.), supply chain and retail stores. In addition, agriculture also needs water and energy infrastructure. Water infrastructure includes pumping systems, built and natural water storage; monitoring networks, water governance and management. Energy infrastructure includes the electric grid, biofuel production, and fossil and carbon energy production. Cyberinfrastructure is an important and cross-cutting component of existing agricultural infrastructure. It facilitates all phases of the data lifecycle, namely: (a) Data collection and citizen engagement via manual scouting, proximal and remote sensors and public and private investment in field monitoring networks, in-air sensor on UAVs, and inspace sensors on satellites; (b) Collection, curation, management, and long-term preservation of data for future discovery; (c) Model calibration/validation, data analytics, and synthesis involving interdisciplinary research between agronomists, soil scientists, horticulturalists, entomologists, pathologists, hydrologists, engineers, and computer and social scientists to generate and deliver better information; (d) Visualization and communication of information including the design of architectures as well as forms to better communicate information (e.g. social media). Examples of such cyberinfrastructure systems include the USDA VegScape6, and the international Group on Earth Observations Global Agricultural Monitoring Initiative (GEOGLAM)7 which use remotely sensed satellite imagery for monitoring major crops biweekly for end-of-season yield forecasts to enable timely interventions and reduce disruptions in global food supply. In addition, agriculture infrastructure also includes supply-chain management with all the organizations, people, activities, information, and resources involved in moving the products from the suppliers to the consumers. 3.3. Limitations of Current Agriculture Infrastructure Current infrastructure has several limitations and challenges that need to be addressed to realize the vision of intelligent agriculture infrastructure. Social challenges include the aging",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "all the organizations, people, activities, information, and resources involved in moving the products from the suppliers to the consumers. 3.3. Limitations of Current Agriculture Infrastructure Current infrastructure has several limitations and challenges that need to be addressed to realize the vision of intelligent agriculture infrastructure. Social challenges include the aging workforce, labor shortage, and lack of engagement of urban communities. Currently, production of many crops is highly labor-intensive and the average age of the US farmer is about 60 years. The farming sector is projected to face severe shortages of skilled labor in the next decade. Environmental challenges include declining pollinator population (e.g., bees) and increasing variability in precipitation (i.e. rainfall). For example, dry periods are getting longer and heavy rainfall events are getting more intense increasing stress on crops. Water storage infrastructures (e.g., ditches, ponds and drainage pipes or “tiles”) can help store excessive water during heavy rainfalls for reuse later during dry spells. However, these infrastructures are still not widely constructed and need to be improved. For example, the underground drainage pipes in Midwest farms may be augmented with cyber-physical systems (e.g., sensors, pumps, controls, decision support) to store water during heavy rainfall events for reuse during long dry periods in between. There are also many technical challenges that need to be addressed. For example, current cyberinfrastructure is inadequate since the Internet bandwidth is severely limited in many farming areas and is easily overwhelmed by the data deluge from precision agriculture. The Global Positioning System (GPS) based collars, which may help ranchers locate and assist calf birthing to reduce mortality, are limited due to the constraints of power sources (e.g., batteries, solar, etc.) In addition, the GPS infrastructure used for positioning precision farming equipment are aging and increasingly vulnerable to jamming and spoofing. In addition, data sharing infrastructure",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "which may help ranchers locate and assist calf birthing to reduce mortality, are limited due to the constraints of power sources (e.g., batteries, solar, etc.) In addition, the GPS infrastructure used for positioning precision farming equipment are aging and increasingly vulnerable to jamming and spoofing. In addition, data sharing infrastructure is inadequate due to a lack of mechanisms to share agricultural data in a privacy-protected manner. The best-of-the-breed privacy protection technology, namely, differential privacy, is inadequate for agricultural data due to its spatiotemporal nature. Consequently, many farmers are reluctant to share data to allow for computing research due to legal, insurance, and privacy or other concerns. Furthermore, existing sensing infrastructure only allows infrequent (e.g., bi-weekly) and coarse resolution (e.g., 30 meter-pixels) monitoring via remote sensing satellites which introduces major delays in detection of adverse conditions and corrective actions. It will be timely to leverage constellations of microand nano-satellites to improve spatial and temporal resolution of crop monitoring. Furthermore, the level of automation in the farming sector varies significantly. For example, corn, wheat and pecan farms have higher levels of automation than fruit and vegetable farming and manual interventions are needed since these crops do not ripen at the same time and require periodical pickup. In addition, land management and fertilizer application decisions are made by farmers using manual procedures. Finally, there are also organizational challenges such as the lack of endto-end visibility and transparency in the current supply-chain. 6 VegScape: U.S. Crop Condition Monitoring Service, R.Mueller et al, AGU, Fall 2013. 7 GEOGLAM Crop monitor: a geoglam initiative. www.geoglam-crop-monitor.org, Accessed 1 Mar 2017 5 4. The Case for Federal Action for Smart Agriculture Addressing these critical societal needs requires investment in intelligent infrastructure and computing research that concurrently increases economic competitiveness, intensifies food production, reduces resource use (e.g., land, water,",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "2013. 7 GEOGLAM Crop monitor: a geoglam initiative. www.geoglam-crop-monitor.org, Accessed 1 Mar 2017 5 4. The Case for Federal Action for Smart Agriculture Addressing these critical societal needs requires investment in intelligent infrastructure and computing research that concurrently increases economic competitiveness, intensifies food production, reduces resource use (e.g., land, water, and manual labor), and ensures long-term environmental viability and food safety. Table 1 (next page) lists many examples of infrastructure investment needs and opportunities. For example, tele-operation8 may address the structural mismatch between farming areas facing labor shortage and other areas (e.g., old mining and manufacturing towns) with worker surplus. The tele-operation will also require investments in broadband Internet infrastructure for rural areas to support quick interaction between remote workers and farm equipment. Furthermore, investment in augmented (or virtual) reality infrastructure (e.g., farm-based video games similar to SimCity and flight simulator) may help engage the next generation even from urban areas in farm careers. Another major opportunity is to invest in research and development to leverage small satellites (e.g., Planet Labs9), which will provide high-resolution (e.g., daily global scans at 1meter resolution) to monitor crops for timely detection and management of adverse conditions. It is also important to invest in the modernization10 of the Global Positioning System to protect against outage, jamming and spoofing as it is a crucial infrastructure for the precision agriculture during narrow time-windows for harvesting or planting large farms. Table 1. Intelligent infrastructure and Research Needs Areas Intelligent Infrastructure and Research Needs Workforce Development Augmented reality: precision agriculture video-games to engage urban youth Teleoperation: create jobs in labor-surplus areas & address farm labor shortage Cyber Physical Systems (CPS) & Robotics Robotic bees for pollination in areas of declining bee population CPS for water storage in drainage pipes to mitigate increasing rain variability Better power sources for",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "precision agriculture video-games to engage urban youth Teleoperation: create jobs in labor-surplus areas & address farm labor shortage Cyber Physical Systems (CPS) & Robotics Robotic bees for pollination in areas of declining bee population CPS for water storage in drainage pipes to mitigate increasing rain variability Better power sources for cattle-GPS-collars in large ranches, Robust high-precision positioning to counter GPS11 outage, jamming, & spoofing Integrated sensors across satellites, UAVs, farming-equipment, and within soil Automation for labor intensive tasks, e.g., picking berries, pruning grape vines Spatiotemporal Machine Learning, Data Analytics Leverage high-resolution (e.g., daily, 1 meter) data from nano-satellites to monitor crops Spatiotemporal hotspot detection of agricultural pests, diseases and stresses Model resource availabilities, forecast food, water & energy demands Active management of sensors and actuators to optimize resource allocation Security, Privacy, Safety Secure, privacy-protected farm-data transmission and sharing spaces Application-specific notions of privacy for data for spatiotemporal farm data Economic models to promote data sharing among stakeholders Networking, Internet of Farm Things Improving Broadband Network Access in Rural Farming Areas Leverage whitespace (unused frequencies in rural areas) to move data from farm sensors, to local or remote servers, Edge Cloud Computing to reduce need for transferring large amounts of data Decision Support Advanced spatiotemporal image, and video analysis techniques Automate tasks e.g., identify crop stress, fruits/vegetables ready to be harvested Citizen Engagement Social Media, Apps, Easy to use Decision Support for growers and ranchers Downstream behavioral change through apps (e.g., reduce food waste) Cognitive and behavioral science applied to enhance feedback for technology improvement, scientific advancement and innovation Broadly, the complex, interdisciplinary, and changing nature of agricultural processes and these urgent, potentially conflicting goals, demand technological breakthroughs that leverage recent advances in precision agriculture and scalable data management, while integrating new approaches for remote sensing and advanced analytics to provide",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "feedback for technology improvement, scientific advancement and innovation Broadly, the complex, interdisciplinary, and changing nature of agricultural processes and these urgent, potentially conflicting goals, demand technological breakthroughs that leverage recent advances in precision agriculture and scalable data management, while integrating new approaches for remote sensing and advanced analytics to provide effective, low cost, data-driven decision support and automation for the next-generation in farming operations. To enable such breakthroughs, an intelligent cyberinfrastructure must leverage recent technological advances that have 8 N. Murakami et al., Development of a teleoperation system for agricultural vehicles. Comput. Electron. Agric. 63(1):8188,August 2008. ( http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2008.01.015 ) 9 The Planet Labs, https://www.planet.com 10 GPS.gov: GPS Modernization, http://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/modernization/ 11 GPS: The Global Positioning Systems, http://www.gps.gov 6 proven successful for other sectors of the economy in spurring economic growth, profits, and high-paying job creation. One key example of this is e-commerce for the retail sector — in which companies such as Amazon, Netflix, and Walmart combine large-scale data analytics, complex modeling, and easy-to-use and scalable cloud systems to disrupt how consumers purchase goods and services. A similar disruption and impact is possible for the US agriculture industry through the use of these same underlying technologies tailored to food production processes in addition to the enhancement of citizen engagement and developing a private incentives regulatory framework to secure free access to data and quality of products delivered to users. Let us examine a few opportunities in detail in the following subsections. 4.1 Intelligent Workforce Infrastructure Precision Agriculture Simulation and Tele-operation: To maintain and increase competitiveness of the U.S. agriculture industry in the global market, it is necessary to: (a) continuously retrain farmers and farm service providers so that they are well-positioned to embrace newer technologies; (b) engage next generation in the farming sector; (c) attract and train workers from other economic",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "maintain and increase competitiveness of the U.S. agriculture industry in the global market, it is necessary to: (a) continuously retrain farmers and farm service providers so that they are well-positioned to embrace newer technologies; (b) engage next generation in the farming sector; (c) attract and train workers from other economic sectors (e.g., computer science, mechanical engineering, mining, manufacturing) for agriculture careers; and (d) go beyond workforce training to engage citizens and children. We need a multi-pronged approach. First, it is important to make agriculture “cool” in the minds of the next generation. This goal will need to be accomplished by highlighting modern technological tools such as drones, sensors, and robots and their applications in the agricultural sector as well as the gamification of agricultural processes. Nurturing virtual communities on popular social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram will be vital in this regard. Second, small workshops and tutorials should be conducted to introduce current farmers as well as workers from other sectors to intelligent farming infrastructures and provide hands-on experience. Third, virtual and augmented reality platforms should be built to make the training more accessible, cost-effective and scalable. Associated video games may help engage young minds to aspire to be next generation farmers. Lastly, we should investigate tele-operation technologies to engage people in labor-surplus areas for jobs available on farms and farming areas. This approach may address the structural mismatch in the economy by employing people in labor surplus areas for unfilled and hard to fill jobs on farms. 4.2 (Privacy-Protected) Shared Data Spaces Although farmers are stewards of the land, they also must have sufficient revenue to stay in business; they must compete with their neighbors in commodity markets. As such, they may be reticent to share data about crops, soil, and equipment, since it provides a competitive",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "4.2 (Privacy-Protected) Shared Data Spaces Although farmers are stewards of the land, they also must have sufficient revenue to stay in business; they must compete with their neighbors in commodity markets. As such, they may be reticent to share data about crops, soil, and equipment, since it provides a competitive advantage. Yet pooling data allows more powerful predictive analytics and optimization to accelerate adoption of best practices across farms to improve yield and farm profits while protecting water. Farmers are reluctant to share data, however, due to privacy concerns. There is a need to have new data analytic algorithms that maintain privacy. To maintain privacy when pooling data among neighboring farms to improve analytics, we have to recognize that data will be correlated. The soil in adjacent plots will be similar; the weather will also be common. The mathematical notion of differential privacy has emerged as a standard definition for preserving privacy through random perturbations when sharing information to optimize systems in a variety of industries ranging from health care (HIPAA) to education (FERPA). Unfortunately, enforcing such a universal definition significantly reduces utility of agricultural data due to spatiotemporal dependencies. Application-specific notions of privacy for data sharing are needed. It is also necessary to build economic models that will promote sharing of data among multiple stakeholders, such as farmers, farm equipment manufacturers, co-operative societies and state and federal governments. Also note that agriculture is carried out to support human nutrition and so it is interlinked to the remainder of the food pipeline. Thinking in larger systems-level terms suggests possibly new computing approaches and optimizations not just in agriculture but in food manufacturing, retail, restaurants, and food waste management. 4.3 Intelligent Cyber-Infrastructure to support smart food systems The intelligent agriculture cyberinfrastructure must integrate sensing (e.g., GPS, remote sensing, field sensors, etc.),",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "food pipeline. Thinking in larger systems-level terms suggests possibly new computing approaches and optimizations not just in agriculture but in food manufacturing, retail, restaurants, and food waste management. 4.3 Intelligent Cyber-Infrastructure to support smart food systems The intelligent agriculture cyberinfrastructure must integrate sensing (e.g., GPS, remote sensing, field sensors, etc.), data aggregation, scalable data analytics and visualization. Sensing will consist of stationary and mobile devices (e.g., smart phones, air/ground robots) that measure local environmental conditions (e.g., weather, soil moisture and composition), collect multi-spectral imagery (e.g., plant health, animal location, crop maturity), and track implement and input use (e.g., irrigation, pesticide, tractors) among others. Data systems will consist of public cloud services and on-farm or community-based edge cloud systems that implement a wide range of tools (e.g., open source and proprietary) for extracting actionable insights from farm data. Edge clouds are small computing “appliances” that operate similarly to public clouds yet preclude the need for Internet connectivity (and costly data transfer) while 7 giving farmers real time, localized decision support and control over the privacy and sharing of their data. Public clouds will facilitate large-scale batch data analytics and sharing of anonymized information across farms. Networks link sensor and cloud systems to complete this end-to-end, multi-tier cyberinfrastructure that is key to enabling research and technology-transfer to the agriculture industry for open source and co-designed algorithms, programming environments, protocols, systems software, and analysis engines. Such systems are necessary to make it easy and economical to collect, mine, and analyze information (e.g., extracting inferences and predictions) and to form concrete solutions that can be directly tested, evaluated, and employed by U.S. growers to increase yields sustainably. Finally, the data surrounding the crop life cycle and farming practices that such cyberinfrastructure must support is vast in size and disparate in type (e.g., imagery, time",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "inferences and predictions) and to form concrete solutions that can be directly tested, evaluated, and employed by U.S. growers to increase yields sustainably. Finally, the data surrounding the crop life cycle and farming practices that such cyberinfrastructure must support is vast in size and disparate in type (e.g., imagery, time series, statistical), structure (e.g., hand-written, digitized), and scale (e.g., spatial and temporal, plant-toglobal levels). Moreover, these data sets are incomplete, interdependent, volatile, imprecise, and generated by a vast diversity of devices (e.g., drones, farm workers, sensors, and Internet services) not designed to address future (and unknown) challenges. New techniques for data fusion are needed that integrate multi-dimensional data from multiple sources to form standardized and useful representation of a physical object or system that are amenable to analysis. Extracting actionable insights from this data requires new analyses that accurately describe, simulate, and model the complex systems that these data represent, such as the climate, soil, plant and animal genotypes and phenotypes, entomology, hydrological processes, human behavior, community food habits, and economic market forces, among others. Coupling models requires integrative techniques that preserve key system features and reduce uncertainty while eliding detail that results in additional computational workload without adding additional descriptive power. For agricultural productivity, these coupling techniques must be able to integrate analysis across scales (time and space) while reducing the number of dimensions of the problem at hand to enable computational tractability. Given the urgency of the problems that we face in this domain (e.g., the need for job creation, food safety, and significantly increased food production), such research and infrastructure must enable interdisciplinary collaboration and make available real-world test beds and data sets, from which validated results can be extracted and applied to the immediate problems facing both large and small holder farming concerns in the U.S.",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "job creation, food safety, and significantly increased food production), such research and infrastructure must enable interdisciplinary collaboration and make available real-world test beds and data sets, from which validated results can be extracted and applied to the immediate problems facing both large and small holder farming concerns in the U.S. 5. Engaging the Computing Research Community in Smart Agriculture Computing research has already transformed agriculture via contributions such as precision agriculture, prescriptive farming, GEOGLAM, and Climate Corp. Many other opportunities lie ahead and it is timely to engage computing research community. The computing research community may be engaged in this effort via targeted community workshops to survey the current infrastructure for Food, Energy and Water as well as disruptive technology trends to identify research challenges and opportunities. These workshops may also help seed interdisciplinary partnership between computing researchers and Food, Energy and Water researchers. These workshops may be sponsored by the NSF/NIFA research programs in the areas of Cyber Physical Systems, National Robotics Initiative, INFEWS, etc. The workshops may be supported by NIFA Agriculture and Food Research Initiative (AFRI), which recently solicited workshop proposals on big data topics, e.g., Food and Agriculture Cyberinformatics and Tools (FACT)12. This may be followed by a smart agriculture research initiative with research funding and request for proposals for interdisciplinary research to envision and test feasibility of next generation infrastructure for Food, Energy and Water security. 6. Acknowledgements We thankfully acknowledge the contributions of Jennifer Clarke, Roxanne Clements, Melissa Cragin, Travis Desell, Khari Douglas, Ann Drobnis, Wes Herche, Volkan Isler, Kyle Johnsen, Elizabeth Kramer, Vipin Kumar, Erin Mellinix, David Mulla, Luis Rodriguez, Daniel L. Schmoldt, and Helen Wright. This white paper is part of a series of white papers on Intelligent Infrastructure, written by community members. The full series of papers can be found at",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Drobnis, Wes Herche, Volkan Isler, Kyle Johnsen, Elizabeth Kramer, Vipin Kumar, Erin Mellinix, David Mulla, Luis Rodriguez, Daniel L. Schmoldt, and Helen Wright. This white paper is part of a series of white papers on Intelligent Infrastructure, written by community members. The full series of papers can be found at this websitehttp://cra.org/ccc/resources/ccc-ledwhitepapers/#infrastructure. The Intelligent Infrastructure white paper series was a collaboration between the 12 NIFA FACT: https://nifa.usda.gov/announcement/nifa-introduces-new-vision-data-science-agriculture 8 Computing Community Consortium and the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Heads Association (ECEDHA). This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1136993. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. For citation use: Shekhar S., Colletti J., Muñoz-Arriola F., Ramaswamy L., Krintz C., Varshney L., & Richardson D. (2017) Intelligent Infrastructure for Smart Agriculture: An Integrate Food, Energy and Water System. http://cra.org/ccc/resources/ccc-led-whitepapers/",
    "source": "Intelligent-Infrastructure-for-Smart-Agriculture-An-Integrated-Food-Energy-and-Water-System.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Innovation for Agricultural Training and Education Identifying Pathways Linking Agricultural Education, Training and Extension Jemal Yousuf Hassen, Alemu Sokora, and Mukerem Taha, Haramaya University August 2016 USAID/BFS/ARP-Funded Project Award Number: AID-OAA-L-12-00002 Ethiopia Countryside. Photo Credit: Keith Pierce, Virginia Tech, OIA i Acknowledgements The Innovation in Agricultural Training and Education project—InnovATE—is tasked with compiling the best ideas on how to build the capacity of Agricultural Education and Training (AET) institutions and programs and disseminating them to AET practitioners around the world. As part of this effort, InnovATE issued a Call for Concept Notes to accept applications for discussion papers that address Contemporary Challenges in Agricultural Education and Training. These concept papers define the state of the art in the theory and practice of AET, in selected focus domains and explore promising strategies and practices for strengthening AET systems and institutions. This project was made possible by the United States Agency for International Development and the generous support of the American people through USAID Cooperative Agreement No. AID-OAA-L-12-00002. ii Abstract Despite high investment in Agricultural Education Training (AET) programs and institutions in sub-Saharan Africa since the 1950s, there is growing dissatisfaction with the contribution of graduates to the livelihoods of smallholder farmers, who still face persistent challenges of hunger and poverty. This is in contrast to the tri-mandates of AET institutions teaching, research and extension, assumed to be complementary to one another, contributing to the skill learning of students and the extension needs of farmers. In the absence of information on pathways for agricultural education and extension, it is difficult to understand why AET programs would not have significant impact on skill learning of students as well as the extension needs of farmers. Thus, this research paper intends to assess the latest evidence on the linkage between extension and education to identify",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "for agricultural education and extension, it is difficult to understand why AET programs would not have significant impact on skill learning of students as well as the extension needs of farmers. Thus, this research paper intends to assess the latest evidence on the linkage between extension and education to identify potential pathways that bond agricultural education training with extension for improved skill learning of students and extension needs of farmers. To this end the paper first highlights key challenges underlying poor or underachievement of AET in sub-Saharan Africa and attempted reforms, and then makes a detailed analysis of good practices demonstrating potential pathways to link extension with education. In the latter case the review focuses on studies that look into the link between extension and education; and measured impacts in terms of student/graduate skill learning and farmer needs. The evidence indicates potential pathways to improve the link between extension and education include: designing community-based courses within the curricula and/or linking a field/practical component to different courses that can be attached to ongoing research and extension activities undertaken by the AET organization. iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................... i Abstract .............................................................................................................................................................. ii Problem statement ........................................................................................................................................... 1 Literature review .............................................................................................................................................. 3 Overview of persisting challenges of AET in Africa ............................................................................. 3 Inappropriate or fragmented governance structure ........................................................................ 3 Outdated and rigid curricula ................................................................................................................. 5 Traditional/inadequate teaching ............................................................................................................ 7 Crisis in staffing and lack of facilities ................................................................................................... 8 Attempted reforms and outcomes .......................................................................................................... 8 Attempted good practices demonstrating potential pathways to improve the link between extension and education .......................................................................................................................... 11 EARTH University, Costa Rica: A new kind of agricultural university ..................................... 11 Chiang Mai University, Thailand ........................................................................................................ 13 India’s state agricultural universities (SAUs) ................................................................................... 16 Intervention in Agricultural Universities in Egypt.......................................................................... 20 The Innovative Mid-Career BSc Agricultural Extension: Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "link between extension and education .......................................................................................................................... 11 EARTH University, Costa Rica: A new kind of agricultural university ..................................... 11 Chiang Mai University, Thailand ........................................................................................................ 13 India’s state agricultural universities (SAUs) ................................................................................... 16 Intervention in Agricultural Universities in Egypt.......................................................................... 20 The Innovative Mid-Career BSc Agricultural Extension: Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education (SAFE) Program ................................................................................................................. 22 Research gaps and implication for future interventions........................................................................ 33 References ....................................................................................................................................................... 35 1 Problem statement In the developing world, small scale agriculture has been facing complex challenges such as poverty, food and nutrition insecurity, and climate change while sustaining the natural ecosystem (Leeuwis & van den Ban, 2004; Anandajayasekeram et al, 2008). Further, the spread of commercialization, trade liberalization, and technological advancement have created both opportunities and challenges for smallholder livelihoods (Rivera & Alex, 2008). In order to respond to these challenges and opportunities, small farmers currently need skilful and flexible agricultural extension services, which not only provide conventional technical knowledge, but also are equipped with “soft skills, such as leadership, communication, negotiation, facilitation, and organizational capabilities” to broker networks of small farmers and other value chain actors throughout the agricultural innovation system (Maguire, 2012). To do so, agricultural education and training institutions are supposed to be responsible actors producing agricultural extension professionals and administrators who would shoulder responsibilities of enhancing agricultural innovation system in a given country or region (Kroma, 2003). In fact, it is in the first half of the 20th century that the world learned from the US and European countries that publicly funded agricultural education and extension had a dominant role for agricultural innovation (Klerkx et al, 2009). Thus, since the 1950s there have been many efforts to replicate western agricultural development model in developing world where hunger and poverty still persist. For instance, one of the largest investments was in the",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "funded agricultural education and extension had a dominant role for agricultural innovation (Klerkx et al, 2009). Thus, since the 1950s there have been many efforts to replicate western agricultural development model in developing world where hunger and poverty still persist. For instance, one of the largest investments was in the mid 1950s by USAID, which launched a program establishing land-grant universities in Africa, Asia and Latin America, similar to those in the United States. As a result of the program, developing nations got technical assistance in AET administrative and academic tasks; new curriculum developed; quality agricultural professionals were produced; and developing universities linked with US land-grant universities (Maguire, 2012). By and large, the impacts of USAID and other donors’ investments in AET and extension were remarkable from the 1950s to 70s. However, after the 1970s due to changes in global development priorities, funding in agricultural sector was downsized in almost all of the developing world (World Bank, 2007). Unfortunately, due to the 1980s Africans economic crisis, almost all Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries reduced investment in agriculture and hence the impacts of past investments were not sustained beyond the 1980s. Thus, long term impacts of past policy negligence and low investment in agricultural education and training (AET) and agricultural extension systems 2 during structural adjustment program from the 1980s to the mid 2000s, had disabled SSA countries’ production of capable and client-oriented agricultural professionals, who are able to address current local and global challenges affecting small scale agriculture (Kroma, 2003; Maguire, 2012). Fortunately, since the 2000 World Bank report calling for more investment for rural development, agricultural growth has become a top priority on the global development agenda (World Bank, 2007). Allied with that in 2002, the African governments ratified the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP), which calls for more",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "2012). Fortunately, since the 2000 World Bank report calling for more investment for rural development, agricultural growth has become a top priority on the global development agenda (World Bank, 2007). Allied with that in 2002, the African governments ratified the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP), which calls for more investment and broader reform in agricultural research, extension, and education systems to achieve agricultural innovation in Africa (World Bank, 2007). While there are many works in the literature that acknowledge the imperative of AET and extension linkages for agricultural innovation, practical examples or models demonstrating how multiple actors initiate and institutionalize that linkage leave a lot to be desired. In this respect, the innovation system approach – that places emphasis on the role of diverse actors and interactions within complex systems of innovation, and the institutional context within which these processes occur – could contribute to AET reform efforts. That is, a study aimed at AET reforms that adhere to an innovation system approach could yield a context suitable model because the innovation system approach, unlike conventional research, addresses a number of interrelated issues in the national agricultural innovation system, such as how organizational cultures change, how knowledge networks form, and how these processes combine to enable rapid organizational and technological innovation. However, empirical evidence is yet to be developed on how an innovation systems approach can contribute to AET reform efforts in the global south, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (Spielman et al., 2008). The efforts made to reform AET institutions (for example, in SSA) have focused on structural change, investment in infrastructure, and decentralization of financial administration. System-wide reform has been overlooked. AET in SSA continues to operate in isolation from key actors in the national agricultural innovation system, posing challenges for its products (research and graduates) to be",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "institutions (for example, in SSA) have focused on structural change, investment in infrastructure, and decentralization of financial administration. System-wide reform has been overlooked. AET in SSA continues to operate in isolation from key actors in the national agricultural innovation system, posing challenges for its products (research and graduates) to be relevant in agricultural development efforts (Spielman et al., 2008; APLU, 2014; Vandenbosch, 2006; World Bank, 2007). Some developing countries such as “India, Malaysia, Brazil, Chile, and the Philippines have achieved notable successes in establishing productive AET systems” (World Bank, 2007) 3 that continued funding in agriculture beyond the 1970s and have managed to train competent agricultural professionals who enabled their counties to be globally competent in agricultural innovation (Maguire, 2012). For SSA countries, which are still lagging behind in agricultural innovation, there are lessons to be learned from these countries to reform AET institutions and extension linkages and hence train competent agricultural workforces in the way it fits demands of diverse actors (small farmers, private farm firms, and youth). Some empirical studies already suggest that there should be “innovation at the policy, institutional, and program level” to enable AET to produce demanded human resources (Rivera & Alex, 2008). The remainder of this paper, therefore, does the following: critically reviews developing nations’ experiences about attempted linkages between AET and extension systems at multiple scales and levels in different countries; examines strengths and weaknesses; and finally draws lessons for pathways toward strengthening linkages between AET institution's teaching and extension. Literature review Overview of persisting challenges of AET in Africa Africa's, especially sub-Saharan Africa’s, significant advance in development heavily relies on the growth of its agriculture (World Bank, 2007). The agricultural growth in Africa, in turn, faces opportunities as well as challenges in the dynamic global economy of the 21st century. The crucial",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of persisting challenges of AET in Africa Africa's, especially sub-Saharan Africa’s, significant advance in development heavily relies on the growth of its agriculture (World Bank, 2007). The agricultural growth in Africa, in turn, faces opportunities as well as challenges in the dynamic global economy of the 21st century. The crucial role of AET in determining the success of efforts to boost agricultural productivity is widely recognized. However, AET is not realizing its potential contribution (Vandenbosch, 2006; World Bank, 2007). This literature review identifies various interlocked challenges for persistent failure or underachievement of AET institutions in the global south, especially in Africa. These include: fragmented governance structures; outdated and rigid curricula; traditional/inadequate teaching methods; declining and distorted enrolment profiles; and inadequate physical, financial and human resources both in terms of numbers and quality (APLU, 2014; Maguire, 2012; Rivera & Alex, 2008; Spielman et al, 2008; Vandenbosch, 2006; World Bank, 2007). This section discusses identified challenges and respective plausible solutions for each challenge, focusing on the most relevant ones within the scope of this paper Inappropriate or fragmented governance structure Lack of strong leadership and efficient organizational structures are often cited in literature as being among key factors underlying an AET institution's relevant contribution to 4 the national agricultural innovation system. These challenges range from the broader system level to the individual institution, to the schools and departments within an institution. At the system level, AET in Africa suffers from highly divided and centralized governance structure. At the individual institution level, leadership has limited authority to institute significant change in their institution or to develop strategies appropriate and viable for local circumstances. This in turn limits the liberty to innovate for institutional development and problem solving faced by the institution (Spielman et al., 2008; APLU, 2014; World Bank, 2007) . The apparent",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "has limited authority to institute significant change in their institution or to develop strategies appropriate and viable for local circumstances. This in turn limits the liberty to innovate for institutional development and problem solving faced by the institution (Spielman et al., 2008; APLU, 2014; World Bank, 2007) . The apparent challenge of divided and highly centralized administrative structure throughout AET systems in Africa is attributed to flaws in national policy (Maguire, 2012; Spielman et al, 2008; World Bank, 2007). At the national level some AET institutions are placed under ministries of education, while the graduates are produced to serve the needs of agricultural ministries. This makes coordinated policies and funding difficult (World Bank, 2007). For example, Maguire (2012) vividly identified the following issues: “weaknesses in policies that guide AET, the [inter-ministerial] divided responsibilities for parts of the AET system, poor governance of AET institutions, continuing isolation of AET systems from key stakeholders, and serious underinvestment in AET systems.” According to Maguire, the above challenges are external to AET and emanate from weakness of the national policy environment. That is to say, it is policy makers, who facilitate designing AET working guidelines, reinforce inter-ministerial collaboration, enact good governance structures, allocate funds, and facilitate AET linkage with other stakeholders and so on. In connection to this Eicher (2006) noted the neglect of the agricultural sector (i.e., including AET) by the political system in many African countries as indicated by insufficient funding levels. The subsequent effects of external or broader governance challenges on AET institutions have resulted in a number of internal weaknesses at institutional and operational levels of AET. At the institutional level, the biggest problem is inappropriate governance structures that disable all levels of AET institutions from autonomously managing their financial and human resources. The bad governance often results in “over-control",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "AET institutions have resulted in a number of internal weaknesses at institutional and operational levels of AET. At the institutional level, the biggest problem is inappropriate governance structures that disable all levels of AET institutions from autonomously managing their financial and human resources. The bad governance often results in “over-control by central administrations, lack of freedom and incentives to innovate, isolation from national development strategies and lack of accountability” (Johanson & Shafiq, 2011). As a result of these flaws in institutional systems, empirical study shows “declining enrollments, professional 5 isolation, narrow and outdated curricula, inadequate staffing, and insufficient pedagogical inputs” at operation level (World Bank 2007). AET institutions are not well linked to each other (formally or informally), resulting in duplication of efforts. They are also poorly connected to international sources of knowledge (APLU, 2014; Vandenbosch, 2006; World Bank, 2007). Within the AET institution level, the structure is divided among disciplinary departments with limited cross-disciplinary interactions, limiting the shared understanding of practical application of scientific findings (Spielman et al., 2008). Moreover, lack of management information systems (MIS) in Africa has impaired AETs to provide comprehensive, reliable and updated information on the curricula, educational planning, training areas, administrative and financial data, administrative staff records, the career of the researcher teachers, the management of the student flow, and the integration of the graduates into the labor market (NEPAD, 2014). Outdated and rigid curricula It is often cited in the literature that AET curricula in Africa are narrowly focused, outdated and rigid in responding to the emerging needs of the agricultural environment and the overall economy. The content of Africa's AET curricula are narrowly focused on production, implying the disconnect from the current reality faced by the economy (Vandenbosch, 2006; World Bank, 2007). African agriculture is going through significant change in a global",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "responding to the emerging needs of the agricultural environment and the overall economy. The content of Africa's AET curricula are narrowly focused on production, implying the disconnect from the current reality faced by the economy (Vandenbosch, 2006; World Bank, 2007). African agriculture is going through significant change in a global economy. The spread of commercialization, trade liberalization, and technological advancement have created both opportunities and challenges for smallholder livelihoods (Rivera and Alex, 2008). In the globalized economy, food processing, storage and marketing are aspects of the production process that have become increasingly important to agricultural producers. The issue of sustainable use and conservation of natural resources has also become a priority concern (Vandenbosch, 2006). Thus, in order to make a greater impact on increased rural productivity and growth, AET curricula should cover more than simply production technology, implying that for AET curricula to be relevant it should expand to include agri-business, entrepreneurship, rural finance, agricultural processing, food processing and marketing, post-harvest technologies, distribution of agricultural products, and the sustainable use and conservation of natural resources (Spielman et al., 2008; Vandenbosch, 2006; World Bank, 2007). For example, in order to respond to these challenges and opportunities, small farmers currently need skillful and 6 flexible agricultural extension agents, who not only have conventional technical knowledge, but also are equipped with “soft skills, such as leadership, communication, negotiation, facilitation, and organizational capabilities” to broker networks of small farmers and other value chain actors throughout the agricultural innovation system (Maguire, 2012). The most frequent challenge posed concerning the relevance and quality of Africa's AET curricula is attributed to stagnant mindsets. Initially (i.e., during colonial and post-colonial independence periods), AET curricula were designed with the assumption of producing graduates for the public sector, mainly agricultural ministries. This is in contrast with the rapidly evolving trends",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "challenge posed concerning the relevance and quality of Africa's AET curricula is attributed to stagnant mindsets. Initially (i.e., during colonial and post-colonial independence periods), AET curricula were designed with the assumption of producing graduates for the public sector, mainly agricultural ministries. This is in contrast with the rapidly evolving trends in the labor market. The public sector used to absorb the large majority of graduates of AET in sub-Saharan Africa. This is no longer the case. Educational reform has not kept pace with new and emerging requirements of rural young people and has not been linked to overall sectoral and macro-economic agenda or with local agricultural needs. AET has not been re-oriented towards entrepreneurship and the private sector. As a result, it is increasingly difficult for many graduates to find employment (Vandenbosch, 2006). The challenge of relevance of curricula to emerging need is not exceptional to AET institutions. It cuts across all types of higher learning institutions in Africa as clearly noted by a recent USAID-funded study: A key challenge to African higher education relates to the relevance and quality of the curriculum. Often a carryover from colonial times or from the early years of postindependence when curriculum was first developed in many institutions, the curriculum has by and large not sufficiently evolved to prepare graduates adequately for the contemporary job market. Curriculum reform in many African countries has been a slow, burdensome process due to the problematic governance structures of higher education systems.... (APLU, 2014, p. 42) In general, lack of relevance to local and regional development priorities and inadequate adaptation of curriculum to the national context are among the mounting criticisms of current curricula in African higher learning institutions. In this regard, African institutions are not set up to be responsive to the needs of an evolving labor",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "lack of relevance to local and regional development priorities and inadequate adaptation of curriculum to the national context are among the mounting criticisms of current curricula in African higher learning institutions. In this regard, African institutions are not set up to be responsive to the needs of an evolving labor market. Most institutions do not have mechanisms to incorporate private sector, government, or other external stakeholder input into curriculum development in a way that would provide the institutions with information about the knowledge and skills students will need upon graduation (APLU, 2014, p. 42). 7 Traditional/inadequate teaching Teaching and learning methods and materials in African AET institutions are very often outdated and inadequate (Vandenbosch, 2006). An empirical study by the World Bank (2007) reported that with the exception of a very few cases, most teaching in agricultural education in Africa is comprised of “chalk and talk” presentations of theory and facts. The instructors deliver knowledge and information to students as passive recipients. Students have little opportunity to develop technical competencies, problem-solving experience, or organizational skills. Adhering to the linear model of technological innovation, the graduates then go out to instruct farmers on what they should do, with the risk that the classroom instruction may not be relevant to the specific problems confronted by the farmers. The dominance of abstract theory and neglect of practical teaching and learning components in AET implies the lack of strategic link between the three mandates of AET institutions teaching, research and extension whereby (for example) the theoretical content can be enriched with local authentic examples from research results; and student practical learning can be attached to the AET's extension service. In connection to this Spielman et al. (2008) indicated that the AET system in Africa is tied to teaching and research approaches that are organized",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the theoretical content can be enriched with local authentic examples from research results; and student practical learning can be attached to the AET's extension service. In connection to this Spielman et al. (2008) indicated that the AET system in Africa is tied to teaching and research approaches that are organized along a linear vision of science--a vision that subdivides faculties into strict disciplinary departments, provides minimal incentives for understanding the wider demand for scientific applications, gives the greatest importance to theoretical research, and discourages interactions with innovative actors outside academia. In general, with the exception of a few emerging good practices, the prevailing situation of teaching and learning in Africa's AET system is in sharp contrast with the emerging and needful paradigm of teaching and learning. Linking classroom learning to the root context of the working environment has become the defining feature of the emerging paradigm of quality teaching in the twenty-first century. Graduates are expected to operate in complex, interdisciplinary, dynamic, and uncertain working environments. The mode of learning at university will need to equip students with appropriate skills, knowledge, values, and attributes that will enable them to succeed in such challenging working environments. To this end, there is a strong drive to build and create knowledge together with an understanding of working life and to reformulate the concept of knowledge in learning situations. Tighter connections with 8 working life through different academic projects provide authentic opportunities to learn both generic and professional competencies (OECD, 2012). Crisis in staffing and lack of facilities Academic staffing is among the serious challenges faced by African higher education institutions (HEIs) in general and agricultural faculties in particular. Currently the African HEIs, especially the agricultural faculties are grappling with limited staff for teaching and research, both in terms of quantity and quality. Senior",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and lack of facilities Academic staffing is among the serious challenges faced by African higher education institutions (HEIs) in general and agricultural faculties in particular. Currently the African HEIs, especially the agricultural faculties are grappling with limited staff for teaching and research, both in terms of quantity and quality. Senior qualifying faculty are leaving for more rewarding jobs and have been replaced by junior lecturers. Poor incentives in terms of salaries, benefits, and research support services are among factors contributing to the eroding of academic staff numbers and quality (Spielman et al., 2008; APLU, 2014; World Bank, 2007). The condition in the future is expected to worsen given the projected large number of senior staff nearing retirement (APLU, 2014). The lack of modern facilities for teaching and learning such as laboratory, classrooms, computer and internet connectivity (such as for an e-learning facility) is often indicated as a problem for most AET institutions across Africa. In addition, limited finance to invest in modern facilities and staff skill development (example, in using modern technologies such as an elearning system) remains to be a challenge (Spielman et al., 2008; APLU, 2014). Attempted reforms and outcomes Pertaining to the above challenges, in general, the literature shows that there are signs for growing interest and some degree of AET system reform in sub-Saharan Africa. For example, the 2003 Jinja Consensus (as indicative of magnificent vision of reform) aimed at establishing a new African University to produce entrepreneurs and the establishment of an African center of excellence are often mentioned in the literature (Spielman et al., 2008; Vandenbosch, 2006). However, the majority of reforms are structural in nature, giving primary attention to infrastructure, administration and financing. But, there is limited empirical evidence to suggest that such reforms have been successfully adapted to the specific context of",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "excellence are often mentioned in the literature (Spielman et al., 2008; Vandenbosch, 2006). However, the majority of reforms are structural in nature, giving primary attention to infrastructure, administration and financing. But, there is limited empirical evidence to suggest that such reforms have been successfully adapted to the specific context of subSaharan Africa, implemented in ways that produce long-lasting organizational change, or generated positive impacts on agricultural development, poverty reduction, and economic growth. These reforms have also contributed little to creating innovative AET systems responsive to emerging challenges as well as opportunities (Spielman et al., 2008 p 3). 9 In only a few cases has priority been given to the creation of more dynamic, responsive and competitive AET systems by introducing new and different educational approaches and learning philosophies, by supporting new organizational cultures and practices, or by building networks that link a wider range of stakeholders in the agricultural innovation system. Added to that, few reforms are sufficiently geared to complement parallel reforms occurring in subSaharan Africa’s research and extension systems; few AET reforms are being conducted through consultative processes that result in some degree of coordination and creative engagement with actors in agricultural research organizations, extension service, and the private sector. Thus, it remains unclear whether these initiatives are the beginning of a substantial transformation of AET systems, or are just isolated experiments (Spielman et al., 2008, p. 6). The recent study by the Association of Public Land-Grant Universities (APLU) (2014) reported that the AET or institutions of higher learning in Africa remain to be under the influence of centralized administrative control, isolated from new knowledge sources, and tied to traditional teaching and research, confirming that key underlying challenges remain unresolved, at least for the majority of AET. In general, it is widely agreed that reforming AET in Africa",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "learning in Africa remain to be under the influence of centralized administrative control, isolated from new knowledge sources, and tied to traditional teaching and research, confirming that key underlying challenges remain unresolved, at least for the majority of AET. In general, it is widely agreed that reforming AET in Africa calls for both addressing structural and other challenges underpinning their poor performance or underachievement in the national agricultural innovation system. To this end, alternatives have been suggested based on successful experiences from developing countries such as India, Brazil, Philippines and Malaysia showing that productive AET systems are possible. Their success has been attributed to: (i) political support and commitment to investing in agriculture and accomplishment of necessary reforms; (ii) increased and sustained public investments; (iii) integration of different ministries and agricultural learning institutions under the umbrella of a national innovation system (linking education-research-extension as a single entity) to reduce transaction costs, balance investment in education-research-extension and increase efficiency; (iv) sustained reforms in AET for many decades in order to achieve intended returns; (v) aggressive investment in human resource development; and (vi) autonomy/no political interference. Internally, a capacity to respond to changes in the economy and hence demand is more likely to be achieved where the AET institutions have a large degree of operational, financial and governance freedom (Ashworth, 2005). APLU (2014) also recommended the need for flexible financial management. Thus, at institutional and operational arenas, to tackle broken linkages 10 between AET institutions and extension service providers, Rivera and Alex (2008) have recommended public-private partnerships. They suggested that an initiative for collaboration with AET may come from private and/or public sector based on comparative advantages of extension functions. For instance, a public sector ministry of agriculture might contract with a university for an in-service training course for extension agents or",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(2008) have recommended public-private partnerships. They suggested that an initiative for collaboration with AET may come from private and/or public sector based on comparative advantages of extension functions. For instance, a public sector ministry of agriculture might contract with a university for an in-service training course for extension agents or might enroll them in a higher education distance learning program. This, in turn, may depend on the advantage that the two enrollment options (in-service training or distance learning) may provide to the extension agents with respect to the extension service the sector intends to provide to its clients. Similarly, if a private seed supplier needs in-service training on seed quality for its staff, it should collaborate with relevant AET institutions (for example, entering into contracts). Furthermore, AET institutions, either public or private, should design course curricula beyond agricultural production such as “agricultural business, farm management, entrepreneurship, marketing, organizational skills and knowledge, management, and program development” (Rivera & Alex, 2008). In addition, as experiences from successful countries like India indicate AET institutions should forge a diverse set of program delivery mechanisms (e.g., continuing education, modular courses, and distance learning, non-formal adult education techniques, etc.) to meet learner and employer demands (Rivera & Alex, 2008; World Bank, 2007). Vandenbosch (2006) also recommended diversifying funding sources, providing support to educators, changing demands in the region’s labor markets (e.g., combining school-based learning with apprenticeship training), and the need for closer school-community linkages (e.g., transforming educational institutions into multifunctional community learning centers). Spielman et al. (2008) recommended application of the innovation system perspective to reform AET in SSA, not as substitute but to complement ongoing structural reforms, although empirical studies to guide application of this perspective in the context of SSA AET is still lacking. That is, AET reform in the region needs to: more",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(2008) recommended application of the innovation system perspective to reform AET in SSA, not as substitute but to complement ongoing structural reforms, although empirical studies to guide application of this perspective in the context of SSA AET is still lacking. That is, AET reform in the region needs to: more closely examine key challenges underlying innovative capabilities among both individuals and organizations; create organizational cultures in AET that are sufficiently open and dynamic to facilitate change; and build innovation networks, partnerships, and linkages to foster greater adaptation, imitation, and use of available information and knowledge. The detailed recommendations, which could not be presented here, covers key challenges of AET. For example, among innovation networks indicated by the authors were included programs that link farmers with students and educators, 11 allowing for synergistic interactions that promote multidirectional flows of knowledge, both modern and traditional. This includes fostering stronger linkages between formal AET organizations and national extension systems (in all their plurality—public, private, and NGO) to bring students and educators into closer contact with farmers. In general, it is widely agreed in literature that interventions designed to strengthen AET systems are long-term undertakings (Eicher, 2006; Maguire, 2012; Spielman et al., 2008; World Bank, 2007). For example, Spielman et al (2008, p. 8) indicated it is “only through a long-term outlook on change can AET systems contribute to the development of more dynamic and competitive agricultural economies that engage farmers, entrepreneurs, extension agents, researchers, and many other actors in a wider system of innovation.\" Relevant to the themes of this research is that all authors recommended the need for linking education and extension. Attempted good practices demonstrating potential pathways to improve the link between extension and education From the argument in preceding section, linking extension and education in AET is imperative to address",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "innovation.\" Relevant to the themes of this research is that all authors recommended the need for linking education and extension. Attempted good practices demonstrating potential pathways to improve the link between extension and education From the argument in preceding section, linking extension and education in AET is imperative to address the key challenges faced by AET in making concrete contributions to the agricultural innovation system; that is: linking extension and education enables AET institutions to strategically position their role in agricultural innovation systems (AIS) in terms of generating problem solving research that meets priority stakeholder needs, and producing graduates with the skills to make concrete contributions in a work environment. The good practices linking extension and education found in this review include: establishing university processes for linking extension and education from the outset; designing tailor-made programs; improving curricula and delivery of existing programs; and reforming system level constraints on linking extension and education for agricultural universities. EARTH University, Costa Rica: A new kind of agricultural university EARTH University is an example of an institution that was newly developed to address the need to educate and train young people to deal with the region’s (the humid tropics) numerous agricultural, social, and political problems in rural areas. Its model blends academic work with practical experience and collaboration in agrarian communities and agribusiness. It is a private, non-profit, international university and was established in 1990 with the support of the Costa Rican Government, U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and the W.K. Kellogg Foundation (https://www.earth.ac.cr). It has an international faculty, a student body originating from 25 Latin American and Caribbean countries and a small number of 12 students from Africa. It is small with 400 students and 40 faculty members. The university’s 3,300-hectare farm is used for training as well as commercial, income-generating",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Foundation (https://www.earth.ac.cr). It has an international faculty, a student body originating from 25 Latin American and Caribbean countries and a small number of 12 students from Africa. It is small with 400 students and 40 faculty members. The university’s 3,300-hectare farm is used for training as well as commercial, income-generating crop production (Maguire, 2012). Theory of EARTH University The mission of EARTH University is to create the type of leader capable of responding to the social and environmental problems facing rural communities of the humid tropics. For this purpose, EARTH developed a unique educational model based on four pillars: technical and scientific knowledge; development of social and environmental awareness and commitment; personal development (attitudes and values); and entrepreneurship. The other unique components of EARTH's education model are: curriculum structured with balanced theory and practice; and a dynamic, participatory, student-centered, experiential learning based teaching and learning process (https://www.earth.ac.cr). Responsive curriculum and experiential based learning EARTH University was established in response to urgent problems in Central and South America, including rural poverty, high population growth, low productivity, migration to cities, destruction of fragile ecosystems, and political instability and war throughout the region. In addition, the establishment of EARTH University coincided with the 1980s structural adjustment programs and other changes that had largely eliminated the possibilities of graduates' (in agronomy and other fields) employment in the public sector. To this end, providing graduates with entrepreneurial skills and abilities became fundamental to EARTH's program (Maguire, 2012). The five keystone programs (Maguire, 2012) within EARTH’s curriculum are based on experiential learning and bring students and educators into closer contact with agricultural communities (farmers, agribusiness and NGOs). The programs provide the students opportunities to develop planning and leadership skills, foster responsibility, encourage them to become decision makers and critical and creative thinkers, improve their ability for",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "curriculum are based on experiential learning and bring students and educators into closer contact with agricultural communities (farmers, agribusiness and NGOs). The programs provide the students opportunities to develop planning and leadership skills, foster responsibility, encourage them to become decision makers and critical and creative thinkers, improve their ability for analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, and apply technical and scientific knowledge in real situations. The agricultural communities benefit from the interaction. Impact of EARTH program In 2012, alumni survey results reported that the graduates are having: (1) social impact through job creation, workplace improvements, volunteerism (active volunteers in their 13 community), and improvement of living standards through farmer training; and (2) environmental impact through waste management, organic farming, and biodiversity conservation (EARTH University website: https://www.earth.ac.cr/en/alumni/impacto-degraduados/study-results/). Another recent study by EARTH University (2014a November) that sought to measure the impact of graduates through personal interviews with alumni, their families, co-workers and employers reported overwhelming positive results confirming that “the University’s focus on innovative, experiential education and emphasis on values are essential to creating ethical leaders for a better tomorrow” (p.2). According to this study, one of the most important findings is that 97% of the graduates have returned to their countries of origin, fulfilling their promises to “go back and give back.” The study also reported, “85% of graduates are fulfilling EARTH’s mission by promoting both cultural diversity and social equality in their companies, while 74% of alumni are positively impacting biodiversity conservation” (EARTH University, 2014a November, p.2). One alumnus, Edilberto “Eddie” Romero, expressed the quality of training and how that changed his life: I remember the quality of the professors and the classes that they gave us, the practice in the field and above all, being able to learn from my teachers as well as my classmates....EARTH opened up a path",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Romero, expressed the quality of training and how that changed his life: I remember the quality of the professors and the classes that they gave us, the practice in the field and above all, being able to learn from my teachers as well as my classmates....EARTH opened up a path for us where we learned theory in addition to practical skills. I learned to value the knowledge of the communities, and I can say that working in the community opens up your heart and helps you to see life differently. Also, the classes that were focused on protecting the environment showed me another aspect of agriculture, which led me to complete a master’s degree in Natural Resources Economy. Today, my job is centered on production, conservation and sustainable development—and it all started at EARTH. (EARTH University, 2014b, p. 4) In general the success of EARTH is attributed to the above mentioned innovative educational model as well as other factors which include: staff incentives to apply participatory teaching, engagement in research and extension, a favorable student/staff ratio allowing high interaction, and investment in infrastructure (Maguire, 2012). Chiang Mai University, Thailand Initiated by a single department using locally available resources, University of Chiang Mai developed a highly influential learning and research model, the Community-Based Research (CBR) program, that integrated faculty, students, and rural communities (Maguire, 2012). 14 Maguire (2012) reported that the CBR benefits all stakeholders. Feedback from the community experience continues to influence the university’s research focus, its curriculum, its role in the AIS, and its international standing. The process involved for the achievements is described below. The CBR program was initiated through the Department of Agricultural Extension in the faculty of agriculture. In 1990s, this department realized the isolation of students and faculty from rural living conditions, technical agricultural challenges,",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the AIS, and its international standing. The process involved for the achievements is described below. The CBR program was initiated through the Department of Agricultural Extension in the faculty of agriculture. In 1990s, this department realized the isolation of students and faculty from rural living conditions, technical agricultural challenges, and social problems. The university had little contact with communities, and had placed heavy emphasis on classroom learning, literature reviews, and laboratory experimentation. As a result, many undergraduates had little capacity to analyze and synthesize information on social situations or conduct community-based research, and their facilitation, communication, and writing skills were poor. In 1996, the Thailand Research Fund (TRF) had resources to support a CommunityBased Research (CBR) program to answer the question: “How can research findings be used by local people the users of research results?” By 1998, the Agricultural Extension Department realized that the CBR projects could provide an opportunity for students' practical learning experience. To this end, the department integrated student learning with CBR through a number of initiatives. Students enrolled in Extension Communications, visited active CBR projects, and as an exercise were asked to write an article on their observations and village issues, produce a script to be broadcast over community radio, or submit an article for community newspapers. Students specializing in Media Production for Extension visited CBR projects and developed media products that reflected the needs of community researchers, such as posters, newsletters, photographs, DVDs, and radio programs. Graduate students enrolled in Agricultural Communities Studies did the following: undertook study visits to CBR communities; participated in discussion and dialogue; listened carefully when interacting with CBR researchers, counselors, and staff; took detailed notes; and produced a review of their visits. The materials produced, together with their experiences in the communities, formed the basis of their theses topics.",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the following: undertook study visits to CBR communities; participated in discussion and dialogue; listened carefully when interacting with CBR researchers, counselors, and staff; took detailed notes; and produced a review of their visits. The materials produced, together with their experiences in the communities, formed the basis of their theses topics. In cognizance of the potential of the imitative, further efforts were made to expand the experience to other programs in the faculty of agriculture. This required overcoming challenges of financial support and collaboration from organizations inside the university (university’s Student Affairs Unit and Practical Training Unit), with the communities, and the support of the 15 research funding agency. To this end, a program specific to the university—the Research Management Fund—was established in 2002 with support from TRF to foster wider collaboration among the faculty of agriculture, TRF, and CBR communities for integrating teaching/learning, research, and community service. The ultimate objective was to create a learning community of undergraduate students based on CBR projects. To reach this objective, a Center for Community-Based Research was established in the Faculty of Agriculture to develop CBR projects as a means of empowering community researchers. In 2003, 11 CBR projects were developed. The involvement, right from the start, of the university’s Student Affairs Unit and the Practical Training Unit in launching student practical training ensured the required support from these units. The involvement of staff from the Practical Training Unit provided the chance to learn, for the first time, how to organize such training in rural communities and how to communicate with community members and undergraduate students. A practical training manual was prepared for the program. As a result, the Faculty of Agriculture has allotted an annual budget for this training activity. It was also the first time that communities had hosted 30 university students",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "rural communities and how to communicate with community members and undergraduate students. A practical training manual was prepared for the program. As a result, the Faculty of Agriculture has allotted an annual budget for this training activity. It was also the first time that communities had hosted 30 university students for a five-day visit, helped organize the practical training program, and interacted closely with such a group of visitors. For the students, the visit was a true learning experience. For the first time, students lived with rural families, communicated, understood the realities of rural life, and appreciated the value of local wisdom in dealing with livelihood issues. Impact of CBR program The program has had the following impacts:  Improved awareness among students and faculty on how isolated the university had been from life in rural communities.  Research has become more focused, and the curriculum reflects the knowledge and skills needed by graduates who will meet technical and social needs in rural areas.  The university, through its faculty and students, has gained visibility and stature among its stakeholders and has become an active AIS actor. By 2007, 650 CBR projects had been funded with grants from TRF, and 264 had been implemented, facilitated by the core research team that runs the Center for Community-Based Research.  Collaboration between the center and the Practical Training Unit in the faculty enabled students to undertake “practical training” in communities. 16  Collaborative interaction among students, the Faculty of Agriculture, the Center for Community-Based Research, the TRF, and local communities, benefited all. For example, research problems identified by community members have increased the effectiveness of the students’ clubs. Local communities have increased their ability to manage “student practices” as a vehicle for identifying community problems, to analyze causes of problems, and to",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "for Community-Based Research, the TRF, and local communities, benefited all. For example, research problems identified by community members have increased the effectiveness of the students’ clubs. Local communities have increased their ability to manage “student practices” as a vehicle for identifying community problems, to analyze causes of problems, and to develop solutions through a participatory research process in which students and faculty become their co-researchers. India’s state agricultural universities (SAUs) India's state agricultural universities (SAUs) are an example of system-wide change to improve the AET role in AIS. India’s first state agricultural university (SAU) was established in 1960 at Pantnagar in Uttar Pradesh. Currently, all states have at least one SAU, with state-wide responsibility for agricultural research, education and training or extension education. They receive funding support from regional and national levels, and also from other organizations. At the national level, the agricultural university system is coordinated by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), which is also a source of research funding for the universities. The SAUs have significantly contributed to Indian agricultural development. The green revolution, with its impressive social and economic impact, witnessed significant contributions from the SAUs, both in terms of a trained, scientific work force and the generation of new technologies (Tamboli & Nene, 2013). In the 1990s, ICAR realized the decline in the SAU system. As a result, ICAR approached the World Bank to reestablish SAUs as a center of high quality agricultural education. To this end a six-year project (1995–2001), supported by the World Bank and the Indian government was initiated and implemented (Maguire, 2012). The SAUs envisaged system-wide reform seeking improvement at policy, institution, and program levels. For that purpose, the project intervention considered reform through its four major components: (1) university programs; (2) strengthening ICAR; (3) in-service human resource development and",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "World Bank and the Indian government was initiated and implemented (Maguire, 2012). The SAUs envisaged system-wide reform seeking improvement at policy, institution, and program levels. For that purpose, the project intervention considered reform through its four major components: (1) university programs; (2) strengthening ICAR; (3) in-service human resource development and human resource management; and (4) manpower needs assessment. Through these components, the project intervention aimed to modernize administration and management, update curricula and pedagogical approaches, upgrade teaching materials and laboratories, set new norms and standards for higher agricultural education, and improve human resource management in state line departments working closely with the agricultural universities (Maguire, 2012). Maguire (2012) indicated that the aims of the project and delivered activities are innovative. Rivera and Alex (2008) indicated that reform at policy, 17 institutional, and program levels are the requisite innovative action to enable AET to respond to the challenges of the 21st century. The ICAR and state level human resource management components directly dealt with some aspects of policy level reforms. Within the ICAR capability strengthening component, the project aimed to establish norms and standards in agricultural education and monitor compliance with these standards. To this end, the Agricultural Education Council was established, ICAR’s Education Division was strengthened, and the Norms and Accreditation Committee was restructured. The other two components focused on upgrading human resource management at the state level, which included: (i) In-service Human Resource Development and Human Resource Management programs in 14 line departments that worked closely with SAUs; and (ii) a manpower needs assessment, involving the establishment of broadbased Manpower Advisory Councils to sponsor rigorous studies of labor-market requirements and trends (that is, to begin developing labor-market intelligence) within each state. This support involved training focused on job-oriented needs; systematic training needs assessments; training of trainers; evaluation of training",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(ii) a manpower needs assessment, involving the establishment of broadbased Manpower Advisory Councils to sponsor rigorous studies of labor-market requirements and trends (that is, to begin developing labor-market intelligence) within each state. This support involved training focused on job-oriented needs; systematic training needs assessments; training of trainers; evaluation of training effectiveness; better instructional facilities; and improved management of state agricultural employees. Data from the studies were expected to provide state authorities and university officials with technically sound information for crafting public policy, academic programs, budgets, and adjustments to university intake numbers (Maguire, 2012). The above indicated components are also among specific policy level innovative actions indicated by Rivera and Alex (2008). Forging public-private cooperation and designing a system to diagnose and communicate agricultural human resource needs to AET institutions and policy makers are indicated as the required innovative action at policy level. For example, for diagnosis of human resources there is a need for improving managerial and technical capacity to ensure quality in the system among other requirements. Spielman et al. (2008) also indicated the importance of reform aimed at improving individual as well as organizational innovative capacity. For the university program, the reform process was initiated with four universities (one each from Haryana and Andhra Pradesh and two from Tamil Nadu) to demonstrate the effect of reform in other universities across India. The project intervention with these universities sought to improve curricula and syllabi, improve faculty quality, revitalize teaching methods, 18 organize faculty exchanges within India and with foreign universities, modernize university administration and management systems, upgrade infrastructure (teaching laboratory equipment, computer systems, communications, farms, libraries, and hostels), and establish placement centers and programs for student attachments to agro industries. The project also promoted initiatives to involve university clientele more in university management and programs and improve education-related financial",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "universities, modernize university administration and management systems, upgrade infrastructure (teaching laboratory equipment, computer systems, communications, farms, libraries, and hostels), and establish placement centers and programs for student attachments to agro industries. The project also promoted initiatives to involve university clientele more in university management and programs and improve education-related financial management (Maguire, 2012). In this regard the key elements as requisite for institutional and program level reform indicated by Rivera and Alex (2008) were addressed. These authors noted that at the institutional level reform generally should include investment to improve infrastructure and client orientation focusing agricultural educational institutions on client interests and needs. According to these authors, client orientation requires a shift from the top-down decisions on educational content and delivery methods to a more responsive and flexible institutional culture of serving the client. Client orientation also requires forging multiple institutional linkages. If done effectively, multiple institutional linkages enhance the relevance of the AET institution, builds political support, expands influence and reach, and provides opportunities for cost recovery and income. At the program level, the needed reform direction includes designing a system that allows participatory, problem-solving and location-specific education services (Rivera & Alex, 2008). Impact of India’s SAUs The quality and relevance of higher agricultural education was improved by establishing an Accreditation Board, demand-oriented curriculum reforms, and complementary investments in staff training and educational infrastructure.  A participatory system of institutional accreditation was developed, and ICAR was implementing it throughout the SAU system.  Academic norms for all undergraduate and postgraduate programs were revised and implemented.  Education programs were more relevant: curricula were updated; new courses were introduced; and, coursework was broadened to include skills-oriented, hands-on training programs developed through wide consultation with stakeholders. These changes were reported being reflected in new and improved teaching materials (laboratory manuals, course",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "postgraduate programs were revised and implemented.  Education programs were more relevant: curricula were updated; new courses were introduced; and, coursework was broadened to include skills-oriented, hands-on training programs developed through wide consultation with stakeholders. These changes were reported being reflected in new and improved teaching materials (laboratory manuals, course modules, textbooks, and so forth) and methods, along with substantial 19 investments to train research and teaching faculty and upgrade classrooms, laboratories, libraries, and IT facilities.  In-service training improved in quality and relevance through the establishment of needs-based training programs, greater client involvement (farmers, agro industry, input suppliers, and others), modernized training facilities, and investments in staff training. Improved training programs and the adoption of more effective practices to disseminate agricultural technology appear to have improved extension performance.  The capacity of participating states to develop and manage agricultural human resources was enhanced by the creation of skills, institutional capacity, and infrastructure. These new resources enabled line departments to assess their human resource development needs, formulate and implement human resource management plans, provide in-service training, and liaise with other relevant institutions. Weaknesses In general, the study reported the project achieved its development objectives. Yet the outcomes of the project were reported being less-than-satisfactory outcomes due to project design flaws. In this regard, the evidence from the study implies that the impact of the project is inconclusive in the absence of substantial data establishing project achievement in institutionalizing and sustaining the reform. When the project ended, changes in institutions and procedures, including managerial and administrative changes, were partly internalized, and the relevant stakeholders favored continuing the reform program (for example, by addressing governance reform and individual performance incentives). Staff from SAUs and line departments reported a greater sense of achievement and job satisfaction. Overall, the sustainability of the project was",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "procedures, including managerial and administrative changes, were partly internalized, and the relevant stakeholders favored continuing the reform program (for example, by addressing governance reform and individual performance incentives). Staff from SAUs and line departments reported a greater sense of achievement and job satisfaction. Overall, the sustainability of the project was rated as “likely.” The likelihood of a follow-up project provided incentives to continue project activities. However, these expectations were not fulfilled. A second phase of the project, which would have institutionalized the reforms, was never funded. The other reported weaknesses of the project intervention are: (i) the manpower needs assessment was not satisfactory; data were delivered late and were not used; (ii) the content and style of teaching did not change in any substantial way, even though trainers were using more instructional aids; and (iii) human resource management intended to make training more meaningful in the state line departments that worked closely with the SAUs proved more difficult to manage than expected, because the universities and line departments were administratively separate. 20 A study conducted after a decade from the time period of the project intervention (albeit no specific reference is made to the project intervention) implies that the project’s innovative actions have not been sustained and/or expanded to the SUA system (as intended by the project). This study acknowledged that \"[in] the first green revolution, SAUs played a key role in generating technology and taking it to end users through effective integration of education, research, and extension. During the past 2-3 decades, the journey of higher agricultural education (HAE) got interrupted and SAUs are on fast track of deterioration\" (Tamboli & Nene, 2013, p. 251). Among the specific challenges faced by SUA reported by the study include: difficulty in attracting first class students; funding problems; lack of autonomy of",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "past 2-3 decades, the journey of higher agricultural education (HAE) got interrupted and SAUs are on fast track of deterioration\" (Tamboli & Nene, 2013, p. 251). Among the specific challenges faced by SUA reported by the study include: difficulty in attracting first class students; funding problems; lack of autonomy of the Vice-chancellors (i.e., the Vice-chancellors are not consulted in budget allocation by the state, high state political interference, no autonomy to appoint and promote faculty); lack of networking and public–private partnerships, poor state–center and state–SAU relationships; traditional teaching methods; curricula not responsive to the needs of the private sector, etc. (Tamboli & Nene, 2013). Another study also shows a disappointment with the past 50 years’ success indicating a variable track record of the 42 SAUs in terms of quality and the ability to mobilize financial support, and that many of the SAUs are in need of reform (Eicher, 2006). Intervention in Agricultural Universities in Egypt The intervention in the Agricultural University of Egypt is an example of curriculum level change to strengthen the link of universities to the innovation system. This intervention, curriculum change, was initiated following the falling enrollments and mismatch between graduates’ skills and labor-market requirements. This was implemented in five agricultural universities in Egypt by the Institutional Linkage Project, a component of the USAID-funded Agricultural Exports and Rural Income (AERI) project. The project’s strategy was to strengthen connections between important institutions in the innovation system (universities, private firms, and commercial farms) while transforming academic programs. Innovative elements in the design and implementation of the project include: leaders from the academy and the private sector participated in a Steering Committee that guided the project’s implementation; a skill gap analysis identified knowledge and skill deficits in graduates; academic staff participated in redesigning and improving courses and learning materials; university",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the design and implementation of the project include: leaders from the academy and the private sector participated in a Steering Committee that guided the project’s implementation; a skill gap analysis identified knowledge and skill deficits in graduates; academic staff participated in redesigning and improving courses and learning materials; university deans and private sector leaders gained firsthand views of overseas university systems; external Advisory Committees were created and provided feedback on sector development and labor-market needs to 21 university management; and student internship programs were developed. The contribution of these elements in achieving project strategy is listed below.  A Steering Committee of Egyptian academic and private sector leaders guided planning and implementation of the project’s capacity-building component, bridging the gap in understanding and cooperation between the private sector and the participating institutions.  Based on a skill gap analysis that revealed the human resource needs of private employers and the corresponding weaknesses in academic programs, faculty updated core courses and made them more consistent in content as well as in academic standards.  The project also trained faculty, instituted active learning and recognition of good teaching, and improved the use of teaching aids. In this regard, the intermediate project evaluation reported that the vast majority of training participants (93 percent) intended to modify their teaching methods in various ways, by promoting greater student teacher interaction, encouraging more use of the Internet, making courses more market driven, bringing in more guest lecturers, stressing practical applications, increasing field visits, and promoting more team-based learning.  An overseas study tour formed the basis for significant institutional changes in the participating universities (for example, the universities organized external advisory committees to provide feedback on sector development and labor-market needs to university management).  The universities also established internship programs and career resource centers.",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "more team-based learning.  An overseas study tour formed the basis for significant institutional changes in the participating universities (for example, the universities organized external advisory committees to provide feedback on sector development and labor-market needs to university management).  The universities also established internship programs and career resource centers. Additional links were forged between the university and others in the AIS through the establishment of extension-outreach centers, which enabled universities to provide direct assistance to communities and, in turn, learn about real community needs. The main lesson from the design and implementation of this project is that curriculum reform is complex (see also the box below), involving many aspects of the academic program, the university administration, and stakeholders. For example, a revised or updated curriculum without improved teaching materials and appropriate pedagogical skills is unlikely to have much impact. The benefits of a revised curriculum will not be sustained unless the curriculum keeps pace with stakeholders’ evolving needs. Key stakeholders inside and outside the university must 22 contribute their perspectives on the knowledge and skills needed in a developing agricultural sector. To ensure support for curriculum change, teaching staff, administrators, and stakeholders must be consulted and engaged as partners in making the desired changes. The other important lesson that can be learned from this experience is that project interventions need to be flexible in achieving the intended goals. For example, in this case, the skill gap analysis demonstrated the need for the universities to change their curricula, but that was found to be difficult in view of the time and effort needed for the Supreme Council for Higher Education to approve the modifications. As an alternative strategy, the basic structure of the curriculum was retained and individual courses were modified to reflect the current knowledge base in each field",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "was found to be difficult in view of the time and effort needed for the Supreme Council for Higher Education to approve the modifications. As an alternative strategy, the basic structure of the curriculum was retained and individual courses were modified to reflect the current knowledge base in each field of study. The focus shifted to updating basic course content and teaching methods and developing common academic standards across all five universities, especially for the common core courses. Overall, the intervention achieved impressive reforms in improving the contents of the curriculum, capacity building for academic staff, and improved links to agribusiness. However, the question of whether these five universities can sustain their efforts appears unanswered. One approach to ensure institutionalization of the reforms would be for the project to include a mechanism for continuing high-level dialogue with stakeholders. The Innovative Mid-Career BSc Agricultural Extension: Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education (SAFE) Program The Mid-Career BSc Program in Agricultural Extension is an example of program level initiatives. With support of the Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education (SAFE), an innovative Mid-Career Agricultural Extension BSc Program launched first in Ghana in 1993 currently (by the time of this review) expanded to 9 African countries in 20 universities and colleges, including Jigjiga University of Ethiopia that launched the program in November 2015. The program was initiated to fill the gap in skilled manpower for the extension systems of targeted African countries. With over two decades of experience, the program has been addressing the challenges which higher learning institutions often fail to address. In this regard, the SAFE program is known for its dynamic and innovative approach in revitalization of the relevance of curricula to emerging needs; innovative delivery that provides program graduates to obtain skills that enable them to make concrete contributions in",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "challenges which higher learning institutions often fail to address. In this regard, the SAFE program is known for its dynamic and innovative approach in revitalization of the relevance of curricula to emerging needs; innovative delivery that provides program graduates to obtain skills that enable them to make concrete contributions in practical life; forging strong partnerships between universities, employers, and the agricultural industry (Mutimba, Knipscheer, & Naibakelao, 2010). 23 The evidence reviewed and elaborated here shows the potential of the program in addressing the challenges indicated in the preceding sections. Unlike the other good practices reviewed above, the reviewed studies on the SAFE program were comprehensive in including key stakeholders of the program: graduates of the program working in government (such as Ministry of Agriculture) and non-government; employers; and farmers. To this end we found it is worthwhile to first indicate the overarching theory of the program, followed by empirical evidence on program impact, and finally, potential challenges to sustaining program quality. Theory of SAFE program The main aim of the SAFE program is to produce graduates with the requisite human relations, methodological and technical skills that can assist farmers. The pillars of the SAFE initiative are the principles of lifelong learning, demand-driven curricula, student-centered experiential learning, and rural leadership development (http://www.safe-africa.org). In order to ensure that in the delivery of the program (teaching and learning process), emphasis is given to experiential learning, i.e., the combination of theory, experience, critical reflection and practice. For this purpose, one of the innovative aspects of the program is a component in which students plan and execute independent field-based projects called the Supervised Enterprise Project (SEP). SEP is built on the philosophy of experiential learning, narrowing the gap between theory and practice. The SEP is, thus, designed to immerse students in valuable farmer-focused, experience-based learning",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the program is a component in which students plan and execute independent field-based projects called the Supervised Enterprise Project (SEP). SEP is built on the philosophy of experiential learning, narrowing the gap between theory and practice. The SEP is, thus, designed to immerse students in valuable farmer-focused, experience-based learning activities, reduce the discrepancy between training and the tasks the extension staff perform in their real work environment, and avoid the traditional tendency of making the training too theoretical. The essence of SEP is to develop the students’ ability to identify problems and explore practical ways to correct them. SEP is organized in two phases. During the first phase, which takes place at the end of the first of academic year of coursework on-campus, students go back to their work areas to conduct an assessment of farmers’ extension needs from which each student develops an extension project proposal to address those needs. This is performed with the assistance of farmers, employers and lecturers (supervisors). Each project includes an extension research component (Akeredolu, n.d.; Kassa, Karippai, & Eshetu, 2010). As discussed below, SEP has been very much commended by the graduates, instructors and employers, and has greatly enhanced the performance, confidence and professionalism of the graduates. It has also addressed the priority need of farmers. 24 Curricula responsive to emerging needs The curriculum of the program has been responsive to changing national priorities in the countries where the program is being implemented. For example, in the initial inception of the program, the curriculum mainly focused on production (animal and crop production and management), natural resource management, and soft skills (communication) among others. Recently, the curriculum of the program has been oriented towards agricultural value chains. This was in cognizance of the lack of knowledge and skill on the agricultural value chain",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the curriculum mainly focused on production (animal and crop production and management), natural resource management, and soft skills (communication) among others. Recently, the curriculum of the program has been oriented towards agricultural value chains. This was in cognizance of the lack of knowledge and skill on the agricultural value chain and its importance in transforming smallholder agriculture through commercialization, which is among the priority policy foci of national states and the African Union to transform smallholder agriculture (NEPAD & CAADP, 2013, p. 28). In addition, it is interesting to note that in November 2015 the SAFE program was launched in Jigjiga University (Ethiopia), with curriculum oriented toward the needs of pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in the country. Community-based learning, benefiting students' skill learning and farmers' extension need Studies conducted on the impact of SEPs reported that student-implemented SEPs improved farmers' livelihoods as well as skill learning of students. In Ethiopia, a study reported students worked on a wide range of projects thereby broadening opportunities for farmers; several SEPs had direct benefits for women farmers through improved income and labor saving technologies; many SEPs improved utilization of farm produce; and most of the projects are believed to have led to wide adoption among the farming community. Some of the technologies have been sustained more than ten years after their introduction (e.g., maize storage cribs; Kassa et al., 2010). In Mali, student-implemented SEPs focused on various agricultural, socioeconomic as well as cultural practices at the village and community levels. This had largely helped students’ understanding of the farmers and their practices. The students had guided, collaborative and very reflective projects in farmers’ fields, which improved their skills in the application of improved technologies and helped to bridge the gap between theory and actual experiences in the field. With regard to benefits to",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "helped students’ understanding of the farmers and their practices. The students had guided, collaborative and very reflective projects in farmers’ fields, which improved their skills in the application of improved technologies and helped to bridge the gap between theory and actual experiences in the field. With regard to benefits to the farmers, students organized farmer groups that enabled them to access services (for example, a women’s group received a grant to buy some shea butter processing equipment); farmers acquired technical and managerial skills as a result of training offered by the students; for the first time farmers were involved in project conceptualization, planning and implementation which made them feel needed and active, as a partner for development intervention in their community (Akeredolu, n.d.). 25 A study in Ethiopia (Kassa et al., 2010) noted graduates reporting that SEP provided opportunities for learning different skills. Students had used participatory needs assessment techniques and prioritization before designing and implementing projects. Close supervision and follow up were consistently used in the course of implementing SEPs. Another commonly seen feature was skill based training of contact farmers in the initial stage and a field day at the end of the SEP for dissemination of the results at community level. Encouraging farmer-to-farmer knowledge-sharing was also a commonly used strategy, in sharp contrast with the conventional extension methods (individual, group extension methods whereby development agents provide extension services through face-to-face contact) prevailing in the country. The use of mass media, preparation of learning materials, and the ability to convince farmers to embrace a system of record keeping were other significant positive achievements associated with the SEPs. The students learned how to bring changes in knowledge, attitudes and skills among farmers on different agricultural practices. In this regard, their SEP reports included empirical evidence for these changes as",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to convince farmers to embrace a system of record keeping were other significant positive achievements associated with the SEPs. The students learned how to bring changes in knowledge, attitudes and skills among farmers on different agricultural practices. In this regard, their SEP reports included empirical evidence for these changes as captured through a ‘before and after’ analytical method. They also learned how to create a sense of ownership of the intervention idea. Organizing farmers in groups and establishing structural and functional linkages with other stakeholders and farmers’ groups were among strategies used by the students to institute sustainability. Lifelong impact on the graduates' performance A study in Mali reported the program improved graduate skill learning and empowerment of rural farmers. That is, the curriculum and delivery improved graduates’ professional competence and performances, leading to better service delivery to their clients and thus adoption of technologies by rural clients. After completing their professional development program, the SAFE graduates expressed high self-efficacy in using participative approaches in their work with clients. This study provided a concrete example of self-efficacy theory in a real-life context, i.e., SAFE graduates’ perceptions of their ability to serve clients that they associated with the training, as well as the “resiliency” they expressed when overcoming constraints to reach their goals (Kante, 2010). Similarly, a study in Ghana reported the graduates of the program increased their levels of confidence and understanding in applying various job requirements (Duo & Thomas, 2007). In the case of Ethiopia, although quite a few respondents, mainly male, reported that they assumed managerial responsibilities before they joined the program, the managerial responsibilities they assumed after graduating from the program measured by the number of subordinate staff under them and the amount of financial 26 resources (budget) that they had to manage have shown a marked",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "respondents, mainly male, reported that they assumed managerial responsibilities before they joined the program, the managerial responsibilities they assumed after graduating from the program measured by the number of subordinate staff under them and the amount of financial 26 resources (budget) that they had to manage have shown a marked improvement. Added to that, some of them hold challenging and demanding key managerial/political positions of high status and with considerable decision making power (Kassa & Azerefegne, 2008). The study by Kassa et al. (2010) in Ethiopia reported that great numbers of graduates were assigned to senior positions after graduation. This study also sought graduate-initiated development projects and programs. That is, whether the graduates were involved in or initiated new or similar projects or programs based on the experience gained from SEPs. The study reported that 35 of the 78 respondents (44.9%) indicated that they had initiated or were involved in similar projects or programs after graduation which include: cereals, fruits and vegetables development; livestock and forage improvement; agro-forestry, natural resource management; soil and water conservation; irrigation and drinking water facilitation; post-harvest technologies; and integrated community development and income generation. The study further revealed that the majority of the newly initiated projects/programs were perceived to be beneficial to the farming community in different ways. Survey responses indicate that the projects were: increasing household income (100.0%); helping in the adoption of improved technologies (96.3%); increasing yield (93.0%); improving livelihoods (93.0%); and improving food availability (88.9%). All the employers contacted for the purpose of this study agreed that mid-career graduates were highly qualified and competent with better professional knowledge and skills. They further noted that the graduates were able to translate development messages to the field through SEPs. The SEPs served as model approaches for other professionals in designing and implementing development projects.",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of this study agreed that mid-career graduates were highly qualified and competent with better professional knowledge and skills. They further noted that the graduates were able to translate development messages to the field through SEPs. The SEPs served as model approaches for other professionals in designing and implementing development projects. Impact on instructional design Different studies indicate that the implementation of SEPs has influenced the delivery of the curriculum towards a more practical and student-centered approach. This experience has also influenced delivery of other programs in the hosting institute or department, albeit the performance of these programs is unclear in the absence of documented evidence such as on students' skill learning and how that impacted in their real life context and also benefited farmers (example, where students conducted their projects). In Haramaya University, the SAFE program is hosted by the Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension (RDAE) in the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences. Besides the mid-career program, this department offers undergraduate 27 BSc degree in RDAE and postgraduate MSc and PhD programs. The mid-career program’s success, mainly the lesson learned in the course of implementation of SEP, has led to overhauling of the regular undergraduate bachelor of science degree curriculum, which now has more practical orientation and field based experiential learning. In this curriculum, communitybased courses involving community field work and village stay camps were introduced. In 2004 the department realized the potential to improve skill learning in the regular bachelor of science curriculum in Rural Development and Agricultural Extension. For this purpose the Department secured a competitive grant from the World Bank, Development Innovation Fund (DIF) and implemented a project “Enhancing Experiential Learning and Self Confidence among Undergraduate Students” for a period of three years (2005-2008). The major objectives of this project included: creation of favorable",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Agricultural Extension. For this purpose the Department secured a competitive grant from the World Bank, Development Innovation Fund (DIF) and implemented a project “Enhancing Experiential Learning and Self Confidence among Undergraduate Students” for a period of three years (2005-2008). The major objectives of this project included: creation of favorable conditions for undergraduate students to acquaint themselves with rural life situations and gain practical knowledge and skills to work with farmers, by frequent contacts with the communities and learning from them. Implementation of the project started with a briefing workshop on project objectives to staff members in the department. A field practical guide was developed. Students were trained and organized into small groups working in selected villages near the university campus. In the first semester of the second year of study they identified development related problems in a participatory manner and designed project interventions to improve household livelihoods. In the second semester, they implemented the intervention projects with the support of the university, NGOs and other stakeholders. In the first semester of the third year, they evaluated the projects in terms of attaining the stipulated objectives. All these activities were carried out under the close supervision of instructors from the Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension. In the same year, before the final semester, the students were taken to remote villages far from the university campus where rigors of rural life could be experienced, and made to stay and work with farm families. This ‘village stay’ for two weeks provided the students with opportunities to understand rural life and appreciate the realities on the ground. It also gave them skills to work with rural communities and helped them build self-confidence for field based extension work. Moreover, the village stay was a good learning experience for undergraduate students in terms",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "provided the students with opportunities to understand rural life and appreciate the realities on the ground. It also gave them skills to work with rural communities and helped them build self-confidence for field based extension work. Moreover, the village stay was a good learning experience for undergraduate students in terms of indigenous wisdom and practical situations, which they never gained during campus-based learning. This was affirmed by the feedback gathered from the first cohort of students which was also shared with department heads in the College in a half day experience sharing workshop. 28 Realizing the benefits of the field based experiential learning and encouraged by the positive feedback from students, the Department decided to continue the project activities even after the completion of the DIF project, with the support and encouragement of university management. Currently, it is one of the prestigious practical learning components of the Bachelor’s degree program in the Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension. The same model has been tried by other universities in Ethiopia offering the same curriculum. In general, similar to the mid-career program, the regular program’s field-based experiential learning is believed to impact on students' skill learning and provided learning opportunities for faculty through their engagement with students in the field. Since the students’ projects are based on participatory needs assessment and prioritization, they are believed to have some impact in those villages as feedback and evidence indicate from students’ reports (Kassa et al., 2010).This impact and impact of the program on graduates need to be supported by a scientific study which has not yet been conducted. At the Rural Polytechnic Institute for Training and Applied Research (IPR/IFRA) in Mali, both lecturer supervisors of SEP projects and other lecturers of the institute claimed that the SEPs helped to introduce new courses, modify",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "graduates need to be supported by a scientific study which has not yet been conducted. At the Rural Polytechnic Institute for Training and Applied Research (IPR/IFRA) in Mali, both lecturer supervisors of SEP projects and other lecturers of the institute claimed that the SEPs helped to introduce new courses, modify the content of courses and change the volume of other courses. The lecturer supervisors claimed that the SEPs brought about changes in their teaching method since they had to adopt group-work and field visits as an essential part of their method of teaching students. The students had guided learning-by-doing in the farmers' fields through collaboration with their supervisors, technical service unit, farmers, researchers etc. In the final analysis this helped the students to gain a mastery of curricular knowledge and skills (Akeredolu, n.d.). The other important impact of the program is the idea of the Technology Village that is emerging in the SAFE program hosting universities such as Haramaya, Hawassa and University of Cape Coast which is also attributed to impact of the SEP component. In Hawassa University, the second university in Ethiopia after Haramaya to launch the SAFE program in 2006 has been reported to have embraced the concept of the Technology Village in its fullest sense, where the university has adopted entire villages where the different departments, from agriculture to health and education, go and identify needs and find solutions, which they apply in the villages (Kassa et al., 2010). However, how this impacted teaching and learning has not been reported. In Ghana, University of Cape Coast has a Technology Village on campus, observed as being 29 functional, albeit at small scale. The idea of the Technology Village is elaborated below in Haramaya's plan for implementation. Haramaya University has embarked on the establishment and development of Technology Villages",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "not been reported. In Ghana, University of Cape Coast has a Technology Village on campus, observed as being 29 functional, albeit at small scale. The idea of the Technology Village is elaborated below in Haramaya's plan for implementation. Haramaya University has embarked on the establishment and development of Technology Villages to achieve its academic and development objectives. The villages will be hubs for supplying information on improved agricultural technologies, techniques, knowledge and materials to farmers and other interest groups. In addition, they will be used to expose students to real-life situations of the farmers and develop their social and communication skills as well as self-confidence in dealing with farmers. The Technology Villages will help to create strong linkages between the university and farmers. The intention was to have two types of Technology Villages -a Technology Village on the university campus and Technology Villages outside the University. The university Technology Village is a basic and simple building complex and area of land dedicated for practical training and demonstration purposes. The major functional components include basic infrastructures, appropriate technology inputs, services, information, and mobile exhibition van. This has been established with university-committed funding support and small top-up from SAFE (Kassa & Azerefegne, 2008). At its current stage, the infrastructure is limited to shades and display areas. Technologies which are already available in the university and those that can be acquired easily have been used. In general, it has yet to become fully functional and it is better described as a work in slow progress. The envisaged Technology Villages outside the university will be used as “field laboratories” for overall development of the villages by transferring integrated technologies. Eight villages in the vicinity of Haramaya Research Station representing the highland, and seven villages near Babile Research Station covering the lowland will be established.",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "slow progress. The envisaged Technology Villages outside the university will be used as “field laboratories” for overall development of the villages by transferring integrated technologies. Eight villages in the vicinity of Haramaya Research Station representing the highland, and seven villages near Babile Research Station covering the lowland will be established. This has not materialized to date. In general, taking this idea further to establish full-fledged technology village and sustaining it depends on the full collaboration, enthusiasm and contribution of faculty members of the college of agriculture and interested others. The challenge is expected to remain until faculties realize the importance of the village and its contribution toward achieving the academic and development objectives of the university. On the other hand, taking on board governmental and non-governmental stakeholders, especially in establishing off campus Technology Villages, will also be a difficult challenge. The university is expected to engage the stakeholders in a series of discussions, workshops, etc to create awareness(Kassa & Azerefegne, 2008) 30 Bridging the weak link between university's tri-mandates It is well known that AET institutions of higher education are established with trimandates -teaching, research and extension/community engagement. Lack of a strong strategic link among these mandates has been among the glaring factors underlying the growing desertification in Sub-Saharan Africa. The SAFE program has demonstrated the potential option to strengthen the strategic link among tri-mandates to achieve the global south's AET institutional contribution to national AISs. In this regard, Maguire (2012) in reference to Ghana (University of Cape Coast) noted that the SEP is central to the success of the program in bridging the gap between tri-mandates of the university because it fostered the alliances that spread the benefits to all participants. Communities gained from the external contacts. Ministries of agriculture gained better-trained staff with more field experience, which made",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "that the SEP is central to the success of the program in bridging the gap between tri-mandates of the university because it fostered the alliances that spread the benefits to all participants. Communities gained from the external contacts. Ministries of agriculture gained better-trained staff with more field experience, which made their contribution to sector development more effective. Universities gained greater community visibility and access to real rural training settings and challenges, and university research programs and curricula were enriched to reflect changes in agriculture on the ground. Another study in Ghana also affirmed that the SAFE program strengthened the department’s outreach initiative, adaptation of research, and teaching methods which resulted in a more diverse curriculum delivery mode (Duo & Thomas, 2007). Similar findings were reported from Mali's (IPR/IFRA) program \"the SEPs component of the training program impacted significantly in the area of teaching and learning especially in centering the curriculum on authentic problems faced by producers along the whole agriculture value chain, invariably boosting the professional development of the students\" (Akeredolu, n.d.). In the case of Haramaya University, the multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary nature of the mid-career program enabled the staff members to understand and appreciate the importance of different subject areas in working with rural communities in an integrated manner. The University has also benefited in terms of improving its working relationships with villages and several development actors through the SEPs. The annual mid-career workshops are the occasions where multi-disciplinary scientific staffs are engaged in scrutiny and approval of the new SEPs, evaluation of the concluded SEPs as well as networking and interaction with other stakeholders. The field supervision of the SEPs provides the academic staff with opportunities to learn from real rural life, and strengthen linkages with other actors in the sector (Kassa et al., 2010). 31 Organizational innovations",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "new SEPs, evaluation of the concluded SEPs as well as networking and interaction with other stakeholders. The field supervision of the SEPs provides the academic staff with opportunities to learn from real rural life, and strengthen linkages with other actors in the sector (Kassa et al., 2010). 31 Organizational innovations The study in Ethiopia (Kassa et al., 2010) reported that organizational innovation brought about by the SEPs in different parts of the country included: motivating farmers to get organized into cooperatives; establishing farmers’ linkages with Regional Offices for market coordination and facilitation; organizing small scale agri-based enterprise unions; organizing women for effective utilization of micro-finance and women’s empowerment; and strengthening of farmers research groups (FRGs) for demand driven research and extension. Similar findings are reported in Mali that as a result of the SEPs farmers, including women farmers, were organized, trained and acquired skills (technical, communication and managerial skills). These new skills acquired had made it possible for them to negotiate better with donors and other development partners. Challenges to institute the SAFE program In the beginning the program faced resistance due to fear of compromising academic standards. This is because the university system is used to the conventional BSc program offered for three to four years. The SAFE program with a two and half year BSc degree was unusual. As a result, it faced resistance from academic staff and university higher officials. After long negotiation the program was launched with doubt. Once the program started the performance of students and the SEP results removed all doubt from those who resisted the program. They rather became champions of the program. In the process of implementing the program limited staff skills in adult teaching were a challenge, especially for the courses offered by staff outside the hosting department. This has been",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and the SEP results removed all doubt from those who resisted the program. They rather became champions of the program. In the process of implementing the program limited staff skills in adult teaching were a challenge, especially for the courses offered by staff outside the hosting department. This has been tackled through training with support of SAFE and frequent dialogue with faculties (Maguire, 2012; Mwangi, Chibwana, & Azerefegne, 2005). Financing is still a crucial challenge. As already indicated the off-campus SEP is the distinctive feature of the program. Although the return on investment is high, it is expensive to run. Looking for an exit strategy for SAFE is vital to enable the university to opt for its own means of continuing the program (Maguire, 2012; Mwangi, Chibwana, & Azerefegne, 2005). In Ghana, MOFA is considering including the SAFE program in its budget. Incentives also help universities adopt the program. At UCC, for example, a multipurpose building (the Sasakawa Center) was completed and is used to generate income for the SAFE program at the university. It remains vital to build constituencies that can pressure decision makers on behalf of the university; some administrators continue to regard SAFE as extra work rather than a strategic 32 necessity (Maguire, 2012). In Haramaya, it is over a decade since the SAFE funding for program ceased. The university continues to run the program, allocating budget for the program like other regular programs. Based on Haramaya's experience some universities in Ethiopia adopted the program without direct support of SAFE. The agricultural ministry and different project initiatives also continue to support students' SEPs, in some cases covering students’ costs for accommodation, meals and medical fees during their study period (2.5 years). Ensuring the need for qualified and committed core staff is of paramount importance to sustain such",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "support of SAFE. The agricultural ministry and different project initiatives also continue to support students' SEPs, in some cases covering students’ costs for accommodation, meals and medical fees during their study period (2.5 years). Ensuring the need for qualified and committed core staff is of paramount importance to sustain such programs. The lack of such staff has been a big constraint, affecting not only the implementation but the long-term sustainability of the program (Maguire, 2012). Good intention and commitment has been central for involvement of senior staff in field supervision of the SEPs, especially in countries like Ethiopia where the off-campus supervision time overlaps with the end of academic year vacation. To ensure this, designing a mechanism to provide incentive is vital to the university. Institutional memory has been a challenge from the side of students' organization, especially in the first 10 years of the program at Haramaya. Providing the mid-career students, a study leave with pay and funding support for SEP implementation has been agreed by the Ministry of Agriculture according to the MoU that was signed in the launching of the program. In due course quite often students could not get the expected support. This has been solved with frequent contact with employers in writing letters, phone calls, and face-to-face contact whenever possible. Low numbers of female students also remains a challenge. This has been among priority discussion questions in annual SAFE regional workshops. In some countries such as Ethiopia, affirmative action has been considered for the entrance examination, a requirement to join the program. SAFE has been soliciting scholarships for female candidates from different organizations. However, the female student intake still remains low. Only a few candidates turn up for entrance exam. This could be due to family responsibility and cultural barriers. The ongoing process of developing",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "examination, a requirement to join the program. SAFE has been soliciting scholarships for female candidates from different organizations. However, the female student intake still remains low. Only a few candidates turn up for entrance exam. This could be due to family responsibility and cultural barriers. The ongoing process of developing a semi-distance learning version of the program is expected to solve such problems. Maintaining the quality of SEPs with changing research themes is another important challenge. Recently the curriculum of the SAFE program is being re-oriented toward value chain analyses. To make this adaptation, SAFE has supported teaching material development and staff 33 training. However, whether the SEPs being implemented by students are addressing the real value chain issues is uncertain. As could be observed during annual regional workshops, this challenge cuts across all countries where the SAFE program is being implemented. Research gaps and implication for future interventions In general, reforming AET in Africa calls for looking beyond \"a single model fits all\" approach and it should be implemented with the understanding that it is a long-term undertaking (Eicher, 2006; Spielman et al., 2008). In an attempt to reform the AET organizations in the region, application of innovation system approach, as a complement to ongoing reform, would provide a systematic and contextual approach to address key challenges underlying poor performance or underachievement of AET. However, empirical evidence on application of an innovation system approach to AET reform in Africa is still lacking and thus needs further research (Spielman et al., 2008). At the stage of context analysis of an AET organization, contextually important factors that need to be determined may include issues pertaining to the prevailing philosophy of teaching, research and extension; network and linkage with knowledge source (inside and outside the AET organization) and with actors in the",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "al., 2008). At the stage of context analysis of an AET organization, contextually important factors that need to be determined may include issues pertaining to the prevailing philosophy of teaching, research and extension; network and linkage with knowledge source (inside and outside the AET organization) and with actors in the AIS (farmers, research institution, private and public sector); available resources; pedagogical knowledge and skill gap of staff; culture of the AET organization at different levels such as at departmental, college and overall institutional. These factors affect individuals’ initiative to take innovative actions linking students to ongoing research and extension activities, initiating cross-disciplinary research and partnerships with organizations outside the AET institution (e.g., an overseas university), etc. Depending on the outcome from the context analysis, the intervention may consider different activities. For example, introducing a new model or adapting available experiences (within sub-Saharan Africa or from other successful programs) that can fit the context of the AET organization to improve the link between extension and education. This may require other complementary actions such as training staff in pedagogical skills; writing teaching material with blended theory and local authentic examples; establishing functional links within AET organizations and with farmers and other stakeholders outside the organization. Specific to the themes of this study, linking extension and education is imperative, regardless of the level of reform (system-wide, institution or program level) an intervention is designed to achieve. If effectively done, an attempt to improve the link between extension and 34 education (for example, focusing on a program in an AET organization) can be a good entry point to initiate long-term institutional level and system wide reform. Because, if a functional link is established between extension and education, as could be seen from experience from SAFE and other programs reviewed above, it will provide feedback",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "on a program in an AET organization) can be a good entry point to initiate long-term institutional level and system wide reform. Because, if a functional link is established between extension and education, as could be seen from experience from SAFE and other programs reviewed above, it will provide feedback on the relevance of the curriculum, its delivery and research focus, and the overall strategic links between the trimandates of an AET organization. However, intervention undertakings to improve the link between extension and education need to be guided by contextual assessment. Information from contextual assessment that adheres to the innovation system approach will guide the intervention to the underlying factors to adapt suitable pathways for a specific AET action, as well as required complementary actions. 35 References Akeredolu, M. (n.d.). Impact of supervised enterprise project in the training of agricultural extension personnel in IPR/IFRA, University of Mali. Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education. Retrieved from http://www.safeafrica.org/pdf/Articles/9.%20Impact%20of%20Supervised%20Enterprise%20Project%20in %20the%20Training%20of%20Agricultural%20Extension%20Personnel%20in%20IPRIFRA,%20University%20of%20Mali.pdf Anandajayasekeram, P., Puskur, R., Workneh, S. & Hoekstra D. (2008) Concepts and practices in agricultural extension in developing countries: A source book. Washington, DC: IFPRI and Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI. Retrieved from https://www.ifpri.org/cdmref/p15738coll2/id/125973/filename/125989.pdf APLU. (2014). African higher education: Opportunities for transformative change for sustainable development. Washington, DC: USAID. Retrieved from http://www.aplu.org/library/african-higher-education-opportunities-for-transformativechange-for-sustainable-development/file Ashworth, V. (2005). The challenges of change for agricultural extension in Ethiopia. A Discussion Paper. Addis Ababa: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Duo, S. N., & Thomas, B. (2007). Assessment of the Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education in Ghana. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 14(1), 59– 70. https://www.aiaee.org/attachments/article/119/Duo%2014.1-1.pdf EARTH University. (2014a, November). Graduate impact study reveals ripple effect across Central America. EARTH Connections, 9, 2. Retrieved from https://www.earth.ac.cr/en/about-earth/connections/edition-9-november-2014/ EARTH University. (2014b, November). Pioneer graduate Eddie Romero shares ‘how it all started at EARTH’. EARTH Connections, 9, 4. Retrieved from https://www.earth.ac.cr/en/about-earth/connections/edition-9-november-2014/",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Agricultural and Extension Education, 14(1), 59– 70. https://www.aiaee.org/attachments/article/119/Duo%2014.1-1.pdf EARTH University. (2014a, November). Graduate impact study reveals ripple effect across Central America. EARTH Connections, 9, 2. Retrieved from https://www.earth.ac.cr/en/about-earth/connections/edition-9-november-2014/ EARTH University. (2014b, November). Pioneer graduate Eddie Romero shares ‘how it all started at EARTH’. EARTH Connections, 9, 4. Retrieved from https://www.earth.ac.cr/en/about-earth/connections/edition-9-november-2014/ Eicher, C. K. (2006). The evolution of agricultural education and training: Global insights of relevance for Africa. Michigan State University, Department of Agricultural Economics Staff Paper Series. Retrieved from http://purl.umn.edu/11816 Kante, A. (2010). An assessment of the Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education’s (SAFE) training program in Mali: Graduates’ perceptions of the training’s impact as well as opportunities and constraints related to supervised enterprise projects (SEPs) (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://safeafrica.org/pdf/Assessment%20of%20the%20SAFE%20pgm%20in%20Mali%20with%20speci al%20focus%20on%20SEPs%20-%20PhD%20dissertation%20by%20Assa%20Kante.pdf Kassa, B., & Azerefegne, F. (2008). Case study of Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education (SAFE) program at Haramaya University. Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education. Retrieved from http://www.safeafrica.org/pdf/Report%20of%20Haramaya%20Case%20Study%20-%20Ethiopia.pdf 36 Kassa, B., Karippai, R. S., & Eshetu, S. (2010). Impact assessment of the B.Sc. program for mid career extension professionals at Haramaya University, Ethiopia. Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education. Retrieved from http://www.safeafrica.org/pdf/Articles/3.%20Impact%20Assessment%20of%20the%20B.Sc.%20Program%2 0For%20MidCareer%20Extension%20Professionals%20at%20Haramaya%20University,%20Ethiopia.pd f Kroma, M. M. (2003). Reshaping extension education curricula for 21st century agricultural development in sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings from the Association for International Agricultural Extension Education 19th Annual Conference. (pp. 353–365) Raleigh, North Carolina: AIAEE. Retrieved from https://www.aiaee.org/attachments/article/1204/Kroma353.pdf Leeuwis, C. & van den Ban, A. (2004). Communication for rural innovation: Rethinking agricultural extension. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Science Ltd. Maguire, C. J. (2012). Agricultural education and training to support agricultural innovation systems. In World Bank (Ed.), Agricultural innovation systems: An investment sourcebook (pp. 107–177), Washington D.C.: The World Bank. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/2247/672070PUB0EPI006 7844B09780821386842.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Mutimba, J. K., Knipscheer, H. C., & Naibakelao, D. (2010). The role of universities in food security and safety: Perspectives based",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "education and training to support agricultural innovation systems. In World Bank (Ed.), Agricultural innovation systems: An investment sourcebook (pp. 107–177), Washington D.C.: The World Bank. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/2247/672070PUB0EPI006 7844B09780821386842.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Mutimba, J. K., Knipscheer, H. C., & Naibakelao, D. (2010). The role of universities in food security and safety: Perspectives based on the Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education. Journal of Developments in Sustainable Agriculture, 5, 12–22. Retrieved from http://www.safeafrica.org/pdf/Articles/4.%20The%20Role%20of%20Universities%20in%20Food%20Securi ty%20and%20Safety.pdf Mwangi, J. G., Chibwana, C., & Azerefegne, F. (2005). Report of an external evaluation of the B.Sc program for mid-career extension professionals at Alemaya University, Ethiopia. Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education. Retrieved from http://www.safeafrica.org/pdf/Articles/11.%20Report%20of%20an%20External%20Evaluation%20of%20th e%20B.Sc%20Program%20for%20MidCareer%20Extension%20Professionals%20at%20Alemaya%20University,%20Ethiopia.pdf NEPAD & CAADP (2013). Review of agricultural technical vocational education and training (ATVET) in Africa: Best practices from Benin, Ethiopia, Namibia and Sierra Leone. Midrand, South Africa: NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency (NPCA). Retrieved from http://www.nepad.org/download/file/fid/3451 OECD. (2012). Fostering quality teaching in higher education: Policies and practices. An IMHE Guide for Higher Education Institutions. Paris, France: Hénard, F. & Roseveare, D. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/edu/imhe/QT%20policies%20and%20practices.pdf 37 Rivera, W. M., & Alex, G. E. (2008). Human resource development for modernizing the agricultural workforce. Human Resource Development Review, 7(4), 374–386. http://doi.org/10.1177/1534484308324633 Spielman, D. J., Ekboir, J., Davis, K., & Ochieng, C. M. O. (2008). An innovation systems perspective on strengthening agricultural education and training in sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural Systems, 98, 1–9. http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0308521X08000358/1-s2.0S0308521X08000358-main.pdf?_tid=05df63f2-63d8-11e6-a5bd00000aab0f26&acdnat=1471369194_f21e7435ed7bd0891445c085138b5fc5 Tamboli, P. M., & Nene, Y. L. (2013). Modernizing higher agricultural education system in India to meet the challenges of 21st century. Asian Agri-History, 17(3), 251-264. http://asianagrihistory.org/vol-17/dr-tambolis-paper-17-3.pdf Vandenbosch, T. (2006). Post primary agricultural education and training in sub-Saharan Africa: Adapting supply to changing demand. Nairobi, Kenya: World Bank. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRREGTOPEDUCATION/Resources/4446591212165766431/Post_Primary_Agriculture_Education_Africa.pdf World Bank. (2007). Cultivating knowledge and skills to grow African agriculture: A synthesis of an institutional, regional, and international review. Washington D.C. Retrieved from",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "251-264. http://asianagrihistory.org/vol-17/dr-tambolis-paper-17-3.pdf Vandenbosch, T. (2006). Post primary agricultural education and training in sub-Saharan Africa: Adapting supply to changing demand. Nairobi, Kenya: World Bank. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRREGTOPEDUCATION/Resources/4446591212165766431/Post_Primary_Agriculture_Education_Africa.pdf World Bank. (2007). Cultivating knowledge and skills to grow African agriculture: A synthesis of an institutional, regional, and international review. Washington D.C. Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/629031468340199694/pdf/409970WP0P094 300AET0Final0web040997.pdf",
    "source": "JemalPathwaysLinkingAgEdExtFINAL.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "AGRICULTURAL FINANCE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Challenges and Opportunities Edited by Shahidur R. Khandker and Takashi Yamano AGRICULTURAL FINANCE \u0003IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES \u0003Challenges and Opportunities Edited by Shahidur R. Khandker and Takashi Yamano Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license (CC BY 3.0 IGO) © 2025 Asian Development Bank Institute and Asian Development Bank Asian Development Bank Institute Kasumigaseki Building 8F 3-2-5, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-6008, Japan www.adbi.org Some rights reserved. Published in 2025. ISBN 978-4-89974-315-6 (print); 978-4-89974-316-3 (PDF) DOI: https://doi.org/10.56506/OATB7692 The views in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI), its Advisory Council, ADB’s Board or Governors, or the governments of ADB members. ADBI and ADB do not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accept no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by ADB and ADBI in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. ADBI and ADB use proper ADB member names and abbreviations throughout and any variation or inaccuracy, including in citations and references, should be read as referring to the correct name. By making any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area in this document, ADBI and ADB do not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area. This work is available under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license (CC BY 3.0 IGO). https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/. By using the content of this publication, you agree to be bound by the terms of this license. For attribution, translations, adaptations, and permissions, please read the provisions and terms of use at https://www.adb.org/terms-use#openaccess. This CC license does not apply to non-ADB/ADBI copyright",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "IGO license (CC BY 3.0 IGO). https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/. By using the content of this publication, you agree to be bound by the terms of this license. For attribution, translations, adaptations, and permissions, please read the provisions and terms of use at https://www.adb.org/terms-use#openaccess. This CC license does not apply to non-ADB/ADBI copyright materials in this publication. If the material is attributed to another source, please contact the copyright owner or publisher of that source for permission to reproduce it. ADB and ADBI cannot be held liable for any claims that arise as a result of your use of the material. Please contact pubsmarketing@adb.org if you have questions or comments with respect to content, or if you wish to obtain copyright permission for your intended use that does not fall within these terms, or for permission to use the ADB or ADBI logo. Notes: In this publication, “$” refers to US dollars. “₹” refers to Indian rupees, “B” refers to baht, “Tk” refers to taka, and “D” refers to dong. ADB recognizes “China” as the People’s Republic of China and “Vietnam” as Viet Nam. Asian Development Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City, 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines Tel +63 2 8632 4444; Fax +63 2 8636 2444 www.adb.org ISBN 978-92-9277-216-1 (print); 978-92-9277-217-8 (PDF); 978-92-9277-218-5 (ebook) Publication Stock No. TCS250075-2 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS250075-2 iii Contents Tables, Figures, and Boxes\b iv Foreword\b xi Acknowledgments\b xii About the Authors\b xiii Executive Summary\b xv 1 \u0007How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: \b 1 An Overview Shahidur R. Khandker and Takashi Yamano 2 \u0007Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture \b 37 Using Global Findex Data Gayatri B. Koolwal and Shahidur R. Khandker 3 \u0007Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks \b 65 for Agriculture Jonathan Haughton 4 \u0007Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately \b 112 Effective Microfinance Jonathan Haughton and Shahidur",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Takashi Yamano 2 \u0007Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture \b 37 Using Global Findex Data Gayatri B. Koolwal and Shahidur R. Khandker 3 \u0007Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks \b 65 for Agriculture Jonathan Haughton 4 \u0007Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately \b 112 Effective Microfinance Jonathan Haughton and Shahidur R. Khandker 5 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture\b 158 Shahidur R. Khandker and Hussain A. Samad 6 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture\b 207 Gayatri B. Koolwal 7 \u0007How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: \b 246 Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Shahidur R. Khandker, Hussain A. Samad, and Gayatri B. Koolwal 8 \u0007Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: \b 294 Lessons from Latin American Countries Jonathan Haughton 9 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture\b 332 Shahidur R. Khandker 10 Strengthening Access and Efficiency of Agricultural Finance\b 359 Shahidur R. Khandker and Takashi Yamano iv Tables, Figures, and Boxes TABLES 2.1 \u0007Descriptive Statistics for Individuals in Market‑Based Agriculture, \b 47 2017 Round 2.2 \u0007Source of Emergency Funds for Individuals in Market-Based Agriculture, \b 48 by Whether They Own a Financial Account, 2017 Round 2.3 \u0007Share of Individuals in Market-Based Agriculture Engaging \b 51 in Financial Activity, 2017 Round 2.4 Purpose of Saving and Borrowing, 2017 Round\b 52 2.5 \u0007Reasons for Not Owning a Financial Account, for Individuals Involved \b 56 in Market-Based Agriculture, 2017 Round 2.6 Probit Regressions: Correlates of Financial Activity, 2017\b 58 2.7 \u0007Probit Regressions: Correlates of Reasons for Not Having \b 60 a Financial Account, 2017 3.1 Agricultural Holdings, Income Source, and Debt Use by Farm Size\b 67 3.2 Indicators of Financial Inclusion from Findex Survey, 2021\b 70 3.3 Sources of Agricultural Credit, 1993–2013\b 72 3.4 Sources and Amounts of Loans for Agricultural Households, 2002–2013\b 73 3.5 Income and Poverty for Rural Households, 2011 and 2019\b 76",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Agricultural Holdings, Income Source, and Debt Use by Farm Size\b 67 3.2 Indicators of Financial Inclusion from Findex Survey, 2021\b 70 3.3 Sources of Agricultural Credit, 1993–2013\b 72 3.4 Sources and Amounts of Loans for Agricultural Households, 2002–2013\b 73 3.5 Income and Poverty for Rural Households, 2011 and 2019\b 76 3.6 Sources of Income for Rural Households, 2021\b 76 3.7 \u0007Indebtedness Among Farm Borrowers from the Bank for Agriculture \b 78 and Agricultural Cooperatives, 2021 3.8 \u0007Characteristics of Farmers Who Can and Cannot Borrow More \b 81 for Business Purposes in 2013 3.9 \u0007Sources of Funds for the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural \b 84 Cooperatives 3.10 \u0007Dependence on Subsidies and Return on Equity for the \b 86 Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives 3.11 Evidence of Government Investments in Rural Areas, Thailand\b 88 3.12 Measures of Protection for Agriculture\b 89 Tables, Figures, and Boxes v 3.13 \u0007Models of Borrowing for All Debt and for Agricultural Debt, \b 94 Thailand, 2013 3.14 \u0007Estimates of the Effects of Village Fund Borrowing Using Rural Panel \b 99 Data for 2002 and 2004 3.15 \u0007Estimates of the Effects of Borrowing from the Bank for Agriculture \b 101 and Agricultural Cooperatives, Using Rural Panel Data for 2002 and 2004 4.1 Vietnamese Agricultural Production: Selected Crops\b 114 4.2 \u0007Household Agricultural Holdings, Income Source, and Debt Use \b 116 by Farm Size 4.3 Sources of Borrowed Funds in Communes\b 118 4.4 Vehicles for Savings, 2020\b 119 4.5 \u0007Proportion of Households with a Bank Account, 2020–2021\b 120 4.6 \u0007Reasons for Not Having a Bank Account, 2014\b 120 4.7 \u0007Information Technology Access for Farmers and Nonfarmers, \b 121 2020–2021 4.8 Indicators of Financial Inclusion from Findex Survey, 2017\b 122 4.9 Principal Banks in Viet Nam\b 124 4.10 Microfinance Lending and Saving (c. 2015)\b 125 4.11 Vietnam Bank for",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "4.6 \u0007Reasons for Not Having a Bank Account, 2014\b 120 4.7 \u0007Information Technology Access for Farmers and Nonfarmers, \b 121 2020–2021 4.8 Indicators of Financial Inclusion from Findex Survey, 2017\b 122 4.9 Principal Banks in Viet Nam\b 124 4.10 Microfinance Lending and Saving (c. 2015)\b 125 4.11 Vietnam Bank for Social Policies in Comparative Perspective\b 125 4.12 \u0007Lending to the Bottom of the Pyramid (2007) and Microfinance \b 129 Lending (2013) 4.13 Sources of Borrowing by Agricultural Households\b 130 4.14 Annual Interest Rates by Lender\b 132 4.15 Uses to Which Agricultural Households Put Their Loans\b 133 4.16 \u0007Models of Borrowing for All Debt and for Agricultural Debt, \b 134 Viet Nam, 2014 4.17 Measures of Loan Churning in Rural Viet Nam, 2004–2008\b 140 4.18 Descriptive Statistics for 2006\b 142 4.19 \u0007Estimates of the Impact of Vietnam Bank for Social Policies Credit \b 145 on the Natural Log of Real Consumption per Capita: Intention-to-Treat Model 4.20 \u0007Estimates of the Impact of Vietnam Bank for Social Policies Credit \b 147 on Outcomes: Intention-to-Treat Model 4.21 \u0007Estimates of the Impact of Vietnam Bank for Social Policies \b 149 and Agribank Credit on Outcomes: Quantity-of-Credit Model Tables, Figures, and Boxes vi 5.1 \u0007Agricultural Credit Disbursement in Bangladesh by Institution Type \b 169 in 2021–2022 5.2 \u0007Distribution of Agricultural Loans by Palli Karma Shahayak Foundation, \b 171 Fiscal Years 2011–2012 to 2020–2021 5.3 \u0007Sector-Wise Distribution of Microenterprise Loans, 2016–2017 \b 172 and 2020–2021 5.4a Efficiency of Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan Bank\b 174 5.4b Efficiency of Bangladesh Krishi Bank\b 175 5.5 Indicators of Efficiency of Bangladeshi Microfinance Institutions\b 176 5.6 \u0007Financial Inclusion for Agriculture: Bangladesh, India, and \b 183 Developing World, 2021 5.7 \u0007Incidence of Borrowing from Alternate Sources and Share \b 186 in Total Loans 5.8 Distribution of Main Purpose by Source of Borrowing\b 187 5.9",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Krishi Bank\b 175 5.5 Indicators of Efficiency of Bangladeshi Microfinance Institutions\b 176 5.6 \u0007Financial Inclusion for Agriculture: Bangladesh, India, and \b 183 Developing World, 2021 5.7 \u0007Incidence of Borrowing from Alternate Sources and Share \b 186 in Total Loans 5.8 Distribution of Main Purpose by Source of Borrowing\b 187 5.9 \u0007Panel Estimates of the Impacts of Cumulative Amount of Borrowing \b 190 on Household Income (P-score Weighted Household Fixed Effects) (N = 1,758)\b 5.10 \u0007Share of Credit-Constrained Borrowers for Alternate Borrowing \b 192 Sources by Farm Size 5.11 \u0007Panel Estimates of the Impacts of Loan Volume and Credit Constraints \b 193 on Household Income (P-score Weighted Household Fixed Effects) (N = 1,758) 5.12 \u0007Marginal Return to Household Borrowing on Household Income \b 195 based on Table 5.11 (taka per Tk100 borrowed) 5.13 \u0007Panel Estimates of the Impacts of Borrowing Status \b 196 and Credit Constraints on Household Income (P-score Weighted Household Fixed Effects) (N = 1,758) 6.1 \u0007Percentage Distribution of Rural Households’ Cash Loans \b 222 Across Institutional and Noninstitutional Sources, by Cultivator/Non-Cultivator Status 6.2 \u0007Share of Households Across the Distribution of Landholdings\b 226 6.3 \u0007Source of Borrowing in Agriculture: Largest Loan Taken \b 229 in the Last 5 Years, 2011–2012 6.4 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions of Household Characteristics \b 233 Associated with Borrowing 6.5 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions of Changes in Agricultural \b 235 Outcomes (%) from Agricultural Borrowing Tables, Figures, and Boxes vii 6.6 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions of Changes in Agricultural \b 238 Outcomes (%) from Nonagricultural Borrowing 6.7 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions of Changes in Outcomes (%) from \b 239 Household Borrowing for Agriculture, by Landowning Distribution 6.8 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions of Changes in Outcomes (%) from \b 241 Household Borrowing for Agriculture: Effects of Source of Borrowing, by Landowning Distribution 7.1 \u0007Selected Development Indicators",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Borrowing 6.7 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions of Changes in Outcomes (%) from \b 239 Household Borrowing for Agriculture, by Landowning Distribution 6.8 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions of Changes in Outcomes (%) from \b 241 Household Borrowing for Agriculture: Effects of Source of Borrowing, by Landowning Distribution 7.1 \u0007Selected Development Indicators Across Regions, Excluding \b 249 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and High-Income Countries, 2021 7.2 \u0007Access to Finance in Global Regions, Excluding Organisation for \b 251 Economic Co-operation and Development and High-Income Countries 7.3 \u0007Borrowing in Global Regions, Excluding Organisation for Economic \b 254 Co-operation and Development and High-Income Countries 7.4 \u0007Borrowing by Different Account Holders in Global Regions, \b 257 Excluding Organisation for Economic Co‑operation and High-Income Countries (2021) 7.5 Selected Financial Indicators of Ethiopia\b 266 7.6 Lending in Agriculture in Ethiopia\b 267 7.7 \u0007Access to Finance by Farmers (%) in Ethiopia from Household \b 268 Survey Data 7.8 \u0007Borrowing by Farmers (%) in Ethiopia from Household Survey Data\b 268 7.9 Uganda’s Financial Sector Presented in Tiers\b 273 7.10 Borrowing by Farmers (%) in Uganda from Household Survey Data\b 283 7.11 \u0007Purpose of Borrowing by Farmers (%) in Uganda from Household \b 284 Survey Data 7.12 \u0007Impacts of Borrowing by Farmers on Farm Income in Uganda \b 286 (N = 2,543) 8.1 \u0007Agricultural Outcomes, Latin America and Selected Countries, \b 298 2000–2021 8.2 Background Information on Income, Agriculture, and Trade\b 299 8.3 Measures of Financial Inclusion for Farmers, 2021\b 306 8.4 \u0007Reasons Given by Farmers for Not Having a Bank Account, 2021 \b 307 8.5 Main Source of Emergency Funds over 30 Days for Farmers \b 308 8.6 \u0007Farm-Related Credit to Farmers: Sources, Uses, and Reasons \b 310 for Denial or Not Applying, 2014 Tables, Figures, and Boxes viii 8.7 Frequencies of Rationing Mechanisms\b 312 8.8 Outcome of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "a Bank Account, 2021 \b 307 8.5 Main Source of Emergency Funds over 30 Days for Farmers \b 308 8.6 \u0007Farm-Related Credit to Farmers: Sources, Uses, and Reasons \b 310 for Denial or Not Applying, 2014 Tables, Figures, and Boxes viii 8.7 Frequencies of Rationing Mechanisms\b 312 8.8 Outcome of Microfinance Lenders, 2018\b 313 8.9 \u0007Allocation of Funds from the National Program for Strengthening \b 316 Family Farming by Region (2007) and Regional Breakdown of Farms (2006) 8.10 Household Characteristics of Borrowers and Non-Borrowers\b 317 8.11 Income Characteristics of Borrowers and Non-Borrowers\b 319 8.12 \u0007Probit Regression Results: Dependent Variable Is Whether a \b 319 Household Borrows 8.13 Characteristics of Farmers Who Sought Loans, 2014\b 322 8.14 Correlates of Loan Applications and Their Success, 2014\b 323 A9.1 Recent Examples of Digital Finance Targeted to Agriculture\b 356 FIGURES 1.1 \u0007Interrelationship Between Supplyand Demand‑Side Factors \b 7 Influencing Agricultural Outcomes 2.1 \u0007Country-Level Correlates of Agricultural Productivity Against Share \b 38 of Agriculture in Gross Domestic Product, 2019 2.2 \u0007Country-Level Locally Weighted Regressions: Financial Account \b 45 Ownership Against Agricultural Productivity, 2011–2021 2.3 \u0007Percent of Individuals with a Financial Account Who Do Not Make \b 53 Monthly Deposits/Withdrawals, by Income Quintile, 2017 Global Findex 2.4 \u0007Percent of Individuals in Market-Based Agriculture Who Engage in \b 55 Electronic/Mobile Banking, Saving, and Borrowing, 2017 Global Findex 3.1 Evolution of the Agricultural Sector in Thailand, 1990–2021\b 66 3.2 Farmer Revenue and Spending, Northeast Thailand, 2019–2020\b 77 3.3 \u0007Perceived Cost of Default for Different Loan Sources and Enforcement \b 79 Mechanisms, 2020 3.4 \u0007Quantile Regression Estimates of Impact on Expenditure and Income \b 103 of Borrowing from Village Fund Borrowing and Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, 2002–2004 4.1 Recent Evolution of the Agricultural Sector in Viet Nam\b 113 5.1 \u0007Distribution of Gross Domestic Product of Bangladesh by",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "\b 79 Mechanisms, 2020 3.4 \u0007Quantile Regression Estimates of Impact on Expenditure and Income \b 103 of Borrowing from Village Fund Borrowing and Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, 2002–2004 4.1 Recent Evolution of the Agricultural Sector in Viet Nam\b 113 5.1 \u0007Distribution of Gross Domestic Product of Bangladesh by Sector\b 162 5.2 Dynamics of Agricultural Activities in Bangladesh\b 163 Tables, Figures, and Boxes ix 5.3 \u0007Sector-Wise Distribution of Commercial Bank Loans, as of June 2022\b 168 5.4 \u0007Sector-Wise Decomposition of Loans Outstanding, Bangladesh\b 168 Krishi Bank and Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan Bank in Financial Years 2012–2013 6.1 Percentage Growth in the Agriculture and Allied Sectors, 2016–2022\b 209 6.2 \u0007Percentage Growth of Gross Value Added in Agriculture \b 210 (at 2011–2012 prices) 6.3 \u0007Growing Fragmentation of Operational Holdings Across Different \b 211 Farming Sizes 6.4 \u0007Percentage Composition of Average Monthly Income of Agricultural \b 212 Households 6.5 \u0007Share of Institutional Lending (Loans Outstanding) to Agriculture, \b 215 1983–2022 6.6 \u0007Year-on-Year Growth Rates (Percentage by Quarter) in Outstanding \b 216 Real Agricultural Credit from Rural Scheduled Commercial Banks, 2019, 2020, and 2021 6.7 \u0007Share of Nonperforming Assets in Agriculture, Scheduled Commercial \b 217 Banks, 2001–2018 6.8 \u0007Share of Credit for Agriculture (Loans Outstanding) for Cultivator \b 221 Households, by Institutional/Noninstitutional Source 6.9 \u0007Cultivators: Expenditure on Agricultural Inputs, Relative to per Capita \b 227 Farm Income, by Landholdings 6.10 Cultivators: Number of Loans Taken in the Last 5 Years, 2011 Round\b 228 6.11 \u0007Borrowing Amount in Agriculture, Relative to Total Consumption \b 230 Expenditure, by Landowning Size 7.1 \u0007Agriculture as a Share of Gross Domestic Product by Region \b 250 (Excluding High-Income Countries) 7.2 Incidence of Savings by Farmers in Countries of Sub-Saharan Africa \b 259 7.3 Seasonality in Borrowing and Repayment\b 263 7.4 \u0007Gross Domestic Product Growth and Growth of Agricultural \b",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Expenditure, by Landowning Size 7.1 \u0007Agriculture as a Share of Gross Domestic Product by Region \b 250 (Excluding High-Income Countries) 7.2 Incidence of Savings by Farmers in Countries of Sub-Saharan Africa \b 259 7.3 Seasonality in Borrowing and Repayment\b 263 7.4 \u0007Gross Domestic Product Growth and Growth of Agricultural \b 264 Gross Domestic Product over Time in Ethiopia 7.5 Distribution of Sectors for Commercial Bank Credit, 2021\b 266 7.6 \u0007Savings as Percentage of Loans Outstanding by Institutions \b 269 in Ethiopia, 2021 7.7 Sources of Microfinance Institution Funds in Ethiopia, 2008\b 270 7.8 Deposit as Percentage of Loans Outstanding in Microfinance Institutions\b 271 Tables, Figures, and Boxes x 7.9 \u0007Share of Loan Portfolios in Agriculture, 2018–2021: Commercial Banks, \b 275 Micro-Deposit-Taking Institutions, and Credit Institutions 7.10 \u0007Share of Population Accessing Financial Services, Uganda FinScope \b 276 Survey, 2009, 2013, 2018 7.11 \u0007Share of Individuals in Agriculture Who Have a Mobile Banking Account \b 280 (Uganda Compared with the Rest of Sub-Saharan Africa, 2014) 8.1 \u0007Food Exports and Imports, Latin America and the Caribbean, \b 294 1990–2021 8.2 \u0007Share of Agriculture in Employment and Gross Domestic Product \b 296 in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1991–2021 8.3 \u0007Share of Agriculture in Employment Divided by Share of Agriculture\b 297 in Gross Domestic Product, by Region (Top Panel) and for Selected Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean 8.4 \u0007Percentage of Farmers Who Have a Bank Account (Top Panel) or \b 303 Any Financial Account (Bottom Panel) for Selected Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean 8.5 Proportion of Farmers With a Bank Account, 2021\b 304 9.1 Financial Access by Farmers and Nonfarmers across Years\b 339 9.2 \u0007Mobile Financial Service Access by Farmers in South Asia \b 340 and Sub-Saharan Africa, Across Years 9.3 \u0007Access to Finance by Farmers in Sub‑Saharan Africa, Kenya,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and the Caribbean 8.5 Proportion of Farmers With a Bank Account, 2021\b 304 9.1 Financial Access by Farmers and Nonfarmers across Years\b 339 9.2 \u0007Mobile Financial Service Access by Farmers in South Asia \b 340 and Sub-Saharan Africa, Across Years 9.3 \u0007Access to Finance by Farmers in Sub‑Saharan Africa, Kenya, \b 341 and Uganda, Across Years 9.4 Borrowing by Farmers in Developing Countries, 2017\b 342 9.5 Borrowing by Farmers in Kenya, 2017\b 343 9.6 Borrowing by Mobile-Only Account Holders, 2021\b 343 BOXES 6.1 \u0007Major Policies Since the Late 1990s to Expand Agricultural \b 214 Institutional Credit 6.2 Main Sources of Institutional Lending for Agriculture\b 215 7.1 Government Efforts to Engage Formal Finance in Agriculture\b 274 7.2 \u0007Pre-Pandemic Policy Efforts by the Uganda Government to Improve \b 277 and Sustain Microfinance xi Foreword P oor people in developing countries are suffering from persistently high food inflation, and concerns about food insecurity are once again dominating policy discussions. To ensure food security, many governments in developing countries are emphasizing the need to increase agricultural productivity, especially among smallholder farmers who face severe challenges from climate change in a fragile environment. As described in this book, Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities, agricultural productivity among farmers is strongly linked to financial inclusion. However, the 10 chapters of the book clearly show that smallholder farmers are still credit constrained. Emerging financial services, such as microfinance and mobile finance, help smallholder farmers meet daily needs and payments but are not large enough to help them make long-term investments to improve agricultural productivity and, hence, food security. Despite these limitations, innovative financial services offer opportunities to expand their reach and depth. For example, mobile finance can reach farmers in remote areas without bank branches and provide loans based on credit scores derived from data",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "help them make long-term investments to improve agricultural productivity and, hence, food security. Despite these limitations, innovative financial services offer opportunities to expand their reach and depth. For example, mobile finance can reach farmers in remote areas without bank branches and provide loans based on credit scores derived from data collected through mobile phones. I hope that policymakers, stakeholders, and anyone else interested in agricultural finance in developing countries will find this book useful in exploring innovations in agricultural finance. Tetsushi Sonobe Dean and CEO Asian Development Bank Institute xii Acknowledgments T he work on this book started when Shahidur R. Khandker was a visiting senior research fellow at the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) during 2015–2017. Maximo Torero, now chief economist of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), then the director of markets, trade, and institutions at IFPRI, was in fact instrumental for undertaking the book’s analytical work and financial support for starting the policy research for the book. Without his support, the book’s work would not have been possible. We deeply thank Maximo Torero for his encouragement and support. The book was initially scheduled to be published by IFPRI but this was not possible as he has moved from IFPRI. The work on the book was delayed further due to the pandemic. After the pandemic, Takashi Yamano, principal economist at the Asian Development Bank (ADB), further supported the data analysis and the book’s publication. In this context, we would also like to thank very much Tetsushi Sonobe, dean of ADBI, for his kind guidance and Adam Majoe for administrative support for the book’s publication. We would like to thank deeply Dinmukhamed Alchinbayev for his excellent research assistance for data analysis and literature review embedded in different chapters of the book. He was a graduate student at Suffolk",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "dean of ADBI, for his kind guidance and Adam Majoe for administrative support for the book’s publication. We would like to thank deeply Dinmukhamed Alchinbayev for his excellent research assistance for data analysis and literature review embedded in different chapters of the book. He was a graduate student at Suffolk University, Boston and is now an analyst with Freedom Capital Markets in New York in the United States. We would also like to thank Mashiat Hoque, now a graduate student at Lamar University, United States, for research support. xiii About the Authors Shahidur R. Khandker is a development economist with research experience of over 30 years at the World Bank and other development organizations. He was a lead economist at the World Bank’s Development Research Group. After his retirement from the World Bank, he spent about 3 years during 2015–2017 as a visiting senior research fellow at the International Food Policy Research Institute. He has been a leading researcher in the areas of microfinance, rural and agri‑finance, poverty, gender, and rural infrastructural development. His expertise includes micro-econometrics, household survey design, micro-data collection, and analysis. He has authored more than 50 articles in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Political Economy and Journal of Development Economics. He has also written a number of books in development economics, including Fighting Poverty with Microcredit, Beyond Ending Poverty and Handbook on Impact Evaluation. His current research is on human capital investment as well as digital financial services for inclusive development. Takashi Yamano is a principal economist at ADB. At ADB, he reviews cost‑benefit analyses of proposed agricultural and natural resource development projects and conducts economic research, including impact evaluations. Prior to joining ADB in 2017, he worked at the International Rice Research Institute, the National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies in Japan, and the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "principal economist at ADB. At ADB, he reviews cost‑benefit analyses of proposed agricultural and natural resource development projects and conducts economic research, including impact evaluations. Prior to joining ADB in 2017, he worked at the International Rice Research Institute, the National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies in Japan, and the World Bank. He received the Outstanding Article Award from the American Journal of Agricultural Economics in 2005 and was elected a foreign fellow of the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences of India in 2024. He received a joint PhD in economics and agricultural economics from Michigan State University in 2000. Jonathan Haughton is professor emeritus of economics at Suffolk University, Boston. Originally from Ireland, he earned his PhD at Harvard University in 1983, and has published over 50 articles and numerous chapters, and has coauthored three books, including Handbook on Poverty and Inequality, on subjects ranging from the economic analysis of poverty to taxation, demography, the environment, and agriculture. An award-winning teacher, he has undertaken assignments for the World Bank, USAID, the Asian Development Bank (ADB), and others, and is currently working on a variety of projects in Rwanda. Acknowledgments xiv Gayatri Koolwal is a development economist and consults with international institutions on measuring different aspects of economic mobility. Her research has focused on employment, resilience, taxation, and wealth in lowand middleincome contexts, as well as testing survey methodological approaches to better capture economic roles and opportunities for men and women. She is also a coauthor of Handbook on Impact Evaluation: Quantitative Methods and Practices. Hussain Samad, in a career of over 25 years in the development sector, has worked for major development organizations including the World Bank, ADB, Japan International Cooperation Agency, Inter-American Development Bank, and International Food Policy Research Institute. He has managed research projects, provided technical support",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Evaluation: Quantitative Methods and Practices. Hussain Samad, in a career of over 25 years in the development sector, has worked for major development organizations including the World Bank, ADB, Japan International Cooperation Agency, Inter-American Development Bank, and International Food Policy Research Institute. He has managed research projects, provided technical support to regions, overseen data collection activities, and authored books, articles, and reports. His skill set includes impact evaluation, policy analysis, survey, sampling, questionnaire design, and advanced data analysis. He has a master’s degree from Northeastern University in the United States. xv Executive Summary A griculture plays a dominant role in the growth and food security of many developing countries. Thus, raising agricultural investment for raising productivity and ensuring food security constitutes an important policy instrument for meeting Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in countries with a high share of agricultural gross domestic product (GDP). Institutional finance plays a catalytic role in raising investment in agriculture. For example, financing can support agricultural diversification, especially in countries with growing demand for high-value food, such as meat and fruits, from the growing urban population in developing countries. Financing is also critical for addressing food security, which has worsened in recent years due to increased volatility in production and agricultural prices caused by climate change. In fact, the predictability of harvests, input availability, and income flows of farmers have worsened in the developing world. Improving access to financial services provided by banks and other institutions, especially among smallholders, who cultivate more than 80% of farmed land in the developing world, is seen as an important driver for enhancing agricultural investment and productivity in many developing countries. More recent crises due to the supply chain shocks that were caused by the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic and ongoing wars have drawn policy attention to agricultural finance issues",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "land in the developing world, is seen as an important driver for enhancing agricultural investment and productivity in many developing countries. More recent crises due to the supply chain shocks that were caused by the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic and ongoing wars have drawn policy attention to agricultural finance issues that are critically important for the most vulnerable rural populations of the developing world. This book discusses major issues surrounding agricultural finance in developing countries, including why agricultural finance is important, who demands and who supplies different kinds of financial services, and what these services’ potential roles are in raising agricultural investment and productivity. It also discusses supply and demand constraints affecting agricultural households’ access to alternative financial services. Drawing on experiences of major financial institutions in selected middleand low-income countries, the book also discusses what works and what does not in extending financial services to farmers, especially smallholders in agriculture. Executive Summary xvi Using both institutional and household survey data, the book focuses specifically on access, impacts, delivery design, and sustainability of expanding institutional finance for agriculture. The book compares different experiences and policy frameworks from a set of four countries in East and South Asia, as well as the regional perspectives of agricultural finance in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. A global analysis using the World Bank’s Global Financial Inclusion (Findex) data of 2017 from 148 countries is also used to examine cross-country variations in the provision and impact of agricultural finance across households with varying access to financial services. More importantly, this book seeks to understand what agricultural finance means, particularly to farmers engaged in a risky environment for earning a livelihood and producing foods. The study helps shed light on how borrowing and access to other financial services has evolved over time for agricultural households in",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "financial services. More importantly, this book seeks to understand what agricultural finance means, particularly to farmers engaged in a risky environment for earning a livelihood and producing foods. The study helps shed light on how borrowing and access to other financial services has evolved over time for agricultural households in developing countries of different regions of the world and with varying levels of economic and financial development, and hence, the broader effects on agricultural investment and overall agricultural productivity and rural welfare. Given the recent growth in options for providing agricultural finance, has agriculture benefited from innovations and expansion of the financial system as institutions have attempted to extend coverage in rural areas? Are the farmers, especially smallholders, getting the benefits of expansion and innovation policies? Are the past policies still overshadowing the recent innovations of the financial sector? To answer these questions, the book analyzes recent household surveys from a number of Asian developing countries, where some of the innovations are taking place (both policyand program-wise). The book also attempts to understand the risks faced by agricultural households, their borrowing patterns, and their consumption and production decisions, and to better understand how improved access to finance can play a role in agricultural transformation for households. The book also has regional and worldwide coverage of the demandand supply‑side issues concerning provision of agricultural finance for the smallholders. In addition, institutional (supply-side) data from selected institutions from a number of countries are used to analyze institutional design and its efficacy in meeting farmers’ needs, as well as the institutional efficiency in marketing such products. The role of government and donors is also reviewed within such contexts. Executive Summary xvii The book utilizes rigorous impact evaluations (non-randomized techniques) using nationally representative household-level panel data to examine the role of agricultural finance in",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "meeting farmers’ needs, as well as the institutional efficiency in marketing such products. The role of government and donors is also reviewed within such contexts. Executive Summary xvii The book utilizes rigorous impact evaluations (non-randomized techniques) using nationally representative household-level panel data to examine the role of agricultural finance in promoting agricultural income and productivity. The varying roles of targeted agricultural development banks and microfinance institutions (MFIs), compared to commercial banks, are addressed systematically to investigate their relative cost-effectiveness in delivering a variety of financial services. While recent work has produced models for agricultural small and medium enterprises, supplemented with country case studies, the main emphasis of this book is on well-designed national-level impact evaluations that have been conducted across countries in order to shed light on how financial products could be better targeted to help support activities of different landholders; small landholders, in particular, are often left out of rural finance. The book also investigates how to make agricultural lending profitable, amid other recent structural policy changes in agriculture across several middleand low‑income countries with changing opportunities for medium and small landholders. In addition to covering a spectrum of household demand issues concerning borrowing, savings, remittances, and insurance, the country case studies address how agricultural finance issues are handled by banks and other financial institutions, which instruments are cost-effective, and which factors affect returns to agricultural financing by banks and other financial institutions and the efficiency of their agricultural portfolios. The book uses data of financial institutions in selected developing countries and examines the institutional designs that are most effective in targeting agricultural finance to farmers. Agriculture consists of a broad range of activities from farming for purely consumption (subsistence farmers), to farming for market consumption, and to supply chains including agro-processing and marketing networks, and infrastructural investments including",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "developing countries and examines the institutional designs that are most effective in targeting agricultural finance to farmers. Agriculture consists of a broad range of activities from farming for purely consumption (subsistence farmers), to farming for market consumption, and to supply chains including agro-processing and marketing networks, and infrastructural investments including digital technology to support farmers and agencies involved in agribusinesses for agricultural development. Hence, agricultural finance means broad-based financial services (e.g., credit, savings, payments, and insurance) for all categories of stakeholders. Given their diverse demand for different kinds of financial services, financial institutions are expected to meet the needs of all categories of users, producers, and investors. Executive Summary xviii Agriculture is a risky activity consisting of crop, non-crop, and livestock production, and their processing. Thus, producers, especially smallholder farmers in the developing world, are subject to both covariate and idiosyncratic risk, on top of the seasonality of agriculture. To withstand such risks and to smoothen income and consumption due to seasonality of income and production, farmers, like any other agents of production, must have access to loans, savings, payments, and insurance to support their livelihoods and to enable them to continue agricultural operation in ways that are sustainable for them and others. Thus, providing agricultural finance means facilitating financial services at an affordable cost in a timely manner. Provision of such services also means providing coping mechanisms to help mitigate both idiosyncratic and covariate risks in a cost‑effective and sustainable manner. Cross-country data analysis shows that agricultural productivity (measured by output per hectare) is inversely related to a country’s agriculture share of GDP. This inverse relationship is prominent in poor countries of Asia and Africa, meaning that the burden of ensuring a country’s food security rests on the smallholders of these regions, who manage the bulk of agricultural production.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "by output per hectare) is inversely related to a country’s agriculture share of GDP. This inverse relationship is prominent in poor countries of Asia and Africa, meaning that the burden of ensuring a country’s food security rests on the smallholders of these regions, who manage the bulk of agricultural production. Agricultural finance, supporting smallholders’ needs for financial services, therefore, is critical to transforming agriculture to support a country’s sustainable development goals, including attaining food security. Past research also shows that small farmers are much more liquidity-constrained than large farmers in input–output decision making, but they have less access to institutional finance than large farmers. Hence, the policy goal of many governments and development partners is to induce structural shifts in agriculture to raise agricultural productivity and attain food security in the process. As agricultural activity is subject to weather and other risks, agricultural finance, besides providing affordable outlets for credit, savings, and payments, must be able to provide insurance to protect crops and their processing. Despite the need of agricultural finance for smallholders, few of them have access to institutional finance, such as credit, savings, payments, and insurance. Commercial banks, providing the bulk of financial services in any developing country, seldom provide such services to smallholders, whose need is the highest for increasing farm-level productivity and thus attaining food security. For example, in South Asia, agriculture accounts for some 20% of the GDP but receives less than 8% of the lending by commercial banks. Executive Summary xix Since commercial banks have failed to reach smallholders in agriculture, agricultural development banks have been established with government support to cater to the needs of farmers. However, bank lending is subject to production risk, price volatility, climate changes, high transaction costs of providing financial services to agriculture, and lack of physical collateral for",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "have failed to reach smallholders in agriculture, agricultural development banks have been established with government support to cater to the needs of farmers. However, bank lending is subject to production risk, price volatility, climate changes, high transaction costs of providing financial services to agriculture, and lack of physical collateral for many farmers. At the same time, agricultural finance provided by banks and related institutions is low and uncertain because of the same risks and uncertainties that affect agriculture. Thus, smallholder agriculture in many developing countries is largely self-financed. Farmers’ access to institutional finance is also affected by misdirected policymaking that controls not only the pricing of agricultural products and inputs, such as fertilizer, but also interest rate policies and loan repayments of government-supported agricultural development banks. Of course, policies and programs have changed in recent years to address these issues, and it is now evident that farmers’ access to financial services has improved due to innovations in policymaking and institutional arrangements. But outcomes vary by region and country depending on the institutional reforms and financial arrangements taken by governments and other stakeholders. Besides banks, other agencies, such as cooperatives, MFIs, and mobile financial services (MFS) have been active in providing financial services to farmers in the developing world. The book’s undertaking of global, regional, and country-level perspectives of both demand for and supply of financial services—including credit, savings, payments, and insurance—demonstrates the reality of agricultural finance in terms of both development and food security as well as changes in policymaking and institutional innovations in meeting smallholders’ demand for financial services. The global Findex data analysis confirms that agricultural productivity is strongly associated with financial inclusion in agriculture, with more financial inclusion observed in developed countries, such as those in Latin America, and less access in less developed countries of Asia",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and institutional innovations in meeting smallholders’ demand for financial services. The global Findex data analysis confirms that agricultural productivity is strongly associated with financial inclusion in agriculture, with more financial inclusion observed in developed countries, such as those in Latin America, and less access in less developed countries of Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Data analysis also confirms that support of commercial banks to agriculture is for the rich farmers, while MFS and cooperatives provide support to the smallholders. MFS, while providing essential services such as transfer of funds (remittances and payments), are not very engaged in extending other services such as credit and savings mobilization. Executive Summary xx Country-level household data analysis also confirms that credit has a significantly positive effect on farm income, consumption, education, and health for smallholders, but they have limited access to institutional finance. Improved access to institutional finance enhances farmers’ resilience by enhancing seasonal cash flows and lowering variations of agricultural income. Financial inclusion, defined by having an account with a financial institution (banks, MFIs, and MFS), has increased in the developing world. The main contributing factor is mobile financial services, which extend services such as payments and remittance transfers at a low cost and in a timely fashion using the vast network of mobile phone technology. No wonder mobile-based financial services are emerging to draw a greater share of the unbanked population under the umbrella of financial services. Thus, while MFIs and banks find physical distance as a barrier, MFS do not, so MFS extend their services to farmers and nonfarmers equally as per the demand for those services. This is possible due to the vast network of phone technology. However, MFS are not yet capable of providing other financial services such as credit and insurance, which are critical to enhancing agricultural productivity and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "extend their services to farmers and nonfarmers equally as per the demand for those services. This is possible due to the vast network of phone technology. However, MFS are not yet capable of providing other financial services such as credit and insurance, which are critical to enhancing agricultural productivity and food security through innovation and product diversification. On the other hand, MFIs use local networks to expand their coverage of financial services at a lower loan default cost, but they hardly use digital methods such as mobile‑based technology to expand credit and other services, which can help reduce the transaction costs of handling these services. Hence, innovations are essential for promoting linkages of mobileor internet-based technology with agricultural financing being provided by banks and MFIs. Government and donors may facilitate digitizing agri-finance and must play a facilitating role in this context. More specifically, governments must help promote alternative institutions with appropriate incentives by combining bank finance, microfinance, and mobile finance. This must be based on the understanding that a single type of finance may not address the needs of each and every farmer and other stakeholders engaged in agriculture. Innovative approaches, including development of nonfinancial instruments such as digital technology, or financial instruments such as the least developed insurance products, are necessary for agricultural development. Executive Summary xxi International development partners along with country governments must support these innovative approaches and help integrate a variety of disparate financial ecosystems to make them replicable and accessible in a cost-effective manner to provide smallholders with financial services they need most which are affordable and easily accessible. International actors such as the World Bank along with regional partners such as the Asian Development Bank (ADB) may consider creating an international agricultural financial system such as an International Agri-Bank (IAB) to support the growth",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "provide smallholders with financial services they need most which are affordable and easily accessible. International actors such as the World Bank along with regional partners such as the Asian Development Bank (ADB) may consider creating an international agricultural financial system such as an International Agri-Bank (IAB) to support the growth of an affordable and easily accessible financial ecosystem in the developing world to meet the challenges of this century’s global food security and climate change issues. 1 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview Shahidur R. Khandker and Takashi Yamano CHAPTER 1 1.1 Introduction The role of agricultural finance in overall development can hardly be overemphasized. Higher agricultural investment for raising productivity is an important policy instrument for meeting sustainable development goals in countries with a higher share of agricultural gross domestic product (GDP). Institutional finance can stimulate private investment in agriculture.1 For example, finance can support agricultural diversification, especially in developing countries whose growing urban populations lead to increased demand for high‑value food such as meat and fruit. Agricultural finance can also play a role in addressing food security in developing countries. The recent increased volatility in agricultural prices due to changing climate and rainfall patterns has raised major concerns about food security in developing countries and has placed increasingly complicated financial constraints on agricultural households and agribusinesses (FAO 2016). In fact, predictability of harvests, input availability, and income flows have all worsened for farmers in the developing world, especially among smaller producers who are already burdened with uncertainty in agricultural production and marketing. Improving access to agricultural finance, especially among smallholders, is thus considered an important driver of raising agricultural investment and higher farm productivity (e.g., World Bank 2015). More importantly, food insecurity due to the supply chain shocks caused by the coronavirus pandemic and Russia’s war",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "uncertainty in agricultural production and marketing. Improving access to agricultural finance, especially among smallholders, is thus considered an important driver of raising agricultural investment and higher farm productivity (e.g., World Bank 2015). More importantly, food insecurity due to the supply chain shocks caused by the coronavirus pandemic and Russia’s war in Ukraine has been a major source of havoc in the policy arena across the world. This has drawn particular attention to agricultural finance issues related to the most vulnerable rural populations in the developing world. 1 This does not mean that informal finance has no role in agriculture. However, informal finance, which tends to occur on a short-term basis, cannot support investment in technology, irrigation, and other modern inputs to augment agricultural productivity (World Bank 2015). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 2 This book discusses the major issues surrounding agricultural finance in developing countries, including why agricultural finance is important, who demands and who supplies different kinds of financial services, and what these services’ potential roles are in raising agricultural investment and productivity. The book also discusses supply and demand constraints affecting agricultural households’ access to alternative types of financial services. Drawing on experiences of major financial institutions in selected middleand low-income countries, the book also discusses what works and what does not in extending financial services to farmers, especially smallholders. More specifically, using both institutional and household survey data, the book focuses on access, impacts, delivery design, and sustainability of expanding institutional finance. The book compares the different experiences and policy frameworks from a set of four countries in East and South Asia, as well as the regional perspectives of agricultural finance in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). A global analysis using the World Bank’s Global Financial Inclusion (Findex) Database",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "compares the different experiences and policy frameworks from a set of four countries in East and South Asia, as well as the regional perspectives of agricultural finance in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). A global analysis using the World Bank’s Global Financial Inclusion (Findex) Database reveals variations between countries in the provision and impact of agricultural finance across households with varying access to financial services. This book examines specific country and regional experiences, over several years, with the role of agricultural finance through different policy instruments in addressing the financial constraints, productivity, and welfare of agriculture‑dependent households. As opposed to case studies, the country experiences in this book are based on empirical analyses of nationally representative household data with detailed modules on agriculture and household members’ access to and use of financial products such as credit. In most cases, these analyses take the form of nonexperimental identification approaches using panel data over several years. Besides the country case studies, which are drawn primarily from Asia, there are two regional case studies: one from SSA and the other from LAC. The regional case studies provide narratives of agricultural finance practices in those two regions that may be illustrative for Asia. The book includes a cross-country analysis of 148 countries, using the 2017 round of the World Bank’s Global Findex survey. 3 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview This book seeks to understand what agricultural finance means, particularly to farmers engaged in a risky environment for earning livelihoods and producing food for others. The study helps shed light on how borrowing and access to other financial services has evolved over time for agricultural households in countries in different regions of the world and with varying levels of economic and financial development—and hence the broader effects",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "for earning livelihoods and producing food for others. The study helps shed light on how borrowing and access to other financial services has evolved over time for agricultural households in countries in different regions of the world and with varying levels of economic and financial development—and hence the broader effects on agricultural investment and overall agricultural productivity and rural welfare. The book also seeks to understand demandand supply-side issues faced by financial institutions, including microfinance institutions, seeking to broaden their lending portfolios. This focus complements the detailed case studies of financial instruments for agriculture that have been presented through the International Food Policy Research Institute’s 2020 Vision Initiative (see Hill and Torero 2009; Kloeppinger-Todd and Sharma 2010). 1.2 The Book’s Research Issues Given the recent growth in options for providing agricultural finance, has agriculture benefited from the innovations and expansion of the financial system intended to extend coverage in rural areas? Are farmers, especially smallholders, getting the benefits of expansion and innovation policies? Are the past policies still overshadowing the recent innovations of the financial sector? To answer these questions, the book analyzes recent household surveys from a number of Asian developing countries where some of the innovations are taking place (both in policy and programs). This analysis examines the risks faced by agricultural households, these households’ borrowing patterns, and their consumption and production decisions to better understand how improved access to finance can support agricultural transformation for agricultural households of varying income levels. The book also has regional and world-wide coverage of the same demandand supply-side issues concerning provision of agricultural finance to smallholders. In addition, the book uses institutional (supply-side) data from selected institutions in a number of countries to analyze institutional design and its efficacy in meeting farmers’ needs, as well as the institutional efficiency in marketing",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "world-wide coverage of the same demandand supply-side issues concerning provision of agricultural finance to smallholders. In addition, the book uses institutional (supply-side) data from selected institutions in a number of countries to analyze institutional design and its efficacy in meeting farmers’ needs, as well as the institutional efficiency in marketing such products. The book also reviews the role of government and donors within such contexts. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 4 The book utilizes rigorous impact evaluations (using non-randomized techniques) of nationally representative household-level panel data to examine the role of agricultural finance in promoting agricultural income and productivity. The book also systematically addresses the varying roles of targeted agricultural development banks and microfinance institutions (MFIs) as compared to commercial banks. While recent work has produced models for agricultural small and medium enterprises, supplemented with country case studies, the main emphasis of this book is on well-coordinated, national-level impact evaluations that have been conducted across countries in order to shed light on how financial products could be better targeted to help support activities of a variety of landholders; small‑sized landholders, in particular, are often left out of rural finance. The book also examines how to make agricultural lending profitable, amid other recent structural policy changes in agriculture across several middleand low-income countries that are changing opportunities for medium and small landholders. In addition to covering a spectrum of household demand issues concerning borrowing, savings, remittances, and insurance, the country studies address how agricultural finance issues are handled by banks and other financial institutions, which instruments are cost-effective, and which factors affect returns to agricultural finance for banks and other financial institutions and the efficiency of these institutions’ agricultural portfolios. The book uses data from specific financial institutions in selected developing countries and examines the institutional designs most",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "by banks and other financial institutions, which instruments are cost-effective, and which factors affect returns to agricultural finance for banks and other financial institutions and the efficiency of these institutions’ agricultural portfolios. The book uses data from specific financial institutions in selected developing countries and examines the institutional designs most effective in targeting agricultural finance to farmers. The studies carried out for the book cover four diverse countries of Asia (Bangladesh, India, Thailand, and Viet Nam) and use nonexperimental empirical methods and household-level data to address the following: • Can finance play a role in agricultural transformation? How are households that borrow for agriculture different from households that do not borrow (or that borrow for other purposes)? Are observable differences related to access or demand issues? • What kind of financial products affect agricultural households most, and how? • What are the distributional correlates of borrowing for agriculture (for example, by household income or other indicators of vulnerability)? • What is the most cost-effective way of reaching agriculture-dependent households and meeting both their shortand long-term needs for financial services, including credit? 5 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview The book also utilizes institutional-level data to examine the profitability and sustainability of alternative rural financial institutions to address inclusive finance in agriculture, focusing on the following issues: • trends in institutional finance in terms of coverage of rural areas, especially smallholders; • nature and scope of different financial products developed and delivered; • extent to which incentive structures of financial institutions have evolved over time to extend services to rural areas; • relevance of interest rates charged by financial institutions for various financial products; • extent of profitability of agricultural portfolios; • cost-effectiveness of financial inclusion strategies for the design and delivery of financial services; and • level of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "financial institutions have evolved over time to extend services to rural areas; • relevance of interest rates charged by financial institutions for various financial products; • extent of profitability of agricultural portfolios; • cost-effectiveness of financial inclusion strategies for the design and delivery of financial services; and • level of importance of certain incentives for institutions to innovate and expand coverage of financial products, specifically those needed for agricultural households. The book also extends the country-level analysis to two regional studies (SSA and LAC) to provide a snapshot of the lessons learned on agricultural finance from these two regions and what they mean to the experience of Asian country perspectives. Besides country-level in-depth and regional studies, the book also presents a cross-country study using the 2017 rounds of the Global Findex data of the World Bank. This provides a snapshot of the global status of financial inclusion in agriculture, covering issues related to both constraints and the status of various measures of financial inclusion with possible impacts on agricultural productivity. With this introduction, we provide an overview of the issues evaluated in this book. 1.3 What Is Agricultural Finance? Agricultural finance often refers to agricultural credit, but it is actually more than credit. It also includes savings, payments, and insurance. Farmers, for example, need not only credit but also a reliable outlet to save, pay bills, and buy insurance to mitigate risk in agricultural production (crop production plus poultry and livestock raising). Farmers, especially smallholders in agriculture, are only one of the groups of stakeholders associated with agriculture. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 6 Agriculture consists of a broad range of activities from farming purely for self‑consumption, to farming for market consumption, supply chains including agro-processing and marketing networks, and to infrastructural investments including research and development",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the groups of stakeholders associated with agriculture. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 6 Agriculture consists of a broad range of activities from farming purely for self‑consumption, to farming for market consumption, supply chains including agro-processing and marketing networks, and to infrastructural investments including research and development to support agriculture and a variety of related products and their needs. Thus, agricultural finance means broad-based financial services (credit, savings, payments, and insurance) for all categories of stakeholders. Like smallholders involved in farming, other stakeholders such as traders, processors, input suppliers, and value chain-makers are also associated with agriculture in different ways and thus also need a variety of financial services for the sake of supporting agriculture’s growth and productivity. Given stakeholders’ diverse demand for different kinds of financial services, agricultural finance is expected to meet the needs of all categories of users, producers, and investors. In other words, agricultural finance can be defined as financial inclusion for agriculture, where financial inclusion is measured by a farmer, a business, and an investor having access to and use of financial services to facilitate saving, borrowing, making payments, and buying insurance to mitigate production and non-production (e.g., marketing) risks involved in agricultural activities (e.g., see general discussion on financial inclusion in Demirguc-Kunt and Klapper 2012; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015; World Bank 2018). To conceptualize better how we define agricultural finance, Figure 1.1 presents the theory of change underlying interrelationships between supplyand demand‑side factors defining and influencing agricultural finance. In this framework, agricultural finance is an outcome determined by a host of factors/actors from both demand and supply sides as well as independent policymakers outside of agriculture plus some agroclimate and other risk factors affecting agriculture and agricultural finance independently as well as jointly. Agricultural finance in turn affects the ultimate outcomes",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "agricultural finance is an outcome determined by a host of factors/actors from both demand and supply sides as well as independent policymakers outside of agriculture plus some agroclimate and other risk factors affecting agriculture and agricultural finance independently as well as jointly. Agricultural finance in turn affects the ultimate outcomes of policy concerns, such as those related to individuals and businesses. As Figure 1.1 suggests, three major stakeholders influence the levels and categories of agricultural financial outcomes: (i) policymaking bodies such as government, regulators, and donors; (ii) financial institutions such as banks and nonfinancial institutions such as insurance companies; and (iii) users of agricultural finance (e.g., farmers and businesses). The goal of any policymaking is to define and support agricultural finance (financial inclusion for agriculture, for example) that meets the demand for alternative categories of financial services and thus can influence the ultimate outcomes such as productivity, employment, income, and consumption. 7 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview More specifically, the demand-side factors affecting agricultural finance consist of the demand of a host of stakeholders such as farmers, traders, input suppliers, and value-chain processors. Supply-side factors, as mentioned above, include financial institutions (such as banks and MFIs) as well as nonfinancial ones (e.g., insurance companies). Supply-side factors also include providers of infrastructures such as digital technology, input–output markets, roads, and other types of physical services. Together, based on the demand of various agricultural stakeholders, they create an ecosystem for providing a variety of financial products such as retail and mobile banking. Of course, the demand for financial products would differ by different types of producers, users, and other stakeholders; hence, broad categories of agricultural financial services must be available to meet the demand of various categories of farmers (large, medium, small, and marginal farmers), input and output traders,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and mobile banking. Of course, the demand for financial products would differ by different types of producers, users, and other stakeholders; hence, broad categories of agricultural financial services must be available to meet the demand of various categories of farmers (large, medium, small, and marginal farmers), input and output traders, processors, and intermediaries involved in creating the value chain of agriculture. In the end, the observed outcomes associated with different kinds of financial services are jointly determined by both supply-side and demand-side factors (as seen in Figure 1.1). Figure 1.1: \u0007Interrelationship Between Supplyand Demand‑Side Factors Influencing Agricultural Outcomes Outcomes Demand-side factors Agroclimatic factors Supply-side factors Donors Financial inclusion for agriculture (savings, credit, remittance, insurance) Agricultural stakeholders (farmers, traders, input suppliers) Final outcomes (productivity, employment, income) Government Financial and nonfinancial institutions (banks, MFIs, MFS, insurance) Infrastructures (roads, mobile network) Financial products (retail and mobile banking) Regulators MFIs = microfinance institutions, MFS = mobile financial services. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 8 The three major actors of policymaking bodies—government (e.g., ministry of finance), regulators (e.g., central banks), and donors (e.g., Asian Development Bank and World Bank)—provide the ultimate impetus to define a framework for financial and nonfinancial institutions to play an effective role in creating an environment for generating different types of financial and nonfinancial services, given the variety of demand for financial services by stakeholders of agriculture. In fact, demand for and supply of financial services reinforce each other, and policymaking bodies must help facilitate providers to meet the demand for financial services as perceived by the users. One key independent factor directly affecting the decisions of all categories of stakeholders (and hence agricultural finance and its induced impacts on ultimate outcomes) is the agroclimatic endowment such as rainfall and uncertainty in weather patterns.2 For example, the seasonality",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the demand for financial services as perceived by the users. One key independent factor directly affecting the decisions of all categories of stakeholders (and hence agricultural finance and its induced impacts on ultimate outcomes) is the agroclimatic endowment such as rainfall and uncertainty in weather patterns.2 For example, the seasonality of agriculture governs the agricultural decisions of producers, processors, and investors. This seasonality thus influences how regulators/government/donors determine appropriate agricultural financial services (and how to generate them) to meet the demand for financial services. Hence, external forces such as agroclimatic endowments, including climate change as well as rainfall, play an important role in determining agricultural finance as practiced in a given context. Similarly, institutions and policymaking bodies of the government matter greatly in defining agricultural finance and its development in a given country. In sum, context matters, so defining and supporting agricultural finance must consider these factors while formulating policy by recognizing the varying patterns of financial demand that exist in a given country and a given region as well as across countries and across regions. 2 A recent report has identified four more risk factors, besides the production risk caused by weather and climate factors: (i) human risk, such as health; (ii) institutional risk, such as government interventions; (iii) price or market uncertainty; and (iv) financial risk, such as lack of access to capital (Bakst and Wright 2016). Figure 1.1 covers all these factors except the personal and health factors, which can be influenced by the same factors affecting other categories of risk factors. However, as part of agricultural finance, crop and weather index insurance plays the most critical role in agricultural policymaking (see Robles 2021). 9 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview 1.4 Why Agricultural Finance? By definition, agriculture is a risky activity. Farmers are exposed",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "other categories of risk factors. However, as part of agricultural finance, crop and weather index insurance plays the most critical role in agricultural policymaking (see Robles 2021). 9 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview 1.4 Why Agricultural Finance? By definition, agriculture is a risky activity. Farmers are exposed to both idiosyncratic and covariate risk, besides the seasonality of agriculture. In order to withstand such risks and to smooth income and consumption through the seasons, farmers must have access to credit, savings, payments, and insurance to support their livelihood and continue their agricultural operation in sustainable ways. This is what agricultural finance is all about. Agricultural finance means providing a credit and savings outlet to save and borrow as per need, facilitating payment and transfer to help pay bills and receive transfers and remittances, and extending insurance to protect farmers against calamities due to external factors. For example, when farmers are subject to covariate risk, they must have access to resources beyond their family and others living in the same community, as everyone in the area is subject to the same risk affecting agricultural operation. Agricultural finance is meant to facilitate such arrangements at an affordable cost in a timely fashion. Agricultural finance is meant to provide a coping mechanism to help farmers mitigate both idiosyncratic and covariate risks in a sustainable manner. The major thrust of any policymaking that involves agricultural finance is the extent and significance of the ultimate impacts of the finance on agricultural and nonagricultural productivity and other socioeconomic outcomes of major policy interest, as shown in Figure 1.1. How do we know that agricultural finance has sizeable and significant impacts? There is a large literature using micro-data and econometric analysis showing that financial inclusion in general leads to improved income, productivity, consumption, nutrition, and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "productivity and other socioeconomic outcomes of major policy interest, as shown in Figure 1.1. How do we know that agricultural finance has sizeable and significant impacts? There is a large literature using micro-data and econometric analysis showing that financial inclusion in general leads to improved income, productivity, consumption, nutrition, and education (Cull, Ehrbeck, and Holle 2014; World Bank 2018). For good reasons, therefore, policymakers advocate for financial inclusion as a key factor in development. The Universal Financial Access initiative introduced by the World Bank in 2012 precisely emphasizes the need for financial inclusion—the need for every individual and business involved in both agriculture and nonagricultural activities to have at least a simple transaction account with a financial institution (e.g., Demirguc-Kunt and Klapper 2012; World Bank 2017). The financial institution could be a bank, a regulated institution such as a credit union, an MFI, or mobile financial services (MFS). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 10 Why does a simple transaction account matter? Having such an account allows people to save money and to send and receive payments; it also is a way for people to access other categories of financial services, such as credit and insurance. The World Bank’s Global Findex data over the years show that some 76% of adults worldwide reported having an account with a financial institution in 2021, compared to 51% in 2011, 62% in 2014, and 63% in 2017, with an increase of 50% over that 10-year period (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015; World Bank 2021). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development economies have almost universal financial inclusion (95%), but coverage remains limited in developing countries (71%) and varies by countries’ degree of financial and economic development.3 Thus, financial inclusion seems indispensable for financial and overall economic development. However, it may not always be",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Bank 2021). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development economies have almost universal financial inclusion (95%), but coverage remains limited in developing countries (71%) and varies by countries’ degree of financial and economic development.3 Thus, financial inclusion seems indispensable for financial and overall economic development. However, it may not always be the case that economic development ensures financial inclusion or financial inclusion necessarily promotes economic development. For example, in Viet Nam, the country enjoyed rapid economic development with relatively modest levels of financial inclusion.4 In contrast, in Uganda, financial inclusion is relatively high even with a low level of economic development.5 Yet, because a good financial system facilitates efficiency in business transactions and input–output decision making to run an economy smoothly, there is a clear case to argue for better access to all categories of financial services that can enable people (such as farmers) and businesses to save, borrow, pay, and buy insurance against all sorts of hazards affecting their economic viability. More importantly, ordinary and poor people, such as smallholders in agriculture, could be much better off if efforts were made to include them in the financial ecosystem in the first place. That is, financial inclusion is a necessary condition for running an economic activity in a modern economic system irrespective of whether economic development leads to financial inclusion or vice versa. 3 In developing economies, the percentage of adults having a financial account increased from 63% in 2014 to 71% in 2021, largely due to expansion of coverage due to mobile financial services (World Bank 2021). 4 See this book’s Chapter 4 on Viet Nam. 5 See this book’s Chapter 7 on the regional analysis of SSA. 11 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview By extension, if financial inclusion is an important contributing factor for development, financial",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to mobile financial services (World Bank 2021). 4 See this book’s Chapter 4 on Viet Nam. 5 See this book’s Chapter 7 on the regional analysis of SSA. 11 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview By extension, if financial inclusion is an important contributing factor for development, financial inclusion for agriculture must also play a critical role for agricultural development. No doubt, agriculture is a risky activity due to risky agroclimatic endowments of a country; yet it provides basic food and essential products for attaining food security and higher economic development. This means a country’s overall development can depend on agricultural development, which in turn can depend on financial development, particularly farmers’ better access to financial services (credit, savings, payments, and insurance) for managing risk in agricultural diversification and technology adoption. Country-level data analysis clearly shows that agricultural productivity (measured by output per worker) is inversely related to a country’s agricultural share of GDP (e.g., Khandker 2021). However, this inverse relationship between productivity and agriculture share in GDP is only prominent in poor countries of SSA and South Asia, but not so much in economies with a developed agriculture with greater agricultural diversification and higher private investment in agriculture across Europe and Central Asia, East Asia and the Pacific (EAP), and LAC. As 80% of the farmland in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia is managed by smallholders,6 the burden of raising food production and farm productivity for supporting sustainable growth via raising investment squarely rests on smallholders (FAO 2012). How does agricultural finance work? Farmers may need to borrow to buy inputs, such as seeds and fertilizer, when they do not have sufficient funds to buy them. Farmers may also borrow to smooth income or cash flows for short‑term needs or to purchase physical assets such as land for",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "How does agricultural finance work? Farmers may need to borrow to buy inputs, such as seeds and fertilizer, when they do not have sufficient funds to buy them. Farmers may also borrow to smooth income or cash flows for short‑term needs or to purchase physical assets such as land for long-term needs. Other financial products can include deposit services or insurance for health or weather shocks. Access to such financial services can enable farmers to use farm resources that allow them to more efficiently use inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides, and irrigation. Access to financial services can also help producers purchase machinery and equipment to support high-value production and crop diversification. Finally, agricultural finance is key to the marketing and transportation of agricultural products, both agricultural produce and processed goods (World Bank 2015). 6 While the interpretation of “smallholder” can vary across countries, FAO (2012) defines a smallholder as working on up to 10 hectares. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 12 Ideally, agricultural finance should be able to address needs at all stages of farm-level decision making, from farming and post-harvest management and processing to marketing and distribution. Also, agricultural finance, especially for smallholders, is critical for transforming subsistence agriculture into commercialized agriculture (indicating a higher degree of market-based production) for supporting a country’s sustainable development goals.7 Household surveys show that agricultural finance is more important for smallholders than for large farmers because large farmers are not as constrained by liquidity as smallholders are in making decisions about their inputs and outputs; yet smallholders who cultivate more land do not often have better access to financial services provided by a country’s financial institutions (FAO 2012).8 The food security and poverty implications of raising food production and agricultural productivity in low-income countries are also significant. Given that about",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "about their inputs and outputs; yet smallholders who cultivate more land do not often have better access to financial services provided by a country’s financial institutions (FAO 2012).8 The food security and poverty implications of raising food production and agricultural productivity in low-income countries are also significant. Given that about 70% of the world’s poor live in rural areas and that most of these rural populations are actively engaged in agricultural activities, improving agricultural productivity and profitability in developing countries are major objectives for promoting sustainable development by both donors and governments (World Bank, FAO, and UN 2010). These goals include inducing structural shifts in agriculture to raise agricultural productivity and attain food security in the process. Insurance addressing farmers’ need to protect crops against weather and other risks (such as pesticides) is considered an important instrument of agricultural finance, but this is the least developed area of agricultural finance for a variety of reasons. 7 This does not mean that all farmers will be commercialized as a result of better access to financial services. There could be commercialization with land consolidation for some smallholders; others may opt out of agriculture for better options in urban locations and the nonfarm sector. For example, in Mexico, it is possible that most subsistence farmers are not going to make this transition: they will gradually shift away from agriculture, leaving a relatively small number of commercial farms (see Chapter 8 of this book on LAC). 8 This begs the question of what proportion of land is cultivated by farmers who are credit constrained or do not have access to an adequate range of financial services. This lack of evidence argues for more analysis using farm-level survey data to measure farmers’ access to financial services or the extent of financial inclusion in agriculture, especially",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of land is cultivated by farmers who are credit constrained or do not have access to an adequate range of financial services. This lack of evidence argues for more analysis using farm-level survey data to measure farmers’ access to financial services or the extent of financial inclusion in agriculture, especially among smallholders. Research also needs to figure out the current status of financial inclusion in a country and why financial institutions have failed to address the financial service needs of farmers, especially smallholders. The following sections address some of these issues that are covered in the book. 13 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview The most important factors inhibiting the growth of farm-specific crop insurance against weather, for example, are the familiar moral hazard and adverse selection issues.9 In such a situation, indexed insurance such as insurance based on average rainfall in the area has been introduced in several countries, but it is still a subject of uncertainty due to low take-up rates and unavailability of insurance as per needs of the farmers (see Robles 2021). There are some recent attempts to introduce agricultural insurance products using digital means.10 1.5 How Do We Know Agricultural Finance Matters? Country-level macro data analysis does not necessarily help understand whether financial inclusion in agriculture matters in improving a country’s agricultural investment and productivity. The observed relationship between access to financial services such as credit and agricultural productivity or GDP merely shows an association between access to finance and agricultural productivity. Measuring whether financial services matter in agriculture by raising farm investment and productivity involves a subtle issue of what is called the endogeneity of farm household decision-making processes. That is, it is difficult to identify whether financial inclusion in agriculture matters because a farmer’s decisions about agricultural inputs and outputs can",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "whether financial services matter in agriculture by raising farm investment and productivity involves a subtle issue of what is called the endogeneity of farm household decision-making processes. That is, it is difficult to identify whether financial inclusion in agriculture matters because a farmer’s decisions about agricultural inputs and outputs can be affected by the same factors that affect a farmer’s decision to access financial services (e.g., borrowing) from a financial institution or a lender’s decision of whether they would lend to farmers and at what cost. In a macro setting, such an endogeneity issue is not observable, so we need surveys of farm management or farm households. Yet farm household surveys do not allow us to resolve the joint dependence of decision making because farmers’ agricultural input–output decisions may not be conditioned by the availability or access to financial services. Resolving this identification problem is the key factor in determining whether farmers’ access to financial services matters and how it matters in agriculture and the well-being of a society. 9 Moral hazard means insurance providers do not know for sure in the case of crop failures whether it is weather that affected the crop production or farmers who have not taken timely measures sufficient to protect crops against weather or other shocks. In contrast, adverse selection crops up where only the most risk-prone farmers would like to purchase insurance. 10 This is discussed more in Chapter 9 of this book. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 14 To exemplify the issue, consider the case of farmers’ access to credit. In theory, credit access may not affect agricultural investment and productivity unless farmers are liquidity constrained (e.g., Feder et al. 1990; Karlan et al. 2014). That is, if farmers are not liquidity constrained in input–output decision making, they do",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "exemplify the issue, consider the case of farmers’ access to credit. In theory, credit access may not affect agricultural investment and productivity unless farmers are liquidity constrained (e.g., Feder et al. 1990; Karlan et al. 2014). That is, if farmers are not liquidity constrained in input–output decision making, they do not need to borrow from a financial institution in order to invest in agriculture. So, the estimated impact of liquidity (whether it is from savings or borrowing from a bank) in agricultural productivity cannot precisely identify the net impact of access to finance. This is the case of an unconstrained decision‑making regime. But when farmers are liquidity constrained, they are under a constrained decision‑making regime in which credit access does directly affect agricultural decision-making processes such as input use and farming practices. Even with a credit-constrained regime, it does not necessarily follow without further assumptions that credit access induces an effect on agricultural productivity, as a farmer’s borrowing decision is not made independently of the farmer’s knowledge about potential effects on productivity. Resolving endogeneity involves estimating the demand for financial access as part of a farmer’s investment decision and then its consequential effect on agricultural investment and productivity. Various methods (e.g., randomized controlled trials, propensity score matching, and instrumental variables) are available that one can use to resolve this endogeneity issue in estimating credit effects (for details, see Khandker, Koolwal, and Samad 2010). Studies using non-randomized methods have attempted to pinpoint the causality between agricultural finance and productivity in agriculture (e.g., Binswanger and Khandker 1995; FAO 2012, 2017; Feder et al. 1990; Giné and Yang 2009). A review of recent studies using alternate methods has shown that financial inclusion has positive effects on income, productivity, consumption, education, health, and other indicators of well-being (e.g., Cull, Ehrbeck, and Holle 2014). In",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(e.g., Binswanger and Khandker 1995; FAO 2012, 2017; Feder et al. 1990; Giné and Yang 2009). A review of recent studies using alternate methods has shown that financial inclusion has positive effects on income, productivity, consumption, education, health, and other indicators of well-being (e.g., Cull, Ehrbeck, and Holle 2014). In particular, financial inclusion can help mitigate risks in production through enhanced investment and reduced costs of easing credit constraints in production. This body of literature also suggests that higher access to and use of financial services by farmers can help increase the use of modern inputs and technology, and investment in agriculture, leading to higher farm productivity and income and hence improved household welfare. Researchers have also observed that credit’s effect depends on the extent of credit constraints encountered by farmers (e.g., Feder et al. 1990). Studies from Peru show that credit constraints lower the value of agricultural output substantially 15 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview for poor households; however, for those households without credit constraints, productivity is independent of such endowments as land and liquidity (Boucher, Alemu, and Trivelli 2009; Guirkinger and Boucher 2008). Some other studies also confirm that credit constraints affect agricultural output and productivity (Feder et al. 1990; Sial and Carter 1996), farm profit (Carter 1989; Foltz 2004), and farm investment (Carter and Olinto 2003). A set of articles that used randomized controlled trials (RCTs) conducted in six countries explored the role of financial constraints in poor households’ income earning potential, including the effects of microcredit (Banerjee, Karlan, and Zinman 2015). Some of the country studies find a positive impact of credit access on agricultural productivity. Another study using RCT design shows that farmers’ investment decisions are very much conditioned on their financial environment (Karlan et al. 2014). The provision of insurance leads",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "effects of microcredit (Banerjee, Karlan, and Zinman 2015). Some of the country studies find a positive impact of credit access on agricultural productivity. Another study using RCT design shows that farmers’ investment decisions are very much conditioned on their financial environment (Karlan et al. 2014). The provision of insurance leads to significantly larger agricultural investment and riskier agricultural production choices. Therefore, the binding constraint to farmer investment is not necessarily a lack of access to credit but insurance to mitigate uninsured risk. Thus, extending insurance ensures better utilization of and higher demand for credit and other categories of financial services. But, as the literature shows, indexed insurance has failed to mitigate production risks because it has had low take-up where it has been introduced and because it is not available at all in many contexts due to implementational issues and other complications (e.g., Robles 2021). The potential heterogeneity of effects across different types of farmers is highlighted in a recent study by Beaman et al. (2015), who randomly introduce agricultural loans to a set of villages; they also introduce cash grants in no‑loan villages and among non-borrowers in the loan villages. Higher agricultural investments are observed among cash grant recipients in no-loan villages than among their comparison group in loan villages, indicating that farmers who choose to borrow in loan villages have higher marginal returns on investment. Furthermore, farmers who choose to borrow in loan villages also have higher returns to capital prior to borrowing—greater landholdings, input expenditures, outputs, and profits. The overall evidence is clear: agricultural financial services of different products are generally positively but modestly related to farm household production, income, consumption, food security, and resilience (e.g., Biscaye et al. 2015). That is, agricultural finance matters in various ways to farmers and the businesses associated with agricultural production.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "profits. The overall evidence is clear: agricultural financial services of different products are generally positively but modestly related to farm household production, income, consumption, food security, and resilience (e.g., Biscaye et al. 2015). That is, agricultural finance matters in various ways to farmers and the businesses associated with agricultural production. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 16 1.6 Current State of Agricultural Finance Even with large payoffs from financial inclusion in agriculture, the financial services extended to agriculture in developing countries are very limited. For example, in Africa, less than 1% of commercial lending goes to agriculture (IFC 2013). Indeed, commercial banks lend a small share of their portfolio to agriculture compared to agriculture’s share of GDP. In 2015, agriculture accounted for 24.4% of GDP and received only 5.1% of commercial lending in SSA (Khandker 2021). In contrast, in EAP, agriculture accounted for 13.2% of GDP but received 5.6% of commercial bank lending in the same year. Consequently, agricultural lending of commercial banks accounted for 9% of agricultural GDP in SSA compared to 47% in EAP in 2015. In South Asia, agriculture accounted for 19.8% of GDP but received 7.8% of commercial lending, with commercial bank credit equivalent to 24% of agricultural GDP. These findings clearly show the limited role of institutional finance in regions where agriculture accounts for a relatively large share of the economy. The financial underdevelopment in the least developed regions poses a major challenge to agricultural transformation and development. Financial institutions, which are otherwise engaged in urban and industrial sectors, often appear reluctant to extend financial services to agriculture for a variety of reasons, including production risk (due to drought, excessive rainfall, and lack of physical collateral, as many farmers do not own the title to the land they cultivate), and price volatility resulting",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "engaged in urban and industrial sectors, often appear reluctant to extend financial services to agriculture for a variety of reasons, including production risk (due to drought, excessive rainfall, and lack of physical collateral, as many farmers do not own the title to the land they cultivate), and price volatility resulting from global climate change–driven production variations (World Bank 2015). Financial inclusion in agriculture varies to some extent by degree of commercialization in agriculture, size of farm holding, and level of rural development, including infrastructural development. Different financial instruments (such as savings, credit, payments, and insurance) exist to respond to farmers’ different needs, but the financial instruments available to farmers are limited by the level of a country’s financial development (e.g., Ruete 2015). A growing body of literature sheds light on the interdependence between agricultural development and financial development that is inclusive of and friendly to smallholders (e.g., IFC 2013; World Bank 2015). However, the agricultural portfolios of financial institutions are depressed by the same risks and uncertainties that affect agriculture, including information asymmetries and market failures embedded in many rural lending schemes that include regulated interest rates and uncompetitive banking practices. 17 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview Reliable and appropriate financial instruments in developing countries can only be developed through financial innovations supported by government and international development agencies. Agricultural finance matters more for developing countries with a higher share of agriculture in GDP, and accordingly, it matters more for the smallholders who cultivate 80% of land in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Yet financial inclusion is limited in scope and design for agricultural households, especially smallholders, and efforts of governments and donors are not quite effective in designing and implementing cost-effective delivery systems of inclusive finance for agriculture. Recently, governments and international development agencies have made some",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Yet financial inclusion is limited in scope and design for agricultural households, especially smallholders, and efforts of governments and donors are not quite effective in designing and implementing cost-effective delivery systems of inclusive finance for agriculture. Recently, governments and international development agencies have made some efforts to expand financial services to farmers in developing countries. The World Bank support to agriculture and related sectors, for example, has increased in aggregate by 70%, from an annual average of $4.1 billion in FY2006–2008 to $7.0 billion in FY2010–2012 (World Bank 2013). In 2013, investment was projected to ramp up to $10 billion by 2015, including an increase in agricultural lending to Africa by $3 billion a year for the medium term (World Bank 2013). Strengthening farmers’ links to markets and financial institutions, particularly among smallto medium-sized landholders, who are more likely to be poor, has formed an important component of such international efforts.11 Until recently, smallholder agriculture in many developing countries has remained largely self-financed. As many farmers are liquidity constrained, improved access to institutional finance, including sources of microfinance as well as commercial and agricultural bank finance, can help rural households to smooth risks and 11 Farmers’ improved market access through contract farming is getting increased attention from policymakers in this globalized world where demand for food and other agricultural products has increased tremendously. The use of contract farming is a way to facilitate such enhanced demand for food and other products via linking farmers to the ultimate users. Evidence suggests that providing local producers with access to markets and support for technology and credit facilities through contract farming can be seen as a tool to contribute to farmers’ income and productivity as well as food security (see chapters on the subject in Otsuka and Fan",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the ultimate users. Evidence suggests that providing local producers with access to markets and support for technology and credit facilities through contract farming can be seen as a tool to contribute to farmers’ income and productivity as well as food security (see chapters on the subject in Otsuka and Fan 2021). Even if contract farming is popular for some cash and food crop production in the developing world, it has serious limitations in terms of providing financial services such as credit and crop insurance via the formal financial system. As such, contract farming cannot be a substitute for meeting farmers’ enhanced demand for financial services. Nonetheless, modern financial institutions and technology (e.g., digital financial services) can play an important role in extending inclusive market access to smallholders via contract farming. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 18 access inputs and other technologies to modernize agriculture and improve farm/nonfarm linkages. Thus, policy interest in recent years has centered around expanding financial services for smallholder agriculture that rely on innovative financial service delivery schemes at market prices. For example, in April 2013, the World Bank launched the Financial Inclusion Support Framework, supported by the Netherlands and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, to offer multi-year support for financial inclusion to its member countries in line with their strategies and targets, including policy and regulatory reforms, financial infrastructure development, and incentives for private sector financing. Since October 2014, the framework has focused additionally on financing for agriculture-dependent households, including smallholder agriculture. Despite the rapid growth in policy interest, however, thus far the impacts of these efforts are not fully understood, including which financial products (as well as types of lending institutions) are the most effective (Delavallade et al. 2015). Policymakers in developing countries need to better understand how agricultural finance can",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Despite the rapid growth in policy interest, however, thus far the impacts of these efforts are not fully understood, including which financial products (as well as types of lending institutions) are the most effective (Delavallade et al. 2015). Policymakers in developing countries need to better understand how agricultural finance can improve agricultural productivity and enable agriculture transformation in poorer regions. Different countries’ experiences, including different demandand supply-side constraints, would be particularly relevant in helping policymakers understand how agricultural finance functions as a policy instrument in different contexts. The traditional role of governments in finance, while waning in many countries, still looms large in supplying credit and other financial assistance to farmers, especially to farmers with larger landholdings and higher income. In recent years, many commercial banks and semi-formal financial institutions (e.g., cooperatives and MFIs) are expanding into agricultural finance. An evaluation of these efforts, as well as the constraints they face, is helpful to better understand how financial services have evolved over time to extend services to farmers and agribusinesses in order to drive financial innovation and development. 1.7 \u0007Why Agricultural Finance Is Not Sufficiently Available Despite its potential benefits, agricultural finance in developing countries remains limited in scope for a variety of reasons. On the demand side, farmers in poorer rural areas are often unable to afford loans at the market interest rates that make loans profitable for banks; fixed repayment schedules are also not adapted to 19 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview the seasonality of farming and agribusinesses. Smaller farmers also often lack the collateral, titles to their land/property, and financial recordkeeping and cash flow planning needed to make credit assessment and monitoring easier for banks. In addition, farmers needing to make structural changes in agriculture would typically require long-term credit for investments, which is",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "farming and agribusinesses. Smaller farmers also often lack the collateral, titles to their land/property, and financial recordkeeping and cash flow planning needed to make credit assessment and monitoring easier for banks. In addition, farmers needing to make structural changes in agriculture would typically require long-term credit for investments, which is not easily available in rural areas. Farmers, especially marginal farmers and smallholders, also have varying need for financial services; as a result, the impacts of financial services on the extent and type of agricultural investment and productivity also vary. On the supply side, agricultural markets are also often highly regulated in developing countries, with governments subsidizing input prices and other input costs and sometimes establishing artificially low prices for agricultural outputs. Direct government subsidized lending to farmers often crowds out private financial institutions. Agricultural market price fluctuations, stemming from shocks and seasonality, also complicate risk assessments by lenders, particularly if (as is often the case) these lenders lack the expertise needed to evaluate such factors and the creditworthiness of clients. Microcredit lending products, typically tailored to nonagricultural activities, also need to evolve to better serve farmers (including offering larger loans with longer horizons for repayment, as well as coordinating repayments with farmers’ expected cash flows). These obstacles are all compounded by a limited network of branches and poor infrastructure in rural areas, making it difficult and costly for banks and MFIs to reach farms. Finally, smaller farmers are crowded out or inadequately targeted because they often lack the collateral, financial literacy, and connections of larger farmers and businesses. The limited availability of agricultural finance also rests on the failed policies pursued in the past. Between the 1960s and the 1980s, developing country governments and development institutions traditionally used a top-down approach to agricultural finance, through direct lending and highly subsidized",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "literacy, and connections of larger farmers and businesses. The limited availability of agricultural finance also rests on the failed policies pursued in the past. Between the 1960s and the 1980s, developing country governments and development institutions traditionally used a top-down approach to agricultural finance, through direct lending and highly subsidized credit to farmers (e.g., Meyer 2011; Seibel 2000). Such past efforts to extend institutional finance to smallholders have failed for reasons such as interest rate suppression and government debt forgiveness (e.g., Adams 1988; Adams and von Pischke 1992). The government subsidized operation of credit schemes has failed to offer incentives to financial institutions to innovate and run self-financed financial operations at market determined prices. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 20 The World Bank and other international donor agencies were instrumental in funding these government-aided schemes from the mid-1950s to the late 1980s (Coffey 1998), but agricultural credit was often clubbed alongside other projects, such as improved infrastructure, agricultural extension, and health services (World Bank 2003). These programs were large in scope, but lending was inefficient and often politically motivated. In recent years, across different countries, the World Bank has created several new types of agricultural finance programs based on past experience. These include making funds directly available to institutions that in turn provide loans to farmers and rural entrepreneurs. Examples include the Second Rural Finance Project in Viet Nam, the Savings and Rural Finance SAGARPA program in Mexico, and financing microfinance organizations in Bangladesh under the Financial Services for the Poorest project. These programs, as well as other initiatives, also provide technical assistance to local financial institutions. This was a primary focus, for example, in the Strengthening India’s Rural Credit Cooperatives program and in the Ghana Rural Financial Services Project, in which training and technology upgrades were",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Services for the Poorest project. These programs, as well as other initiatives, also provide technical assistance to local financial institutions. This was a primary focus, for example, in the Strengthening India’s Rural Credit Cooperatives program and in the Ghana Rural Financial Services Project, in which training and technology upgrades were provided to rural bank staff. The private‑lending arm of the World Bank, the International Finance Corporation (IFC), has also been heavily involved in providing advice to several countries’ financial institutions (mainly commercial banks) regarding agricultural lending and other financial services (IFC 2013). In addition to commercial banks and agricultural development banks, MFIs have also made some headway in supplying agricultural credit and other services to rural households in Africa and elsewhere (van Empel 2010). However, these institutions have less capacity to expand because they typically do not have the required licenses to act as a financial institution for financial services such as savings mobilization from nonmembers and thus offer a limited set of financial products. For that reason, microfinance institutions tend to operate on a smaller scale and offer local, demand-driven options to better reach clients and improve profitability for lenders. MFIs’ traditional focus on small nonagricultural loans with frequent repayments also needs to be adjusted for agricultural households, which are subject to seasonality of crop income. A number of bilateral and nongovernment organization–funded programs are evolving to provide these options to farmers (Kloeppinger-Todd and Sharma 2010). 21 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview Both formal banks and MFIs have developed a number of innovative ways to link institutional finance to agriculture. These include tailoring lending strategies to the agricultural supply chain in order to address limited collateral among smaller farmers. For example, farmers could borrow against output stored in licensed warehouses, or producers and processors could make",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "MFIs have developed a number of innovative ways to link institutional finance to agriculture. These include tailoring lending strategies to the agricultural supply chain in order to address limited collateral among smaller farmers. For example, farmers could borrow against output stored in licensed warehouses, or producers and processors could make binding contracts for output, after which processors would repay the producer’s loan to the bank. Direct product distribution channels, such as mobile banking, are other alternatives being used (including electronic point-of-sale devices run by the Uganda Microfinance Union in rural areas), as are partnerships with agricultural marketing agencies. Expanding coverage of financial institutions is a difficult task in many developing countries as smallholders are too poor to open an account with a financial institution and find it very expensive to do so, with bank branches often being a long distance away. In contrast, mobile technology provides an alternative to branch-based banking. This is why it is much more common for farmers in EAP to have an account with a financial institution (including MFIs) than to use mobile banking technology, given the larger network of the region’s banking system and its lower reliance on mobile technology. In contrast, having an account with a mobile financial system is easier for farmers in SSA, where branch-based banking is less widely distributed but the network of mobile technology operation is large. Still, merely having a mobile account with a mobile financial system that is mainly used for extending payments and remittance transfers does not mean that farmers can use that system to secure loans for agricultural operation. 1.8 \u0007Why the Challenge Is So Difficult Since the early 1990s, financial institutions have leaned increasingly toward creating market-based instruments for borrowers. Accordingly, there have been a number of efforts to develop market–based financial products in many",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "mean that farmers can use that system to secure loans for agricultural operation. 1.8 \u0007Why the Challenge Is So Difficult Since the early 1990s, financial institutions have leaned increasingly toward creating market-based instruments for borrowers. Accordingly, there have been a number of efforts to develop market–based financial products in many countries. However, several demandand supply-side challenges remain to making agricultural finance both profitable for institutions and relevant for producers. On the supply side, commercial banks are reluctant to develop financial products (e.g., short-term versus long-term loans) that fit the needs of farmers with varying demand. One category of financial product does not meet the demand of all categories of farmers. Banks are reluctant to innovate products based on the needs of farmers, especially smallholders, because of the lack of incentive to invest in a Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 22 long-term project. Even if there is an interest among banks to undertake innovations (e.g., in the case of crop insurance), the challenge remains as to determining a price for the financial product that can recoup the cost of the innovation.12 For example, if the cost of innovation is added to the price, it may be difficult to market the product, as farmers may find the price too high. Governments and donors may support innovations in agricultural financial development by absorbing the cost of innovation or technology adoption, but the exact modus operandi of such support is not well developed and is very much context specific. Often governments in developing countries find it easier to directly subsidize products through state-owned agricultural development banks rather than support innovations by commercial banks. Such an approach may be worth supporting in the short term because subsidized funds may be targeted to reach out to farmers, but in the long run, it",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in developing countries find it easier to directly subsidize products through state-owned agricultural development banks rather than support innovations by commercial banks. Such an approach may be worth supporting in the short term because subsidized funds may be targeted to reach out to farmers, but in the long run, it becomes unsustainable for the government as well as for the agricultural development banks to continue supporting such subsidized operations. More importantly, subsidized operation of well-targeted financial products may be justified in the short term on strict conditions of developing products at costs affordable to farmers as well as making the operation sustainable. An approach similar to this strategy was adopted in the case of the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC) in Thailand and Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI) in Indonesia (e.g., Seibel 2000). The question remains: How long will such subsidized operation continue? In the case of BAAC and BRI, it took many years to reach the goal of sustainability. As agriculture is an integral part of the sustainable development goals of many developing countries, timing to support such subsidized operation of credit, insurance, or other products for smallholders may be determined by prudent government policies consistent with a country’s development agenda, so that such government/donor support is not open-ended. On the demand side, snags in farmers’ demand for financial services are hindering the process of financial development. Mistrust in the system means that farmers would not even approach financial institutions for a product appropriate to their needs. On the other hand, farmers, once they have experienced waived loans because of crop failure and consequential government loan forgiveness policies, are reluctant to pay off their loans even if their crops were not affected. 12 Continued innovation is perhaps very essential for a market that is indeed subject to uncertainty",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the other hand, farmers, once they have experienced waived loans because of crop failure and consequential government loan forgiveness policies, are reluctant to pay off their loans even if their crops were not affected. 12 Continued innovation is perhaps very essential for a market that is indeed subject to uncertainty due to many factors, including consequences of agricultural risk that are sometimes catastrophic (see Hazell and Hess 2016). 23 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview They continue to expect such loan forgiveness policies in future events of such crop failures. Such expectations discourage farmers from purchasing insurance to protect against such disasters even if appropriate insurance is available. Lack of financial literacy is another major hurdle for a good synchronization between demand and supply of financial products. There exists a mismatch of farmers’ demands and banks’ provision of financial products in that what is offered is not always demanded by the farmers. Government support provided via financial institutions in the event of disasters triggered by natural hazards also sometimes comes too little and too late. Such experiences of farmers have a long‑term impact on farmers’ willingness to assume risk in agricultural diversification or technology adoption to modernize agriculture using the financial products precisely developed and marketed for such purposes. Mistrust in financial institutions is a major factor standing in the way of higher access to financial services in many countries. This is more so with banks than with MFIs. For example, some 20% of people who borrowed from banks are likely to borrow for agricultural/business purposes, irrespective of farmers’ income. But with MFIs, where borrowers get the services at their doorsteps by being involved directly with group activities, and with MFIs’ better patron–client relationships, farmers are willing to invest more in agriculture by borrowing. As smallholders are more",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "banks are likely to borrow for agricultural/business purposes, irrespective of farmers’ income. But with MFIs, where borrowers get the services at their doorsteps by being involved directly with group activities, and with MFIs’ better patron–client relationships, farmers are willing to invest more in agriculture by borrowing. As smallholders are more likely to be members of cooperatives and MFIs, there is a greater share of cooperative/MFI financing in raising agricultural productivity and investment in developing countries.13 1.9 Organization of the Book The book is divided into five parts. Part I provides a global perspective of agricultural finance in developing countries. This part has two chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the global perspectives of agricultural finance presented above. The chapter highlights the role of agricultural finance in contributing to broad-based and inclusive development. If we believe that higher agricultural investment is critical for raising agricultural productivity, then, given the current status of agricultural finance, it is obvious that this condition of raising investment can only be met through greater access to institutional finance. 13 See Chapter 2 of this book for details. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 24 This overview chapter then focuses on major issues surrounding the current state of agricultural finance in developing countries, including why agricultural finance is important, who demands and who supplies different kinds of financial services, and the potential role of these services in raising agricultural investment and productivity. It follows therefore that the book discusses demand and supply constraints affecting agricultural households’ improved access to and use of alternative types of institutional financial services. Chapter 2 of Part I provides a cross-country analysis of Findex data that includes an overview of the state of agricultural finance in developing countries, including main policy actors, how different sources of financing (public/private) have",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "agricultural households’ improved access to and use of alternative types of institutional financial services. Chapter 2 of Part I provides a cross-country analysis of Findex data that includes an overview of the state of agricultural finance in developing countries, including main policy actors, how different sources of financing (public/private) have evolved over the last decade, and the conceptual and practical issues in expanding credit to farmers across the distribution of landholdings and income. The chapter presents a summary of the cross-country analysis of 148 countries using the 2017 Global Findex data, covering the borrowing patterns and credit constraints of households involved in agriculture. Issues examined include whether reported constraints among agricultural households stem from access issues, perceived inability to engage in formal finance, and/or other reasons. The findings in the chapter show that ownership of a transaction account with a financial institution is highest in EAP (56%), followed by South Asia (44%) and SSA (25%). Mobile technology has constituted a major factor in agricultural finance in recent years, especially in SSA. In 2014, the rate of ownership of mobile money accounts was 25% in SSA and 10% in EAP, although only 5% in South Asia. Better access to institutional finance does not always mean better access to credit from institutional sources. In EAP, for example, despite the region’s better coverage of financial institutions, only 20% of those having a financial transaction account borrowed from institutional sources and only 38% borrowed from informal sources. In SSA, which has the lowest coverage of financial institutions, the respective shares are only 8% from institutional sources and an overwhelming 54% from informal sources. The cross-country analysis shows that financial account ownership is strongly associated with agricultural productivity. The demand for financial services is high across farmers of varying wealth from poor to rich landowning",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of financial institutions, the respective shares are only 8% from institutional sources and an overwhelming 54% from informal sources. The cross-country analysis shows that financial account ownership is strongly associated with agricultural productivity. The demand for financial services is high across farmers of varying wealth from poor to rich landowning groups, with the highest demand among rich and educated households. MFI activity, however, is strongly pronounced among the poorer farm households. Mobile banking is found effective in connecting farmers in difficult-to-reach areas, especially in SSA. 25 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview Part II is an in-depth analysis of agricultural finance issues of two leading East Asian countries. In particular, Chapter 3 provides a case study of Thailand. Thai agriculture accounts for about 8% of the country’s GDP while accounting for one-third of the labor force. A major actor in rural finance is the Thailand Village and Urban Community Fund (TVF or “Village Fund”) program, the second‑largest microcredit scheme in the world. Nearly 80,000 elected local Village Fund committees administer loans that reach 30% of all Thai households (40% of rural and 10% of urban households). The value and distribution of TVF loans has remained steady since 2006, even without new infusions of government funds, and loans go disproportionately to poor people. The other major actor in Thailand’s agricultural finance is the BAAC (Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives). Using both household and institutional data, the chapter covers a spectrum of issues related to agricultural finance. Because the country engaged in agricultural finance earlier than many others, Thailand provides a unique case study of policymaking concerning financing agriculture. The country’s cross-sectional, multi-year surveys, collected through socioeconomic surveys, also provide rich data sets with which to analyze issues such as access, constraints, and impacts at the household level. Moreover,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "country engaged in agricultural finance earlier than many others, Thailand provides a unique case study of policymaking concerning financing agriculture. The country’s cross-sectional, multi-year surveys, collected through socioeconomic surveys, also provide rich data sets with which to analyze issues such as access, constraints, and impacts at the household level. Moreover, the institutional data for BAAC and Village Funds provide information regarding institutional efficiency in supporting the government’s financial inclusion policies. Thailand has a dynamic agricultural sector based on smallholder family farms. One of the catalysts for this rural transformation has been the expansion of credit, especially from formal sources such as BAAC and semi-formal sources such as Village Funds. Banking facilities are widely available in Thailand. As per the Global Findex data of 2021, some 99% of farmers had a financial account and some 55% had taken loans. However, only 19% borrowed from financial institutions. BAAC is the major lender of farm loans. The incentives built into BAAC’s interest rate structure, as well as its flexibility in administering loans, its extensive network of branches, and the variety of savings instruments it offers, have made it possible for BAAC to expand its portfolio rapidly over time. While BAAC was heavily subsidized until the late 1990s, it is no longer a subsidized entity and uses mobilized deposits as its principal source of capital. The case of the TVF is different. The TVF helped bring credit to an underserved group of lower‑income agricultural households and have had some impact on raising consumption and income. But they do not mobilize savings like BAAC, Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 26 and they hence depend on the government for funding.14 Financial institutions do need to address crop insurance—farmers are not insuring crops, partly because the insurance market is not as developed as the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "income. But they do not mobilize savings like BAAC, Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 26 and they hence depend on the government for funding.14 Financial institutions do need to address crop insurance—farmers are not insuring crops, partly because the insurance market is not as developed as the rural credit market. Chapter 4 presents a study on Viet Nam, a country where 70% of the population lives in rural areas. Although the country has experienced rapid economic growth since 2000, rural households still face many barriers to credit. Thus, there has been a strong policy interest recently in expanding financial services to rural households. The World Bank, for example, has established a series of large-scale rural finance projects in Viet Nam since 1996 to increase access to credit for mediumto long-term financing for capital investments among rural households (including agricultural activities such as agro-processing, cultivation, and livestock), as well as to improve access to finance for rural poor people. This country study measures the impact of credit, including microcredit, on household incomes and consumption in Viet Nam and then traces the impact on poverty. The study uses a panel of rural households surveyed in 2004, 2006, and 2008 to examine the impact of credit from a number of sources, including the Vietnam Bank for Social Policies (VBSP) and the Vietnam Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (Agribank). The study seeks to measure the direct effects of credit on income and expenditure; in addition, a robustness check looks at the effects on profit from self-employment and on farm efficiency. The Viet Nam study shows that larger farmers are well served by Agribank, the large state-owned agricultural lender. This lender appears to be profitable but is slowly reducing its lending to agriculture. In contrast, VBSP is found to be an",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the effects on profit from self-employment and on farm efficiency. The Viet Nam study shows that larger farmers are well served by Agribank, the large state-owned agricultural lender. This lender appears to be profitable but is slowly reducing its lending to agriculture. In contrast, VBSP is found to be an effective lender to poorer households, channeling half of its loans through the Women’s Union, which forms groups of borrowers. However, VBSP is heavily subsidized by the state, to the tune of about 2% of the value of its loans, and makes only modest efforts to mobilize deposits. Hence, VBSP is sustainable only as long as the government supports its operation. VBSP lending has a positive impact on consumption but no significant impact on income, perhaps because only half of the loans are used for productive purposes. Thus, Viet Nam still faces challenges in terms of developing a sustainable organization that supports agriculture (especially smallholders) as well as poor people, minorities, and women. 14 Note that the BAAC was dependent initially on government funds until it became sustainable over time. 27 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview Part III presents a South Asian perspective of agricultural finance drawing examples of two leading countries in the South Asia region. More specifically, Chapter 5 presents a study of agricultural finance issues in Bangladesh. As per the latest data, agriculture accounts for 12% of Bangladesh’s GDP and 38% of overall employment. The Global Findex data of 2021 for Bangladesh suggest that 69.7% of farmers had a financial account in Bangladesh compared to 57.3% in South Asia and 57.1% in the developing world. The government has been steadily increasing the share of public funds for agricultural lending to help ensure food security in the country, raising the agricultural credit disbursement target by 22.7%",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of farmers had a financial account in Bangladesh compared to 57.3% in South Asia and 57.1% in the developing world. The government has been steadily increasing the share of public funds for agricultural lending to help ensure food security in the country, raising the agricultural credit disbursement target by 22.7% to Tk115 billion between 2008–2009 and 2009–2010 (Bangladesh Bank 2010). The chapter uses recently augmented household panel data spanning 20 years (1991, 1998, 2011) to examine the effects of rural credit expansion (both microcredit and formal bank channels) on outcomes for agricultural households. The study finds that microcredit has benefited households with lower landholdings by raising agricultural income from activities such as livestock rearing that require less land. In addition, microcredit has increased nonfarm income diversification for all households, although the strongest effects have been seen for landless or near-landless households. Microcredit is not found to have strong effects on crop income in Bangladesh; however, reported supply‑side credit constraints significantly lower crop income. Borrowing by both men and women has contributed to nonfarm income growth for marginal farmers, but only men’s borrowing has contributed to nonfarm income growth among higher landowning groups. Drawing aggregate institutional data from both agricultural development banks and MFIs active in rural areas, the chapter finds that agricultural banks and MFIs provide a variety of financial services for both farmers and nonfarmers, such as mobilizing savings and providing insurance and remittances to agricultural households. However, agricultural development banks remain too dependent on government funds and are not self-sustainable. In contrast, MFIs are more cost‑efficient than the state-run agricultural development banks. The government’s direct role in agricultural finance in Bangladesh needs to be evaluated based on the experience of MFIs active in rural and agricultural finance. Chapter 6 discusses the agricultural finance issues of India. India provides",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "not self-sustainable. In contrast, MFIs are more cost‑efficient than the state-run agricultural development banks. The government’s direct role in agricultural finance in Bangladesh needs to be evaluated based on the experience of MFIs active in rural and agricultural finance. Chapter 6 discusses the agricultural finance issues of India. India provides an interesting context, as the country has seen rapid and structured expansions in agricultural credit over the last several decades (Golait 2007; Binswanger and Khandker 1995). While some of these programs have had positive effects, Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 28 there have also been downsides stemming from inefficiencies in program design and execution. The chapter is based on administrative data and household panel data from the 2005 and 2011 rounds of the nationally representative Human Development Survey conducted by the University of Maryland and India’s National Council of Applied Economic Research. The survey includes detailed modules on agriculture and access to credit that have allowed us to analyze trends in borrowing, savings, and remittances received by rural agricultural households over time. Institutional data from major banks, such as India’s National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, and nationwide MFIs are presented to discuss outreach to agricultural households (i.e., financial inclusion) and their financial efficiency in serving the financial needs of rural clients. Despite the rapid growth of institutional credit to agriculture seen in India since the mid-2000s, there has also been an increasing share of small and marginal farmers in the national composition of operational holdings. The study finds that small and marginal farmers remain dependent on informal credit despite an increase in their access to institutional finance. Part of the problem lies in supply-side issues. The growth in bank-provided agricultural credit has typically been focused on larger loans, which tend to reach large landholding groups.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "The study finds that small and marginal farmers remain dependent on informal credit despite an increase in their access to institutional finance. Part of the problem lies in supply-side issues. The growth in bank-provided agricultural credit has typically been focused on larger loans, which tend to reach large landholding groups. On the other hand, the government’s reliance on agricultural debt waiver policies have induced banks to shift away from areas with greater risk. Household survey data show that targeting of small and marginal farmers has been mixed; farmers who borrow for agriculture tend to be wealthier, have larger landholdings, and be located in areas with better infrastructure such as electricity and roads. The challenge thus is how to enhance access to institutional finance, not only credit but also other financial services, for smallholders in order to increase agricultural investment and productivity in smallholder agriculture. Part IV provides regional perspectives of agricultural finance beyond Asia. In particular, Chapter 7 presents a regional perspective of agricultural finance of a predominantly subsistence economy, that of sub-Saharan Africa. SSA is home to some 1.2 billion people who are mostly smallholders, managing 80% of the farmland. Because the agrarian economy is largely subsistence, large investments are necessary to commercialize subsistence agriculture and enhance overall productivity and growth in support of sustainable growth and development. The discussion on SSA is thus important for two reasons: (i) it is one of the predominantly agricultural economies with the highest share of smallholders in agriculture and (ii) the region has a very poor branch network of non-digital 29 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview financial institutions, but it has a huge mobile financial network due to the unprecedented growth of mobile phone technology. As per the Global Findex data of 2021, the financial inclusion rate among farmers",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "has a very poor branch network of non-digital 29 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview financial institutions, but it has a huge mobile financial network due to the unprecedented growth of mobile phone technology. As per the Global Findex data of 2021, the financial inclusion rate among farmers was 55.2% in SSA compared to 57.1% in the developing world. The financial inclusion in SSA was largely enabled by farmers’ access to digital financial services—while 32.8% of farmers had an account with a financial institution (either banks or MFIs), 42% had a MFS account. The only way to promote private investment in agriculture in SSA and make it commercialized from its subsistence level is to support both shortand long-term financing of farming, agro-processing, and related supply chains of agriculture. The role of credit, for example, in supporting agriculture has been of major policy interest in many SSA countries. However, because of poor business operations of the existing financial institutions, financing agriculture to support commercialization and promote private investment in agriculture via financial institutions has been a big challenge for countries in SSA. No wonder farmers have very limited access to institutional credit; although 67% of farmers borrowed in 2021, only 10.9% borrowed from financial institutions. Hence, the bulk of borrowing was informal, which may not be helpful in raising investment in agriculture. The chapter considers two country case studies of agricultural finance: one from Ethiopia and the other from Uganda. They represent two opposite cases of agricultural finance issues in the region. Ethiopia represents the case of a branch‑based financial network while Uganda represents the higher penetration of mobile financial services. For example, in 2017, some 58% of farmers had a mobile account in Uganda compared to only 0.2% in Ethiopia. But in both countries, farmers are found to",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the region. Ethiopia represents the case of a branch‑based financial network while Uganda represents the higher penetration of mobile financial services. For example, in 2017, some 58% of farmers had a mobile account in Uganda compared to only 0.2% in Ethiopia. But in both countries, farmers are found to rely on institutional finance for borrowing. For instance, in 2017, 13.7% of farmers in Ethiopia and 16.4% of farmers in Uganda borrowed from financial institutions. Household survey data and institutional data from both countries suggest that agricultural credit has an important role in raising farm productivity, but their institutions (both banks and MFIs providing retail banking) are not well equipped to serve the rural communities. Cooperatives, not MFS, are found to enhance agricultural productivity at a higher rate in Uganda, highlighting the fact that retail banking must be digital in order to serve the needs of subsistence farmers in SSA. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 30 As SSA has a high penetration of mobile phones (93% of people own mobile phones), the region experienced high growth in mobile money accounts—42% of farmers in SSA have mobile money accounts, compared to 15% in South Asia and 12.9% in EAP. While the MFS have been very active in extending payments and remittance services, they have not been so active with credit and other financial services. Hence, digitizing financial services of banks, MFIs, and cooperatives with the help of mobile technology is perhaps a way to move forward with the extension of agricultural finance to meet the unmet demand for financial services in this region. Chapter 8 presents a regional perspective of agricultural finance from LAC, a more developed region in comparison to SSA. LAC is home to a population of 650 million with agriculture accounting for only 8% of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "extension of agricultural finance to meet the unmet demand for financial services in this region. Chapter 8 presents a regional perspective of agricultural finance from LAC, a more developed region in comparison to SSA. LAC is home to a population of 650 million with agriculture accounting for only 8% of GDP and 14% of employment. Nonetheless, LAC is a net exporter of food and has been a net exporter over the last two decades. Part of the credit for this goes to commercialized farms, which control more than half of the land in LAC. Interestingly, there is a dualism in agriculture: a large majority of farmers cultivate tiny areas of land as their family business, which is not even sufficient for them to sustain their daily life. For example, in Paraguay, there are about 5.2 million farms of which 1 million occupy 75% of the agricultural land. More importantly, many small and marginal farmers lack security of land; e.g., only half of the land parcels in Brazil are registered. Consequently, while large farmers have access to institutional finance, many smallholders lack such access. As per the recent Global Findex data, about two-thirds of farmers in LAC have an account with a financial institution but only one-fourth have actually borrowed from a financial institution. For example, only 10.4% of Mexico’s agricultural households borrow for agricultural purposes, demonstrating that agriculture is mostly self‑financed or informally financed. While agriculture makes up a smaller share of total institutional credit than the share of GDP would warrant, most of the LAC countries are not out of line with that of other developing regions. Many governments in LAC continue to subsidize agriculture to promote exportable food items such as high-value fruits, maize, and poultry. In most cases, governments subsidize agriculture in part through low-interest loans and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "would warrant, most of the LAC countries are not out of line with that of other developing regions. Many governments in LAC continue to subsidize agriculture to promote exportable food items such as high-value fruits, maize, and poultry. In most cases, governments subsidize agriculture in part through low-interest loans and loan guarantees. In some countries, interest rates are kept low through public subsidies, which reduces price rationing, but the resulting low profitability for lenders may decrease the supply of lending, which increases quantity rationing. 31 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview For governments that support lending to farm households—such as Brazil and Mexico—there seems to be room for targeting the subsidies better to poorer farmers. There is a growing recognition of the importance of risk rationing, where borrowing may be profitable on average, but the risks in the case of a shock are too great. Very few farmers carry any form of production insurance—just 3.6% in Mexico, for instance. A promising direction is to expand the availability of index-linked insurance for the institutions that serve farmers, including suppliers, lenders, cooperatives, and local governments. The other promising direction in extending agricultural finance to smallholders in agriculture is through mobile banking. It could be a more promising path in a country such as Paraguay that does not have much of a branch-based banking network but has high coverage of mobile phone technology. Mobile banking could be a useful tool for borrowing, payments, or savings for smallholders in agriculture. Finally, Part V presents a discussion of emerging opportunities related to agricultural finance and the ways to further development in this important area. More specifically, Chapter 9 presents a discussion on digital finance to support agricultural finance meant to reach smallholders in agriculture, who have limited access to institutional finance but who",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "V presents a discussion of emerging opportunities related to agricultural finance and the ways to further development in this important area. More specifically, Chapter 9 presents a discussion on digital finance to support agricultural finance meant to reach smallholders in agriculture, who have limited access to institutional finance but who cultivate more than three-fourths of land worldwide. Digital finance is now a ubiquitous feature of modern finance, but digital financial services (DFS) are available widely in the developing world and to the smallholders in the form of mobile financial services (MFS) thanks to the penetration of mobile phone technology in remote rural areas. Unfortunately, MFS are used primarily for cashless transactions of payments and remittance transfers but hardly for extending credit and mobilizing savings, the most important components of financial services that are necessary for augmenting private investment and productivity in agriculture. Drawing examples of traditional versus digital financial services for agriculture in two regions—Asia and Africa—the chapter attempts to explain why digitalizing of three branches of financial services (traditional banking, MFIs/cooperatives, and MFS) is necessary to benefit smallholders in agriculture and transform subsistence agriculture into commercial farming that enhances the production, processing, and distribution of high-value crops, fruits, and vegetables. Commercial agriculture is necessary for attaining global food security, given the uncertainty due to global warming and the ongoing conflicts among nations. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 32 As agriculture is run by smallholders in Asia, Africa, and LAC, credit access in particular is necessary. Credit can come from commercial banks, which are capable (unlike cooperatives and MFIs) of mobilizing savings at a large scale. Commercial banks, however, are found to be reluctant to lend to smallholders due to the high transaction cost of lending and mobilizing in small amounts. Meanwhile, MFIs and cooperatives, which are",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "can come from commercial banks, which are capable (unlike cooperatives and MFIs) of mobilizing savings at a large scale. Commercial banks, however, are found to be reluctant to lend to smallholders due to the high transaction cost of lending and mobilizing in small amounts. Meanwhile, MFIs and cooperatives, which are found to reach small farmers and businesses, are not able to mobilize savings to extend credit services the way commercial banks can. And MFS, which can reach smallholders and small businesses through mobile technology, are not in a position to provide loans or mobilize savings, in part because they are not allowed by the regulators and in part because they are not equipped yet to extend such financial services. Of course, there are some technologies being developed and used in different countries for agricultural lending, and it is highly recommended that donors and governments support such initiatives as observed. Digital financial services are better equipped to serve agriculture because they reduce both the screening costs of lending and the inconvenience cost of borrowing in a way that non-digital financial institutions are not capable of. Chapter 10 discusses the lessons learned from both the multi-country studies and the cross-country analysis. The overwhelming lesson learned is that while there has been progress in inclusive finance for agriculture in developing countries, institutional finance is mostly meeting the needs of large farmers and leaving small and marginal farmers on their own. Even if they are financially included in terms of having an account with a financial system, including MFS, smallholders in agriculture have limited access to institutional finance, such as credit, for a variety of reasons including lack of physical access to financial institutions; they still depend more on selfand informal finance rather than on institutional finance. While MFS have potential for extending credit,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "a financial system, including MFS, smallholders in agriculture have limited access to institutional finance, such as credit, for a variety of reasons including lack of physical access to financial institutions; they still depend more on selfand informal finance rather than on institutional finance. While MFS have potential for extending credit, savings, and insurance at affordable costs for both providers and consumers, they have remained a major source for payments and remittance transfers but not for providing other categories of financial services more important for smallholders in charge of enhancing both productivity and food security. In sum, the book’s overwhelming lesson is that digitalization of agricultural finance is the only way to transform agriculture from its subsistence level and provide the affordable financial services that will be indispensable for attaining agricultural growth and global food security. 33 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview REFERENCES Adams, D. W. 1988. The Conundrum of Successful Credit Projects in Floundering Rural Financial Markets. Economic Development and Cultural Change 36(2): 355–367. Adams, D. W., and J. D. Von Pischke. 1992. Microenterprise Credit Programs: Deja Vu. World Development 20(10): 1463–1470. Bakst, D., and B. Wright. 2016. Addressing Risk in Agriculture. Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation. Banerjee, A., D. Karlan, and J. Zinman. 2015. Six Randomized Evaluations of Microcredit: Introduction and Further Steps. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 1–21. Bangladesh Bank. 2010. Annual Agricultural/Rural Credit Policy and Program for Fiscal Year (2009–2010). Beaman, L., D. Karlan, B. Thuysbaert, and C. Udry. 2015. Selection into Credit Markets: Evidence from Agriculture in Mali. Working paper, Northwestern University. Binswanger, H., and S. R. Khandker. 1995. The Impact of Formal Finance on the Rural Economy of India. Journal of Development Studies 32: 234–262. Biscaye, P., C. Clark, K. Harris, L. Anderson, and M. Gugerty. 2015. Review of Rural and Agricultural",
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    "text": "Evidence from Agriculture in Mali. Working paper, Northwestern University. Binswanger, H., and S. R. Khandker. 1995. The Impact of Formal Finance on the Rural Economy of India. Journal of Development Studies 32: 234–262. Biscaye, P., C. Clark, K. Harris, L. Anderson, and M. Gugerty. 2015. Review of Rural and Agricultural Finance in Sub-Saharan Africa. EPAR Brief No. 307. University of Washington: Evans School of Public Policy and Governance. Boucher, T., B. Alemu, and C. Trivelli. 2009. Direct Elicitation of Credit Constraints: Conceptual and Practical Issues with an Application to Peruvian Agriculture. Economic Development and Cultural Change 57(4): 609–640. Carter, M. R. 1989. The Impact of Credit on Peasant Productivity and Differentiation in Nicaragua. Journal of Development Economics 103: 13–36. Carter, M. R., and P. Olinto. 2003. Getting Institutions Right for Whom? Credit Constraints and the Impact of Property Rights on the Quantity and Composition of Investment. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 85(1): 173–186. Coffey, E. 1998. Agricultural Finance: Getting the Policies Right. Working Paper, Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 34 Cull, R., T. Ehrbeck, and N. Holle. 2014. Financial Inclusion and Development: Recent Impact Evidence. CGAP Focus Note 92. Washington, DC: World Bank. Demirguc-Kunt, A., and L. Klapper. 2012. Measuring Financial Inclusion: The Global Findex Database. Policy Research Working Paper 6025. Washington, DC: World Bank. Demirguc-Kunt, A., L. Klapper, D. Singer, and P. Van Oudheusden. 2015. The Global Findex Data Base 2014: Measuring Financial Inclusion Around the World. Policy Research Working Paper No. 7255. Washington, DC: World Bank. Delavallade, C., F. Dizon Jr., R. Vargas Hill, and J. P. Petraud. 2015. Managing Risk with Insurance and Savings: Experimental Evidence for Male and Female Farm Managers in West Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01426. van Empel, G. 2010. Rural Banking in Africa: The",
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    "text": "Paper No. 7255. Washington, DC: World Bank. Delavallade, C., F. Dizon Jr., R. Vargas Hill, and J. P. Petraud. 2015. Managing Risk with Insurance and Savings: Experimental Evidence for Male and Female Farm Managers in West Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01426. van Empel, G. 2010. Rural Banking in Africa: The Rabobank Approach. In R. Kloeppinger-Todd and M. Sharma, eds. Innovations in Rural and Agriculture Finance. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute and the World Bank. Feder, G., L. J. Lau, J. Y. Lin, and X. Luo. 1990. The Relation between Credit and Productivity in Chinese Agriculture: A Model of Disequilibrium. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 72(5): 1151–1157. Foltz, J. 2004. Credit Market Access and Profitability in Tunisian Agriculture. Agricultural Economics 30: 229–240. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2012. Smallholders and Family Farmers. Sustainability Pathways. FAO: Rome. ———. 2016. Climate Change and Food Security: Risks and Responses. FAO: Rome. ———. 2017. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017: Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security. FAO: Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/ a-I7695e.pdf. Giné, X., and D. Yang. 2009. Insurance, Credit, and Technology Adoption: Field Experimental Evidence from Malawi. Journal of Development Economics 89: 1–11. Golait, R. 2007. Current Issues in Agriculture Credit in India: An Assessment. Reserve Bank of India Occasional Papers 28(1): 79–99. 35 How Agricultural Finance Matters for Development: An Overview Guirkinger, C., and S. R. Boucher. 2008. Credit Constraints and Productivity in Peruvian Agriculture. Agricultural Economics 39(3): 295–308. Hazell, P., and U. Hess. 2016. Insurance and Emerging Trends in Agricultural Insurance. Bonn: GTZ. Hill, R. V., and M. Torero, eds. 2009. Innovations in Insuring the Poor. 2020 Vision Focus 17, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). International Finance Corporation (IFC). 2013. IFC and Agri-Finance: Creating Opportunity Where It’s Needed Most. Washington, DC.",
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    "text": "Hess. 2016. Insurance and Emerging Trends in Agricultural Insurance. Bonn: GTZ. Hill, R. V., and M. Torero, eds. 2009. Innovations in Insuring the Poor. 2020 Vision Focus 17, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). International Finance Corporation (IFC). 2013. IFC and Agri-Finance: Creating Opportunity Where It’s Needed Most. Washington, DC. Karlan, D., R. Osei, I. Osei-Akoto, and C. Udry. 2014. Agricultural Decisions after Relaxing Credit and Risk Constraints. Quarterly Journal of Economics 129(2): 597–652. Khandker, S. R. 2021. Credit for Agricultural Development. In K. Otsuka and S. Fan, eds. Agricultural Development: New Perspectives in a Changing World. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Khandker, S. R., G. B. Koolwal, and H. A. Samad. 2010. Handbook on Impact Evaluation: Quantitative Methods and Practices. Washington, DC: World Bank. Kloeppinger-Todd, R., and M. Sharma, eds. 2010. Innovations in Rural and Agricultural Finance. 2020 Vision Focus 18. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Meyer, R. L. 2011. Subsidies as an Instrument to Agricultural Finance: A Review. Joint Discussion Paper. World Bank, BMZ, FAO, GIZ , IFAD, and UNCDF. Otsuka, K., and S. Fan, eds. 2021. Agricultural Development: New Perspectives in a Changing World. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Robles, M. 2021. Agricultural Insurance for Development: Past, Present, and Future. In K. Otsuka and S. Fan, eds. Agricultural Development: New Perspectives in a Changing World. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Ruete, M. 2015. Financing for Agriculture: How to Boost Opportunities in Developing Countries. Investment in Agriculture Policy Brief No. 3, International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 36 Seibel, H. 2000. Agricultural Development Banks Close Them or Reform Them? Finance and Development 37(2). Sial, M. H., and M. R. Carter. 1996. Financial Market Efficiency in an Agrarian Economy: Microeconometric Analysis",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Brief No. 3, International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 36 Seibel, H. 2000. Agricultural Development Banks Close Them or Reform Them? Finance and Development 37(2). Sial, M. H., and M. R. Carter. 1996. Financial Market Efficiency in an Agrarian Economy: Microeconometric Analysis of the Pakistani Punjab. Journal of Development Studies 32(5): 771–798. World Bank. 2003. Review of the Bank’s Rural Finance Experience. Working Paper, Operations Evaluation Department. ———. 2013. Unlocking Africa’s Agricultural Potential: An Action Agenda for Transformation. Sustainable Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. ———. 2015. Agricultural Finance. Washington, DC. http://www.worldbank.org/ en/topic/financialsector/brief/agriculture-finance. ———. 2017. UFA2020 Overview: Universal Financial Access Initiative 2020. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/financialinclusion/brief/achievinguniversal-financial-access-by-2020. ———. 2018. Financial Inclusion: An Overview. http://www.worldbank.org/en/ topic/financialinclusion/overview. ———. 2021. Global Findex Database. https://www.worldbank.org/en/ publication/globalfindex. World Bank, FAO, and UN. 2010. Global Strategy to Improve Agriculture and Rural Statistics (Rep. No. 56719-GLB). Washington, DC: World Bank. 37 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data Gayatri B. Koolwal and Shahidur R. Khandker CHAPTER 2 2.1 Introduction In recent years, volatile agricultural prices, along with changes in climate and weather patterns, have raised fears about food security in developing countries and have placed increasingly complicated financial constraints on smalland medium‑scale agricultural producers who rely on the sale of their output for income (FAO 2016).1 Unpredictable harvests, a lack of available inputs, and reduced income flows have posed a growing challenge for many farmers, particularly smaller producers who already faced greater vulnerability in these areas and who generally have less collateral and lower production efficiency. In response, policymakers have increasingly focused on approaches to raise agricultural productivity in order to ensure sustainable economic growth—including investing in new technologies, seeds/crops, and processes to help farmers manage weather shocks, as well as investing in services and infrastructure to help agricultural households better",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "collateral and lower production efficiency. In response, policymakers have increasingly focused on approaches to raise agricultural productivity in order to ensure sustainable economic growth—including investing in new technologies, seeds/crops, and processes to help farmers manage weather shocks, as well as investing in services and infrastructure to help agricultural households better access markets. However, financing these investments remains a challenge, particularly in low-income contexts with greater exposure to risk and with limited or no access to credit, insurance, and other financial services. Low-income countries tend to have the greatest dependence on agriculture, as well as the lowest agricultural productivity. Using statistics from the World Development Indicators, Figure 2.1 presents trends in country-level correlates of agricultural productivity (agricultural value added per worker and average cereal yield per hectare are presented as examples) against a share of agriculture in gross domestic product (GDP). Across all regions, measures of agricultural productivity tend to decline with the share of agriculture in GDP. 1 This study focuses on farmers who sell some or all of their output in the market and who comprise the middle of the landholding distribution. Subsistence farmers, who consume most of what they produce, are not included, nor are large farming estates, which tend not to face financing constraints. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 38 Figure 2.1:\u0003 \u0007Country-Level Correlates of Agricultural Productivity Against Share of Agriculture in Gross Domestic Product, 2019 0 2,000 0 20 40 60 4,000 6,000 8,000 Average cereal yield (kg/hectare) Share of country’s GDP in agriculture B. Average Cereal Yield A. Agricultural Value Added per Worker 0 5,000 0 20 40 60 10,000 15,000 20,000 Agricultural value added per worker (constant 2015 $) Share of country’s GDP in agriculture EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA Lowess curve EAP =",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "agriculture B. Average Cereal Yield A. Agricultural Value Added per Worker 0 5,000 0 20 40 60 10,000 15,000 20,000 Agricultural value added per worker (constant 2015 $) Share of country’s GDP in agriculture EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA Lowess curve EAP = East Asia and the Pacific, ECA = Europe and Central Asia, GDP = gross domestic product, kg = kilogram, LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean, MENA = Middle East and North Africa, SAR = South Asia, SSA = sub-Saharan Africa. Notes: Regional labels/colors are used for different countries. Locally weighted regressions (bandwidth = 0.8) presented along with scatterplots. Source: World Development Indicators (2019). 39 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data As Figure 2.1 shows, much of this trend is driven by low productivity in agriculture‑dependent economies in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where nearly all farmers are smallholders.2 Economies with greater diversification across sectors, including countries in Europe and Central Asia (ECA) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), tend to have higher agricultural productivity, likely owing to better agricultural technology and larger commercial farms. Raising smallholders’ productivity is key to economic growth and sustainable livelihood improvements across much of the developing world—according to recent Food and Agriculture Organization statistics, smallholders manage 80% of the farmland in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.3 In addition, in many countries, nonfarm activities of rural households are often connected with agriculture as well, underscoring the importance of raising agricultural productivity and demand across sectors (see McCullough [2017] for a discussion of SSA and ILO [2014] for a global analysis). 2.2 \u0007Potential Role of Financial Services in Raising Agricultural Productivity Financial services, including agricultural financing and assistance for farmers to engage in other financial transactions, are an important—although still nascent— approach to boosting agricultural",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "sectors (see McCullough [2017] for a discussion of SSA and ILO [2014] for a global analysis). 2.2 \u0007Potential Role of Financial Services in Raising Agricultural Productivity Financial services, including agricultural financing and assistance for farmers to engage in other financial transactions, are an important—although still nascent— approach to boosting agricultural productivity. For example, with better access to finance, farmers can purchase inputs such as seeds, fertilizer, and improved fodder for livestock. Farmers can also purchase or lease production machinery, such as tractors, or invest in improved planting and irrigation technologies. The benefits of financial services for agriculture are not limited to better access to credit, however. Having a financial or mobile money account that allows for payments can reduce farmers’ reliance on cash transactions and reduce time burdens in conducting transactions. In Kenya, for example, mobile money accounts are increasingly being developed to link farmers, agents, and buyers (Kikulwe, Fischer, and Qaim 2014). In general, mobile-based financial services have emerged as instruments to overcome geographic and infrastructure constraints and to draw a greater share of the population into formal financial services, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. 2 While the interpretation of “smallholder” can vary across countries, FAO defines a smallholder as working on up to 10 hectares. 3 See FAO (2012). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 40 Weather-based insurance, such as rainfall index insurance, is also being explored as a way to help farmers better cope with drought; however, take-up of these products remains low, particularly among smaller farmers and farmers who are less informed or trained about risk sharing (see Giné, Townsend, and Vickery 2008 for a study from India and Dercon et al. 2014 for a study from Ethiopia). Despite their potential benefits, financial services for agriculture still face several limitations in developing countries: • On",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "farmers and farmers who are less informed or trained about risk sharing (see Giné, Townsend, and Vickery 2008 for a study from India and Dercon et al. 2014 for a study from Ethiopia). Despite their potential benefits, financial services for agriculture still face several limitations in developing countries: • On the supply side, agricultural financial markets have historically been highly regulated in developing countries, with governments intervening by subsidizing input prices and other input costs and occasionally by establishing artificially low prices for agricultural outputs. Direct government-subsidized lending to farmers also tends to crowd out private financial institutions. Other agricultural market price fluctuations due to shocks and seasonality also complicate risk assessment by private lenders, particularly if (as is often the case) these lenders lack the experience or expertise in agriculture needed to evaluate risk factors and the creditworthiness of potential clients. These obstacles are all compounded by poor infrastructure and a limited network of financial institution branches in rural areas, making it difficult and costly for banks to reach farms to provide both credit and other financial services (such as accounts). Even in countries whose financial markets have been liberalized, smaller farmers are typically “crowded out” or inadequately targeted because they often lack collateral, financial literacy, and connections of larger farmers and agribusinesses (see, for example, Jessop et al. 2012). • On the demand side, farmers in poorer rural areas are often unable to afford loans at the market interest rates that make loans profitable for banks; fixed repayment schedules are also not adapted to the seasonality of agricultural production. Farmers also often lack the collateral, secure ownership of land/ property, and financial recordkeeping and cash flow planning needed to make credit assessment and monitoring easier for banks. Farmers who need to make structural changes on their farm would",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "schedules are also not adapted to the seasonality of agricultural production. Farmers also often lack the collateral, secure ownership of land/ property, and financial recordkeeping and cash flow planning needed to make credit assessment and monitoring easier for banks. Farmers who need to make structural changes on their farm would typically require long-term credit for investments, which is not easily available in rural areas. Smaller farmers may also lack the financial literacy needed to engage effectively with formal financial institutions, thereby limiting their take-up of banking and other services that ease noncash transactions. For agricultural financing in particular, microfinance institutions (MFIs) may be a better resource than formal financing channels for poorer farmers. 41 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data Given the limited scope of financial services for agriculture in developing countries, how can one assess the potential benefits of these services to agricultural households? In addition to parsing out which aspects of financial inclusion—such as account ownership (i.e., an account with a bank or financial institution) and the ability to conduct cashless transactions, savings, borrowing, or a combination of these factors—are more strongly correlated with agricultural productivity, it is also necessary to understand the constraints to formal finance encountered by agricultural households. Broadly, financial inclusion means that individuals and businesses are able to affordably access the financial products and services that they need, including transactions, payments, savings, credit, and insurance.4 Such financial access can smooth consumption and help families and businesses plan for everything from long-term goals to unexpected emergencies. In particular, the literature lacks analysis of cross-country evidence regarding financial inclusion. In this chapter, we use the Global Financial Inclusion (Global Findex) Survey, a large, individual-level, cross-country dataset with detailed measures of financial inclusion, to better compare how take-up of financial services varies across countries.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "goals to unexpected emergencies. In particular, the literature lacks analysis of cross-country evidence regarding financial inclusion. In this chapter, we use the Global Financial Inclusion (Global Findex) Survey, a large, individual-level, cross-country dataset with detailed measures of financial inclusion, to better compare how take-up of financial services varies across countries. We use multiple rounds of the Findex (2011, 2014, 2017, and 2021) to examine how individuals working in market‑based agriculture5 use different services (financial account ownership as well as participation in other formal and semi-formal financial services, including borrowing, savings, and remittances) and how that participation is correlated with country-level estimates of agricultural productivity. The Findex data, and more specifically the 2017 round, also allow us to examine the constraints to financial account ownership among individuals involved in market-based agriculture— including whether reported constraints stem from access issues, perceived inability to engage in formal finance, and/or other reasons. We also examine trends across the income distribution and across different levels of education. As seen in this book, country-specific household surveys (the Living Standards Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture, for example) with detailed modules on agriculture allow for a much more refined, household‑level examination of the links between agricultural productivity, socioeconomic 4 See World Bank (n.d.). 5 Specifically, the Findex asked individuals whether they received payments for the sale of agricultural products. As a result, our focus on agriculture in this chapter is restricted to market‑based agriculture rather than on agriculture purely for own consumption. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 42 characteristics, and financial services. Cross-country analyses will not be able to identify the exact channels driving financial inclusion and investments in agriculture. However, using aggregation/large sample sizes when examining comparable data across countries can help researchers and policymakers better understand which potential channels are more likely to",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Opportunities 42 characteristics, and financial services. Cross-country analyses will not be able to identify the exact channels driving financial inclusion and investments in agriculture. However, using aggregation/large sample sizes when examining comparable data across countries can help researchers and policymakers better understand which potential channels are more likely to be beneficial—for example, which types of financial services are more strongly associated with agricultural productivity across countries and across the distribution of individual income. Household surveys with modules on finance also tend to focus on savings and borrowing and do not include information on different types of account ownership that can ease transactions (including mobile banking) and cash/noncash remittances. The Findex’s detailed questions regarding different forms of financial services allow for a more comprehensive and comparable set of measures of financial inclusion across countries. Although the Findex does not include a broad set of socioeconomic variables beyond education and income, we can examine some interesting trends regarding the relative importance of education versus income for different indicators of financial access and participation, as well as whether any constraints exist for individuals owning a financial account. Our analysis is the first of its kind to use the Findex to examine financial inclusion among individuals working in market-based agriculture across countries and to present a cross-country analysis of likely channels through which financial services can aid investments in agriculture. Through the descriptive analysis in this chapter, we also aim to help inform policymakers of constraints to accessing and using financial services in agriculture, thus identifying where better targeting is likely needed. 2.3 \u0007Main Questions and Findings (i) What is the correlation between financial inclusion and agricultural productivity, and which aspects of financial inclusion matter more? Ƀ Financial account ownership, particularly the ability to conduct cashless transactions (mostly through debit cards), has the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "agriculture, thus identifying where better targeting is likely needed. 2.3 \u0007Main Questions and Findings (i) What is the correlation between financial inclusion and agricultural productivity, and which aspects of financial inclusion matter more? Ƀ Financial account ownership, particularly the ability to conduct cashless transactions (mostly through debit cards), has the strongest positive correlation with measures of agricultural productivity at the country level. This positive association with agricultural productivity holds across individuals in agriculture across all wealth quintiles. Ƀ In countries with higher agricultural productivity (across different measures, including value added per worker, cereal yield, and other 43 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data measures), financial account ownership has increased more rapidly than in countries with lower agricultural productivity. This underscores the circular relationship between productivity, income, and access to financial institutions that needs to be understood further with detailed household panel survey data. Ƀ We also find demand for financial services among individuals in market‑based agriculture; while poorer and less educated overall, these individuals often report a high degree of savings and borrowing relative to those not in engaged in agricultural work. These individuals are also much more likely to save and borrow for potentially productivity-enhancing investments in their farm/business. Thus, there is clearly a need to better target these groups. (ii) What are constraints to financial inclusion? Ƀ Individuals in market-based agriculture tend to report as overarching constraints to account ownership a lack of money and a lack of geographical access (with financial institutions located too far away). In particular, in regression analyses controlling for socioeconomic and geographic variables, the role of distance emerges as a key constraint among those in market‑based agriculture, particularly for those at the higher end of the income distribution. Ƀ In the regression analysis, we find that while both education and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "far away). In particular, in regression analyses controlling for socioeconomic and geographic variables, the role of distance emerges as a key constraint among those in market‑based agriculture, particularly for those at the higher end of the income distribution. Ƀ In the regression analysis, we find that while both education and income are positively correlated with financial activity, these correlations are greater for market-based agriculturalists than for the rest of the sample. This difference underscores the poorer access to financial institutions that exists more broadly within the agricultural sector. 2.4 \u0007Data The Global Findex is the most comprehensive cross-country survey on financial inclusion, surveying men and women in more than 140 countries on their access to and use of financial services.6 In addition to questions regarding accounts with financial institutions (including commercial banks, microfinance institutions, and 6 The Global Findex sample sizes are 1,000 per country; while this is not large, the surveys are nationally representative. The Findex was designed by the Development Research Group at the World Bank and administered by Gallup through its Annual World Poll Survey. Women and men aged 15 years and older were surveyed. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 44 post office accounts), the survey asks about deposits and withdrawals into/from savings accounts, use of savings accounts, sources and purposes of borrowing, and mobile banking activity. The survey also asks non–account holders why they do not maintain an account (too far away, too expensive, lack of confidence in themselves/the institution, and other personal reasons, with multiple responses permitted).7 Additional individual-level characteristics include age, education level, and income quintile. Understanding the links between agricultural productivity and financial inclusion is complex and requires household panel survey data to clarify how access to financial services can drive productivity. Although the Global Findex does not include a",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "reasons, with multiple responses permitted).7 Additional individual-level characteristics include age, education level, and income quintile. Understanding the links between agricultural productivity and financial inclusion is complex and requires household panel survey data to clarify how access to financial services can drive productivity. Although the Global Findex does not include a broad set of socioeconomic variables beyond education and income, we can examine some interesting descriptive trends regarding correlates of financial access and participation among individuals in market-based agriculture across countries, as well as what types of financial services seem to be more strongly associated with productivity. For example, Figure 2.2 presents locally weighted regressions across the Findex countries, showing the trend in financial account ownership against agricultural value added per worker as a measure of agricultural productivity for all four rounds.8 Looking at Figure 2.2, we see that financial account ownership generally increased over the period, for different years, among countries with higher levels of agricultural productivity, and that the pace of this increase was faster over time (moving from 2011 to 2021, for example, with an exception for very high levels of agricultural productivity for 2017). Thus, in addition to the potential of financial services to raise agricultural productivity in the long run, higher productivity (which is also associated with better infrastructure and technology) can also accelerate participation in formal financial activity. 7 The Findex only covered constraints on having a financial account, not constraints on borrowing. 8 This indicator is obtained from the World Development Indicators; agriculture value added per worker is a measure of agricultural productivity. Value added in agriculture measures the output of the agricultural sector (ISIC divisions 1–5) less the value of intermediate inputs. Data are in constant 2010 United States dollars. Results were similar when looking at the change in financial account ownership against",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "added per worker is a measure of agricultural productivity. Value added in agriculture measures the output of the agricultural sector (ISIC divisions 1–5) less the value of intermediate inputs. Data are in constant 2010 United States dollars. Results were similar when looking at the change in financial account ownership against other correlates of agricultural productivity in the World Development Indicators, including average cereal yield (kilogram per hectare) and arable land (hectares per person). 45 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data Precisely untangling these relationships is ultimately a causal question addressed in the other country chapters in this book using household panel survey data with enough detail on household agricultural investments and access to and use of specific financial instruments. In this chapter, we focus on a descriptive analysis using the Global Findex’s rich data on financial services and dimensions of access; these data are comparable across countries and allow us to uncover likely channels affecting financial inclusion and investments in agriculture (focusing specifically on the 2014 round, which allows us to isolate individuals working in market-based agriculture). Among variables on income and employment, the Findex classifies individuals by income quintiles but does not explicitly ask about sectors of work, including agriculture. The 2011, 2014, and 2017 rounds include specific questions targeted toward individuals involved in agriculture—those engaged in any activity across crop/livestock farming, forestry, and/or fishing. In the 2011 round, the survey also includes a question regarding whether individuals paid for crop, rainfall, or livestock insurance in the past year (Demirguc-Kunt and Klapper 2012). Figure 2.2:\u0003 \u0007Country-Level Locally Weighted Regressions: Financial Account Ownership Against Agricultural Productivity, 2011–2021 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Share of adults 15+ with a financial account 15,000 20,000 0 5,000 10,000 2011 2014 2017 2021 Agricultural value added per worker (constant 2015 $) Note:",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the past year (Demirguc-Kunt and Klapper 2012). Figure 2.2:\u0003 \u0007Country-Level Locally Weighted Regressions: Financial Account Ownership Against Agricultural Productivity, 2011–2021 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Share of adults 15+ with a financial account 15,000 20,000 0 5,000 10,000 2011 2014 2017 2021 Agricultural value added per worker (constant 2015 $) Note: Locally weighted regressions (bandwidth = 0.8). Source: World Bank Global Findex data. Indicators on agriculture for these years obtained from the World Development Indicators. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 46 For those not engaged in agriculture, the agricultural insurance variable was coded as missing (nonresponses by agriculture-dependent individuals were coded as a fourth category).9 In the 2014 and 2017 rounds, the insurance question was no longer included, but the survey did include a question regarding whether individuals received payments for any agricultural products. This latter question fits better with the focus of our analysis here, namely on agriculturalists who are seeking to boost their incomes from agriculture through finance and resulting investments. The 2014 and 2017 rounds do not allow us to obtain estimates of agriculturalists working solely in own-use production; rather, we focus only those already involved in any production for sale (this could also include subsistence farmers who sell a small share of their agricultural products). When examining individual socioeconomic correlates of financial inclusion in market-based agriculture, we therefore focus on the more recently available 2017 round in order to avoid biases in comparisons across rounds. We do use both the 2014 and 2017 rounds in our country-level comparisons of changes in financial inclusion relative to aggregate country-level measures of dependence on agriculture (share of GDP in agriculture, for example). For the rest of the chapter, when we refer to individuals in agriculture, we mean those specifically engaged in market-based agriculture (farmers receiving agricultural payments",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in our country-level comparisons of changes in financial inclusion relative to aggregate country-level measures of dependence on agriculture (share of GDP in agriculture, for example). For the rest of the chapter, when we refer to individuals in agriculture, we mean those specifically engaged in market-based agriculture (farmers receiving agricultural payments for crops or livestock). Table 2.1 provides a breakdown of individual characteristics of gender, education, and income quintile available from the Findex. Since substantial variation exists across countries, we present summary statistics across regions as well. High‑income countries were excluded from the table since we focus on developing countries in this chapter. Table 2.1 shows that individuals in market-based agriculture in 2017 were often significantly more likely to be men (with more parity in East Asia and the Pacific [EAP], ECA and SSA), as well as more likely to have lower education and income levels. Regarding income, agriculturalists were also more likely to fall into the bottom income quintile. 9 In sum, the responses for the agricultural insurance question could be coded as yes, no, no response, or missing (the latter for those not economically dependent on agriculture). Given the limited extent of agricultural insurance programs, only 6% of households in agricultural activities reported purchasing insurance (this could be a function of limited supply as well as demand). 47 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data Table 2.1:\u0003 \u0007Descriptive Statistics for Individuals in Market‑Based Agriculture, 2017 Round East Asia and the Pacific (EAP) Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) Middle East and North Africa (MENA) South Asia (SAR) SubSaharan Africa (SSA) Female 0.45 0.44 0.34 0.24 0.42 0.45 [0.50] [0.50] [0.47] [0.43] [0.49] [0.50] Education Primary or lower 0.68 0.23 0.46 0.72 0.69 0.74 [0.47] [0.42] [0.50] [0.45] [0.46] [0.44] Secondary 0.27 0.66",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) Middle East and North Africa (MENA) South Asia (SAR) SubSaharan Africa (SSA) Female 0.45 0.44 0.34 0.24 0.42 0.45 [0.50] [0.50] [0.47] [0.43] [0.49] [0.50] Education Primary or lower 0.68 0.23 0.46 0.72 0.69 0.74 [0.47] [0.42] [0.50] [0.45] [0.46] [0.44] Secondary 0.27 0.66 0.45 0.23 0.29 0.24 [0.44] [0.48] [0.50] [0.42] [0.45] [0.42] Tertiary or higher 0.04 0.11 0.09 0.04 0.02 0.01 [0.20] [0.32] [0.29] [0.20] [0.15] [0.12] Income quintile Poorest 20% 0.26 0.22 0.21 0.26 0.21 0.18 [0.44] [0.41] [0.41] [0.44] [0.41] [0.39] Top 20% 0.14 0.16 0.20 0.15 0.18 0.18 [0.34] [0.37] [0.40] [0.36] [0.39] [0.38] Number of respondents in market-based agriculture 3,130 2,796 1,015 515 1,548 8,687 Share relative to total sample 0.23 0.13 0.06 0.04 0.18 0.26 Notes: 1. \u0007Statistics reflect shares of individuals reporting; standard deviations in brackets. Sampling weights used. 2. High-income countries are excluded from the table. In EAP, for example, 26% of individuals in market-based agriculture were in the lowest 20% of the income distribution, compared to 14% in the top 20%; this pattern was similar in ECA, the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), and South Asia (SAR). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 48 In the full sample for 2017, we also find that individuals involved in market-based agriculture reported feeling less likely to be able to come up with funds needed in an emergency and being less likely to access institutional financing in the event of an emergency. Within the full sample across countries, for example, only 25% of those in market-based agriculture said it was “very possible” for them to come up with emergency funds, compared to 31% of individuals not engaged in agriculture.10 Table 2.2 presents the different sources of funding that individuals in market-based agriculture who said",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "full sample across countries, for example, only 25% of those in market-based agriculture said it was “very possible” for them to come up with emergency funds, compared to 31% of individuals not engaged in agriculture.10 Table 2.2 presents the different sources of funding that individuals in market-based agriculture who said they could come up with funds to respond to emergencies might seek. The table examines responses by individual’s financial account ownership and income quintile, as well as by region. 10 Full sample results available on request. Table 2.2:\u0003 \u0007Source of Emergency Funds for Individuals in Market-Based Agriculture, by Whether They Own a Financial Account, 2017 Round East Asia and the Pacific Europe and Central Asia Latin America and the Caribbean No fin acct Fin acct No fin acct Fin acct No fin acct Fin acct Highest income quintile Savings 0.10*** 0.25*** 0.20** 0.31** 0.11*** 0.28*** Relatives/friends 0.18 0.16 0.44** 0.30** 0.20*** 0.07*** Money from working 0.59 0.51 0.26 0.28 0.48 0.50 Borrowing: bank, employer 0.02 0.03 0.01*** 0.08*** 0.05 0.06 Selling assets 0.09** 0.03** 0.05*** 0.01*** 0.10 0.06 Number of individuals 165 240 152 285 63 123 Lowest income quintile Savings 0.12 0.15 0.09*** 0.26*** 0.12 0.12 Relatives/friends 0.24 0.22 0.55 0.44 0.15 0.26 Money from working 0.48 0.36 0.15 0.20 0.45 0.48 Borrowing: bank, employer 0.04 0.09 0.06 0.03 0.09 0.00 Selling assets 0.09 0.13 0.13* 0.05* 0.13 0.14 Number of individuals 182 113 166 121 50 22 continued on next page 49 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data Table 2.2:\u0003 \u0007Continued Middle East and North Africa South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa No fin acct Fin acct No fin acct Fin acct No fin acct Fin acct Highest income quintile Savings 0.25 0.44 0.24** 0.34** 0.17*** 0.29*** Relatives/friends 0.48*** 0.09*** 0.50*** 0.30*** 0.21*** 0.15*** Money from working",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Global Findex Data Table 2.2:\u0003 \u0007Continued Middle East and North Africa South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa No fin acct Fin acct No fin acct Fin acct No fin acct Fin acct Highest income quintile Savings 0.25 0.44 0.24** 0.34** 0.17*** 0.29*** Relatives/friends 0.48*** 0.09*** 0.50*** 0.30*** 0.21*** 0.15*** Money from working 0.26** 0.41** 0.16 0.25 0.38 0.37 Borrowing: bank, employer 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.05 Selling assets 0.01 0.02 0.07 0.05 0.16*** 0.11*** Number of individuals 35 70 94 214 658 665 Lowest income quintile Savings 0.15 0.14 0.12* 0.21* 0.11*** 0.24*** Relatives/friends 0.55 0.41 0.45 0.45 0.24** 0.17** Money from working 0.20 0.45 0.33* 0.19* 0.33 0.22 Borrowing: bank, employer 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.13 0.03 0.06 Selling assets 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.21 0.24 Number of individuals 35 11 81 53 352 113 Notes: 1. Statistics reflect shares of individuals reporting. Sampling weights used. 2. \u0007T-tests of equality of means were conducted across the two groups within each region. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. 3. High-income countries are excluded from the table. 4. \u0007Sample sizes are for individuals in market agriculture in the specified income quintile who reported they would be able to secure funds in an emergency. This was a follow-up question in the Findex to determine the source of funds. 5. \u0007Additional sources of emergency funds asked by the survey included private lender, some other source, and “don’t know.” These collectively made up a very small share of responses. Controlling for income quintile, we find that individuals with a financial account were significantly more likely to rely on savings and less likely to rely on support from family and friends. While this was less likely for individuals in the lowest income quintile than for individuals in the highest income quintile, it was still much greater than",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "individuals with a financial account were significantly more likely to rely on savings and less likely to rely on support from family and friends. While this was less likely for individuals in the lowest income quintile than for individuals in the highest income quintile, it was still much greater than for those without an account at a financial institution. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 50 Receiving money from an employer also formed another potential source of emergency funds, although no systematic pattern appeared between this source and financial account ownership. Interestingly, very few individuals turned to borrowing from a financial institution in the event of an emergency. 2.5 \u0007Which Dimensions of Financial Inclusion Matter More for Individuals in Market‑Based Agriculture? Programs like the World Bank’s Universal Financial Access 2020 initiative have tried to expand global access to financial accounts, with the notion that these accounts can serve as a pathway to other financial services. As we discuss in this section, however, types of accounts and how those accounts are used can vary across individuals, particularly for those engaged in agriculture. By only focusing on individuals with an account with a financial institution, we would not be able to gain a complete measure of financial inclusion; thus, measurement of financial inclusion must be more broadly based to account for different financial products developed over time to improve financial services. Account ownership can take different forms, particularly in harder-to-reach areas. Table 2.3 presents summary statistics across different dimensions of financial inclusion for individuals in market-based agriculture—ownership of financial accounts,11 mobile money accounts,12 and saving, borrowing, and sending/receiving remittances across financial institutions and other sources. We also present summary statistics by region. Table 2.3 shows that the share of individuals in market-based agriculture with financial accounts in 2017 ranged from",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "financial inclusion for individuals in market-based agriculture—ownership of financial accounts,11 mobile money accounts,12 and saving, borrowing, and sending/receiving remittances across financial institutions and other sources. We also present summary statistics by region. Table 2.3 shows that the share of individuals in market-based agriculture with financial accounts in 2017 ranged from a low of 24% in SSA to a high of 51% in South Asia; overall, shares of account ownership among these individuals were significantly lower than compared to the total sample across countries.13 11 The Global Findex defines a financial account as an account at a bank or another type of financial institution, such as a credit union, cooperative, or microfinance institution. 12 The definition of a mobile money account in the Global Findex is limited to services that can be used without an account at a financial institution. In the data, this variable was constructed based on whether the individual had used a mobile phone to pay bills or to send or receive money in the last 12 months. 13 Results available upon request. 51 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data Use of mobile money accounts also varied substantially across regions in 2017. Access to infrastructure and lower levels of education and income are likely factors that pose constraints to formal account ownership in more agricultural economies; mobile banking thus presents one potential solution to these constraints. Table 2.3:\u0003 \u0007Share of Individuals in Market-Based Agriculture Engaging in Financial Activity, 2017 Round East Asia and the Pacific Europe and Central Asia Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa South Asia SubSaharan Africa Has a financial accounta 0.43 0.47 0.41 0.32 0.51 0.24 Has mobile money account (separate from a financial account)b 0.05 0.14 0.14 0.01 0.08 0.30 Used a mobile phone for any financial",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Europe and Central Asia Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa South Asia SubSaharan Africa Has a financial accounta 0.43 0.47 0.41 0.32 0.51 0.24 Has mobile money account (separate from a financial account)b 0.05 0.14 0.14 0.01 0.08 0.30 Used a mobile phone for any financial transactions (includes mobile money account holders) Full sample 0.17 0.24 0.26 0.07 0.14 0.39 Those without financial account 0.05 0.11 0.17 0.01 0.08 0.30 Has saved in last 12 months With a financial institution 0.21 0.17 0.19 0.17 0.21 0.13 Savings clubs 0.13 0.09 0.15 0.09 0.20 0.32 Borrowed in last 12 months Institutional finance 0.25 0.19 0.22 0.06 0.12 0.09 Informal sources 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.10 0.16 Sent/received domestic remittances in last 12 months In cash 0.13 0.17 0.12 0.19 0.15 0.16 Through financial institution 0.19 0.15 0.23 0.11 0.10 0.15 Through mobile phone 0.06 0.05 0.09 0.01 0.05 0.28 Through money transfer operator 0.06 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.02 0.04 Total respondents in market‑based agriculture 3,130 2,796 1,015 515 1,548 8,687 Notes: Statistics reflect shares of individuals reporting. High-income countries are excluded from the table. a \u0007Financial account = accounts at a bank or another type of financial institution, such as a credit union, cooperative, or microfinance institution. b \u0007The definition of a mobile money account in the Findex data is limited to services that can be used without an account at a financial institution. In the data this variable was constructed by whether the individual had used a mobile phone to pay bills or to send or receive money in the last 12 months. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 52 Interestingly, Table 2.3 also shows that a significant share of individuals in market-based agriculture did save and borrow money; we also found that savings",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "a mobile phone to pay bills or to send or receive money in the last 12 months. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 52 Interestingly, Table 2.3 also shows that a significant share of individuals in market-based agriculture did save and borrow money; we also found that savings and borrowing rates among this group often exceeded those in the rest of the population. Across countries in EAP, for example, 21% of individuals in market‑based agriculture saved with financial institutions (including microfinance institutions), while 32% in SSA saved with savings clubs. Around 22% and 25% of individuals across LAC and EAP, respectively, borrowed from financial institutions, and 16% from informal sources in SSA. These individuals also saved and borrowed across all different types of expenses (Table 2.4)—farm/business purposes and old age/medical expenses, for example. In particular, we found that saving and borrowing for farm/business purposes was much greater for individuals in market-based agriculture than for the total sample, underscoring the demand for financial services in the agricultural sector. A greater share of individuals engaged in market-based agriculture also sent and received domestic remittances, particularly cash remittances.14 For agricultural finance in particular, MFIs may provide a better channel through which to target smallholders. 14 Comparisons against the total sample available upon request. Table 2.4:\u0003 Purpose of Saving and Borrowing, 2017 Round East Asia and the Pacific Europe and Central Asia Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa South Asia SubSaharan Africa Saved in last 12 months for: Farm/business purposes 0.25 0.21 0.32 0.25 0.18 0.32 Old age 0.27 0.19 0.20 0.15 0.19 0.14 Borrowed in last 12 months for: Farm/business purposes 0.20 0.14 0.20 0.11 0.15 0.20 Medical expenses 0.13 0.14 0.18 0.12 0.18 0.24 Notes: Statistics reflect shares of individuals reporting. High-income countries are excluded from",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Farm/business purposes 0.25 0.21 0.32 0.25 0.18 0.32 Old age 0.27 0.19 0.20 0.15 0.19 0.14 Borrowed in last 12 months for: Farm/business purposes 0.20 0.14 0.20 0.11 0.15 0.20 Medical expenses 0.13 0.14 0.18 0.12 0.18 0.24 Notes: Statistics reflect shares of individuals reporting. High-income countries are excluded from the table. 53 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data Participation in financial activities, therefore, can vary widely by type of account ownership, borrowing, savings, and other dimensions. Having a financial account does appear to act as a gateway to other services that are typically linked to these accounts; in separate results, for example, we found that having a financial account was strongly positively associated with having a debit or credit card and formal savings. Among those who did not have a financial account, nearly none were engaged in these services. Figure 2.3 shows that the share of account holders who did not make monthly deposits or withdrawals from their account was also quite high, both for overall individuals in market-based agriculture and for those at the lower end of the income distribution. These shares were much lower for the sample not engaged in agriculture. While agriculturalists have cash flows that are much more seasonal, and hence deposits and withdrawals that are more irregular, the lack of transactional activity even on a monthly basis still highlights important gaps in our understanding of how financial accounts can better address smallholders’ needs—particularly given the significant activity observed earlier among agriculturalists in terms of savings, borrowing, and transfers. Some potential channels through which this understanding can be increased at the country level include a better examination of agriculturalists’ types of earnings, financial literacy, and motivation, as well as their access to formal institutions and markets. Figure 2.3:\u0003 \u0007Percent of Individuals with",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in terms of savings, borrowing, and transfers. Some potential channels through which this understanding can be increased at the country level include a better examination of agriculturalists’ types of earnings, financial literacy, and motivation, as well as their access to formal institutions and markets. Figure 2.3:\u0003 \u0007Percent of Individuals with a Financial Account Who Do Not Make Monthly Deposits/Withdrawals, by Income Quintile, 2017 Global Findex In Market-Based Agriculture (%) Not in Market-Based Agriculture (%) Poorest 20% Second 20% Middle 20% Fourth 20% Richest 20% No monthly deposits No monthly withdrawals 0 10 20 30 40 50 Poorest 20% Second 20% Fourth 20% Richest 20% No monthly deposits No monthly withdrawals 0 10 20 30 40 50 Middle 20% Source: 2017 Global Findex. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 54 Figure 2.4 presents the distribution of financial activities across individuals in market-based agriculture for the countries covered in this book (Bangladesh, India, Thailand, Viet Nam, Peru, Nicaragua, Ethiopia, and Uganda). Looking at Figure 2.4a, among those without a financial account, borrowing from financial institutions was also low (ranging from 5% to 15% of respondents, with the exception of Viet Nam at 35%, reflecting important cross-country differences). Among individuals in market-based agriculture with a financial account (Figure 2.4b), on the other hand, use of financial services across the board was substantially higher, albeit with variations across countries as well. Mobile banking activity was low across countries, for example, except in Uganda, reflecting different access issues and target groups across countries. In all countries, however, financial account ownership matters substantially for engagement in other types of financial services. Although we do not discuss weather-indexed insurance in detail in this chapter, these products form another financial instrument being explored in agricultural areas. The post-2011 rounds of the Findex did not include a",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "In all countries, however, financial account ownership matters substantially for engagement in other types of financial services. Although we do not discuss weather-indexed insurance in detail in this chapter, these products form another financial instrument being explored in agricultural areas. The post-2011 rounds of the Findex did not include a question regarding weather insurance, but the 2011 round showed that only about 5%–9% of individuals across regions reported purchasing crop/rainfall/livestock insurance.15 These shares were likely to be even lower among agriculturalists, since the 2011 round—unlike the 2014 round—did not include a specific question that identifies all individuals who work in the agricultural sector. 2.5.1 Financial Inclusion and Its Constraints Table 2.5 presents the reasons reported by individuals engaged in market-based agriculture for not owning a financial account in 2017 across different regions. Multiple responses were permitted. Lack of money was an overarching constraint to account ownership among individuals in market-based agriculture, as was geographical access (financial institutions located too far away). Across most regions, individuals in market-based agriculture were also somewhat more likely than the total sample to report a lack of documentation as another constraint; these individuals were also somewhat less likely to report that they had “no need” for a financial account (results for total sample available on request). 15 Across regions, the shares of individuals in 2011 who reported purchasing this type of insurance were 9.2% (EAP), 7.4% (ECA), 6.1% (LAC), 4.5% (MENA), 5.2% (SAR), and 8.4% (SSA). 55 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data Figure 2.4:\u0003 \u0007Percent of Individuals in Market-Based Agriculture Who Engage in Electronic/Mobile Banking, Saving, and Borrowing, 2017 Global Findex 2.4a: Without a Financial Account 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Informal savings Borrowing from financial institution Informal borrowing Credit/debit card Mobile banking Saving with",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Data Figure 2.4:\u0003 \u0007Percent of Individuals in Market-Based Agriculture Who Engage in Electronic/Mobile Banking, Saving, and Borrowing, 2017 Global Findex 2.4a: Without a Financial Account 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Informal savings Borrowing from financial institution Informal borrowing Credit/debit card Mobile banking Saving with financial institution 2.4b: With a Financial Account 0 10 Bangladesh India Thailand Viet Nam Peru Nicaragua Ethiopia Uganda 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Bangladesh India Thailand Viet Nam Peru Nicaragua Ethiopia Uganda Notes: 1. \u0007For the 2017 round, the share of individuals in market-based agriculture with a financial account was 39% in Bangladesh, 86% in India, 90% in Thailand, 19% in Viet Nam, 30% in Peru, 16% in Nicaragua, and 33% in Ethiopia and Uganda. 2. \u0007Financial institutions (e.g., for borrowing and saving) included microfinance groups. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 56 Table 2.5:\u0003 \u0007Reasons for Not Owning a Financial Account, for Individuals Involved in Market-Based Agriculture, 2017 Round (%) East Asia and the Pacific Europe and Central Asia Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa South Asia SubSaharan Africa Lack of money 73 56 61 71 69 78 Too far 33 23 36 20 32 33 Too expensive 24 28 53 29 26 31 Lack of documentation 27 20 23 6 15 29 Family member already has one 16 24 28 6 20 8 Lack of trust 12 26 34 19 18 16 Religious reasons 8 7 10 7 11 7 No need 36 44 34 31 29 16 Number of individuals without final account 1,816 1,456 592 317 719 6,384 Notes: 1. \u0007Statistics reflect shares of individuals reporting. 2. \u0007Financial account = accounts at a bank or another type of financial institution, such as a credit union, cooperative, or",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "7 No need 36 44 34 31 29 16 Number of individuals without final account 1,816 1,456 592 317 719 6,384 Notes: 1. \u0007Statistics reflect shares of individuals reporting. 2. \u0007Financial account = accounts at a bank or another type of financial institution, such as a credit union, cooperative, or microfinance institution. Adults using a mobile money account linked to their financial institution are considered to have an account at a financial institution. Although many individuals in market-based agriculture reported other reasons for not owning a financial account (including accounts being too expensive), these differences were not statistically significantly different from the rest of the sample. In the following analysis, we also examine the relative impacts of income and education on these constraints. 2.5.2 \u0007Econometric Analysis: Relative Effects of Education and Income on Financial Inclusion Understanding the correlation of socioeconomic characteristics with measures of financial inclusion is an important starting point for policy targeting. In this section, we examine socioeconomic correlates of financial account ownership, including whether respondents have savings or borrowing across institutional and informal sources and whether they sent/received remittances across different sources. 57 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data Although the Findex does not include a broad set of socioeconomic variables beyond education and income, we can examine some interesting links between the relative importance of education and income for different indicators of financial access and participation, as well as whether there are any constraints that individuals in and outside of market-based agriculture face regarding financial account ownership. Using probit regressions on the 2017 data, Table 2.6 presents correlations of socioeconomic and demographic variables from the Findex with different dimensions of financial activity, as discussed in Section 2.3. These dimensions include financial account ownership, credit/debit card use, mobile banking, and remittances, as well as",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "regarding financial account ownership. Using probit regressions on the 2017 data, Table 2.6 presents correlations of socioeconomic and demographic variables from the Findex with different dimensions of financial activity, as discussed in Section 2.3. These dimensions include financial account ownership, credit/debit card use, mobile banking, and remittances, as well as savings and borrowing from financial institutions (which, as discussed earlier, include microfinance institutions) and from less formal sources. In addition to examining the correlation with agricultural work, the regressions controlled on the right-hand side for age, gender, level of education (primary/ secondary/tertiary), income quintile, and region of residence. Whether the respondent worked in market-based agriculture was also interacted with these last three variables. Table 2.6 shows that market-based agriculturalists, consistent with the descriptive findings earlier, were significantly less likely to have a financial account, as well as a credit or debit card, controlling for other variables. Similar to trends observed in Table 2.3, Table 2.6 shows that sending remittances (whether cash or through a microfinance or more formal institution) was also significantly higher among market-based agriculturalists, as was institutional borrowing (mainly attributable to microfinance), borrowing from informal sources, and participation in informal savings clubs. In addition to the role of agriculture, education and income also matter for financial inclusion. As expected, Table 2.6 also shows a strong positive association between higher overall education and income overall and more formal financial activity. In terms of income, this correlation is strongest for those in the highest income quintiles. Looking at the interaction of agriculture with education, income, and region, we find that the strongest associations are in the latter—with greater mobile banking activity among agriculturalists in LAC and ECA, as well as greater remittance activity and savings with financial institutions within LAC and SAR, as well as greater borrowing from informal sources",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of agriculture with education, income, and region, we find that the strongest associations are in the latter—with greater mobile banking activity among agriculturalists in LAC and ECA, as well as greater remittance activity and savings with financial institutions within LAC and SAR, as well as greater borrowing from informal sources (and less borrowing from formal sources) in SAR. These geographic differences are highlighted further in the book across different countries, providing important local context for how policies can be designed going forward. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 58 Table 2.6:\u0003 Probit Regressions: Correlates of Financial Activity, 2017 Sent/Received Remittances: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Has financial account Has credit/ debit card Has mobile banking account Cash Financial Inst. Works in market‑based agriculture (agr) −0.235** −0.388*** 0.121 0.109** 0.235*** Female −0.169*** −0.181*** −0.142*** 0.008 −0.035* Age 0.010*** 0.006*** −0.007*** 0.000 −0.004*** Education: Primary or less −0.592*** −0.631*** −0.401*** −0.030 −0.419*** Tertiary or more 0.617*** 0.592*** 0.387*** −0.067** 0.248*** Income quintile: Poorest 20% −0.233*** −0.228*** −0.208*** −0.060** −0.156*** Second 20% −0.097*** −0.095*** −0.068*** −0.018 −0.083*** Fourth 20% 0.115*** 0.126*** 0.082*** 0.020 0.089*** Richest 20% 0.316*** 0.322*** 0.229*** 0.073*** 0.272*** Interactions with working in market-based agriculture (agr) agr.*primary education 0.078* 0.035 −0.091 0.115*** −0.059 agr.*tertiary education −0.016 0.018 −0.111 −0.028 0.077 agr.*poorest income quintile 0.111*** 0.074* 0.071 −0.038 −0.068 agr.*second 20% income quintile 0.049 0.037 0.051 0.027 −0.030 agr.*fourth 20% income quintile 0.032 −0.025 −0.005 0.048 0.016 agr.*highest 20% income quintile 0.081** 0.035 0.049 −0.005 0.063 Region dummies ECA −0.234 −0.146 −0.246 0.099 −0.422*** LAC −0.430* −0.403 −0.117 −0.192* −0.298** MENA −0.441* −0.511* −0.286 −0.006 −0.644*** SAR 0.058 −0.624* −0.134 −0.068 −0.628*** SSA −0.517** −0.657** 0.873*** −0.016 −0.067 ECA*agr 0.021 0.219* 0.503** 0.098 0.026 LAC*agr 0.261* 0.257* 0.438*** 0.119 0.310*** MENA*agr 0.206 0.293* −0.626* 0.222* 0.289 SAR*agr 0.238 0.210 0.220*",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "−0.146 −0.246 0.099 −0.422*** LAC −0.430* −0.403 −0.117 −0.192* −0.298** MENA −0.441* −0.511* −0.286 −0.006 −0.644*** SAR 0.058 −0.624* −0.134 −0.068 −0.628*** SSA −0.517** −0.657** 0.873*** −0.016 −0.067 ECA*agr 0.021 0.219* 0.503** 0.098 0.026 LAC*agr 0.261* 0.257* 0.438*** 0.119 0.310*** MENA*agr 0.206 0.293* −0.626* 0.222* 0.289 SAR*agr 0.238 0.210 0.220* 0.167** 0.236** SSA*agr 0.076 0.195 0.227* 0.109* −0.123 continued on next page 59 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data Table 2.6:\u0003 Continued Sent/Received Remittances: Savings: Borrowing: (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) Has mobile phone Has used MTO Financial Inst. Savings Club Financial Inst. Informal Sources Works in market-based agriculture (agr) 0.058 0.125 0.060 0.253*** 0.426*** 0.264*** Female −0.091*** −0.008 −0.100*** 0.171*** −0.054*** 0.167*** Age −0.007*** −0.002** 0.003*** −0.003*** 0.000 −0.002** Education: Primary or less −0.380*** −0.067 −0.431*** −0.126*** −0.244*** −0.072* Tertiary or more 0.213*** −0.014 0.439*** 0.011 0.279*** −0.034 Income quintile: Poorest 20% −0.187*** −0.120*** −0.285*** −0.183*** −0.113*** −0.138*** Second 20% −0.059** −0.050 −0.149*** −0.070*** −0.030 −0.036 Fourth 20% 0.117*** 0.021 0.126*** 0.084*** 0.053*** 0.093*** Richest 20% 0.256*** 0.078** 0.389*** 0.167*** 0.114*** 0.125*** Interactions with working in market-based agriculture (agr) agr.*primary education −0.073 −0.022 0.042 −0.016 0.076 −0.033 agr.*tertiary education 0.022 0.051 −0.054 −0.093 −0.007 −0.052 agr.*poorest income quintile 0.037 0.102 0.075 −0.018 0.024 −0.020 agr.*second 20% income quintile −0.053 0.059 0.057 −0.011 −0.026 −0.043 agr.*fourth 20% income quintile −0.074* 0.104* 0.043 0.029 0.061 0.030 agr.*highest 20% income quintile −0.035 0.076 0.021 −0.015 0.101** 0.002 Region dummies ECA −0.506** −0.497** −0.568*** −0.442*** −0.171 −0.484** LAC −0.328 −0.274 −0.483*** −0.139 −0.176 −0.085 MENA −1.335*** −0.424 −0.526*** −0.242 −0.364* −0.176 SAR −0.384 −0.576** −0.222 0.150 −0.339* 0.232 SSA 0.829*** −0.142 −0.333** 0.501*** −0.428*** 0.437** ECA*agr 0.305 0.111 0.159 0.251** −0.160 0.319*** LAC*agr 0.496*** −0.036 0.243** 0.171 0.015 0.095 MENA*agr 0.519** 0.250** 0.353*** 0.127 −0.565*** 0.003 SAR*agr 0.316 0.162",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "−0.274 −0.483*** −0.139 −0.176 −0.085 MENA −1.335*** −0.424 −0.526*** −0.242 −0.364* −0.176 SAR −0.384 −0.576** −0.222 0.150 −0.339* 0.232 SSA 0.829*** −0.142 −0.333** 0.501*** −0.428*** 0.437** ECA*agr 0.305 0.111 0.159 0.251** −0.160 0.319*** LAC*agr 0.496*** −0.036 0.243** 0.171 0.015 0.095 MENA*agr 0.519** 0.250** 0.353*** 0.127 −0.565*** 0.003 SAR*agr 0.316 0.162 0.224** 0.141 −0.129 0.136 SSA*agr 0.252* −0.143 0.033 0.174* −0.238** 0.224** ECA = Europe and Central Asia, LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean, MENA = Middle East and North Africa, MTO = money transfer operator, SAR = South Asia, SSA = sub-Saharan Africa. Notes: 1. \u0007Weighted probit estimates. Sample size (number of individuals): 111,001. Standard errors adjusted for clustering at the country level. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. High-income/Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries are not included in the sample. 2. \u0007Omitted category for education is secondary schooling. Omitted category for income quintile is the middle 20%. Omitted category for region is East Asia and the Pacific. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 60 Table 2.7:\u0003 \u0007Probit Regressions: Correlates of Reasons for Not Having a Financial Account, 2017 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Lack of Money Too Far Lack of Documentation Too Expensive Could not Get an Account Works in market-based agriculture (agr) 0.238** 0.113 0.063 0.052 −0.275*** Female 0.047*** −0.074*** −0.046** −0.074*** 0.114*** Age 0.002** −0.001 −0.011*** 0.002** −0.007*** Education: Primary or less 0.049 0.150*** 0.073** 0.025 −0.225*** Tertiary or more −0.058 −0.134*** −0.162*** −0.045 −0.045 Income quintile: Poorest 20% 0.054* 0.095*** 0.019 0.052*** −0.151*** Second 20% 0.051** −0.005 0.015 0.047** −0.047** Fourth 20% −0.074*** −0.106*** −0.023 −0.063*** 0.038 Richest 20% −0.199*** −0.162*** −0.026 −0.087*** 0.159*** Interactions with working in market-based agriculture (agr) agr.*primary education 0.012 −0.036 0.038 −0.064 0.072 agr.*tertiary education −0.122 0.308*** 0.284** 0.203** 0.018 agr.*poorest income quintile −0.091 0.018 −0.066 0.010",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "−0.151*** Second 20% 0.051** −0.005 0.015 0.047** −0.047** Fourth 20% −0.074*** −0.106*** −0.023 −0.063*** 0.038 Richest 20% −0.199*** −0.162*** −0.026 −0.087*** 0.159*** Interactions with working in market-based agriculture (agr) agr.*primary education 0.012 −0.036 0.038 −0.064 0.072 agr.*tertiary education −0.122 0.308*** 0.284** 0.203** 0.018 agr.*poorest income quintile −0.091 0.018 −0.066 0.010 −0.002 agr.*second 20% income quintile −0.068 0.102** −0.050 0.021 −0.020 agr.*fourth 20% income quintile 0.004 0.120*** −0.077** 0.055 −0.022 agr.*highest 20% income quintile −0.014 0.206*** −0.016 0.131*** 0.044 Region dummies ECA −0.364*** −0.349*** −0.219 0.171 −0.070 LAC −0.141 −0.010 −0.053 0.784*** −0.090 MENA 0.154 −0.618** −0.598*** 0.051 −0.499** SAR −0.073 −0.115 −0.256* 0.099 −0.021 SSA 0.161 −0.053 0.021 0.245 −0.596*** ECA*agr −0.030 0.127 0.072 −0.046 0.158* LAC*agr −0.137 0.117 −0.079 0.054 0.353*** MENA*agr −0.165 0.247 −0.390*** 0.091 −0.060 SAR*agr −0.011 0.100 −0.135 −0.020 0.114 SSA*agr 0.046 0.084 −0.034 0.036 0.131 continued on next page 61 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data Table 2.7:\u0003 Continued (6) (7) (8) (9) Family Already Has One Lack of Trust Religious Reasons No Need Works in market-based agriculture (agr) 0.008 0.143 0.058 0.238** Female −0.119*** −0.080*** −0.024 0.047*** Age 0.001 0.000 −0.001 0.002** Education: Primary or less −0.090** 0.149*** −0.115*** 0.049 Tertiary or more 0.037 0.014 0.014 −0.058 Income quintile: Poorest 20% −0.048* 0.052 −0.050* 0.054* Second 20% −0.020 0.009 −0.026 0.051** Fourth 20% −0.018 −0.040 0.021 −0.074*** Richest 20% 0.031 0.022 0.079*** −0.199*** Interactions with working in market-based agriculture (agr) agr.*primary education −0.029 −0.060 −0.026 0.012 agr.*tertiary education 0.008 0.134 0.102 −0.122 agr.*poorest income quintile 0.147*** 0.032 −0.022 −0.091 agr.*second 20% income quintile 0.130*** 0.060 0.079* −0.068 agr.*fourth 20% income quintile 0.020 0.050 0.055 0.004 agr.*highest 20% income quintile 0.035 0.173*** −0.018 −0.014 Region dummies ECA 0.496*** 0.002 0.244** −0.364*** LAC 0.638*** 0.142 −0.152 −0.141 MENA 0.169 0.202 −0.170 0.154 SAR",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "−0.122 agr.*poorest income quintile 0.147*** 0.032 −0.022 −0.091 agr.*second 20% income quintile 0.130*** 0.060 0.079* −0.068 agr.*fourth 20% income quintile 0.020 0.050 0.055 0.004 agr.*highest 20% income quintile 0.035 0.173*** −0.018 −0.014 Region dummies ECA 0.496*** 0.002 0.244** −0.364*** LAC 0.638*** 0.142 −0.152 −0.141 MENA 0.169 0.202 −0.170 0.154 SAR 0.271* 0.306* −0.141* −0.073 SSA 0.276** 0.105 −0.601*** 0.161 ECA*agr −0.051 −0.062 −0.097 −0.030 LAC*agr 0.047 −0.050 0.059 −0.137 MENA*agr 0.067 −0.206 −0.026 −0.165 SAR*agr −0.050 −0.129 −0.058 −0.011 SSA*agr −0.078 −0.171* −0.038 0.046 ECA = Europe and Central Asia, LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean, MENA = Middle East and North Africa, SAR = South Asia, SSA = sub-Saharan Africa. Notes: 1. \u0007Weighted probit estimates. Sample size (number of individuals without a financial account): 64,389. Standard errors adjusted for clustering at the country level. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. High-income/Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries are not included in the sample. 2. \u0007Omitted category for education is secondary schooling. Omitted category for income quintile is the middle 20%. Omitted category for region is East Asia and the Pacific. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 62 Table 2.7, which displays socioeconomic correlates of reasons for not owning a financial account (using similar probit regressions as those used in Table 2.6), also highlights the main constraints to account ownership for individuals in marketbased agriculture. Working in market-based agriculture overall was associated with a 24% greater probability of reporting that lack of money was a key factor, for example, as well as a similar probability of reporting that they did not actually need an account (looking at the income quintile estimates, this was more likely to be reported among poorer respondents as well). The overall effect of being in market-based agriculture was not significant for other reported",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "for example, as well as a similar probability of reporting that they did not actually need an account (looking at the income quintile estimates, this was more likely to be reported among poorer respondents as well). The overall effect of being in market-based agriculture was not significant for other reported constraints, even though Table 2.5 showed that a large share of market-based agriculturalists reported a lack of money and documentation as other main reasons for not owning an account. Interactions with education and income did matter, however. For example, agriculturalists with the highest levels of education and in the highest income quintile were significantly more likely to report geographic distance, lack of documentation, cost, and lack of trust as reasons for not having an account, whereas those at the lowest income quintiles were more likely to report that their family already had an account. As also seen with Tables 2.6 and 2.7, therefore, within market-based agriculture, financial activity and perceived constraints were associated most strongly with those in the highest income quintile or educational level. This is also an important policy issue to examine further within countries in order to understand how demand for financial products varies across the distribution of income. 2.6 \u0007Conclusion Given the policy interest in expanding financial services to agricultural households, policymakers need a better understanding of households’ constraints to owning financial accounts, as well as to participation in other financial activities (savings, borrowing, and remittances). Using the Global Findex, a large, individual-level, cross-country dataset with detailed measures of financial inclusion, we find that financial account ownership, especially the ability to conduct transactions through credit/debit cards, is strongly associated with country-level measures of agricultural productivity. Access to markets can also be eased with financial accounts that allow for cashless transactions. We also find that there is",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "detailed measures of financial inclusion, we find that financial account ownership, especially the ability to conduct transactions through credit/debit cards, is strongly associated with country-level measures of agricultural productivity. Access to markets can also be eased with financial accounts that allow for cashless transactions. We also find that there is demand for financial services among individuals in market-based agriculture; poorer and less educated individuals who receive agricultural incomes report a relatively high degree of savings and borrowing and are also much more likely to save and 63 Measuring Financial Inclusion for Agriculture Using Global Findex Data borrow for their farm/business. Using institutional data across regions, we see that MFI activity in agriculture is strongly positively associated with borrowing among market-based agriculturalists in the lowest income quintiles as well. However, regressions show that financial activity, particularly interactions with financial institutions, is concentrated among market-based agriculturalists with higher levels of education and income. The most important constraint to reported financial account ownership, controlling for other factors, is geographic distance; this constraint is felt significantly among more well-to-do agriculturalists. In order to meet the demand for financial services among individuals in market‑based agriculture, policymakers need to better understand how demand varies across the distribution of income, as well as to lighten constraints to financial account ownership. Mobile banking provides one option that has spread in several countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, to connect harder-to-reach areas; however, as the Findex data show, mobile banking still has a long way to go in terms of increasing coverage. The regression analysis also finds that while education and income are important across the entire sample of respondents, there is a significantly greater association between education and income and financial inclusion for agriculturalists, underscoring the lower access to financial institutions that exists within agriculture more broadly. Overall, the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "increasing coverage. The regression analysis also finds that while education and income are important across the entire sample of respondents, there is a significantly greater association between education and income and financial inclusion for agriculturalists, underscoring the lower access to financial institutions that exists within agriculture more broadly. Overall, the global data analysis in this chapter aims to help inform policymakers interested in cross-country evidence on constraints to financial inclusion in agriculture. While agricultural households face higher risks and fluctuations in income, this chapter shows that there is strong demand for financial services among these households and that education often plays a strong role in that demand. These are useful starting points for further analysis and policy efforts in this area. REFERENCES Demirguc-Kunt, A., and L. Klapper. 2012. Measuring Financial Inclusion: The Global Findex Database. Policy Research Working Paper 6025. Washington, DC: World Bank. Dercon, S., R. V. Hill, D. Clarke, I. Outes-Leon, and A. Seyoum Taffesse. 2014. Offering Rainfall Insurance to Informal Insurance Groups: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Ethiopia. Journal of Development Economics 106(C): 132–143. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 64 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2012. Smallholders and Family Farmers. Sustainability Pathways Fact Sheet. https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/nr/sustainability_pathways/ docs/Factsheet_SMALLHOLDERS.pdf. ———. 2016. Climate Change and Food Security: Risks and Responses. Rome: FAO. Giné, X., R. Townsend, and J. Vickery. 2008. Patterns of Rainfall Insurance Participation in Rural India. World Bank Economic Review 22(3): 539–566. International Labour Organization (ILO). 2019. Economic Diversification of the Rural Economy. Decent Work in the Rural Economy Policy Guidance Notes. Jessop, R., B. Diallo, M. Duursma, A. Mallek, J. Harms, and B. van Manen. 2012. Creating Access to Agricultural Finance: Based on a Horizontal Study of Cambodia, Mali, Senegal, Tanzania, Thailand and Tunisia. À Savoir 14, July. Paris: Agence",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Rural Economy. Decent Work in the Rural Economy Policy Guidance Notes. Jessop, R., B. Diallo, M. Duursma, A. Mallek, J. Harms, and B. van Manen. 2012. Creating Access to Agricultural Finance: Based on a Horizontal Study of Cambodia, Mali, Senegal, Tanzania, Thailand and Tunisia. À Savoir 14, July. Paris: Agence Française de Développement. Kikulwe, E. M., E. Fischer, and M. Qaim. 2014. Mobile Money, Smallholder Farmers, and Household Welfare in Kenya. PLoS One 9(10). McCullough, E. B. 2017. Labor Productivity and Employment Gaps in Sub‑Saharan Africa. Food Policy 67: 133–152. World Bank. n.d. Financial Inclusion Overview. http://www.worldbank.org/en/ topic/financialinclusion/overview#1. 65 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture Jonathan Haughton CHAPTER 3 3.1 Introduction Thailand’s agricultural sector accounts for just over 8% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and more than one-third of all employment (Figure 3.1a). The share of agriculture in GDP has hardly changed since 2015, although its growth has been volatile and poorly synchronized with the growth of overall GDP (Figure 3.1b). Thailand’s production of cereals, for instance, rose from 25 million tons in 1995 to more than 40 million tons in 2012 (Figure 3.1c), helping maintain the country’s position as the world’s largest exporter of rice, but production has fallen since then, and in 2021/2022 the country was only the third largest rice exporter, after India and Viet Nam; unlike Viet Nam and India, where rice yields per hectare have risen by about 40% since 2000, there has been almost no increase in rice yields in Thailand over the same period. Thailand is the world’s largest exporter of rubber and cassava, and it is a major exporter of sugar. In addition, a diverse selection of other crops contribute significantly to agricultural production, as does livestock; at the time of the 2013 agricultural census—the most recent",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in Thailand over the same period. Thailand is the world’s largest exporter of rubber and cassava, and it is a major exporter of sugar. In addition, a diverse selection of other crops contribute significantly to agricultural production, as does livestock; at the time of the 2013 agricultural census—the most recent available—farmers in Thailand had 251 million hens, 6.6 million pigs, and 3.7 million cattle. Thailand’s rising agricultural output (excluding rice) stems from increased productivity. After increasing substantially in the 1960s and 1970s, the amount of land devoted to agriculture reached a peak in 1991 and remains at essentially the same level today (Figure 3.1d). On the other hand, the amount of labor employed in agriculture has contracted sharply. In 1990, 60% of both male and of female workers were employed in agriculture; by 2019, the proportions had fallen to 34% for men and 28% for women (Figure 3.1e), although there appears to have been a temporary reversal of this trend in 2020/2021 as urban-to-rural migration took place as a result of the effects of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 66 Figure 3.1:\u0003 Evolution of the Agricultural Sector in Thailand, 1990–2021 0 a. Agricultural Value Added (% of GDP) 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 14 2 4 6 8 10 12 –40 b. Growth Rates: GDP and Agricultural Value Added 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 10 –10 GDP 0 –30 –20 0 c. Cereal Production (tons per annum) 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 50 10 20 30 40 0 d. Agricultural Land (% of land area) 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021 50 30 40 10 20 0 e. Agricultural Employment (% of total) 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 70 10 20 30 40",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 50 10 20 30 40 0 d. Agricultural Land (% of land area) 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021 50 30 40 10 20 0 e. Agricultural Employment (% of total) 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 70 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 f. Rural Population 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 80 30 40 50 60 70 10 20 0 g. Food Trade (% of total merchandise trade) 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 35 5 10 15 20 25 30 Agricultural value added Female % of total Male millions Exports Imports GDP = gross domestic product. Source: Data from World Bank (2017). 67 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture The secular decline in agricultural labor has been associated with a relative decline in the rural population, from 70% of the total population as recently as 2000 to 48% in 2021 (Figure 3.1f). Despite the decline in the rural population, Thai agriculture remains overwhelmingly dominated by small-scale family-owned farms (Table 3.1). Of the 5.9 million farm holdings enumerated in the 2013 agricultural census, 37% are smaller than 10 rai (1.6 hectares), 51% are between 1.6 and 6.4 hectares, and only 0.4% are larger than 22.4 hectares. These larger farms collectively account for just 6% of all agricultural land. Almost 87% of all farm area and more than 90% of all small farms are owned by their operators (or rented for free), although 40% of farmers lack secure land tenure rights (World Bank 2022). Four out of every five farmers report that all or most of their income comes from agriculture, although this proportion falls below 70% for those on farms smaller than one hectare. Table 3.1:\u0003 Agricultural Holdings, Income Source, and Debt Use by",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "farmers lack secure land tenure rights (World Bank 2022). Four out of every five farmers report that all or most of their income comes from agriculture, although this proportion falls below 70% for those on farms smaller than one hectare. Table 3.1:\u0003 Agricultural Holdings, Income Source, and Debt Use by Farm Size Size of Holding (rai)b Agricultural Holdingsa Area of Holdings Income Mainly from Agricultured (%) Agricultural Debt Number (million) Breakdown (%) Breakdown (%) Ownedc (%) Breakdown, Borrowers (%) Breakdown, Amount (%) Under 2 331 5.6 0.2 96.9 48 21 1.0 2–5 1,046 17.7 3.3 93.6 68 31 6.2 6–9 821 13.9 5.1 93.0 77 41 7.7 10–19 1,609 27.2 18.6 91.8 83 47 22.2 20–39 1,394 23.6 32.2 88.6 89 55 30.7 40–59 438 7.4 17.9 84.5 92 59 15.4 60–139 241 4.1 16.7 80.4 94 61 13.4 140– 25 0.4 4.6 76.2 94 52 3.3 Total 5,906 100.0 100.0 86.8 80 47 100.0 Notes: a Includes aquaculture (which comprises less than 1% of the total). b One rai is 1,600 square meters, or 0.16 of a hectare. 140 rai represent 22.4 hectares. c Includes owned and also rented with zero rental payment. d These households get all or most of their income from agriculture. Source: Agricultural Census, 2013. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 68 Given the reasonable vigor of much of the agricultural sector, it might appear at first glance that the financial system adequately supports Thailand’s agriculture. However, of the 5.9 million farmers counted in the agricultural census of 2013, only 47% had taken out agricultural loans (Table 3.1). Among farmers with less than 10 rai (1.6 hectares) of land, that proportion was just 29%. Thus, we need to ask whether these figures are unreasonably low, and if so, why. In addition, poverty in",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the agricultural census of 2013, only 47% had taken out agricultural loans (Table 3.1). Among farmers with less than 10 rai (1.6 hectares) of land, that proportion was just 29%. Thus, we need to ask whether these figures are unreasonably low, and if so, why. In addition, poverty in Thailand remains a predominantly rural challenge (Wuttisorn 2014). In 2020, 8.8% of rural residents were considered to be poor, compared to 5.4% of urban residents, using the national poverty line. Rural poor people work mainly in agriculture and are not well positioned to take advantage of employment opportunities in other parts of the economy. Thus, we need to ask whether better access to agricultural finance could significantly improve the economic position of rural poor people. Finally, the government plays an active role in Thailand’s agricultural sector— for instance, supporting rubber farmers when rubber prices collapsed after 2011, setting and maintaining (unsustainably) high prices for rice in 2012, and funding irrigation projects. Thus, the government constitutes a significant source of finance for agriculture that requires examination. This chapter is organized as follows. First we determine whether farmers have at least some access to Thailand’s financial system. We then summarize the main components of the financial system as it pertains to farmers, paying particular attention to the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC), which dominates the agricultural sector, and the Thailand Village and Urban Community Fund (TVF or “Village Fund”), which reaches one-third of farm households. Next, we examine the impact that greater access to credit can have on farm incomes and production. After analyzing the financial system, we turn to the role played by government in providing financial support for agriculture. The final section of the chapter summarizes our findings and suggests some possible directions for policymaking. 69 Thailand: Mature",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "that greater access to credit can have on farm incomes and production. After analyzing the financial system, we turn to the role played by government in providing financial support for agriculture. The final section of the chapter summarizes our findings and suggests some possible directions for policymaking. 69 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture 3.2 Are Farmers Banked? To determine whether farmers have access to the financial system in Thailand, we utilize data collected in 2014 and 2021 by the Gallup Organization for the Global Financial Inclusion database project, the Global Findex (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015). The Thai data for each year come from interviews with 1,000 individuals aged 15 years or older, chosen to be representative (after the use of sampling weights) of the population at large. The survey did not identify farmers per se, but it did ask whether the respondent “received agricultural payments in the last 12 months;” a weighted total of 12.5% responded affirmatively in 2021. This is lower than the 30% of the labor force that works in the agricultural sector (Figure 3.1e), although part of that labor force may not receive “agricultural payments” if they are laborers, or they may produce solely for home consumption. Nonetheless, we refer to these respondents as “farmers” in the rest of this section. The survey data also allow us to separate respondents into quintiles based on household income. The surveys show that 99.7% of farmers and 95.6% of nonfarmers had a bank account in 2021, up from 87.4% and 72.7% respectively, in 2014 (Table 3.2). Thus, the banking sector has achieved almost universal coverage. The Findex data show that 55% of farmers and 56% of nonfarmers borrowed in 2021. For farmers, the figure was essentially unchanged from 2014. Only farmers in the richest quintile had",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "up from 87.4% and 72.7% respectively, in 2014 (Table 3.2). Thus, the banking sector has achieved almost universal coverage. The Findex data show that 55% of farmers and 56% of nonfarmers borrowed in 2021. For farmers, the figure was essentially unchanged from 2014. Only farmers in the richest quintile had borrowing rates substantially below this level, presumably because they had less need to borrow. Almost two-thirds of households reported having financial savings, although the rate was significantly lower for households in the bottom quintile. The Findex questionnaire in 2014 (but not 2021) asked about the purpose of the borrowing. An estimated 18% of farmers and 10% of nonfarmers reported borrowing for “farm/business purposes.” These numbers may seem low, given that the agricultural census found that 47% of farmers had “agricultural debt.” However, if “agricultural debt” refers to all types of debt, then this is consistent with the Findex finding that just over half of farmers were borrowers. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 70 Table 3.2:\u0003 Indicators of Financial Inclusion from Findex Survey, 2021 Farmers Nonfarmers Income Quintile Have an Account (%) Borrow (%) Save (%) N Have an Account (%) Borrow (%) Save (%) N 1. Poorest 100.0 59.8 37.4 18 95.0 49.3 40.4 100 2. 100.0 37.7 66.9 17 99.4 58.4 59.0 114 3. Middle 100.0 65.3 75.1 24 94.8 51.6 74.6 159 4. 100.0 40.4 71.4 31 99.5 58.0 79.5 251 5. Richest 97.5 83.9 94.2 26 89.3 63.7 84.6 272 Total for 2021 99.7 55.4 64.5 116 95.6 56.3 67.8 896 Total for 2014 87.4 55.5 86.0 356 72.7 47.3 77.4 644 N = number of observations. Notes: “Farmers” are defined as those who “received agricultural payments in the past 12 months” and consist of 12.5% of the (weighted) sample, which collected information from",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "55.4 64.5 116 95.6 56.3 67.8 896 Total for 2014 87.4 55.5 86.0 356 72.7 47.3 77.4 644 N = number of observations. Notes: “Farmers” are defined as those who “received agricultural payments in the past 12 months” and consist of 12.5% of the (weighted) sample, which collected information from 1,017 individuals aged 15 and above. Source: Findex surveys for Thailand, 2021 and 2014. The Findex data come from a comparatively small sample and are based on straightforward questions, but they do point to several conclusions. First, the majority of farmers appear to have enough contact with the financial system to open an account if they so choose; thus, financial inclusion extends to almost all farmers. Second, despite the government’s push for a cashless society, most farmer transactions are still in cash, although the use of mobile money is rising rapidly. These conclusions should not come as a surprise. A study by the Bank of Thailand based on survey data from 2006 found that at that time, only 9.6% of households did not use any financial services and just 4.4% lacked access to savings products (Ariyapruchya, Sinswat, and Chutchotitham 2008). The main concern of that report was not financial exclusion per se, but rather the problem of inadequate financial literacy, a concern that has been echoed more recently by a study of farmer finance by Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote (2022). 71 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture A third conclusion the Findex data point to is that it remains unclear whether poor farmers are underserved by the financial system. Poor farmers’ borrowing rates, whether solely for agricultural purposes or overall, are comparable to those of better-off farmers (Table 3.2). On the other hand, borrowing rates remain low among the smallest farmers (Table 3.1). Moreover, simply knowing whether",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "it remains unclear whether poor farmers are underserved by the financial system. Poor farmers’ borrowing rates, whether solely for agricultural purposes or overall, are comparable to those of better-off farmers (Table 3.2). On the other hand, borrowing rates remain low among the smallest farmers (Table 3.1). Moreover, simply knowing whether an individual borrowed does not allow us to adequately measure the potential unmet need for credit or the sources and terms of that credit. Before examining this issue in more detail, we first need to summarize the main features of Thailand’s financial system as it relates to the agricultural sector. 3.3 The System of Agricultural Finance In this section, we examine the nature and extent of lending to farmers over time. Some of the most useful data come from the agricultural censuses of 1993, 2003, and 2013, as well as from the intercensal survey of 1998 (Table 3.3). Although the number of farm holdings rose between 1993 and 2013, we have seen elsewhere that the number of people in Thailand who rely on farming has steadily fallen; this implies that fewer people derive their living from farming, even if they are part of a land-using household. The proportion of farmers who had “agricultural debt” rose from 43% in 1993 to 55% in 2003 and then fell to 47% in 2013. The high proportion in 1998 (49%) may reflect farmers’ need to borrow in the wake of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, which originated in Thailand. The even higher proportion seen in 2003 (55%) quite likely shows the effect of the introduction of the Village Fund, which became operational in 2002 and injected a million baht into almost every one of Thailand’s more than 70,000 villages and urban wards in order to support rotating credit funds. The most striking feature of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in 2003 (55%) quite likely shows the effect of the introduction of the Village Fund, which became operational in 2002 and injected a million baht into almost every one of Thailand’s more than 70,000 villages and urban wards in order to support rotating credit funds. The most striking feature of the debt data is the overwhelming importance of the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, which provided half of all agricultural credit in 1993 and over seven tenths of all agricultural credit in 2013. The appearance of the Village Fund interrupted the rising market share of BAAC for a while, but overall, BAAC has reduced the market share of informal money lenders (from 17% of credit in 1993 to just 3% in 2013), as well as other banks and financial institutions. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 72 Table 3.3:\u0003 Sources of Agricultural Credit, 1993–2013 1993 1998 2003 2013 Total number of farm holdings (million) 5,643 5,577 5,808 5,906 of which Have agricultural debt/loans (%) 42.8 49.4 55.1 46.9 Value of agricultural debt (million baht) 93,603 153,889 215,199 314,940 of which, from BAAC 50.6 67.1 57.9 71.5 Other banks/financial institutions 23.5 11.4 9.9 6.0 Cooperatives and farmer groups 9.4 9.5 9.4 9.4 Village Fund 0.0 0.0 12.3 8.9 Other government agencies 0.0 2.0 1.6 1.2 Middlemen 3.9 1.6 1.6 0.7 Money lenders 5.3 3.1 3.3 1.0 Relatives/Neighbors/Others 7.3 5.3 4.0 1.2 Mean value per loan (baht) 191,639 286,823 328,171 n.a. Mean borrowing per household (baht) 77,008 129,131 163,159 117,449 BAAC = Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives. Sources: Agricultural Census of 1993, 2003, and 2013; Intercensal Survey of 1998. National Statistics Office. In 2013, agricultural value added came to B1,470 billion ($43.2 billion). If physical inputs are equivalent to two-fifths of value added, as suggested later in the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "117,449 BAAC = Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives. Sources: Agricultural Census of 1993, 2003, and 2013; Intercensal Survey of 1998. National Statistics Office. In 2013, agricultural value added came to B1,470 billion ($43.2 billion). If physical inputs are equivalent to two-fifths of value added, as suggested later in the chapter by the numbers in the final row of Table 3.12, this represents B588 billion. According to the agricultural census, total agricultural debt came to B315 billion, or about half of the value of agricultural inputs. Of this total, B225 billion was debt contracted with BAAC and represented just two-thirds of new loans extended by BAAC in 2013. Independently, information on farm credit is available from the socioeconomic surveys undertaken by the National Statistics Office. This source allows us to link credit use to other household sociodemographic characteristics, as well as to information regarding households’ geographic location. Table 3.4 provides information for agricultural households only. 73 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture Table 3.4:\u0003 \u0007Sources and Amounts of Loans for Agricultural Households, 2002–2013 2002 2004 2007 2009 2013 Source of main loan for agricultural use (%) Commercial banks 1.9 2.5 2.0 2.0 3.1 BAAC 47.9 46.1 49.9 50.0 49.2 Government agencies 0.3 1.3 1.9 1.9 2.1 Other financial institutions 21.8 6.1 8.6 11.1 11.0 Co-ops/welfare organizations 4.4 3.6 5.4 5.2 3.0 Village Fund 10.7 28.0 24.7 23.4 29.2 Outsiders 12.8 12.5 7.4 6.4 2.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 % of households with debt 78.7 74.3 78.6 75.8 72.1 Source of main loan, all uses (%) Commercial banks 6.8 7.0 5.6 5.7 9.3 BAAC 31.5 30.9 32.4 32.2 30.8 Government agencies 2.5 5.1 4.9 6.1 7.0 Other financial institutions 21.9 10.0 17.3 19.2 19.6 Co-ops/welfare organizations 8.5 7.2 7.7 7.5 4.5 Village Fund 9.5 22.9 21.0",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "78.6 75.8 72.1 Source of main loan, all uses (%) Commercial banks 6.8 7.0 5.6 5.7 9.3 BAAC 31.5 30.9 32.4 32.2 30.8 Government agencies 2.5 5.1 4.9 6.1 7.0 Other financial institutions 21.9 10.0 17.3 19.2 19.6 Co-ops/welfare organizations 8.5 7.2 7.7 7.5 4.5 Village Fund 9.5 22.9 21.0 19.3 23.6 Outsiders 19.0 16.9 11.2 10.1 5.2 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source of secondary loan for agriculture (%) Commercial banks 1.1 0.5 1.1 1.5 1.3 BAAC 5.1 5.7 7.7 7.2 8.0 Government agencies 0.7 1.6 1.4 1.3 2.3 Other financial institutions 40.9 9.9 9.1 9.5 10.6 Co-ops/welfare organizations 3.9 4.3 3.3 3.0 2.4 Village Fund 21.9 57.1 66.3 67.2 70.8 Outsiders 25.9 20.9 11.1 10.2 4.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 % of borrowers with secondary agricultural loan 38.3 53.3 53.2 52.3 45.4 continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 74 Table 3.4:\u0003 \u0007Continued 2002 2004 2007 2009 2013 Size of agricultural debt, by source of main loan (baht) Commercial banks 240,192 1,148,181 522,112 586,190 476,509 BAAC 73,027 102,067 117,393 130,151 196,191 Government agencies 222,208 158,879 443,938 509,490 929,062 Other financial institutions 29,001 74,311 178,374 181,561 283,132 Co-ops/welfare organizations 196,300 126,740 250,554 393,448 552,193 Village Fund 25,252 27,212 23,317 23,894 45,420 Outsiders 32,870 52,502 76,258 98,049 102,265 Overall 62,161 100,684 117,992 138,914 193,714 Size of agricultural debt, if only one loan (baht) Commercial banks 164,140 3,444,024 551,207 666,439 319,409 BAAC 58,653 68,726 85,446 96,513 151,238 Government agencies 232,907 78,029 343,717 330,983 340,640 Other financial institutions 24,630 46,949 106,178 124,898 194,635 Co-ops/welfare organizations 80,972 90,920 219,017 281,633 433,476 Village Fund 14,266 14,949 17,361 17,073 38,015 Outsiders 26,122 34,801 38,700 46,035 74,073 Overall 40,275 92,628 70,477 82,264 111,214 Agricultural loans as % of all loans (by value) 13.3 15.1 15.2 14.2 13.5 BAAC",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "340,640 Other financial institutions 24,630 46,949 106,178 124,898 194,635 Co-ops/welfare organizations 80,972 90,920 219,017 281,633 433,476 Village Fund 14,266 14,949 17,361 17,073 38,015 Outsiders 26,122 34,801 38,700 46,035 74,073 Overall 40,275 92,628 70,477 82,264 111,214 Agricultural loans as % of all loans (by value) 13.3 15.1 15.2 14.2 13.5 BAAC = Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives. Sources: From socioeconomic surveys of 2002, 2004, 2007, 2009, and 2013. About three‑quarters of agricultural households borrow in a given year; this is about 12 percentage points higher than that of the population as a whole. Nationwide, about 14% of all credit given to all households goes to agricultural purposes (see bottom line of Table 3.4); this is somewhat higher than the agricultural share of GDP and reflects the importance of credit in the agricultural sector. 75 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture As borrowed funds are fungible, the bottom half of Table 3.4 shows the sources of all main loans held by agricultural households, rather than only those taken out ostensibly for agricultural purposes. BAAC and the Village Fund play relatively smaller roles in this case. BAAC in particular appears strongly oriented toward providing credit specifically to farmers who plan to use the funds for agricultural purposes. Approximately half of all borrowing farmers have more than one loan; about 70% of these secondary loans come from the Village Fund. The Village Fund provides subsidized credit in modest amounts to a large proportion of households and is typically the cheapest source of credit; however, loans from the Village Fund are rarely enough on their own, which explains the widespread borrowing from multiple sources. Village Fund loans, at B38,000 per household on average in 2013 (bottom panel of Table 3.4), are much smaller than the average BAAC loan of B151,000 in",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "source of credit; however, loans from the Village Fund are rarely enough on their own, which explains the widespread borrowing from multiple sources. Village Fund loans, at B38,000 per household on average in 2013 (bottom panel of Table 3.4), are much smaller than the average BAAC loan of B151,000 in the same year. The Socioeconomic Surveys did not collect full details on the amounts borrowed from each source or the associated interest rates. 3.4 The Financial Needs of Farmers Almost half of the Thai population lives in rural areas, and just over a third of this rural population (35%) relies entirely on farming, with a further 12% combining farming with other sources of earnings (Table 3.5). An estimated 11% of the “farming only” households lived in poverty in 2019—using the official poverty line—well above the national average of 6% but substantially lower than the 27% poverty rate observed in 2011. The reduction in farmer poverty occurred despite a 14% drop in net farm profit over this period—it now accounts for 15% of rural income—with the gap filled by higher levels of remittances, social assistance, and “other” income, including in-kind income and pensions (Table 3.6). The diversity of income sources is striking and suggests that future focus should be on rural or poor households rather than farmers per se. Agricultural households turn to the financial system for a number of distinct services in order to manage liquidity, build wealth, and cope with shocks (Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote 2022). They need: (i) A cheap, simple, and secure payments system. Most agricultural households still use cash for the bulk of their transactions, although this is changing fairly quickly. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 76 (ii) A safe vehicle for savings, both in the short and longer term. An estimated 65%",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "A cheap, simple, and secure payments system. Most agricultural households still use cash for the bulk of their transactions, although this is changing fairly quickly. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 76 (ii) A safe vehicle for savings, both in the short and longer term. An estimated 65% of agricultural households added to their financial savings in 2021 (Table 3.2), but most assets are held in tangible form (e.g., livestock) or cash. (iii) Credit. There are three conceptually distinct needs here. To cover the gap between paying for inputs and selling the harvest, farmers need short-term working capital. The farm household may also need access to credit to help smooth consumption spending. And many farmers would benefit from longer-term credit in order to finance major investments, such as irrigation, or purchases of larger equipment. (iv) Insurance against shocks, such as a poor harvest or low prices for their products. Table 3.6:\u0003 Sources of Income for Rural Households, 2021 % of All Income Net profit from farming 15 Wages and salaries 31 Net profit from nonfarm business 11 Remittances 8 Social assistance 12 Other (including pensions, financial income) 23 Source: World Bank (2022), Figure 10. Table 3.5:\u0003 Income and Poverty for Rural Households, 2011 and 2019 % of Rural Population Headcount Poverty Rate Average Annual Income, $ 2011 2019 2011 2019 Household Category Farming only 35 27 11 5,500 5,200 Diversified 12 18 9 9,700 10,100 Nonfarm only 40 13 6 8,000 9,000 No working members 14 ... 10 ... ... All rural households 100 ... ... 6,400 6,700 Notes: Poverty rate is based on official poverty line. Incomes are in United States dollars in 2011 constant prices, computed using the Bank of Thailand official exchange rate. Sources: Socioeconomic Surveys of 2011 and 2019, as reported by World Bank",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "... ... All rural households 100 ... ... 6,400 6,700 Notes: Poverty rate is based on official poverty line. Incomes are in United States dollars in 2011 constant prices, computed using the Bank of Thailand official exchange rate. Sources: Socioeconomic Surveys of 2011 and 2019, as reported by World Bank (2022). 77 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture In what follows, we will mainly discuss credit, or what Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote (2022) call “the main tool for financial management” by farm households, but will also pay some attention to the other components of financial services for farmers. A key characteristic of agricultural income is its variability, both from month to month and year to year. Given the cycles of crop planting and harvesting, and the lumpiness of sales, farmers have high expenses in some months and high revenues in others, in ways that vary from crop to crop and region to region within Thailand. This variability may be seen in Figure 3.2, which shows the monthly revenue and expenses of farm households in northeast Thailand, based on the Farmer Household Financial Behavior Survey of 2019–2020, which surveyed 720 farm households nationwide (Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote 2022). Figure 3.2:\u0003 \u0007Farmer Revenue and Spending, Northeast Thailand, 2019–2020 –40,000 –30,000 –20,000 –10,000 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Baht Agriculture income Agriculture expenses Wages/salaries Other spending Other income Net Consumption Source: Based on Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote (2022), based on Farmer Household Financial Behavior Survey. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 78 Similar, if sometimes more marked, profiles may be seen in the country’s other regions. In some months (April, May), revenues do not cover expenses, while in others (November, December), they are",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Chawanote (2022), based on Farmer Household Financial Behavior Survey. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 78 Similar, if sometimes more marked, profiles may be seen in the country’s other regions. In some months (April, May), revenues do not cover expenses, while in others (November, December), they are ample. Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote report that only 15% of households had no liquidity problems in the course of the year (the “better off”), while 18% never had enough in any month to cover their expenses (the “insufficient”) and so became increasingly indebted. The remaining 67% (the “unstable/illiquid”) faced liquidity constraints in some months, and most did not have enough income to pay off their outstanding debt. Based on a large database of one million randomly chosen farm households who borrowed from BAAC, linked with farm registration data, over the period 2014–2021, Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote (2022) report that 17% of farm households have debt to asset ratios and debt to income ratios in excess of one (Table 3.7). Table 3.7:\u0003 \u0007Indebtedness Among Farm Borrowers from the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, 2021 Debt/Asset Ratio ≤1 >1 Debt/income ratio ≤1 43 17 >1 24 17 Source: Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote (2022), based on a sample of one million farmer borrowers from the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives. Based on their survey data, Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote (2022) estimate that 90% of Thai farm households have debt, which averaged B450,000 (about $12,000) in 2021. The single most important source of loans is BAAC, the specialized financial institution that lends to 65% of farm households. Other important sources of (smaller) loans are the Village Fund (65% of households), informal sources (31%), hire purchase agreements (28%), and savings cooperatives (28%). A majority of borrowers have loans from multiple sources. This borrowing",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of loans is BAAC, the specialized financial institution that lends to 65% of farm households. Other important sources of (smaller) loans are the Village Fund (65% of households), informal sources (31%), hire purchase agreements (28%), and savings cooperatives (28%). A majority of borrowers have loans from multiple sources. This borrowing practice is an adaptation to the inflexible nature of many loans, leaving households with short-term liquidity needs from time to time. 79 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture When households have more debt than they can manage, they may need to choose which of their loans to repay first. Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote develop a model of the probability of loan delinquency as a function of household characteristics. They find that households are least likely to be delinquent on Village Fund or informal loans, and they are most likely to be delinquent on loans from savings cooperatives. Figure 3.3, based on Figure 13b in Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote (2022), summarizes the drivers of the perceived cost of default. Interlinkages (in the form of business relationships) are important for informal loans; dynamic incentives (that link the ability to borrow anew to repayment of current loans) are central to the Village Fund loans; and collateral is important for bank loans. In this context, it is worth noting that about 40% of Thai farmers “lack secure land tenure with full land-use rights” (World Bank 2022: 5), which limits the collateral that they can offer. Co-ops BAAC/SFIs Banks NFIs Village Fund Informal Collateral Dynamic incentives Debt collector Joint liability Commitment devices Social monitoring Interlinkage Figure 3.3:\u0003 \u0007Perceived Cost of Default for Different Loan Sources and Enforcement Mechanisms, 2020 BAAC = Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, NFI = nonbank financial institution, SFI = specialized financial institution. Notes: Perceived cost of default",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Informal Collateral Dynamic incentives Debt collector Joint liability Commitment devices Social monitoring Interlinkage Figure 3.3:\u0003 \u0007Perceived Cost of Default for Different Loan Sources and Enforcement Mechanisms, 2020 BAAC = Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, NFI = nonbank financial institution, SFI = specialized financial institution. Notes: Perceived cost of default is strongest in the red cells and less strong in the yellow cells. Village Fund column includes savings groups. Source: Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote (2022) based on focus group discussion with farmers. Delinquency or default is high for joint-liability loans, ranging from 14% in the northeast to 24% in the central region. This may seem surprising, because joint liability was seen as one of the key innovations of the microcredit revolution. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 80 Chantarat, Ratanavararak, and Chawanote model the default rate on joint liability loans and find it rises if a higher proportion of the borrowing group is landless or if age differences within the group are large, but it is lower if most members come from the same village or have similar incomes. Many of the joint-liability loans are issued by BAAC, which had a nonperforming loan rate of 12.5% as of late 2022 (Ajanapanya 2022). 3.4.1 Are Farmers Credit-Constrained? Agricultural households in most of Thailand appear to have access to a variety of potential lenders. BAAC reaches almost all villages and farmers, leading Jessop et al. (2012: 11) to conclude that “unlike most developing countries, smallholder farmers in Thailand have adequate access to credit.” However, not all observers agree. Drawing on a survey of almost 2,200 households in the northeast region undertaken between May 2006 and April 2007, Menkhoff and Rungruxsirivorn (2011) find that 9.6% of households were credit-constrained, meaning that they had either applied for a loan and been rejected",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "access to credit.” However, not all observers agree. Drawing on a survey of almost 2,200 households in the northeast region undertaken between May 2006 and April 2007, Menkhoff and Rungruxsirivorn (2011) find that 9.6% of households were credit-constrained, meaning that they had either applied for a loan and been rejected or were not able to obtain the full amount of credit that they requested. These authors estimate that the establishment of the Village Fund reduced the proportion of credit-constrained households by about 3 percentage points. The 2013 round of the Thailand Socioeconomic Survey asked respondents whether they could borrow money for operating a business or farm; 63% of respondents said they could, 22% said they could but chose not to, 10% said they could borrow some of what they wanted, and 5% said they could not borrow at all (Table 3.8). While at first glance, these data would appear to provide clear evidence of credit rationing, the results are in fact more difficult to interpret. Table 3.8 shows that among respondents who said they could not borrow for the business of agriculture, half did actually have debt and almost one-third had “agricultural debt,” meaning that they had borrowed for an agricultural purpose. The levels and sources of income and assets of “can’t borrow” households were relatively similar to those of households that either would not borrow or could only borrow part of what they wanted. Thus, without more detailed information, it is difficult to tell whether those who would like to borrow more are truly credit‑constrained by the financial system or whether they have simply reached the limit of what a lender would reasonably choose to lend. 81 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture Over 30 years ago, Siamwalla et al. (1990) undertook a survey of lenders",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to borrow more are truly credit‑constrained by the financial system or whether they have simply reached the limit of what a lender would reasonably choose to lend. 81 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture Over 30 years ago, Siamwalla et al. (1990) undertook a survey of lenders and borrowers in Nakhon Ratchasima province in Thailand’s northeast region. At the time, only about half of farm credit came from formal institutions, and informal lenders were “very thick on the ground” (Siamwalla et al. 1990: 277). However, the authors observe that a typical villager, although they had access to between three and five informal lenders, usually borrowed from only one informal lender and maintained a relationship with that lender over many years, despite relatively high interest rates. Siamwalla et al. argue that “funds are not the constraining factor” (p. 290)—meaning that there was no rationing in the Stiglitz‑Weiss sense—but that informal lenders had some monopoly power: the high cost involved in acquiring information about a borrower’s creditworthiness served as a barrier to entry. Yet by 2013, only 3% of farm credit came from informal lenders. How did this transformation occur? Table 3.8:\u0003 \u0007Characteristics of Farmers Who Can and Cannot Borrow More for Business Purposes in 2013 Can or would the household borrow for business or agriculture? Yes Won’t Partially No Has debt (%) 86.6 31.3 79.8 52.2 Amount of debt (baht) 175,508 57,070 122,768 84,380 Has agricultural debt (%) 57.4 12.7 48.2 32.1 Amount of agricultural debt (baht) 65,667 13,000 53,557 32,649 Farm income (baht) 9,834 7,037 5,918 9,052 Nonfarm income (baht) 9,325 7,801 7,572 7,249 Remittances received (baht) 20,848 19,068 18,852 14,080 Interest earned (baht) 1,014 1,056 2,142 941 Land owned (rai) 19.6 12.8 14.9 13.7 Observations 9,471 3,413 1,653 783 % of total 63.0 22.0 10.1 4.8",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "13,000 53,557 32,649 Farm income (baht) 9,834 7,037 5,918 9,052 Nonfarm income (baht) 9,325 7,801 7,572 7,249 Remittances received (baht) 20,848 19,068 18,852 14,080 Interest earned (baht) 1,014 1,056 2,142 941 Land owned (rai) 19.6 12.8 14.9 13.7 Observations 9,471 3,413 1,653 783 % of total 63.0 22.0 10.1 4.8 Source: Socioeconomic Survey 2013. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 82 3.4.2 The Players The state-owned Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, founded in 1966, is the dominant source of agricultural credit in Thailand, as mentioned previously (BAAC 2016). BAAC began modestly but expanded rapidly in the 1970s when the government ordered all banks to either lend 5% of their portfolio to the agricultural sector or deposit that amount with BAAC, which in turn would channel the funds to farmers and cooperatives (Limsombunchai 2006; Siamwalla et al. 1990). BAAC established an innovative model of group lending, under which farmers can borrow without collateral if they form themselves into groups of at least 5 (and typically 12–15) borrowers. Each borrower may borrow a different amount, and loans are made to individuals, but the group as a whole is responsible for the repayment of all the loans undertaken by its members (Lightfoot n.d.). The groups must pay a higher interest rate for overdue loans, and no member may borrow further from BAAC until repayment has been made in full. This mechanism creates group responsibility and in principle the effect ensures peer monitoring, which helps solve the information problem often inherent in lending. On the other hand, as noted earlier, recent research suggests that this model is no longer working particularly well. This change helps explain why BAAC increasingly lends to cooperatives and to individuals against collateral, and why it has begun to lend more extensively to the nonagricultural sector. Over",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in lending. On the other hand, as noted earlier, recent research suggests that this model is no longer working particularly well. This change helps explain why BAAC increasingly lends to cooperatives and to individuals against collateral, and why it has begun to lend more extensively to the nonagricultural sector. Over time, BAAC has been able to displace informal lenders; Siamwalla (1988) attributes this to the institutional innovation of its joint‑lending model rather than to government efforts to support BAAC. In the early decades of its existence, BAAC relied on government subsidies, but it has since become effective at raising deposits—a total of B1.7 trillion as of October 2022, compared to B1.6 trillion in loans—and providing a full range of banking services through its network of almost 1,000 branches. BAAC has established a structure of interest rates that reward good behavior but that also reflect the average cost of funds. As of March 2016, new farmers can borrow at a rate of 9.25%. With timely repayment, this rate falls to 8.5% after two years, to 7.75% after three years, and to 7% after four years of on-time loan service. On the other hand, overdue loans face an interest rate of 10%. 83 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture BAAC field officers are allowed some discretion in how they handle clients; when farmers face shocks, such as drought or even illness, the bank may allow them to delay repayment or may lower the interest rate charged. Townsend and Yaron (2001) refer to this as “risk-contingency” lending. Based on information gathered from 960 households in the center of Thailand between May 1997 and 2001, Alem and Townsend (2012) find that the consumption spending of BAAC borrowers is not sensitive to income shocks and argue that BAAC’s procedures embed an implicit",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(2001) refer to this as “risk-contingency” lending. Based on information gathered from 960 households in the center of Thailand between May 1997 and 2001, Alem and Townsend (2012) find that the consumption spending of BAAC borrowers is not sensitive to income shocks and argue that BAAC’s procedures embed an implicit insurance option, so “farmers clearly receive an indemnity.” These authors do not find an equivalent effect for other sources of borrowing. The other major financial actor in rural Thailand is the Thailand Village and Urban Community Fund (TVF or “Village Fund”) program, which was established in 2001 with the aim of providing a million baht (about $22,500 at the then‑prevailing exchange rate) to every village and urban community in Thailand as working capital for locally run, rotating credit associations. Thailand has almost 74,000 villages and over 4,500 urban communities, so the total injection of capital into the economy envisaged by the “million baht fund” amounted to B78 billion, equivalent to about $1.75 billion, or 1.4% of 2002 GDP. The Village Fund quickly became the largest microcredit scheme in the world. Under the program, locally elected committees vet loan applications and extend modest loans for terms that rarely exceed one year but that carry relatively low annual interest rates, typically around 6%. In 2013, 29% of agricultural households borrowed from the Village Fund, confounding its early critics who thought that the original injection of funds would gradually be squandered. On the other hand, the Village Fund loans are not especially dynamic (Haughton, Khandker, and Rukumnuaykit 2014); to lend more, the Fund would either have to mobilize deposits or borrow from BAAC, which would in turn create financial liabilities that the management committees may be unwilling to assume. In the following sections, we will address the issue of whether the Village Fund",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(Haughton, Khandker, and Rukumnuaykit 2014); to lend more, the Fund would either have to mobilize deposits or borrow from BAAC, which would in turn create financial liabilities that the management committees may be unwilling to assume. In the following sections, we will address the issue of whether the Village Fund has had a significant impact on farm incomes, spending, or assets. As noted previously, other sources of agricultural credit are relatively unimportant compared to BAAC and the Village Fund. Commercial banks extend relatively large loans to rural businesses, and credit cooperatives remain active in some areas. Informal lenders, whether family members or village moneylenders or shopkeepers, have been essentially squeezed out, suggesting that very few households need to turn to these “last resort” lenders. Hire purchase arrangements are increasing in popularity. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 84 Sustainability. BAAC, a state-owned institution, was established in 1966 as an agricultural development bank, while the Village Fund was established by the government in 2001. Thus, it is reasonable to ask to what extent these operations could be sustained without government support. Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives. Initially, most of BAAC’s funds came from the government in the form of grants (“shareholder equity”), which the institution then lent to farmers for agricultural purposes. In the late 1970s, the government passed a law requiring commercial banks to devote at least 5% of their lending to farmers or to channel those funds to BAAC, which many did. For the majority of the 1980s, almost two-fifths of BAAC’s funding came from commercial bank sources (see Table 3.9); another one-third came from borrowing, much of it from overseas lenders. By about 1990, however, it had become clear that if the bank were to remain relevant, it would need to find other funding sources.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the 1980s, almost two-fifths of BAAC’s funding came from commercial bank sources (see Table 3.9); another one-third came from borrowing, much of it from overseas lenders. By about 1990, however, it had become clear that if the bank were to remain relevant, it would need to find other funding sources. It had also become apparent by this time that farmers were keen to save. In this context, BAAC began to promote deposits, especially through the design and promotion of highly popular savings instruments. As a result, BAAC experienced a remarkable expansion in its deposit base, which rose from just 12% of its liabilities in 1980 to 62% in 1998 and 83% in 2003. The number of savings accounts grew from 4.1 million in 1994 to 9.5 million in 2002, representing 2,000 new accounts every day for eight years. Table 3.9:\u0003 \u0007Sources of Funds for the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (%) 1967 1973 1980 1987 1998 2003 Deposits from public 11 17 12 25 62 83 Mandatory deposits from banks 0 0 39 39 1 0 Borrowing 19 22 35 29 25 5 Shareholder equity 66 57 12 6 7 8 Other liabilities 4 4 2 1 5 4 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 Deposit/loan ratio 14 19 21 38 83 100 Source: Haberberger (2009), Table 4.1. 85 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture This massive expansion of deposits—nine tenths of which are in savings accounts and so are relatively stable—has also allowed BAAC to reduce its dependence on borrowing; this proved to be critical, as the sharp devaluation of the baht during the financial crisis that began in 1997 raised the servicing costs of BAAC’s foreign loans and wiped out half of its equity (Haberberger 2009). In October 1998, BAAC came under the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to reduce its dependence on borrowing; this proved to be critical, as the sharp devaluation of the baht during the financial crisis that began in 1997 raised the servicing costs of BAAC’s foreign loans and wiped out half of its equity (Haberberger 2009). In October 1998, BAAC came under the prudential regulation of the Bank of Thailand, which strengthened the institution’s ability to bargain with the government and allowed the latter to only undertake “interventions against compensations.” Prior to 1998, BAAC had been under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives and was at times required to subsidize or excuse loans without compensation. A report by the Thai Development Research Institute in 1996 was highly critical of the provision of subsidized loans, arguing that such loans mainly benefited better-off farmers and created moral hazard as farmers felt less obligated to repay government-subsidized loans. BAAC’s new model was put to the test in 2001, when the government ordered BAAC to offer farmers the option of suspending their loan payments for three years. Half of eligible farmers, accounting for 21% of BAAC’s loan portfolio, opted for this debt relief; however, BAAC convinced the government to pay for the lost interest. BAAC also refused to lend more to farmers who opted for the three years of debt relief and issued privilege cards to farmers who continued to service their loans. A good measure of the importance of external support is the subsidy dependence index, which measures the proportion by which the lending interest rate would need to rise in the absence of subsidies. The main subsidies provided to BAAC constituted public funds in the form of the institution’s own reinvested profits, access to concessional loans, and a lower reserve requirement (which freed up funds for lending). Table 3.10 shows that in",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "lending interest rate would need to rise in the absence of subsidies. The main subsidies provided to BAAC constituted public funds in the form of the institution’s own reinvested profits, access to concessional loans, and a lower reserve requirement (which freed up funds for lending). Table 3.10 shows that in the absence of subsidies, BAAC would have had to charge interest rates between 25% and 31% higher (e.g., 10% instead of 8%) in the years prior to the 1997 financial crisis. By 2004, the subsidies had vanished, and for practical purposes, BAAC has not been subsidized for the past decade. The main reason for this shift is that BAAC has increasingly been able to mobilize deposits that it then lends. In addition, after 1993, the bank was able to lend to farmers for nonagricultural purposes; after 1999, it was permitted (within limits) to lend to nonfarmers. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 86 Without subsidies, the bank would have made a −16% return on equity in the mid-1990s, but by 2004 this return had reached 3.4%, comparable to the cost of government borrowing at the time (Table 3.10). Table 3.10:\u0003 \u0007Dependence on Subsidies and Return on Equity for the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives 1995 1996 1999 2000 2004 2005 Subsidy dependence index 30.9 25.4 7.2 4.2 –0.8 1.7 Subsidy-adjusted return on equity –16.8 –16.0 –1.5 1.7 3.4 2.3 Source: Suwan (2007). Village Funds. When the government established the Village Fund in 2001, many observers believed that elected village committees would lack the ability to manage the process of lending and would squander the funds. These fears have, in most cases, been unfounded; in addition, neither the proportion of farmers borrowing from the Village Fund nor the average size of loans have fallen over time (Table 3.4).",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "elected village committees would lack the ability to manage the process of lending and would squander the funds. These fears have, in most cases, been unfounded; in addition, neither the proportion of farmers borrowing from the Village Fund nor the average size of loans have fallen over time (Table 3.4). Thus, the Village Fund model has proved to be remarkably durable, despite the fact that the government did not provide any further funds after 2001. Yet the Village Funds may not be sustainable over the long term. Haughton, Khandker, and Rukumnuaykit (2014) estimate that the full cost of funds in 2009 was about 10.2% of the value of loans, while income (mainly interest and fees) came to 6.6% of loans. This gap (3.6%) was less than the assumed opportunity cost of funds (4.0%), meaning that on average, the Village Funds had a net cash inflow of 0.4% of the amount lent. This explains how the funds have remained intact over the years. Most Village Fund Committees see themselves as “stewards of state-provided funds” and do not have the incentive to expand their operations beyond this role. Over the long term, inflation has eroded the real value of Village Fund capital, and the institution is gradually becoming less relevant. However, the fact that Village Funds are not ultimately sustainable does not mean that they should not have been introduced. Haughton, Khandker, and Rukumnuaykit (2014) argue that the Village Fund likely had enough impact for its economic benefits to outweigh its costs, and that the Fund has disproportionately helped poorer households. 87 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture 3.5 The Role of Government There has been a clear evolution in the attitude of the Thai government toward the agricultural sector over the past 40 years, from one of “spend",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and that the Fund has disproportionately helped poorer households. 87 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture 3.5 The Role of Government There has been a clear evolution in the attitude of the Thai government toward the agricultural sector over the past 40 years, from one of “spend and tax” to one of “spend and subsidize.” The government has consistently supported spending to increase agricultural efficiency, such as investment in roads and irrigation; however, it is only over the past decade that agricultural taxation has declined and given way to more direct support for farmers. In this section, we explore these themes in more detail. 3.5.1 Productive Investment For fiscal year 2017 (which ended in September 2017), the budget for the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives was B88 billion ($2.6 billion), of which B47 billion ($1.4 billion) was earmarked for the Royal Irrigation Department (Bureau of the Budget 2017). Thailand has long invested in water control, and the irrigated area has risen from 1.7 million hectares (15% of cultivated area) in 1970 to 5.0 million hectares (30% of cultivated area) in 2000. Irrigation is particularly widespread in the central plain, where 60% of the land is irrigated, while it is rare in the northeast, covering just 13% of arable area there. Based on data for 1977–1999, Fan, Jitsuchon, and Methakunnavut (2004) and Fan, Yu, and Jitsuchon (2008) argue that this investment in irrigation has been fairly profitable, with a benefit–cost ratio of 1.7. In addition, farmers pay minimal fees for water and do not come close to covering the cost of provision (Perret, Jourdain, and Saringkarn 2012). Several other government investments have also proven very helpful to farmers. These include the expansion of education, which helped increase the rural literacy rate from 78% in 1977 to 92% by",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "fees for water and do not come close to covering the cost of provision (Perret, Jourdain, and Saringkarn 2012). Several other government investments have also proven very helpful to farmers. These include the expansion of education, which helped increase the rural literacy rate from 78% in 1977 to 92% by 2000; electrification, which increased rural electricity consumption 35-fold between 1997 and 2000; and the expansion of the rural road network, mostly paved, from 6,258 kilometers in 1977 to 67,138 kilometers in 2000. Table 3.11 shows the details of these programs. The government also provides support for agricultural research, particularly for crops. By the late 1990s, three-fifths of the approximately $200 million in annual government spending on research and development went to agriculture. In addition, substantial spending went to agricultural extension services, reaching B6.0 billion ($175 million) in fiscal year 2017. These investments are modest, however, when compared to the country’s total GDP of $395 billion in 2015. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 88 Using data at the regional level in Thailand for 1977–1999, Fan, Jitsuchon, and Methakunnavut (2004) try to measure the impact of different types of government spending on agricultural productivity and rural poverty. They find that additional spending on agricultural research has the largest impact on increased agricultural productivity, as well as a substantial effect on poverty reduction. Spending on electrification, and to a lesser extent on education and irrigation, have also raised productivity and reduced poverty. However, these authors find that government investments in roads have had little discernible effect on either agricultural productivity or rural poverty. The case for continued investment in agricultural research, given its public goods nature—expensive to undertake, but cheap to disseminate—is strong. On the other hand, almost every village in Thailand now has access to electricity, so there is",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "roads have had little discernible effect on either agricultural productivity or rural poverty. The case for continued investment in agricultural research, given its public goods nature—expensive to undertake, but cheap to disseminate—is strong. On the other hand, almost every village in Thailand now has access to electricity, so there is little scope for further gains in that area. 3.5.2 Taxes and Subsidies Until about 2000, the Thai government taxed agriculture, particularly rice, indirectly but heavily (Table 3.12). One measure of this taxation is the nominal rate of assistance, which measures the extent to which value added is protected (a positive value) or taxed (a negative value). As recently as the early 1970s, the nominal rate of assistance in agriculture was –23%, compared to +16% for industry. These rates were mainly due to high taxes on exports of rice and cassava and tariffs on imports of industrial goods. Thus, the domestic price of rice was just 53% of the border price in 1970–1974. This approach to taxation reflected the thinking of the time, which was that agriculture needed to be taxed in order to finance the development of industry. Table 3.11:\u0003 Evidence of Government Investments in Rural Areas, Thailand 1970 1977 2000 Area irrigated (million hectares) 1.68 ... 5.00 Rural electricity consumption (bn kWh) ... 0.94 32.96 Literacy rate, rural areas (%) ... 77.5 91.3 Years of schooling, adults, rural areas ... 3.7 5.9 Rural roads (km) ... 6,258 67,138 bn = billion, km = kilometer, kWh = kilowatt-hour. Source: Fan et al. (2004). 89 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture By 1990, the tax burden on agriculture had eased somewhat; the nominal rate of assistance was –6%, and the domestic price of rice had risen to 82% of the world level. The bias against agriculture had disappeared",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "et al. (2004). 89 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture By 1990, the tax burden on agriculture had eased somewhat; the nominal rate of assistance was –6%, and the domestic price of rice had risen to 82% of the world level. The bias against agriculture had disappeared by 2000–2004, and by 2006–2010, there was even a modest tilt in favor of agriculture. Over time, Thailand’s industrial and service sectors have become well-established, while the share of agriculture in GDP has fallen, undermining any case that might be made for continuing to tax agriculture to subsidize the rest of the economy. Indeed, after 2011, the pendulum swung heavily in favor of subsidizing rice farmers, with a dramatic expansion of the government’s rice pledging program. This scheme was originally introduced during the period of the fourth development plan (1977–1981) and was extended to other crops during the ninth plan (2002–2006). The program aimed to provide a mechanism under which farmers would not be obliged to sell their rice immediately after the harvest, when prices would potentially be low. Rather, the government sets a price at which it will buy rice from farmers well after the harvest, usually at a level that is close to the expected market price; the farmer pledges the rice by bringing it for storage to a public warehouse but is free to withdraw and sell the rice to any other buyer if the price moves above the government benchmark. Having pledged the rice, the farmer can then get access to credit, typically from BAAC. This scheme thus provides a cash flow for farmers and gives them more bargaining power vis‑à‑vis traders. Table 3.12:\u0003 Measures of Protection for Agriculture 1970–1974 1990–1994 2000–2004 2006–2010 Rice: Domestic price/border price 53.4 81.6 91.1 ... Nominal Rate of Assistance: Agricultural",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "can then get access to credit, typically from BAAC. This scheme thus provides a cash flow for farmers and gives them more bargaining power vis‑à‑vis traders. Table 3.12:\u0003 Measures of Protection for Agriculture 1970–1974 1990–1994 2000–2004 2006–2010 Rice: Domestic price/border price 53.4 81.6 91.1 ... Nominal Rate of Assistance: Agricultural tradables –23.1 –6.4 –0.2 3.2 Nonagricultural tradables 16.1 10.0 7.8 7.5 1975 1990 2000 Value added/Output (%) 78.4 67.2 62.9 Source: Warr and Kohpaiboon (2007). https://catalog.ihsn.org/index.php/catalog/3611 (accessed 12 February 2024). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 90 In 2011, the government of Yingluck Shinawatra raised the pledging price of paddy rice to B15,000 ($440) per ton, roughly double the price that prevailed in 2010. This means that after milling, the government would have needed to sell the rice for $830–$870 per ton on the world market, at a time when the world price averaged just $573. Budgetary spending on the rice price scheme reached close to $7 billion in 2012, and by the end of 2013, the government was holding 17.5 million tons of rice in stock, equivalent to about twice the level of typical annual exports. In January 2014, the government defaulted on payments under the scheme, and in May 2014, the prime minister was removed from office and her government was overthrown by the military. The new government scaled back the scheme considerably, so that in 2014–2015, only 80,000 farmers pledged just 450,000 tons of rice—down from over 4 million farmers the previous year— triggering B6.4 billion in loans from BAAC. The political need to subsidize rice farming has not disappeared. In October 2016, the government responded to low prices for Hom Mali rice—the market price was about B4,500–B7,000 per ton at the time, as world demand for rice fell while supply expanded—by setting a pledging",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "billion in loans from BAAC. The political need to subsidize rice farming has not disappeared. In October 2016, the government responded to low prices for Hom Mali rice—the market price was about B4,500–B7,000 per ton at the time, as world demand for rice fell while supply expanded—by setting a pledging price of B11,525 per ton. Under this “barn program,” farmers would store the rice themselves rather than in a public facility; in addition, only one-third of farmers would be eligible for the program, and the subsidy would go mainly to reducing the interest rate paid on the loans extended against the collateral of the pledged rice. From an efficiency point of view, it makes little sense to subsidize rice production. The claim by the Yingluck government that Thailand has market power in the world market for rice has been shown to be incorrect (Mahathanaseth and Pensupar 2014). However, governments will be obligated to continue to support rice farmers, who constitute an important political force; thus, subsidies in one form or another will likely persist, particularly in periods of low world prices. In addition to rice, rubber is Thailand’s other preeminent export crop. Thailand produces about 35% of the world’s natural rubber and is the world’s largest rubber exporter, with shipments worth $5.5 billion in 2021. The price of rubber has swung widely over the past decade and a half; the average producer price in Thailand in 2000 was $537/ton, rose steadily to $1,330 in 2005 and $3,250 in 2010, and peaked at $4,067 in 2011, before falling to $1,290 in 2015. 91 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture Farmers responded to the favorable prices by expanding production, from 2.2 million tons in 2000 to 3.3 million in 2010 and 4.5 million in 2015 (FAO 2017). Floods in",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "peaked at $4,067 in 2011, before falling to $1,290 in 2015. 91 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture Farmers responded to the favorable prices by expanding production, from 2.2 million tons in 2000 to 3.3 million in 2010 and 4.5 million in 2015 (FAO 2017). Floods in late 2016 led to fears of a poor harvest and to a short price spike in early 2017. By June 2017, however, the price of rubber had returned to sufficiently low levels, leading the government to renew its subsidy for small rubber farmers—payments of B1,500 per rai, up to a maximum of 15 rai—and to approve an additional B10 billion in loans to rubber cooperatives. In the 12 months ending in March 2016, the government paid B9.3 billion ($273 million) to 1.2 million rubber farmers and tappers in order to buffer the shock of lower prices, as well as a further B10.8 billion ($317 million) to help populations dependent on rubber farming find employment in other sectors. These trends show the government’s pattern, which has become increasingly well established, of stepping in to help farmers during periods of stress. 3.5.3 Loan Moratoria One of the largest government support programs is the debt moratorium scheme (Ratanavararak and Chantarat 2022). First introduced in 2001, when many farm loan repayments were suspended (but not forgiven) for three years, it was revived in 2011 and has been used increasingly often since then to alleviate farmers’ liquidity constraints in response to disasters or to COVID-19. Debt moratoria mainly apply to BAAC loans and are now applied automatically for eligible borrowers. Using an eight-year panel (2014–2021) of a million farmer borrowers from BAAC, matched with farm and farmer characteristics from the Farmer Registration database, Ratanavararak and Chantarat find that farmers’ debt has been growing by 17.6%",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Debt moratoria mainly apply to BAAC loans and are now applied automatically for eligible borrowers. Using an eight-year panel (2014–2021) of a million farmer borrowers from BAAC, matched with farm and farmer characteristics from the Farmer Registration database, Ratanavararak and Chantarat find that farmers’ debt has been growing by 17.6% per year, and they owed an average of B346,000 ($10,000) to BAAC in 2021. In that year, there were 121 different debt‑related government support programs applicable to BAAC’s sample of borrowers. Over the eight years covered by the data, 86% of borrowers benefited at some point from a debt moratorium (including 77% in 2021), which covered 46% of outstanding debt over 14 programs (Ratanavararak and Chantarat 2022: 11). An estimated 41% of borrowers enjoyed a debt moratorium for at least four of the seven years observed in this study. About half of the moratoria were shock‑related. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 92 Ratanavararak and Chantarat (2022) estimate models of delinquency, and of debt growth, as a function of participating in a debt moratorium, along with other variables. They find that debt moratorium participation is associated with slightly higher loan growth and a delinquency rate that is lower in the short run (unsurprisingly), but actually is higher in the medium to long term. The authors suggest that debt moratoria should be used more sparingly, or perhaps even changed to narrowly targeted debt forgiveness or to credit insurance that is linked to clearly measurable criteria. 3.5.4 Insurance Government efforts to support rubber or rice farmers, particularly when prices are low or when disasters triggered by natural hazards strike, represent a form of insurance. Efforts to provide formal crop insurance have, until recently, not been particularly successful. A scheme to insure cotton farmers against disasters was introduced in 1978, and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to support rubber or rice farmers, particularly when prices are low or when disasters triggered by natural hazards strike, represent a form of insurance. Efforts to provide formal crop insurance have, until recently, not been particularly successful. A scheme to insure cotton farmers against disasters was introduced in 1978, and indemnity insurance for all risks for growers of maize, sorghum, and soybeans was put in place in 1990; however, these efforts lost money and covered few farmers (Win 2016). With World Bank support, a pilot project of weather-index insurance for maize growers was started in 2007 but had only reached 3,182 farmers by 2010. A similar pilot program for rice farmers was supported by the Japan Bank for International Cooperation in one province in the northeast in 2007 and has subsequently been expanded. In 2014, the government introduced a new national insurance program for rice farmers, covering all disasters triggered by natural hazards. Farmers pay between B60 and B100 per rai, depending on the risk faced by their location, with the government paying between B64 and B383 per rai in subsidies. The payouts can reach B1,111 per rai. In its first year, the program covered 240,000 hectares (out of 10.1 million hectares of total farmland) and was expected to expand rapidly. Such expansion would be needed in order to bring premiums down to a manageable level (Oxford Business Group 2016b). BAAC offers a B10 discount if farmers pay their premiums on time. This insurance complements the government’s disaster relief program, which already compensates farmers whose rice crop has “suffered from calamity” (Jeerahaipaisarn 2012) and pays B1,113 per rai for up to 30 rai per farmer. 93 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture The Fiscal Policy Office of the Ministry of Finance has stated that it aims to",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "which already compensates farmers whose rice crop has “suffered from calamity” (Jeerahaipaisarn 2012) and pays B1,113 per rai for up to 30 rai per farmer. 93 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture The Fiscal Policy Office of the Ministry of Finance has stated that it aims to reduce this payment to B800, while increasing payouts from the insurance program to B1,500, but this transition will require more reliable and widespread uptake of crop insurance. 3.6 Who Borrows? In 2013, 72% of rural households had contracted debt of some sort (Table 3.4), although not necessarily for agricultural purposes. In this section, we ask why some agricultural households borrow and others do not; for those that borrow, we explore the correlates of that borrowing. The data come from the socioeconomic survey of 2013—the most recent data available to us—and refer only to households that receive at least some income from agriculture. We estimate two models, one for total debt and the other for “agricultural debt” only. The latter measures the borrowing that households report as being used for agricultural purposes. We use a Heckman two-step procedure, in which we first estimate a probit equation to determine who borrows and then estimate a model of the amount borrowed using a least-squares equation in which we include a measure of the non-selection hazard (the inverse Mills ratio) from the first equation. This helps us correct for sample selection bias in the second stage and the results are statistically significant; thus, this modeling approach is appropriate. We included the variables that measure whether households could or would not borrow in the first, but not second, stage of the model. Table 3.13 presents the results. Unsurprisingly, households are more likely to incur debt and to borrow more heavily if the head is older",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "modeling approach is appropriate. We included the variables that measure whether households could or would not borrow in the first, but not second, stage of the model. Table 3.13 presents the results. Unsurprisingly, households are more likely to incur debt and to borrow more heavily if the head is older or owns more land, albeit at a diminishing rate. Households with better-educated heads are also likely to borrow more, and more often. This is also true of households that get more income from remittances or from nonfarm sources. This model does not address the issue of whether credit is rationed, but the decent fit and plausible nature of the relationships suggest that there is a clear logic to lending to agricultural households. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 94 Table 3.13:\u0003 \u0007Models of Borrowing for All Debt and for Agricultural Debt, Thailand, 2013 Model 1: All Debt Model 2: Agricultural Debt Summary Statistics Has Debt Amount of Debt Has Debt Amount of Debt Mean Min Max Geographic Effects Urban (Yes=1) −0.105*** 0.024 −0.125*** −0.009 0.14 0 1 −4.23 1.02 −5.41 −0.34 Region (Bangkok = reference) Central 0.200 −0.612 0.747 −0.699 0.12 0 1 0.35 −1.24 1.49 −1.17 North 0.241 −0.642 0.897* −0.734 0.23 0 1 0.42 −1.31 1.79 −1.23 Northeast 0.299 −0.936* 0.623 −0.999* 0.51 0 1 0.53 −1.91 1.24 −1.68 South −0.143 −0.157 −0.087 −0.175 0.34 0 1 −0.25 −0.32 −0.17 −0.29 Characteristics of Head Age of head 0.036*** 0.020*** 0.035*** 0.012 55.1 15 99 5.32 2.84 5.27 1.44 Age of head squared (’000) −0.350*** −0.107* −.298*** −0.056 319 0.23 9.80 −5.92 −1.68 −5.02 −0.78 Head is male? (Yes=1) −0.066*** −0.006 0.030 −0.019 0.72 0 1 −2.14 −0.19 1.05 −0.56 Household head is married 0.177*** 0.128*** 0.141*** 0.115*** 0.79 0 1 5.08 3.43 4.14 2.77 Head: some/all",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "5.27 1.44 Age of head squared (’000) −0.350*** −0.107* −.298*** −0.056 319 0.23 9.80 −5.92 −1.68 −5.02 −0.78 Head is male? (Yes=1) −0.066*** −0.006 0.030 −0.019 0.72 0 1 −2.14 −0.19 1.05 −0.56 Household head is married 0.177*** 0.128*** 0.141*** 0.115*** 0.79 0 1 5.08 3.43 4.14 2.77 Head: some/all primary education 0.252*** 0.300*** 0.187*** 0.230*** 0.79 0 1 4.80 4.81 3.44 3.40 Head: some/all secondary education 0.465*** 0.821*** 0.188*** 0.442*** 0.13 0 1 7.37 11.69 3.00 5.79 Head: some graduate education 0.751*** 1.935*** −0.158 1.122*** 0.02 0 1 7.30 19.99 −1.63 8.77 Head: Buddhist 0.404*** 0.609*** 0.270** 0.698*** 0.96 0 1 3.81 4.76 2.54 5.15 Head: Muslim 0.212* 0.259* −0.073 0.602*** 0.03 0 1 1.69 1.70 −0.52 2.91 continued on next page 95 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture Table 3.13:\u0003 Continued Model 1: All Debt Model 2: Agricultural Debt Summary Statistics Has Debt Amount of Debt Has Debt Amount of Debt Mean Min Max Household Characteristics Dependency (old+young/household) −0.155*** −0.372*** −0.118*** −0.197*** 0.36 0 1 −3.37 −7.81 −2.66 −3.81 Size of household 0.120*** 0.087*** 0.016** 0.038*** 3.51 1 23 13.85 10.35 2.09 4.14 Would not borrow −1.489*** −1.280*** 0.22 0 1 −52.79 −38.50 Could not borrow −0.926*** −0.556*** 0.05 0 1 −18.75 −10.45 Remittances received (’000 baht/year) 0.002*** 0.001** 19.9 0 12,000 5.94 2.55 Interest earned (’000 baht/year) −0.002** 0.008*** −0.008*** 0.009*** 1.13 0 780 −2.06 6.86 −3.90 3.38 Nonfarm income (’000 baht/year) 0.001** 0.005*** 0.002*** 0.002*** 8.71 −1,463 1,738 2.44 11.93 −5.01 2.87 Characteristics of Farm Land area farmed (rai) 0.011*** 0.022*** 0.023*** 0.020*** 17.33 0 400 11.37 25.90 26.46 18.23 Land area squared (’00 rai) −0.003*** −0.005*** −.006*** −0.004*** 7.65 0 1,600 −8.26 −13.29 −16.14 −10.81 Intercept −1.340** 9.533*** −2.410*** 9.908*** −2.21 17.43 −4.44 14.96 Inverse Mills ratio (non‑selection hazard) −0.225*** −0.195*** −4.82",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Farm Land area farmed (rai) 0.011*** 0.022*** 0.023*** 0.020*** 17.33 0 400 11.37 25.90 26.46 18.23 Land area squared (’00 rai) −0.003*** −0.005*** −.006*** −0.004*** 7.65 0 1,600 −8.26 −13.29 −16.14 −10.81 Intercept −1.340** 9.533*** −2.410*** 9.908*** −2.21 17.43 −4.44 14.96 Inverse Mills ratio (non‑selection hazard) −0.225*** −0.195*** −4.82 −3.31 Number of observations 15,320 10,611 15,320 6,594 Mean value dependent variable (not logs) 0.721 139,694 0.454 51,253 Pseudo R2 0.26 0.21 Notes: Sample is confined to households with at least some agricultural income. Amount of debt: Log of the amount of debt (in baht) owed by the household. Asterisks denote statistical significance at the 10% (*), 1% (**), and 0.1% (***) levels. Source: Based on Socioeconomic Survey 2013. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 96 3.7 How Important Is Credit to Farmers? All dynamic farm systems use credit, so it is broadly indisputable that there is a strong demand for agricultural credit and that farmers view such credit as useful. Could institutional or financial innovations help loosen any remaining credit rationing or make credit more efficient or affordable? In this section, we examine two cases that are treated in more detail in Boonperm et al. (2013). The first, a natural experiment in microcredit provision, occurred when the Village Fund was established in 2002, providing both a new mechanism for providing credit in the form of village-level rotating credit associations and a large injection of loanable funds. The second case concerns BAAC, which has consolidated its position as the major lender to farmers and which is useful to examine in terms of its contribution to farm incomes and spending. 3.7.1 The Village Fund We first examine whether the Village Fund has had an impact on household incomes and spending, as well as the magnitude of those effects. Even",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the major lender to farmers and which is useful to examine in terms of its contribution to farm incomes and spending. 3.7.1 The Village Fund We first examine whether the Village Fund has had an impact on household incomes and spending, as well as the magnitude of those effects. Even without the Village Fund, Thai households have considerable access to credit, as we have documented in previous sections. In a 1997 survey of 1,875 households in 192 villages in four provinces in central and northeastern Thailand, Kaboski and Townsend (2005, 2011) find that loans from BAAC— widely considered to be a successful rural finance institution (Yaron 1992, Fitchett 1999)—were available in 87% of villages; furthermore, three-fifths of villages had at least one local financial institution (such as a rice bank or a women’s lending group). Using data from 1,575 households in three provinces in northeastern Thailand, surveyed in 2007 and 2008, Kislat and Menkhoff (2012) report that the main sources of village credit, as measured by the volume of lending, were BAAC (40%), the Village Fund (24%), credit and savings groups and local cooperatives (17%), money lenders (7%), relatives (6%), and other sources, including commercial banks and policy funds (6%). Although Thai households would seem to have broad access to credit, credit markets have well-known informational asymmetries that in turn can lead to the inefficient allocation of credit, excessive loan default, monopoly profits for well‑informed lenders, and even credit market collapse (Bardhan and Udry 1999). 97 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture These asymmetries may leave a role for microcredit. In Thailand, Coleman (2006) finds no evidence that microloans had any impact on incomes or spending; his study was based on a sample of 445 households in northeastern Thailand, surveyed in 1995–1996, in villages where two Thai",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture These asymmetries may leave a role for microcredit. In Thailand, Coleman (2006) finds no evidence that microloans had any impact on incomes or spending; his study was based on a sample of 445 households in northeastern Thailand, surveyed in 1995–1996, in villages where two Thai nongovernment organizations provided six-month loans averaging B2,000 (about $60) apiece. The availability of other sources of credit can explain why, according to the nationally representative Thailand Socioeconomic Survey undertaken in 2004, 24% of respondent households said that they did not borrow from the Village Fund because they had no need for credit. A further 25% of households said that they did not borrow from the Village Fund because they did not want to take on more debt. We are interested in measuring the impact of the Village Fund on expenditure per capita, durable goods accumulation, and income per capita. The data come from the Thailand Socioeconomic Surveys of 2002 and 2004. The 2004 survey interviewed 34,843 households (covering 116,444 people) throughout the country, drawn from 2,044 municipal “blocks” and 1,596 villages in 808 districts. An important feature of these two surveys is that they include a panel of 5,755 rural households. An effort was made in 2004 to resurvey all 6,309 households that had been surveyed in rural areas in rounds 2 and 3 of the 2002 Thailand Socioeconomic Survey. The timing of this panel is important, because these households were surveyed at the very moment that the Village Fund was rapidly expanding; after 2004, the Fund’s coverage stagnated, making it harder to determine its impact on households. Formally, let yit be the outcome variable of interest—for instance, income per capita—for adult i in time t (t = 2002, 2004), xit be a set of regressors, and Tit be a",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "was rapidly expanding; after 2004, the Fund’s coverage stagnated, making it harder to determine its impact on households. Formally, let yit be the outcome variable of interest—for instance, income per capita—for adult i in time t (t = 2002, 2004), xit be a set of regressors, and Tit be a measure of the “treatment,” here defined as borrowing from the Village Fund. We may then specify an individual-specific-effects model of the form yit = αi + x'it β + Titγ + εit. A fixed-effects model sets a separate intercept (αi ) for each household, and these intercepts can pick up much of the (unobserved) heterogeneity across households. Differencing gives yi,2004 – yi,2002 = (xi,2004 – xi,2002)'β + (Ti,2004 – Ti,2002)γ + (εi,2004 – εi,2002).\b (1) Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 98 This is the first model that we estimate, and it generates “within” estimates that are identified by variation over time in terms of whether a household borrows from the Village Fund. Over the two years, 2002 and 2004, 42.5% of households did not borrow from the Village Fund, while 30.9% borrowed in both years. However, 6.7% borrowed in 2002 but not 2004, and 19.9% borrowed in 2004 but not 2002. This is relevant because the identification of the effects of Village Fund borrowing in equation (1) comes from households that changed their Village Fund borrowing habits between the two years—if (Ti,2004 – Ti,2002) = 0, then we cannot estimate the impact, γ—and the observation that more than one in four households did change their behavior adds to the credibility of the estimates. The effects are also assumed to be symmetric, meaning that taking up a loan has the same impact as dropping a loan. It is possible that the fixed-effects/differenced model eliminates any relevant selection bias",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "than one in four households did change their behavior adds to the credibility of the estimates. The effects are also assumed to be symmetric, meaning that taking up a loan has the same impact as dropping a loan. It is possible that the fixed-effects/differenced model eliminates any relevant selection bias if the bias is due to time-invariant heterogeneity, but we cannot test this directly; if the unobserved heterogeneity varies over time, the fixed effects estimates are inconsistent. To identify whether this is the case, an alternative strategy is to seek one or more instruments for ΔTi (i.e., the change in whether one borrows from the Village Fund) that would come close to mimicking a random assignment of treatment so that any bias due to time-varying heterogeneity is controlled. In this view, ΔTi is a “troublesome explanatory” (Murray 2006) that risks being correlated with the error term in (1). With the use of instruments, the model becomes Δyi = Δx'i β + ΔTi γ + Δεi ΔTi = Δx'i π1 + z'i π2 + νi. For valid instruments z, we need cov(zi,Δεi)=0, and for the instruments to be relevant, they need to be solidly correlated with the treatment variable. The instrument that we use is based on the observation that every village, regardless of size, was provided with an initial million baht in funds. Thus, one would expect that households would have more difficulty obtaining a loan if they live in a large village than a small one: indeed, by 2004, 61% of households in small villages (defined as those with fewer than 100 households) had borrowed from the Village Fund, compared to 29% of households in large villages (defined as those with 200 or more households). Thus, village size, measured here by the inverse (2) 99 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "61% of households in small villages (defined as those with fewer than 100 households) had borrowed from the Village Fund, compared to 29% of households in large villages (defined as those with 200 or more households). Thus, village size, measured here by the inverse (2) 99 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture of the number of households, should be correlated with treatment (instrumental relevance) but not with Δεi (instrumental validity). Because we only have this measure for 2004, it is time invariant; thus, we take the now-standard approach of interacting this measure with a variety of household variables (see Pitt and Khandker [1998] for an early and important example); the notes below Table 3.14 provide the details. In Table 3.14, we show the results for two equations: one measuring the effect on the log of expenditure per capita and the other measuring the effect on the log of income per capita. The other regressors include a variety of household variables that include age and gender, as well as dummies for all of the relevant provinces (of which there are 76 in Thailand). The standard errors adjust for village-level clustering. We find that borrowing from the Village Fund raised expenditure per capita by 3.5%, an effect that is statistically significant at the 5% level. The measured effect of Village Fund borrowing on income per capita is 1.4%, but this is not statistically significant. Table 3.14 also shows the results of the instrumental variables estimation; the tests suggest that there is no real need to use instruments, in which case the more straightforward differenced equation results are more defensible. continued on next page Table 3.14:\u0003 \u0007Estimates of the Effects of Village Fund Borrowing Using Rural Panel Data for 2002 and 2004 Expenditure per Capita Income per Capita 2002 2004",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "there is no real need to use instruments, in which case the more straightforward differenced equation results are more defensible. continued on next page Table 3.14:\u0003 \u0007Estimates of the Effects of Village Fund Borrowing Using Rural Panel Data for 2002 and 2004 Expenditure per Capita Income per Capita 2002 2004 2002 2004 Panel Data Sample Statistics Means, baht/month, 2004 prices Whole panel data sample 2,370 2,560 3,128 3,257 Borrow from VF in 2002 only 2,333 2,612 2,739 3,118 Borrow from VF in 2004 only 2,300 2,471 3,203 3,178 Borrow from VF in both 2002 and 2004 2,204 2,307 2,816 3,003 Borrow from VF in neither 2002 nor 2004 2,529 2,778 3,381 3,500 Impacts Differenced Equation* Impact 0.035* 0.014 Standard error / p-value 0.015 / 0.024 0.018 / 0.436 Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 100 Table 3.14:\u0003 Continued Expenditure per Capita Income per Capita 2002 2004 2002 2004 Differenced Equation, GMM, IV (“inverse village size”) Impact 0.141* 0.114 Standard error (bootstrapped, n=50) / p-value 0.064 / 0.028 0.078 / 0.144 Tests of Instruments: GMM C Statistic, χ2(1) / p-value 2.991 / 0.084 1.707 / 0.191 Hansen’s J, χ2(7) / p-value 2.752 / 0.839 1.638 / 0.950 F(8, 674) for first-stage instruments / p-value 33.53 / 0.000 Minimum eigenvalue statistic / 5% critical value 67.79 / 19.86 GMM = generalized method of moments, VF = Village Fund. Notes: 1. \u0007The dependent variable is the natural log of expenditure (or income) per capita. All estimates adjust for clustering by primary sampling unit (“village”). 2. \u0007Other independent variables: Age, education, gender of head of household; number of adult, women; number of men, women, working in agriculture, industry, trading, services; one‑adult, two-parent, one-parent households; number of earners in household; whether head is self‑employed, an employee, or otherwise occupied. 3. \u0007Instruments: Village fund",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "sampling unit (“village”). 2. \u0007Other independent variables: Age, education, gender of head of household; number of adult, women; number of men, women, working in agriculture, industry, trading, services; one‑adult, two-parent, one-parent households; number of earners in household; whether head is self‑employed, an employee, or otherwise occupied. 3. \u0007Instruments: Village fund operates in village; “no need” case also includes no need for loan interacted with education of head, number of adult men, women; age of head; number of men, women, working in agricultural sector. “Inverse village size” case also includes inverse of number of households in the village interacted with the same other variables (i.e., education of head, etc.). Asterisks denote statistical significance at the 10% (*), 1% (**), and 0.1% (***) levels. Source: Based on (rural) panel from Thailand Socioeconomic Surveys of 2002 and 2004. The panel has observations on 5,054 households. 3.7.2 \u0007Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives The single most important lender in most areas of Thailand, as previously mentioned, is BAAC. The data from the rural panel for 2002 and 2004 show that 54.7% of households borrowed from BAAC in one or both of these years: 27.9% borrowed in both years, 6.0% borrowed in 2002 only, and 20.7% borrowed in 2004 only. Although we do not have survey information on the amounts that households borrowed from BAAC—and this is likely to vary far more widely than the amounts of Village Fund loans—we are able to estimate the impact of BAAC borrowing using an approach similar to that applied to Village Fund loans. 101 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture We show our results in Table 3.15. Using a difference (i.e., fixed effects) equation, with adjustments to the standard errors to reflect sample design, we estimate that BAAC loans boost income per capita by a",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "applied to Village Fund loans. 101 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture We show our results in Table 3.15. Using a difference (i.e., fixed effects) equation, with adjustments to the standard errors to reflect sample design, we estimate that BAAC loans boost income per capita by a statistically significant 5.7%; the effect on expenditures is 1.7%, but this is not statistically significant. These findings contrast with the Village Fund results, in that BAAC credit appears to be channeled into boosting income and perhaps stabilizing consumption (Kaboski and Townsend 2011), while Village Fund credit is employed more to raise consumption. There is no reason to expect that BAAC lending is related to village size; thus, we do not try to instrument BAAC lending (as we did with Village Fund lending). Table 3.15:\u0003 \u0007Estimates of the Effects of Borrowing from the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, Using Rural Panel Data for 2002 and 2004 Expenditure per Capita Income per Capita 2002 2004 2002 2004 Panel Data Sample Statistics Means, baht/month, 2004 prices Whole panel data sample 2,370 2,560 3,128 3,257 Borrow from BAAC in 2002 only 2,183 2,317 3,015 2,797 Borrow from BAAC in 2004 only 2,117 2,283 2,667 2,918 Borrow from BAAC in both 2002 and 2004 2,088 2,219 2,746 2,923 Borrow from BAAC in neither 2002 nor 2004 2,542 2,766 3,364 3,505 Impacts Differenced Equation* Impact 0.017 0.057* Standard error / p-value 0.018 / 0.341 0.021 / 0.006 BAAC = Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives. Notes: 1. \u0007The dependent variable is the natural log of expenditure (or income) per capita. All estimates adjust for clustering by primary sampling unit (“village”). 2. \u0007Other independent variables: Age, education, gender of head of household; number of adult, women; number of men, women, working in agriculture, industry, trading, services;",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Notes: 1. \u0007The dependent variable is the natural log of expenditure (or income) per capita. All estimates adjust for clustering by primary sampling unit (“village”). 2. \u0007Other independent variables: Age, education, gender of head of household; number of adult, women; number of men, women, working in agriculture, industry, trading, services; one‑adult, two-parent, one-parent households; number of earners in household; whether head is self‑employed, an employee, or otherwise occupied. Asterisks denote statistical significance at the 10% (*), 1% (**), and 0.1% (***) levels. Source: Based on (rural) panel from Thailand Socioeconomic Surveys of 2002 and 2004. The panel has observations on 5,054 households. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 102 3.7.3 \u0007Complementary Lending: Village Fund and Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives There is some evidence of synergies between Village Fund and BAAC borrowing. Using propensity score matching with the 2004 data, we find that borrowing from BAAC (but not the Village Fund) is associated with a 3.6% increase in expenditure per capita (t = 1.63); for borrowing from the Village Fund (but not BAAC), this effect is 2.1% (t = 1.67), while for households that borrow from both sources, the effect is 9.1% (t = 5.80). It is likely that the effects of borrowing from the Village Fund or BAAC vary according to whether a household is poor or affluent. One way to explore such effects is with quantile regressions; we present the results of a series of such regressions in Figure 3.4. The estimates that underlie these graphs are based on the rural panel data for 2002 and 2004 and use a procedure proposed by Gamper‑Rabindran, Khan, and Timmins (2010). First, we estimate quantile regressions for each quantile step θ (e.g., 10%, 20%), for 2002 and for 2004 separately, being sure to include covariates from both years.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "graphs are based on the rural panel data for 2002 and 2004 and use a procedure proposed by Gamper‑Rabindran, Khan, and Timmins (2010). First, we estimate quantile regressions for each quantile step θ (e.g., 10%, 20%), for 2002 and for 2004 separately, being sure to include covariates from both years. Second, we regress the differenced fitted values from the quantile regressions as follows: ŷθ i,2004 – ŷθ i,2002 = (xi,2004 – xi,2002)'βθ + (Ti,2004 – Ti,2002)γθ + (εθ i,2004 – εθ i,2002).\b (3) Here, for instance, ŷθ i,2004 refers to the fitted values of the quantile regression for a given value of θ for 2004. The estimates of γθ for the 10th through 90th deciles are shown in Figure 3.4 (top left), along with the associated 95% confidence interval, based on bootstrapped standard errors. The results show that the relative impact of Village Fund borrowing on per capita spending is strongest at the lower quantiles, where the effect is close to 4%, compared to the average effect based on the panel data of 3.5%, and diminishes to about one-third of this level in the top two deciles. The top right panel in Figure 3.4 shows a similar graph for the quantile regressions for per capita income (rather than expenditure); this shows, quite strikingly, strong effects for the lower quintile regressions and small or insignificant effects at higher quintiles. The average Village Fund loan is slightly higher for households in the poorest quintile than for those in the richest (B17,312 vs. B16,749), but the difference is not large enough to explain the pattern shown in the graphs. 103 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture A more plausible interpretation is that many low-income households reported borrowing from the Village Fund for income-enhancing purposes, while those at the upper end",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "B16,749), but the difference is not large enough to explain the pattern shown in the graphs. 103 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture A more plausible interpretation is that many low-income households reported borrowing from the Village Fund for income-enhancing purposes, while those at the upper end of the distribution reported borrowing more for consumption than for production. The bottom left panel of Figure 3.4 shows the coefficients and 90% confidence intervals for quantile regressions when the treatment is “BAAC borrowing,” in which case the dependent variable is the log of expenditure per capita. Here, too, the effects are strongest and most statistically significant at the bottom end of the (rural) expenditure and income distributions. Figure 3.4:\u0003 \u0007Quantile Regression Estimates of Impact on Expenditure and Income of Borrowing from Village Fund Borrowing and Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, 2002–2004 Impact of BAAC borrowing (proportion of expenditure) 0.08 0.10 0.06 0.04 –0.04 0.02 –0.02 0.00 q10 q20 q30 q40 Expenditure per capita decile (low to high) q50 q60 q70 q90 q80 Impact of BAAC borrowing (proportion of expenditure) 0.08 0.10 0.06 0.04 –0.04 0.02 –0.02 0.00 q20 q10 q30 q40 Income per capita decile (low to high) q50 q60 q70 q90 q80 0.12 Impact of VF borrowing (proportion of expenditure) 0.08 0.06 0.04 –0.04 0.02 –0.02 0.00 q10 q20 q30 q40 Expenditure per capita decile (low to high) q50 q60 q70 q90 q80 Impact of VF borrowing (proportion of expenditure) 0.08 0.06 0.04 –0.08 –0.04 –0.06 0.02 –0.02 0.00 q10 q20 q30 q40 Income per capita decile (low to high) q50 q60 q70 q90 q80 0.12 0.10 0.12 BAAC = Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, VF = village fund. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 104 The Village Fund is pro-poor in two senses:",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "–0.02 0.00 q10 q20 q30 q40 Income per capita decile (low to high) q50 q60 q70 q90 q80 0.12 0.10 0.12 BAAC = Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, VF = village fund. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 104 The Village Fund is pro-poor in two senses: lending appears to have a larger effect on current spending by poor people than by nonpoor people, and the loans are more likely to go to poor households. This latter effect results from the design of the Village Fund. The policy of providing a million baht per village helped smaller villages, which in turn tend to be poorer; the mean income per capita in small villages (with less than 100 households) was B3,723 in 2004, compared to B5,344 in large villages (with 200 households or more). On the other hand, lending by BAAC does not disproportionately favor either poor people or rich people. 3.7.4 COVID-19 Although Thailand reported a case of COVID-19 as early as January 2020, the country did not experience serious numbers of infections until 2021, with a first wave peaking in July–August and a second cresting in March–April 2022 (Worldometers 2023). Nonetheless, the country was affected by the complete collapse of tourist arrivals after March 2020 and disruptions to supply chains both at home and abroad. The result was that GDP fell by 6.1% in 2020, the largest shock in over two decades. The effects on labor markets were dramatic. According to a rapid phone survey of about 2,000 adults undertaken for the World Bank in mid-2021, 42% of workers lost a job or business, 49% temporarily stopped working, 53% worked fewer hours, and 59% got lower pay in the period after March 2020, compared to the previous period (World Bank 2022). Between March 2020 and June",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "about 2,000 adults undertaken for the World Bank in mid-2021, 42% of workers lost a job or business, 49% temporarily stopped working, 53% worked fewer hours, and 59% got lower pay in the period after March 2020, compared to the previous period (World Bank 2022). Between March 2020 and June 2021, the urban employment rate—i.e., employment as a percent of the adult population—fell from 73% to 65%, while it rose from 64% to 74% in rural areas. The accompanying large, if temporary, return migration raised the share of workers in agriculture from 13% in March 2020 to 22% by June 2021. Many of those who returned had been working in the hospitality and construction sectors in the cities, two sectors that were especially hard hit. The World Bank survey found that among rural households, 80% reported a reduction in income related to COVID-19, and 40% of farmers said that their farm incomes had fallen by half or more—mainly because they could not sell as much as before or at as high a price, but also because of bad weather. There was a clear rise in food insecurity, both in urban and rural areas. 105 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture Similar results emerged from a survey of 2,046 farm households in northern Thailand that was undertaken in September/October 2021 (Sapbamrer et al. 2022). The researcher found that 80% of households reported that their income had fallen due to COVID-19: 69% reported higher household expenses, and 74% said that output prices had fallen. One result was an increase in indebtedness: 48% of those surveyed reported taking on more debt, compared to just 4% whose debt burden fell. This survey showed high levels of stress and mental health challenges among those interviewed, plausibly exacerbated by the problems related to",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "that output prices had fallen. One result was an increase in indebtedness: 48% of those surveyed reported taking on more debt, compared to just 4% whose debt burden fell. This survey showed high levels of stress and mental health challenges among those interviewed, plausibly exacerbated by the problems related to the pandemic. The Thai government responded actively to the COVID-19 pandemic, providing substantial levels of grants to farmers and cash transfers to the self-employed (the No One Left Behind program), by topping up the state welfare card payments, and with the We Win payments. The World Bank phone survey found that 85% of rural, and 75% of urban, households got some COVID-related social assistance between March 2020 and June 2021. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (2023) reports that total spending on COVID-related social protection by the Thai government has amounted to $12 billion, or about $170 per capita (or about $300 per recipient, using the United Nations estimate that 42 million Thais, or 60% of the population, received subsidies). 3.8 Conclusion Thailand has a fairly dynamic agriculture sector (outside of the rice sector), based on smallholder family farms. As recently as the 1970s, only 10% of households had access to electricity, one-third of the rural population was illiterate, and the government taxed rice exports heavily in order to finance industrialization and provided funding for irrigation, education, roads, and research. Most farmers turned to the informal sector for credit in this period, since other alternatives were lacking. Since then, rural Thailand has been transformed. New crops, especially rubber and sugar, have become important (Oxford Business Group 2016a), and improved education has made it easier for young people to move to the towns and cities. As a result, rural poverty has fallen sharply from 74%",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "alternatives were lacking. Since then, rural Thailand has been transformed. New crops, especially rubber and sugar, have become important (Oxford Business Group 2016a), and improved education has made it easier for young people to move to the towns and cities. As a result, rural poverty has fallen sharply from 74% in 1986 to 9% in 2019 (Wuttisorn 2014, World Bank 2022). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 106 One of the catalysts for this transformation has been the expansion of credit, especially from formal sources such as BAAC and semi-formal sources such as the Village Fund. Banking facilities are widely available: almost all farmers have bank accounts, over 70% of farm households have taken loans, and fewer than 5% of households said (in 2014) that they could not borrow more for productive uses even if they were in need. The maturation of the system of rural credit owes much to the government-owned BAAC, which introduced group lending in the 1970s, thereby enabling farmers to borrow even without collateral. The incentives built into BAAC’s interest rate structure, as well as its flexibility in administering loans, have created a loyal customer base; in addition, BAAC’s extensive network of branches, along with a variety of savings instruments, have allowed it to expand its portfolio rapidly over time. While BAAC was heavily subsidized until the late 1990s, the bank has since turned to mobilizing deposits as its principal source of capital. The institution now makes a solid return on capital and does not require subsidies. The BAAC model of lending, and its transition from a highly subsidized lender to an unsubsidized and profitable institution, has relevance for other countries. It should also be noted that while external forces required BAAC to evolve, the pace at which this was achieved was manageable. Thailand’s",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "not require subsidies. The BAAC model of lending, and its transition from a highly subsidized lender to an unsubsidized and profitable institution, has relevance for other countries. It should also be noted that while external forces required BAAC to evolve, the pace at which this was achieved was manageable. Thailand’s other rural financial innovation was the Village Fund, which was originally designed to provide microfinance to those who might want to explore projects outside of agriculture. The Village Fund helped bring credit to an underserved group of lower-income agricultural households and had some impact in raising consumption and perhaps income. The Village Fund’s strength rests on its reliance on village-level committees, whose knowledge of the financial situation of fellow villagers, and ability to pressure villagers to repay their loans, contribute toward solving the problems of adverse selection and moral hazard that undermine many credit enterprises. However, the Village Fund lacks a mechanism for growth, is not sustainable over the long run, and may be too reliant on the particularities of Thai rural organizations to be applicable in other contexts. Thai policymakers need to address three main challenges when it comes to agricultural finance. The first is to expand crop insurance, which has limited traction mostly on rice in the country but is likely to need government support on rice and other crops for some time. It may take another decade for farmers to get used to the idea of paying for even partial crop insurance. 107 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture The second challenge is to spend government investments more effectively. A solid case can be made that agricultural research and development is underfunded (Fan, Yu, and Jitsuchon 2008), that irrigation projects are increasingly seeing diminishing returns, that investment in more roads or in further electrification",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture The second challenge is to spend government investments more effectively. A solid case can be made that agricultural research and development is underfunded (Fan, Yu, and Jitsuchon 2008), that irrigation projects are increasingly seeing diminishing returns, that investment in more roads or in further electrification has reached a limit in terms of its benefits, and that debt moratoria are ineffective except in the short term. In addition, the flow of people out of agriculture will continue; thus, government efforts will need to focus on educating and providing opportunities for this population. The third challenge is to avoid undue subsidization of farm outputs (such as rice or rubber) or inputs (such as fertilizer). The government’s overzealous effort to prop up rice prices after 2011 proved costly and inefficient. The more recent subsidies for rubber, a crop whose output has already doubled since 2000 and for which Thailand is now the world’s leading producer, will not help equilibrate demand and supply. The good news is that these are manageable challenges. Using the World Bank’s taxonomy, Thailand became an upper middle-income country in 2011; its past experience may be helpful for poorer countries, but the issues of agricultural finance that the country now faces increasingly have more in common with those of rich countries than those of the world’s poor countries. REFERENCES Ajanapanya, N. 2022. BAAC Launches New Mobile Banking App. The Nation. 1 November. Alem, M., and R. Townsend. 2012. An Evaluation of Financial Institutions: Impact on Consumption and Investment Using Panel Data and the Theory of Risk‑Bearing. Department of Economics, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Ariyapruchya, K., W. Sinswat, and N. Chutchotitham. 2008. The Wealth and Debt of Thai Households Risk Management and Financial Access. Bank of Thailand. Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives. 2016. Annual Report 2015.",
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    "text": "Economic Journal 22(4): 422–430. Fitchett, D. 1999. Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC), Thailand (Case Study). CGAP, World Bank, Washington, DC. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2017. Producer Prices: Annual. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en (accessed 14 July 2017). Gamper-Rabindran, S., S. Khan, and C. Timmins. 2010. The Impact of Piped Water Provision on Infant Mortality in Brazil: A Quantile Panel Data Approach. Journal of Development Economics 92: 188–200. 109 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture Haberberger, M. L. 2009. Enabling Role of Governments in Microfinance Development: Experiences from Thailand. In Amitabh Bhatnagar, ed. Rural Microfinance and Microenterprise Information Revolution. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Co. Haughton, J., S. Khandker, and P. Rukumnuaykit. 2014. Microcredit on a Large Scale: Appraising the Thailand Village Fund. Asian Economic Journal 28(4): 363–388. Jeerahaipaisarn, T. 2012. Recent Developments of Crop Insurance in Thailand. General Insurance Association. Jessop, R., B. Diallo, M. Duursma, A. Mallek, J. Harms, and B. van Manen. 2012. Creating Access to Agricultural Finance. Agence Française de Développement. Kaboski, J., and R. Townsend. 2005. Policies and Impact: An Analysis of Village‑Level Microfinance Institutions. Journal of the European Economic Association 3: 1–50. ———. 2011. The Impact of Credit on Village Economies. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 4(2): 98–133. Kislat, C., and L. Menkhoff. 2012. The Village Fund Loan: Who Gets It, Keeps It, and Loses It? Working Paper. University of Hannover. Lightfoot, P. n.d. BAAC Experience with Joint-Liability Lending. https://www. gdrc.org/icm/baac.html (accessed 13 June 2017). Limsombunchai, V. 2006. Rural Financing in Thailand. PhD dissertation thesis. Christchurch, NZ: Lincoln University. Mahathanaseth, I., and K. Pensupar. 2014. Thai Agricultural Policies: The Rice Pledging Scheme. For the International Workshop on Collection of Relevant Agricultural Policy Information and its Practical Use. Menkhoff, L., and O. Rungruxsirivorn. 2011. Do Village Funds Improve Access to Finance?",
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    "text": "A. 1988. Rural Credit Markets in Thailand. TDRI Quarterly Newsletter 3(4): 9–11. Bangkok. Siamwalla, A., C. Pinthong, N. Poapongsakorn, P. Satsanguan, P. Nettayarak, W. Mingmaneenakin, and Y. Tubpun. 1990. The Thai Rural Credit System: Public Subsidies, Private Information, and Segmented Markets. World Bank Economic Review 4(3): 271–295. Suwan, C. N. 2007. The Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC): Measuring Its Subsidy Dependence Index. Bachelor of Economics International Program, Thammasat University. Townsend, R., and J. Yaron. 2001. The Credit Risk Contingency System of an Asian Development Bank. Economic Perspectives 25(3): 31–48. 111 Thailand: Mature Farm Lending with State-Owned Banks for Agriculture UN ESCAP (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific). 2023. Facilitating COVID Responses: Rao Mai Ting Gun (No One Left Behind) Scheme. https://www.socialprotection-toolbox.org/practice/ facilitating-covid-responses-rao-mai-ting-gun-no-one-left-behind-scheme (accessed 6 January 2023). Warr, P., and A. Kohpaiboon. 2007. Distortions to Agricultural Incentives in Thailand. Agricultural Distortions Working Paper 25. Washington, DC: World Bank. Win, H. E. 2016. Crop Insurance in Thailand. Thailand: Center for Applied Economics Research. World Bank. n.d. Impact of COVID-19 on Thailand’s Households: Insights from a Rapid Phone Survey. ———. 2017. World Development Indicators. http://databank.worldbank.org/ data/reports.aspx?source=world-development-indicators# (accessed 6 January 2023). ———. 2022. Thailand Rural Income Diagnostic: Challenges and Opportunities for Rural Farmers. Bangkok: World Bank. Worldometers. 2023. Thailand: Coronavirus Cases. https://www.worldometers. info/coronavirus/country/thailand/. Wuttisorn, P. 2014. Rural–Urban Poverty and Inequality in Thailand: Summary Note. For policy workshop on rural–urban poverty linkages. Zhejiang, 2–4 September 2014. Yaron, J. 1992. Successful Rural Finance Institutions. World Bank Discussion Paper 150. Washington, DC. 112 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Jonathan Haughton and Shahidur R. Khandker CHAPTER 4 4.1 Introduction Viet Nam is home to almost 9 million agricultural households; virtually all of them cultivate very small farms. Despite the overwhelmingly small-scale nature of Viet Nam’s agriculture, the country’s",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Washington, DC. 112 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Jonathan Haughton and Shahidur R. Khandker CHAPTER 4 4.1 Introduction Viet Nam is home to almost 9 million agricultural households; virtually all of them cultivate very small farms. Despite the overwhelmingly small-scale nature of Viet Nam’s agriculture, the country’s agricultural output has tripled since economic reforms began in the late 1980s. In the ensuing decades, the country has become a world-class exporter of rice, rubber, pepper, and coffee. What role did agricultural finance play in this transformation? Do farmers, both rich and poor, now have adequate access to the financial system in Viet Nam? Has agricultural credit, especially microcredit, had a measurable impact on agricultural households’ output, incomes, and well-being? These are the main themes that we address in this chapter. We start with an overview of Viet Nam’s system of agriculture and agricultural finance. We then examine farmers’ use of the financial system and who has access to borrowing, model the impact of credit, and summarize the results and lessons learned. 4.2 Agriculture in Viet Nam Since 1990, the value added by Viet Nam’s agriculture has almost tripled, growing on average 3.7% per year (Figure 4.1a). Since 1989, when the policy of Doi Moi (“renovation”) began to transform farming from the collective sector back to private farms, Vietnamese agriculture has become far more productive, as well as far more specialized. Between 1989 and 2013, Viet Nam’s coffee production rose 29-fold, rubber output rose 22-fold, and pepper production jumped 30‑fold (Table 4.1); Viet Nam is now the world’s largest producer and exporter of pepper, the second-largest exporter of coffee, cassava and cinnamon, and the fourth‑largest exporter of rubber and rice. 113 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Figure 4.1:\u0003 Recent Evolution of the Agricultural Sector in Viet",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "30‑fold (Table 4.1); Viet Nam is now the world’s largest producer and exporter of pepper, the second-largest exporter of coffee, cassava and cinnamon, and the fourth‑largest exporter of rubber and rice. 113 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Figure 4.1:\u0003 Recent Evolution of the Agricultural Sector in Viet Nam 0 200 400 600 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 a. Agricultural Value Added (trillion D, 2010 prices) 0 10 20 30 40 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 b. Agricultural Value Added (% of GDP) 0 2 4 6 10 GDP 8 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 c. Growth Rates: GDP and Agricultural Value Added Ag. value added Imports 0 5 10 15 30 20 25 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 d. Food Exports and Imports ($ billion, 2015 prices) Exports 0 10 20 30 80 40 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 g. Agricultural Employment as % of Total In millions 0 10 20 30 80 40 50 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 h. Rural Population As % of population 0.00 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 e. Cereal Production (m tons) 0 10 40 20 30 f. Agricultural Land (% of land area) 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 50 60 70 60 70 Female Male Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators (accessed 9 January 2023). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 114 Table 4.1:\u0003 Vietnamese Agricultural Production: Selected Crops Annual Average Production (tons) World Rank (by Production Volume) % Growth 1988–1990 2012–2014 2019–2021 Production Exports 1989–2020 Coffee, green 58,300 1,331,207 1,765,091 2 2 2,928 Rubber, natural 52,746 928,360 1,226,811 3 4 2,226 Pepper (piper spp.) 8,864 132,353 274,404 1 1",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Opportunities 114 Table 4.1:\u0003 Vietnamese Agricultural Production: Selected Crops Annual Average Production (tons) World Rank (by Production Volume) % Growth 1988–1990 2012–2014 2019–2021 Production Exports 1989–2020 Coffee, green 58,300 1,331,207 1,765,091 2 2 2,928 Rubber, natural 52,746 928,360 1,226,811 3 4 2,226 Pepper (piper spp.) 8,864 132,353 274,404 1 1 2,996 Cinnamon (canella) 2,900 29,591 43,893 3 2 1,414 Cabbages and other brassicas 92,667 874,252 1,031,698 1,013 Watermelons 150,000 1,124,735 1,451,558 868 Tea 942,788 1,045,414 7 10 Maize 774,583 5,122,296 4,578,880 491 Cashew nuts, with shell 106,667 277,654 344,620 4 (1)a 223 Orange and grapefruit 183,412 995,334 2,182,259 1,090 Mangoes, mangosteens, guavas 168,735 768,587 1,284,388 661 Cassava 2,566,833 9,901,095 10,414,883 8 2 306 Sugar cane 5,483,267 19,657,057 12,653,693 131 Rice, paddy 18,407,136 44,250,300 43,371,072 5 4 136 Beans, dry 97,100 169,321 160,773 66 Bananas 1,221,190 1,847,367 2,269,548 86 Coconuts 890,986 1,317,078 1,754,629 6 5 97 Pineapples 434,783 584,233 715,353 65 Sweet potatoes 1,913,343 1,395,491 1,347,151 10 9 –30 Note: Growth rate is total percentage change in volume of production between 1988–1990 and 2019–2021. a For fresh and dried cashews. Source: FAO (2023). 115 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Similarly, in 1984, Viet Nam’s cereal production was only 16 million tons, barely sufficient to feed the country’s population; by 2014, however, cereal production had risen to 50 million tons (Figure 4.1e) and the average yield, at 5.6 tons/hectare (t/ha), was close to that of the People’s Republic of China (5.9 t/ha) and far above that of Thailand (3.1 t/ha). Despite the evident vigor of Viet Nam’s agricultural sector, its share of gross domestic product (GDP) has gradually fallen, from over 40% in 1991 to 12% by 2019 (Figure 4.1b), in part because the nonagricultural sectors of the economy have grown particularly rapidly. Food imports have also increased rapidly,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "t/ha). Despite the evident vigor of Viet Nam’s agricultural sector, its share of gross domestic product (GDP) has gradually fallen, from over 40% in 1991 to 12% by 2019 (Figure 4.1b), in part because the nonagricultural sectors of the economy have grown particularly rapidly. Food imports have also increased rapidly, so Viet Nam is no longer a consistent food exporter (Figure 4.1d). However, Viet Nam’s agricultural sector remains large enough to impact overall GDP growth, as Figure 4.1c shows. The recent growth of Viet Nam’s agricultural output is due in part to an extension in the land area devoted to crops and livestock; until the early 1990s, this land amounted to just over 20% of the country’s total land but has since risen to almost 40% of total land (Figure 4.1f). Although agriculture, forestry, and fishing (a category known as AFF) still accounts for 37% of all employment in Viet Nam—with comparable proportions for men and women—there has been a clear downward trend. As recently as 1996, 70% of jobs were in the agricultural sector (Figure 4.1g). One result is that the rural population now represents 62% of the population (i.e., about 60 million people), down from 80% in 1985, and in absolute numbers the rural population has begun to decline (Figure 4.1h). The average Vietnamese farm holding in 2014 was just 0.6 hectares, although the average for households reporting agriculture as their main source of income is 1.45 hectares. Only 0.4% of farms are larger than 10 hectares; collectively, these larger farms account for just 8.3% of the country’s farm acreage, as Table 4.2 shows. When the government decollectivized agriculture after 1989, it limited farm size; a further law established in 2003 limited land holdings to no more than 3 hectares (Dao and Nguyen 2015). Under the constitution, land",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "these larger farms account for just 8.3% of the country’s farm acreage, as Table 4.2 shows. When the government decollectivized agriculture after 1989, it limited farm size; a further law established in 2003 limited land holdings to no more than 3 hectares (Dao and Nguyen 2015). Under the constitution, land may only be owned by the state, but individuals may obtain land use rights (National Assembly of Viet Nam 2004, Article 67). The 2014 Land Law loosened limits on the area of land that individuals may own, for instance to 20 hectares, for each type of land used for annual crops such as rice; under the amended law, land rights also typically last for 50 years (Dao and Nguyen 2015). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 116 Just over 90% of Viet Nam’s farm households now have formal land-use‑right certificates (USAID 2013); this increasingly secure land tenure has had a measurable effect in boosting the production of long-term crops (Do and Iyer 2007). In addition to the 9.65 million traditional farm households enumerated by the Agricultural Census in 2011, an estimated 1,400 businesses (with 95 employees on average) and 6,100 cooperatives (with an average of 17 employees) “own” or operate land. However, Dao and Nguyen (2015) argue that farms are still too small and fragmented to be efficient and that consolidation has not yet occurred on a significant scale. Given the rapid growth of Viet Nam’s agricultural sector, it is tempting to assume that the country’s financial system is basically supportive. For instance, the area planted to pepper rose by 74,000 hectares between 2008 and 2016 (GSO 2017); given an investment of about $20,000 per hectare, this represents a financial commitment of $1.5 billion. However, while substantial funding for agriculture has been available in the aggregate, we cannot",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "is basically supportive. For instance, the area planted to pepper rose by 74,000 hectares between 2008 and 2016 (GSO 2017); given an investment of about $20,000 per hectare, this represents a financial commitment of $1.5 billion. However, while substantial funding for agriculture has been available in the aggregate, we cannot assume that all farmers can access sufficient finance. In 2017, just 53% of farmers had a loan. Table 4.2:\u0003 \u0007Household Agricultural Holdings, Income Source, and Debt Use by Farm Size Size of Holding (hectares) Agricultural Holdingsa Mainly Agricultural Incomeb (%) Any Debt Borrowers (%) Agricultural Debt Number (‘000) Number (%) Area (%) Borrowers (%) Amount (%) Under 0.2 2,451 27.5 3.5 11 32 12 10 0.2–0.49 2,690 30.2 10.5 24 37 18 20 0.5–0.99 1,462 16.4 12.6 45 44 27 16 1.0–1.99 1,276 14.3 21.6 60 46 33 24 2.0–4.99 855 9.6 31.7 63 50 35 21 5.0–9.99 146 1.6 11.8 67 37 27 3 10+ 38 0.4 8.3 52 35 26 1 Total 8,919 100 100 31 39 21 100 a Includes agricultural and forest land; refers to households only. Total calibrated to 2011. b These households get all or most of their income from agriculture. Source: GSO (2014). 117 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Agricultural finance may hold some promise for reducing poverty. Although Viet Nam’s rural poverty rate continues to fall rapidly—from 21% in 2010 to 5% in 2020 using the GSO/World Bank poverty line (World Bank 2022: 3)—two‑thirds of poor people depend solely on agriculture even though this group makes up just 16% of the population; and 79% of poor people are from minority groups, which constitute 15% of the population. Farmers are increasingly older people, and they may be ill-equipped to migrate to the country’s booming towns and cities; in such cases,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "on agriculture even though this group makes up just 16% of the population; and 79% of poor people are from minority groups, which constitute 15% of the population. Farmers are increasingly older people, and they may be ill-equipped to migrate to the country’s booming towns and cities; in such cases, further improvements in income may need to come from greater agricultural productivity. Thus, it is important to determine whether better access to agricultural finance could help raise rural populations’ economic position. Agricultural finance clearly involves the banking system, but the government also plays an active role, investing in infrastructure such as roads, influencing prices, and fostering technology development and adoption. Thus, it is also worth examining whether existing government support for agriculture is sufficient or well directed. It is in this context—a dynamic agricultural sector dominated by smallholder farmers constrained by availability of land and labor and a need to increase productivity and use more productive technologies in order to continue economic growth and reduce poverty—that we turn to a discussion of the role of agricultural finance. First, we ask whether farmers have at least some access to the financial system. Then we summarize the main elements of the financial system that concern farmers, paying particular attention to the two key institutions— the Vietnam Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (Agribank, sometimes referred to as VBARD) and the Vietnam Bank for Social Policies (VBSP). We then turn our attention to the determinants of farmers’ decisions about whether and how much to borrow, before examining the impact of that borrowing on household incomes and profit. 4.3 Are Farmers Banked? The first question we address is whether farmers have access to the financial system in Viet Nam. In 2014, and again in 2020, a community survey undertaken as part of the Vietnam",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to borrow, before examining the impact of that borrowing on household incomes and profit. 4.3 Are Farmers Banked? The first question we address is whether farmers have access to the financial system in Viet Nam. In 2014, and again in 2020, a community survey undertaken as part of the Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey (VHLSS) asked local leaders from where households in the commune obtained loans, if they obtained loans at all. Essentially all communes reported borrowing from at least Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 118 some sources, and in 98% of communes there were households that borrowed from commercial government banks (mainly Agribank). The variety of sources of credit is striking, with at least two-fifths of communes reporting that there was borrowing from private banks, credit organizations (such as VBSP), sociopolitical organizations (such as the Women’s Union), individual lenders, and family members. In sum, both formal and informal credit appears to be available in most parts of Viet Nam. On the other hand, some of the institutions were not convenient: on average, the nearest bank was 10 kilometers away, and even sociopolitical organizations and community groups were typically not close by (last column, Table 4.3). This may help explain why credit from individual lenders and family members remains widespread, a point also noted by Duong and Antriyandarti (2022). Table 4.3:\u0003 Sources of Borrowed Funds in Communes Borrowing is Done From % of Communes Distance to Outlet (km) 2014 2020 2020 Government commercial banks 94 98 9.7 Private banks 34 53 10.9 Credit organizations 58 62 8.2 Sociopolitical organizations 45 46 6.3 Community groups 5 8 3.4 Individual lenders 50 47 2.6 Individual traders or input suppliers 14 17 2.9 Friends, relatives 62 66 Other sources 2 1 Memo: From any informal source 71 km = kilometer.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Private banks 34 53 10.9 Credit organizations 58 62 8.2 Sociopolitical organizations 45 46 6.3 Community groups 5 8 3.4 Individual lenders 50 47 2.6 Individual traders or input suppliers 14 17 2.9 Friends, relatives 62 66 Other sources 2 1 Memo: From any informal source 71 km = kilometer. Note: Data are based on 7,927 responses from the community survey component of the VHLSS surveys. Sources: GSO (2014, 2021). Nguyen et al. (2011) argue that credit is widely available to households throughout Viet Nam, but not everyone agrees; Duong and Izumida (2002) make the case that rural households still face many barriers to credit. 119 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Using data from a survey of 932 households in four provinces in 1997 and 2002, Barslund and Tarp (2008) found limited evidence of credit rationing; only 9% of loan applications were rejected, and just 8% of households refrained from requesting credit even though they would have liked to borrow. However, they could not rule out the possibility that households would have wanted to borrow more and so in fact might be credit rationed. Barslund and Tarp’s findings are consistent with those of Rand (2004), who found that only 14% of enterprises in Viet Nam were credit constrained and that this rate is lower among household enterprises. More recently, de Brauw et al. (2020) note that according to the Agricultural Census of 2016, 31% of rural households reported having an unmet need for credit. And the VHLSS of 2020 found that the main challenges reported by farmers were low prices (mentioned by 56%), unstable or inaccessible markets (51%), and difficulty accessing capital (45%) (GSO 2021: 28). In 2020, the VHLSS also reported on the mechanisms that were used to save and build wealth, with the results that",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of 2020 found that the main challenges reported by farmers were low prices (mentioned by 56%), unstable or inaccessible markets (51%), and difficulty accessing capital (45%) (GSO 2021: 28). In 2020, the VHLSS also reported on the mechanisms that were used to save and build wealth, with the results that are summarized in Table 4.4. The use of savings books is widespread, but only one in five communes report that people tend to save in bank accounts (i.e., current accounts) or other financial instruments. The importance of gold and gems as a store of value suggests that financial instruments are not seen as attractive vehicles for saving. Some further information on financial inclusion comes from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) of 2020–2021 (General Statistics Office and UNICEF 2021). Using MICS data (UNICEF n.d.), we estimated that while 59% of Vietnamese households had a bank account (Table 4.5), the proportion was just 49% for farmers and 22% for minority households. The MICS survey creates an index of “wealth” based on survey information on household assets; by this measure, most households in the top quintile have bank accounts, but only 19% of poor people do. Table 4.4:\u0003 Vehicles for Savings, 2020 % of Communes Buy gold, gems 77 Buy land 80 Buy animals 20 Buy housing 50 Buy production equipment 35 Hold cash 44 Put in bank account 21 Put in savings book 84 Put in rotating credit fund 27 Other savings vehicles <4 Source: GSO (2021). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 120 Table 4.5:\u0003 \u0007Proportion of Households with a Bank Account, 2020–2021 (%) All Kinh Minorities Q1: poor Q2 Q3: mid Q4 Q5: rich Farmer 49 56 22 19 38 59 76 91 Nonfarmer 68 69 49 18 45 62 81 95 All Viet Nam 59 63",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 120 Table 4.5:\u0003 \u0007Proportion of Households with a Bank Account, 2020–2021 (%) All Kinh Minorities Q1: poor Q2 Q3: mid Q4 Q5: rich Farmer 49 56 22 19 38 59 76 91 Nonfarmer 68 69 49 18 45 62 81 95 All Viet Nam 59 63 28 19 41 61 79 94 MICS = Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, Q = quarter. Notes: Kinh includes Hoa. Q1, etc. refer to quintiles of “wealth” based on the MICS survey data. “Farmers” are households who own some agricultural land. Source: General Statistics Office and UNICEF (2021). Table 4.6 provides some information about the reasons why individuals did not have a financial account for the 71% of farmers and 68% of nonfarmers who were unbanked (i.e., did not have an account) in 2014. The data come from the data collected in 2014 by the Gallup Organization for the Global Financial Inclusion (Findex) database project (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015). Table 4.6:\u0003 Reasons for Not Having a Bank Account, 2014 (%) Farmers Nonfarmers All Need All Need Too far away 18 20 12 7 Too expensive 7 12 5 5 Lack documentation 2 5 6 5 Lack trust 2 0 3 3 Religious 0 0 1 1 Lack money 50 55 50 55 Family member has an account 17 27 21 23 Cannot get an account 7 4 13 12 No need 72 70 Observations 285 61 713 151 % of group (e.g., of all farmers) without an account 71.1 20.7 68.2 20.6 Notes: Respondents may give more than one answer. The “need” columns refer to households that do not report that they had “no need” for credit. Source: Demirguc-Kunt et al. (2015). 121 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Table 4.7:\u0003 \u0007Information Technology Access for Farmers and Nonfarmers, 2020–2021",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "20.6 Notes: Respondents may give more than one answer. The “need” columns refer to households that do not report that they had “no need” for credit. Source: Demirguc-Kunt et al. (2015). 121 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Table 4.7:\u0003 \u0007Information Technology Access for Farmers and Nonfarmers, 2020–2021 (percentage) Farmers Nonfarmers Own a computer 22.0 42.1 Own a mobile phone 97.1 97.7 Have internet access at home 70.2 84.9 Note: “Farmers” are households who own some agricultural land. Source: General Statistics Office and UNICEF (n.d.). The Vietnamese data come from interviews with 1,000 individuals aged 15 years or older, chosen to be representative (after the use of sampling weights) of the population at large. Although the data are somewhat dated, they remain relevant: among unbanked farmers, 72% said they did not need an account (column 1 in Table 4.6); of those who reported needing an account, 27% said that another family member already had an account, while 55% said they lacked the money for an account (column 2 in Table 4.6). Very few of the unbanked farmers said that they lacked trust in the banking system, could not get an account, or had religious objections; some said that it was too expensive to open an account, and about 20% of unbanked farmers who expressed a need for an account said that the nearest formal facility was too far away. Although half of farmers do not have a bank account, they are increasingly connected, with 97% having mobile phones (Table 4.7) and 70% having internet access at home. As mobile banking becomes more prevalent, even farmers will become more financially included. However, Viet Nam has been slow to embrace the payments revolution: according to the Findex survey of 2017, only 20% of Vietnamese households who got payments from the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(Table 4.7) and 70% having internet access at home. As mobile banking becomes more prevalent, even farmers will become more financially included. However, Viet Nam has been slow to embrace the payments revolution: according to the Findex survey of 2017, only 20% of Vietnamese households who got payments from the government received them electronically, compared to 57% in India and 75% in the People’s Republic of China. And 90% of social assistance payments during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic were paid out in cash (World Bank 2022: 172). Further information on financial inclusion is given in Table 4.8, based on the Findex survey of 2017. The survey does not identify farmers per se, but it does ask whether the respondent “received agricultural payments in the last 12 months;” 37% responded affirmatively, and we refer to them as “farmers.” Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 122 Table 4.8:\u0003 Indicators of Financial Inclusion from Findex Survey, 2017 Farmers Nonfarmers Income Quintile Have an account (%) Borrow (%) Borrow for ag/busa (%) N Have an account (%) Borrow (%) Borrow for ag/busa (%) N 1. Poorest 19.1 70.2 27.1 67 16.8 37.2 8.8 111 2 25.5 52.2 22.4 43 22.0 44.6 8.4 137 3. Middle 25.9 61.1 25.9 46 33.0 46.9 11.7 141 4 25.7 60.4 15.6 34 36.4 43.9 14.1 174 5. Richest 29.9 61.9 30.3 37 51.1 49.1 13.7 212 Total 24.0 62.5 24.9 227 33.0 44.7 11.6 775 Memo: 2014 28.9 53.2 13.1 272 31.8 44.3 4.8 728 N = number of observations. Notes: “Farmers” are defined as those who “received agricultural payments in the past 12 months” and consist of 36.8% of the (weighted) sample, which collected information from 1,000 individuals aged 15 years and above. a \u0007“Borrow for ag/bus” refers to the proportion of respondents who",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "N = number of observations. Notes: “Farmers” are defined as those who “received agricultural payments in the past 12 months” and consist of 36.8% of the (weighted) sample, which collected information from 1,000 individuals aged 15 years and above. a \u0007“Borrow for ag/bus” refers to the proportion of respondents who report that they borrowed for agricultural or business purposes. Source: Based on Findex surveys for Viet Nam, 2014 and 2017 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015, Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2018). The survey found that just 24% of farmers and 33% of nonfarmers had bank accounts in 2017, levels similar to those seen in 2014 but well below those reported in the MICS survey for 2020–2021 (Table 4.8). These numbers are far lower than those observed in Thailand (87% and 73% in 2014, respectively), and indeed are among the lowest levels anywhere (IMF 2022). Despite the low proportions of households with a formal bank account, the Findex data show that 63% of farmers and 45% of nonfarmers borrowed in 2017, proportions very similar to those found in Thailand (56% and 47% in 2014, respectively). Farmers were more likely than nonfarmers to borrow in all quintiles, and borrowing rates did not differ systematically from quintile to quintile. The Findex questionnaire also asked about the purpose of the borrowing. An estimated 25% of farmers and 12% of nonfarmers reported borrowing for “farm/business purposes;” these rates are about 5 percentage points lower than those observed in Thailand in 2014. 123 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance While the Findex data come from a comparatively small sample and from relatively straightforward questions, they do point to several conclusions. First, financial inclusion is far from universal in Viet Nam. In part, this is a demand-side problem of cost rather than a supply-side problem of trust, paperwork,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Effective Microfinance While the Findex data come from a comparatively small sample and from relatively straightforward questions, they do point to several conclusions. First, financial inclusion is far from universal in Viet Nam. In part, this is a demand-side problem of cost rather than a supply-side problem of trust, paperwork, or bureaucratic rejection, although on the supply side, institutions have been slow to move to mobile banking, and interest rate ceilings limit commercial lending to agriculture. Second, Viet Nam’s financial system is not widely used for agricultural transactions. Of those receiving agricultural payments (in 2014), 99% said that the payments were received in cash, and less than 1% received payments into a bank account or via a mobile phone. Nguyen et al. (2017) note that “non‑cash payments ... are not accessed by the majority of rural people;” they further argue that the payment infrastructure is weak and the products poorly designed. On the other hand, of the 29% of farmers with a financial account, 64% reported making a deposit and/or withdrawal over the previous year and 46% said that they saved money using an account at a financial institution or in a savings club. Third, it remains unclear whether poor farmers are underserved; poor farmers’ borrowing rates, whether for agricultural purposes or overall, are comparable to those of better-off farmers (Table 4.8). However, the Findex data do not adequately measure the potential unmet need for credit or the sources and terms of that credit. Before examining these issues in more detail, we first need to summarize the main features of Viet Nam’s financial system insofar as it relates to the agricultural sector. 4.4 Institutions of Agricultural Credit Viet Nam’s financial system relies almost entirely on banks, which account for 96% of financial-sector assets. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF),",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "detail, we first need to summarize the main features of Viet Nam’s financial system insofar as it relates to the agricultural sector. 4.4 Institutions of Agricultural Credit Viet Nam’s financial system relies almost entirely on banks, which account for 96% of financial-sector assets. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), banking sector assets were equivalent to 136% of GDP in 2021—a high level of financial deepening for a country at Viet Nam’s stage of economic development, and well above the world average of 70%. Viet Nam’s banking system is dominated by the four large banks listed in Table 4.9 (Reuters 2016), of which Agribank is the second-largest and the only one of the four to still be fully state-owned. Collectively, these four banks hold about 44% of the assets in the banking system. Their role is complemented by about 28 other commercial banks, about 50 branches of international banks, and two “policy lenders”—the Vietnam Development Bank and the Vietnam Bank for Social Policies. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 124 From the point of view of agricultural borrowers, the most important banks by far are Agribank and VBSP. Together these two banks served over four-fifths of microfinance clients and outstanding microloans. Agribank also extends larger loans to farmers than VBSP does. Further microfinance services are provided by the 1,177 member-based People’s Credit Funds (which have 1.7 million clients), two licensed and 50 semiformal microfinance institutions (MFIs), social funds organized by local governments, and donors (ADB 2015). While microfinance is not synonymous with agricultural lending, most microlending occurs in rural areas, mainly to farmers. Table 4.10 summarizes the nature and extent of microfinance lending and saving in 2013. VBSP was by far the dominant microlender in that year. The Vietnam Bank for Social Policies is one of the largest",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "is not synonymous with agricultural lending, most microlending occurs in rural areas, mainly to farmers. Table 4.10 summarizes the nature and extent of microfinance lending and saving in 2013. VBSP was by far the dominant microlender in that year. The Vietnam Bank for Social Policies is one of the largest microcredit providers in the world (see Table 4.11). It had almost 7 million active borrowers in 2017, half of whom were women, and a gross loan portfolio of more than $7 billion. Most of the growth in the number of borrowers occurred prior to 2010; since then, VBSP’s portfolio has grown through increases in loan size, with the average loan now around $1,120, but the number of borrowers has fallen by over a million since 2010. Table 4.9:\u0003 Principal Banks in Viet Nam Bank Short Name Assets, D trillion, 31 Mar 2022 Vietnam Bank for Industry and Trade VietinBank 1,664 Bank for Investment and Development of Vietnam BIDV 1,848 Bank for Foreign Trade of Vietnam Vietcombank 1,463 28 other joint stock commercial banks 6,934 Subtotal: Joint stock commercial banks 11,908 Vietnam Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development VBARD, Agribank 1,737 Vietnam Bank for Social Policies VBSP 262a Branches of international banks c. 1,400 Notes: The exchange rate was about D22,600 per US dollar at end-March 2022, so D1,000 trillion was about $44 billion. a As of 31 December 2021. Sources: S&P Global (2022); VBSP (2021). 125 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Table 4.10:\u0003 Microfinance Lending and Saving (c. 2015) Institution Borrowers (million) Outstanding Loans ($ million) Depositors (million) Deposits ($ million) VBSP 6.98 5,350 6.88 133 Agribank 1.49 1,390 1.05 1,164 PCFs 1.12 1,294 1.31 1,467 MFIs 0.77 189 0.56 48 Total 10.36 8,223 9.80 2,812 Agribank = Vietnam Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, MFI =",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(c. 2015) Institution Borrowers (million) Outstanding Loans ($ million) Depositors (million) Deposits ($ million) VBSP 6.98 5,350 6.88 133 Agribank 1.49 1,390 1.05 1,164 PCFs 1.12 1,294 1.31 1,467 MFIs 0.77 189 0.56 48 Total 10.36 8,223 9.80 2,812 Agribank = Vietnam Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, MFI = microfinance institution, PCF = People’s Credit Fund, VBSP = Vietnam Bank for Social Policies. Note: Based on loans of up to D30 million ($1,423). Source: ADB (2015). Table 4.11:\u0003 Vietnam Bank for Social Policies in Comparative Perspective MFI Name Country Number of Active Borrowers (million) Female Borrowers (%) Assets ($ million) Gross Loan Portfolio ($ million) Mean Loan/Borrower ($) Mean Loan/GNI/Cap (%) Deposits/Loans (%) 2017 FY VBSP Viet Nam 6.77 51 7,501 7,238 1,120 59a 42 Grameen Bank Bangladesh 8.11 97 2,807 1,633 198 20 146 Bandhan India 6.53a 7,429c 5,071c 112c BRAC Bangladesh 5.74b 87 2,881b 2,226b 353 35 34b Compartamos Banco Mexico 2.44b 89b 1,485b 1,178b 484b 5 11b Spandana India 1.59c 100 560c 544c 307b 20b 0 2010 FY VBSP Viet Nam 7.85 51 4,379 3,018 562 51 35 continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 126 Table 4.11:\u0003 Continued MFI Name Country Return Financial Revenue Financial Expense Provision for Bad Loans Operating Expense Borrowers per Staff Member ($) Average Salary/ GNI per Capita (%) Operational Self Sufficiency (%) As % of assets 2017 FY VBSP Viet Nam 0.2 8.7 5.6 0.3 2.7 685 7a 102 Grameen Bank Bangladesh 1.0 15.4 6.9 1.2 6.3 491 7 107 Bandhan India 3.8c 14.8c 4.1c 3.5c 3.5c 227 6a 108b BRAC Bangladesh 1.2b 27.0b 13.7 1.3a 25.0b 2 134c Compartamos Banco Mexico 7.2b 62.3b 5.8b 7.2b 39.5b 150b 118b Spandana India 7.9c 26.6c 9.1c 1.2c 4.4c 393b 2 182c 2010 FY VBSP Viet Nam (2.5)",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "1.2 6.3 491 7 107 Bandhan India 3.8c 14.8c 4.1c 3.5c 3.5c 227 6a 108b BRAC Bangladesh 1.2b 27.0b 13.7 1.3a 25.0b 2 134c Compartamos Banco Mexico 7.2b 62.3b 5.8b 7.2b 39.5b 150b 118b Spandana India 7.9c 26.6c 9.1c 1.2c 4.4c 393b 2 182c 2010 FY VBSP Viet Nam (2.5) 6.2 4.1 0.9 3.7 928 8 72 FY = financial year, GNI = gross national income, MFI = microfinance institution, VBSP = Vietnam Bank for Social Policies. a 2016; b 2018; c 2019. Source: World Bank MIX Market Databank. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/mix-market (accessed 25 January 2023). VBSP specializes in making small short-term (usually one year or less) loans to poor households, although some loans are for periods up to five years (World Bank 2019). According to the 2018 VHLSS, 65% of VBSP loans went to poor rural households in 2018, at an interest rate of 0.7% per month. About two‑fifths of VBSP’s funding came from deposits in 2017, with the remainder coming from the state budget (15% of the total), loans from the State Bank of Vietnam and donors (5%), government-guaranteed bonds (15%), and from financial institutions under a mandatory 2% contribution scheme (35%). 127 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance VBSP became operationally self-sufficient by 2017, in the sense that its revenues cover its financial expenses, operating costs, and impairment losses (World Bank MIX Market Databank 2023), but this has only been true since 2014. In this respect, the institution is similar to its peers in India and Bangladesh such as Bandhan, Spandana, the Grameen Bank, and BRAC (Table 4.11). Loans to ethnic minorities charge an interest rate of just 1.2% per annum (World Bank 2019), which helps explain the importance of such loans in the VBSP portfolio but also undermines the financial sustainability of the bank. While VBSP",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "such as Bandhan, Spandana, the Grameen Bank, and BRAC (Table 4.11). Loans to ethnic minorities charge an interest rate of just 1.2% per annum (World Bank 2019), which helps explain the importance of such loans in the VBSP portfolio but also undermines the financial sustainability of the bank. While VBSP pays its staff well, its operating expenses are a little less than 3% of its assets, in part because of the large number of loans per officer (Table 4.11). VBSP has 690 branches of its own and services a further 10,400 transaction points per month with mobile units; however, much of its lending is done through mass organizations, including the Youth Union, and the Women’s Union, which has 15 million members and administers about half of VBSP’s loans (Bezemer and Schuster 2014). In return for a modest fee, equivalent to 0.165% of the outstanding balances collected on time, these organizations set up borrowing groups (of which there are 170,000), sometimes require compulsory savings, and help collect loans when they are due. Officially, VBSP’s default rate is less than 2% (VBSP 2022: 52); however, some believe it to be considerably higher (DFC, Mekong Economics, and World Bank 2007), and there is evidence that significant numbers of VBSP borrowers do have difficulty repaying their loans (Nguyen et al. 2011). VBSP has been slow to develop electronic systems or phone apps for credit management, money transfer, and payments and deposits. As of the end of 2021, only 15,518 people had used its electronic app, which had had only a limited rollout. Viet Nam’s other major agricultural financial institution, Agribank, is a classic agricultural lender. With 2,225 branches and transactions offices, Agribank has a loan portfolio of $58 billion (D1,314 trillion as of end-2021), of which two‑thirds was lent “to agriculture and rural areas.”",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "app, which had had only a limited rollout. Viet Nam’s other major agricultural financial institution, Agribank, is a classic agricultural lender. With 2,225 branches and transactions offices, Agribank has a loan portfolio of $58 billion (D1,314 trillion as of end-2021), of which two‑thirds was lent “to agriculture and rural areas.” Its pretax profit of D15 trillion in 2021 represented a 20.1% return on equity (Agribank 2022). Increasingly, Agribank has been concentrating on lending to larger farmers and to borrowers outside of the agricultural sector, but in 2018 an estimated 15% of its loans went to poor rural households (GSO 2019). The bank serves 6.6 million customers and issued 4.7 million cards (credit and debit) in 2021, generating a fifth of its service income from this source; a further 14% of its service income came from e-banking in that year. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 128 The dominance of Agribank and VBSP in lending to farmers is due in part to the interest rate ceilings, which prevent commercial banks from charging more than 6.5% annual interest on loans to agriculture. Given the small size of such loans, and their riskiness, commercial lenders find it unprofitable to lend to small farmers. The government does provide interest subsidies for lending to favored sectors, but funding for the subsidies appears to be limited (World Bank 2019). 4.5 Are Farmers Insured? Microinsurance, which seeks to protect low-income people from negative shocks (such as a drought) in return for the payment of a premium, is virtually nonexistent in Viet Nam, although there have been some experiments with microinsurance programs. The large state insurer, Bao Viet, ended its agricultural insurance product because it received higher claims than expected, as did Groupama, which faced claims ratios of up to 1,600% (Ramm and Ankolekar 2015). One",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "premium, is virtually nonexistent in Viet Nam, although there have been some experiments with microinsurance programs. The large state insurer, Bao Viet, ended its agricultural insurance product because it received higher claims than expected, as did Groupama, which faced claims ratios of up to 1,600% (Ramm and Ankolekar 2015). One reason for limited interest in microinsurance products may be because the government typically compensates farmers directly for losses caused by disasters triggered by natural hazards, following a prime ministerial decision of 2009. The national credit guarantee fund, managed by the Vietnam Development Bank, no longer functions, for lack of funds. It is widely held that most farmers do not fully understand how crop insurance works, and that they only buy into it when it is very heavily subsidized (World Bank 2019; Khuc et al. 2022). On the other hand, the government fully subsidizes health insurance cards for old, poor, young, and disadvantaged people, although copayments remain high and represented almost half of total costs in 2009 (Ramm and Ankolekar 2015). 4.6 Patterns of Borrowing We now turn to the questions of who borrows, from whom, and for what purposes. A study by DFC, Mekong Economics, and the World Bank (2007) focuses on a group they call the “bottom of the pyramid,” consisting of the poorest 24% of the population, or 20 million people in 4.6 million households. The authors make the case that even this group has fairly good access to banking, receiving 5.3 million loans and accounting for 3.0 million deposit accounts in 2011, as Table 4.12 shows. 129 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Table 4.12:\u0003 \u0007Lending to the Bottom of the Pyramid (2007) and Microfinance Lending (2013) Bottom of the Pyramid, c. 2007 Microfinance Lending, 2013 Deposit Accounts (’000) Number of Loans (’000) Number of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "million deposit accounts in 2011, as Table 4.12 shows. 129 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Table 4.12:\u0003 \u0007Lending to the Bottom of the Pyramid (2007) and Microfinance Lending (2013) Bottom of the Pyramid, c. 2007 Microfinance Lending, 2013 Deposit Accounts (’000) Number of Loans (’000) Number of Clients (’000) Loans Outstanding 2013 ($ million) Average Loan per Client 2013 ($) Bank for Agriculture (Agribank) 2,100 2,876 1,500 1,390 927 Vietnam Bank for Social Policies 84 2,063 7,000 5,350 764 VPSC (Postal savings) 100 – People’s Credit Funds 400 250 1,100 1,294 1,176 Microfinance Working Group members 335 142 800 189 236 Total 3,019 5,331 VPSC = Vietnamese Postal Savings Corporation. Note: Refers to loans less than D30 million ($1,432). Sources: DFC, Mekong Economics, and World Bank (2007); Bezemer and Schuster (2014). Table 4.12 also shows some more recent information on “microfinance lending,” defined as loans worth D30 million (about $1,432) or less in 2013. It is likely that most of these loans are going to relatively poor households. By this standard, the Vietnam Bank for Social Policies clearly dominates microlending—as noted earlier—although the Vietnam Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (Agribank) and the 1,130 People’s Credit Funds also lend significant amounts. By one estimate, 94% of active microfinance clients were women in 2008 (Bezemer and Schuster 2014: 17), although the figures reported by the Microfinance Information Exchange put the proportion closer to a half (see Table 4.11). The data presented in Table 4.12 only cover lending by institutions, so they exclude borrowing from friends, family, and informal sources. Table 4.13 presents a more complete picture of borrowing by agricultural households, based on householdlevel data drawn from the VHLSS of 2004, 2008, and 2014—unfortunately, more recent microdata is not publicly available. The proportion of households that borrowed was",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "institutions, so they exclude borrowing from friends, family, and informal sources. Table 4.13 presents a more complete picture of borrowing by agricultural households, based on householdlevel data drawn from the VHLSS of 2004, 2008, and 2014—unfortunately, more recent microdata is not publicly available. The proportion of households that borrowed was 49% in 2008, fell to 46% in 2008, and then dropped to 38% in 2014. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 130 Table 4.13:\u0003 Sources of Borrowing by Agricultural Households Mean Value per Loan (D ’000) % of Agricultural Households that Borrow % Distribution of Credit to Agricultural Households Source of loan: 2004 2008 2014 2004 2008 2014 2004 2008 2014 VBSP 4,275 7,770 19,415 5.7 14.4 19.2 5.2 10.9 20.4 Agribank 10,589 23,437 67,228 23.0 17.0 12.6 51.4 38.9 46.4 Other banks 24,969 151,691 159,671 1.4 1.3 1.1 7.2 19.1 9.6 Employment support fund 5,016 47,758 30,714 0.9 0.3 0.1 1.0 1.6 0.2 Credit organizations 9,729 17,558 62,773 2.3 2.2 1.5 4.7 3.8 5.2 Sociopolitical organizations 2,972 6,008 14,518 2.8 2.4 3.1 1.8 1.6 2.5 Individual creditors 6,549 13,060 29,188 5.1 3.6 1.2 7.1 4.6 1.9 Friends, relatives 6,136 14,871 40,177 15.6 12.8 5.7 20.2 18.5 12.5 Others 4,062 8,397 24,100 1.7 1.4 1.0 1.5 1.1 1.3 Total 9,645 22,447 47,425 49.2 46.0 38.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Memo items: VBSP only 4,572 7,984 18,776 4.1 10.0 14.9 4.0 7.8 15.3 Agribank only 11,161 25,534 70,607 17.8 12.6 9.0 41.9 31.3 34.8 Borrowing, multiple sources 16,633 27,933 86,323 8.3 8.3 6.2 29.1 22.6 29.3 For comparison: Consumer price index 100 155 260 Index of nominal GDP/capita 100 199 454 Sample size GDP = gross domestic product, VBSP = Vietnam Bank for Social Policies. Notes: Loan amounts are for borrowers only and are in nominal dong. The exchange rate",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "8.3 8.3 6.2 29.1 22.6 29.3 For comparison: Consumer price index 100 155 260 Index of nominal GDP/capita 100 199 454 Sample size GDP = gross domestic product, VBSP = Vietnam Bank for Social Policies. Notes: Loan amounts are for borrowers only and are in nominal dong. The exchange rate in 2014 was approximately D21,000 per US dollar, so D19,415,000 was equivalent to about $925. Source: GSO (2004, 2008, 2014). 131 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Essentially all of the drop in borrowing can be attributed to a reduction in loans from friends and relatives (15.6% borrowed from this source in 2004, compared to just 5.7% in 2014), as well as from “individual creditors” (from 5.1% in 2004 to 1.2% in 2014). The value of institutional lending actually grew faster than GDP, so we cannot assume that formal credit became harder to get between 2004 and 2014. The reduction in informal borrowing probably reflects rising incomes, which reduced the need to take on short-term loans from these sources. Table 4.13 also shows other shifts in the pattern of borrowing by farm households. The share of farm households borrowing from VBSP rose from 5.7% in 2004 to 19.2% in 2014, during which time the proportion borrowing from Agribank fell from 23.0% to 12.6%. Over this time, Agribank shifted its focus to larger loans; its average farm loan rose from D10.6 million in 2004 (about $650) to D67.2 million (about $3,100) in 2014. The average loan extended by VBSP also rose during this time, from D4.3 million to D19.4 million, as the institution attracted clients who had borrowed previously from Agribank. In principle, VBSP loans are destined for poor households, but in 2006 “only” 44% of its loans went to households so designated (compared to 11% for Agribank, as",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "also rose during this time, from D4.3 million to D19.4 million, as the institution attracted clients who had borrowed previously from Agribank. In principle, VBSP loans are destined for poor households, but in 2006 “only” 44% of its loans went to households so designated (compared to 11% for Agribank, as shown in Table 4.13). VBSP lends money under 22 distinct programs; as of the end of 2021, its lending went to poor and near-poor households (26% of the total), post‑poor programs (18%), disadvantaged students (4%), and household businesses in extremely disadvantaged areas (11%); additional lending was provided for rural water and sanitation (18%), job creation (16%), and housing for poor people (3%) (VBSP 2022). With the rapidly shrinking share of the population that is in deep poverty, the bank has reoriented its lending to a broader set of programs than just a decade ago. The rising market share of VBSP through 2014 was likely due in part to its attractive interest rates, which are consistently lower than those charged by most other formal institutions or by informal lenders. For instance, the median interest rate charged by VBSP in 2014 was 7.8%, compared to the 10.8% charged by Agribank and the 12% charged by other banks and by credit organizations (Table 4.14). Interest rates in 2014 generally exceeded the rate of inflation (which was just 4.1%), but in 2008 interest rates were substantially below the high, albeit unanticipated, inflation rate of 23%. Borrowers had locked into their fixed‑rate loans before the spurt of inflation gave them a windfall. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 132 Table 4.14:\u0003 Annual Interest Rates by Lender 2004 2008 2014 Lender: Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Memo: % who borrow from: VBSP 6.8 6.0 7.2 7.8 8.8 7.8 19.2 Agribank 11.5 11.8 15.7",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "spurt of inflation gave them a windfall. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 132 Table 4.14:\u0003 Annual Interest Rates by Lender 2004 2008 2014 Lender: Mean Median Mean Median Mean Median Memo: % who borrow from: VBSP 6.8 6.0 7.2 7.8 8.8 7.8 19.2 Agribank 11.5 11.8 15.7 14.4 14.8 10.8 12.6 Other banks 10.4 10.2 17.0 14.4 16.1 12.0 1.1 Employment support fund 5.3 6.0 26.5 7.8 13.6 2.5 0.1 Credit organizations 13.7 12.0 13.6 15.0 12.8 12.0 1.5 Sociopolitical organizations 9.6 6.0 7.9 7.8 8.2 7.8 3.1 Individual creditors 38.9 24.0 48.9 30.0 20.9 12.0 1.2 Friends, relatives 3.1 0.0 3.9 0.0 5.6 0.0 5.7 Others 3.2 0.0 4.8 0.0 36.9 7.8 1.0 Total 10.9 6.0 12.4 7.8 11.2 7.8 38.0a Inflation rate (CPI) 7.8 23.1 4.1 CPI = consumer price index, p.a. = per annum, VBSP = Vietnam Bank for Social Policies. Notes: 1. Rates are those reported by agricultural households that borrow. 2. Reported interest rates exceeding 1,000% p.a. are excluded. a Loans from any source. Sources: GSO (2004, 2008, 2014). Table 4.15 reports some information on the uses to which agricultural households say they put their loans. As borrowed funds are fungible, these figures may provide more information about households’ intent than actual outcomes. In addition, the figures for 2014 are not exactly comparable with those of 2004 and 2008 due to a change in the questionnaire used. However, it appears that close to half of the borrowed loans are incurred for “productive” purposes and a further one-tenth are used to buy a house; relatively little borrowing appears to cover immediate consumption expenses or even medical care or durable goods. 133 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Table 4.15:\u0003 Uses to Which Agricultural Households Put Their Loans (%) 2004 2008 2014",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "purposes and a further one-tenth are used to buy a house; relatively little borrowing appears to cover immediate consumption expenses or even medical care or durable goods. 133 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Table 4.15:\u0003 Uses to Which Agricultural Households Put Their Loans (%) 2004 2008 2014 Production and working capital 43.61 25.69 55.33 Capital investment 8.38 17.3 Debt repayment 5.93 7.83 2.31 House purchase 11.42 11.04 12.26 Wedding 1.5 1.54 0.27 Study 3.11 7.12 13.19 Medical treatment 8.12 6.9 4.22 General consumption 7.52 9.9 3.72 Food 1.11 0.53 Durable goods 4.55 4.17 3.22 Water/sanitation 0.57 1.94 Other 4.13 6.04 5.49 Total 100 100 100 Sample size 4,334 3,959 2,986 Memo: Sector in which production loan is used Agriculture/forestry/fishery 42.41 34.58 Business and trade 4.73 3.94 Services 1.68 2.17 Other 3.11 2.25 Note: Classification question in 2014 differed from that used in 2004 and 2008. Source: GSO (2004, 2008, 2014). 4.7 Formal Analysis of Borrowing In 2014, 38% of agricultural households had contracted debt of some sort, although not necessarily for agricultural purposes. In this section, we examine why some agricultural households borrow and others do not; for those households that borrow, we explore the correlates of that borrowing. The data come from the VHLSS of 2014 and refer only to households generating some amount of income from agriculture. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 134 We estimate two models, one for total debt and the other for “agricultural debt” only. The latter measures the borrowing that households report as being used for agricultural purposes. We use a Heckman two-step procedure, in which we first estimate a probit equation to determine who borrows and then estimate a model of the amount borrowed using a least-squares equation in which we include a measure of the non-selection",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "borrowing that households report as being used for agricultural purposes. We use a Heckman two-step procedure, in which we first estimate a probit equation to determine who borrows and then estimate a model of the amount borrowed using a least-squares equation in which we include a measure of the non-selection hazard (the inverse Mills ratio) from the first equation. This procedure helps us to correct for sample selection bias in the second stage; in addition, the term is statistically significant in our estimated model, so this modeling approach is appropriate. We include the variables that measure whether households could or would not borrow in the first, but not second, stage of the model. Table 4.16 presents the results. Households are more likely to have more debt if they own land or other property or if they reside in the Central Highlands (where coffee farming is widespread). The amount of debt incurred is relatively low in the Red River Delta region and for households that have a high dependency ratio; it is also low for households that have bank accounts, suggesting that bank accounts are mainly used to hold savings, especially by those who may not need to borrow. Table 4.16:\u0003 \u0007Models of Borrowing for All Debt and for Agricultural Debt, Viet Nam, 2014 Model 1: All Debt Model 2: Agricultural Debt Summary Statistics Has Debt Amount of Debt Has Debt Amount of Debt Mean Min Max Geographic Effects Urban (Yes=1) 9.622 −0.094 −1.588 −0.014 0.13 0 1 Region (Red River Delta = reference) 0.21 0 1 \u0007Midlands and N. Mountains 4.649 0.426*** 7.329 0.572*** 0.23 0 1 \u0007Northern and Coastal Central −3.517 0.415*** 14.063 0.533*** 0.23 0 1 Central Highlands 25.043** 0.552*** 22.466* 0.810*** 0.08 0 1 Southeast 16.498 0.304** 16.393 0.613*** 0.06 0 1 Mekong Delta 12.029 0.505*** 22.659*",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Delta = reference) 0.21 0 1 \u0007Midlands and N. Mountains 4.649 0.426*** 7.329 0.572*** 0.23 0 1 \u0007Northern and Coastal Central −3.517 0.415*** 14.063 0.533*** 0.23 0 1 Central Highlands 25.043** 0.552*** 22.466* 0.810*** 0.08 0 1 Southeast 16.498 0.304** 16.393 0.613*** 0.06 0 1 Mekong Delta 12.029 0.505*** 22.659* 0.810*** 0.19 0 1 continued on next page 135 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance continued on next page Table 4.16:\u0003 \u0007Continued Model 1: All Debt Model 2: Agricultural Debt Summary Statistics Has Debt Amount of Debt Has Debt Amount of Debt Mean Min Max Characteristics of Head Age (years) −0.694 −0.012 0.733 −0.014 50.4 16 97 Age squared (’000) 7.044 0.003 −6.912 0.049 2.72 0.26 9.4 Head is male (Yes=1) 3.78 −0.077 3.251 0.086 0.81 0 1 Head is married (Yes=1) 8.486 0.065 10.926 0.05 0.84 0 1 Head: has primary education 4.379 0.031 −1.509 0.037 0.27 0 1 Head: Has secondary education 12.212* 0.08 1.751 −0.037 0.44 0 1 Head: Has some higher education 35.502* 0.008 67.746*** −0.02 0.03 0 1 Household Characteristics Dependency (old+young/household) 4.161 −0.312*** 2.486 −0.217* 0.26 0 1 Size of household −2.874 0.067*** 0.054 0.078*** 3.97 1 11 Interest earned (D ’000) −0.64 −0.028*** 5.366*** −0.041** 0.66 0 250.4 Nonfarm income (D ’000) 0.398*** 0.000 −0.126*** −0.002*** 58.8 −1 990.1 Remittances received per hectare −0.001 −0.003 2.47 0 335.3 Someone is member of association 0.188*** 0.152*** 0.52 0 1 Has residence permit (ho khau) 0.505* 0.509 0.99 Classed as poor in village 0.308*** 0.267*** 0.15 Has a bank account −0.388*** −0.360*** 0.13 Has used an ATM 0.161** 0.055 0.16 Characteristics of Farm Land area (hectare) 7.350*** 0.01 2.236** 0.037*** 0.79 0 48.8 Value of residence (million D) 27.036*** −0.031 53.193*** −0.121 0.38 0 18 Constant −1.201 −0.871* −32.804 −1.621*** Inverse Mills ratio",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "0.308*** 0.267*** 0.15 Has a bank account −0.388*** −0.360*** 0.13 Has used an ATM 0.161** 0.055 0.16 Characteristics of Farm Land area (hectare) 7.350*** 0.01 2.236** 0.037*** 0.79 0 48.8 Value of residence (million D) 27.036*** −0.031 53.193*** −0.121 0.38 0 18 Constant −1.201 −0.871* −32.804 −1.621*** Inverse Mills ratio (non‑selection hazard) 16.573 8.465 Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 136 Table 4.16:\u0003 \u0007Continued Model 1: All Debt Model 2: Agricultural Debt Summary Statistics Has Debt Amount of Debt Has Debt Amount of Debt Mean Min Max Number of observations 5,410 5,410 Mean value dependent variable (not logs) 0.384 18.281 0.204 7.238 Pseudo R2 0.062 0.096 Note: Sample is confined to households with at least some agricultural income. * p<0.1. ** p<0.01. *** p<0.001. Source: Based on GSO (2014). On the other hand, household borrowing is higher if a family member is a member of an association—a measure of “social capital”—or is classified as poor by the local People’s Committee. There is a suggestion of a dualism here: Households with more assets borrow more, as they have collateral and may be trying to develop their businesses; however, households that are poor also borrow more, as they presumably have more pressing needs for cash or are being successfully targeted by VBSP and mass associations like the Women’s Union. 4.8 The Impact of Microcredit We now turn to the question of whether agricultural microcredit in Viet Nam has had an impact on household incomes or expenditure. With one exception, studies of the impact of microcredit in Viet Nam have found large positive effects. This is surprising because the almost-standard conclusion of recent rigorous studies in other countries is that the impacts of microcredit are positive but not particularly large. For example, Pitt and Khandker (1998) find that every additional Tk100",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the impact of microcredit in Viet Nam have found large positive effects. This is surprising because the almost-standard conclusion of recent rigorous studies in other countries is that the impacts of microcredit are positive but not particularly large. For example, Pitt and Khandker (1998) find that every additional Tk100 of microcredit in Bangladesh raised household consumption expenditure by Tk11 for male borrowers and by Tk18 for female borrowers. 137 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Khandker (2005) confirms the poverty-reducing effects of access to microfinance in Bangladesh, especially for women, using more recent data. In Thailand, Boonperm, Haughton, and Khandker (2013) estimate that lending by the Thailand Village Fund raised income by 1.9% and spending by 3.3% in 2004, with the effects mainly concentrated among poorer households. A handful of studies of the impact of microcredit have used randomized controlled trials, which in principle allow researchers to avoid the problem of selection bias that may occur with the sole use of data from existing borrowers. Banerjee, Karlan, and Zinman (2015) summarize the effects of six such studies undertaken in places as varied as Bosnia, Ethiopia, India, Mexico, Mongolia, and Morocco and with sophisticated empirical and econometric strategies. They conclude that microcredit has had a small positive economic impact. The accumulation of studies on the impact of microcredit, undertaken in a wide variety of contexts and reaching broadly similar conclusions, has driven the emerging consensus that microcredit contributes modestly to raising incomes and lowering poverty. The World Bank (2013) found larger impacts, claiming that its Second Rural Finance Project in Viet Nam led to the provision of 275,000 more microloans, the creation of 274,000 jobs, and a 60%–65% increase in income for 445,000 families and small enterprises. However, the methodology used to arrive at these remarkable results is",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(2013) found larger impacts, claiming that its Second Rural Finance Project in Viet Nam led to the provision of 275,000 more microloans, the creation of 274,000 jobs, and a 60%–65% increase in income for 445,000 families and small enterprises. However, the methodology used to arrive at these remarkable results is unclear. In a pair of papers using data from a panel of households from the 2002 and 2004 VHLSS surveys, Cuong et al. (2007) conclude that “VBSP was quite effective” (p. 2) and that participation in VBSP loans raised household incomes and spending by 30% of the value of the loans. While they argue that VBSP lending was poorly targeted, they find that its lending reduced the headcount poverty rate by 5 percentage points and raised incomes for borrowers by two-thirds or more. The most problematic aspects of these studies are that the information on household borrowing collected in the 2002 survey is incomplete and is not comparable with the information gathered in 2004. More recently, Cuong and Van den Berg (2011) use the 2004 and 2006 VHLSS data—which solves the problem of comparability—and argue that over these two years, informal credit lowered the poverty rate to 39% when it would otherwise have been 47%, a remarkably large impact. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 138 Duong and Nghiem (2013) also find that credit has a large effect in Viet Nam; they pool households from the living standards surveys of 1993, 1998, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, and 2010 and regress consumption (or income) on a dummy variable that is set to one if a household had a loan worth $500 or less. Their preliminary results indicate that having such a loan raises consumption by 50% and income by 8%. However, the authors do not adequately control for endogenous",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and regress consumption (or income) on a dummy variable that is set to one if a household had a loan worth $500 or less. Their preliminary results indicate that having such a loan raises consumption by 50% and income by 8%. However, the authors do not adequately control for endogenous placement of loans, and they use measures of credit that are not always comparable across surveys. Duy (2015) takes a somewhat different approach. Using a sample of 654 ricegrowing households in the Mekong Delta, surveyed by the VHLSS of 2008, he estimates a stochastic production frontier and finds that households with credit are significantly closer to the frontier than those that do not borrow. By way of contrast, Pham and Lensink (2012) also use data from the rural panel component of the 2004 and 2006 VHLSS surveys and estimate that microcredit has essentially no effect on self-employment profit, although they do find that (larger) Agribank loans have a positive impact on incomes. Their study uses a fixed-effects instrumental variables model that attempts to correct for selection bias. They conclude that further research on the impact of microcredit in Viet Nam is needed, with close attention to controlling properly for endogeneity. Credit Impact: Data and Method In this section, we present our own estimates of the impact of microcredit in Viet Nam, drawing heavily on, and then extending, the work of Haughton and Khandker (2016). We are able to take advantage of a panel of households covered by the Vietnam Household Living Standards Surveys (VHLSS) of 2004, 2006, and 2008. These are the only recent years for which there is a panel and adequate data on credit, and the questionnaires include a module that asks about household borrowing over the previous 12 months. There was some attrition (9.5%) in the panel",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Living Standards Surveys (VHLSS) of 2004, 2006, and 2008. These are the only recent years for which there is a panel and adequate data on credit, and the questionnaires include a module that asks about household borrowing over the previous 12 months. There was some attrition (9.5%) in the panel between 2004 and 2006 (Baulch and Dat 2011), but overall, we have 1,848 households with observations for all three years. These surveys coincide with a period when the Vietnam Bank for Social Policies was expanding its portfolio of microloans very rapidly; this helps us to identify the impact of these loans. VBSP lent to 6% of rural households in 2004, and this rate increased to 14% in 2008. Much of the growth was due to an expansion 139 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance in geographic coverage. In 2004, VBSP was present in 47% of all districts in 2004; in 2008, however, its coverage increased to reach 73%. The proportion of communes with a bank branch did not change during this period. While the average size of VBSP loans also rose modestly during this time, from D5.1 million to D7.6 million, many borrowers augmented their VBSP loans with loans from other sources, bringing their total borrowing to about 50% more than the VBSP amounts. During this period, there was also extensive churning in the market for household loans, as shown in Table 4.17. The top panel of the table shows the proportion of rural households that borrowed from each major source in 2004, 2006, and 2008. For instance, 3.0% of households borrowed from VBSP in 2006 but not in 2004 or 2008. Although 33% of households did not borrow in any year, only 18% borrowed from any source in all three years. The bottom panel of Table 4.17",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "each major source in 2004, 2006, and 2008. For instance, 3.0% of households borrowed from VBSP in 2006 but not in 2004 or 2008. Although 33% of households did not borrow in any year, only 18% borrowed from any source in all three years. The bottom panel of Table 4.17 illustrates this point in another way, by showing the proportion of households that dropped or took up loans from each main lending group between the survey periods. Of the 5.2% of households that borrowed from VBSP in 2004, two-thirds had dropped out by 2006; however, the addition of 6.0% of households raised the VBSP penetration rate to 7.6% by 2006. In turn, half of these dropped out in the ensuing two years, but 8.6% of households were added to the VBSP roster in that period. Informal lending appears to be even more transitory. Thus, while credit may have been widely available during this period, households could not easily rely on multiyear credit from any one source. If significant numbers of households do not have as much access to credit as they would wish, the provision of more microcredit through VBSP could potentially have a large impact by easing the financial constraints faced by farmers. On the other hand, if credit is already easily available, then the expansion of VBSP would largely displace other lenders and would have only a modest effect on borrowers, mainly by substituting low interest rates for high interest rates. As documented previously, in almost all Vietnamese communes, there is a choice of credit sources, which makes it difficult to construct a randomized control trial that would allow us to measure the impact of credit in a compelling way. We are therefore constrained to use a quasi-randomized design but are able to make use of the availability",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "communes, there is a choice of credit sources, which makes it difficult to construct a randomized control trial that would allow us to measure the impact of credit in a compelling way. We are therefore constrained to use a quasi-randomized design but are able to make use of the availability of panel data over three years. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 140 Table 4.17:\u0003 Measures of Loan Churning in Rural Viet Nam, 2004–2008 Did the household borrow in this year? 2004 No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes 2006 No No Yes Yes No No Yes Yes 2008 No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes % of households VBSP 81.1 7.8 3.0 2.9 2.7 0.8 0.9 0.8 Agribank 66.6 5.2 5.6 2.4 9.5 2.0 4.1 4.6 Informal 67.6 6.0 6.5 1.6 2.9 11.2 1.9 3.6 Any loans 33.3 7.7 7.1 7.0 12.2 5.8 9.3 17.7 Borrowed in: 2004 Dropped Added 2006 Dropped Added 2008 % of households VBSP 5.2 −3.6 +6.0 =7.6 −3.9 +8.6 =12.3 Agribank 20.2 −11.5 +8.0 =16.7 −9.7 +7.2 =14.2 Informal 18.4 −14.1 +9.2 =13.5 −8.4 +6.1 =11.2 Any loans 45.0 −18.0 +14.1 =41.4 −16.4 +13.4 =38.1 VBSP = Vietnam Bank for Social Policies. Source: From Haughton and Khandker (2016), based on the Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey rural panel, 2004, 2006, and 2008. We first measure the effect of intention to treat on household outcomes. In principle, VBSP only extends microloans to poor households (as defined by the local People’s Committee); we refer to this as eligibility (Eij). It is also a practical necessity that there be a branch or mobile unit of VBSP nearby; if a commune has a branch, we consider the area to be treated (Tij), following the terminology (and method) used by Pham and Lensink (2012). Then",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "we refer to this as eligibility (Eij). It is also a practical necessity that there be a branch or mobile unit of VBSP nearby; if a commune has a branch, we consider the area to be treated (Tij), following the terminology (and method) used by Pham and Lensink (2012). Then our model, which uses annual data, may be written as ln(Yij) = Xij β + Eijγ + (EijTij)δ + εij,\b (1) where the outcome (Y) of household i in village j could be real consumption per capita, real income per capita, or real self-employment earnings per capita. 141 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance The outcome depends on household and community variables that are exogenous to borrowing (X), eligibility for a credit program (€), and the existence of a VBSP branch nearby (T). We are interested in the size and significance of δ. We estimate this equation using pooled data, with robust standard errors. Our second quantity of credit model considers the amount of borrowing actually undertaken by a household. A fixed-effects version of this may be written as: ln(Yijt ) = Xijt β + Eijtγ + Cijtδ + ηij + μj+ εijt,\b (2) where C measures the amount of credit per year from the source(s) under consideration. This approach can also be applied to Agribank lending (although E=1 in this case); the intention-to-treat model is not suitable for analyzing the impact of Agribank lending because the treatment term (T) is less likely to be random, leading to a concern about endogenous program placement. Estimates of a simple pooled version of equation 2 are unlikely to be satisfactory because of the probable correlation between εijt and Cijt. There are at least three plausible reasons for this. First, if credit outlets are located in more affluent areas, then credit",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "a concern about endogenous program placement. Estimates of a simple pooled version of equation 2 are unlikely to be satisfactory because of the probable correlation between εijt and Cijt. There are at least three plausible reasons for this. First, if credit outlets are located in more affluent areas, then credit may be associated with better outcomes but may reflect endogenous program placement rather than a true effect. Second, there may be unobservable household or community characteristics that simultaneously influence loan participation and outcomes, such as a farmers’ motivational level and competence. Third, selection bias may arise if the size of the loan is associated with unobservables. One solution to these problems is to use household fixed effects. While this would remove the effects of any time-invariant unobservables, it could also prevent us from observing the effects of some potentially interesting variables. With fixed effects, the identification of loan effects relies on cases in which someone either starts borrowing or stops borrowing, either between 2004 and 2006 or between 2006 and 2008. While such cases are numerous, as documented in Table 4.17, there can be no assurance, a priori, that these cases are random. One way to address this problem of selection bias due to time-varying unobservable effects is to instrument the credit variable, C. We do this using interactions between the eligibility measure (E), treatment variable (T), and household characteristics (see Haughton, Khandker, and Rukumnuaykit 2014; Pitt and Khandker 1998; Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 142 Armendariz de Aghion and Morduch 2005; Pham and Lensink 2012), which gives instruments of the form XijTij Eij. We test for the suitability of the instruments using a Sargan–Hansen J test and test for the need for instruments using the difference‑in-Sargan test. Credit Impact: Results Table 4.18 presents the most important",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "de Aghion and Morduch 2005; Pham and Lensink 2012), which gives instruments of the form XijTij Eij. We test for the suitability of the instruments using a Sargan–Hansen J test and test for the need for instruments using the difference‑in-Sargan test. Credit Impact: Results Table 4.18 presents the most important summary statistics for the three alternative dependent variables and for the control variables. Values are shown for the panel sample overall and for the subsamples of those who borrow from VBSP, from Agribank, and from informal sources. To avoid clutter, we only show the values for 2006 (the midpoint in the panel). The numbers shown in bold in shaded cells indicate that there is a statistically significant difference (at the 10% level) in the values between those who borrow from the source in question and those who do not. Table 4.18:\u0003 Descriptive Statistics for 2006 Panel Sample Borrowers from: VBSP Agribank Informal Dependent variables (unlogged) (D ’000 p.a.) Real consumption per capita (excluding durables) 7,229 5,493 6,952 6,276 Real income per capita 11,176 7,397 10,914 8,283 Real self-employment income per household 26,584 20,132 36,298 20,064 Control variables (percentages unless otherwise indicated) Household is poor/VBSP-eligible 14 44 11 25 District has VBSP presence 54 77 63 51 Commune has VBSP presence 15 34 17 14 District has Agribank presence 80 82 94 80 Commune has Agribank presence 29 35 44 30 District has Agribank presence 83 66 85 86 Commune has informal lender 26 23 29 38 District has any lender 98 98 100 97 Commune has any lender 63 80 75 74 VBSP credit: proportion of households 8 100 4 8 Size of VBSP loan (D ’000) 568 6,874 207 402 continued on next page 143 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance continued on next page Table 4.18:\u0003",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "98 98 100 97 Commune has any lender 63 80 75 74 VBSP credit: proportion of households 8 100 4 8 Size of VBSP loan (D ’000) 568 6,874 207 402 continued on next page 143 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance continued on next page Table 4.18:\u0003 Continued Panel Sample Borrowers from: VBSP Agribank Informal Agribank credit: proportion of households 18 09 100 13 Size of Agribank loan (D ’000) 3,714 829 20,751 1,268 Size of all loans (D ’000) 7,919 9,123 22,183 15,029 Size of all loans (D ’000), for borrowers only 18,133 Microloan from formal source 31 100 88 24 Household size 4.86 5.13 5.20 4.86 Gender of head (male=1) 77 77 84 73 Age of head (years) 49.88 45.88 49.28 47.32 Education of head (years equivalent) 7.18 7.03 6.81 6.97 Head is literate (yes=1) 92 93 93 90 Number of household members not working due to disability 2 3 2 3 Household has single female head 14 11 11 18 Household has three generations 13 14 15 9 Household is in an urban area (yes=1) 23 14 10 15 Regions Red River Delta 22 9 15 25 Northeast 12 17 11 13 Northwest 3 9 2 3 North-Central 13 23 11 15 Central Coast 10 7 7 5 Central Highlands 6 6 8 9 Southeast 15 9 11 12 Mekong Delta 20 19 34 18 Ethnic kinh (yes=1) 85 65 85 86 Vehicle-accessible road or waterway to commune 98 99 95 98 Secondary school in commune? 37 25 26 31 Daily market in commune? 48 44 35 40 Bank or branch in commune? 29 22 15 19 Percentage of household under 16 26 33 26 30 Percentage of household over 60 10 6 7 6 Percentage of household that is female 51 50 49",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in commune? 37 25 26 31 Daily market in commune? 48 44 35 40 Bank or branch in commune? 29 22 15 19 Percentage of household under 16 26 33 26 30 Percentage of household over 60 10 6 7 6 Percentage of household that is female 51 50 49 51 Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 144 Table 4.18:\u0003 Continued Panel Sample Borrowers from: VBSP Agribank Informal Percentage of household with a technical diploma 3 3 3 3 Percentage of household with some higher education 3 1 1 1 Crop land per capita (10,000 m2) 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.06 Tree/forest land per capita (10,000 m2) 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.03 Aquaculture water per capita (10,000 m2) 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 Head has a spouse in the family 83 87 87 80 Percentage of household workers in agriculture 64 72 79 68 Number of households in village 2,068 1,553 2,083 2,039 Number of individuals in village 9,383 6,926 9,588 9,368 Commune poor (program 135) 18 40 18 16 Remote community 20 36 25 19 Number of poor households 339 336 350 362 Number of observations 1,848 m = meter, p.a. = per annum, VBSP = Vietnamese Bank for Social Policies. Notes: Figures in bold differ statistically from the reference group (at 10% significance or better). Individual sample weights used in most cases. Source: Panel (of rural households) from Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey 2006. Loans extended by VBSP go disproportionately to borrowers in poor villages or in more remote northern provinces. Fully 35% of VBSP loans went to households from minority ethnic groups, more than double the representation (15%) of these groups in the sample as a whole. In 2006, 44% of VBSP loans went to households that were classified as poor (compared to 14% of loans overall and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "northern provinces. Fully 35% of VBSP loans went to households from minority ethnic groups, more than double the representation (15%) of these groups in the sample as a whole. In 2006, 44% of VBSP loans went to households that were classified as poor (compared to 14% of loans overall and 11% of Agribank loans). VBSP loans were on average less than half as large as those made by Agribank. The first sets of results from our estimates in the intention-to-treat model (equation 1), using the panel data for 2004, 2006, and 2008, are shown in Table 4.19. The measure of impact is the log of real consumption per capita (excluding spending on durable goods); we focus only on lending by VBSP. The first column reports the results of a random effects specification (assuming exchangeability), while the second column includes household fixed effects. Both versions correct for potential heteroscedasticity. A Hausman test favors the fixed-effects specification (chi-squared28 = −364). 145 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Table 4.19:\u0003 \u0007Estimates of the Impact of Vietnam Bank for Social Policies Credit on the Natural Log of Real Consumption per Capita: Intention-to-Treat Model RE FE Eligible to borrow −0.267*** −0.097*** (0.024) (0.028) Eligible × Treated (district) 0.056* 0.062* (0.024) (0.028) Proportion <16 −0.345*** −0.242*** Proportion >60 −0.152*** −0.101 Gender of head (male=1) −0.009 0.068 Proportion female −0.037 −0.095 Kinh (yes=1) 0.165*** −0.064 Household size −0.108*** −0.147*** Household size squared 0.04** 0.006*** Proportion with technical diploma 0.265*** 0.025 Proportion with post-secondary education 0.421* −0.001 Head is literate (yes=1) 0.024 0.040 Years of education of head 0.025*** 0.002 Age of head 0.016*** 0.012 Age of head squared −0.000*** −0.000* Household has head + spouse (yes=1) −0.048 −0.050 Head is single female −0.085 0.056 Three generations in household 0.007 −0.001 Disabled worker in household? (yes=1)",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "−0.001 Head is literate (yes=1) 0.024 0.040 Years of education of head 0.025*** 0.002 Age of head 0.016*** 0.012 Age of head squared −0.000*** −0.000* Household has head + spouse (yes=1) −0.048 −0.050 Head is single female −0.085 0.056 Three generations in household 0.007 −0.001 Disabled worker in household? (yes=1) −0.050 −0.016 Crop land/cap (’000 m2) 0.126 0.084 Tree land/cap (’000 m2) 0.039 0.009 Aqua area/cap (’000 m2) 0.184 −0.113 Proportion working in agriculture −0.127*** −0.040 Road/canal to commune? (yes=1) −0.004 −0.032 Bank in commune? (yes=1) 0.031 0.012 Market in commune? (yes=1) 0.031 0.028 continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 146 Table 4.19:\u0003 \u0007Continued RE FE Secondary school in commune? (yes=1) 0.062** −0.007 Reg 2: Northeast 0.044 Reg 3: Northwest −0.113* Reg 4: North-Central −0.126*** Reg 5: Central Coast 0.019 Reg 6: Central Highlands 0.075* Reg 7: Southeast 0.177*** Reg 8: Mekong Delta 0.115*** Urban (yes=1) 0.047 −0.138* Year: 2006 0.149*** 0.160*** Year: 2008 0.139*** 0.160*** Constant 8.380*** 9.036*** N 5,544 5,544 adj. R-sq rho 0.439 0.716 sigma_u 0.262 0.453 sigma_e 0.285 0.285 FE = fixed effects, m = meter, RE = random effects. Notes: Bracketed numbers are the (unsigned) standard errors. * p<0.1. ** p<0.01. *** p<0.001. The coefficient of interest is δ, estimated to be 0.062 (s.e. = 0.028) in the fixed-effects version; this is statistically significant at the 5% level and shows a positive effect, which means that the availability of VBSP credit is associated with higher consumption spending per capita. The order of magnitude is plausible: a 6.2% increase in consumption is equivalent to about D2 million per household, or slightly over one-quarter of the average value of a VBSP loan (D7 million). Similarly, in a study of microfinance in Bangladesh, Khandker (2005) finds a Tk17 increase in consumption for",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "The order of magnitude is plausible: a 6.2% increase in consumption is equivalent to about D2 million per household, or slightly over one-quarter of the average value of a VBSP loan (D7 million). Similarly, in a study of microfinance in Bangladesh, Khandker (2005) finds a Tk17 increase in consumption for every Tk100 lent. 147 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Although they are not central to our study, it is reassuring that the signs of the other estimated coefficients in the intention-to-treat model are as expected: per capita spending is lower for households with many young or old dependents, for larger households, for those working in agriculture, and for households in the Northern Uplands and North-Central Coast. Conversely, households with higher per capita spending have better educated members, own more land, and are more likely to live in the south of Viet Nam or in the Red River Delta. The results of a variety of other specifications of the left-hand variable are summarized in Table 4.20, where we present the estimates for the parameter of interest, δ. The effect of the availability of VBSP microcredit on consumption is significant, or close to significant, in all cases. In the preferred specification, with household fixed effects, the estimated coefficient in the income equation is comparable in magnitude to the one in the consumption equation, although not quite statistically significant, with a p-value of 0.13. Table 4.20:\u0003 \u0007Estimates of the Impact of Vietnam Bank for Social Policies Credit on Outcomes: Intention-to-Treat Model RE FE Sample Size Ln(real consumption per capita) Eligible × Treated (district) 0.056* (0.024) 0.062* (0.028) 5,544 Ln(real income per capita) Eligible × Treated (district) 0.044 (0.037) 0.059 (0.039) 5,542 Ln(real self-employment earnings per household) Eligible × Treated (district) 0.004 (0.066) −0.004 (0.069) 5,505 Ln(real nonagricultural earnings per household)",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Model RE FE Sample Size Ln(real consumption per capita) Eligible × Treated (district) 0.056* (0.024) 0.062* (0.028) 5,544 Ln(real income per capita) Eligible × Treated (district) 0.044 (0.037) 0.059 (0.039) 5,542 Ln(real self-employment earnings per household) Eligible × Treated (district) 0.004 (0.066) −0.004 (0.069) 5,505 Ln(real nonagricultural earnings per household) Eligible × Treated (district) 0.154 (0.380) 0.140 (0.498) 2,205 FE = fixed effects, RE = random effects. Notes: 1. \u0007Bracketed numbers are the (unsigned) standard errors. 2. \u0007All equations include the same control variables as shown in Table 4.18. * p<0.1. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 148 The bottom two rows of Table 4.20 estimate the effect of the availability of VBSP credit on earnings from self-employment, whether agricultural or nonagricultural. We find no statistically significant effects, which is consistent with the findings of Pham and Lensink (2012), who use a similar specification with data for 2004 and 2006 only. Credit appears to boost overall income but not income from self‑employment, leading one to wonder what pathway leads from credit to higher income and consumption. The problem may lie with the low power of the tests, a concern raised by Banerjee, Karlan, and Zinman (2015); however, it is worth noting that in 2008, households reported that only one-quarter of VBSP loans were incurred for directly productive uses. Thus, it is more likely that much of the household borrowing from VBSP is used to smooth fluctuations in income or to address significant spending needs (for instance, medical care). Table 4.21 shows the final set of results, including the key estimates of the quantityof-credit model, for the cases in which the dependent variable is the log of real consumption per capita, real income per capita, or unearned income per household. The top panel presents estimates based on VBSP borrowing,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Table 4.21 shows the final set of results, including the key estimates of the quantityof-credit model, for the cases in which the dependent variable is the log of real consumption per capita, real income per capita, or unearned income per household. The top panel presents estimates based on VBSP borrowing, while the bottom panel gives the results related to borrowing from Agribank. Of the three specifications used, the fixed effects using instrumental variables (FE-IV) models are statistically preferable to those with simple fixed effects (FE) or with random effects using instrumental variables (RE-IV), but we include the latter to show the robustness of the results. A Hausman test comparing the FE-IV and RE-IV specifications supported the fixed effects version in every case. For the instrumental variables estimates, we use two instruments: the proportion of other households in a district that borrow from VBSP (“lender1”) and this proportion interacted with the proportion of household members who are older than 60. The lender1 variable is exogenous to the household and is likely to be correlated with the household’s borrowing from VBSP, but not with the impact that a VBSP loan would have on the household’s consumption or income. The interactive term reflects the idea that a household with older members may be less interested in borrowing, even though it could use the borrowed money effectively. We test the appropriateness of using instrumental variables using the conventional Cragg-Donald F test on the first stage equation, which was between five and six. This means that our instruments are not particularly strong. However, none of the Sargan–Hansen J tests came close to rejecting the null hypothesis of no correlation between the instruments and the residuals in the main regression, which means that the chosen instruments are not inappropriate. 149 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "that our instruments are not particularly strong. However, none of the Sargan–Hansen J tests came close to rejecting the null hypothesis of no correlation between the instruments and the residuals in the main regression, which means that the chosen instruments are not inappropriate. 149 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Table 4.21:\u0003 \u0007Estimates of the Impact of Vietnam Bank for Social Policies and Agribank Credit on Outcomes: Quantity-of-Credit Model FE FE-IV RE-IV FE-IV Ver 2 Sample Size VBSP Ln(real consumption per capita) Amount borrowed from VBSP 0.002 0.049 0.006 0.110 5,544 p=0.16 p=0.11 p=0.78 p=0.11 Ln(real income per capita) Amount borrowed from VBSP −0.002 0.098 −0.020 0.180 5,542 p=0.22 p=0.04 p=0.46 p=0.05 Ln(real self-employment earnings per household) Amount borrowed from VBSP −0.0001 0.041 0.008 0.141 5,005 p=0.95 p=0.48 p=0.88 p=0.31 Agribank Ln(real consumption per capita) Amount borrowed from Agribank 0.0002 −0.005 −0.005 n.a. 5,544 p=0.05 p=0.82 p=0.75 Ln(real income per capita) Amount borrowed from Agribank 0.0006 −0.050 0.047 n.a. 5,542 p=0.33 p=0.56 p=0.30 Ln(real self-employment earnings per household) Amount borrowed from Agribank 0.001 −0.033 −0.061 n.a. 5,005 p=0.16 p=0.58 p=0.42 FE = fixed effects, IV = instrumental variables, n.a. = not applicable, RE = random effects, VBSP = Vietnam Bank for Social Policies. Notes: 1. All equations include the same control variables as shown in Table 4.18. 2. \u0007The instruments are (i) the proportion of other households in the district with a VBSP loan, and (ii) the product of (i) and the fraction of household members aged above 60. 3. \u0007The p-value of the Sargan–Hansen J test was greater than 0.65 in each case; a Hausman test always strongly favored fixed over random effects. 4. \u0007The FE-IV Ver 2 specification reports the coefficients of the variant on Equation (2) that interacts eligibility for VBSP loans with the amount",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "60. 3. \u0007The p-value of the Sargan–Hansen J test was greater than 0.65 in each case; a Hausman test always strongly favored fixed over random effects. 4. \u0007The FE-IV Ver 2 specification reports the coefficients of the variant on Equation (2) that interacts eligibility for VBSP loans with the amount of credit. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 150 The median amount borrowed by a household from VBSP in 2008 was D7 million (about $400). If this were to rise by D1 million, then a household’s per capita consumption could be expected to rise by 4.9%, or by about D350,000, according to the FE-IV estimate of the quantity-of-credit model. The estimate is close to being statistically significant (p-value of 0.11). The effect of VBSP borrowing on real income per capita is stronger and is statistically significant. We find similar results when the specification interacts the amount of VBSP borrowing with eligibility to borrow (not shown here). VBSP is subsidized to the tune of about 2% of the value of its loans; if subsidization translates directly to lower interest rates (relative to alternative sources of credit), this alone would raise consumption and income by about D140,000 on a D7 million loan. However, the effects shown here are much larger than this, suggesting that at the margin, VBSP loans are being put to productive use. From the bottom panel of Table 4.21, we see that borrowing from Agribank had no statistically significant measurable effect on consumption, income, or profit. There is no measure of eligibility here—in contrast to the case of VBSP, for which only poor households are eligible—so the identification of effects is more difficult. 4.9 COVID-19 In March 2020, in the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, Viet Nam shut its borders and followed a zero-COVID policy. The",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "is no measure of eligibility here—in contrast to the case of VBSP, for which only poor households are eligible—so the identification of effects is more difficult. 4.9 COVID-19 In March 2020, in the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, Viet Nam shut its borders and followed a zero-COVID policy. The policy was successful in limiting infections and deaths, and while economic growth slowed to 2.9% in 2020 (from 7.0% in 2019), the country did not experience a recession. By mid‑2021 there was a surge of cases, so Viet Nam launched a vaccination campaign that saw 75% of the population vaccinated by the end of the year. The country then opened up to trade and, by March 2022, to tourism. GDP did continue to grow in 2021 (by 2.6%) and picked up steam in 2022 with growth of about 6.5%. Government social spending rose only modestly in response to the pandemic, and households mainly adopted “self-coping strategies” (World Bank 2021: xii). That said, a series of high-frequency telephone surveys of households showed that in June 2020, over half of households reported reducing consumption, 16% had borrowed from friends and family, and a further 5% borrowed from institutions in order to help them cope. The September 2020 survey found that 8% of households got support from a Vietnamese or international organization. 151 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance A reported 78% of the assistance was in-kind, with the rest either in-kind or in the form of discounts; there was little or no use of the banking system or mobile money to distribute benefits. 4.10 Conclusion and Policy Implications Taken as a whole, Vietnamese agriculture has been very dynamic since the return to household-based farming at the end of the 1980s. There has been a significant expansion in the area cultivated,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "or no use of the banking system or mobile money to distribute benefits. 4.10 Conclusion and Policy Implications Taken as a whole, Vietnamese agriculture has been very dynamic since the return to household-based farming at the end of the 1980s. There has been a significant expansion in the area cultivated, greater specialization in crops such as coffee and pepper, and rapid increases in yields. The sector now faces different challenges, however, including the need to adjust to a declining rural population and to consolidate small parcels of land. Meanwhile, 9 out of 10 poor Vietnamese live in the countryside, and most of them are involved in farming; thus, efforts to reduce poverty further will require supporting this group more intensively. The role played by the financial sector in fostering the transformation of agriculture, and in improving the lives of poor farmers, remains unclear. Almost all agricultural transactions are still conducted using cash; in addition, only 49% of agricultural households had an account at a financial institution in 2021, although 63% of farmers report that they borrowed in 2017, and formal (and informal) sector credit is available in essentially every commune in Viet Nam. On the other hand, borrowing is not done consistently from one year to the next, and the terms of most agricultural loans are short, which does not favor long-term investments. Larger farmers appear to be well served by Agribank, a classic large state-owned agricultural lender that appears to be profitable and has largely weaned itself off its dependence on farm lending. However, the Vietnam Bank for Social Policies continues to be an effective lender to poorer households, channeling half of its loans through the Women’s Union, which forms groups of borrowers and oversees repayments. VBSP is no longer heavily subsidized directly by the state, but it does",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "dependence on farm lending. However, the Vietnam Bank for Social Policies continues to be an effective lender to poorer households, channeling half of its loans through the Women’s Union, which forms groups of borrowers and oversees repayments. VBSP is no longer heavily subsidized directly by the state, but it does rely for a third of its capital on a mandatory 2% contribution from other financial institutions. The number of households borrowing from VBSP is declining, and the institution has been slow to embrace digital banking. We find that VBSP lending does have a clear positive impact on consumption. Our estimates rely on a quasi-experimental design, applied to a panel of households surveyed in 2004, 2006, and 2008, during which VBSP was expanding rapidly. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 152 One of the more plausible estimates suggests a gross return of close to 35% on borrowing, although different methodological approaches give estimates that vary substantially. Nonetheless, our best estimate is that the rural poverty rate in 2008, which was 24.9% using a poverty rate for our sample of D4.8 million per capita, would have been 25.6% in the absence of VBSP credit. If VBSP lending would have been half as large in the absence of a subsidy, this means that the $70 million subsidy pulled one-third of a percent of the population—about quarter of a million people—out of poverty. That is close to $300 per person taken out of poverty, which is not particularly cheap. Our results are weaker than the effects found by some authors (Cuong et al. 2007, Cuong 2008, World Bank 2013); however, our results show somewhat stronger positive effects than those found by Pham and Lensink (2012), perhaps because we were able to use an additional round of panel data and thus increase the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "weaker than the effects found by some authors (Cuong et al. 2007, Cuong 2008, World Bank 2013); however, our results show somewhat stronger positive effects than those found by Pham and Lensink (2012), perhaps because we were able to use an additional round of panel data and thus increase the power of our estimates. We do not find a strong impact of VBSP lending on incomes or on self‑employment income. The latter finding is surprising because one would expect the productive impact of borrowing to act most strongly through the effect on self-employment (including in agriculture). One possible explanation is that only half of the loans are reported as being used for productive purposes. However, the continued implicit subsidization of VBSP loans could also be justified if they were well-targeted to groups that are otherwise hard to reach. There is some evidence of this being the case: other things being equal, poor agricultural households are significantly more likely to get credit than those who are more well-off. In addition, 35% of VBSP loans go to minority households, even though these households constitute just 15% of the population of Viet Nam. An estimated 44% of VBSP loans go to households that are considered, by their fellow villagers, to be poor. Thus, it appears that VBSP loans are well-targeted. Much of the recent writing on microcredit in Viet Nam has focused on the issue of governance and sustainability. The World Bank (2004) has cautioned about the governance structure of the VBSP. Similarly, Timberg and Binh (2011) are concerned about the sustainability of subsidized microcredit, as is Khoa (2013), while Nguyen and Le (2013) note that some microcredit schemes have closed after subsidies ended, highlighting the need to pay attention to sustainability. 153 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance The Government",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Timberg and Binh (2011) are concerned about the sustainability of subsidized microcredit, as is Khoa (2013), while Nguyen and Le (2013) note that some microcredit schemes have closed after subsidies ended, highlighting the need to pay attention to sustainability. 153 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance The Government of Viet Nam has responded to this problem; in 2012, it approved a development strategy that aimed “to increase VBSP’s stability and sustainability, transform it into a self-sustaining operation, and enhance its capacity to provide state policy credit to poor and near-poor households” (Bezemer and Schuster 2014: 34). Some progress has certainly been made in this direction. Viet Nam has been relatively slow to embrace the digital transformation of banking (IMF 2022), but the fintech sector is now growing rapidly, and there is potential for expansion given the low bank penetration rate and the high level of mobile phone ownership. The government’s National Digital Transformation Program aims for half of all banking operations to be online by 2025, and for half the population to have digital checking accounts by then (Samuel 2021; IMF 2022). REFERENCES Agribank (Vietnam Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development; VBARD). 2022. Annual Report 2022. Armendariz de Aghion, B., and J. Morduch. 2005. The Economics of Microfinance. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2015. Viet Nam: Financial Sector Assessment, Strategy, and Road Map. Manila. Banerjee, A., D. Karlan, and J. Zinman. 2015. Six Randomized Evaluations of Microcredit: Introduction and Further Steps. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 1–21. Barslund, M., and F. Tarp. 2008. Formal and Informal Rural Credit in Four Provinces of Vietnam. Journal of Development Studies 44(4): 485–503. Baulch, B., and V. H. Dat. 2011. Poverty Dynamics in Vietnam, 2002 to 2006. In B. Baulch, ed. Why Poverty Persists: Poverty Dynamics in Asia",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
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  {
    "text": "Economics 7(1): 1–21. Barslund, M., and F. Tarp. 2008. Formal and Informal Rural Credit in Four Provinces of Vietnam. Journal of Development Studies 44(4): 485–503. Baulch, B., and V. H. Dat. 2011. Poverty Dynamics in Vietnam, 2002 to 2006. In B. Baulch, ed. Why Poverty Persists: Poverty Dynamics in Asia and Africa. Cheltenham, United Kingdom: Edward Elgar. Bezemer, M., and S. R. Schuster. 2014. Viet Nam: Financial Sector Assessment, Strategy, and Road Map. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 154 Boonperm, J., J. Haughton, and S. R. Khandker. 2013. Does the Village Fund Matter in Thailand? Evaluating the Impact on Incomes and Spending. Journal of Asian Economics 25: 3–16. de Brauw, A., et al. 2020. Agricultural Value Chain Finance in Viet Nam. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. CGAP (Consultative Group to Assist the Poor). 2003. Microfinance Consensus Guidelines: Definitions of Selected Financial Terms, Ratios, and Adjustments for Microfinance. CGAP/World Bank, Washington, DC. Cuong, N. V. 2008. Is a Governmental Micro-Credit Program for the Poor Really Pro-Poor? Evidence from Vietnam. The Developing Economies XLVI(2): 151–187. Cuong, N. V., D. Bigman, M. Van den Berg, and V. Thieu. 2007. Impact of Micro-Credit on Poverty and Inequality: The Case of the Vietnam Bank for Social Policies. Wageningen University, Netherlands. Cuong, N. V., and M. Van den Berg. 2011. The Impact of Informal Credit on Poverty and Inequality: The Case of Vietnam. Munich Personal RePEc Archive Paper No. 54758. Dao, T. A., and D. M. C. Nguyen. 2015. Family Farming and Farmland Policy in Vietnam: Current Situation and Perspectives. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center Agricultural Policy Platform. https://ap.fftc.org.tw/article/886 (accessed 29 July 2017). Demirguc-Kunt, A., L. Klapper, D. Singer, and P. Van Oudheusden. 2015. The Global Findex Database 2014: Measuring Financial Inclusion around the",
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    "text": "D. M. C. Nguyen. 2015. Family Farming and Farmland Policy in Vietnam: Current Situation and Perspectives. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center Agricultural Policy Platform. https://ap.fftc.org.tw/article/886 (accessed 29 July 2017). Demirguc-Kunt, A., L. Klapper, D. Singer, and P. Van Oudheusden. 2015. The Global Findex Database 2014: Measuring Financial Inclusion around the World. Policy Research Working Paper 7255. Washington, DC: World Bank. Demirguc-Kunt, A., L. Klapper, D. Singer, S. Ansar, and J. Hess. 2018. Global Findex Database 2017: Measuring Financial Inclusion and the Fintech Revolution. Washington, DC: World Bank. Do, Q.-T., and L. Iyer. 2007. Land Titling and Rural Transition in Vietnam. World Bank, Washington, DC, and Harvard Business School, Boston, Massachusetts. Duong, A., and E. Antriyandarti. 2022. The Impact of the Vietnam Bank for Social Policies Preferential Credit on Household Welfare in Vietnam: A Panel Data Analysis. Journal of Economics and Development 24(1): 18–32. 155 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Duong, P. B., and Y. Izumida. 2002. Rural Development Finance in Vietnam: A Microeconometric Analysis of Household Surveys. World Development 30(2): 319–335. Duong, H. A., and H. S. Nghiem. 2013. Effects of Microfinance on Poverty Reduction in Vietnam: A Pseudo-Panel Data Analysis. Proceedings of World Business and Social Science Research Conference, Bangkok. Duy, V. Q. 2015. Access to Credit and Rice Production Efficiency of Rural Households in the Mekong Delta. Proceedings of the Second Asia-Pacific Conference on Global Business, Economics, Finance and Social Sciences, Da Nang, 10–12 July. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2023. FAOSTAT database. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data (accessed 2 March 2024). General Statistics Office and UNICEF. 2021. Survey Measuring Viet Nam Sustainable Development Goal Indicators on Children and Women 2020– 2021, Survey Findings Report. Ha Noi, Viet Nam: General Statistics Office. General Statistics Office of Viet Nam (GSO). 2004. Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey.",
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    "text": "FAOSTAT database. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data (accessed 2 March 2024). General Statistics Office and UNICEF. 2021. Survey Measuring Viet Nam Sustainable Development Goal Indicators on Children and Women 2020– 2021, Survey Findings Report. Ha Noi, Viet Nam: General Statistics Office. General Statistics Office of Viet Nam (GSO). 2004. Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey. [Dataset] ———. 2008. Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey. [Dataset] ———. 2014. Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey. [Dataset] ———. 2017. Database. http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=783 (accessed 17 September 2017). ———. 2019. Result of the Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey 2018. Statistical Publishing House, Ha Noi. ———. 2021. Result of the Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey 2020. Statistical Publishing House, Ha Noi. Haughton, J., and S. R. Khandker. 2016. Microcredit in Viet Nam: Does It Matter? IFPRI Discussion Paper 01569. Haughton, J., S. R. Khandker, and P. Rukumnuaykit. 2014. Microcredit on a Large Scale: Appraising the Thailand Village Fund. Asian Economic Journal 28(4): 363–388. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 156 International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2022. Vietnam: 2022 Article IV Consultation. Washington, DC. Khandker, S. R. 2005. Microfinance and Poverty: Using Panel Data from Bangladesh. World Bank Economic Review 19(2): 263–286. Khoa, N. D. 2013. Microfinance in Viet Nam. Ministry of Finance, Viet Nam. Khuc, T. A., H. L. Do, and B. L. Pham. 2022. Factors Influencing Financial Literacy of the Poor in Rural Areas: Empirical Research with the Case of Vietnam. Journal of Eastern European and Central Asian Research 9(4): 638–650. National Assembly of Viet Nam. 2004. Law on Land: Article 67. Nguyen, K. A., and T. T. Le, eds. 2013. The Sustainability of Microfinance Institutions in Vietnam: Circumstances and Implications. Ha Noi: Transport Publishing House. Nguyen, K. A., V. T. Ngo, T. T. Lê, and T. T. M. Nguyen. 2011. Microfinance versus Poverty Reduction in Vietnam: Diagnostic Test and Comparison. Nha",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
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    "text": "Nguyen, K. A., and T. T. Le, eds. 2013. The Sustainability of Microfinance Institutions in Vietnam: Circumstances and Implications. Ha Noi: Transport Publishing House. Nguyen, K. A., V. T. Ngo, T. T. Lê, and T. T. M. Nguyen. 2011. Microfinance versus Poverty Reduction in Vietnam: Diagnostic Test and Comparison. Nha Xuat Ban Thong Ke, Ha Noi. Nguyen, K. A., H. H. Nguyen, T. H. Phi, T. N. L. Duong, T. T. M. Nguyen, and T. T. Le. 2017. Microfinance Products and Services: Current State and Development Solution. Ha Noi: Vietnam Microfinance Working Group. Pham, T. T. T., and R. Lensink. 2012. Is Microfinance an Important Instrument for Poverty Alleviation? The Impact of Microcredit Programs on Self‑Employment Profits in Vietnam. Netherlands: Department of Finance, University of Groningen. Pitt, M. M., and S. R. Khandker. 1998. The Impact of Group-Based Credit Programs on Poor Households in Bangladesh: Does the Gender of Participants Matter? Journal of Political Economy 106: 958–996. Ramm, G., and M. Ankolekar. 2015. The Role of Microinsurance in Social Protection: A Country Study of Vietnam. Luxembourg: Microinsurance Network. Rand, J. 2004. Credit Constraints and Determinants of the Cost of Capital in Vietnamese Manufacturing. University of Copenhagen. Reuters. 2016. Vietnam Banks’ Assets, Registered Capital. 9 December. https://www.reuters.com/article/vietnam-banks-assets/table-vietnambanks-assets-registered-capital-idUSL4N1E504B. 157 Viet Nam: Dynamic Agriculture with Moderately Effective Microfinance Samuel, P. 2021. Vietnam’s Digital Transformation Plan Through 2025. Vietnam Briefing. https://www.vietnam-briefing.com/news/vietnamsdigital-transformation-plan-through-2025.html/. S&P Global. 2022. Foreigners Can Participate in Vietnam’s Growth Story by Investing in its Banks. https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/ en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/foreigners-can-participate-invietnam-s-growth-story-by-investing-in-its-banks-70741659. Timberg, T., and L. D. Binh. 2011. Promoting Sustainable, Market-Based Microfinance: Viet Nam Case Study and Lessons Learned for APEC Economies. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Secretariat. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). n.d. MICS: Surveys. https://mics. unicef.org/surveys. United States Agency for International Development (USAID). 2013. Vietnam: Country Profile. https://usaidlandtenure.net/country-profile/vietnam/ (accessed 22 October 2017). United States International Development",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "2011. Promoting Sustainable, Market-Based Microfinance: Viet Nam Case Study and Lessons Learned for APEC Economies. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Secretariat. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). n.d. MICS: Surveys. https://mics. unicef.org/surveys. United States Agency for International Development (USAID). 2013. Vietnam: Country Profile. https://usaidlandtenure.net/country-profile/vietnam/ (accessed 22 October 2017). United States International Development Finance Corporation (DFC), Mekong Economics, and the World Bank. 2007. Vietnam: Developing a Comprehensive Strategy to Expand Access [for the Poor] to Microfinance Services, Volume 1: The Microfinance Landscape in Vietnam. Vietnam Bank for Social Policies (VBSP). 2021. Annual Report. Ha Noi: VBSP. ———. 2022. Annual Report. Ha Noi: VBSP. World Bank. 2004. Financial Sector Policies Issues Note: Vietnam Bank for Social Policies. Financial Sector Group, East Asia and Pacific Region. ———. 2013. Second Rural Finance Project. https://documents. worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/ documentdetail/801671468761728405/vietnam-second-rural-financeproject (accessed 2 April 2014). ———. 2019. Vietnam Agriculture Finance Diagnostic Report: Financial Inclusion Support Framework – Vietnam Country Support Program. Washington, DC. ———. 2021. A Year Deferred: Early Experiences and Lessons from COVID-19 in Vietnam. ———. 2022. From the Last Mile to the Next Mile: 2022 Vietnam Poverty and Equity Assessment. Washington, DC. 158 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Shahidur R. Khandker and Hussain A. Samad CHAPTER 5 5.1 Introduction While agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) has been continuously decreasing over time, the agriculture sector still provides the bulk of rural employment and income-earning opportunities in Bangladesh. The sector accounted for about 12% of the country’s GDP in 2021 and 38% of its overall employment in 2019 (World Bank 2021a).1 Ensuring food for 165.2 million people in a country of 55,000 square miles poses a significant challenge for the Government of Bangladesh. The combination of increasing population and limited land for agriculture, along with agricultural seasonality and unpredictable weather due to climate change, has been a serious challenge to",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "2021a).1 Ensuring food for 165.2 million people in a country of 55,000 square miles poses a significant challenge for the Government of Bangladesh. The combination of increasing population and limited land for agriculture, along with agricultural seasonality and unpredictable weather due to climate change, has been a serious challenge to food production and food security. Moreover, as more than 80% of Bangladesh’s land is cultivated by smalland medium-sized farmers, augmenting productivity through agricultural diversification with modern technology and investment has proven to be a daunting task. Despite these challenges, Bangladesh’s economy has grown by over 6%, with over 5% agricultural growth, over the last decade. Bangladesh has also achieved great success in reaching near-self-sufficiency in food grain (especially rice) production.2 Rice is the country’s most dominant crop, covering 75% of crop land, providing 48% of rural employment, and contributing 5% of the country’s GDP (Hassan 2021). Bangladesh produced 38 million tons of rice in 2021 (FAO 2022). The need to utilize land more productively has remained a policy priority of Bangladesh’s government, as has the need to keep food prices stable, given the volatility in production and international/domestic prices due to climate change. 1 The GDP of Bangladesh was $416.3 billion in 2021. 2 During 2016–2018, the country’s cereal import dependency was about 12.9% (United Nations n.d.). 159 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture The country needs diversification in crop cultivation, with an emphasis on high‑yielding varieties and irrigation technologies. In addition, as growth in the labor force has been outpacing industrialization and urbanization, the country also needs diversification of rural employment. As private investment remains low, public support for agriculture, including food production and food prices, has been a substantial focus by successive government administrations. For example, the Government of Bangladesh has pursued a policy of providing subsidized interest",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "outpacing industrialization and urbanization, the country also needs diversification of rural employment. As private investment remains low, public support for agriculture, including food production and food prices, has been a substantial focus by successive government administrations. For example, the Government of Bangladesh has pursued a policy of providing subsidized interest rates to boost food production and rural employment. Increasing agricultural productivity through modern seed and irrigation technology requires access to finance by small and marginal farmers, as many of them do not have enough savings to support the necessary investment in such technologies. Increasing self-employment, especially in the rural nonfarm sector, also requires access to affordable credit and other services. Since agriculture is prone to extreme weather events such as flood and drought, rural investment in general has remained low. In such a situation, farmers engaged primarily in agriculture cannot cope with the risks associated with diversifying their income and employment without public support.3 Historically, poor farmers’ access to institutional credit has been limited in Bangladesh, despite government support. This is true for other countries as well. Credit constraints can significantly impact agricultural outcomes, such as farm output and employment (Feder et al. 1990; Sial and Carter 1996), farm profit (Carter 1989; Foltz 2004; Guirkinger and Boucher 2008), and farm investment (Carter and Olinto 2003). Recent efforts by the governments in many developing countries to improve smallholder farmers’ access to credit have raised an interesting policy question regarding the role of government vis-à-vis financial institutions.4 3 Government-targeted agricultural credit policy was implemented by state-owned commercial banks and specialized agricultural banks, while some government agricultural funds for on-lending were disbursed by a few microfinance institutions. Private commercial banks have also been urged to extend financial services to agriculture. On the other hand, microcredit institutions have directed credit and savings mobilization schemes",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "was implemented by state-owned commercial banks and specialized agricultural banks, while some government agricultural funds for on-lending were disbursed by a few microfinance institutions. Private commercial banks have also been urged to extend financial services to agriculture. On the other hand, microcredit institutions have directed credit and savings mobilization schemes to targeted poor in order to create nonfarm employment and complement the government’s agricultural credit policy. These institutions have also extended lending services to include smallholders in recent years. More on this follows in later sections. 4 There are a few randomized controlled trial studies that assess the role of household access to small-scale bank credit and microfinance (Karlan and Zinman [2010a] in South Africa, Karlan and Zinman [2010b] in the Philippines, and Banerjee et al. [2013] in India). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 160 An important factor that determines farmers’ level of investment is the production risk they face due to unpredictable weather, seasonality of crop cycles, and crop price fluctuations. For example, seasonality of income and consumption is a major factor driving marginal farmers to participate in microfinance institutions (MFIs) that aim to generate employment for poor people in the rural nonfarm sector (Pitt and Khandker 2002). Such borrowing not only helps farmers smooth consumption but also allows them to undertake high-return (although somewhat risky) activities in the agricultural sector (e.g., Pitt 2000). Improved access to credit and other financial services provided by MFIs has also helped agricultural households to diversify their income and employment (e.g., Pitt and Khandker 1998). Wadud (2013) observes that the recent expansion of microfinance into the agricultural sector has helped farmers use farm inputs more efficiently (Wadud 2013). By relaxing borrowing constraints, MFIs can help smooth consumption, diversify income, increase self-employment income, and reduce poverty. This potentially makes these institutions",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(e.g., Pitt and Khandker 1998). Wadud (2013) observes that the recent expansion of microfinance into the agricultural sector has helped farmers use farm inputs more efficiently (Wadud 2013). By relaxing borrowing constraints, MFIs can help smooth consumption, diversify income, increase self-employment income, and reduce poverty. This potentially makes these institutions a better channel through which financial inclusion and agricultural productivity can be augmented. In a study in India, Binswanger and Khandker (1995) find that access to commercial banks led to increased agricultural productivity for those who could afford the collateral. However, the same study also finds that such access was not enough to increase agricultural employment because formal credit enhances agricultural mechanization. In recent years, MFIs in developing countries have made some headway in reaching poor farmers with credit constraints; however, these institutions have little capacity to expand because they typically lack required licenses, on-lending funds, and variety in their financial products. As a result, they operate on a small scale, offering local and demand-driven options, such as group-liability lending, in order to reach clients and improve lender profitability. Thus, even though MFIs have helped smooth income and consumption by diversifying farmers’ production and employment, they have not been successful in raising agricultural productivity through large-scale investment. A variety of bilateral and non-government–funded programs have recently evolved to provide other options (Kloeppinger-Todd and Sharma 2010). For example, to address the issue of small farmers’ limited collateral, lending strategies have been tailored specifically for the agricultural supply chain. 161 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Farmers can borrow against output stored in licensed warehouses, and producers and processors can make binding contracts for the outputs for which processors repay the producer’s loan to the bank. Credit access includes extending credit lines for agriculture directly at local banks, which then provide loans",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Farmers can borrow against output stored in licensed warehouses, and producers and processors can make binding contracts for the outputs for which processors repay the producer’s loan to the bank. Credit access includes extending credit lines for agriculture directly at local banks, which then provide loans to farmers and rural entrepreneurs. Prior to the 1990s, the World Bank and other multilateral institutions managed the disbursement of agricultural finance directly through project implementation units (World Bank 2003). In Bangladesh, the World Bank supported the Financial Services for the Poorest Project, which was administered by the country’s wholesale microfinance agency, Palli Karma‑Sahayak Foundation (PKSF). PKSF provides funds to MFIs to lend money to small and marginal farmers for agricultural activities. Because of a lack of efficiency in public institutions, such as the agricultural development banks implementing agricultural credit and targeted rural lending, it is important to evaluate the relative impacts of rural credit channels— commercial and agricultural banks and the MFIs—on agricultural households, taking into account the nature and extent of credit constraints faced by these households.5 It is also important to investigate whether rural credit expansion by commercial banks and MFIs has helped poor farmers directly by stimulating agricultural productivity and income and/or indirectly by strengthening linkages between farm and nonfarm production and employment. This chapter addresses several policy questions in the context of Bangladesh: (i) whether rural credit expansion by MFIs and commercial and agricultural development banks has been able to extend financial services to agriculture; (ii) how the borrowing needs of agricultural households change across the landholding distribution; (iii) how access to credit has affected agricultural productivity, incomes, and income diversification; and (iv) how cost-effective it is to deliver financial services, especially credit, to agricultural households. 5 As institutional finance targeted to agriculture is subsidized,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(ii) how the borrowing needs of agricultural households change across the landholding distribution; (iii) how access to credit has affected agricultural productivity, incomes, and income diversification; and (iv) how cost-effective it is to deliver financial services, especially credit, to agricultural households. 5 As institutional finance targeted to agriculture is subsidized, this chapter focuses on the impacts of institutional finance to determine whether the institutions are delivering credit in cost-effective ways. Hence, we do not address the impact of informal borrowing in this chapter. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 162 5.2 Government Support for Agriculture Bangladesh’s economy has grown by 6% over the last two decades. In the early 1970s, agriculture was the main driver of economic growth, accounting for more than 60% of GDP, followed by the trade and services sector and the manufacturing sector (Figure 5.1). However, during the early 1980s, structural changes took place in the sectoral composition of Bangladesh’s GDP, with a drastic reduction in agriculture’s share, consequential increases of the share of trade and services, and a modest increase in the share of manufacturing. In the early 1980s, agriculture accounted for 35% of Bangladesh’s GDP, while the trade and services sector accounted for 45% and the manufacturing sector accounted for 20%. Over time, while trade and services grew at an accelerated rate and manufacturing registered modest growth, agriculture saw a further reduction in its share of GDP to almost 12% in 2021. During the past 10 years, the share of agriculture in the country’s GDP fell 5 percentage points. Figure 5.1:\u0003 \u0007Distribution of Gross Domestic Product of Bangladesh by Sector Services, value added (% of GDP) Agriculture, value added (% of GDP) Industry (including construction), value added (% of GDP) Percentage 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 1970 1975 1980 1985",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "country’s GDP fell 5 percentage points. Figure 5.1:\u0003 \u0007Distribution of Gross Domestic Product of Bangladesh by Sector Services, value added (% of GDP) Agriculture, value added (% of GDP) Industry (including construction), value added (% of GDP) Percentage 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Source: World Bank (2021c). 163 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Despite agriculture’s declining prominence as a contributor to GDP, food production in Bangladesh has quadrupled over the last few decades in order to meet the ever-growing food demand due to the country’s annual population growth of at least 3%. Agriculture must have been well diversified in order to feed the population. Figure 5.2 shows the dynamics of Bangladesh’s agricultural sector by indices of major categories and activities, such as crops, livestock, and fisheries. The country’s crop production is dominated by paddy, which has grown steadily over time. Crop production surpassed other activities until 2005, when all three activities surpassed the growth of 2004–2005. Interestingly, since 2018, fish production has surpassed crop and livestock production. This shows that Bangladesh has been able to keep up its production of crops (paddy), livestock, and fisheries despite the adverse effects of climate change. Agricultural finance can play an important role in increasing the resilience of Bangladesh’s agricultural sector. In Bangladesh, as in other developing countries, agricultural finance includes a number of financial instruments that can support agricultural productivity and employment generation. The financial instruments include credit and interest rate policies, as well as policies to stabilize food prices, subsidize fertilizers, diversify crop and non-crop production, and mitigate risks in agricultural production (FAO 2016). Figure 5.2:\u0003 \u0007Dynamics of Agricultural Activities in Bangladesh 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Crop production index (2014–2016 = 100) Livestock",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and interest rate policies, as well as policies to stabilize food prices, subsidize fertilizers, diversify crop and non-crop production, and mitigate risks in agricultural production (FAO 2016). Figure 5.2:\u0003 \u0007Dynamics of Agricultural Activities in Bangladesh 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Crop production index (2014–2016 = 100) Livestock production index (2014–2016 = 100) Fish production index (2014–2016) 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Source: Authors’ calculation from World Bank (2021c). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 164 Government policies aim to meet the twin objectives of attaining food security and raising rural income and employment via agricultural/rural diversification. For example, the Government of Bangladesh’s food procurement policy aims to stabilize food prices for both farmers and consumers. Stabilizing producers’ prices helps ensure the profitability of growing crops, while stabilizing consumers’ prices help ensure an affordable food supply and thus encourages consumption of and demand for agricultural products. The policy also helps to build and maintain public storage facilities, which promotes open market operations and can help ensure price stability in case of emergency. The Government of Bangladesh has also liberalized food trade in order to facilitate imports and exports by private traders; this also helps to stabilize food prices and support agricultural diversification. For instance, under the trade liberalization policy, private entrepreneurs are allowed to import rice, wheat, and other food items and to export shrimp and other agricultural products. These policies promote food security and enhance agricultural productivity by providing incentives to farmers and the private sector.6 In order to support agricultural diversification and productivity, the government also provides subsidized fertilizer on a regular basis. These subsidies, which cover the import of urea and boost",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and other agricultural products. These policies promote food security and enhance agricultural productivity by providing incentives to farmers and the private sector.6 In order to support agricultural diversification and productivity, the government also provides subsidized fertilizer on a regular basis. These subsidies, which cover the import of urea and boost domestic production, are worth $1 billion annually and account for more than 2% of the government’s total public expenditure. In practice, the program involves cash transfers to farmers through bank accounts to facilitate the purchase of fertilizers from fertilizer dealers. This policy has helped to promote reliable access to modern fertilizers at affordable prices, which in turn enhances farm productivity. The government has also introduced a national crop policy aimed at diversifying crop production to include potatoes, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, and spices. In addition, livestock and fisheries development programs aim to increase the production and consumption of meat and fish. These latter policies have helped increase exports of fish and fisheries products, increasing foreign exchanges and boosting economic growth. 6 Sometimes the private sector fails to import food during an emergency to meet market shortages. For example, in 2017, when crops failed due to flooding and other weather events, the government imported rice from international markets to augment the domestic supply and sold food in the open market to stabilize prices and increase food availability. 165 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Bangladesh is geographically vulnerable to extreme weather conditions and is one of the most disaster-affected countries in the world. In order to meet the growing demand for high-value foods such as fish, meats, and vegetables, Bangladesh needs more resilient agricultural systems to mitigate the adverse impacts of climate changes. In 2013, the Government of Bangladesh introduced weather‑index insurance products, with funding from the Asian Development Bank, to",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the world. In order to meet the growing demand for high-value foods such as fish, meats, and vegetables, Bangladesh needs more resilient agricultural systems to mitigate the adverse impacts of climate changes. In 2013, the Government of Bangladesh introduced weather‑index insurance products, with funding from the Asian Development Bank, to help farmers avert weather-related risks and reduce shocks in income and consumption due to disasters triggered by natural hazards. According to a recent government report, the total allocation to climate change mitigation interventions stands at Tk24,226 crores ($2.4 billion) or 7.5% of the government budget for the fiscal year 2020–2021 (Government of Bangladesh 2020). Given the extent of the risks inherent in agriculture due to global warming and weather-related shocks, these efforts may be inadequate, so further public support may be necessary to cope with the challenges of disasters. To boost the financial access in the agricultural sector, the Government of Bangladesh has been formulating an agricultural and rural credit policy. In the most recent version (fiscal year 2022–2023), the volume of agricultural credit has been raised by 8.9% to Tk309 billion (Bangladesh Bank 2022). In the previous fiscal year, the credit supported 3.3 million people, of which more than half were women. In addition, separate credit schemes supported 2.5 million small and marginal farmers nationwide, and over 4,000 farmers from char (floodplain sediment islands), haor (wetland ecosystems), and less developed areas of the country. To support the national agricultural policy, Bangladesh Bank publishes an agricultural credit policy every year. Since 2011–2012, Bangladesh Bank has asked all commercial banks to disburse at least 2% of their loan portfolio in the agricultural sector.7 Although agricultural credit policy sets different targets for different agricultural subsectors, the crop sector has been the highest priority, accounting for roughly 60% of the total disbursement target.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Since 2011–2012, Bangladesh Bank has asked all commercial banks to disburse at least 2% of their loan portfolio in the agricultural sector.7 Although agricultural credit policy sets different targets for different agricultural subsectors, the crop sector has been the highest priority, accounting for roughly 60% of the total disbursement target. Due to a lack of geographic coverage by commercial banks, meeting these agricultural lending targets has not always been possible. Bangladesh Bank has therefore allowed commercial banks to meet their targets by lending funds to MFIs with better outreach and repayment mechanisms. 7 Agricultural credit policy covers all subsectors of agriculture including crops, livestock, and fisheries (see Bangladesh Bank [2017] for details). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 166 Bangladesh Bank also has a policy to keep interest rates low for agricultural lending. According to the bank’s directives, commercial banks fix their own interest rates for agricultural credit, and Bangladesh Bank’s Agricultural and Rural Credit Policy and Program sets a maximum limit on agricultural interest rates at 13%. This limit has changed over time. Effective from April 2021, the agricultural lending rate of commercial banks was set at 8%. In contrast, MFIs are allowed to charge up to 27% interest on lending to both agricultural and nonagricultural sectors. This interest differential may have reduced the incentives for commercial banks to lend directly in the agriculture sector. Moreover, private commercial banks do not always follow Bangladesh Bank directives on agricultural loans.8 In general, MFIs are not mandated to lend to agriculture. Historically, the country’s extensive lending network, developed since the early 1990s, has tended to target the landless poor and marginal farmers in order to promote self-employment in the rural nonfarm sector and to reduce poverty and unemployment. With donor support, the MFIs have been thriving by supporting rural",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to agriculture. Historically, the country’s extensive lending network, developed since the early 1990s, has tended to target the landless poor and marginal farmers in order to promote self-employment in the rural nonfarm sector and to reduce poverty and unemployment. With donor support, the MFIs have been thriving by supporting rural nonfarm employment and poverty reduction in Bangladesh (e.g., Khandker 1998; Khandker and Samad 2014). As unemployment or underemployment in the agricultural wage market remains a major concern in the country, provision of credit to this segment of the population to initiate income-generating activities can be a major boost for agricultural growth. The past two decades have witnessed the gradual entry of MFIs into the credit market and the relaxation of the enforcement of traditional eligibility conditions (e.g., ownership of less than half an acre of land). These trends have made it possible for marginal, small, and medium landholding farmers to have better access to microfinance (Khandker, Khalily, and Samad 2016). Lending to smallholders in agriculture is handled by microfinance agencies such as Grameen Bank, Association for Social Advancement (ASA), and BRAC. 8 Bangladesh Bank has a provision that allows private banks to disburse at least 30% of their farm loans through their own channels and the rest through other channels. However, private banks do not always meet the 30% threshold. Not only that; for disbursing farm loans through other channels, they often charge MFI interest rates. 167 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture In cooperation with the Palli Karma-Sahayak Foundation (PKSF), Bangladesh’s wholesale microfinance lending facility, the World Bank has also financed the Financial Services for the Poorest Project, a five-year effort initiated in June 2002. In 2007–2008, PKSF introduced the Seasonal Loans and Agricultural Lending Program, which helps MFIs to direct part of their lending toward crop agriculture. 5.3",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(PKSF), Bangladesh’s wholesale microfinance lending facility, the World Bank has also financed the Financial Services for the Poorest Project, a five-year effort initiated in June 2002. In 2007–2008, PKSF introduced the Seasonal Loans and Agricultural Lending Program, which helps MFIs to direct part of their lending toward crop agriculture. 5.3 Agricultural Lending Banks have typically not widely targeted poor people or the agricultural sector; with banks’ limited presence in rural areas, they have tended to finance well-to-do households with more collateral. However, since the 2000s, commercial banks have been gradually increasing their rural presence due to Bangladesh Bank’s financial inclusion strategies, including new guidelines released in 2012 mandating that the number of rural bank branches must account for at least 50% of the total new branches to be opened in a given calendar year. During 2005–2010, growth in rural bank branches reached about 3.4%, which is not much lower than the 4.8% growth seen in urban areas; however, most banking activity in rural areas during this period was focused on savings rather than credit (Islam and Al Mamun 2011). With the Bangladesh Bank directive, commercial banks have also started working with the MFIs to reach smallholders in their effort to meet the target of 2% of lending to agriculture. Some commercial banks have also been forging partnerships with MFIs to provide better financing options for agricultural households. Bangladesh Krishi (“Agricultural”) Bank, known as BKB, and Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan (“Development”) Bank, known as RAKUB, are the main public agricultural banks focused exclusively on agricultural lending, although they have tended to focus on wealthy farmers with more collateral for bank loans. In the portfolio of bank lending, trade and industry loans are dominant, while agriculture loans accounted for some 5% of total lending in 2022 (Figure 5.3). In contrast, as Figure 5.4",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "exclusively on agricultural lending, although they have tended to focus on wealthy farmers with more collateral for bank loans. In the portfolio of bank lending, trade and industry loans are dominant, while agriculture loans accounted for some 5% of total lending in 2022 (Figure 5.3). In contrast, as Figure 5.4 shows, agriculture accounted for more than 70% of the two agricultural development banks’ lending in 2012–2013. More specifically, food grain production received 46% of the lending by agricultural banks, while non-crop activity received 27% for the agricultural development banks. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 168 Figure 5.3:\u0003 \u0007Sector-Wise Distribution of Commercial Bank Loans, as of June 2022 Agriculture, Fishing, and Forestry 4.8% 41.1% 8.2% 0.9% 34.0% 2.3% 0.6% Industry Construction Transport Trade and Commerce Other industrial sectors Miscellaneous Source: Bangladesh Bank (2022). Figure 5.4:\u0003 \u0007Sector-Wise Decomposition of Loans Outstanding, Bangladesh Krishi Bank and Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan Bank in Financial Years 2012–2013 Food grain 46.4% 9.3% 4.0% 7.7% 2.5% 2.5% 0.6% 4.6% 0.1% 0.1% 22.3% Livestock and poultry Cash crop Fisheries Grain storage and marketing Agri machineries Agri equipment Income-generating activities Biogas plant Solar panel Others Sources: BKB (2013) and RAKUB (2009–2013). 169 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Table 5.1:\u0003 \u0007Agricultural Credit Disbursement in Bangladesh by Institution Type in 2021–2022 (Tk billion) Institution Type Total Amount Agricultural Amount Agricultural Percentage Private commercial banks 9,109.3 163.2 1.5 Foreign commercial banks 638.5 8.1 1.3 State-owned commercial banks 2,133.0 29.3 1.3 BKB and RAKUB 218.2 87.7 28.1 a. Subtotal commercial banks 12,099.0 288.3 2.4 b. Nonbank financial institutions 671.2 0.37a ... Grameen Bank 190.6 42.0a N/A BRAC 429.0 126.1 29.4 ASA 285.6 172.8 60.5 Other MFIs 797.4 132.8 16.6 c. Subtotal microfinance institutions 1,702.6 ... ... Grand total (a+b+c) 14,472.8 ... ... ASA = Association for Social Advancement, BKB =",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "banks 12,099.0 288.3 2.4 b. Nonbank financial institutions 671.2 0.37a ... Grameen Bank 190.6 42.0a N/A BRAC 429.0 126.1 29.4 ASA 285.6 172.8 60.5 Other MFIs 797.4 132.8 16.6 c. Subtotal microfinance institutions 1,702.6 ... ... Grand total (a+b+c) 14,472.8 ... ... ASA = Association for Social Advancement, BKB = Bangladesh Krishi Bank, MFI = microfinance institution, RAKUB = Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan Bank. Notes: 1. \u0007A few variables on agricultural lending cannot be found for fiscal year 2021–2022, and accordingly, aggregates cannot be calculated. Those fields are reported as N/A. 2. \u0007Actual share of agriculture may vary from the figures presented due to double counting, because MFIs collect about 12.8% of their revolving loan fund from commercial banks. Bank credit excludes foreign bill and interbank credit. Table presents information of fiscal year 2020–2021 ending in June. a 2015 figure. Sources: Bangladesh Bank (2021), Grameen Bank (2016), Microcredit Regulatory Authority (2021). In fiscal year 2021–2022, total disbursement received was Tk12,099.0 billion from commercial banks and Tk671.2 billion from nonbank financial institutions (that is, a total of Tk12,770.2 billion) out of a total bank lending of Tk14,472.8 billion. Agriculture accounted for 2.4% of commercial bank lending (Table 5.1).9 9 The actual amount of agricultural lending is higher than Tk288.3 billion, as the lending from nonbank financial institutions and Grameen Bank during fiscal year 2021–2022 is not available. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 170 5.3.1 Trends in Microfinance for Agriculture MFIs in Bangladesh—the first of which started in the 1970s—have grown considerably in both scale and scope over the past few decades, particularly during the 1990s. That decade witnessed the entry of the Association for Social Advancement (ASA) and other major MFIs, as well as the increased availability of donor funding and the formation of PKSF in 1994. With the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "grown considerably in both scale and scope over the past few decades, particularly during the 1990s. That decade witnessed the entry of the Association for Social Advancement (ASA) and other major MFIs, as well as the increased availability of donor funding and the formation of PKSF in 1994. With the rapid establishment of new branches throughout rural Bangladesh, intensified disbursements, and expansion of service portfolios, microfinance operations grew at a phenomenal rate during this decade. Another entity, the Microcredit Regulatory Authority, as the regulator of the microfinance sector, has been working since 2006 to institutionalize microfinance operations in the country. As of June 2021, 880 MFIs have been approved by the Microcredit Regulatory Authority to operate in Bangladesh. In fiscal year 2021, 746 licensed MFIs have disbursed Tk1,680.98 billion to more than 33 million borrowers. The total savings of the microfinance sector stood at Tk414.35 billion at the end of June 2021. Table 5.1 presents the distribution of MFI lending in agriculture vis-à-vis commercial and agricultural development banks in fiscal year 2021–2022. While lending to agriculture from commercial and agricultural development banks together accounted for only 2.4% of their total loan portfolio (Tk12,098.8 billion, equivalent to over $100 billion), MFI lending to agriculture accounted for 29% of their total lending (excluding Grameen Bank) (Tk1,512 billion or $15 billion) in fiscal year 2021–2022. More than 94% of MFI borrowers are women, suggesting that financial inclusion also supports social inclusion. The agricultural sector has therefore remained largely self-financed or financed informally, highlighting the scope for institutional finance to take a bigger role in agriculture lending to spur agricultural diversification and commercialization.10 It remains to be seen if the current issues with institutional finance in agriculture stem from an institutional failure to deliver customized products for agriculture, or from issues related to the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the scope for institutional finance to take a bigger role in agriculture lending to spur agricultural diversification and commercialization.10 It remains to be seen if the current issues with institutional finance in agriculture stem from an institutional failure to deliver customized products for agriculture, or from issues related to the demand side. 10 Institutional finance may also include mobile money. While mobile money banking helps smooth consumption and thus improves household welfare (Jack and Suri 2014), it is not clear whether mobile money helps mitigate production risk and therefore promotes private investment in agriculture. 171 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture By June 2021, Grameen Bank, BRAC, ASA, and other MFIs had reached more than 33 million borrowers in Bangladesh (6 million for Grameen Bank and 27 million for other MFIs). At that time, MFIs’ outstanding balance was Tk583.7 billion, of which Tk132.9 billion was for Grameen Bank and Tk450.8 billion was for other MFIs. Palli Karma-Sahayak Foundation (PKSF), Bangladesh’s wholesale microfinance lending facility, has orchestrated microfinance penetration through a wide network of small but highly competitive partner organizations. As Table 5.2 shows, PKSF’s total volume of on-lending to partner organizations was Tk30.4 billion for agricultural loans in 2020–2021, out of a total of nearly Tk380 billion, thus accounting for 8% of the PKSF portfolio (Table 5.2). Table 5.2:\u0003 \u0007Distribution of Agricultural Loans by Palli Karma Shahayak Foundation, Fiscal Years 2011–2012 to 2020–2021 Fiscal Year Item Agricultural Total Percentage 2011–2012 Disbursement (in billion taka) 16.0 135.2 11.8 Loan outstanding (in billion taka) 8.5 69.0 12.4 No. of borrowers (’000) 552.9 6,651.3 8.3 2012–2013 Disbursement (in billion taka) 21.5 163.2 13.2 Loan outstanding (in billion taka) 10.5 91.2 11.5 No. of borrowers (’000) 668.2 7,865.8 8.5 2013–2014 Disbursement (in billion taka) 25.0 184.6 13.6 Loan outstanding (in billion taka) 12.3 105.0",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "billion taka) 8.5 69.0 12.4 No. of borrowers (’000) 552.9 6,651.3 8.3 2012–2013 Disbursement (in billion taka) 21.5 163.2 13.2 Loan outstanding (in billion taka) 10.5 91.2 11.5 No. of borrowers (’000) 668.2 7,865.8 8.5 2013–2014 Disbursement (in billion taka) 25.0 184.6 13.6 Loan outstanding (in billion taka) 12.3 105.0 11.8 No. of borrowers (’000) 822.6 8,131.3 10.1 2014–2015 Disbursement (in billion taka) 28.0 223.4 12.5 Loan outstanding (in billion taka) 14.4 130.8 11.0 No. of borrowers (’000) 882.8 8,547.2 10.3 2015–2016 Disbursement (in billion taka) 36.1 282.1 12.8 Loan outstanding (in billion taka) 17.2 162.7 10.6 No. of borrowers (’000) 988.1 9,389.0 10.5 2016–2017 Disbursement (in billion taka) 40.8 361.1 11.3 Loan outstanding (in billion taka) 21.8 210.8 10.4 No. of borrowers (’000) 1,010.0 9,967.5 10.1 continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 172 continued on next page Table 5.2:\u0003 Continued Fiscal Year Item Agricultural Total Percentage 2017–2018 Disbursement (in billion taka) 47.0 447.9 10.5 Loan outstanding (in billion taka) 22.6 250.6 9.0 No. of borrowers (’000) 1,036.2 10,380.0 9.8 2018–2019 Disbursement (in billion taka) 44.4 511.6 8.7 Loan outstanding (in billion taka) 24.1 298.2 8.1 No. of borrowers (’000) 883.0 10,780.0 8.2 2019–2020 Disbursement (in billion taka) 46.5 471.6 9.9 Loan outstanding (in billion taka) 26.7 338.9 7.9 No. of borrowers (’000) 911.5 10,950.0 8.3 2020–2021 Disbursement (in billion taka) 58.3 570.1 10.2 Loan outstanding (in billion taka) 30.4 378.0 8.0 No. of borrowers (’000) 963.0 11,729.7 8.2 Notes: Here we define agricultural loan as ones that are disbursed under the Sufolon project. Fiscal years end in June, unless otherwise noted. Source: Palli Karma-Sahayak Foundation annual reports, various issues. In the portfolio of MFI lending to microenterprises, trade loans are dominant in 2016–2017, while agriculture loans have the highest share in 2020–2021 (Table",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "loan as ones that are disbursed under the Sufolon project. Fiscal years end in June, unless otherwise noted. Source: Palli Karma-Sahayak Foundation annual reports, various issues. In the portfolio of MFI lending to microenterprises, trade loans are dominant in 2016–2017, while agriculture loans have the highest share in 2020–2021 (Table 5.3). The share of agriculture in total disbursement accounted for some 23% of total lending in 2016–2017 and 33% in 2020–2021. In contrast, the share of trade dropped from 47% to 26% between the two periods. Table 5.3:\u0003 \u0007Sector-Wise Distribution of Microenterprise Loans, 2016–2017 and 2020–2021 (Tk million) Year 2016–2017 2020–2021 Type of Microenterprise Loan Outstanding % of total Disbursement % of total Trade and business 170,097 46.7 139,183 25.9 Agriculturea 79,332 22.6 178,195 33.1 Cottage industries, handicrafts and pottery 12,089 3.3 25,111 4.7 173 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture 5.3.2 Savings Mobilization In addition to credit disbursement by financial institutions, agricultural finance also means savings mobilization to support lending.11 The Government of Bangladesh’s agricultural credit policy has often been geared toward extending government funds for credit. However, a sustainable financial system to support agriculture must also focus on using mobilized funds under deposit schemes. Just like commercial banks, agricultural financial institutions must be supported by savings mobilization in order to ensure responsible and sustainable financing for agriculture. Savings mobilization should thus be a critical dimension of the financial services provided by agricultural development banks. The differentials between lending and deposit rates provide a margin for the profitability of financial institutions. Unlike commercial banks and agricultural development banks, most of the MFIs in Bangladesh (with the exception of Grameen Bank) are not legally bound to mobilize savings from public at large. 11 Agricultural finance also includes other services such as payments (e.g., remittances) and insurance. However, we do not",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "financial institutions. Unlike commercial banks and agricultural development banks, most of the MFIs in Bangladesh (with the exception of Grameen Bank) are not legally bound to mobilize savings from public at large. 11 Agricultural finance also includes other services such as payments (e.g., remittances) and insurance. However, we do not discuss these services in this chapter due to a lack of data on these dimensions of agricultural finance. Table 5.3:\u0003 Continued Year 2016–2017 2020–2021 Type of Microenterprise Loan Outstanding % of total Disbursement % of total Transportation 9,139 2.5 15,458 2.9 Social sectorb 2.365 0.7 4,046 0.8 Othersc 88,076 24.2 175,666 32.7 Total 361,097 100.0 537,658 100.0 MFI = microfinance institution. Note: Samples include 247 and 491 MFIs, respectively. a All crops, water irrigation, livestock, dairy, poultry, fish cultivation, etc. b Health, medication, education, infrastructure, etc. c Housing, food, computer, internet, solar, etc. Source: CDF (2017, 2021). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 174 Rather, it is a standard practice for most MFIs to mobilize savings on a compulsory basis as part of their lending services. This is to protect loans against default; hence, savings can be treated as financial collateral (as opposed to physical collateral in the case of commercial and agricultural development banks or group collateral in the case of Grameen Bank, which views groups as a mechanism to safeguard loans against default when it is not feasible to require physical collateral). While savings mobilization must be an integral part of lending, keeping a safe margin between lending and savings can help cover the cost of lending, including default cost. Tables 5.4a and 5.4b present the lending and deposit rates of agricultural development banks, while Table 5.5 presents those of MFIs. If we compare the lending–savings margins among state-owned agricultural development banks and MFIs including Grameen",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "between lending and savings can help cover the cost of lending, including default cost. Tables 5.4a and 5.4b present the lending and deposit rates of agricultural development banks, while Table 5.5 presents those of MFIs. If we compare the lending–savings margins among state-owned agricultural development banks and MFIs including Grameen Bank, we find that the margin is the lowest for agricultural banks and highest for a few MFIs. For example, Grameen Bank charges 19% against a loan in 2015, compared to the 8% it provides against deposits that it mobilizes. On the other hand, BKB charges 8% against lending and provides 3.5%–7.0% for deposits. In contrast, an MFI such as BRAC charges 24% for lending and 7% against the compulsory savings it mobilizes from borrowers.12 12 Note that the Microcredit Regulatory Authority, a government agency at the Bangladesh Bank, regulates the lending rates of MFIs. It set a cap on the lending rate at 27% for MFIs registered with the authority. Table 5.4a:\u0003 Efficiency of Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan Bank Fiscal Year (June) 2006–2007 2007–2008 2008–2009 2009–2010 2010–2011 2011–2012 2012–2013 Total borrower 189,401 204,211 214,712 203,892 200,257 196,068 199,642 Deposit in million Tk 13,789 15,390 17,154 20,673 19,464 19,534 22,286 Loans outstanding in million Tk 25,906 27,112 29,194 33,522 35,594 38,360 41,720 Deposits/loans outstanding (%) 53 57 59 62 55 51 53 Deposit rate (%) ... ... ... 5.8 6.8 6.5 6.4 Lending interest rate (%) 7.1 6.9 6.5 7.2 7.4 8.1 8.4 continued on next page 175 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Table 5.4b:\u0003 Efficiency of Bangladesh Krishi Bank Fiscal Year (June) 2010–2011 2011–2012 2013–2014 2014–2015 Total borrower 848,434 839,958 885,179 861,154 Deposit in million Tk 129,605 144,683 178,006 198,912 Loans outstanding in million Tk 139,491 149,296 173,182 179,960 Deposits/loans outstanding (%) 93 97 103 111 Deposit rate (%)",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Can Support Agriculture Table 5.4b:\u0003 Efficiency of Bangladesh Krishi Bank Fiscal Year (June) 2010–2011 2011–2012 2013–2014 2014–2015 Total borrower 848,434 839,958 885,179 861,154 Deposit in million Tk 129,605 144,683 178,006 198,912 Loans outstanding in million Tk 139,491 149,296 173,182 179,960 Deposits/loans outstanding (%) 93 97 103 111 Deposit rate (%) ... ... 3.5–7.0 3.5–7.0 Lending interest rate (%) 7.2 8.4 8.4 8.2 Cost per loan (%) 9.9 10.9 12.1 11.5 Table 5.4a:\u0003 Continued Fiscal Year (June) 2006–2007 2007–2008 2008–2009 2009–2010 2010–2011 2011–2012 2012–2013 Cost per loan (%) 8.7 9.2 9.0 8.6 9.8 9.7 9.5 Profit (loss) in million Tk −416.3 −640.9 −582.9 −247.8 −703.4 −676.4 −588.2 Bad debt provision in million Tk 0.80 0.81 0.74 3.32 12.68 35.91 5.55 Break-even interest rate (%) 7.98 8.26 7.87 8.41 9.10 9.43 9.13 Operational self‑sufficiency (%) ... ... ... 102 86 90 93 MFI = microfinance institution, RAKUB = Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan Bank, Tk = taka. Notes: 1. \u0007We used deposit instead of member because the definition of member may not coincide with that of MFIs as RAKUB is a specialized bank. Deposit rates are shown in RAKUB’s five years’ compliance report. 2. Cost per loan equals operating cost as % of loans outstanding. 3. \u0007Break-even interest rate per unit of principal lent is r = (i + α + ρ)/(1 − ρ), where i equals the cost of raising loanable funds per unit of principal lent, α is the expected cost of administering and supervising a loan per unit of principal lent, and ρ is the expected financial loss per unit of principal lent or simply the loan default rate. Operational self-sufficiency equals operating income/total operating expense. Source: RAKUB (2009–2013). continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 176 Table 5.4b:\u0003 Continued Fiscal Year (June) 2010–2011 2011–2012 2013–2014",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and ρ is the expected financial loss per unit of principal lent or simply the loan default rate. Operational self-sufficiency equals operating income/total operating expense. Source: RAKUB (2009–2013). continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 176 Table 5.4b:\u0003 Continued Fiscal Year (June) 2010–2011 2011–2012 2013–2014 2014–2015 Profit (loss) in million Tk –154.3 –140.4 –29,910.5 –2,152.5 Bad debt provision in million Tk 2,231 1,935 2,189 2,020 Break-even interest rate (%) 11.21 12.14 21.70 20.41 Operational self-sufficiency (%) … … 20% 30% MFI = microfinance institution, Tk = taka. Notes: 1. \u0007We used deposit instead of member because the definition of member may not coincide with that of MFIs as BKB is a specialized bank. Deposit rates reported here are only rough estimates as shown in the respective website since saving products are heterogeneous. Operational self‑sufficiency equals operating income/total operating expense. 2. Cost per loan equals operating cost as % of loans outstanding. 3. \u0007Break-even interest rate per unit of principal lent is r = (i + α + ρ)/(1 − ρ), where i equals the cost of raising loanable funds per unit of principal lent, α is the expected cost of administering and supervising a loan per unit of principal lent, and ρ is the expected financial loss per unit of principal lent or simply the loan default rate. Source: BKB (2012, 2015). continued on next page Table 5.5:\u0003 Indicators of Efficiency of Bangladeshi Microfinance Institutions Indicators (average) ASA BRAC Grameen Bank Other MFIs Average Overall Average 2015 2017 2015 2017 2015 2017 2015 2017 2015 2017 Active borrowers (million) 5.36 6.79 4.92 5.74 7.18 8.93 1.6 3.4 9.2 11.7 Women borrowers (%) 91.6 91.3 87.4 87.0 _ 96.7 96.0 99.3 94.6 95.8 Assets (billion $) 1.468 2.240 2.108 2.233 2.7 2.804 0.04 0.08 0.2 0.3",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Average 2015 2017 2015 2017 2015 2017 2015 2017 2015 2017 Active borrowers (million) 5.36 6.79 4.92 5.74 7.18 8.93 1.6 3.4 9.2 11.7 Women borrowers (%) 91.6 91.3 87.4 87.0 _ 96.7 96.0 99.3 94.6 95.8 Assets (billion $) 1.468 2.240 2.108 2.233 2.7 2.804 0.04 0.08 0.2 0.3 Loan outstanding (billion $) 1.129 1.919 1.437 2.027 1.295 1.769 0.04 0.07 0.1 0.2 Mean loan/borrower ($) 210 282 292 353 180 198 224 299 224 297 Mean loan/GNI/cap (%) 20.8 28.0 28.9 35.0 17.9 19.6 22.2 29.6 22.2 29.4 Deposits/loans (%) 42.5 43.1 35.9 35.7 193.5 146.0 39.3 36.0 43.5 39.7 Deposits rate (%) 6–12 _ ~7 _ 8–12 _ _ _ _ _ Lending rate (%) 24 21 24 23 19 18 20 20 21 20 177 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Table 5.5:\u0003 Continued Indicators (average) ASA BRAC Grameen Bank Other MFIs Average Overall Average 2015 2017 2015 2017 2015 2017 2015 2017 2015 2017 Net return (% of assets) 9.96 9.73 9.87 1.23 −0.1 1.0 2.6 3.4 3 3.7 Financial revenue (% of assets) 18.2 18.8 16.3 22.3 13.8 15.4 19.0 18.9 16.3 18.6 Financial expense (% of assets) 2.7 3.3 4.9 13.7 8.0 6.9 4.8 4.9 4.8 5.2 Operating expense (% of assets) 6.6 6.3 7.4 8.3 5.1 6.3 11.1 11.0 10.7 10.2 Break-even rate (%) 7.9 6.7 7.7 8.7 10.0 10.0 11.0 10.2 9.1 8.9 ASA = Association for Social Advancement, GNI = gross national income, MFI = microfinance institution. Notes: 1. \u0007“_” means information was not submitted to MIX. Figures above are average numbers. Since MIX Market accepts voluntarily submitted data, total figures would be misleading. In this case, averages are more representative. Fiscal year ends in June, unless otherwise noted. $1 = Tk81. 2. Lending interest rate equals amount of interest",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "means information was not submitted to MIX. Figures above are average numbers. Since MIX Market accepts voluntarily submitted data, total figures would be misleading. In this case, averages are more representative. Fiscal year ends in June, unless otherwise noted. $1 = Tk81. 2. Lending interest rate equals amount of interest collected as percentage of loans outstanding. Source: Microfinance Information Exchange (MIX) 2018. Mobilized savings must support the lending of any financial institution in order to create financial discipline. The higher its percentage of savings against the loans outstanding, the less the financial institution depends on donor funds. If we compare the ratios (deposit as a percentage of loans outstanding; see Tables 5.4 and 5.5), we find that this ratio is highest for Grameen Bank and lowest for agricultural development banks such as RAKUB. The deposit/loan ratio is more than 100% for Grameen Bank, meaning that it mobilizes more savings than it lends. On the other hand, the deposit/loan outstanding rate is much lower than 100% for agricultural development banks (for RAKUB, it was 53% in 2012–2013), meaning they use government money to support agricultural lending. Thus, government-supported agricultural lending is not sustainable. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 178 5.3.3 Is Agricultural Lending Cost-Effective? This leads us to the core question of the financial self-sustainability of agricultural lending agencies. Is institutional financing cost-effective for agricultural loans? Cost efficiency is a measure of an organization’s performance in managing its operations. The most common measure of efficiency, the operational efficiency, is defined by operating expenses as a percentage of average gross loan portfolio or total assets.13 A second way to measure efficiency is by assessing an organization’s financial efficiency, determined by whether the cost per unit of the principal lent is equal to the rate of interest charged to the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "is defined by operating expenses as a percentage of average gross loan portfolio or total assets.13 A second way to measure efficiency is by assessing an organization’s financial efficiency, determined by whether the cost per unit of the principal lent is equal to the rate of interest charged to the borrowers. This means that to meet the financial efficiency criterion, a program should charge an interest rate that generates a revenue equal to or greater than the cost per unit of the principal. This is called the break-even interest rate, expressed by the following equation: r > (i + α + ρ)/(1 – ρ),\b (1) where r equals the interest rate charged per unit of principal lent, i equals the cost of raising loanable funds per unit of principal lent, α is the expected cost of administering and supervising a loan per unit of principal lent, and ρ is the expected financial loss per unit of principal lent, or simply the loan default rate. Let us consider the cost-efficiency of agricultural development banks (BKB and RAKUB) vis-à-vis that of MFIs. Table 5.4 presents the cost-efficiency and other indicators of agricultural development banks (BKB and RAKUB) for the period of 2010–2011 to 2014–2015. For RAKUB, the loans outstanding amount ranges between Tk2.5 billion and Tk4.2 billion, half of which is supported through the deposits mobilized. This means that half of the loans outstanding come from the government and other sources. On the other hand, BKB seems to lend the deposits that it mobilizes, as its deposit/loan outstanding rate is close to 100% over the study period (2013–2015). However, none of these agricultural development banks is cost-efficient, meaning that they cannot recover their operating costs. Both banks are running at huge losses and are sustained by government money. 13 Operational efficiency can",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "it mobilizes, as its deposit/loan outstanding rate is close to 100% over the study period (2013–2015). However, none of these agricultural development banks is cost-efficient, meaning that they cannot recover their operating costs. Both banks are running at huge losses and are sustained by government money. 13 Operational efficiency can be measured in various ways, including by determining whether an organization operates at the lowest cost of inputs for a given quantity of output. The Consultative Group to Assist the Poor, a consortium of 28 development agencies that support microfinance, provides five indicators for measuring the efficiency and productivity of MFIs (Rosenberg 2009). 179 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Table 5.5 presents the break-even interest rate and other relevant indicators of financial efficiency for MFIs for two years (2015 and 2017). It appears that the scale of operations is an important factor for determining the extent of an organization’s financial efficiency. Grameen Bank, established in 1983 as a specialized bank for microfinance operations, is one of the largest MFIs in Bangladesh, measured by the number of borrowers as well as loans outstanding. In 2017, Grameen Bank had almost 9 million borrowers, compared to BRAC’s 5.7 million. The respective loans outstanding were $1.77 billion and $2.03 billion. In terms of cost efficiency (defined by operating cost as a percentage of loans outstanding), all of the MFIs appear to be cost-effective when lending rate is considered. However, in terms of the break-even rate (defined by the total cost as percentage of loans outstanding), none of the MFIs, including Grameen Bank, was efficient in 2015 or 2017 (because the break-even rate is lower than the average lending rate). Thus, although the MFIs managed to cover their operating costs, they failed to recover the full cost of operation during those two periods. Of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "loans outstanding), none of the MFIs, including Grameen Bank, was efficient in 2015 or 2017 (because the break-even rate is lower than the average lending rate). Thus, although the MFIs managed to cover their operating costs, they failed to recover the full cost of operation during those two periods. Of course, this does not mean they always remain cost-ineffective. However, operating expenses are found to be lower for Grameen Bank compared to ASA and BRAC. Moreover, Grameen Bank has a greater break-even interest rate than ASA and BRAC, possibly due to high financial expenses and provision for bad loans. On the other hand, the larger MFIs such as Grameen Bank, BRAC, and ASA have lower break-even rate compared to the rest of the MFIs, resulting from their large-scale operation. Another way to assess the cost-efficiency of MFIs is the so-called operational self-sufficiency (OSS). The OSS, defined by CGAP as the operational income as a percentage of total operational cost (financial expenses plus operating cost and provision for bad loans), varies by program, with a percentage higher than 100 indicating that a program is operationally self-sufficient. According to this measure, ASA is the most operationally efficient MFI in Bangladesh. ASA also stands out for lending more money to agriculture than any other MFI in Bangladesh, including Grameen Bank. In contrast, as per the OSS measure, BKB is the worst performing institution in terms of agricultural lending; BKB’s OSS was 30% in 2014–2015, meaning that the state-owned agricultural development bank is carrying huge losses due to bad debts and high operating costs. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 180 One critical factor underlying the differences in the performance of agricultural development banks and MFIs is that the government determines the lending rate for agricultural development banks; at 9%, the rate",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "huge losses due to bad debts and high operating costs. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 180 One critical factor underlying the differences in the performance of agricultural development banks and MFIs is that the government determines the lending rate for agricultural development banks; at 9%, the rate is much lower than the average MFI lending rate (21%). Another critical factor in the poor performance of BKB and RAKUB is these institutions’ huge bad debt provision, a result of the government’s loan forgiveness policy for farm loans. As such, these banks use government money for loans but do not have incentives to recover such loans. Thus, the government’s loan forgiveness policy, which forgives farm loans in the case of crop losses due to disasters triggered by natural hazards or climate change, must be weighed against the sustainability of the financial services available to farmers. 5.3.4 \u0007Digitization of Agricultural Finance and the Pandemic In a developing country such as Bangladesh, where only 53% of the adults (age 15+) have an account with financial institutions (World Bank 2021b), digital financial services (DFS) can make a difference. The most prominent form of DFS in Bangladesh is mobile financial services (MFS), the real beneficiaries of which are the disadvantaged population and those living in rural areas. MFS can provide secured and fast financial services at a low cost. In addition, MFS give transparency to transactions, which reduces the possibility of fraud and contributes to the government’s tax revenue. By now, MFS in Bangladesh have over 180 million registered accounts (60 million active), facilitating a range of transactions (such as cash-ins, cash-outs, and transfers) amounting to over Tk29 billion a day (Bangladesh Bank 2022). MFS were also instrumental to disbursing government transfer payments to millions of beneficiaries during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Bangladesh have over 180 million registered accounts (60 million active), facilitating a range of transactions (such as cash-ins, cash-outs, and transfers) amounting to over Tk29 billion a day (Bangladesh Bank 2022). MFS were also instrumental to disbursing government transfer payments to millions of beneficiaries during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, Bangladesh’s government rolled out emergency stimulus packages at different phases for vulnerable populations in informal sectors, export-oriented industries, medium-sized and cottage industries, and farm sectors. While the government had been slowly digitizing its social protection programs even before the pandemic, it mandated digital payments for the first time during the pandemic. About 3 million new MFS accounts were opened in April 2020 alone to help disburse funds to export‑oriented industries. The beneficiary registration program using the National Identity Card helped the government’s effort to bring all recipients of safety-net programs under the government-to-person scheme with MFS. 181 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture For farmers, there was a refinancing program amounting to Tk50 billion. In fiscal year 2021, the Government of Bangladesh disbursed about Tk60 billion through MFS and agent banking (The Business Standard 2021). Apart from the government initiatives, nongovernment organizations also came forward to assist vulnerable populations through DFS. BRAC, for example, reached over 600,000 vulnerable families during the pandemic through its digital cash transfer program, which used bKash to transfer money (BRAC 2020). Among the beneficiaries, 14% were farmers.14 During the pandemic lockdown, use of MFS was on the rise. Based on Bangladesh Bank statistics, the registered MFS accounts increased 21% during March 2020– December 2020, which was the height of the pandemic. In contrast, the growth rate of MFS accounts was 16% during the same period of the previous year. Similarly, the country also experienced an explosion in e-commerce transactions during",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Bangladesh Bank statistics, the registered MFS accounts increased 21% during March 2020– December 2020, which was the height of the pandemic. In contrast, the growth rate of MFS accounts was 16% during the same period of the previous year. Similarly, the country also experienced an explosion in e-commerce transactions during the pandemic—online sales rose by 70%–80% in July–September 2020 (Sahoo, Hossain, and Hassan 2020). The obvious advantages of MFS transactions, such as convenience, speed, and transparency, have led to longer-term socioeconomic benefits for the users of MFS in Bangladesh. A 2020 study finds consumptionand income-smoothening impacts for bKash during periods of shocks (Murshid et al. 2020). For example, for bKash users, domestic remittances increased by almost 100% for households exposed to health shocks, and consumption increased by 8.5% for those exposed to health shocks. Moreover, bKash users subject to unexpected shocks saw their incomes rise by 41.7% compared to nonusers of bKash. There are other social benefits too for MFS users. Households’ education expenses went up by as much as 48% as a result of MFS transactions. MFS use also enhances women’s empowerment. The same study finds that use of MFS increases the probability of women’s freedom to move by 3.7 percentage points and their decision-making on household economic issues by 29 percentage points. A more recent study carried out by the Asian Development Bank (2022) finds that the use of MFS by microfinance members that are not engaged in microenterprise activities raises their nonfarm income by 1% and total income by 0.2%. 14 bKash is the most prominent MFS in Bangladesh. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 182 5.4 \u0007Agriculture Finance: Status at the Household Level Farmers’ access to institutional finance may be defined by the percentage of farmers with an account with a financial institution, which",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "income by 0.2%. 14 bKash is the most prominent MFS in Bangladesh. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 182 5.4 \u0007Agriculture Finance: Status at the Household Level Farmers’ access to institutional finance may be defined by the percentage of farmers with an account with a financial institution, which is a crude measure of financial inclusion for agriculture.15 A broader indicator of financial inclusion is a measure of individual access to and use of financial services to save, borrow, make payments, and manage risks in production and consumption (DemirgucKunt and Klapper 2012; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015). The Universal Financial Access initiative of the World Bank stresses the need for every individual to have an account with a financial institution (Demirguc-Kunt and Klapper 2012; World Bank 2017).16 Globally, 71% of adults were reported as having an account with a financial system in 2021, compared to 61% in 2017 according to the World Bank’s Global Financial Inclusion (Findex) data. There is almost universal financial inclusion in high-income countries (95.6%), but coverage remains limited in developing countries (59.2%) and varies by the country’s level of financial and economic development. Financial inclusion among farmers (those who have received income from agriculture over the last 12 months) in the developing world was 57.1% in 2021, compared to 62.2% for the nonfarmers (Table 5.6). Following this definition, we find that in Bangladesh in 2021, 69.7% of farmers had an account with a financial institution, compared to 49.3% for nonfarmers. 15 The data used for this discussion of financial inclusion comes from the World Bank’s Global Financial Inclusion (Findex) data of 2021. Farmers are defined as those who sell some or all of their agricultural output in the market and are in the middle of the landholding distribution. Subsistence farmers, who consume most of what they",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "discussion of financial inclusion comes from the World Bank’s Global Financial Inclusion (Findex) data of 2021. Farmers are defined as those who sell some or all of their agricultural output in the market and are in the middle of the landholding distribution. Subsistence farmers, who consume most of what they produce, are thus not included. Sampling weights are used to make the averages representative at the country level. According to this definition, we find that 17.2% of the individuals in Bangladesh were reported to be farmers, compared to 8.6% in India and 13.1% for the developing world (see Table 5.6). This percentage, even though weighted, seems an underestimate of the farming community. This is because the definition excludes those subsistence farmers who did not undertake any cash transaction over the last 12 months during the survey carried out by the World Bank in 2021. 16 As per the Findex, a financial account is defined as an account at a bank or another type of financial institution, such as a credit union, cooperative, or microfinance institution. Financial account also includes a mobile money account, which is limited to services that can be used without an account at a financial institution. In the Findex data, the mobile money account is defined by whether the individual had used a mobile phone to pay bills or to send or receive money in the last 12 months. 183 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Table 5.6:\u0003 \u0007Financial Inclusion for Agriculture: Bangladesh, India, and Developing World, 2021 (%) Income Profile Farmers (9.8%) Nonfarmers (91.2%) Has account Borrowed Formal borrowing Borrowed for ag/busa Obs. Has account Borrowed Formal borrowing Borrowed for ag/bus Obs. Poorest 58.7 61.0 19.9 7.9 33 (55) 40.9 43.7 12.7 6.0 160 (125) 63.4 56.8 13.0 8.2 42 (50) 49.8 49.1 15.1 5.8 159",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "2021 (%) Income Profile Farmers (9.8%) Nonfarmers (91.2%) Has account Borrowed Formal borrowing Borrowed for ag/busa Obs. Has account Borrowed Formal borrowing Borrowed for ag/bus Obs. Poorest 58.7 61.0 19.9 7.9 33 (55) 40.9 43.7 12.7 6.0 160 (125) 63.4 56.8 13.0 8.2 42 (50) 49.8 49.1 15.1 5.8 159 (142) Middle 72.2 50.9 7.5 13.6 31 (53) 55.8 44.8 13.9 3.6 178 (143) 86.1 58.4 22.5 13.7 34 (46) 56.6 47.3 10.3 2.1 172 (154) Richest 74.0 70.1 39.9 13.7 23 (40) 43.0 32.7 11.8 3.1 168 (192) Bangladesh total 69.7 59.4 20.0 11.1 163 (244) 49.3 43.4 12.7 4.1 837 (756) India total 88.0 58.8 16.3 14.6 275 (421) 76.5 43.5 8.9 5.7 2,725 (2,579) Developing world total 57.1 60.5 14.0 18.4 11,411 (17,560) 62.2 46.9 10.6 5.5 80,849 (102,297) Notes: 1. \u0007“Farmers” are defined as those who “received agricultural payments in the past 12 months” (weighted sample). 2. \u0007“Developing World” includes all developing countries except the OECD countries. 3. Farmers constitute 8.6% of the population in India and 13.1% in the developing world. a \u0007The variable “Borrowed for agriculture/business” is not available in 2021 database; so, 2017 figures are used instead. Figures in parentheses are observations from 2017 database. Source: Findex database 2017 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2018) and 2021 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). In contrast, in India, 88.0% of farmers had an account with a financial institution, compared to 76.5% of nonfarmers. Thus, financial inclusion among farmers in Bangladesh is lower than that of India and the developing world.17 17 Income matters for the status of financial account among farmers; income is slightly higher among the highest income group, as are the chances of borrowing from formal sources. Thus, 74% of farmers in the highest income group have a financial account, compared to 58.7% in the lowest",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "developing world.17 17 Income matters for the status of financial account among farmers; income is slightly higher among the highest income group, as are the chances of borrowing from formal sources. Thus, 74% of farmers in the highest income group have a financial account, compared to 58.7% in the lowest income group. Similarly, 39.9% of the farmers in highest income group borrowed from formal source, compared to 19.9% in the lowest income group. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 184 Financial inclusion for agriculture can imply agricultural financing, which includes financial services such as credit, savings, payments, and insurance. One of the important aspects of agricultural finance/financial inclusion for agriculture is credit. The Findex data provides information on the extent of access to institutional credit among farmers and nonfarmers. As shown in Table 5.6, in 2021, 59.4% of the farmers in Bangladesh were reported to have borrowed money, compared to 58.8% in India and 60.5% in the developing world. More importantly, an overwhelming percentage of farmers in the developing countries, including Bangladesh and India, rely on informal sources of credit. Among the farmers in Bangladesh, only 20% borrowed from formal or institutional (i.e., banks, MFIs, and mobile account) sources, compared to 16% in India and 14% in the developing world. Reliance on informal sources of credit also shows among nonfarmers—13% of nonfarmers borrowed from informal sources in Bangladesh in 2021, compared to 9% in India and 11% in the developing world. This could imply that the transaction costs of borrowing or lending from formal sources are high in these countries. As Table 5.6 shows, among farmers in Bangladesh, only 11.1% borrowed for productive activities such as agriculture and business. The corresponding percentage is 14.6% in India and 18.4% in the developing world. This means that probably only a",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of borrowing or lending from formal sources are high in these countries. As Table 5.6 shows, among farmers in Bangladesh, only 11.1% borrowed for productive activities such as agriculture and business. The corresponding percentage is 14.6% in India and 18.4% in the developing world. This means that probably only a small percentage of borrowed money goes to support production activities such as agriculture, while a large share goes to support nonproduction activities such as consumption or health. This could be due to the fact that informal sources charge interest rates higher than the rates of formal financial institutions, including MFIs. Two issues thus emerge from this financial inclusion survey: (i) Farmers (as well as nonfarmers) borrow mostly from informal sources, perhaps due to credit rationing from formal institutions, and (ii) farmers tend to not use borrowed money for production purposes. Does this mean that farmers are not credit-constrained in agricultural decision-making? What does institutional lending, even if in small amounts, mean for agricultural income and productivity? Unfortunately, the Findex data does not provide enough information to address these questions. Still, these factors are important for policymakers to determine whether enhanced institutional access to financial services would increase agricultural productivity to meet the goals of achieving sustainable growth and food security. 185 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture 5.4.1 \u0007Effects of Borrowing on Household Income and Productivity The household survey used to discuss these demand-side issues comes from the Bangladesh Rural Microcredit Survey, which was conducted by the Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies and the Institute for Microfinance, in partnership with the World Bank. This is a household-level panel survey that covers 1,500 rural households across 105 villages in 1991–1992, 1998–1999, and 2010–2011 (for details, see Khandker, Khalily, and Samad 2016). However, for various borrowing purposes, particularly for borrowing for agricultural",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Development Studies and the Institute for Microfinance, in partnership with the World Bank. This is a household-level panel survey that covers 1,500 rural households across 105 villages in 1991–1992, 1998–1999, and 2010–2011 (for details, see Khandker, Khalily, and Samad 2016). However, for various borrowing purposes, particularly for borrowing for agricultural activities, the 1991–1992 data are not compatible with the data from the other two rounds and thus were not used in the analysis. During 1998/1999–2010/2011, microfinance accounted for more than 90% of the improvement in access to institutional finance in Bangladesh, increasing from 38% in 1998–1999 to 56% in 2010–2011 (Table 5.7). During the same period, access to formal finance stayed relatively stable—7% in 1998–1999 compared to almost 8% in 2010–2011.18 However, the share of formal loans was higher among microfinance nonparticipants than among participants; in 2010–2011, the share of formal finance was 26% for people who did not participate in microfinance programs, compared to 5.9% for those who did (Table 5.7).19 Over the 12-year period examined in the survey, access to informal finance also increased substantially (from 23% in 1998–1999 to 57% in 2010–2011; see Table 5.7). The bulk of informal finance was directed to meeting the needs of households that did not participate in microfinance (Table 5.7). Interestingly, among households participating in microfinance, the demand for informal finance increased over the period (from over 17% in 1998/1999 to about 63% in 2010/2011), as did the demand for institutional finance. However, microfinance represented a much larger share of lending volume, accounting for 65% of the total borrowing by members of microfinance in 2010–2011 (versus 29% for informal finance). 18 Formal finance includes loans from commercial banks and agricultural banks. 19 Note that nonparticipants also include households that are well-off and hence can access formal finance. Agricultural Finance in Developing",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "volume, accounting for 65% of the total borrowing by members of microfinance in 2010–2011 (versus 29% for informal finance). 18 Formal finance includes loans from commercial banks and agricultural banks. 19 Note that nonparticipants also include households that are well-off and hence can access formal finance. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 186 Table 5.7:\u0003 \u0007Incidence of Borrowing from Alternate Sources and Share in Total Loans (%) Borrowing Source Members of Microfinance Nonmembers of Microfinance All Households 1998–1999 (N = 1,758) Microfinance 100.0 (91.4) 38.0 (67.2) Formal source 5.6 (1.9) 8.3 (26.1) 7.3 (8.3) Informal source 17.5 (6.7) 27.0 (73.9) 23.3 (24.5) All sources 100.0 32.1 57.9 2010–2011 (N = 2,322) Microfinance 100.0 (65.2) 56.2 (47.6) Formal source 7.1 (5.9) 8.8 (26.1) 7.8 (7.8) Informal source 62.6 (28.9) 50.1 (73.9) 57.1 (44.6) All sources 100.0 53.7 79.7 Notes: Figures in parentheses are shares of loan volume from a source in total loan volume from all sources. Formal source refers to credit from commercial banks and agricultural banks. Sources: World Bank, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (2013) and WB–InM (2010/2011). That said, informal finance has played a growing role among households participating in microfinance; while 17.5% of them borrowed from informal sources in 1998–1999, that percentage jumped to 62.6% in 2010–2011 (Table 5.7). Several interesting loan-distribution patterns have emerged over the years. First, a significant share of loans has supported consumption—28% in 1998–1999 and 27% in 2010–2011 (Table 5.8). Second, over time, the farm sector has received an increased share of loans from all sources—from 28% in 1998–1999 to 33% by 2010–2011 (the change is statistically significant at the 1% level). 187 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Table 5.8:\u0003 Distribution of Main Purpose by Source of Borrowing (%) Borrowing Source Farm-Sector Activities Non-Farm-Sector Activities Personal Expenditure 1998–1999 (N",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "share of loans from all sources—from 28% in 1998–1999 to 33% by 2010–2011 (the change is statistically significant at the 1% level). 187 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Table 5.8:\u0003 Distribution of Main Purpose by Source of Borrowing (%) Borrowing Source Farm-Sector Activities Non-Farm-Sector Activities Personal Expenditure 1998–1999 (N = 1,758) Microfinance 27.5 51.8 20.7 Formal source 46.7 22.9 30.4 Informal source 26.8 22.8 50.4 All sources 28.2 43.4 27.8 2010–2011 (N = 2,322) Microfinance 39.8 56.5 3.7 Formal source 68.7 26.6 4.7 Informal source 15.6 10.2 74.1 All sources 33.0 39.9 27.1 Note: Formal source refers to credit from commercial banks and agricultural banks. Sources: World Bank, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (2013) and WB–InM (2010/2011). Formal financial services accounted for the bulk of the higher percentage of farm loans. The share of farm-sector loans from commercial banks increased from about 47% in 1998–1999 to about 69% in 2010–2011. Finally, although a large share of microfinance loans went to non-farm-sector activities, a higher percentage went to support farm-sector activities over time; 28% went to support farming in 1998–1999, but this reached nearly 40% in 2010–2011 (Table 5.8). In addition, the share of loans for productive activities has gone up over time. In 1998–1999, 80% of microfinance loans went to productive activities (52% for nonfarm and 28% for farm activities); this rose to 97% in 2010–2011 (57% for nonfarm and 40% for farm activities; see Table 5.8). We estimate the effects of credit from various sources on household outcomes, including income from farm and nonfarm sources. Following earlier work with the data, we estimate the credit effect by borrowers’ gender from both MFIs and formal sources (commercial and agricultural development banks). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 188 The outcomes (Yi ) (e.g., farm and nonfarm income),",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "including income from farm and nonfarm sources. Following earlier work with the data, we estimate the credit effect by borrowers’ gender from both MFIs and formal sources (commercial and agricultural development banks). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 188 The outcomes (Yi ) (e.g., farm and nonfarm income), conditional on the level of credit demand (Ci), are expressed as follows: Yi = βy Xi + δf Cif + δm Cim + ηi + εi,\b (2) where X is a vector of characteristics at the household level (e.g., sex, age, education of household head, and landholdings) and the village level (e.g., extent of village electrification and irrigation, availability of infrastructure, and price of consumer goods), β is a vector of unknown parameters to be estimated, δf and δm are the effects for female and male credit, respectively, ηi is the unmeasured determinant of the outcome, and εi is a nonsystematic error. With cross-sectional data, endogeneity from nonrandom program placement in villages may be an issue, as well as households’ self-selection into programs. In a cross-sectional analysis using data collected in 1991–1992, Pitt and Khandker (1998) used a village-level fixed-effects (FE) method to resolve program placement bias and a two-stage instrumental variable (IV) technique to resolve the endogeneity of a household’s self-selection into credit programs. Using the panel data of two data points (1998–1999 and 2010–2011), equation (2) can be rewritten as follows: Yit = βy Xit + δf Cift + δm Cimt + ηit + μi + εit,\b (3) where t = {1,2} is the survey round, ηit is an unobserved determinant of the outcome that is time-variant, μi is an unobserved determinant of the outcome that is time-invariant, and εit is a non-systematic error, as previously defined. With the panel data, the household FE estimation technique can eliminate",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "where t = {1,2} is the survey round, ηit is an unobserved determinant of the outcome that is time-variant, μi is an unobserved determinant of the outcome that is time-invariant, and εit is a non-systematic error, as previously defined. With the panel data, the household FE estimation technique can eliminate the time‑invariant parameter (μi ) by transforming equation (3) as follows: Yit – Yi = βy (Xit – Xi) + δf (Cift – — Cif) + δm (Cimt – — Cim) \b (4a) + (ηit – ηi) + (μi – μ) + (εit – εi), where the bar variables (e.g., Yi, Xi, and — Cif ) are average values for each household. Since μ is a constant, μi = μ, and thus its effect is eliminated. Therefore, equation 4a can be written as follows: ΔYit = βy ΔXit + δf ΔCift + δm ΔCimt + Δηit + Δεit.\b (4b) Since ηit ≠ ηi, the problem of unobserved effects cannot be disregarded completely; thus, the ordinary least squares (OLS) estimation of equation (4b) will be biased. 189 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Our empirical strategy uses household-level weighted FE estimation with weights determined by propensity-score (p-score) matching, based on the participation equation to account for unobserved time-variant heterogeneity. This strategy is referred to as the p-score-weighted FE method and provides consistent estimates of the impacts (Hirano, Imbens, and Ridder 2003).20 Table 5.9 presents the estimates of credit effects of male and female borrowers of both sources of credit (formal and MFIs) using the p-score-weighted FE method. We consider the effects for two types of farm income (crop and non‑crop), as well as for total farm income. We also show the effects on nonfarm income from all types of nonfarm enterprise activities. As Table 5.9 suggests, we find no significant effect",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "MFIs) using the p-score-weighted FE method. We consider the effects for two types of farm income (crop and non‑crop), as well as for total farm income. We also show the effects on nonfarm income from all types of nonfarm enterprise activities. As Table 5.9 suggests, we find no significant effect (either positive or negative) of men’s microcredit borrowing on any type of farm income or on total farm income, suggesting that men’s microcredit borrowing plays no role in farm income.21 However, men’s microcredit borrowing does have a significant effect on nonfarm income, indicating that men’s borrowing matters more for nonfarm than for farm income. In contrast, men’s borrowing from formal sources plays a role in raising non‑crop farm income (from livestock, fisheries, and poultry), as well as nonfarm income. However, borrowing by men from microcredit institutions has a larger effect on nonfarm income than men’s borrowing from formal sources. A 10% increase in men’s borrowing from microcredit increases nonfarm income by 1.34% in the case of microcredit, while a 10% increase in men’s borrowing from formal credit increases nonfarm income by 1.07%. 20 This is also called inverse probability treatment weighting, in which weight is given by 1/p for households that are treated and 1/(1-p) for those not treated. An alternate implementation of propensity score creates matched observations of treated and untreated households and then applies FE on the matched sample (for an example, see Drichoutis et al. 2015). The idea behind this technique is that FE controls for time-invariant unobserved factors and matching balances treated and untreated units to control for time-varying unobserved factors (Angelucci and Attanasio 2013). While both p-weighting and matching can handle time-varying unobservables, weighting might be better than matching, as the latter can drop a good number of observations in matching process. There are other",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "unobserved factors and matching balances treated and untreated units to control for time-varying unobserved factors (Angelucci and Attanasio 2013). While both p-weighting and matching can handle time-varying unobservables, weighting might be better than matching, as the latter can drop a good number of observations in matching process. There are other methods available to treat time-varying heterogeneity in panel data analysis (see, e.g., Khandker, Koolwal, and Samad [2010] for details). 21 This finding seems plausible because men do not borrow much from microcredit sources. Table 5.9 shows that men’s borrowing from formal sources has a positive effect on livestock income. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 190 Table 5.9:\u0003 \u0007Panel Estimates of the Impacts of Cumulative Amount of Borrowing on Household Income (P-score Weighted Household Fixed Effects) (N = 1,758) Loan Variables Income from Crop Production Income from Livestock, Poultry, and Fishery Total Farm Income Total Nonfarm Enterprise Income Log men’s loans from microcredit (Tk) –0.031 (–0.85) –0.024 (–0.90) –0.019 (–0.80) 0.134** (2.34) Log women’s loans from microcredit (Tk) 0.027** (2.37) 0.043** (2.32) 0.026* (1.78) 0.104** (4.03) Log men’s loans from formal sources (Tk) –0.064 (–1.49) 0.038* (1.78) –0.054 (–1.18) 0.107* (1.85) Log women’s loans from formal sources (Tk) –0.032 (–0.73) –0.039 (–0.37) –0.005 (–0.07) 0.365 (1.51) R2 0.309 0.137 0.088 0.053 Notes: Outcomes are in log per capita Tk per month. Formal source refers to commercial banks and agricultural banks. Figures in parentheses are t-statistics based on standard errors clustered at the village level. * and ** refer to a statistical significance of 10% and 5% or less. Regressions include more control variables at the household level (e.g., age, sex, and education of household head; log of land assets) and village level (e.g., price of consumer goods; male and female wages; infrastructure, including schools and electricity availability; and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to a statistical significance of 10% and 5% or less. Regressions include more control variables at the household level (e.g., age, sex, and education of household head; log of land assets) and village level (e.g., price of consumer goods; male and female wages; infrastructure, including schools and electricity availability; and proportion of irrigated land). Sources: World Bank, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (2013) and WB–InM (2010/2011). On the other hand, female borrowing from microcredit matters for both crop and non-crop income, as well as for nonfarm income. Results show that a 10% increase in female borrowing from microcredit increases crop income by 0.27%, non-crop farm income by 0.43%, and total farm income by 0.26%. The same 10% increase in female borrowing from microcredit raises nonfarm income by 0.10%. The findings suggest that microfinance seems to help nonfarm income more than farm income, especially for women. Formal finance, on the other hand, helps farm income and productivity more for male borrowers than for female borrowers. 191 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture 5.4.2 \u0007Do Credit Constraints Affect Farmers’ Income and Productivity? The effects of male or female borrowing, estimated in the previous section, may be affected by the extent of supply-side constraints, determined primarily by the fact that the loans disbursed are less than the amount that borrowers request. Following Boucher, Guirkinger, and Trivelli (2009), borrowers were considered supply-side constrained if they reported not being able to borrow as much as they wanted or needed.22 Borrowing constraints may prevent farmers from allocating resources efficiently and thus cause them to suffer from efficiency losses. Therefore, it is worth considering how supply-side factors driving demand for microfinance or formal finance may affect farm households’ income and productivity. Before turning to this issue, we would like to compare the pattern of such constraints among",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "allocating resources efficiently and thus cause them to suffer from efficiency losses. Therefore, it is worth considering how supply-side factors driving demand for microfinance or formal finance may affect farm households’ income and productivity. Before turning to this issue, we would like to compare the pattern of such constraints among farmers who have borrowed from various MFIs and formal finance sources. Table 5.10 shows that supply constraints for both types of borrowers declined substantially overall, from more than 54% in 1998–1999 to only about 8% in 2010–2011. Interestingly, the percentage-point decline in supply-side constraints was higher in the case of borrowers from formal sources than for microfinance borrowers. More specifically, in the case of microfinance borrowers, supply-side constraints declined from 52% in 1998–1999 to 8% in 2010–2011, with a net decline of 44 percentage points over a 12-year period. In contrast, in the case of formal finance, supply-side constraints declined from 70% in 1998–1999 to 14% in 2010–2011, with a total decline of 56 percentage points over the same period. In examining the role of supply constraints on farm income and productivity beyond the estimated effects of borrowing, we postulate that the outcome of equation (3) differs for constrained and unconstrained households. We can use borrowers’ reported credit-constraint status as an additional variable in equation (3).23 We can also interact this constraint with the amount that borrowing households received in order to determine whether the borrowing effect varied by the extent of constraint. 22 Constraints are defined in a strict way in the sense that if a household has multiple loans and it is constrained in one loan only, the household is considered credit-constrained. 23 We assume here that supply-side constraint is exogenously given to the households. We attempted to run an endogenous switching regression, but it did not converge.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "way in the sense that if a household has multiple loans and it is constrained in one loan only, the household is considered credit-constrained. 23 We assume here that supply-side constraint is exogenously given to the households. We attempted to run an endogenous switching regression, but it did not converge. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 192 Table 5.10:\u0003 \u0007Share of Credit-Constrained Borrowers for Alternate Borrowing Sources by Farm Size (%) Farm Size Microfinance Formal Source Both Sources 1998–1999 (N = 903) Marginal 48.1 (N = 593) 53.7 (N = 39) 48.4 (N = 615) Small and medium 57.8 (N = 214) 74.9 (N = 52) 59.2 (N = 242) Large 76.2 (N = 24) 74.1 (N = 26) 72.8 (N = 46) All farm sizes 51.8 (N = 831) 69.7 (N = 117) 53.6 (N = 903) 2010–2011 (N = 1,501) Marginal 7.0 (N = 1,167) 13.8 (N = 39) 7.1 (N = 1,191) Small and medium 10.6 (N = 245) 14.9 (N = 69) 11.3 (N = 276) Large 14.7 (N = 27) 12.9 (N = 16) 10.6 (N = 34) All farm sizes 8.0 (N = 1,439) 14.2 (N = 151) 8.2 (N = 1,501) Notes: Marginal farm size = <0.5 acres, small and medium farm size = 0.5–2.5 acres, and large farm size =>2.5 acres. Formal source refers to commercial banks and agricultural banks. Households were considered credit-constrained if they received less than what they requested. Sources: World Bank, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (2013) and WB–InM (2010/2011). However, if we interact the supply-constraint status with the amount of borrowing alone, the direction of the change is unclear. Thus, we estimate the outcome of equation (3) after suppressing gender-specific effects, as well as the effects of other variables, for both types of borrowers, expressed",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(2013) and WB–InM (2010/2011). However, if we interact the supply-constraint status with the amount of borrowing alone, the direction of the change is unclear. Thus, we estimate the outcome of equation (3) after suppressing gender-specific effects, as well as the effects of other variables, for both types of borrowers, expressed as follows: ΔYit = β Δβit + γΔKit + ηit + εit,\b (5) where K indicates the borrowing-constraint status. For those households that are not credit-constrained (i.e., K = 0), we obtain the estimate of credit effect, β. For those that are credit-constrained, we obtain the marginal credit effect, (β + γ). Depending on the sign of both coefficients (β and γ), the effect will be higher or lower for credit-constrained borrowers. 193 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Table 5.11:\u0003 \u0007Panel Estimates of the Impacts of Loan Volume and Credit Constraints on Household Income (P-score Weighted Household Fixed Effects) (N = 1,758) Loan Variables Income from Crop Production Income from Livestock, Poultry, and Fishery Total Farm Income Total Nonfarm Enterprise Income Log men’s loans from microcredit (Tk) −0.046 (−1.30) −0.021 (−0.73) −0.022 (−0.88) 0.136** (2.37) Log women’s loans from microcredit (Tk) 0.020* (1.94) 0.040** (2.15) 0.024 (1.58) 0.107** (3.85) Log men’s loans from formal sources (Tk) −0.072 (−1.62) 0.036* (1.71) −0.057 (−1.32) 0.123* (1.94) Log women’s loans from formal sources (Tk) −0.033 (−0.58) −0.047 (−0.41) 0.017 (0.22) 0.363 (1.42) Log men’s loans from microcredit (Tk) x household is credit-constrained 0.065* (1.72) −0.016 (−0.50) 0.009 (0.40) −0.004 (−0.08) Log women’s loans from microcredit (Tk) x household is credit‑constrained 0.011 (0.55) 0.011 (0.51) 0.003 (0.19) −0.004 (−0.13) Log men’s loans from formal sources (Tk) x household is credit‑constrained 0.030 (0. 55) −0.009** (−2.22) −0.018 (−0.54) −0.086 (−1.20) Log women’s loans from formal sources (Tk) x household is credit‑constrained 0.117 (0.76) 0.035",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "loans from microcredit (Tk) x household is credit‑constrained 0.011 (0.55) 0.011 (0.51) 0.003 (0.19) −0.004 (−0.13) Log men’s loans from formal sources (Tk) x household is credit‑constrained 0.030 (0. 55) −0.009** (−2.22) −0.018 (−0.54) −0.086 (−1.20) Log women’s loans from formal sources (Tk) x household is credit‑constrained 0.117 (0.76) 0.035 (0.39) −0.060 (−1.01) 0.010 (0.07) R2 0.312 0.137 0.088 0.054 Calculated effects of loans for credit-constrained households Log men’s loans from microcredit (Tk) 0.018 (0.37) −0.037 (−1.19) −0.013 (−0.41) 0.132* (1.78) Log women’s loans from microcredit (Tk) 0.031 (1.37) 0.051* (1.98) 0.028* (1.71) 0.102** (2.83) Log men’s loans from formal sources (Tk) −0.042 (−0.74) −0.045 (−0.82) −0.039 (−0.91) 0.036* (1.65) Log women’s loans from formal sources (Tk) 0.084 (0.58) −0.012 (−0.13) −0.043 (−0.63) 0.372 (1.48) Notes: Outcomes are in log per capita Tk per month. Formal source refers to commercial banks and agricultural banks. Figures in parentheses are t-statistics based on standard errors clustered at the village level. * and ** refer to a statistical significance of 10% and 5% or less. Regressions include more control variables at the household level (e.g., age, sex, and education of household head; log of land assets) and village level (e.g., price of consumer goods; male and female wages; infrastructure, including schools and electricity availability; and proportion of irrigated land). Sources: World Bank, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (2013) and WB–InM (2010/2011). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 194 Table 5.11 shows the calculated credit effect for constrained and unconstrained households by gender of borrowers. For unconstrained households (loan variables without interaction), women’s credit from microcredit and men’s credit from formal sources matter to income growth. For example, a 10% increase in women’s borrowing from microcredit increases crop income by 0.2%, livestock income by 0.4%, and nonfarm income by 1.1%, without affecting",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "gender of borrowers. For unconstrained households (loan variables without interaction), women’s credit from microcredit and men’s credit from formal sources matter to income growth. For example, a 10% increase in women’s borrowing from microcredit increases crop income by 0.2%, livestock income by 0.4%, and nonfarm income by 1.1%, without affecting total farm income. A 10% increase in men’s loans from formal sources raises livestock income by 0.4% and nonfarm income by 1.2%. The interaction terms show the incremental effects of being credit-constrained. For example, household crop income goes up by 0.65% due to a 10% increase in men’s loans from microcredit sources if the household is credit-constrained. The overall credit effects on income for credit-constrained households are given by the algebraic sum of the effects for unconstrained borrowers and the incremental effects of credit constraint. The credit effects for constrained households are thus calculated and shown in the lower part of Table 5.11. It seems that the credit effects are somewhat different between unconstrained and constrained borrowers. For example, women’s loans from microcredit for constrained households do not matter to crop income, but women’s microcredit loans for unconstrained households do matter. Specifically, women’s microcredit loans for constrained households improve a household’s overall farm income, which is not the case for unconstrained households. In contrast, men’s borrowing from formal sources for constrained households increases nonfarm income only. 5.4.3 Returns to Borrowing from Institutional Sources Table 5.11 reports credit effects in elasticity form since the outcome (income variables) and loan variables are expressed in natural logarithmic form. This gives us the credit effects in terms of the percentage change in outcomes due to percentage changes in the loan amount. An alternate way of expressing credit effects is in terms of marginal returns using monetary terms; for example, how much farm income goes",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "expressed in natural logarithmic form. This gives us the credit effects in terms of the percentage change in outcomes due to percentage changes in the loan amount. An alternate way of expressing credit effects is in terms of marginal returns using monetary terms; for example, how much farm income goes up because of a Tk100 increase in loans. This can be done by transforming the findings reported in Table 5.11 in the following way. Let us assume the simplified outcome equation in log form: logY = βlogC, where Y is the outcome such as per capita farm income (in taka) and C is the loan variable (in taka). Then the marginal return can be obtained by differentiating the outcome with respect to the credit variable in the following way: \u0007where Y and X are the sample means of the outcome and loan variable, respectively. , Y Y X X δ β δ = ⋅ 195 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture The right-hand side of this equation gives the change in outcome for unit change in loan value. Since the outcome is in per capita terms, we can multiply it by the household size to get the aggregate outcome at the household level; further multiplying by 100, we get changes in outcomes for a Tk100 change in loans. Table 5.12 reports the findings for the change in household income for a Tk100 change in loans. Table 5.12:\u0003 \u0007Marginal Return to Household Borrowing on Household Income based on Table 5.11 (taka per Tk100 borrowed) Borrowing Variables Income from Crop Production Income from Livestock, Poultry, and Fishery Total Farm Income Total Nonfarm Enterprise Income Credit-unconstrained households Men’s loan from microcredit –7.1 –2.3 –7.5 15.3** Women’s loan from microcredit 0.8* 1.1** 2.1 26.7** Men’s loan from formal sources –8.2 1.8* –14.8 18.3* Women’s",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "per Tk100 borrowed) Borrowing Variables Income from Crop Production Income from Livestock, Poultry, and Fishery Total Farm Income Total Nonfarm Enterprise Income Credit-unconstrained households Men’s loan from microcredit –7.1 –2.3 –7.5 15.3** Women’s loan from microcredit 0.8* 1.1** 2.1 26.7** Men’s loan from formal sources –8.2 1.8* –14.8 18.3* Women’s loan from formal sources –11.0 –10.9 12.6 16.2 Credit-constrained households Men’s loan from microcredit 0.6 –0.6 –0.8 2.6** Women’s loan from microcredit 0.6 0.5* 1.5* 9.8** Men’s loan from formal sources –1.3 –0.8 –2.0 1.5* Women’s loan from formal sources 6.6 –5.2 –5.6 3.8 Notes: Returns are not in per capita but for household as a whole. Formal source refers to commercial banks and agricultural banks.* and ** refer to a statistical significance of 10% and 5% or less. Sources: World Bank, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (2013) and WB–InM (2010/2011). As expected, the highest return from credit was observed for nonfarm income, regardless of the source of credit. An additional microfinance loan of Tk100 for women increases total household nonfarm income by Tk27 for unconstrained households and by Tk10 for constrained households.24 24 This perhaps suggests that the lenders are good at figuring out who should not get the loans they request. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 196 Similarly, an additional formal loan of Tk100 for men raises total nonfarm income by Tk18 for unconstrained households and by about Tk2 for constrained households. While other income variables show statistically significant increases, these increases are considerably low in magnitude. In addition to marginal returns, credit effects can also be measured in terms of average returns to borrowing for all borrowers regardless of credit volume; this is called “average treatment of the treated.” To do so, we express the credit variables in terms of dummy variables as opposed",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in magnitude. In addition to marginal returns, credit effects can also be measured in terms of average returns to borrowing for all borrowers regardless of credit volume; this is called “average treatment of the treated.” To do so, we express the credit variables in terms of dummy variables as opposed to loan volumes; that is, borrowing households get a value of 1, while non-borrowing households get a value of 0 for the dummy variable. Average returns on credit are reported in Table 5.13, which takes into account credit constraints. The results are similar to those for marginal effects. Again, returns are highest for nonfarm activities. Women’s borrowing from microfinance increases nonfarm income by almost 58% for unconstrained households and by 37% for constrained households. Men’s borrowing from formal sources causes nonfarm income to rise by 100% for unconstrained households. Similar to our earlier findings, the returns are higher for unconstrained households than they are for constrained households. In addition, and as expected, average returns are higher than the marginal returns reported in Table 5.13. Table 5.13:\u0003 \u0007Panel Estimates of the Impacts of Borrowing Status and Credit Constraints on Household Income (P-score Weighted Household Fixed Effects) (N = 1,758) Borrowing Variables Income from Crop Production Income from Livestock, Poultry, and Fishery Total Farm Income Total Nonfarm Enterprise Income Men borrowed from microcredit −0.340 (−1.01) −0.233 (−0.90) −0.199 (−0.87) 0.270** (2.46) Women borrowed from microcredit 0.075* (1.89) 0.287* (1.65) 0.160 (1.53) 0.577** (2.23) Men borrowed from formal sources −0.504 (−1.32) 0.300* (1.93) −0.415 (−1.04) 1.00* (1.97) Women borrowed from formal sources −0.410 (−0.82) −0.431 (−0.44) 0.060 (0.09) 1.373 (1.48) Men borrowed from microcredit x household is credit-constrained 0.651* (1.91) −0.189 (−0.62) 0.089 (0.42) −0.127 (−0.04) continued on next page 197 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Table 5.13:\u0003 \u0007Continued Borrowing Variables Income",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "−0.415 (−1.04) 1.00* (1.97) Women borrowed from formal sources −0.410 (−0.82) −0.431 (−0.44) 0.060 (0.09) 1.373 (1.48) Men borrowed from microcredit x household is credit-constrained 0.651* (1.91) −0.189 (−0.62) 0.089 (0.42) −0.127 (−0.04) continued on next page 197 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Table 5.13:\u0003 \u0007Continued Borrowing Variables Income from Crop Production Income from Livestock, Poultry, and Fishery Total Farm Income Total Nonfarm Enterprise Income Women borrowed from microcredit x household is credit-constrained 0.059 (0.29) 0.091 (0.42) 0.009 (1.35) −0.014 (−0.04) Men borrowed from formal sources x household is credit-constrained 0.284 (0. 58) −0.063** (−2.17) 0.135 (0.45) −0.254 (−0.09) Women borrowed from formal sources x household is credit-constrained 1.580 (0.92) 0.432 (0.63) −0.383 (−0.76) −0.012 (−0.01) R2 0.311 0.136 0.087 0.050 Calculated effects of borrowing for credit-constrained households Men borrowed from microcredit 0.312 (0.67) −0.422 (−1.44) −0.110 (−0.37) 0.143** (1.63) Women borrowed from microcredit 0.134 (0.61) 0.379* (1.72) 0.169* (1.89) 0.371* (1.73) Men borrowed from formal sources −0.220 (−0.47) −0.364 (−0.71) −0.280 (−0.71) 0.445* (1.73) Women borrowed from formal sources 0.748 (0.64) 0.001 (0.01) −0.323 (−0.53) 0.362 (1.37) Notes: Outcomes are in log per capita Tk per month. Formal source refers to commercial banks and agricultural banks. Figures in parentheses are t-statistics based on standard errors clustered at the village level. * and ** refer to a statistical significance of 10% and 5% or less. Regressions include more control variables at the household level (e.g., age, sex, and education of household head; log of land assets) and village level (e.g., price of consumer goods; male and female wages; infrastructure, including schools and electricity availability; and proportion of irrigated land). Sources: World Bank, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (2013) and WB–InM (2010/2011). 5.4.4 \u0007Is Borrowing from Institutional Sources Cost‑Effective for Farmers? One of the purposes of this chapter is to",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(e.g., price of consumer goods; male and female wages; infrastructure, including schools and electricity availability; and proportion of irrigated land). Sources: World Bank, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (2013) and WB–InM (2010/2011). 5.4.4 \u0007Is Borrowing from Institutional Sources Cost‑Effective for Farmers? One of the purposes of this chapter is to assess the cost-effectiveness of the Government of Bangladesh’s policy of financing agriculture through a comparison of the benefits to borrowers and the cost of borrowing from institutional sources. Benefits can be measured by the average returns to borrowing. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 198 At a minimum, the estimates of average yearly returns from income-generating activities such as farm and nonfarm activities (even in the most limited sense because borrowing generates other induced benefits) can be compared with the average cost of borrowing per year. If households borrow mainly for nonfarm activities and women are the principal borrowers, we find that the average return to borrowing from a microfinance program is about 37% for a credit-constrained household; this is compared to the average lending rate of 20% for a loan from microfinance organizations. Thus, borrowing by women from a microfinance organization appears to be cost-effective for supporting rural nonfarm activities, as the return is higher than the cost. On the other hand, if women use a loan from a microfinance program to support farm activities, the average return for a credit-constrained household is 17%, which is lower than the average lending rate of MFIs but higher than the average lending rate of agricultural development banks (8%).25 If men borrow from a microcredit source to support rural nonfarm activities, the average return is about 14%, which is much lower than the average MFI lending rate of 20%. However, if men borrow from formal sources to support rural nonfarm",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the average lending rate of agricultural development banks (8%).25 If men borrow from a microcredit source to support rural nonfarm activities, the average return is about 14%, which is much lower than the average MFI lending rate of 20%. However, if men borrow from formal sources to support rural nonfarm activities, the average return is 44%, which is again much higher than the average lending rate of 8% for agricultural development banks. These findings could impact farmers’ borrowing decisions. First, the average return to loans can generally cover the cost of borrowing when that borrowed amount goes toward rural nonfarm activities; this holds true for formal and microfinance sources of borrowing, depending on whether a man or a woman is borrowing. However, when a loan goes mainly to support farm activities, borrowing from microfinance sources is not necessarily cost-effective for farmers, but borrowing from formal sources is likely to be. This is in part because interest rates are higher with microfinance loans (20%) than with loans from agricultural development banks (8%). 25 The results only correspond to the coefficients that are significant at the 10% level or higher. 199 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture 5.5 Conclusion The Government of Bangladesh has paid increased attention to raising agricultural productivity, especially food production, in recent years. This interest has been driven by concerns about rising food insecurity, population growth, and climate change. It is established that better institutional access to credit and other financial services from both formal sources (e.g., agricultural and commercial banks) and semiformal sources (e.g., microfinance) can help rural households smooth risks and access inputs and other technologies with which to modernize agriculture and improve farm/nonfarm linkages. This chapter evaluates the Government of Bangladesh’s agricultural credit policy, which extends credit and financial services by commercial and agricultural development",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and commercial banks) and semiformal sources (e.g., microfinance) can help rural households smooth risks and access inputs and other technologies with which to modernize agriculture and improve farm/nonfarm linkages. This chapter evaluates the Government of Bangladesh’s agricultural credit policy, which extends credit and financial services by commercial and agricultural development banks to rural populations. The purpose of this policy is to provide affordable credit to farmers in order to enhance agricultural productivity by stimulating the adoption of modern agricultural technologies and agricultural diversification. With the help of donors, the Government of Bangladesh has also supported the growth of microfinance institutions (MFIs) to extend credit to landless and marginal farmers in order to enhance self-employment and income in the rural nonfarm sector. In contrast to government-aided agricultural development banks, however, throughout their development of four decades, MFIs in Bangladesh have come to rely increasingly on resources mobilized by the MFIs themselves and less on donor or concessionary funds (although some do still benefit from donor funds such as the MFI operated by PKSF). While the portfolio structure of agricultural development banks has largely supported agriculture in an unsustainable way, the portfolio structures of MFIs, which largely extend services to augment rural nonfarm production, have changed in recent years to include agriculture lending. The MFIs are regulated by a body which, among other oversight policies, has set a ceiling on their interest rates at 27%. Most clients of MFIs live in rural areas that are not well served by commercial banks and tend to be women, who rarely receive loans from commercial banks or agricultural development banks. Hence, commercial banks and MFIs generally do not directly compete. Nonetheless, there remains fierce competition among MFIs themselves over product and client diversification. MFIs and agricultural development banks both face disasters triggered by natural hazards",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "tend to be women, who rarely receive loans from commercial banks or agricultural development banks. Hence, commercial banks and MFIs generally do not directly compete. Nonetheless, there remains fierce competition among MFIs themselves over product and client diversification. MFIs and agricultural development banks both face disasters triggered by natural hazards and agroclimatic factors that affect Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 200 borrowers’ risk and overall loan recovery. While MFIs have unique ways of coping with these adverse situations, agricultural banks have depended on government support to survive such calamities that affect their loan portfolios. An analysis of the cost-efficiency of both agricultural development banks and MFIs active in rural areas shows that while MFIs are cost-effective, agricultural development banks are not. Specifically, agricultural development banks generally cannot cover their costs, in part because the interest rates they charge are seriously constrained by deliberate government policy. While the Government of Bangladesh allows MFIs to charge high interest rates (maximum 27%) for microlending, agricultural development banks cannot charge more than 9% for agricultural lending. To make formal lending for agriculture more cost-effective for banks, and thus to encourage banks to lend to farmers, banks and MFIs must be allowed to operate on a level playing field. An analysis of household survey data shows that financial inclusion, measured in terms of having an account with a financial institution such as a bank, MFI, or mobile financial service, is about 31% in Bangladesh. Although 56% of farmers take out loans, only 8% borrow from financial institutions. In addition, of the 56% of borrowers in Bangladesh, only 4% use their loans for productive purposes such as agriculture and businesses. Using detailed household panel data spanning the 1998–2011 period, we find that MFI participation in Bangladesh has a significant positive effect for women",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "8% borrow from financial institutions. In addition, of the 56% of borrowers in Bangladesh, only 4% use their loans for productive purposes such as agriculture and businesses. Using detailed household panel data spanning the 1998–2011 period, we find that MFI participation in Bangladesh has a significant positive effect for women borrowers in terms of increasing crop, non-crop (i.e., livestock, poultry, and fisheries), and total farm and nonfarm income. Similarly, when men borrow from formal sources, these loans increase livestock income and nonfarm income. The presence of credit constraints appears to matter more for crop and other types of farm income; these incomes do not increase as much as a result of loans from financial institutions if the borrowers are credit-constrained, meaning that supply-side constraints have negative effects for borrowers. We find that borrowing from microfinance institutions is generally costeffective for nonfarm activities, despite the fact that the average lending rate of MFIs is much higher than that of banks extending services to rural areas. The average returns to farming are generally lower, suggesting that loans from commercial banks would be more cost-effective than loans from MFIs. 201 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture However, we find MFIs to be cost-effective in terms of both financial efficiency and operational efficiency; agricultural development banks are not cost-effective, as mentioned previously, partly because of the government’s interest rate policy and the lack of incentives for state-owned financial institutions. Microfinance institutions are reasonably sustainable, partly because they are allowed to charge interest up to 27%, which is much higher than the deposit rate and the rate they pay for the funds borrowed from PKSF. PKSF is, in turn, funded by the Government of Bangladesh and donors such as the World Bank. MFIs could extend their services to cover more farmers if they were allowed",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "27%, which is much higher than the deposit rate and the rate they pay for the funds borrowed from PKSF. PKSF is, in turn, funded by the Government of Bangladesh and donors such as the World Bank. MFIs could extend their services to cover more farmers if they were allowed to mobilize savings through specialized banks like Grameen Bank. On the other hand, formal banking for agriculture appears to be very weak and unsustainable. To help address this weakness, the Government of Bangladesh must ensure that public funds are properly and efficiently utilized in order to promote efficiency in the agricultural finance system. As of now, state-owned agricultural development banks do not mobilize funds from the public because they cannot lend profitably. Thus, government policy must be consistent with the reality on the ground: agricultural development banks are forced to charge an interest rate which is one-third the rate charged by MFIs. In addition, while agricultural development banks are often mandated to forgive loans given to farmers in the case of crop failures and other disasters, MFIs are not forced to adopt such loan forgiveness practices. These misdirected policies, which contribute to the worsening of a potentially important source of agricultural finance, must be discouraged. The Government of Bangladesh could intervene more effectively by developing marketing facilities, constructing rural roads, and supporting a crop insurance system to help farmers and lenders alike to mitigate agricultural risks, particularly those stemming from climate change. At the same time, institutional design, including financial regulations, must promote a level playing field for all actors in order to support a competitive environment in which the rural financial system can thrive. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 202 REFERENCES Angelucci, M., and O. Attanasio. 2013. The Demand for Food of Poor Urban Mexican Households:",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
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    "text": "regulations, must promote a level playing field for all actors in order to support a competitive environment in which the rural financial system can thrive. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 202 REFERENCES Angelucci, M., and O. Attanasio. 2013. The Demand for Food of Poor Urban Mexican Households: Understanding Policy Impacts Using Structural Models. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5(1): 146–178. Asian Development Bank. 2022. Asia Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise Monitor 2021: Digitalizing Microfinance in Bangladesh: Findings from the Baseline Study. Manila: Asian Development Bank. Banerjee, A., A. G. Chandrasekhar, E. Duflo, and M. O. Jackson. 2013. The Diffusion of Microfinance. Science 341(6144): 1236498. Banerjee, A., D. Karlan, and J. Zinman. 2015. Six Randomized Evaluations of Microcredit: Introduction and Further Steps. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 1–21. Bangladesh Bank. 2017. Monthly Report on Agricultural and Rural Financing. Dhaka: Bangladesh Bank. ———. 2021. Bangladesh Bank Annual Report 2021. Dhaka: Bangladesh Bank. ———. 2022. Agricultural and Rural Credit Policy and Program for Fiscal Year 2021–2022. Dhaka: Bangladesh Bank. Bangladesh Krishi Bank (BKB). 2013. Bangladesh Krishi Bank Annual Report 2013. Dhaka: Bangladesh Bank. ———. 2015. Bangladesh Krishi Bank Annual Report 2015. Dhaka: Bangladesh Bank. Binswanger, H., and S. R. Khandker. 1995. The Impact of Formal Finance on the Rural Economy of India. Journal of Development Studies 32: 234–262. Boucher, S., C. Guirkinger, and C. Trivelli. 2009. Direct Elicitation of Credit Constraints: Conceptual and Practical Issues with an Application to Peruvian Agriculture. Economic Development and Cultural Change 57(4): 609–640. BRAC. 2020. Report on Emergency Cash Transfer through Digital Wallets During COVID-19 Pandemic. The Business Standard. 2021. Disbursement of Allowances through MFS Ensures Transparency, Reduces Hassles. The Business Standard. 19 August. https://www.tbsnews.net/economy/banking/disbursement-allowancesthrough-mfs-ensures-transparency-reduces-hassles-290443. 203 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Carter, M. R. 1989. The Impact of Credit on Peasant Productivity and Differentiation",
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    "text": "Credit Access: Using Randomized Supply Decisions to Estimate the Impacts in Manila. Working Paper. Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA. Khandker, S. R. 1998. Fighting Poverty with Microfinance: Experience in Bangladesh. New York: Oxford University Press. Khandker, S. R., B. M. Khalily, and H. A. Samad. 2016. Beyond Ending Poverty: The Dynamics of Microfinance in Bangladesh. Washington, DC: World Bank. Khandker, S., G. Koolwal, and H. Samad. 2010. Handbook on Impact Evaluation: Quantitative Methods and Practices. Washington, DC: World Bank. 205 Bangladesh: How Microfinance Can Support Agriculture Khandker, S., and H. Samad. 2014. Dynamic Effects of Microcredit in Bangladesh. Policy Research Working Paper 6821. Washington, DC: World Bank. Kloeppinger-Todd, R., and M. Sharma. 2010. Innovations in Rural and Agricultural Finance. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute and World Bank. Microcredit Regulatory Authority. 2021. Microcredit Regulatory Authority Annual Report 2021. Dhaka: Microcredit Regulatory Authority. Murshid, K. A. S., S. Khandker, K. S. Ali, H. Samad, and M. Hossain. 2020. Impact of Mobile Financial Services in Bangladesh: A Case of bKash. Dhaka: Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies. Pitt, M. M. 2000. The Effect of Nonagricultural Self-Employment Credit on Contractual Relations and Employment in Agriculture: The Case of Microfinance Programs in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Development Studies 26(2/3): 15–48. Pitt, M., and S. Khandker. 1998. The Impact of Group-Based Credit Programs on Poor Households in Bangladesh: Does the Gender of Participants Matter? Journal of Political Economy 106(5): 958–996. ———. 2002. Credit Programs for the Poor and Seasonality in Rural Bangladesh. Journal of Development Studies 39(2): 1–24. Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan Bank (RAKUB). Various years. Annual Reports 2009– 2013. Rajshahi: Bangladesh Bank. Rosenburg, R. 2009. Measuring Results of Microfinance Institutions: Minimum Indicators That Donors and Investors Should Track: A Technical Guide. Consultative Group to Assist the Poor, Washington, DC.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
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    "text": "in Rural Bangladesh. Journal of Development Studies 39(2): 1–24. Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan Bank (RAKUB). Various years. Annual Reports 2009– 2013. Rajshahi: Bangladesh Bank. Rosenburg, R. 2009. Measuring Results of Microfinance Institutions: Minimum Indicators That Donors and Investors Should Track: A Technical Guide. Consultative Group to Assist the Poor, Washington, DC. Sahoo, S., M. N. A. Hossain, and K. S. Hassan. 2020. A Boon for Online Commerce: How COVID-19 Is Transforming the Industry in Bangladesh. Next Billion. December. Sial, M. H., and M. R. Carter. 1996. Financial Market Efficiency in an Agrarian Economy: Microeconometric Analysis of the Pakistani Punjab. Journal of Development Studies 32(5): 771–798. United Nations. n.d. Cereal Import Dependency Ratio (Percent) (3-Year Average). UNdata. http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?q=dependency+ratio&d=FAO&f=it emCode%3A21035. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 206 Wadud, M. A. 2013. Impact of Microfinance on Agricultural Farm Performance and Food Security in Bangladesh. InM Working Paper 14. Dhaka: Institute of Microfinance. WB-InM. 2010/2011. Dynamics of Microcredit Programs in Bangladesh. World Bank-Institute of Microfinance Household Survey, 2010/2011. World Bank. 2003. Review of the Bank’s Rural Finance Experience. Working Paper. Operations Evaluation Department World Bank, Washington, DC. ———. 2017. World Development Indicators. Washington, DC. ———. 2021a. Employment in Agriculture (% of Total Employment) (Modeled ILO Estimate) – Bangladesh. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR. EMPL.ZS?locations=BD. ———. 2021b. The Global Findex Database 2021: Financial Inclusion, Digital Payments, and Resilience in the Age of COVID-19. World Bank. ———. 2021c. Databank: World Development Indicators. https://databank. worldbank.org/reports.aspx?source=2&country=bgd. World Bank, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies. 2013. Long-term Impact of Microcredit Impacts 1998–1999. World Bank-Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies Household Survey, 1998/1999. 207 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Gayatri B. Koolwal CHAPTER 6 6.1 \u0007India’s Agricultural Sector Expands, but Challenges Remain Over Productivity Growth This chapter uses various supplyand demand-side analyses to examine the roles that institutional credit plays in improving agricultural",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Bank-Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies Household Survey, 1998/1999. 207 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Gayatri B. Koolwal CHAPTER 6 6.1 \u0007India’s Agricultural Sector Expands, but Challenges Remain Over Productivity Growth This chapter uses various supplyand demand-side analyses to examine the roles that institutional credit plays in improving agricultural productivity in India. In recent years, the Government of India has pursued different strategies to raise farmers’ incomes—ranging from irrigation, provision of high-quality seeds, and strengthening of agricultural value chains to development of farm–nonfarm linkages, promotion of linked activities across horticulture and livestock producers, and provision of lower-cost crop insurance. Institutional credit to agriculture has also played a large part in the government’s strategy to raise investment, productivity, and incomes in the agricultural sector. Credit to the sector has grown rapidly over the last two decades and has dominated policy initiatives to expand financial services in agriculture. Agricultural loans do not have as high a share in overall nonperforming assets as other priority sectors (such as microand small enterprises). However, since the advent of regional debt waiver policies following the national agricultural debt waiver and relief scheme introduced in 2008, large shares of farmers have defaulted on their agricultural loans, including through the Kisan credit card (KCC) scheme introduced by the government. This chapter discusses the landscape of different institutions engaged in agricultural lending in India, as well as the related challenges and opportunities present in lending to the country’s growing base of small and marginal farmers. Given the concerns over whether agricultural finance leads to significant investments in agriculture, in addition to a supply-side analysis, we use the 2004–2005 and 2011–2012 panel rounds of the nationally representative Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 208 India Human Development Survey (IHDS) to shed light on how borrowing has been",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "over whether agricultural finance leads to significant investments in agriculture, in addition to a supply-side analysis, we use the 2004–2005 and 2011–2012 panel rounds of the nationally representative Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 208 India Human Development Survey (IHDS) to shed light on how borrowing has been associated with increased expenditure on seeds and fertilizer and with subsequent farm production and income. Previous studies on the role of credit in improving agricultural output and income in India have focused on districtor state-level analyses (Binswanger and Khandker 1995; Das, Senapati, and John 2009; Narayanan 2016). In this chapter, we conduct a household-level analysis of the IHDS to show that larger cultivators are more likely to borrow for agriculture and that borrowing for agriculture is associated with higher agricultural investments, as well as with increased area under irrigation and greater crop income. Borrowing for other purposes, including consumption, does not have any significant indirect effect on farm income. The analysis also confirms that broad distributional inequalities persist in terms of who receives credit. Small farmers, who often do not have a bank account or do not frequently use one, are much less likely to have access to credit than larger farmers. Given that the vast majority of farmers in India now own less than 2 hectares of land, this inequality has even greater implications for overall investment in such areas as infrastructure and markets, use of fertilizers and pesticides, and proper targeting of agricultural extension services. While smaller farmers who borrow do invest more in seeds and fertilizer, the broader effects of credit on agricultural investment and production tend to be concentrated among larger landowners. Better targeting of smaller farmers, including a clearer understanding of these farmers’ production and borrowing constraints, will be important in raising agricultural productivity going",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "who borrow do invest more in seeds and fertilizer, the broader effects of credit on agricultural investment and production tend to be concentrated among larger landowners. Better targeting of smaller farmers, including a clearer understanding of these farmers’ production and borrowing constraints, will be important in raising agricultural productivity going forward. Given the onset of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, the findings have important implications for the design of recovery programs going forward, as well as in the analysis and design of future survey panel rounds. India’s agricultural sector remains a global powerhouse and is critical to employment (employing about half of the national workforce) and sustainable economic growth (contributing to about 17.5% of gross domestic product [GDP]). While structural changes in India’s economy, including rapid industrialization and growth of the service sector, have reduced agriculture’s share in GDP over the last several decades (according to estimates from the World Bank, from about 27% in 1990 to 18% in 2004 and 15% in 2017), the agricultural sector continues to play a crucial role in economic growth and poverty reduction. 209 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture However, productivity and growth in India’s agricultural sector has generally been more volatile than growth in other sectors, such as industry and services, and increased land fragmentation, resource and input scarcity, and growing climate variability all point to even greater uncertainties for farmers in the years ahead. Uncertainties over weather patterns and the growing share of smaller, poorer farmers have also made designing investments in agriculture—including modernizing agricultural value chains and developing innovative technologies and inputs to improve productivity—more complex. Addressing food security among poor people also remains a central policy concern for India’s government, particularly in the face of a growing middle class in urban areas and rising incomes, but contrasted with",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "investments in agriculture—including modernizing agricultural value chains and developing innovative technologies and inputs to improve productivity—more complex. Addressing food security among poor people also remains a central policy concern for India’s government, particularly in the face of a growing middle class in urban areas and rising incomes, but contrasted with stagnating growth in rural employment. Food availability has increased in India, but growing concerns remain over climate change, an increasing share of small and marginal farmers due to fragmentation of landholdings, and growing scarcity in water and other natural resources that also affect crop diversification. The COVID-19 pandemic and strict lockdowns imposed by the government in early 2020 led to severe supply shocks and reduced growth, although the decline in the agricultural sector was not very large (Figure 6.1). Figure 6.1:\u0003 \u0007Percentage Growth in the Agriculture and Allied Sectors, 2016–2022 0.0 1.0 3.0 8.0 6.8 6.6 2.6 4.3 3.6 3.9 2.0 4.0 5.0 7.0 6.0 2016–2017 2017–2018 2018–2019 2019–2020 2020–2021 2021–2022 Source: National Statistical Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, India: First Advance Estimates of National Income, 2021–2022. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 210 Figure 6.2, which presents data leading up to 2020, shows that some support to the sector was likely due to relatively strong growth in gross value added in livestock activity. Other areas of agriculture, including crop agriculture, have not fared as well. The trends for crop agriculture are worrisome, since this area accounts for more than 60% of the country’s agricultural sector and plays a major role in the country’s food security,1 and significant challenges remain to productivity growth and food security. These challenges stem from natural resource depletion, climate variability, and the fragmentation of land holdings, all of which have placed growing stresses on crop production. 1 Also see World Bank",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and plays a major role in the country’s food security,1 and significant challenges remain to productivity growth and food security. These challenges stem from natural resource depletion, climate variability, and the fragmentation of land holdings, all of which have placed growing stresses on crop production. 1 Also see World Bank (2012). Figure 6.2:\u0003 \u0007Percentage Growth of Gross Value Added in Agriculture (at 2011–2012 prices) 2016–2017 2017–2018 2018–2019 2019–2020 5.3 5.4 4.0 –1.6 Crops 10.0 7.9 8.5 7.0 Livestock 5.5 5.4 7.9 0.3 Forestry & Logging 10.4 15.2 9.0 1.0 Fishing Source: Based on data received from Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (DAFW). Third revised estimate for 2017–2018, second revised estimate for 2018–2019, and first revised estimate released in January 2021. 211 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Figure 6.3 shows how agricultural land holdings in India have become increasingly fragmented over time, with the share of marginal farmers increasing the fastest over the last several decades compared to other landholding groups (currently, about 85% of farmers are marginal).2 This is further underscored by Figure 6.4, which shows that in recent years, the share of agricultural households’ income stemming from crop cultivation and production has declined as compared to work in wage and livestock activity. Access to credit is a key constraint to improved inputs and agricultural technology, particularly among smaller farmers. Quality seeds, for example, are essential to the effectiveness of other agricultural inputs (including fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation), and particularly amid more frequent climate‑related shocks that necessitate new, sustainable approaches to farming. 2 Varshney et al. (2021). Figure 6.3:\u0003 \u0007Growing Fragmentation of Operational Holdings Across Different Farming Sizes 0 20,000 60,000 40,000 80,000 100,000 Marginal Small Semi-medium Medium Large 120,000 Number (1000s) of holdings 1970–1971 1976–1977 1985–1986 1980–1981 1990–1991 1995–1996 2000–2001 2005–2006 2010–2011 2015–2016F 2020–2021F Source: National",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "new, sustainable approaches to farming. 2 Varshney et al. (2021). Figure 6.3:\u0003 \u0007Growing Fragmentation of Operational Holdings Across Different Farming Sizes 0 20,000 60,000 40,000 80,000 100,000 Marginal Small Semi-medium Medium Large 120,000 Number (1000s) of holdings 1970–1971 1976–1977 1985–1986 1980–1981 1990–1991 1995–1996 2000–2001 2005–2006 2010–2011 2015–2016F 2020–2021F Source: National Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 212 Figure 6.4:\u0003 \u0007Percentage Composition of Average Monthly Income of Agricultural Households SAS-2014 SAS-2021 Livestock Non-farm businesses Wage/salary Crop cultivation/ production 12.0 16.0 8.0 6.0 32.0 40.0 48.0 37.0 Source: National Statistical Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, India: Land and Livestock Holdings of Households and Situation Assessment of Agricultural Households (2014, 2021). Major periods of productivity growth in Indian agriculture—including the Green Revolution of the 1960s–1970s, as well as recent growth in the production and productivity of maize, cotton, and fruits and vegetables—have all been driven by improvements in seed or planting materials (Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare 2016). However, access to quality seeds has been difficult for most small farmers, limiting their ability to grow higher-value crops and reach higher‑paying markets. The organized seed sector (which includes both private sector and public sector companies and which distributes certified and better quality/improved seeds) accounts for about 30%–35% of the total seeds distributed in the country but typically charges prices that are too high for smaller farmers to afford.3 3 The remaining share of seeds come from an unorganized sector of farm-saved seeds (Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare 2016) and can also include cloned/counterfeit seeds. 213 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture The expansion of institutional credit is important for improving agricultural productivity, but bank credit constitutes less than one-quarter of total agricultural credit (Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "seeds (Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare 2016) and can also include cloned/counterfeit seeds. 213 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture The expansion of institutional credit is important for improving agricultural productivity, but bank credit constitutes less than one-quarter of total agricultural credit (Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare 2016).4 Small farmers, who often do not even have a bank account, are much less likely to have access to formal credit than larger farmers. This has even greater implications for investment in such areas as infrastructure and markets, production of fertilizers and pesticides, and agricultural extension services, given the growing share of marginal and small farmers in India’s agricultural sector. In this chapter, context is first provided on sources of financial services among agricultural households, including institutional sources of credit; mobile banking, savings accounts, and insurance; as well as noninstitutional sources. The discussion is followed with an empirical analysis of the distributional effects of institutional borrowing, and in particular on agricultural investments, across the landholding distribution. The discussion and analysis draw on several sources of data over the last few decades, including administrative data, the World Bank’s Global Financial Inclusion database (known as the Findex), All-India Debt and Investment Survey, and India Human Development Survey. Using the macroand micro-level data, recommendations are outlined on how agricultural households can be better targeted by financial services, with the aim of raising productivity and incomes across the distribution. 6.2 \u0007Financial Services in Agriculture and the Rapid Growth of Institutional Credit Institutional credit to agriculture has grown rapidly since the mid-2000s due to many policy shifts aimed at sustainably raising productivity growth and rural incomes (Box 6.1), although growth slowed in recent years leading up to the COVID-19 pandemic. Historically, banks in India have been required to lend 40% of their total credit",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to agriculture has grown rapidly since the mid-2000s due to many policy shifts aimed at sustainably raising productivity growth and rural incomes (Box 6.1), although growth slowed in recent years leading up to the COVID-19 pandemic. Historically, banks in India have been required to lend 40% of their total credit to “priority sectors,” which include agriculture and small-scale industry. Figure 6.5 reflects the percentage shares of India’s main institutional lenders to agriculture (cooperative banks, scheduled commercial banks [SCBs], and regional rural banks [RRBs], all of which are detailed in Box 6.2); over time, SCBs have overtaken cooperative banks as the main institutional lending source within agriculture. 4 This is also in spite of two-thirds of capital formation in agriculture through borrowing from banks. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 214 Box 6.1:\u0003 \u0007Major Policies Since the Late 1990s to Expand Agricultural Institutional Credit 1998–1999 \u0007Kisan credit card (KCC) scheme: Also known as cash credit or a revolving fund, this program was introduced to supply credit to small farmers. The Kisan credit card provides a lump-sum loan to farmers, which they can draw on throughout the year for crop investments, including the purchase of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, farm help, and irrigation. Farmers are expected to pay back the entire amount within 1 year, typically after crop output is sold, after which they can apply for a new round of Kisan credit. In 2018, the Indian government issued revised guidelines to benefit smaller farmers by waiving standard security requirements, such as pledging crops to secure a loan, for loans of up to ₹100,000. 2004–2005 \u0007The government introduced a comprehensive credit policy, pledging to double the amount of agricultural credit across institutional sources over a 3-year period, including expanding targeting of smaller farmers and expanding the number of self-help groups (SHGs)",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "as pledging crops to secure a loan, for loans of up to ₹100,000. 2004–2005 \u0007The government introduced a comprehensive credit policy, pledging to double the amount of agricultural credit across institutional sources over a 3-year period, including expanding targeting of smaller farmers and expanding the number of self-help groups (SHGs) by about 22% to cover 2.9 million people by 2007. 2006–2007 \u0007Interest subvention scheme to reward prompt repayment of loans: Under this scheme, farmers get short-term crop loans up to ₹300,000 at a 7% interest rate. If the loan to the bank is paid on time, there is an additional interest subvention of 3%, making the effective rate of interest 4% per year. During 2017–2018, the central government provided interest subvention of 5% per year to all prompt payees for short-term crop loans of up to 1 year. 2008 \u0007Agricultural debt waiver and debt relief scheme: Instituted following the 2008–2009 global financial crisis, this scheme amounted to nearly 1% of gross domestic product in 2008. The scheme involved waiving debt for small and marginal farmers owners of up to 2 hectares of land, as well as an opportunity for a one-time settlement for other farmers (a rebate of 25% against the payment of the balance 75%). 2010–2011 \u0007Recapitalization of regional rural banks: This program, which has been continually extended since 2010, involves an infusion of government funds to improve RRBs’ capital-to-risk weighted assets ratio (CRAR). 2014–present \u0007Many states have announced additional loan waiver programs similar to the 2008 policy. 2020–present \u0007The Government of India has been introducing additional stimulus programs to digitize KCC as well as reduce effective interest rates that farmers face on bank loans. 215 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Box 6.2:\u0003 \u0007Main Sources of Institutional Lending for Agriculture Banks • Cooperative banks: Cooperatives are registered",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "\u0007The Government of India has been introducing additional stimulus programs to digitize KCC as well as reduce effective interest rates that farmers face on bank loans. 215 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Box 6.2:\u0003 \u0007Main Sources of Institutional Lending for Agriculture Banks • Cooperative banks: Cooperatives are registered under the 1912 Cooperative Societies Act and are set up mainly to serve small industry/agriculture and self-employed workers. Rural cooperative banks are divided into those providing short-term services (state cooperative banks, district central cooperative banks, and primary agricultural credit societies, the latter which operate at the village or subdistrict level) and those providing long-term services (state cooperative agriculture and rural development banks, and primary cooperative agriculture and rural development banks, which operate at the district/block level). In recent years, monitoring cooperative banks has become difficult given the complicated tiered structure. • Scheduled commercial banks (SCBs): Among SCBs are the State Bank of India and its associated banks, nationalized banks, private sector banks, regional rural banks (RRBs), and foreign banks. As of March 2017, about 30% of SCB branches were located in rural areas, mostly in the form of public sector and nationalized banks and RRBs. • Regional rural banks (RRBs): RRBs, which were established in 1975, are SCBs designed to target agriculture and other rural sectors—and specifically smaller farmers and entrepreneurs—as an alternative to the cooperative credit structure. They operate at the regional level in different states in India. Other Major Institutional Sources • Self-help groups (SHGs): Within finance, banks provide credit to SHGs against a group guarantee, and members of the group stand as collective guarantors. Banks allow the members of the SHGs to decide which members of the group will borrow and how much, as well as how the loan will be repaid. These loans started out as",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "provide credit to SHGs against a group guarantee, and members of the group stand as collective guarantors. Banks allow the members of the SHGs to decide which members of the group will borrow and how much, as well as how the loan will be repaid. These loans started out as term loans, which members are expected to repay in regular installments over a period of time. In 2011, the government issued a directive for commercial banks to convert all SHG term loans to cash credit, to save on the high transaction and monitoring costs for banks. Figure 6.5:\u0003 \u0007Share of Institutional Lending (Loans Outstanding) to Agriculture, 1983–2022 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 0.30 1983–84 1985–86 1987–88 1989–90 1991–92 1993–94 1995–96 1997–98 1999–00 2001–02 2003–04 2005–06 2007–08 2009–10 2011–12 2013–14 2015–16 2017–18 2019–20 2021–22 SCBs RRBs Cooperatives RRB = regional rural bank, SCB = scheduled commercial bank. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 216 As Box 6.1 shows, there have been several efforts over the last 20 years to expand agricultural credit in India, although the pace of expansion has slowed in recent years. A comprehensive credit policy was initiated in 2004–2005 to double the volume of credit to agriculture over a period of 3 years (this volume ultimately doubled in 2 years); in addition, an interest rate subvention scheme was introduced in 2006–2007, and a recapitalization scheme for regional rural banks began in 2010–2011. Year-on-year real outstanding agricultural credit revealed negative growth rates, however, between 2015–2016 and 2019–2020 (Chavan and Ramakumar 2022; Ramakumar 2022). Just before and after the onset of the pandemic in 2020, year-on-year growth rates declined substantially, with some recovery in 2021 but still far less growth than in 2019 (Figure 6.6). Figure 6.6:\u0003 \u0007Year-on-Year Growth Rates (Percentage by Quarter) in",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "between 2015–2016 and 2019–2020 (Chavan and Ramakumar 2022; Ramakumar 2022). Just before and after the onset of the pandemic in 2020, year-on-year growth rates declined substantially, with some recovery in 2021 but still far less growth than in 2019 (Figure 6.6). Figure 6.6:\u0003 \u0007Year-on-Year Growth Rates (Percentage by Quarter) in Outstanding Real Agricultural Credit from Rural Scheduled Commercial Banks, 2019, 2020, and 2021 Quarter ending March Quarter ending June Quarter ending Sept Quarter ending Dec 4.6 9.2 9.7 2019 2020 2021 3.6 6.9 10.4 2019 2020 2021 4.0 6.0 10.9 2019 2020 2021 5.6 6.8 2019 2020 Source: Reserve Bank of India; taken from Ramakumar (2022). Another issue is the relative emphasis on shortversus long-term financing. Short-term financing is typically used for seasonal agricultural operations and mixed farming activities, while longer-term loans are used for purchasing agricultural inputs and machines. Since 2006–2007, when the interest subvention scheme was introduced for short-term crop loans (Box 6.1), the distribution of credit has been skewed toward production credit as opposed to crop-related 217 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture investment credit, with about 75% of credit outstanding going to short-term crop loans in 2018, and 25% for investment credit. Land fragmentation, as discussed earlier, has also contributed to the decline in long-term lending for capital investments. This trend poses concerns for longer-term investment and growth in the sector, and it should be a policy priority going forward. 6.2.1 Financial Performance of Banks in Agriculture As discussed previously, agriculture constitutes a riskier area of investment for banks due to a variety of factors, including climate-related fluctuations that contribute to water shortages, inadequate storage facilities and transport/ marketing channels, poor management of land records and difficulties in establishing land rights (as land is a major source of collateral), and a rapidly growing base of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of investment for banks due to a variety of factors, including climate-related fluctuations that contribute to water shortages, inadequate storage facilities and transport/ marketing channels, poor management of land records and difficulties in establishing land rights (as land is a major source of collateral), and a rapidly growing base of small and marginal farmers. Between 2009 and 2013, agriculture’s share of nonperforming assets (NPAs), relative to other “priority sectors” such as micro and small enterprises, as well as export credit, education, housing, social infrastructure, and renewable energy, increased considerably from 25% to about 42% (Reserve Bank of India various years; see also Reserve Bank of India [2021]). For all areas, including other non-priority sectors, this increase was from 12% to 17%, as the non-priority sectors have a much higher share of NPAs overall. Within agriculture as well, Figure 6.7 shows that the share of NPAs has been increasing since 2009, after declining steadily between 2001–2009. Figure 6.7:\u0003 \u0007Share of Nonperforming Assets in Agriculture, Scheduled Commercial Banks, 2001–2018 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2018 2003 2002 2001 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2017 14.8 13.6 11.2 8.5 6.2 3.9 3.2 3.6 2.1 2.5 3.6 4.5 5.1 5.5 6.1 8.1 5.1 5.1 Source: Reserve Bank of India (various years). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 218 The spread of regional debt waiver policies following the national agricultural debt waiver and relief scheme introduced in 2008 also led to an increase in farmers defaulting on their loans. A recent study using district-level panel data between 2001 and 2012 found that the debt waiver and relief program actually induced many banks to shift away from districts with greater risk by allowing these banks to clean their books of consistently underperforming",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "an increase in farmers defaulting on their loans. A recent study using district-level panel data between 2001 and 2012 found that the debt waiver and relief program actually induced many banks to shift away from districts with greater risk by allowing these banks to clean their books of consistently underperforming or nonperforming loans and move on to better-off districts (Giné and Kanz 2018). As states began introducing their own debt waiver schemes (which have also been politically attractive during elections), recent concerns have arisen over increasing public debts and the long‑term effects of these waiver programs on public spending. In general, the share of agricultural loans as a share of nonperforming assets remains high but not necessarily higher than other sectors, particularly non‑priority sectors where the share of NPAs increased from 48% in 2011 to 59% in 2013 and then to 70% in 2017.5 The broader question then becomes, given recent policy initiatives that have tended to isolate the worst-off areas, how can agricultural credit effectively be targeted to raise productivity and incomes in the sector? Complementing waivers with other public investments, as well as with incentives for private investment, may be a more appropriate longer-term solution than loan waivers alone. 6.2.2 \u0007Other Rural Financial Services: Accounts, Mobile Banking, and Insurance Other financial services have also expanded across rural India, although not to the extent of agricultural credit. Deposit and current accounts have grown recently among farmers, particularly following a push in 2009 to further expand rural bank branches and “branchless banking” (in which a large network of business correspondents are assigned to different villages and use mobile devices to help families conduct financial transactions). Along with reducing the costs of establishing physical bank branches, branchless banking has been shown to help improve savings among the rural poor (see Kochar",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "“branchless banking” (in which a large network of business correspondents are assigned to different villages and use mobile devices to help families conduct financial transactions). Along with reducing the costs of establishing physical bank branches, branchless banking has been shown to help improve savings among the rural poor (see Kochar [2018] for a study from the state of Karnataka). The expansion of branchless banking has other 5 A main reason for this is that banks often engage in the practice of “evergreening”: delaying the recognition and therefore resolution of NPAs. In 2015, the Reserve Bank of India removed incentives to allow evergreening, so that the share of NPAs increased substantially afterwards. See, e.g., Roy, Subramanian, and Ravi (2018). 219 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture additional benefits, since rural bank branch growth has remained flat or even negative for long periods over the last several years.6 In general, the pandemic accelerated the use of digital financial services in agriculture, including an initiative within the Reserve Bank of India announced in 2022 that will push electronic delivery of Kisan credit card (KCC) loans in a paperless and hassle-free manner and also reduce the turnaround time and avoid multiple visits to bank branches. As with credit, inefficiencies have also persisted in the targeting and use of additional bank services. Mobile services tend to be focused in more populated locales, for example, and the usage of different types of accounts across the board tends to be limited. The 2011–2012 round of the nationally representative India Human Development Survey shows that about 57% of agricultural households have a deposit or savings account with a bank; similarly, the 2014 Findex sets this figure at 63%. However, account ownership can vary substantially by farmers’ landholdings/wealth, and many accounts are seldom used. The 2014 Findex survey,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "nationally representative India Human Development Survey shows that about 57% of agricultural households have a deposit or savings account with a bank; similarly, the 2014 Findex sets this figure at 63%. However, account ownership can vary substantially by farmers’ landholdings/wealth, and many accounts are seldom used. The 2014 Findex survey, which provides a breakdown of borrowing by occupational status, for example, shows that among the 63% of farmers with a financial institution account, only half reported making a deposit into the account in the last 12 months, and just 28% reported using these accounts for savings.7 Particularly among smaller farmers with little or no savings, accounts are typically used for government transfers. The 2014 Findex also underscores the importance of cash in farmers’ transactions, even as technology and financial services are becoming increasingly linked—among those receiving agricultural payments, 83% reported receiving them in cash, 11% into an account, and just 3% through a mobile phone. As the use of mobile technology, and accompanying data collection, expands to other services, clearer insights will emerge regarding how these applications have translated into productivity and related outcomes for farmers. 6 Branch expansion is not necessarily tied to agricultural growth, however. Using data for 16 states between 1961 and 2000, Burgess and Pande (2005) found that rural branch expansion did improve economic growth and reduced poverty in rural areas, but these impacts were due mainly to growth in nonagricultural output and small-scale manufacturing and services. 7 The percentage of farmers having an account with a financial system was 88% in both 2017 and 2021. However, the mobile financial services (MFS) rate among farmers was much lower than the financial account rate—it was only 2.5% in 2017 and 20.4% in 2021. In contrast, in neighboring Bangladesh, the MFS rate was 23.8% in 2017 and 45.7%",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "a financial system was 88% in both 2017 and 2021. However, the mobile financial services (MFS) rate among farmers was much lower than the financial account rate—it was only 2.5% in 2017 and 20.4% in 2021. In contrast, in neighboring Bangladesh, the MFS rate was 23.8% in 2017 and 45.7% in 2021, while the financial account rate was half of India’s rate. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 220 India’s government has also focused on expanding crop insurance as a way to protect farmers from rainfall and climate variability, as well as other potential risks. India has had several crop insurance schemes over the last several decades, including the Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme (CCIS) in 1985, the National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) in 1999, and the Modified National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (MNAIS) in 2013. The MNAIS in particular set premiums in the range of 2%–15% of the total value insured, with the government contributing up to 75% of total premiums. As of 2016–2017, however, only about 30% of gross cropped area across the country was insured (Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare 2016; Gulati, Terway, and al Hussain 2018). Factors contributing to this low take-up rate include high premiums, lack of land records, poor coverage for localized crop damage, and lack of awareness among farmers.8 Most recently, the government introduced the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) in 2016; this scheme eliminates all caps on the government’s contributions to insurance premiums in an effort to expand coverage. (The government’s ambitious target at the outset was 50% of cropped area to be covered in 3 years, although this target is likely to be reached more slowly.) To help expand farmers’ knowledge about crop insurance programs, as well as about market prices for agricultural outputs, the government has been involved",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "government’s ambitious target at the outset was 50% of cropped area to be covered in 3 years, although this target is likely to be reached more slowly.) To help expand farmers’ knowledge about crop insurance programs, as well as about market prices for agricultural outputs, the government has been involved in developing a series of mobile phone applications (World Bank 2017). The government has also introduced digitized schedules for smart crop cutting experiments to speed up the measurement of agricultural yield in villages, as well as digitization of land records for faster assessment/settlement of claims and to ease implementation of the new crop insurance scheme. However, using these instruments effectively has been hampered by delays and quality issues of yield data to assess damages (Gulati, Terway, and al Hussain 2018). Given India’s disproportionate increase in smallholder farming, a big push for outreach programs—including the use of technological advances more effectively and comprehensively to better target services—is needed to develop farmers’ awareness of and interest in crop insurance, as well as greater confidence that crop damage will be covered adequately by insurance schemes. 8 The 2011 Findex also found that 7% of agricultural workers had personally paid for crop/rainfall/ livestock insurance. (This question was not asked again in the 2014 round.) 221 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture 6.2.3 \u0007Distributional Trends for Institutional Credit Growth in Agriculture Institutional credit to agriculture has been growing rapidly over the last few decades. However, looking more closely at institutional borrowing within rural areas and for cultivator households specifically (using the nationally representative All-India Debt and Investment Survey, conducted roughly every 10 years), we see that the proportion of institutional loans among cultivators, relative to borrowing from all sources, rose until the early 1980s but has flattened/declined somewhat since then (Figure 6.8). Between 1951",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and for cultivator households specifically (using the nationally representative All-India Debt and Investment Survey, conducted roughly every 10 years), we see that the proportion of institutional loans among cultivators, relative to borrowing from all sources, rose until the early 1980s but has flattened/declined somewhat since then (Figure 6.8). Between 1951 and 1981, for example, the share of agricultural credit from institutional sources rose from about 10% to 63%, rising further to about 67% by 2018–2019. In turn, the share of borrowing from noninstitutional sources, including moneylenders and family/friends, has hovered at a little higher than one-third over the last few decades. Figure 6.8:\u0003 \u0007Share of Credit for Agriculture (Loans Outstanding) for Cultivator Households, by Institutional/Noninstitutional Source 0 10 20 40 50 60 70 80 90 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2002 2012 2019 100 30 Non-institutional Institutional 89.9 79.1 68.0 65.0 63.0 61.0 58.0 67.1 10.1 20.9 32.0 37.0 35.0 39.0 42.0 32.9 Source: National Statistical Office, All-India Debt and Investment Survey, multiple rounds. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 222 To understand better what might be driving these trends, Table 6.1 provides additional breakdowns across different types of institutional and noninstitutional sources, as well as rural occupations. We find that of the cultivator households borrowing from noninstitutional sources in 2019, more than the majority sought credit from informal moneylenders. The continued large share of rural borrowing from noninstitutional sources of credit poses a major concern for policymakers, since noninstitutional sources such as moneylenders perpetuate indebtedness among poor people by providing easy credit at very high interest rates (20% or greater, according to the All-India Debt and Investment Survey, compared to 6%–15% among institutional sources). Table 6.1 also shows that farming households borrowing from institutional sources are much more likely to rely on banks, whereas non-cultivator households tend",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "people by providing easy credit at very high interest rates (20% or greater, according to the All-India Debt and Investment Survey, compared to 6%–15% among institutional sources). Table 6.1 also shows that farming households borrowing from institutional sources are much more likely to rely on banks, whereas non-cultivator households tend to rely equally on banks and self-help groups (SHGs). These statistics, however, mask differences in borrowing across the distribution of assets (within cultivators, for example, across small versus larger farmers), which we turn to next. Table 6.1:\u0003 \u0007Percentage Distribution of Rural Households’ Cash Loans Across Institutional and Noninstitutional Sources, by Cultivator/Non-Cultivator Status 2019 Cultivator Non-Cultivator Total Borrowing from Institutional Sources 67.0 63.9 66.1 Of which: Scheduled commercial bank 42.6 40.4 41.9 Regional rural bank 7.2 2.3 5.7 Cooperative society/bank 5.3 2.9 4.6 Cooperative bank 5.1 5.7 5.3 Insurance companies 0.1 0.2 0.1 Provident fund 0.0 0.0 0.0 Employer 0.0 0.2 0.1 Financial institution 1.9 2.0 1.9 NBFCs including MFIs 1.5 3.3 2.0 Self-help group (bank linked) 2.6 5.6 3.5 Self-help group (non-bank linked) 0.3 0.5 0.4 Other institutional agencies 0.4 0.7 0.5 continued on next page 223 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Table 6.1:\u0003 Continued 2019 Cultivator Non-Cultivator Total Borrowing from Noninstitutional Sources 32.9 36.1 33.8 Of which: Landlord 0.9 1.7 1.1 Agricultural moneylender 6.6 5.6 6.3 Professional moneylender 16.0 17.6 16.5 Input supplier 0.4 0.1 0.3 Relatives and friends 6.5 7.7 6.8 Chit funds 0.1 0.3 0.2 Market commission agent/traders 0.6 0.4 0.6 Others 1.8 2.5 2.0 MFI = microfinance institution, NBFC = nonbanking financial company. Source: All-India Debt and Investment Survey 2019. Overall, smaller farmers still face gaps in accessing institutional credit. Despite the expansion of institutional credit to agriculture, small and marginal farmers (those with landholdings of less than 2 hectares) continue to be crowded",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "MFI = microfinance institution, NBFC = nonbanking financial company. Source: All-India Debt and Investment Survey 2019. Overall, smaller farmers still face gaps in accessing institutional credit. Despite the expansion of institutional credit to agriculture, small and marginal farmers (those with landholdings of less than 2 hectares) continue to be crowded out from institutional lending because of their risk profile (lower collateral, land titling difficulties, etc.), lack of financial literacy, and the time and monetary costs of setting up bank accounts and seeking loans in hard-to-reach areas. Borrowing by small and marginal farmers is focused on crop loans of small loan size (in 2016, three-quarters of loans among this group were for crop-related purposes)—in March 2016, around 74% of the crop loan accounts of small and marginal farmers were only up to ₹100,000 (Raghumanda, Shankar, and Singh 2017). Data from the Reserve Bank of India’s statistical returns also shows that large agricultural loans have grown faster over the last few decades and that the share of lending for smaller loans has shrunk over time, potentially crowding out financing needed by small and marginal farmers. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 224 6.3 \u0007The Role of Institutional Borrowing in Agricultural Investments Across the Landholding Distribution: Evidence from the India Human Development Survey Farmers borrow for a variety of reasons, including to purchase inputs or capital stock to sustain or accelerate agricultural production and to smooth consumption. In India, the empirical literature has shown that agricultural credit has had a positive impact on outcomes for farmers, although the links between borrowing and agricultural income depend on factors including targeting/landholding size, product design, and the mode of credit delivery. Most of these studies have been based on an examination of aggregated (district/state-level) data. An early district-level analysis by Binswanger and Khandker (1995),",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "impact on outcomes for farmers, although the links between borrowing and agricultural income depend on factors including targeting/landholding size, product design, and the mode of credit delivery. Most of these studies have been based on an examination of aggregated (district/state-level) data. An early district-level analysis by Binswanger and Khandker (1995), for example, found that formal credit through banks substantially improved investments in fertilizers and in larger machinery but had a more modest effect on output; this finding was mirrored by a more recent state-level panel analysis conducted between 1995–1996 and 2011–2012 (Narayanan 2016), which found that input use is sensitive to credit flow but has not translated into an increased share of GDP in agriculture.9 Concerns persist over the low technical efficiency and productivity of input use, which are also tied to the increased fragmentation of landholdings discussed earlier and to the difficulties in extending credit effectively to smaller farmers (also see Ramakumar and Chavan [2014] and Golait [2007]). Household survey data with information on the source, amount, and purpose of borrowing, complemented with detailed agricultural modules on production and investment, are needed to better understand the channels connecting borrowing to agricultural outcomes and to provide greater insight into how the effectiveness of credit is related to the distribution of household landholdings. Panel data are particularly useful in understanding how borrowing has been associated with changes in agricultural outcomes for the same households. In this section, we use the 2004–2005 and 2011–2012 rounds of the nationally representative India Human Development Survey (IHDS) to understand the extent to which borrowing has been associated with increased expenditure on seeds and fertilizer, as well as 9 The time period and context of the study may matter as well—a dynamic panel analysis across 20 states over a shorter period, between 2001 and 2006, found",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Survey (IHDS) to understand the extent to which borrowing has been associated with increased expenditure on seeds and fertilizer, as well as 9 The time period and context of the study may matter as well—a dynamic panel analysis across 20 states over a shorter period, between 2001 and 2006, found that direct credit to agriculture has improved state-level output (Das, Senapati, and John 2009). 225 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture the resulting association with farm production and income. Although recent panel survey data are not available, the results do show that borrowing for agriculture is associated with higher agricultural investments, as well as an increased area under irrigation and greater crop income, reflecting important connections for future policy design. Borrowing for other purposes, including consumption, does not have any significant indirect effect on farm income. The effects on agricultural investment and production, however, tend to be concentrated on larger landowners, reflecting previously discussed gaps in targeting of smaller farmers. 6.3.1 Data The IHDS is a nationally representative, multi-topic survey of 41,554 households across rural and urban areas in India.10 The first round of interviews was completed in 2004–2005, and a second round of IHDS reinterviewed most of these households in 2011–2012 (a sample size of 42,152).11 Along with employment and demographic characteristics of individual household members, the IHDS includes detailed modules on different sources of income, work in agriculture (including, for crops specifically, landholdings, production and receipts across different crops, and expenses on inputs and capital), and borrowing/debt. Regarding borrowing in particular, the IHDS asks about whether households have borrowed from different institutional and noninstitutional sources (banks/ government, microfinance/SHGs, moneylenders, an employer, friends/relatives, or other sources) and how many loans have been taken in the last 5 years, as well as about characteristics of the largest loan taken",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Regarding borrowing in particular, the IHDS asks about whether households have borrowed from different institutional and noninstitutional sources (banks/ government, microfinance/SHGs, moneylenders, an employer, friends/relatives, or other sources) and how many loans have been taken in the last 5 years, as well as about characteristics of the largest loan taken in the last 5 years (amount, purpose, source, interest rate, and repayment status). Table 6.2 presents the distribution of landholdings among cultivators in the 2004–2005 and 2011–2012 rounds. Consistent with the national trends presented in section 6.2, the large majority (about 60% in 2004–2005 and 68% in 2011–2012) were very small farms, with landholdings of 2 acres or less. 10 Specifically, the sample covered 1,503 villages and 971 urban localities across the country. 11 IHDS-II reinterviewed about 83% of the IHDS-I households, as well as any split households that resided in the same community. The attrition rate is therefore about 17%, which is relatively low compared to other nationally representative household surveys over the same number of years (see Hao, Wang, and Xie 2014). In addition, the IHDS design includes a component to check the randomness of the panel component with a new random sample of villages. Sampling weights are used in all summary statistics. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 226 Table 6.2:\u0003 \u0007Share of Households Across the Distribution of Landholdings 2004–2005 2011–2012 Mean SD Mean SD Share of Cultivators 0.45 [0.50] 0.45 [0.50] Among Cultivators: HH agr land: 0.05<= x <=0.5 acre 0.21 [0.41] 0.27 [0.44] HH agr land: 0.5< x <=1 acre 0.19 [0.39] 0.21 [0.41] HH agr land: 1< x <=2 acres 0.21 [0.40] 0.20 [0.40] HH agr land: 2< x <=4 acres 0.19 [0.39] 0.17 [0.37] HH agr land: 4< x <=10 acres 0.15 [0.36] 0.12 [0.32] HH agr land: >10 acres 0.05",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "HH agr land: 0.5< x <=1 acre 0.19 [0.39] 0.21 [0.41] HH agr land: 1< x <=2 acres 0.21 [0.40] 0.20 [0.40] HH agr land: 2< x <=4 acres 0.19 [0.39] 0.17 [0.37] HH agr land: 4< x <=10 acres 0.15 [0.36] 0.12 [0.32] HH agr land: >10 acres 0.05 [0.23] 0.04 [0.19] Number of Households 41,554 42,152 HH = household, SD = standard deviation. Source: India Human Development Survey (2004–2005, 2011–2012). Although the share of cultivators remained the same across rounds (45%), the distribution of landholdings changed somewhat, with average landholdings shrinking over the period. In the 2004–2005 round, for example, 21% of cultivating households were at the lowest end of the landowning distribution (between 0.05 and 0.5 acres); by 2011–2012, this group made up 27%. The share of households at the higher end of the landowning distribution also shrank during this period, although not by as large a margin. The share of expenditure in agricultural inputs, relative to per capita farm income, also increases substantially with landholding size (Figure 6.9), particularly for seeds, fertilizer, and equipment/animals. This share then tapers off for larger landowners with land holdings of 4 or more acres. Smaller farms therefore use relatively low amounts of productivity-enhancing inputs and hence might benefit if credit for agriculture is strengthened. However, small farms are also likely to be qualitatively different—more labor-intensive (thus substituting land or other inputs for capital), for example. Interestingly, expenditure on irrigation did not appear to be associated with landholding size. 227 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Figure 6.9:\u0003 \u0007Cultivators: Expenditure on Agricultural Inputs, Relative to per Capita Farm Income, by Landholdings Expenditure on agricultural inputs/relative to per capita farm income 0.0 0.5 1.5 2.0 HH agricultural land (acres) 0 2 4 8 6 10 1.0 Seeds Fertilizer Pesticides Irrigation Equipment/",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Figure 6.9:\u0003 \u0007Cultivators: Expenditure on Agricultural Inputs, Relative to per Capita Farm Income, by Landholdings Expenditure on agricultural inputs/relative to per capita farm income 0.0 0.5 1.5 2.0 HH agricultural land (acres) 0 2 4 8 6 10 1.0 Seeds Fertilizer Pesticides Irrigation Equipment/ animals 2011 HH = household. Notes: Locally weighted regressions, bandwidth = 0.8. Twenty acres was in the 99th percentile of agricultural land holdings in the data. Source: India Human Development Survey, 2011–2012 round. The IHDS also shows that the majority of cultivator households across the distribution of landholdings had borrowed in the last 5 years. Among cultivators in the lowest landholding category (0.5–5 acres), 53% had taken out a loan in the last 5 years; this increased to 70% for the highest three landholding categories. Figure 6.10 presents the average number of loans taken in the last 5 years, which ranged from about one to two loans and increased with landholdings as well. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 228 Figure 6.10:\u0003 \u0007Cultivators: Number of Loans Taken in the Last 5 Years, 2011 Round Number of loans taken by cultivators in the last 5 years 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 HH agricultural land (acres) 0 5 10 15 20 2011 HH = household. Notes: Twenty acres was in the 99th percentile of agricultural land holdings in the data. Locally weighted regressions, bandwidth = 0.8. Source: India Human Development Survey, 2010–2011 round. Table 6.3 also presents results consistent with the supply-side data discussed in section 6.2 and above in section 6.3—among cultivator households borrowing for agriculture, banks constituted the most common institutional source.12 At the same time, informal sources such as moneylenders and family/friends were also common, particularly among the smallest farmers. For cultivators with landholdings of between 0.05 and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "supply-side data discussed in section 6.2 and above in section 6.3—among cultivator households borrowing for agriculture, banks constituted the most common institutional source.12 At the same time, informal sources such as moneylenders and family/friends were also common, particularly among the smallest farmers. For cultivators with landholdings of between 0.05 and 0.5 acres, for example, 32% borrowed from banks, 30% from family/friends, and 21% from moneylenders. As expected, the reliance on banks as opposed to other institutional/noninstitutional sources grew with landholding size. 12 The IHDS combined cooperative banks, SCBs, and RRBs together in one category. 229 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Table 6.3:\u0003 \u0007Source of Borrowing in Agriculture: Largest Loan Taken in the Last 5 Years, 2011–2012 HH Agricultural Land Holdings (x) Among Those Borrowing for Agriculture (largest loan in last 5 years in 2011): 0.05<= x <=0.5 acres 0.5< x <=1 acres 1< x <=2 acres 2< x <=4 acres 4< x <=10 acres >10 acres Share of Borrowing Households: Institutional/Formal Sources Banks 0.32 [0.47] 0.49 [0.50] 0.50 [0.50] 0.60 [0.49] 0.70 [0.46] 0.73 [0.45] Government 0.02 [0.15] 0.06 [0.24] 0.12 [0.32] 0.13 [0.19] 0.11 [0.31] 0.14 [0.35] NGOs 0.05 [0.22] 0.04 [0.20] 0.05 [0.21] 0.04 [0.19] 0.02 [0.15] 0.03 [0.17] SHGs 0.09 [0.28] 0.07 [0.25] 0.04 [0.19] 0.02 [0.14] 0.02 [0.15] 0.01 [0.05] Noninstitutional/informal sources Employers 0 [–] 0 [–] 0.01 [0.06] 0.01 [0.04] 0 [–] 0 [–] Family/friends 0.30 [0.46] 0.24 [0.43] 0.18 [0.38] 0.13 [0.33] 0.07 [0.26] 0.03 [0.17] Moneylenders 0.21 [0.40] 0.09 [0.29] 0.11 [0.31] 0.08 [0.26] 0.06 [0.24] 0.05 [0.23] Total number of borrowing HH in agr: 179 297 514 673 679 271 HH = household, NGO = nongovernment organization, SHG = self-help group. Source: India Human Development Survey, 2011–2012 round. Reliance on SHGs for agricultural finance was small in the sample, although",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "[0.31] 0.08 [0.26] 0.06 [0.24] 0.05 [0.23] Total number of borrowing HH in agr: 179 297 514 673 679 271 HH = household, NGO = nongovernment organization, SHG = self-help group. Source: India Human Development Survey, 2011–2012 round. Reliance on SHGs for agricultural finance was small in the sample, although again, the smallest farmers were more likely than other landholding groups to participate in SHGs. Figure 6.11 reflects these differences, showing that among institutional borrowing, the average loan amount relative to total consumption expenditure increased with landholding size, while the opposite was true for noninstitutional borrowing. The ratio of loan amount to total consumption expenditure was also much higher for institutional than for noninstitutional loans. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 230 Figure 6.11:\u0003 \u0007Borrowing Amount in Agriculture, Relative to Total Consumption Expenditure, by Landowning Size Agricultural loan amount relative to total consumption expenditure 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 HH agricultural land (acres) 0 5 10 15 20 2011 2011 Agricultural loan amount relative to total consumption expenditure 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 HH agricultural land (acres) 0 5 10 15 20 Inst: banks/government Inst: NGOs/SHGs Non-inst: moneylender Non-inst: family/friends HH = household, NGO = nongovernment organization, SHG = self-help group. Notes: Twenty acres was in the 99th percentile of agricultural land holdings in the data. Locally weighted regressions, bandwidth = 0.8. Source: India Human Development Survey, 2011–2012 round. 231 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture 6.3.2 Methodology Using the panel of households across the two IHDS rounds, we first estimate a borrowing regression to understand which socioeconomic factors among cultivators affect borrowing for agricultural and nonagricultural purposes. We faced constraints to this empirical approach due to the setup of the questionnaires and the data; in each round, the IHDS asks about the characteristics of the largest",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "rounds, we first estimate a borrowing regression to understand which socioeconomic factors among cultivators affect borrowing for agricultural and nonagricultural purposes. We faced constraints to this empirical approach due to the setup of the questionnaires and the data; in each round, the IHDS asks about the characteristics of the largest loan taken in the last 5 years, not in the past year. As a result, looking at changes in characteristics of the largest loan between 2004–2005 and 2011–2012 will not be very informative, since the data from the first round will reflect borrowing before 2004–2005, and that loan will likely be different from the loan reported in the 2011–2012 round. For each panel household I, we therefore pool both rounds and estimate borrowing and outcome equations using ordinary least squares (OLS). We first examine the initial (2004–2005) determinants, Xi 2005, of the largest loan taken in the 5 years before the 2011 round (ΔLi 2011 ), since this loan would have also occurred between the two survey rounds: Li 2011 = αXi 2005 + ϵi\b (1) We run separate equations for loans taken for agricultural and nonagricultural purposes. Initial-round household characteristics Xi 2005 include gender and ethnicity/religion of the household head, education of adult men and women aged 15 years and older, whether the household is below the moderate poverty line,13 construction and access to water and electricity, size of agricultural landholdings, and exposure to different types of shocks in the last 5 years. Understanding how initial household characteristics affect subsequent borrowing can help shed light on which communities or socioeconomic groups may need better targeted interventions. We estimate a household fixed-effects regression including state dummies interacted with time, accounting for clustering at the primary sampling unit level, and including state fixed effects interacted with survey year on the right-hand",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "subsequent borrowing can help shed light on which communities or socioeconomic groups may need better targeted interventions. We estimate a household fixed-effects regression including state dummies interacted with time, accounting for clustering at the primary sampling unit level, and including state fixed effects interacted with survey year on the right-hand side. 13 The IHDS calculated household poverty based on the household’s monthly consumption per capita and the official Planning Commission poverty line as of 2005. The poverty line is based on 1970s calculations of income needed to support minimal calorie consumption and has been adjusted by price indexes every year; the poverty line also varies by urban/rural area. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 232 For the same sample of cultivators, we then estimate the association14 between changes in agricultural outcomes, yit, over the period and characteristics of the largest loan, Li 2011, taken for agricultural purposes in the last 5 years prior to 2011, controlling for the same initial household variables, Xi 2005. Specifically, outcomes, yit, include variables available in the IHDS related to agricultural productivity and income, including landholdings under production (and/or irrigated), farm income, and share of expenditure on different types of inputs (seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, and equipment for irrigation and other purposes): (yi 2011 – yi 2005) = γ1Li1 2011 + γ2Li2 2011 + βXi 2005 + ϵi\b (2) The loan characteristics above, Li 2011, include a dummy, Li1 2011, for whether the farming household borrowed for agriculture, as well as a variable, Li2 2012, reflecting the loan amount relative to total household consumption expenditure. Overall, equation (2) allows us to examine how new, relatively large loans in agriculture have been associated with changes in outcomes over the survey period. As with the borrowing regression, we estimate equation (2) via OLS, accounting for community-level",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "2012, reflecting the loan amount relative to total household consumption expenditure. Overall, equation (2) allows us to examine how new, relatively large loans in agriculture have been associated with changes in outcomes over the survey period. As with the borrowing regression, we estimate equation (2) via OLS, accounting for community-level clustering and also state fixed effects. 6.3.3 Estimation Results Determinants of borrowing. Table 6.4 presents findings from the borrowing regressions described in equation (1). We find that among cultivators, those borrowing for agriculture differ socioeconomically from those borrowing for nonagricultural purposes. Those borrowing for agriculture tended to have more years of education among men in the households, were less likely to be below the moderate poverty line, and had landholdings greater than 2 acres. Among those borrowing for nonagricultural purposes, these indicators went in the opposite direction, suggesting that these farming households were much more likely to be marginal or subsistence farmers with small landholdings and low income. Shocks experienced in the last 5 years also had different effects across the two groups—those borrowing for nonagricultural purposes were more likely to have experienced health and/or marriage shocks, whereas those borrowing 14 In the absence of an exclusion restriction for household borrowing over the period, we broaden the scope to understand what systematic correlations—controlling for initial socioeconomic and geographic characteristics including shocks that affect borrowing—exist between characteristics of borrowing and agricultural outcomes. 233 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture for agriculture were more likely to have experienced climate or environmental shocks, such as crop failure and drought. Overall borrowing for different purposes was not fungible; only borrowing for agriculture specifically benefited agricultural investments and income. The results shown in Table 6.4 imply that larger landowners have benefited more from the expansion of agricultural credit. Table 6.4:\u0003 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "shocks, such as crop failure and drought. Overall borrowing for different purposes was not fungible; only borrowing for agriculture specifically benefited agricultural investments and income. The results shown in Table 6.4 imply that larger landowners have benefited more from the expansion of agricultural credit. Table 6.4:\u0003 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions of Household Characteristics Associated with Borrowing Borrowed in the Last 5 Years (prior to 2011): (1) Largest loan: in agriculture (2) Largest loan: not in agriculture Initial HH Characteristics from 2005: Sex of HH head: male 0.066*** [3.73] 0.016 [0.81] Max years of schooling: men 15+ 0.002*** [2.86] -0.003** [−2.69] Max years of schooling: women 15+ 0.001 [1.18] −0.001 [−1.30] Below moderate poverty line −0.023*** [−2.90] 0.018** [2.09] House walls are brick/metal/stone/concrete 0.012 [1.50] −0.002 [−0.31] HH has indoor piped drinking water/tubewell 0 [0.01] −0.021** [−2.41] HH has grid electricity 0.035*** [2.87] −0.007 [−0.55] HH agr land: 0.05<= x <=0.5 acre −0.058*** [−4.55] 0.017 [1.21] HH agr land: 0.5< x <=1 acre −0.017 [−1.08] 0.017 [1.64] HH agr land: 2< x <=4 acres 0.044*** [3.37] −0.045*** [−5.50] HH agr land: 4< x <=10 acres 0.099*** [7.61] −0.086*** [−8.30] HH agr land: >10 acres 0.158*** [7.88] −0.137*** [−15.11] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): illness/accidents −0.016 [−1.63] 0.105*** [9.53] continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 234 Table 6.4:\u0003 \u0007Continued Borrowed in the Last 5 Years (prior to 2011): (1) Largest loan: in agriculture (2) Largest loan: not in agriculture HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): drought/flood/fire 0.019** [2.06] 0 [−0.00] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): loss of jobs −0.101*** [−6.20] −0.008 [−0.51] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): marriage −0.019** [−2.53] 0.102*** [15.42] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): crop failure 0.118*** [23.98] −0.023** [−2.47] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): death −0.013 [−1.28] −0.005 [−1.13] Caste group: Hindu, high",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "[2.06] 0 [−0.00] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): loss of jobs −0.101*** [−6.20] −0.008 [−0.51] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): marriage −0.019** [−2.53] 0.102*** [15.42] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): crop failure 0.118*** [23.98] −0.023** [−2.47] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): death −0.013 [−1.28] −0.005 [−1.13] Caste group: Hindu, high caste −0.061 [−1.44] 0.089*** [2.90] Caste group: Hindu, Other Backward Caste (OBC) −0.032 [−0.77] 0.081* [1.85] Caste group: Hindu, low caste −0.071* [−1.75] 0.06 [1.31] Muslim −0.089* [−1.85] 0.058 [1.18] Observations 11,055 11,055 R-squared 0.097 0.109 HH = household, Y = year. Notes: Standard errors clustered at primary sampling unit level; robust t-statistics in brackets. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. State fixed effects also included. Excluded category for HH agr. land: 1< x <=2 acre. Outcome regressions. Table 6.5 shows that, controlling for other factors, borrowing for agriculture, as well as the share of loan amount relative to total expenditure, has a significant positive association with the share of agricultural expenditure on seeds, fertilizer, and pesticides. However, borrowing does not have a significant association with larger investments, such as expenditure on agricultural equipment. This finding may also be a function of the trends in agricultural lending discussed earlier in section 6.2, in which short-term loans for crops have been outpacing longer-term loans for capital investments. 235 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Table 6.5:\u0003 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions of Changes in Agricultural Outcomes (%) from Agricultural Borrowing Share of Total Agricultural Expenditure on: (1) Seeds (2) Fertilizer (3) Pesticides (4) Agricultural Equipment Borrowed for Agriculture in Last 5 Years (prior to 2011) 0.7*** [2.98] 1.2*** [4.18] 0.5** [2.26] 0.5 [1.51] Loan Amount in Agriculture/ Total HH Expenditure 0.4** [2.37] 0.5** [2.35] 0.1 [1.27] 0.2 [1.29] Initial HH Chars (2005): Sex of HH head: male 0.3* [1.87] 0.4* [1.74]",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Pesticides (4) Agricultural Equipment Borrowed for Agriculture in Last 5 Years (prior to 2011) 0.7*** [2.98] 1.2*** [4.18] 0.5** [2.26] 0.5 [1.51] Loan Amount in Agriculture/ Total HH Expenditure 0.4** [2.37] 0.5** [2.35] 0.1 [1.27] 0.2 [1.29] Initial HH Chars (2005): Sex of HH head: male 0.3* [1.87] 0.4* [1.74] 0.4** [2.54] 0.6*** [4.52] Max years of schooling: men 15+ 0.03*** [2.96] 0.02* [1.92] 0.01 [0.94] 0.02 [1.63] Max years of schooling: women 15+ −0.03 [−0.94] 0.005 [0.20] −0.01 [−0.58] −0.01 [−0.27] Below moderate poverty line −0.7*** [−5.45] −0.6** [−2.21] −0.4*** [−5.02] −0.4*** [−3.14] House walls are brick/metal/stone/ concrete 0.1 [0.41] 0.4 [1.20] 0.3 [0.80] 0.1 [0.14] HH has indoor piped drinking water/ tubewell −0.2 [−1.03] 1.0 [1.70] −0.02 [−0.18] 0.1 [0.60] HH has grid electricity 0.3 [1.49] −0.1 [−0.36] 0.1 [0.77] 0.2* [1.80] HH agr land: 0.05<= x <=0.5 acre −0.7** [−2.39] −0.6* [−1.91] −0.5 [−1.53] −0.8* [−1.94] HH agr land: 0.5< x <=1 acre −0.6** [−2.07] −0.7** [−2.36] −0.6 [−1.49] −0.8* [−2.01] HH agr land: 2< x <=4 acres −0.3 [−1.19] 0.1 [0.83] −0.3 [−0.88] −0.5 [−1.18] HH agr land: 4< x <=10 acres 0.4 [1.01] 1.0** [2.75] −0.1 [−0.21] 0.3 [0.53] HH agr land: >10 acres 2.6*** [4.79] 3.4*** [2.83] 0.8** [2.11] 1.1 [1.49] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): illness/accidents −0.5*** [−3.42] −0.6*** [−2.96] −0.2* [−1.86] −0.4** [−2.64] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): drought/flood/fire 1.0*** [2.79] 0.6 [1.46] 0.8 [1.07] 1.1 [1.35] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): loss of jobs 0.02 [0.12] 0.001 [−0.00] −0.4 [−1.40] −0.8** [−2.30] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): marriage −0.2 [−1.58] −0.4* [−1.91] −0.1 [−1.02] −0.5*** [−3.20] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): crop failure 0.3* [2.04] 0.04 [0.20] 0.4** [2.14] 0.6** [2.61] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): death −0.1 [−0.62] 0.2 [1.28] −0.1 [−0.67] −0.03 [−0.18] Observations 11,016 11,016 11,016 10,004 R-squared",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "[−2.30] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): marriage −0.2 [−1.58] −0.4* [−1.91] −0.1 [−1.02] −0.5*** [−3.20] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): crop failure 0.3* [2.04] 0.04 [0.20] 0.4** [2.14] 0.6** [2.61] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): death −0.1 [−0.62] 0.2 [1.28] −0.1 [−0.67] −0.03 [−0.18] Observations 11,016 11,016 11,016 10,004 R-squared 0.042 0.054 0.013 0.013 continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 236 Table 6.5:\u0003 \u0007Continued Share of Agricultural Land: Percentage Change in per Capita Farm Income: (5) Under production (6) Under production and irrigated (7) Total (8) From Crops Borrowed for Agriculture in Last 5 Years (prior to 2011) 0.5 [1.36] 2.5** [2.49] −2.3 [−0.59] 8.2** [2.69] Loan Amount in Agriculture/ Total HH Expenditure −0.8*** [−3.32] −0.1 [−0.22] −0.1 [−0.19] 0.2 [0.21] Initial HH Chars (2005): Sex of HH head: male −4.9*** [−3.31] 1.1 [0.65] −49.4 [−0.70] −62.1 [−0.71] Max years of schooling: men 15+ −0.1 [−0.94] 0.02 [0.17] 0.4 [1.10] 0.00 [0.03] Max years of schooling: women 15+ −0.1** [−2.60] −0.2** [−2.63] −1.1 [−0.90] −1.3 [−0.99] Below moderate poverty line 1.2** [2.41] −0.8 [−1.61] 26.2 [1.19] 25.3 [1.15] House walls are brick/metal/stone/concrete −0.9** [−2.08] −2.3** [−2.37] −5.3 [−0.89] 3.7 [1.24] HH has indoor piped drinking water/tubewell −0.2 [−0.63] −1.7*** [−3.34] 5.2 [0.58] 0.2 [0.06] HH has grid electricity 0.5 [0.56] −0.6 [−0.34] 13.3 [1.37] 11.9 [1.32] HH agr land: 0.05<= x <=0.5 acre −2.7** [−2.35] −2.3 [−1.51] 32.6 [1.62] 35.2* [1.71] HH agr land: 0.5< x <=1 acre −2.4*** [−3.17] −3.8** [−2.71] −9.8 [−1.27] −6.8 [−0.97] HH agr land: 2< x <=4 acres 0.9* [1.93] 0.04 [0.05] 9.3 [1.14] 0.7 [0.24] HH agr land: 4< x <=10 acres 2.7*** [3.83] 3.2** [2.65] 14.2 [1.30] 2.6 [0.62] HH agr land: >10 acres 6.4*** [5.04] 6.2*** [5.18] 13.3* [2.01] 16.3* [1.75] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y):",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "−6.8 [−0.97] HH agr land: 2< x <=4 acres 0.9* [1.93] 0.04 [0.05] 9.3 [1.14] 0.7 [0.24] HH agr land: 4< x <=10 acres 2.7*** [3.83] 3.2** [2.65] 14.2 [1.30] 2.6 [0.62] HH agr land: >10 acres 6.4*** [5.04] 6.2*** [5.18] 13.3* [2.01] 16.3* [1.75] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): illness/accidents −0.1 [−0.19] 0.01 [0.01] −10.1 [−1.39] 1.4 [0.49] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): drought/flood/fire −0.9 [−1.56] −1.0 [−1.12] 14.9 [0.77] −3.4 [−1.23] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): loss of jobs 2.6 [1.38] 5.8** [2.65] −6.5 [−0.88] −3.3 [−0.99] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): marriage 0.6* [1.85] 0.2 [0.44] 8.8* [1.81] −0.3 [−0.12] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): crop failure 0.4 [1.27] 2.4* [1.94] −4.6 [−1.17] −3.1 [−1.25] HH had large expenditure/loss (5Y): death −0.4 [−0.88] −2.6*** [−4.43] 0.1 [0.01] −8.3 [−1.41] Observations 10,687 10,687 10,434 9,494 R-squared 0.047 0.056 0.036 0.052 HH = household, Y = year. Notes: 1. \u0007Standard errors clustered at primary sampling unit level; robust t-statistics in brackets. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. State and household ethnicity fixed effects also included. 2. Coefficients were multiplied by 100 to be interpreted as percentages. 237 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Table 6.5 does show, however, that borrowing for agriculture improves the share of agricultural land under production and irrigation (as opposed to just land under production). This indicates that the increased expenditure on seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides from agricultural borrowing is being targeted or more effectively used in irrigated plots. Overall farm income, which can include allied activities such as livestock production, was not significantly associated with borrowing, but crop income specifically grew 8% more for those who borrowed than for those who did not. (As discussed earlier, agricultural borrowing in India is mainly targeted toward crops.) The results in Table 6.5 also suggest that",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "include allied activities such as livestock production, was not significantly associated with borrowing, but crop income specifically grew 8% more for those who borrowed than for those who did not. (As discussed earlier, agricultural borrowing in India is mainly targeted toward crops.) The results in Table 6.5 also suggest that larger agricultural loans are linked with greater seed and fertilizer expenditure, although loan size had no significant effect on other outcomes. The coefficient estimates on landholdings across all agricultural outcomes also show that, controlling for other socioeconomic characteristics, cultivators with larger landholdings in 2005 tended to invest more in their agricultural holdings and also had greater shares of land under production/irrigated, as well as higher overall farm and crop income in 2011. Importantly, we also find that the fungibility of credit is not as relevant in this context—while nonagricultural borrowing has been suggested in other contexts as a way to improve farmers’ incomes through indirect effects on consumption smoothing and fostering of farm-nonfarm linkages, Table 6.6 shows that borrowing for nonagricultural purposes has a strong negative association with input purchases and income and, in turn, that agricultural borrowing specifically raises agricultural outcomes. Table 6.7 also shows that many of the positive outcomes of borrowing observed in Table 6.5 are concentrated among relatively larger landowners, specifically those with holdings greater than 2 acres. While agricultural borrowing has had a positive association with seeds and fertilizer purchases among small and marginal farmers, Table 6.7 shows that for larger landowners, borrowing (both overall as well as the amount of borrowing) has had a significant positive association with other input purchases, including pesticides and agricultural equipment, as well as with the area of land under production and irrigation. The positive link between borrowing and crop income observed in Table 6.5 also appears to come",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "as well as the amount of borrowing) has had a significant positive association with other input purchases, including pesticides and agricultural equipment, as well as with the area of land under production and irrigation. The positive link between borrowing and crop income observed in Table 6.5 also appears to come from the largest landowners (those with holdings greater than 4 acres), although the effect in Table 6.7 is weakly significant. Larger agricultural loans relative to consumption expenditure also tend to raise the share of expenditure on different inputs; these effects are robust but small in magnitude. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 238 Table 6.6:\u0003 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions of Changes in Agricultural Outcomes (%) from Nonagricultural Borrowing Share of Total Agricultural Expenditure on: Share of Agricultural Land: Percentage Change in per Capita Farm Income: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Seeds Fertilizer Pesticides Agricultural Equipment Under Production Under production and irrigated Total From crops Borrowed for Nonagriculture in Last 5 Years (prior to 2011) −0.9*** −1.4*** −0.6*** −0.7*** −0.2 −2.7*** −10.3** −5.9** [−5.17] [−5.17] [−7.66] [−5.64] [−0.42] [−4.11] [−2.20] [−2.43] Loan Amount in Nonagriculture/ Total HH Expenditure 0.3*** 0.6 0.1** 0.2** 0.1 1.1** 13.7 1.9 [2.89] [1.71] [2.15] [2.29] [0.45] [2.59] [1.32] [0.96] Observations 11,016 11,016 11,016 10,004 10,687 10,687 10,434 9,494 R-squared 0.04 0.051 0.013 0.013 0.047 0.056 0.036 0.052 HH = household. Notes: 1. \u0007Standard errors clustered at primary sampling unit level; robust t-statistics in brackets. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. State and household ethnicity fixed effects also included. 2. \u0007Additional variables controlled for are the same as in Table 6.5; those coefficients available upon request. 3. \u0007Nonagricultural reasons for borrowing included for a business, consumption, education, marriage, and housing. 4. \u0007Coefficients were multiplied by 100 to be interpreted as percentages. What",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and household ethnicity fixed effects also included. 2. \u0007Additional variables controlled for are the same as in Table 6.5; those coefficients available upon request. 3. \u0007Nonagricultural reasons for borrowing included for a business, consumption, education, marriage, and housing. 4. \u0007Coefficients were multiplied by 100 to be interpreted as percentages. What types of borrowing are more strongly associated with agricultural outcomes? Table 6.8 examines the same regressions across different institutional and noninstitutional sources of borrowing and again examines separate effects by landowning category, since smaller/greater landholdings have a clear effect on the link between borrowing and outcomes. We ran regressions for each outcome variable separately for cultivators with (i) 2 acres of land or less, (ii) greater than 2 and less than or equal to 4 acres of land, and (iii) more than 4 acres of land. 239 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Table 6.7:\u0003 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions of Changes in Outcomes (%) from Household Borrowing for Agriculture, by Landowning Distribution Borrowed for Agriculture in Last 5 Years (prior to 2011) Size of Loan (Share of Loan Amount to Total Expenditure) Coeff. T-stat Coeff. T-stat Obs R-squared Outcome Regressions: (A) Share of total agricultural expenditure on: (1) Seeds (a) \u0007Land: <=2 acres 0.7* [1.71] 0.2*** [4.50] 4,722 0.016 (b) \u0007Land: >2 and <= 4 acres 0.3 [1.50] 1.3*** [4.86] 2,589 0.065 (c) \u0007Land: >4 acres 0.5 [1.66] 0.6* [1.83] 3,705 0.077 (2) Fertilizer (a) \u0007Land: <=2 acres 1.2*** [3.13] 0.3* [1.79] 4,722 0.045 (b) \u0007Land: >2 and <= 4 acres 0.5 [1.40] 2.0*** [4.10] 2,589 0.068 (c) Land: >4 acres 0.7* [1.95] 0.7** [2.41] 3,705 0.067 (3) Pesticides (a) Land: <=2 acres 0.1 [0.15] 0 [1.04] 4,722 0.009 (b) \u0007Land: >2 and <= 4 acres 0.3*** [3.24] 0.5** [2.51] 2,589 0.092 (c) Land: >4 acres 0.8*** [5.37] 0.3*",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "4 acres 0.5 [1.40] 2.0*** [4.10] 2,589 0.068 (c) Land: >4 acres 0.7* [1.95] 0.7** [2.41] 3,705 0.067 (3) Pesticides (a) Land: <=2 acres 0.1 [0.15] 0 [1.04] 4,722 0.009 (b) \u0007Land: >2 and <= 4 acres 0.3*** [3.24] 0.5** [2.51] 2,589 0.092 (c) Land: >4 acres 0.8*** [5.37] 0.3* [1.82] 3,705 0.073 (4) Equipment (a) Land: <=2 acres 0 [0.05] 0 [0.67] 4,234 0.01 (b) \u0007Land: >2 and <= 4 acres 0.1 [0.97] 0.7*** [3.64] 2,393 0.055 (c) Land: >4 acres 0.7* [1.91] 0.4 [1.65] 3,377 0.05 (B) Share of total agricultural expenditure on: (1) \u0007Under production (a) \u0007Land: <=2 acres 0.7 [1.43] 0 [−0.06] 4,390 0.051 (b) \u0007Land: >2 and <= 4 acres 1.2 [0.98] 0 [0.05] 2,590 0.055 (c) \u0007Land: >4 acres −0.4 [−0.62] −0.9*** [−2.96] 3,707 0.067 continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 240 Table 6.7:\u0003 \u0007Continued Borrowed for Agriculture in Last 5 Years (prior to 2011) Size of Loan (Share of Loan Amount to Total Expenditure) Coeff. T-stat Coeff. T-stat Obs R-squared (2) \u0007Under production and irrigated (a) \u0007Land: <=2 acres 1.1 [0.59] 2.1 [0.93] 4,390 0.061 (b) \u0007Land: >2 and <= 4 acres 4.0** [2.23] 1.5 [0.89] 2,590 0.051 (c) \u0007Land: >4 acres 1.3 [1.05] −0.4 [−0.91] 3,707 0.063 (C) Percentage change in per capita farm income: (1) \u0007Total income (a) \u0007Land: <=2 acres 9.1 [1.23] −1.1 [−0.68] 4,384 0.058 (b) \u0007Land: >2 and <= 4 acres −4.0 [−0.62] −0.3 [−0.11] 2,470 0.034 (c) Land: >4 acres −8.3 [−0.80] 0.9 [0.69] 3,580 0.013 (2) \u0007Income from crops (a) Land: <=2 acres 6.1 [0.88] 5.2 [1.23] 3,974 0.063 (b) Land: >2 and <= 4 acres −1.4 [−0.55] −0.6 [−0.61] 2,231 0.009 (c) Land: >4 acres 10.8* [1.94] −0.7 [−0.72] 3,289 0.009 Notes: 1. \u0007Standard errors clustered at primary sampling",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "[−0.80] 0.9 [0.69] 3,580 0.013 (2) \u0007Income from crops (a) Land: <=2 acres 6.1 [0.88] 5.2 [1.23] 3,974 0.063 (b) Land: >2 and <= 4 acres −1.4 [−0.55] −0.6 [−0.61] 2,231 0.009 (c) Land: >4 acres 10.8* [1.94] −0.7 [−0.72] 3,289 0.009 Notes: 1. \u0007Standard errors clustered at primary sampling unit level; robust t-statistics in brackets. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. State and household ethnicity fixed effects also included. 2. \u0007Additional variables controlled for are the same as in Table 6.5 (except for the landowning dummies); those coefficients available upon request. 3. \u0007Coefficients were multiplied by 100 to be interpreted as percentages. We find that institutional borrowing from banks, particularly larger loans, is important. Borrowing from banks raises the share of smallholder landowners’ agricultural expenditure on seeds and fertilizer and larger landowners’ expenditure on all agricultural inputs. Other sources of borrowing also have some positive effects—for large landowners, bigger loans from SHGs and moneylenders also have a positive association with expenditure on agricultural inputs, and the same was true for larger loans from moneylenders and family/friends for smaller landowners. When looking at overall borrowing dummies and controlling for other factors, only borrowing from banks had a positive effect on investments among 241 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Table 6.8:\u0003 \u0007Ordinary Least Squares Regressions of Changes in Outcomes (%) from Household Borrowing for Agriculture: Effects of Source of Borrowing, by Landowning Distribution Coefficient Estimates on Source of Largest Loan Taken in Last 5 Years in Agriculture: Borrowed for Agriculture in Last 5 years (prior to 2011) (dummies): Size of Loan (share of loan amount to total expenditure): Banks/ Government NGOs/SHGs Banks/ Government NGOs/SHGs Coeff. T-stat Coeff. T-stat Coeff. T-stat Coeff. T-stat Obs R-sq. Outcome Regressions: Share of total agr. expenditure on: (A) Seeds (1) Land: <=2 acres −0.3",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Agriculture in Last 5 years (prior to 2011) (dummies): Size of Loan (share of loan amount to total expenditure): Banks/ Government NGOs/SHGs Banks/ Government NGOs/SHGs Coeff. T-stat Coeff. T-stat Coeff. T-stat Coeff. T-stat Obs R-sq. Outcome Regressions: Share of total agr. expenditure on: (A) Seeds (1) Land: <=2 acres −0.3 [−0.77] −0.3 [−0.64] 0.2*** [9.57] −0.1* [−1.71] 4,722 0.015 (2) Land: 2–4 acres 0.2 [1.19] −1.8*** [−2.82] 0.4** [2.61] 3.4** [2.19] 2,589 0.066 (3) Land: >4 acres 0.5** [2.23] 0.5 [0.41] 0.2 [1.65] 2.8* [1.97] 3,705 0.076 (B) Fertilizer (1) Land: <=2 acres −0.4* [−2.03] −0.1 [−0.17] 0.3*** [2.90] −0.2** [−2.17] 4,722 0.038 (2) Land: 2–4 acres 0.3 [0.77] −0.4 [−0.30] 0.8*** [4.10] 0.4 [0.84] 2,589 0.049 (3) Land: >4 acres 0.1 [0.20] −1.3 [−1.10] 0.6** [2.15] 1.5 [1.72] 3,705 0.068 (C) Pesticides (1) Land: <=2 acres −0.3 [−0.87] −0.4 [−1.02] 0 [1.51] −0.1 [−1.47] 4,722 0.009 (2) Land: 2–4 acres 0.2 [1.09] −0.2 [−0.57] 0.3 [1.64] −0.1 [−0.84] 2,589 0.089 (3) Land: >4 acres 0.6*** [3.69] −0.1 [−0.26] 0.1 [1.49] 1.5 [1.57] 3,705 0.066 (D) Equipment (1) Land: <=2 acres −0.6 [−1.54] −0.6 [−1.26] 0 [0.94] 0 [0.09] 4,234 0.01 (2) Land: 2–4 acres 0 [0.10] −0.3 [−1.42] 0.4*** [4.10] −0.1 [−0.50] 2,393 0.05 (3) Land: >4 acres 0.8 [1.48] −0.6 [−1.28] 0.2*** [3.36] 0.9* [1.83] 3,377 0.05 continued on next page large landowners; such borrowing also had a weakly significant positive effect on crop income. Overall borrowing from banks is also positively associated with area of land under production and irrigation for smaller farmers. Interestingly, however, the links between borrowing and investments in agriculture are stronger than the link between borrowing and overall income. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 242 Table 6.8:\u0003 \u0007Continued Coefficient Estimates on Source of Largest Loan Taken in Last 5 Years",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "production and irrigation for smaller farmers. Interestingly, however, the links between borrowing and investments in agriculture are stronger than the link between borrowing and overall income. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 242 Table 6.8:\u0003 \u0007Continued Coefficient Estimates on Source of Largest Loan Taken in Last 5 Years in Agriculture: Borrowed for Agriculture in Last 5 years (prior to 2011) (dummies): Size of Loan (share of loan amount to total expenditure): Banks/ Government NGOs/SHGs Banks/ Government NGOs/SHGs Coeff. T-stat Coeff. T-stat Coeff. T-stat Coeff. T-stat Obs R-sq. Share of total agricultural land: (A) Under production (1) Land: <=2 acres 1.1 [1.51] −0.9 [−0.88] −0.2 [−0.86] −0.3 [−0.56] 4,390 0.051 (2) Land: 2–4 acres 0.4 [0.57] 4.0* [1.81] 0.5 [0.83] −2.5* [−1.87] 2,590 0.056 (3) Land: >4 acres −0.7 [−0.87] −0.3 [−0.22] −0.4*** [−3.20] −0.4 [−0.20] 3,707 0.067 (B) Under production and irrigated (1) Land: <=2 acres 1.0 [0.82] 3.3 [1.65] 1.3* [1.75] −2.2* [−2.05] 4,390 0.061 (2) Land: 2–4 acres 2.4** [2.21] −0.1 [−0.05] 1.4 [1.41] 1.2 [0.35] 2,590 0.05 (3) Land: >4 acres 0.8 [0.57] 3.3 [0.98] 0 [0.05] 0.3 [0.18] 3,707 0.063 Percentage change in per capita farm income: (A) Total income (1) Land: <=2 acres 8.5 [0.95] −0.2 [−0.07] 0 [0.03] −0.5 [−0.15] 4,384 0.058 (2) Land: 2–4 acres −7.4 [−0.80] −6.4 [−1.02] −0.9 [−0.67] −2.0 [−0.41] 2,470 0.034 (3) Land: >4 acres 14.2 [1.47] 0.1 [0.02] 4.3 [0.72] 3.4 [1.33] 3,580 0.014 (B) Income from crops (1) Land: <=2 acres 2.8 [0.42] −1.2 [−0.44] 7.8 [0.90] −0.9 [−0.21] 3,974 0.063 (2) Land: 2–4 acres −0.6 [−0.20] −7.8 [−1.66] 0.5 [0.57] 1.8 [0.32] 2,212 0.009 (3) Land: >4 acres 9.6 [1.60] −1.9 [−0.61] −0.6 [−1.65] −0.5 [−0.04] 3,267 0.009 NGO = nongovernment organization, SHG = self-help group. Notes: 1. \u0007Standard errors clustered at primary sampling",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "7.8 [0.90] −0.9 [−0.21] 3,974 0.063 (2) Land: 2–4 acres −0.6 [−0.20] −7.8 [−1.66] 0.5 [0.57] 1.8 [0.32] 2,212 0.009 (3) Land: >4 acres 9.6 [1.60] −1.9 [−0.61] −0.6 [−1.65] −0.5 [−0.04] 3,267 0.009 NGO = nongovernment organization, SHG = self-help group. Notes: 1. \u0007Standard errors clustered at primary sampling unit level; robust t-statistics in brackets. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. State and household ethnicity fixed effects also included. 2. \u0007Additional variables controlled for are the same as in Table 6.5 (except for the landowning dummies); those coefficients available upon request. 3. \u0007Coefficients were multiplied by 100 to be interpreted as percentages. 243 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture 6.4 Conclusion Institutional credit to agriculture in India has grown rapidly since the mid-2000s due to numerous policy shifts aimed at sustainably raising agricultural incomes through better investment in productivity-enhancing inputs like seeds, fertilizer, and machinery. However, growing policy concerns remain over the rapidly increasing share of small and marginal farmers in the national composition of operational holdings. Another policy concern relates to these small farmers’ continued dependence on informal credit even as institutional borrowing becomes more common. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic heightened vulnerability among many smaller farmers, particularly within crop agriculture. Furthermore, the growth over the last decade in easier access to agricultural credit from formal banks, while far-reaching, has also typically been focused on larger loans, and the spread of agricultural debt waiver policies across the country has actually induced many banks to shift away from districts with greater risk by allowing these banks to clean their books of consistently underperforming or nonperforming loans and move on to better-off districts. Both the supplyand demand-side analyses presented in this chapter show that success in targeting small and marginal farmers has been mixed, that farmers who borrow",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "from districts with greater risk by allowing these banks to clean their books of consistently underperforming or nonperforming loans and move on to better-off districts. Both the supplyand demand-side analyses presented in this chapter show that success in targeting small and marginal farmers has been mixed, that farmers who borrow for agriculture tend to be larger, wealthier, and with better access to electricity and other infrastructure, and that the link between borrowing and agricultural input investments has been stronger for larger farmers. One important takeaway from the analysis in this chapter is the need to better understand the constraints faced by smaller farmers and the institutional lenders that may target this population. Due to smaller farmers’ higher risk profiles, financial institutions face higher transaction costs in terms of appraising borrowers and monitoring and collecting loans. Therefore, ways to reduce these transaction costs constitute another important area for policymakers to address going forward. Such methods could include facilitating credit through other local institutions such as NGOs and input dealers to which farmers are tied (Golait 2007) and considering complementary initiatives—such as weather insurance and agricultural extension services—to help foster better monitoring of local agricultural conditions and to improve smaller farmers’ ability to respond to fluctuations in rainfall and prices. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 244 Such complementary initiatives can also help connect the role of lending for purchases of agricultural inputs—for which we observed a strong association in the IHDS data—with actual improvements in output and income, for which there was weaker evidence, consistent with other districtand state-level analyses (Binswanger and Khandker 1995; Narayanan 2016). Technical assistance for smaller farmers will be important in helping ensure that credit for agriculture is effective for raising productivity. REFERENCES Binswanger, H., and S. Khandker. 1995. The Impact of Formal Finance on",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "which there was weaker evidence, consistent with other districtand state-level analyses (Binswanger and Khandker 1995; Narayanan 2016). Technical assistance for smaller farmers will be important in helping ensure that credit for agriculture is effective for raising productivity. REFERENCES Binswanger, H., and S. Khandker. 1995. The Impact of Formal Finance on the Rural Economy of India. Journal of Development Studies 32(2). Burgess, R., and R. Pande. 2005. Do Rural Banks Matter? Evidence from the Indian Social Banking Experiment. American Economic Review 95(3): 780–795. Chavan, P., and R. Ramakumar. 2022. Agricultural Credit in India: An Account of Change and Continuity. In R. Ramakumar, ed. Distress in the Fields: Indian Agriculture after Liberalisation. New Delhi: Tulika Books. Das, A., M. Senapati, and J. John. 2009. Impact of Agricultural Credit on Agriculture Production: An Empirical Analysis in India. Reserve Bank of India Occasional Papers 30(2): 75–107. Giné, X., and M. Kanz. 2018. The Economic Effects of a Borrower Bailout: Evidence from an Emerging Market. Review of Financial Studies 31(5): 1752–1783. Golait, R. 2007. Current Issues in Agriculture Credit in India: An Assessment. Reserve Bank of India Occasional Papers 28: 79–100. Gulati, A., P. Terway, and S. al Hussain. 2018. Crop Insurance in India: Key Issues and Way Forward. Working Paper No. 352, Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations. Hao, L., W. Wang, and G. Xie. 2014. Rural Panel Surveys in Developing Countries: A Selective Review. Economic and Political Studies 2(2): 151–177. Kochar, A. 2018. Branchless Banking: Evaluating the Doorstep Delivery of Financial Services in Rural India. Journal of Development Economics 135(November): 160–175. 245 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India. 2016. The State of Indian Agriculture 2015–16. Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare Directorate of Economics and Statistics. Narayanan, S. 2016. The",
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    "text": "Services in Rural India. Journal of Development Economics 135(November): 160–175. 245 India: Trends in Institutional Credit to Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India. 2016. The State of Indian Agriculture 2015–16. Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare Directorate of Economics and Statistics. Narayanan, S. 2016. The Productivity of Agricultural Credit in India. Agricultural Economics 47: 399–409. National Statistical Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, India. Various years. All-India Debt and Investment Survey. ———. 2014. Land and Livestock Holdings of Households and Situation Assessment of Agricultural Households. ———. 2021. Land and Livestock Holdings of Households and Situation Assessment of Agricultural Households. ———. 2022. First Advance Estimates of National Income, 2021–2022. Raghumanda, R., R. Shankar, and S. Singh. 2017. Agricultural Loan Bank Accounts: A Waiver Scenario Analysis. Reserve Bank of India. https://rbi.org.in/Scripts/MSM_Mintstreetmemos4.aspx#F2. Ramakumar, R. 2022. India’s Agricultural Economy During the Covid-19 Lockdown: An Empirical Assessment. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics 77: 41–73. Ramakumar, R., and P. Chavan. 2014. Bank Credit to Agriculture in India in the 2000s: Dissecting the Revival. Review of Agrarian Studies 4(1). Reserve Bank of India. Various years. Report on Trend and Progress of Banking in India. Mumbai: Reserve Bank of India. ———. 2021. FAQs on Master Directions on Priority Sector Lending Guidelines. Mumbai: Reserve Bank of India. https://rbi.org.in/scripts/FAQView. aspx?Id=87. Roy, R., K. Subramanian, and S. Ravi. 2018. How to Solve Issue of Rising Non‑Performing Assets in Indian Public Sector Banks. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. Varshney, D., A. Kumar, A. K. Mishra, S. Rashid, and P. K. Joshi. 2021. India’s COVID-19 Social Assistance Package and Its Impact on the Agriculture Sector. Agricultural Systems 189. World Bank. 2012. India: Issues and Priorities for Agriculture. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2012/ 05/17/india-agriculture-issues-priorities. ———. 2017. India: Sustainable Livelihoods and Adaptation to Climate Change Project (English). Washington, DC:",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and P. K. Joshi. 2021. India’s COVID-19 Social Assistance Package and Its Impact on the Agriculture Sector. Agricultural Systems 189. World Bank. 2012. India: Issues and Priorities for Agriculture. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2012/ 05/17/india-agriculture-issues-priorities. ———. 2017. India: Sustainable Livelihoods and Adaptation to Climate Change Project (English). Washington, DC: World Bank Group. 246 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Shahidur R. Khandker, Hussain A. Samad, and Gayatri B. Koolwal CHAPTER 7 7.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the agricultural finance issues in the sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) region. The discussion on SSA is important because (i) it is still one of the predominantly agricultural and subsistence economies and one with the highest share of smallholders in agriculture, (ii) the region witnessed a huge growth in mobile phone penetration, and (iii) it is where mobile financial services took off commercially and in a big way for the first time. SSA is home to some 1.2 billion people who are mostly smallholders, managing 80% of the region’s farmland. The agrarian economy is largely subsistence, so large investments are necessary for transforming and commercializing subsistence agriculture and enhancing overall productivity and growth in support of sustainable growth and development. One possible way to promote private investment in agriculture and make it commercialized from its subsistence level is to support both shortand long-term financing of farming, agro-processing, and related supply chains of agriculture. The role of credit, for example, in supporting agriculture has been of major policy interest in many developing countries. However, due to the increased risks in financing smallholder agriculture, formal and semiformal institutions’ lending portfolios tend to be skewed toward nonagricultural activities, even in predominantly rural settings. Because of the poor business operations of the existing financial institutions, financing agriculture to support commercialization and promote private",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "many developing countries. However, due to the increased risks in financing smallholder agriculture, formal and semiformal institutions’ lending portfolios tend to be skewed toward nonagricultural activities, even in predominantly rural settings. Because of the poor business operations of the existing financial institutions, financing agriculture to support commercialization and promote private investment in agriculture is a big challenge in SSA. While agricultural finance in the region has its challenges, SSA has a high penetration of mobile phones; mobile phone ownership is 93%. 247 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa The region also experienced high growth in mobile money accounts—42% of farmers in SSA own mobile money accounts, compared to 15% in South Asia (SAR) and 12.9% in East Africa and the Pacific (EAP). Hence, digitizing financial services with the help of mobile technology may be a way to move forward. Little is understood about the role of agricultural credit expansion via mobile technology in rural settings to promote rural households’ welfare, including a country’s food security. This knowledge gap is particularly pronounced in SSA, where economic activity is dominated by agriculture and access to institutional finance is the lowest in the world, but the penetration of mobile technology is among the highest in the world. As such, it is important to examine the roles of different types of financial services in improving agricultural productivity in some key countries such as Ethiopia and Uganda. Modernizing subsistence or smallholder farming through higher-quality agricultural inputs, better techniques, and better access to institutional finance has been a priority of the governments in SSA. Given that medium and small farmers dominate agricultural activity in the region, boosting agricultural productivity through financing requires a clearer understanding of how such financing can help alleviate the constraints these farmers face, including greater vulnerability to",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "access to institutional finance has been a priority of the governments in SSA. Given that medium and small farmers dominate agricultural activity in the region, boosting agricultural productivity through financing requires a clearer understanding of how such financing can help alleviate the constraints these farmers face, including greater vulnerability to shocks. Institutional data analysis carried out in a few SSA countries shows that semiformal/microcredit institutions that offer complementary investments, such as technical assistance to smallholder farmers, have more successfully reached rural households and have also been more profitable. These additional services, such as extension services and training on the use of inputs, may improve clients’ performance and, thus, their ability to repay loans. Our findings from the SSA region show that financial institutions that specialize in small savings and lending and have strong local roots, such as cooperatives, are better suited to delivering agricultural finance on a sustainable and cost-effective basis. VisionFund and BRAC Uganda, two of the largest rural microfinance institutions in Uganda, are examples of this success. Leveraging mobile banking and other technologies may contribute to solving market information deficiencies and delivering financial services in a more cost‑effective manner. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 248 A review paper on rural and agricultural finance in SSA shows that there are many attempts in the region to design and implement projects covering credit, savings, payments, and insurance interventions (Biscaye et al. 2015). The report reviews some 19 studies that evaluate the impact of such interventions on a number of household-level outcomes such as consumption, income, production, food security, and resilience. There is clear evidence that while the take-up for financial products varies, those positively associated with household welfare are provision of agricultural products such as credit, savings (individual versus group savings schemes), payments (including remittance and transfers),",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "number of household-level outcomes such as consumption, income, production, food security, and resilience. There is clear evidence that while the take-up for financial products varies, those positively associated with household welfare are provision of agricultural products such as credit, savings (individual versus group savings schemes), payments (including remittance and transfers), and insurance. Several index-based weather insurance programs were introduced in the region in recent years to help farmers address the related risk constraints they face, but the take‑up has been low, so it is difficult to evaluate their effectiveness. Nonetheless, it is an important policy concern to determine what works, how it works, and what it means for policymaking vis-à-vis leaving financial markets to operate independently and to determine the user patterns and welfare implications of these financial products. 7.2 \u0007Farmers’ Access to Finance in Sub‑Saharan Africa vis-à-vis Other Regions: What Does the Global Findex Data Say? Access to agricultural finance means access of farmers to financial services such as credit, savings, payments, remittance transfers, and insurance provided by alternate financial systems. There are four major financial systems available in the developing world: banks, credit unions, microfinance institutions (MFIs),1 and mobile financial systems. While the first three categories refer to systems with physical outlets, a mobile financial system uses internet or mobile phone technology to carry out the same services fast and mostly through cashless transactions. Before we compare financial outcomes in SSA with those in other regions, it is useful to examine the data of major development indicators as presented in Table 7.1. Developing countries, excluding Organisation for Economic Co‑operation and Development (OECD) countries, can be grouped into six regions: East Asia and the Pacific (EAP), South Asia (SAR), Europe and 1 MFIs may also include registered rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs). 249 How Mobile Technology Can Support",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "presented in Table 7.1. Developing countries, excluding Organisation for Economic Co‑operation and Development (OECD) countries, can be grouped into six regions: East Asia and the Pacific (EAP), South Asia (SAR), Europe and 1 MFIs may also include registered rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs). 249 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Central Asia (ECA), Middle East and North Africa (MENA), Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), and sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). As shown in Table 7.1, per capita gross domestic product (GDP) is highest in EAP, followed by that in ECA, LAC, MENA, SAR, and SSA. Thus, SSA is the poorest region of the world with a per capita GDP that is one-sixth of EAP’s income, while SAR is the second‑poorest region with almost one-fifth the income of EAP. Agriculture is the major source of income of the poorest region. A smaller share of agriculture in a country’s GDP is a sine qua non for a modern economy with a higher level of economic and social development. Both SSA and SAR have been the regions with the highest share of agriculture GDP over the decade ending with 2021 (Figure 7.1). Agriculture accounted for some 18% of GDP in 2011 in both regions, which is also roughly the case after 10 years (2021). In contrast, in the more modern economy of EAP, agriculture accounted for less than 10% of GDP in 2011 and less than 8% of GDP in 2021. This GDP trend analysis shows that both SSA and SAR have been predominantly agricultural compared to other regions, and this has been the case over the last decade. Table 7.1:\u0003 \u0007Selected Development Indicators Across Regions, Excluding Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and High-Income Countries, 2021 EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA GDP (Constant $ billion) 20,752",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "SSA and SAR have been predominantly agricultural compared to other regions, and this has been the case over the last decade. Table 7.1:\u0003 \u0007Selected Development Indicators Across Regions, Excluding Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and High-Income Countries, 2021 EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA GDP (Constant $ billion) 20,752 3,517 4,585 1,490 4,089 1,919 GDP per capita (Constant $) 9,772 8,759 7,728 3,565 2,150 1,625 Share of agriculture in GDP (%) 7.9 5.6 6.3 10.5 16.7 17.3 Commercial bank branches per 100,000 adults 8.8 20.5 12.4 13.4 14.6 4.1 Depositors with commercial banks per 1,000 adults ... 1,266.9 773.2 ... ... 263.1 Mobile phone subscriptions per 100 people 126.9 134.9 109.1 112.6 85.0 92.6 EAP = East Asia and the Pacific, ECA = Europe and Central Asia, GDP = gross domestic product, LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean, MENA = Middle East and North Africa, SAR = South Asia, SSA = sub-Saharan Africa. Source: World Bank data (data.worldbank.org). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 250 Figure 7.1:\u0003 \u0007Agriculture as a Share of Gross Domestic Product by Region (Excluding High-Income Countries) 2011 % 2012 2013 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 EAP ECA LAC MENA SSA SAR 2021 EAP = East Asia and the Pacific, ECA = Europe and Central Asia, LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean, MENA = Middle East and North Africa, SAR = South Asia, SSA = sub-Saharan Africa. Source: World Bank (various years-a). More interestingly, in terms of access to finance, formal financial institutions such as banks cover a larger population in more developed regions compared to the situation in SSA. For example, there are almost 9 commercial bank branches per 100,000 adults in EAP compared to only 4 branches",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Bank (various years-a). More interestingly, in terms of access to finance, formal financial institutions such as banks cover a larger population in more developed regions compared to the situation in SSA. For example, there are almost 9 commercial bank branches per 100,000 adults in EAP compared to only 4 branches per 100,000 people in SSA. But mobile phone density (number of phones per 100 adults) does not follow the income pattern. For example, the number of mobile phone subscriptions is 127 per 100 people in EAP, 85 in SAR, and 93 in SSA. Penetration of mobile technology in the income-poor and agrarian economy of SSA is a major phenomenon in mobile technology and hence, a source of hope for improvement in access to financial services in this poor economy. Against this background, let us compare and contrast three rounds of financial data (from 2014, 2017, and 2021) of the World Bank’s Global Financial Inclusion database, also known as the Findex. Farmers are defined as those who draw income from agricultural sources. We can compare and contrast the trend and distribution of households in different regions by three major indicators of financial inclusion—having an account (i.e., access to finance), borrowing funds, and saving. 251 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa By one definition, financial inclusion means the percentage of households having an account with any type of financial system—banks, credit unions, microfinance institutions (MFIs), or mobile money accounts. While banks, credit unions, and MFIs are treated as financial institutions, having a mobile financial account can be treated as having access to digital finance. Of course, financial institutions such as banks can also offer digital financial services (DFS) through the internet. There are many countries in the world such as the People’s Republic of China and India",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "as financial institutions, having a mobile financial account can be treated as having access to digital finance. Of course, financial institutions such as banks can also offer digital financial services (DFS) through the internet. There are many countries in the world such as the People’s Republic of China and India that have already introduced DFS in various forms using alternate digital technology. 7.2.1 Farmers’ Access to Finance Access to finance among farmers across the developing regions increased from 37.9% in 2014 to 48.2% in 2017, and to 57.1% in 2021 (Table 7.2). This means an overall increase of 19 percentage points in financial access. In contrast, the corresponding figures for nonfarmers for the same years are 42.4%, 48.0%, and 58.7%, respectively, making for an increase of 16 percentage points during 2014–2021. That is, overall access to finance does not vary much between farmers and nonfarmers in the developing world. Table 7.2:\u0003 \u0007Access to Finance in Global Regions, Excluding Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and High-Income Countries Access Indicators EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA All Regions 2014 Has account (%) Farmers 58.6 36.1 47.3 19.5 41.4 29.3 37.9 Nonfarmers 60.9 46.4 44.5 21.4 40.1 30.4 42.4 Has account with financial institution (%) Farmers 57.1 36.0 46.1 19.5 40.2 21.8 33.8 Nonfarmers 60.0 46.3 43.8 21.3 39.6 26.2 41.0 Has MFS account (%) Farmers 4.7 0.2 5.3 0.7 3.0 15.9 11.6 Nonfarmers 2.9 0.5 1.8 0.8 1.6 9.4 4.7 N 12,204 20,037 16,536 6,007 9,132 34,044 105,520 continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 252 Table 7.2:\u0003 \u0007Continued Access Indicators EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA All Regions 2017 Has account (%) Farmers 48.0 59.0 57.6 35.5 57.7 42.7 48.2 Nonfarmers 58.0 59.0 48.6 33.4 52.6 39.3 48.0 Has account with financial institution (%) Farmers",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 252 Table 7.2:\u0003 \u0007Continued Access Indicators EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA All Regions 2017 Has account (%) Farmers 48.0 59.0 57.6 35.5 57.7 42.7 48.2 Nonfarmers 58.0 59.0 48.6 33.4 52.6 39.3 48.0 Has account with financial institution (%) Farmers 46.9 58.6 52.2 35.4 56.2 29.1 40.7 Nonfarmers 57.3 58.8 46.6 33.1 50.8 28.3 44.2 Has MFS account (%) Farmers 5.3 13.8 13.5 0.4 8.2 30.2 21.3 Nonfarmers 7.2 4.8 5.9 1.0 4.9 23.4 11.6 N 13,833 23,062 16,504 14,145 8,704 35,000 112,248 2021 Has account (%) Farmers 53.3 65.9 68.5 35.5 57.3 55.2 57.1 Nonfarmers 74.2 69.7 57.7 34.0 57.4 52.4 58.7 Has account with financial institution (%) Farmers 51.7 65.4 64.7 34.3 53.0 32.8 45.0 Nonfarmers 72.3 69.1 54.0 32.5 54.9 33.1 52.2 Has MFS account (%) Farmers 12.9 13.8 20.8 5.7 14.7 42.0 30.4 Nonfarmers 25.2 18.0 19.0 5.1 8.8 34.9 23.0 N 11,579 19,022 14,519 9,053 8,009 25,037 87,219 EAP = East Asia and Pacific, ECA = Europe and Central Asia, LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean, MENA = Middle East and North Africa, MFI = microfinance institution, MFS = mobile financial services, SAR = South Asia, SSA = sub-Saharan Africa. Notes: 1. \u0007Having an account indicates an institutional financial account (including MFIs), a mobile money account, or both. 2. \u0007Farmers are defined as those who have received agricultural payments during the last 12 months. Farmers were 32.7% of the population in 2014, 27.3% in 2017, and 16.7% in 2021 in developing countries. Sources: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015; Demirguc‑Kunt et al. 2018; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). 253 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Data reveals substantial variations in overall financial inclusion across regions. For",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "2017, and 16.7% in 2021 in developing countries. Sources: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015; Demirguc‑Kunt et al. 2018; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). 253 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Data reveals substantial variations in overall financial inclusion across regions. For example, in 2014, farmers with financial accounts amounted to 29.3% in SSA compared to 19.5% in MENA. The percentage for other regions was 41.4% in SAR, 36.1% in ECA, 47.3% in LAC, and 58.6% in EAP. In addition, rates vary substantially over years. For example, in 2021, 55.2% of farmers had a financial account in SSA compared to only 29.3% in 2014, meaning a gain of almost 26 percentage points during this period. Gains were also substantial in a few other regions—almost 16 percentage points in SAR compared to 30 percentage points in ECA. Meanwhile, in EAP, the trend was the opposite—a loss of 5 percentage points over the same period. Variations in overall financial access across regions are due to variation in the type of accounts. For example, the decline in overall access in EAP is partly due to the decline (some 5 percentage points) in account ownership with financial institutions (from 57.1% in 2014 to 51.7% in 2021), although there is a gain of 8 percentage points in mobile money account ownership (from 4.7% in 2014 to 12.9% in 2021). The gains in account ownership in SAR are due to increases in ownership of both financial accounts (40.2% in 2014 against 53.0% in 2021) and mobile money accounts (3.0% in 2014 versus 14.7% in 2021) over the same period. In contrast, in SSA, gains in overall access to finance are due primarily to the increase in mobile account ownership. For example, account ownership with financial institutions increased by",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in 2014 against 53.0% in 2021) and mobile money accounts (3.0% in 2014 versus 14.7% in 2021) over the same period. In contrast, in SSA, gains in overall access to finance are due primarily to the increase in mobile account ownership. For example, account ownership with financial institutions increased by 11 percentage points (21.8% in 2014 against 32.8% in 2021) compared to a gain of 26 percentage points in mobile money account ownership (15.9% in 2014 against 42.0% in 2021) over this period. The findings show clearly a remarkable progress in the mobile money account ownership in the SSA region vis-à-vis other regions such SAR and EAP. 7.2.2 \u0007Farmers’ Access to and Purpose of Institutional Borrowing Another measure of access to finance is the extent of borrowing from institutional sources and the use of credit.2 Access to credit is an important issue worth considering for determining the penetration of formal finance in agriculture in recent years. Having an account with any type of financial system is a measure of overall financial access. This access is expected to raise farm productivity and 2 This is because not much is being borrowed through MFS; hence, borrowing from institutional finance by and large means borrowing from banks, credit unions, and MFIs. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 254 welfare among smallholders in various ways because farmers can save, borrow, pay, and receive transfers using any type of financial account. Such financial transactions are essential for people to make efficient input–output decisions in farming or agro-processing. The relationship between access to finance and efficient decision making demonstrates whether financial inclusion (i.e., having an account with a financial institution or mobile money) helps farmers access credit, which can then help relax credit constraints perceived at the farm level for raising farm productivity and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in farming or agro-processing. The relationship between access to finance and efficient decision making demonstrates whether financial inclusion (i.e., having an account with a financial institution or mobile money) helps farmers access credit, which can then help relax credit constraints perceived at the farm level for raising farm productivity and food security. Table 7.3 shows that in 2014, 40.6% of farmers across all regions borrowed from any source, only 11.0% borrowed from financial institutions (banks, credit unions, and MFIs), and only 16.3% of borrowers used the money for agricultural purposes. In 2021, while 60.6% of farmers borrowed from any source, only 14.1% borrowed from financial institutions. This same pattern is also observed for nonfarmers. Thus, while access to finance has improved a lot over the years, the extent of borrowing from institutional sources has not as much, so the extent of borrowing from noninstitutional sources has remained an issue. The extent of borrowing has important implications for enhancing farm productivity and growth as well as food security. Table 7.3:\u0003 \u0007Borrowing in Global Regions, Excluding Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and High-Income Countries Borrowing Indicators EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA All Regions 2014 Borrowed (%) Farmers 53.6 52.1 52.9 62.9 50.3 65.1 40.6 Nonfarmers 45.2 37.1 36.6 44.5 38.9 45.8 58.7 Borrowed from financial institution (%) Farmers 19.4 13.5 18.1 5.6 10.3 6.7 11.0 Nonfarmers 14.3 12.0 11.9 7.5 6.7 5.4 9.6 Borrowed for farm/business (%) Farmers 16.7 8.2 6.5 9.9 12.7 19.8 16.3 Nonfarmers 7.2 2.2 17.5 4.1 5.1 7.2 5.3 N 12,204 20,037 16,536 6,007 9,132 34,044 105,520 continued on next page 255 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Table 7.3:\u0003 \u0007Continued Borrowing Indicators EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA All Regions 2017 Borrowed (%) Farmers 60.3 53.4 53.4 43.7 59.8 61.0",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "5.1 7.2 5.3 N 12,204 20,037 16,536 6,007 9,132 34,044 105,520 continued on next page 255 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Table 7.3:\u0003 \u0007Continued Borrowing Indicators EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA All Regions 2017 Borrowed (%) Farmers 60.3 53.4 53.4 43.7 59.8 61.0 58.5 Nonfarmers 45.0 40.7 35.2 32.9 37.7 42.7 39.6 Borrowed from financial institution (%) Farmers 25.1 19.1 21.6 6.1 12.5 9.2 14.4 Nonfarmers 13.1 12.4 11.1 6.3 6.6 5.6 9.2 Borrowed for farm/business (%) Farmers 20.2 14.5 20.2 10.8 15.0 20.4 18.7 Nonfarmers 7.2 3.0 6.8 2.2 5.3 8.0 5.7 N 13,833 23,062 16,504 14,145 8,704 35,000 112,248 2021 Borrowed (%) Farmers 54.0 51.8 54.3 51.3 60.1 67.0 60.6 Nonfarmers 48.2 45.3 41.2 46.1 44.5 49.4 46.0 Borrowed from financial institution (%) Farmers 19.2 19.2 16.8 5.3 14.4 10.9 14.1 Nonfarmers 16.0 14.8 11.1 4.6 8.9 6.9 10.6 N 11,579 19,022 14,519 9,053 8,009 25,037 87,219 EAP = East Asia and Pacific, ECA = Europe and Central Asia, LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean, MENA = Middle East and North Africa, SAR = South Asia, SSA = sub-Saharan Africa. Notes: 1. \u0007Having an account indicates an institutional financial account (including MFIs), mobile money account, or both. 2. \u0007Farmers are defined as those who have received agricultural payments during the last 12 months. Farmers were 32.7% of the population in 2014, 27.3% in 2017, and 16.7% in 2021 in developing countries. 3. \u0007Information on borrowing for agriculture was not collected in 2021. Sources: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015; Demirguc‑Kunt et al. 2018; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 256 Although the extent of borrowing from institutional sources has not improved much over the years, some gains are observed in",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in 2021. Sources: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015; Demirguc‑Kunt et al. 2018; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 256 Although the extent of borrowing from institutional sources has not improved much over the years, some gains are observed in SAR and SSA. For example, institutional borrowing for farmers in SAR increased from 10.3% in 2014 to 14.4% in 2021. The corresponding shares of institutional borrowing in SSA are 6.7% in 2014 and 10.9% in 2021. The extent of scant access to institutional finance for farmers and nonfarmers alike is noteworthy. While more than 60% of farmers do borrow each year, only 10% of them borrow from institutional sources and some 20% of them actually borrow for agricultural purposes. Such a pattern also exists in other regions, except for EAP, where a larger percentage of farmers borrowed from institutional sources and for agricultural purposes. This discrepancy requires an examination of the country-level evidence as to why EAP, on average, does better than SAR and SSA in terms of access to institutional credit by farmers and use of finance in farming. A growing number of recent studies, including those on sub-Saharan Africa, also highlight the role of microfinance institutions in providing access to finance and technical support. Using national data from Rwanda, for example, Ali, Deininger, and Duponchel (2014) find that having access to information through media and participating in networks such as farmers’ cooperatives can reduce credit constraints significantly, which in turn can increase agricultural output by around 17%. From a randomized study in Mali, Beaman et al. (2014) find that compared to cash grants offered to randomly selected households in nonprogram villages, MFI agricultural loans boosted the purchase of agricultural inputs and farm profits for farmers with high returns",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in turn can increase agricultural output by around 17%. From a randomized study in Mali, Beaman et al. (2014) find that compared to cash grants offered to randomly selected households in nonprogram villages, MFI agricultural loans boosted the purchase of agricultural inputs and farm profits for farmers with high returns to capital. However, their study also finds that take-up of the lending program remained low, indicating that other factors, such as motivation, may also be important to consider. In a recent study in Ghana, Quartey et al. (2012) argue that access to credit alone is not sufficient to boost agricultural production; agricultural profitability also needs to be improved through more efficient pricing and marketing of agricultural production to ensure that the loans actually boost productivity and that farmers do not end up in debt. Finally, in an ongoing randomized study, Bandiera et al. (2020) partner with BRAC in Uganda to understand how credit constraints and extension services, along with social networks and expectations about the returns to technology, affect technology adoption among women farmers. 257 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa 7.2.3 \u0007Access to Mobile Finance in Sub-Saharan Africa vis-à-vis Other Regions While a mobile money account facilitates certain useful transactions (e.g., sending money), it does not necessarily provide access to services such as credit unless it is linked with financial services of banks and MFIs. We can better understand whether mobile money accounts are providing access to such services by looking into the distribution of borrowers by alternative account ownership. Table 7.4 presents the distribution of account holders of different categories by the percentage of borrowers from institutional sources. Table 7.4:\u0003 \u0007Borrowing by Different Account Holders in Global Regions, Excluding Organisation for Economic Co‑operation and High-Income Countries (2021) Borrowing Indicators EAP ECA LAC MENA",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of borrowers by alternative account ownership. Table 7.4 presents the distribution of account holders of different categories by the percentage of borrowers from institutional sources. Table 7.4:\u0003 \u0007Borrowing by Different Account Holders in Global Regions, Excluding Organisation for Economic Co‑operation and High-Income Countries (2021) Borrowing Indicators EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR SSA All Regions Borrowed (%) \u0007Mobile-money-only account holders 47.4 51.5 40.0 66.5 48.6 62.9 59.8 \u0007Institutional-only account holders 43.2 51.7 49.3 57.2 47.4 54.0 50.4 \u0007Both mobile and institutional account holders 58.0 66.8 66.2 67.4 65.1 74.5 68.7 Borrowed from financial institution (%) \u0007Mobile-money-only account holders 12.3 15.8 6.7 4.5 11.5 4.4 5.3 \u0007Institutional-only account holders 17.4 21.0 15.6 14.8 13.2 12.0 15.5 \u0007Both mobile and institutional account holders 25.5 29.4 20.6 19.6 19.2 21.4 22.7 N 4,452 4,909 7,133 3,396 4,782 14,726 39,407 EAP = East Asia and the Pacific, ECA = Europe and Central Asia, LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean, MENA = Middle East and North Africa, SAR = South Asia, SSA = sub-Saharan Africa. Notes: 1. \u0007Share of mobile-money-only accounts was 2.0% in 2014, 4.2% in 2017, and 7.1% in 2021; share of institutional-only accounts was 19.9% in 2014, 23.6% in 2017, and 24.0% in 2021; and share of both mobile and institutional accounts was 2.3% in 2014, 5.5% in 2017, and 10.5% in 2021. 2. \u0007Information on borrowing for agriculture was not collected in 2021. Sources: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015; Demirguc‑Kunt et al. 2018; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 258 We consider three categories of account holders—mobile money only, institutional only, and both mobile money and institutional account-holders. Interestingly, those who have only mobile money accounts borrowed the least from financial institutions compared to those who had accounts with financial",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "2022). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 258 We consider three categories of account holders—mobile money only, institutional only, and both mobile money and institutional account-holders. Interestingly, those who have only mobile money accounts borrowed the least from financial institutions compared to those who had accounts with financial institutions only or with both mobile money and institutional accounts. For example, in 2021 in the developing countries, only 5.3% of mobile‑money‑only account holders borrowed from financial institutions against 15.5% among financial institution-only account holders and 22.7% among those having both mobile money and financial accounts. More importantly, even if SSA has the highest penetration of mobile financial technology, mobile-money-only account ownership did not help much to access institutional finance such as credit—only 4.4% of mobile-money-only account holders in SSA had access to institutional finance, compared to 11.5% in SAR followed by 12.3% in EAP. Thus, although mobile technology has facilitated certain types of financial services such as payments and remittance transfers, it has yet to support farmers’ access to credit from institutional sources, which is highly desired for enhanced food security and productivity. 7.2.4 Access to Institutions for Savings Deposits Access to credit is one of the major reasons for anyone to open an account with a financial institution such as a commercial bank, cooperative, MFI, or even a mobile money account. Saving money in a financial institution is a way to safeguard a household’s economic security against any uncertainty due to economic and weather shocks. People want to save money in a reliable outlet that can be used in times of need and for smoothening income and consumption. Like other actors, farmers also need to save money with a reliable outlet. Thus, we would like to demonstrate the extent of savings behavior among farmers who save with financial",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "save money in a reliable outlet that can be used in times of need and for smoothening income and consumption. Like other actors, farmers also need to save money with a reliable outlet. Thus, we would like to demonstrate the extent of savings behavior among farmers who save with financial institutions in SSA. Figure 7.2 demonstrates the incidence of savings among farmers in the countries of SSA and the region overall. Figure 7.2 shows the extent of savings with financial institutions (banks, cooperatives, and MFIs) and with a mobile financial system. Three countries stand tall (Kenya, Namibia, and Uganda) in terms of farmers’ savings deposits with financial systems. Namibia has the highest savings incidence, followed by Kenya and Uganda. One striking fact is that in Namibia, the savings deposits are the highest with financial institutions, followed by savings with a mobile money account. 259 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Figure 7.2:\u0003 \u0007Incidence of Savings by Farmers in Countries of Sub-Saharan Africa % Benin Burkina Faso Cameroon Congo, Rep. Cote d’Ivoire Gabon Ghana Guinea Kenya Liberia Malawi Mali Mozambique Namibia Nigeria Mauritius Senegal Sierra Leone South Sudan Tanzania Togo sub-Saharan Africa Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Financial institutions Mobile money Overall 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Note: South Africa is excluded. Source: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). This is in sharp contrast with the situation in Kenya and Uganda, where farmers save more with the mobile financial system than with financial institutions. This finding is exceptional in SSA, where most countries have savings deposits that are higher with financial institutions than with the mobile financial system. As Figure 7.2 suggests, in SSA, the incidence of savings with financial institutions is about 11% compared to some 19% with mobile money accounts.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "financial institutions. This finding is exceptional in SSA, where most countries have savings deposits that are higher with financial institutions than with the mobile financial system. As Figure 7.2 suggests, in SSA, the incidence of savings with financial institutions is about 11% compared to some 19% with mobile money accounts. In contrast, the incidence of savings with mobile money accounts is some 43% in Uganda and 38% in Kenya against 20% in Cameroon and 28% in Zambia. Clearly, the role of mobile technology is an outstanding feature in these two countries (Uganda and Kenya) in the region. 7.2.5 \u0007Tales of Two Systems of Financial Inclusion from Two Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa In order to understand the scope of recent progress in financial inclusion via mobile technology in the SSA region, we now highlight experiences of two major economies of the region using an in-depth country-level data analysis. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 260 We use both macroand micro-level data to demonstrate why and how farmers’ access to finance differs and what it means to policymaking. The two selected countries, Ethiopia and Uganda, are contrasted and compared based on the in-depth analysis of firm-level survey data collected in recent years. We selected these two countries because data was available (at both the institutional and firm level) and because of the contrasting features of these two major economies in SSA—Ethiopia has a low level of MFS penetration while Uganda has high penetration, causing differences in the level of financial inclusion as reflected by the Global Findex data. Above all, farmers’ access depends heavily upon the government’s policies and programs. Ethiopia represents an average SSA country while Uganda represents the other side of the financial system, countries with high penetration of mobile financial technology. In 2017, for example, only 35%",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "inclusion as reflected by the Global Findex data. Above all, farmers’ access depends heavily upon the government’s policies and programs. Ethiopia represents an average SSA country while Uganda represents the other side of the financial system, countries with high penetration of mobile financial technology. In 2017, for example, only 35% of adults in Ethiopia reported having an account with a financial system, compared to 59.2% in Uganda and 41.5% in sub-Saharan Africa. Uganda represents the high end of financial access compared to Ethiopia and also against the average coverage of 49% in the developing world.3 How do the numbers differ between farmers and nonfarmers? As per the Findex of 2017, some 25.8% of individuals reported having received payments for agriculture in SSA as a whole, compared to 58.7% in Ethiopia and 49.8% in Uganda.4 Thus, using this definition of farmers, we find that 33.2% of farmers in Ethiopia have an account with a financial institution (bank or microfinance institution), compared to 65.5% in Uganda and 42.7% in SSA as a whole. Interestingly, while 48.2% of Ethiopian farmers borrowed, only 13.6% of them managed to borrow from institutional sources and only 18.3% borrowed for agriculture/business purposes.5 Both access to formal credit and the use of borrowed funds for agricultural purposes appear to vary by financial market development. 3 The corresponding figure is 92% for the developed world. 4 The comparison between Ethiopia and Uganda is striking. Farmers are subsistent in both countries, but their extent of financial inclusion is higher in Uganda than in Ethiopia. Part of the reason for this trend is that farmers in Uganda carry out more transactions via mobile money accounts, while mobile banking was nonexistent in Ethiopia in 2017. 5 Note that financial inclusion among farmers in the developing world was 48.2% in 2017. Financial inclusion",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Uganda than in Ethiopia. Part of the reason for this trend is that farmers in Uganda carry out more transactions via mobile money accounts, while mobile banking was nonexistent in Ethiopia in 2017. 5 Note that financial inclusion among farmers in the developing world was 48.2% in 2017. Financial inclusion was the highest among farmers in ECA (59.0%) and lowest in MENA (35.5%). 261 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa In SSA, 61% of the farmers borrowed, but only 9.1% borrowed from formal sources and only 20.3% borrowed for agriculture. In contrast, in Uganda, some 76.6% of farmers borrowed, of which only 16.3% borrowed from formal sources and only 25.5% borrowed for agriculture. Informal sources of finance account for the majority of borrowing for farmers in Africa as a whole. In terms of financial inclusion for agriculture, Ethiopia is more similar to the average SSA country, and Uganda is an outlier in the region, thanks to its high penetration of mobile financial services. 7.2.6 Agriculture Finance in Ethiopia Ethiopia plays an important role in sub-Saharan Africa, in terms of both population and economy. This is a country of 1.14 million square kilometers and home of 118 million people (2021), 22% of whom live in urban areas. Ethiopia’s per capita GDP was $944 in 2021, and the poverty rate was 24% in 2016 (the year of the most recent survey on household living standards). Agriculture dominates the Ethiopian economy, accounting for 33% of the country’s GDP in 2021 and 67% of its employment in 2019. Financial institutions play only a small role in agricultural finance in Ethiopia for a variety of reasons, one of which is the substantial seasonality of agriculture determining the liquidity constraints of both farmers and lending agencies. Policymakers often design policies aimed",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in 2021 and 67% of its employment in 2019. Financial institutions play only a small role in agricultural finance in Ethiopia for a variety of reasons, one of which is the substantial seasonality of agriculture determining the liquidity constraints of both farmers and lending agencies. Policymakers often design policies aimed at promoting rural access to credit and other financial services in order to diversify the rural economy, increase private investment in smallholder agriculture, and encourage the use of modern seeds, mechanization, and irrigation. In Ethiopia, where agriculture dominates employment and overall national income, agriculture-led growth can boost overall economic growth (World Bank 2007). However, it remains unclear whether a financial inclusion strategy for rural areas truly can help increase rural productivity and income. Ali and Deininger (2012) observe that expanding financial access in rural areas can support agriculture-led growth in Ethiopia under certain conditions. They find that farmers are supply-constrained due to a number of factors, including a lack of available credit, and that the credit constraint affects farmers’ input use and hence farm productivity. However, they also observe that credit constraints matter more in fertile agricultural areas than in drought-prone areas and that reducing credit rationing can raise farm productivity on average by as much as 11%. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 262 Their findings therefore tend to support the Ethiopian government’s financial inclusion policy. However, there are certain features of agriculture, such as seasonality, that affect the performance of financial institutions as well as policies of the government and decision-making process of farmers. 7.2.7 Seasonality of Agriculture Ethiopian agriculture, like agriculture in most of the countries in SSA, is characterized by seasonality with crops that are season-specific, and the demand for labor and other inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides, and irrigation water hence vary by",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the government and decision-making process of farmers. 7.2.7 Seasonality of Agriculture Ethiopian agriculture, like agriculture in most of the countries in SSA, is characterized by seasonality with crops that are season-specific, and the demand for labor and other inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides, and irrigation water hence vary by season and crop. As such, one expects that the demand for credit in support of agriculture would respond to this seasonality. This is the classic cash flow problem in farming. To examine whether credit demand and supply do in fact respond to crop seasonality, we examine the Ethiopian Rural Socioeconomic Survey data, which provide the timing of borrowing and loan repayment. As per the crop calendar, Ethiopia has four agricultural seasons: the winter (locally known as bega) lasting from December to February, autumn (belg) from March to May, summer (kiremt or meher) from June to August, and the harvest season (called tseday) from September to November (Munro-Hay 2002). Figure 7.3 shows the distribution of loans by the month of borrowing and repayment. People repay loans more than they borrow during the first part of the year, particularly from January to April; the gap between repayment and borrowing is widest (23 percentage points) in February. Thus, borrowing goes up for consumption or planting in summer and lasts until the end of harvesting season. After harvest, farmers have enough cash to repay the loan in winter; however, by May, credit demand overstretches liquidity. More borrowing and less repayment take place between May to December, which in turn lowers their repayment rate, which is 3.5% in June. The seasonal borrowing pattern reflects the seasonality of agriculture. As seasonality plays an important role in rural lending, financial institutions must consider this covariate risk in their financial intermediation strategy. They must help resolve farmers’ cash",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to December, which in turn lowers their repayment rate, which is 3.5% in June. The seasonal borrowing pattern reflects the seasonality of agriculture. As seasonality plays an important role in rural lending, financial institutions must consider this covariate risk in their financial intermediation strategy. They must help resolve farmers’ cash flow problems stemming from the seasonality of crop production and other activities linked with agriculture, such as agro-processing and rural nonfarm activities. 263 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Figure 7.3:\u0003 Seasonality in Borrowing and Repayment 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 January February March April May June July August September October November December % borrowed % repaid Source: World Bank (2014a). 7.2.8 Policy Setting Although agriculture plays a big role in Ethiopian economy, it has not received as much attention as it should have. Policies and programs designed and implemented by the government matter greatly. Agriculture has been playing a dominant role in Ethiopia over the years, with the agricultural growth pattern overwhelmingly determining the country’s overall GDP growth (Figure 7.4). Figure 7.4 clearly shows how closely the cycle of real overall GDP growth over time follows the pattern of agricultural GDP growth. For example, in 1987, 1996, and 2004, agricultural GDP growth reached about 15%, which pulled up real GDP growth from a negative rate to around 13%. Thus, the stability of agricultural growth remains a key factor for Ethiopia’s overall economy, and it is a factor that is strongly affected by annual variation in rainfall. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 264 In recent years, growth in the manufacturing and service sectors has also helped keep Ethiopia’s GDP growth rate at more than 10%, despite a slowdown in agricultural growth. In 2004–2005, agriculture accounted for 52% of the Ethiopian",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "annual variation in rainfall. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 264 In recent years, growth in the manufacturing and service sectors has also helped keep Ethiopia’s GDP growth rate at more than 10%, despite a slowdown in agricultural growth. In 2004–2005, agriculture accounted for 52% of the Ethiopian economy, followed by services (38%) and manufacturing (10%). About a decade later, in 2015–2016, the corresponding shares were 36%, 47%, and 17%, respectively. To reach middle-income status, Ethiopia needs substantial continued economic diversification, specifically growth in the agro-processing sector. This means agriculture cannot remain at the subsistence level if it has to play an important role in overall higher growth. Investment in the agriculture and agro-processing sectors deserves much more attention. Financial institutions can help further economic diversification. These institutions can facilitate growth in agro-processing and agriculture-related industries to boost export earnings, which in turn can enhance growth in manufacturing and similar modern sectors. The Government of Ethiopia’s agricultural policy has attempted to raise productivity through encouraging a shift to crop production for high-value export. This policy does not include a specific focus on agricultural finance; rather, the government finances agricultural policies through the state-owned Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency. Figure 7.4:\u0003 \u0007Gross Domestic Product Growth and Growth of Agricultural Gross Domestic Product over Time in Ethiopia –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 Growth rates (%) Agriculture, value added (annual % growth) GDP growth (annual %) 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2012 2009 2015 2018 2021 Source: World Bank (various years-b, c). 265 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa The Ethiopian government’s programs for financing agriculture include (i) subsidies for agricultural inputs, such as fertilizer, and for interest rates on agricultural lending; (ii) direct lending from government-owned financial institutions such as the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "World Bank (various years-b, c). 265 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa The Ethiopian government’s programs for financing agriculture include (i) subsidies for agricultural inputs, such as fertilizer, and for interest rates on agricultural lending; (ii) direct lending from government-owned financial institutions such as the Development Bank of Ethiopia (DBE) to promote private investment in agriculture; and (iii) credit guarantee and insurance to help mitigate agricultural risks. The government-supported, credit-based input subsidy program is run by the Agricultural Transformation Agency to promote subsidized loans for investment in agriculture through the DBE. However, this program acts as a disincentive for private banks to be engaged in the agricultural sector because the DBE provides low-cost loans. Similarly, although there are no interest caps on lending, the government highly regulates the financial sector; this affects private banks’ lending in two ways: (i) Private banks are required to invest an amount equivalent to 27% of each new loan disbursed in treasury bills and (ii) The minimum deposit rate is viewed as an implicit tax on lending. The government’s credit risk guarantee facility acts as an enabling mechanism for financial institutions to provide credit to agricultural producers and value-chain actors involved in the production, transportation, processing, and marketing of export crops. But this policy does not help smallholders engaged in rainfed agriculture to guard against extreme weather variability; specifically, it does not include weather-indexed crop insurance products, which have been introduced successfully in a number of countries (e.g., World Bank 2011). Farmers’ constraints to financial access are partly due to limited financial services provided by the banks, cooperatives, and MFIs in rural areas. For example, in 2020/2021, there were 82 development banks in Ethiopia; these banks primarily served the urban population. There were 7.2 branches of commercial banks in Ethiopia",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "2011). Farmers’ constraints to financial access are partly due to limited financial services provided by the banks, cooperatives, and MFIs in rural areas. For example, in 2020/2021, there were 82 development banks in Ethiopia; these banks primarily served the urban population. There were 7.2 branches of commercial banks in Ethiopia per 100,000 people (Table 7.5). Thirty-nine MFIs and some 7,160 cooperatives (known as SACCOs) worked in rural areas in Ethiopia. These coverage rates do not necessarily mean that all households have equal access to financial services. In recent years, financial inclusion has grown somewhat, but banks’ involvement in agricultural lending has not reached more than 5%. As Figure 7.5 shows, the two largest sectors receiving commercial bank credit are mining, power, and water resources (22% of overall lending) and trade (21% of overall lending). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 266 Table 7.5:\u0003 Selected Financial Indicators of Ethiopia Indicators 2016/2017 2017/2018 2018/2019 2019/2020 2020/2021 GDP ($ billion, current market price) 81.8 84.4 96.1 107.6 111.3 Nominal GDP per capita ($) 876 883 985 1,080 1,092 Share of agriculture in GDP (%) 36.3 34.9 33.3 32.7 32.5 Bank branches per 100,000 people 4.5 4.9 5.6 6.4 7.2 Number of development banks 110 110 107 93 82 Number of MFIs 35 35 38 39 39 GDP = gross domestic product, MFI = microfinance institution. Source: National Bank of Ethiopia (2020/2021). Figure 7.5:\u0003 \u0007Distribution of Sectors for Commercial Bank Credit, 2021 Agriculture Industry Domestic trade International trade Export Import Hotels and tourism Transport and communication Housing and construction Mines, power, and water resource Personal Other 2% 18% 8% 13% 9% 4% 2% 6% 9% 22% 5% 2% Source: National Bank of Ethiopia (2021). 267 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Table 7.6 shows the extent of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "tourism Transport and communication Housing and construction Mines, power, and water resource Personal Other 2% 18% 8% 13% 9% 4% 2% 6% 9% 22% 5% 2% Source: National Bank of Ethiopia (2021). 267 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Table 7.6 shows the extent of institutional support for agriculture. As per the National Bank of Ethiopia, agriculture received only 12.0% of total institutional disbursement in 2016/2017 and 9.3% in 2020/2021. Thus, agriculture in Ethiopia is largely self-financed: institutional lending explains only 2% of agricultural GDP, while agriculture accounts for more than 30% of GDP. Table 7.6:\u0003 Lending in Agriculture in Ethiopia Indicators 2016/2017 2017/2018 2018/2019 2019/2020 2020/2021 Disbursement in agriculture (billion birr) 13.1 11.4 18.0 24.9 30.8 Outstanding loans in agriculture (billion birr) 20.0 19.5 20.4 21.1 31.8 Disbursement in agriculture as % of total disbursement 12.0 9.9 7.6 9.2 9.3 Outstanding in agriculture as % of total outstanding 5.5 4.3 2.4 2.0 2.5 Disbursement in agriculture as % of agricultural GDP 2.1 1.8 2.7 2.3 2.2 Outstanding in agriculture as % of agricultural GDP 3.2 3.0 3.1 1.9 2.3 GDP = gross domestic product. Source: National Bank of Ethiopia (2016/2017–2020/2021). 7.3 \u0007Farmers’ Access to Finance: Household‑Level Survey Data Analysis Farmers’ access to finance from alternative sources from recent surveys is shown in Table 7.7. The most recent household survey data explains the rural vis-à‑vis urban access to alternative sources of finance. The overall access to finance was only 25.6% for rural areas against 85.7% in urban areas. When access is differentiated by digital and non-digital methods, non-digital (banks, MFIs, and cooperatives) accounted for the major share. The percentage of non-digital access to finance was 34.7% overall with 85.7% in urban and 25.6% in rural areas. In contrast, digital methods (ATM, online banking, and mobile",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in urban areas. When access is differentiated by digital and non-digital methods, non-digital (banks, MFIs, and cooperatives) accounted for the major share. The percentage of non-digital access to finance was 34.7% overall with 85.7% in urban and 25.6% in rural areas. In contrast, digital methods (ATM, online banking, and mobile banking) accounted for 12.0% overall with 52.9% in urban areas and 4.7% in rural areas. No wonder the overall access rate is only 25.6% in rural Ethiopia, of which mobile banking accounts for 1.5%. Of course, access means more than borrowing; those who have an account with any financial services do not necessarily borrow from these sources. Table 7.8 shows the percentage of borrowers in urban and rural areas. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 268 Table 7.7:\u0003 \u0007Access to Finance by Farmers (%) in Ethiopia from Household Survey Data Indicators Urban Rural Overall Non-digital access 85.7 25.6 34.7 Commercial banks 83.8 18.6 28.5 Microfinance 7.2 5.1 5.4 SACCOs (cooperatives) 11.2 6.3 7.1 Digital access 52.9 4.7 12.0 ATM/Debit cards 52.0 3.6 11.0 Online banking 11.8 1.4 3.0 Mobile banking 25.4 1.5 5.2 Overall access 85.7 25.6 34.7 N 1,358 2,543 3,901 SACCO = savings and credit cooperative. Note: Since all households that have digital access have non-digital access too, the share of non‑digital access is the same as that of overall access. Source: Ethiopia Socioeconomic Survey – Wave 4, 2018/2019 (Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia n.d.). Table 7.8:\u0003 \u0007Borrowing by Farmers (%) in Ethiopia from Household Survey Data Sources Urban Rural Overall Any formal source 4.6 5.5 5.4 Commercial banks 0.5 0.04 0.1 Microfinance 1.2 2.2 2.1 SACCOs (cooperatives) 2.0 2.8 2.7 Other NGOs 0.8 0.1 0.2 Online sources 0.1 0.3 0.3 N 1,358 2,543 3,901 NGO = nongovernment organization, SACCO = savings and credit cooperative. Note:",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Data Sources Urban Rural Overall Any formal source 4.6 5.5 5.4 Commercial banks 0.5 0.04 0.1 Microfinance 1.2 2.2 2.1 SACCOs (cooperatives) 2.0 2.8 2.7 Other NGOs 0.8 0.1 0.2 Online sources 0.1 0.3 0.3 N 1,358 2,543 3,901 NGO = nongovernment organization, SACCO = savings and credit cooperative. Note: Borrowing during last 12 months is considered. Source: Ethiopian Socioeconomic Survey – Wave 4, 2018/2019 (Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia n.d.). 269 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa We find that only 5.5% of farmers in rural areas borrowed overall in 2018/2019, and 2.2% borrowed from MFIs. Therefore, Ethiopia is unlike other countries in SSA such as Kenya and Uganda, as it has little coverage of financial services including that of mobile financial services, a fact that was also documented by the Global Findex data. 7.3.1 Policy Options to Enhance Access One way to enhance farmers’ financial access would be to expand the coverage of commercial bank branches. However, as in many other countries, commercial banks in Ethiopia are reluctant to extend credit to farmers and are more interested in mobilizing savings because of the high transaction costs inherent in agriculture (specifically, the high loan default costs and the seasonality of farming). A lack of liquidity also poses a challenge for MFIs and cooperatives in extending credit to agriculture, compared to commercial banks. As Figure 7.6 shows, in 2021, MFIs in Ethiopia mobilized a substantial amount of savings—over 75% of their outstanding loans. In contrast, commercial banks’ share of mobilized savings is only about 22% of their outstanding loans. Many of the loans extended by commercial banks go to support manufacturing, trade, and services. Figure 7.6:\u0003 \u0007Savings as Percentage of Loans Outstanding by Institutions in Ethiopia, 2021 75.6% 21.7% Commercial banks MFIs MFI = microfinance",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "commercial banks’ share of mobilized savings is only about 22% of their outstanding loans. Many of the loans extended by commercial banks go to support manufacturing, trade, and services. Figure 7.6:\u0003 \u0007Savings as Percentage of Loans Outstanding by Institutions in Ethiopia, 2021 75.6% 21.7% Commercial banks MFIs MFI = microfinance institution. Source: National Bank of Ethiopia (2021). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 270 Thus, liquidity remains a challenge for rural SACCOs and MFIs in terms of providing credit to agriculture. Cooperatives and MFIs could increase deposits in order to raise loanable funds; however, these institutions cannot mobilize savings from members or nonmembers the way that commercial banks can. Another solution could be to use banks’ surplus deposits for lending to rural sectors. In fact, as Figure 7.7 illustrates, loans from banks and other sources constitute a major source (19%) of MFI on-lending in Ethiopia, followed by paid‑up equity (16%), donor funds (13%), and net income from lending (11%). The Government of Ethiopia recently introduced a scheme to enhance cooperatives’ loan portfolios using bank loans provided by the government. Although cooperatives are efficient in lending and in reaching smallholders, they are not efficient at recovering such loans, meaning that commercial banks cannot easily recover funds lent to cooperatives. Thus, supporting cooperatives through banks’ loans or government money may not be an effective way to improve agricultural financial inclusion due to the incentive structures of cooperatives themselves.6 6 The incentive structure is such that the cooperatives are not accountable to recover loans out of government-provided funds like banks’ management of their own money to lend. Figure 7.7:\u0003 \u0007Sources of Microfinance Institution Funds in Ethiopia, 2008 Saving 39% Paid-up equity 16% Loan from bank 19% Loan from RUFIP 2% Grant/donation equity 13% Net income from lending 11% RUFIP = Rural",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to recover loans out of government-provided funds like banks’ management of their own money to lend. Figure 7.7:\u0003 \u0007Sources of Microfinance Institution Funds in Ethiopia, 2008 Saving 39% Paid-up equity 16% Loan from bank 19% Loan from RUFIP 2% Grant/donation equity 13% Net income from lending 11% RUFIP = Rural Financial Intermediation Programme. Source: Reported by Wiedmaier-Pfister et al. (2008) from unpublished report of Amha (2007). 271 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa MFIs may be a better channel through which to increase financial inclusion in rural Ethiopia and to benefit smallholders and other rural producers.7 The share of these institutions is higher than cooperatives, and they provide better incentives to recover loans, making them more sustainable. The practices of MFIs in Ethiopia are very consistent with the practices of an average MFI in Bangladesh, although the savings mobilization rate in Bangladesh has been higher than that in Ethiopia for the last few years (see Figure 7.8). Grameen Bank, the largest and most famous MFI in Bangladesh, mobilizes more savings than it lends out. A possible way to enhance MFIs’ portfolios is to extend bank loans to MFIs for on-lending without any government involvement. Similarly, MFIs could be encouraged to mobilize savings from nonmembers by registering these institutions as specialized banks. Such schemes are one of the ways in which some countries are expanding MFI services to serve smallholders in rural areas where commercial banks are reluctant to lend. 7 MFIs could also promote social inclusion by extending financial services to women and other disadvantaged groups within rural societies. Figure 7.8:\u0003 \u0007Deposit as Percentage of Loans Outstanding in Microfinance Institutions 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 Percentages Ethiopia Bangladesh 2011 2013 2015 2017 2003 2005 2007 2009 2019 70 Source: World Bank (2020a).",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "inclusion by extending financial services to women and other disadvantaged groups within rural societies. Figure 7.8:\u0003 \u0007Deposit as Percentage of Loans Outstanding in Microfinance Institutions 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 Percentages Ethiopia Bangladesh 2011 2013 2015 2017 2003 2005 2007 2009 2019 70 Source: World Bank (2020a). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 272 7.3.2 Agricultural Finance in Uganda Similar to the rest of sub-Saharan Africa, more than two-thirds of Uganda’s labor force is employed in agriculture, and the agricultural sector is broadly dominated by smallholder farmers. But there are substantial differences in terms of access to institutional and mobile finance between Ethiopia and Uganda. More importantly, about half of the households in Uganda’s urban areas have, besides pursuing nonfarm activities, also taken up some form of farming in recent years due to concerns about food security (see, for example, Mukwaya et al. 2012). Addressing ways to improve farmers’ resilience to weatherand disease-related shocks, including modernizing agricultural techniques, has also been a central focus in the country’s agricultural policy (Bank of Uganda 2013). Although direct finance to agricultural households, particularly poorer households, is growing, its reach remains limited, particularly with the effects of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic and amid the unpredictable harvests and surpluses that have resulted from increased climate variability. Looking across different channels of finance (formal, semi-formal, informal, and mobile), we find that semi-formal microcredit institutions that offer financial services coupled with technical assistance (extension services, for example) appear to have the highest potential to improve agricultural productivity among Uganda’s smallholder farmers. Lending in rural areas, while carrying increased risks because of greater poverty and greater climate and weather variability, does seem to have been profitable for major semi-formal microcredit institutions, particularly those that offer additional services (such as training and technical",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "highest potential to improve agricultural productivity among Uganda’s smallholder farmers. Lending in rural areas, while carrying increased risks because of greater poverty and greater climate and weather variability, does seem to have been profitable for major semi-formal microcredit institutions, particularly those that offer additional services (such as training and technical assistance) to clients; these services may improve clients’ performance and thus their ability to repay loans. Supporting the expansion of financial services into a broader range of areas can also help support smaller borrowers heavily hit by the COVID-19 crisis. 7.3.3 Policy Setting Uganda’s financial sector is divided into four tiers (Table 7.9). As of 2019, formal sources monitored by the Bank of Uganda included 26 commercial banks (Tier 1), 3 licensed credit institutions (CIs) (Tier 2), and 6 micro-deposit-taking institutions (MDIs) (Tier 3) (Economic Policy Research Centre 2020). The reach of these institutions is not wide. Overall, less than 20% of rural Ugandans use financial services from Tier 1, 2, and 3 institutions, and the focus of formal lending to agriculture has been in commercial activities (Economic Policy Research Centre 2021). 273 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Table 7.9:\u0003 Uganda’s Financial Sector Presented in Tiers Tier Type of Institution Applicable Law Regulator Some Key Institutions (across Urban and Rural Areas) Share of Total Agricultural Lending (as of 2020) 1 Commercial banks Financial Institutions Act, 2004 Bank of Uganda Centenary Bank, Equity Bank 80.6% 2 Credit institutions Financial Institutions Act, 2004 Bank of Uganda PostBank Uganda, Opportunity Bank 6.3% 3 MDIs MDI Act, 2003 Bank of Uganda FINCA, Pride Microfinance, UGAFODE 3.9% 4 Other MFIs and SACCOs Companies Act, NGO Act, Cooperative Societies Act, Money Lenders Act None MFIs: includes VisionFund, BRAC Uganda SACCOs: includes Wazalendo, Y-Save 2.6% 6.6% MDI = micro-deposit-taking institution, MFI",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "PostBank Uganda, Opportunity Bank 6.3% 3 MDIs MDI Act, 2003 Bank of Uganda FINCA, Pride Microfinance, UGAFODE 3.9% 4 Other MFIs and SACCOs Companies Act, NGO Act, Cooperative Societies Act, Money Lenders Act None MFIs: includes VisionFund, BRAC Uganda SACCOs: includes Wazalendo, Y-Save 2.6% 6.6% MDI = micro-deposit-taking institution, MFI = microfinance institution, NGO = nongovernment organization, SACCO = savings and credit cooperative. Source: Association of Microfinance Institutions in Uganda (AMFIU). 2015. Uganda Microfinance Directory. Overall, about 80% of formal and semi-formal loans to agriculture come from commercial banks (Tier 1 institutions). Box 7.1 shows Uganda’s history of lending to agriculture through government-sponsored channels. In stark comparison, over 2,000 semi-formal institutions exist in Tier 4, covering MFIs as well as savings and credit and cooperatives (SACCOs) that constitute semi-formal, community, membership-based financial institutions, formed and owned by their members to promote the community’s own economic interests; SACCOs have also helped rural households have more access to finance in areas where other financial institutions are scarce. Institutions in Tier 4 have expanded rapidly. These institutions served about 120,000 clients in the early 1990s and grew to over 1 million clients by early 2000 (AMFIU 2015). Tier 4 MFIs, which have typically not been supervised or regulated by a central authority, have also achieved significantly higher growth rates than their regulated MDI counterparts, which also compete with commercial banks. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 274 Box 7.1:\u0003 Government Efforts to Engage Formal Finance in Agriculture • \u00071980s: The Uganda Commercial Bank (UCB) and the Cooperative Bank, both public sector banks, started in the 1960s to provide agricultural loans to farmers at government‑subsidized interest rates. Some of these lending schemes were financed by the central bank. In practice, these banks would not lend actively because the government-subsidized funds were perceived",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Commercial Bank (UCB) and the Cooperative Bank, both public sector banks, started in the 1960s to provide agricultural loans to farmers at government‑subsidized interest rates. Some of these lending schemes were financed by the central bank. In practice, these banks would not lend actively because the government-subsidized funds were perceived to undermine loans from their own sources (Suruma 2014). By the early 1990s, both UCB and the Cooperative Bank were rendered bankrupt due to nonperforming loans and poor supervision; UCB was merged with a South African bank in 2001, while the Cooperative Bank was closed in 1999. • \u00072000s: In response to difficulties with UCB and Cooperative Bank, the Bank of Uganda began lending through its own Development Finance Department. Some programs included the Linkage Banking Program under the African Rural and Agricultural Credit Association, the Capacity Building Program for microfinance institutions under the Cotton Subsector Development Project, the Capacity Building for Rural Women Financial Intermediaries Program, financed by a grant from the International Fund for Agricultural Development, and the Danish International Development Agency–funded Rural Financial Services Component, which aimed at widening financial service outreach to rural areas. In 2006–2007, the Development Finance Department and all its activities were transferred to the Uganda Development Bank Limited. Although these schemes yielded some individual successes, they have not transformed agriculture in the country, and productivity has remained flat over time. • \u00072020: In April, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Bank of Uganda provided credit relief (in terms of relaxing repayment conditions) to borrowers from formal (Tier 1, 2, and 3) institutions, namely commercial banks, credit institutions, and micro-deposittaking institutions. In 2016, however, Uganda’s Microfinance Institutions and Money Lenders Act established the Microfinance Regulatory Authority to license and manage all Tier 4 microfinance institutions including SACCOs and non-deposit-taking microfinance institutions such",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "conditions) to borrowers from formal (Tier 1, 2, and 3) institutions, namely commercial banks, credit institutions, and micro-deposittaking institutions. In 2016, however, Uganda’s Microfinance Institutions and Money Lenders Act established the Microfinance Regulatory Authority to license and manage all Tier 4 microfinance institutions including SACCOs and non-deposit-taking microfinance institutions such as BRAC; the Act expanded the authority’s reach to informal sources as well, including money lenders, self‑help groups (sometimes known as village and savings loan associations), and commodity‑based microfinance institutions. 7.4 Trends in Agricultural Lending Figure 7.9 provides some insight into agricultural lending before and after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, across formal and semi-formal institutions. Over the period, the share of lending to agriculture remained fairly consistent across sources, except that the share of portfolios in agriculture rose from 18% to 24% among credit institutions and fell from 20% to 13% among SACCOs. 275 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Figure 7.9:\u0003 \u0007Share of Loan Portfolios in Agriculture, 2018–2021: Commercial Banks, Micro-Deposit-Taking Institutions, and Credit Institutions % 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 CB MDI CIs SACCOs MFIs 12% 18% 18% 20% 23% Jun 2018 Aug 2018 Oct 2018 Dec 2018 Jun 2019 Aug 2019 Oct 2019 Dec 2019 Feb 2019 Apr 2019 Jun 2020 Aug 2020 Oct 2020 Dec 2020 Feb 2020 Apr 2020 Jun 2021 Aug 2021 Oct 2021 Dec 2021 Feb 2021 Apr 2021 25% 24% 16% 13% 12% CB = commercial bank, CI = credit institution, MDI = micro-deposit-taking institution, MFI = microfinance institution, SACCO = savings and credit cooperative. Source: Bank of Uganda statistics. Contributing factors include greater relaxation on repayment for formal loans, imposed by the Bank of Uganda in April 2020 (Box 7.1), as well as the closure of many SACCOs due to the staggering",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "micro-deposit-taking institution, MFI = microfinance institution, SACCO = savings and credit cooperative. Source: Bank of Uganda statistics. Contributing factors include greater relaxation on repayment for formal loans, imposed by the Bank of Uganda in April 2020 (Box 7.1), as well as the closure of many SACCOs due to the staggering increase in loan defaults (CGAP 2020). Even prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, SACCOs have tended to face several operational challenges, including a less-secure set of borrowers with greater default rates, corruption and other internal management issues, and low business volumes (Economic Policy Research Centre 2021). A clear difference also appears across formal sources in terms of agricultural activities financed. According to statistics from the Bank of Uganda, about 35% of commercial banks’ agricultural portfolios in 2021 went toward production activities (across crops and livestock), while 65% went toward processing and marketing. These shares flip for MDIs and CIs, however. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 276 About 70% of MDI lending in agriculture went toward production and 30% went toward marketing activities. For CIs, these shares were 60% and 40%, respectively. Loan clients for commercial banks were more likely to be engaged in larger scale marketing of surplus, while clients for semi-formal lending focused more on production activities. This trend extends more broadly to rural areas and financial services. According to the Global Findex database, 66% of the rural population had an account in 2021, but only half of them (33%) had an account at a formal financial institution. Of respondents in rural areas, 77% borrowed, of which only about one-quarter borrowed from a formal financial institution. The lack of institutional finance has detrimental effects on agriculture; small farmers often incur heavy debts from moneylenders, for example, and have to presell their harvest at low prices to get",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "institution. Of respondents in rural areas, 77% borrowed, of which only about one-quarter borrowed from a formal financial institution. The lack of institutional finance has detrimental effects on agriculture; small farmers often incur heavy debts from moneylenders, for example, and have to presell their harvest at low prices to get cash up front, thus diminishing their revenues. The Uganda FinScope Survey of multiple years (FSD Uganda 2018) also reveals that growth in access to financial services (whether formal or informal) has shrunk over time in the years preceding the COVID-19 pandemic, with a greater shortfall in rural areas (Figure 7.10). Given the social, health, and economic shocks stemming from the onset of the pandemic in 2020, these issues have worsened.8 8 Nevertheless, Uganda’s rural population (who are mostly farmers) have a financial access rate of as high as 75% compared to only 26% in Ethiopia. Figure 7.10:\u0003 \u0007Share of Population Accessing Financial Services, Uganda FinScope Survey, 2009, 2013, 2018 2009 2013 Rural Urban 2018 75% 83% 69% Sources: FSD Uganda (2018) and Economic Policy Research Centre (2020). 277 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa 7.4.1 \u0007Government Policies Pursued to Improve Farmers’ Access through Microfinance and Cooperatives Although formal and semi-formal lending to agriculture in Uganda has been concentrated in commercial farming expansion, the country has pushed over the last decade to improve access to microfinance institutions and cooperatives so that low-income households have more options to save and borrow (Box 7.2). Box 7.2:\u0003 \u0007Pre-Pandemic Policy Efforts by the Uganda Government to Improve and Sustain Microfinance • \u0007In 2009, the government established the Agricultural Credit Facility (ACF) in partnership with participating financial institutions (including commercial banks, the Uganda Development Bank Limited, and micro-deposit-taking institutions). The main objective of the ACF is to promote the commercialization of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Efforts by the Uganda Government to Improve and Sustain Microfinance • \u0007In 2009, the government established the Agricultural Credit Facility (ACF) in partnership with participating financial institutions (including commercial banks, the Uganda Development Bank Limited, and micro-deposit-taking institutions). The main objective of the ACF is to promote the commercialization of agriculture through the provision of mediumand long-term loans focusing on “value addition” (for example, agro-processing machinery and equipment, storage facilities, and agricultural inputs like pesticides and fertilizers) at subsidized interest rates. The maximum loan period is eight years and the minimum six months, with interest rates between 10% and 12%. Limited communication about the availability of funds for the agricultural sector, however, has hampered further expansion effort, as have inadequate contributions by the government and participating financial institutions to the scheme and the mismanagement of funds (CSBAG 2014). In addition, the ACF has not met the needs of smallholders, who lack the collateral to be considered for the program; in 2016, 42% of borrowers of the ACF were small and medium-sized enterprises, while the remainder of funds was lent to projects in agro‑processing. • \u0007In 2001, the government set up a Microfinance Support Centre offering loans to farmers at subsidized interest rates of around 9% (as well as commercial credit at 13%). • \u0007In late 2014, the Project for Financial Inclusion in Rural Areas (PROFIRA) was introduced, implemented by the Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development over seven years with financing from the International Fund for Agriculture Development. The aim of the project is to sustainably increase access to and use of financial services by rural poor people. A main push has been to strengthen capacity-building for SACCOs and to establish new community-based savings and credit groups, as well as greater monitoring of semi-formal sources of finance. • \u0007Following",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "aim of the project is to sustainably increase access to and use of financial services by rural poor people. A main push has been to strengthen capacity-building for SACCOs and to establish new community-based savings and credit groups, as well as greater monitoring of semi-formal sources of finance. • \u0007Following PROFIRA, in May 2016, the Tier IV Microfinance Institutions Act was passed by the Ugandan Parliament. A key provision of the Act is the establishment of the Uganda Microfinance Regulatory Authority, which has the mandate to license, regulate, and supervise savings and credit cooperatives, village saving and loan associations, non-deposit-taking microfinance institutions, and moneylenders to enhance financial inclusion, financial stability, and financial consumer protection for low-income individuals. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 278 Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, Tier 4 institutions were rapidly increasing their services and financing for rural households. Financial services among these institutions include deposits, loans, payment services, money transfers, and insurance for low-income households. Many Tier 4 microfinance institutions also supply additional services, including technical agricultural assistance, business skills development, leadership training for women, education services including financial literacy, and health and basic medical services. The 2018 Uganda FinScope survey showed that among smaller farmers borrowing for agricultural purposes, demand for better inputs was high— 54% reported borrowing to purchase agricultural inputs, compared to 29% who reported borrowing to hire farm labor, 15% to buy livestock, 8% to purchase agricultural land, and 6% to purchase farm equipment (FSD Uganda 2018). Services for modernizing agriculture therefore appear to be in demand. Many agricultural households have also engaged with microfinance institutions for other services outside financing. For example, BRAC, one of the world’s largest nongovernment institutions, currently has 125 branch offices throughout Uganda and reaches over 800,000 poor female farmers. The organization’s existing agriculture and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "agriculture therefore appear to be in demand. Many agricultural households have also engaged with microfinance institutions for other services outside financing. For example, BRAC, one of the world’s largest nongovernment institutions, currently has 125 branch offices throughout Uganda and reaches over 800,000 poor female farmers. The organization’s existing agriculture and livestock extension program aims to improve productivity by training women in modern agricultural practices: line sowing, weeding, intercropping, and crop rotation; crop and poultry disease prevention; adoption of improved seeds and chicken breeds; introduction of new crops; and use of poultry vaccines. The program disseminates information about these new technologies and practices through local community members (exclusively women) called model farmers and community promoters. BRAC chooses these women for a six-day training based on their business skills, agricultural and livestock knowledge, and popularity in their villages. The women then take charge of training other farmers and selling seeds and vaccines. In rural areas, therefore, there has been a push in recent years to assist farmers through different types of loans and through increasingly regulated semi‑formal institutions. The expansion of semi-formal credit has not been without problems, however, including claims of inequitable distribution of loans due to limited regulation and supervision, political interference in loan activity (The Economist 2017), and increases in MFI and SACCO lending rates to match those charged by commercial banks. The COVID-19 pandemic, as mentioned above, also heavily hit borrowers’ ability to repay and in turn had 279 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa more severe consequences for Tier 4 institutions, whose client base (whether smaller farmers or enterprises) was more vulnerable to shocks from the crisis. Supporting a broader range of financial services, including opportunities to save, among Tier 4 institutions is critical to supporting financial resilience among lower‑income rural households,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Sub-Saharan Africa more severe consequences for Tier 4 institutions, whose client base (whether smaller farmers or enterprises) was more vulnerable to shocks from the crisis. Supporting a broader range of financial services, including opportunities to save, among Tier 4 institutions is critical to supporting financial resilience among lower‑income rural households, particularly in the wake of declining credit demand and financial engagement stemming from the crisis. Extension services in addition to financial services have also proven to be extremely important and in high demand; similarly, improved rural infrastructure, including feeder roads, piped water/irrigation, and electricity, is needed to support expansions in agriculture along with financial services. 7.4.2 Digitalization of Financial Services Within agriculture, moving to digitalized platforms is important for a range of different activities closely tied with agricultural productivity—including keeping track of inventories; monitoring costs and availability of inputs; assessing market prices and demand; coordinating transport, storage, and marketing; and easing financial transactions. Alternative channels of finance, including mobile money services, have aided significantly in reaching areas with limited or no banking presence. Mobile money services began to take off in Uganda in 2009, increasing from about 10,000 account holders in the first year to 14.2 million in 2013 and reaching 22 million by mid-2018 (Okeleke 2019). Currently, about 50% of Uganda’s adult population in rural areas have a mobile money account, and about 58% have made or received digital payments (Demirguc-Kunt 2022). To underscore the growth of mobile banking in Uganda, Figure 7.11 uses data from the Global Findex survey to show that individuals working in agriculture in Uganda in all wealth quintiles were much more likely to own a mobile banking account in 2014 than the average individual in all wealth quintiles in the rest of sub-Saharan Africa. Recent studies have linked mobile money adoption with increased farm",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "survey to show that individuals working in agriculture in Uganda in all wealth quintiles were much more likely to own a mobile banking account in 2014 than the average individual in all wealth quintiles in the rest of sub-Saharan Africa. Recent studies have linked mobile money adoption with increased farm income, including increased use of fertilizer as well as adoption of high-yielding maize seeds (Tabetando, Matsumoto, and Fani [2022], who use data from about 780 households collected between 2003 and 2015). Mobile services in agriculture have been mostly focused on providing information on markets, weather, and procurement (FAO 2020); this includes apps such as AgriFin Mobile Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 280 and Farm Kiosk that are making headway in connecting farmers with markets and extension services, as well as increasing financial and digital literacy.9 There is still much scope for connection with financial institutions, however. In general, greater linkages with formal bank accounts and other services can help augment the benefits of mobile money (Dupas et al. 2018; Wieser et al. 2019). 7.4.3 \u0007Interrelationship Between Financial Inclusion and Farm-Level Income and Productivity What evidence do we have to support the idea that enhanced access to credit and other services can raise farm-level productivity and food security in Africa? To answer this question, we need to figure out how agricultural finance affects farm productivity and food security. 9 See the website of Farm Kiosk (https://farmkioskafrica.com/) and MercyCorps’ AgriFin work related to Uganda (https://www.mercycorpsagrifin.org/country/uganda/). Figure 7.11:\u0003 \u0007Share of Individuals in Agriculture Who Have a Mobile Banking Account (Uganda Compared with the Rest of Sub-Saharan Africa, 2014) Q1 Q3 Rest of Sub-Saharan Africa Uganda Q5 Q2 Q4 8.1% 37.2% 9.9% 46.8% 20.3% 54.2% 26.8% 64.1% 34.1% 78.9% Note: Later years of the Global Findex survey (2017 and 2021) do",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Individuals in Agriculture Who Have a Mobile Banking Account (Uganda Compared with the Rest of Sub-Saharan Africa, 2014) Q1 Q3 Rest of Sub-Saharan Africa Uganda Q5 Q2 Q4 8.1% 37.2% 9.9% 46.8% 20.3% 54.2% 26.8% 64.1% 34.1% 78.9% Note: Later years of the Global Findex survey (2017 and 2021) do not have disaggregated questions on financial services that individuals in agriculture use. Source: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database (Demirguc-Kunt 2015). 281 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa A household’s resource allocation, either for farm or nonfarm production, depends on input and output prices, as well as on the production technology governing the production framework. Thus, given the objective of minimizing cost for a given level of output, the optimal level of inputs is determined by the input prices, including interest rates of credit used in production. In addition, given the cost curve of different production levels, a producer wants to maximize profits, which depends on the market prices of outputs; in such a case, output prices influence the level of production and input uses. Therefore, the use of inputs for optimal levels of production will depend on the budget available to support the production cost. If the budget necessary for optimal use of inputs is not enough for a producer’s available sources, the producer is essentially liquidityor budget-constrained in production. In such a situation, the producer can also be considered credit-constrained. In the case of a liquidity-constrained producer, the amount of borrowing or liquidity, in addition to the input and output prices and the production technology, influences farm and nonfarm production. In a rural setting, where households are both producers and consumers of agricultural products, production and consumption decisions are interdependent; hence, the liquidity constraints encountered in production also affect a household’s consumption decisions.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in addition to the input and output prices and the production technology, influences farm and nonfarm production. In a rural setting, where households are both producers and consumers of agricultural products, production and consumption decisions are interdependent; hence, the liquidity constraints encountered in production also affect a household’s consumption decisions. However, without data regarding the extent of rural households’ credit constraints, it may be difficult to test whether a rural household is liquidityor credit-constrained (e.g., Carter 1988; Feder et al. 1990). We assume, however, that some rural households, given their production technology, are liquidity-constrained in both production and consumption. In order to quantify the productive role of financial services like institutional credit, we examine more detailed household survey data that is available from the World Bank’s microdata bank. Khandker and Samad (2018) analyzed the Ethiopia Rural Socioeconomic Survey of 2011–2012.10 Results show that household borrowing from an institutional source (either an MFI or a cooperative) does not seem to have any significant effect on any component of farm income (self and wage). However, institutional borrowing increases nonfarm income by as much as 27.9%, own nonfarm (enterprise) income by 26.4%, and nonfarm wage and salaried income by 29.4%. 10 This is the most recent household survey data available for such an analysis of the impact of financial access on farm income and productivity. Note that this survey is a general rural household survey including both farmers and nonfarmers. Data analysis presented here is primarily drawn from Khandker and Samad (2018). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 282 Koolwal and Khandker (2018) also examined similar household survey data from Uganda to demonstrate how institutional credit affects household level of resilience. Resilience means the ability to cope with current and future shocks and stresses—natural hazards such as floods, droughts, earthquakes, and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 282 Koolwal and Khandker (2018) also examined similar household survey data from Uganda to demonstrate how institutional credit affects household level of resilience. Resilience means the ability to cope with current and future shocks and stresses—natural hazards such as floods, droughts, earthquakes, and food chain threats caused by disease and sudden illness/death, conflicts and protracted crises. Agricultural households face a range of different natural and environmental shocks, which affect output and productivity as well as consumption. While a growing body of literature examines the effects of different sources of finance on agricultural practices, few studies have examined the indirect role of borrowing on resilience, or the ability to cope with shocks, particularly in areas where agricultural lending is still emergent. Such indirect channels can include additional services, such as agricultural extension programs, that financial institutions in rural areas can provide. This study shows that the only observed effect of borrowing on coping with natural shocks comes from borrowing from semi-formal sources, which has a significant positive effect on whether a household changes its cropping practices or agricultural technology use. Borrowing from semi-formal sources such as MFIs or cooperatives includes additional assistance (such as extension services or education) other than credit that could help agricultural households better cope with shocks. Results also demonstrate that the effects of borrowing from semi‑formal sources such as MFIs are statistically significant and positive for coping with natural shocks that affect households’ livelihoods. Coping strategies that are significantly affected by semi-formal borrowing include changes to cropping practices/agricultural technology use; this underscores the importance of the additional support services (such as extension services) that are provided by some larger semi-formal microfinance institutions. A more recent survey available from the World Bank (2020b) on Uganda is used in this chapter to",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "by semi-formal borrowing include changes to cropping practices/agricultural technology use; this underscores the importance of the additional support services (such as extension services) that are provided by some larger semi-formal microfinance institutions. A more recent survey available from the World Bank (2020b) on Uganda is used in this chapter to characterize how financial institutions, mainly semiformal institutions such as cooperatives and MFIs, have penetrated the rural markets to support farmers’ borrowing needs and play an important role in raising farm income and productivity. The World Bank’s microdata bank has recently made the Uganda National Panel survey of 2019/2020 available, and it has farm‑level survey data of agricultural production as well as borrowing from various sources and its use in farming. A total of 3,078 households were covered in this survey of which 31.5% are urban households and 68.5% are rural households. 283 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa However, 43.1% of urban households draw income primarily from farming and, hence, are considered as farmers. On the other hand, some 90.8% of rural households primarily draw income from farming. As the distribution indicates, 75.7% of the total sample of 3,078 households can be considered as farmers. Table 7.10 explains the data in terms of borrowing from alternative sources by rural and urban households. We see that the overall rate of borrowing from institutional sources was about 30% in 2019/2020 with nearly 33% in urban Uganda followed by 30% in rural Uganda. In rural Uganda, 3.1% of households borrowed from commercial banks compared to 7.0% in urban areas. Some 1% of rural households borrowed from MFIs compared to some 27% from cooperatives. It is also worth noting that although mobile financial services are widely available, they are still not utilized for lending by the financial institutions, so",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "households borrowed from commercial banks compared to 7.0% in urban areas. Some 1% of rural households borrowed from MFIs compared to some 27% from cooperatives. It is also worth noting that although mobile financial services are widely available, they are still not utilized for lending by the financial institutions, so only 0.3% of households borrowed using mobile technology. The use of mobile financial accounts for receiving remittances was much more common; some 80.4% of urban farmers and 58.6% of rural farmers had used mobile money accounts for this purpose. Overall, 62.5% of farmers (who draw income primarily from farming) received remittances using mobile technology. Table 7.10:\u0003 Borrowing by Farmers (%) in Uganda from Household Survey Data Sources Urban Rural Overall Borrowed from any source 32.6 30.0 30.4 Borrowed from commercial banks 7.0 3.1 3.8 Borrowed from microfinance 1.6 0.7 0.8 Borrowed from cooperativesa 24.3 27.2 26.7 Borrowed using mobile money account 0.6 0.2 0.3 Remittances received through mobile money account 80.4 58.6 62.5 N 371 2,172 2,543 Note: Borrowing from formal and semi-formal sources during last 12 months are considered. a \u0007Cooperatives include savings clubs, rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs), welfare funds, savings and credit cooperatives (SACCOs), investment clubs, burial societies, accumulating savings and credit associations (ACSAs), and village savings and loan associations (VSLAs). Source: Uganda National Panel Survey, 2019/2020 (World Bank 2021). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 284 Table 7.11 provides a description of the purpose of borrowing; among 783 households who borrowed from any source, some 60% borrowed for consumption smoothing. Some 17% borrowed for purchasing nonfarm inputs, 15% borrowed for farm inputs, and 12% for land/house material purchases. This is similar for the households that borrowed from cooperatives (702 households, accounting for almost 90% of all borrowing households). Borrowing to support consumption is",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "source, some 60% borrowed for consumption smoothing. Some 17% borrowed for purchasing nonfarm inputs, 15% borrowed for farm inputs, and 12% for land/house material purchases. This is similar for the households that borrowed from cooperatives (702 households, accounting for almost 90% of all borrowing households). Borrowing to support consumption is also the most common purpose for households who borrowed from commercial banks and microfinance institutions. Table 7.11:\u0003 \u0007Purpose of Borrowing by Farmers (%) in Uganda from Household Survey Data Sources Land/House or Building Material Purchase Livestock Purchase Farm Input or Equipment Purchase Nonfarm Inputs or Capital Purchase Consumption Expenditure N Any source 12.0 1.7 15.0 16.9 60.3 783 Commercial banks 33.2 2.9 16.6 15.7 39.1 74 Microfinance 13.9 0 9.0 29.3 51.6 25 Cooperatives 10.5 1.8 15.0 16.5 62.4 702 Notes: Borrowing from formal and semi-formal sources during last 12 months are considered. Borrowing using mobile money accounts is not reported because of too few observations. Source: Uganda National Panel Survey, 2019/2020. Given the facts that more than 80% of Ugandan households draw income from farming, that a large percentage borrow for consumption purposes, and that a lower percentage borrow for productive purposes, it is important then to determine the role of institutional finance (commercial/MFI/cooperatives/ mobile) on farm income and its various sources. Since this is cross-sectional survey data (the first year of a new panel survey initiated in 2019/2020), we have to deal with endogeneity of borrowing since both borrowing and income (from any source) are jointly determined by the same observed and unobserved factors. If we had an opportunity to have some instruments that affect only borrowing but not income, we could have used a quasi-experimental method such as the instrumental variable (IV) method to estimate the impact of borrowing on income. Unfortunately, we do not have such",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the same observed and unobserved factors. If we had an opportunity to have some instruments that affect only borrowing but not income, we could have used a quasi-experimental method such as the instrumental variable (IV) method to estimate the impact of borrowing on income. Unfortunately, we do not have such instruments available from the survey. 285 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa We have community-level information from the community surveys; however, that cannot be combined with the household survey so that we could use some of the community-level services such as distance to the nearest bank or MFI as instruments in the borrowing equation to predict the level of borrowing to be included in the income equation in the second stage. Unfortunately, the household survey cannot be tied with the community survey as there is no community identifier in the household section. The most we can do is to use a sub-county-level fixed effect (FE) method as an alternative estimation to the simple ordinary least squares (OLS) regression of income equations. Table 7.12 shows two sets of regression results with two models: the first set is the simple OLS regressing income against borrowing (whether borrowing—1 for yes, 0 for no) and the second set is the county-level fixed effect method. Simple OLS does not control for any endogeneity associated with borrowing, while sub-county level fixed effect controls for at least some type of endogeneity even if it is not an ideal way of controlling for the endogeneity of borrowing or receiving remittances. So, we prefer the FE method over the OLS method. Also, we have two models— one model regresses income on whether households borrow from any source, and the second model regresses income on various sources of borrowing. In both models, remittances received is",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the endogeneity of borrowing or receiving remittances. So, we prefer the FE method over the OLS method. Also, we have two models— one model regresses income on whether households borrow from any source, and the second model regresses income on various sources of borrowing. In both models, remittances received is an additional regressor. Note that a host of household-level variables such as age, gender, and education of household head; landholding; and similar exogenous variables (in the short run) are used as additional control regressors. According to the FE results for model 1, we find that borrowing from any source can increase crop income by 43%, poultry income by 20%, and total farm income by 51%. When borrowing is disaggregated by alternative sources (model 2), we find that borrowing from a commercial bank reduces livestock income without any significant impact on any other category of income.11 Similarly, borrowing from microfinance does not have any significant impact on any source of income, although there seems to be a positive correlation between micro‑borrowing and total farm income and crop income. 11 The negative association between commercial bank borrowing and livestock income may suggest that sub-county-level FE has not been able to address the endogeneity of borrowing from commercial bank sources. Note also that only 2.9% of borrowers among those who borrowed from commercial banks actually used the funds for livestock investment. Hence, it is perhaps a spurious correlation. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 286 Table 7.12:\u0003 \u0007Impacts of Borrowing by Farmers on Farm Income in Uganda (N = 2,543) Log Crop Income Log Livestock Income OLS estimates Sources Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Household borrowed from any source 0.724** (3.49) – 0.212 (1.55) – Household borrowed from commercial banks – 0.147 (0.25) – −0.511** (−4.11) Household borrowed",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Farmers on Farm Income in Uganda (N = 2,543) Log Crop Income Log Livestock Income OLS estimates Sources Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Household borrowed from any source 0.724** (3.49) – 0.212 (1.55) – Household borrowed from commercial banks – 0.147 (0.25) – −0.511** (−4.11) Household borrowed from microfinance – −0.072 (−0.19) – −0.341** (−3.01) Household borrowed from cooperatives – 0.816** (3.70) – 0.309** (2.08) Household receives money through mobile money account 0.112 (0.66) 0.118 (0.70) 0.070 (0.54) 0.086 (0.67) F-statistics F(18, 2524) = 5.35 F(20, 2522) = 5.03 F(18, 2524) = 4.43 F(20, 2522) = 3.28 P>F 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Sub-county level FE Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Household borrowed from any source 0.427** (2.12) – 0.149 (1.06) – Household borrowed from commercial banks – −0.139 (−0.28) – −0.414** (−2.16) Household borrowed from microfinance – 0.445 (0.94) – −0.164 (−1.00) Household borrowed from cooperatives – 0.445* (1.99) – 0.215 (1.38) Household receives money through mobile money account 0.106 (0.56) 0.124 (0.67) 0.211 (1.31) 0.227 (1.42) F-statistics F(18, 471) = 4.21 F(20, 471) = 4.53 F(18, 471) = 2.12 F(20, 471) = 2.03 P>F 0.000 0.000 0.005 0.006 continued on next page 287 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Table 7.12:\u0003 Continued Sources Log Poultry Income Log Total Farm Income OLS estimates Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Household borrowed from any source 0.164** (2.08) − 0.805** (3.65) − Household borrowed from commercial banks − 0.021 (0.10) − 0.074 (0.12) Household borrowed from microfinance − −0.133 (−1.33) − −0.147 (−0.38) Household borrowed from cooperatives − 0.164** (2.05) − 0.915** (3.86) Household receives money through mobile money account 0.070 (0.98) 0.075 (1.04) 0.048 (0.16) 0.057 (0.31) F-statistics F(18, 2524) = 2.80 F(20, 2522) = 2.55 F(18, 2524)",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "(0.10) − 0.074 (0.12) Household borrowed from microfinance − −0.133 (−1.33) − −0.147 (−0.38) Household borrowed from cooperatives − 0.164** (2.05) − 0.915** (3.86) Household receives money through mobile money account 0.070 (0.98) 0.075 (1.04) 0.048 (0.16) 0.057 (0.31) F-statistics F(18, 2524) = 2.80 F(20, 2522) = 2.55 F(18, 2524) = 6.05 F(20, 2522) = 5.84 P>F 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Sub-county level FE Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Household borrowed from any source 0.197* (1.67) − 0.513** (2.30) − Household borrowed from commercial banks − 0.130 (0.44) − −0.181 (−0.36) Household borrowed from microfinance − −0.004 (−0.05) − 0.410 (0.87) Household borrowed from cooperatives − 0.195* (1.66) − 0.547** (2.23) Household receives money through mobile money account 0.058 (0.67) 0.067 (0.77) 0.093 (0.45) 0.118 (0.56) F-statistics F(18, 471) = 1.84 F(20, 471) = 1.63 F(18, 471) = 4.53 F(20, 471) = 4.53 P>F 0.021 0.043 0.000 0.000 FE = fixed effect, OLS = ordinary least squares. * and ** refer to statistical significance of 10% and 5% (or better), respectively. Notes: Borrowing from formal and semi-formal sources during last 12 months are considered. Borrowing from mobile money accounts is not reported because of too few observations. Regression controls for household characteristics such as age and sex of head, household agricultural landholding, housing construction and sanitation variables, agriculture inputs, and exogenous shocks that the household faced in last 12 months. Source: Uganda National Panel Survey 2019/2020 (World Bank 2021). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 288 In contrast, while borrowing from cooperatives is highest among farmers (some 90% of households borrowed actually borrowed from cooperatives), we find a significant effect of borrowing from cooperatives on crop income, income from poultry, and hence, total farm income. Cooperative borrowing increases crop income by 44.5%, poultry income by",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "288 In contrast, while borrowing from cooperatives is highest among farmers (some 90% of households borrowed actually borrowed from cooperatives), we find a significant effect of borrowing from cooperatives on crop income, income from poultry, and hence, total farm income. Cooperative borrowing increases crop income by 44.5%, poultry income by 19.5%, and total farm income by as much as 55.0%. Households receive remittances from relatives via mobile financial services. Over 60% of the surveyed households received remittances, for which we expect some impact on the household’s earned income. Often, remittances go to support consumption, but they may be used for productive investment too. Findings from fixed-effects estimates show that remittances seem to enhance all sources of income including total farm income, but the coefficients are statistically insignificant. 7.5 Conclusion Agricultural finance policies in low-income countries often face two fundamental constraints: (i) lack of adequate access to a network of financial institutions and (ii) unavailability of adequate liquidity at the financial institutions in rural areas. In other words, bottlenecks exist in the financial service delivery system, such as limited access to tailored credit to meet farmers’ needs (both short-term and long-term) and insufficient incentives for savings mobilization and credit delivery through the existing financial network. Low financial literacy among borrowers has also been identified as a barrier to better access to financial services in rural areas (World Bank 2014b). This chapter explored alternative veins through which formal and semi-formal financial services—particularly cooperatives and microcredit—in sub-Saharan African countries could help farmers. Many countries lack institutional access to finance because of low coverage of financial institutions resulting from a sparsely distributed population as well as lack of funds to support financial inclusion in rural areas. But a greater range of investments, in addition to financing, is necessary to improve agricultural productivity and to",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "countries lack institutional access to finance because of low coverage of financial institutions resulting from a sparsely distributed population as well as lack of funds to support financial inclusion in rural areas. But a greater range of investments, in addition to financing, is necessary to improve agricultural productivity and to allow farmers to earn cash more sustainably. Farmers are mostly smallholders and get low levels of investment in terms of agricultural inputs such as fertilizer, as well as technology. 289 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Drawing on examples of two major economies in SSA, we find that because of higher penetration of mobile technology in Uganda than in Ethiopia, we see a higher rate of financial inclusion in Uganda, but we do not necessarily see a higher level of access to institutional finance for enhancing farm productivity. Nonetheless, we have explored how the digitalization of financial services in recent years, especially in Uganda, has helped target agricultural households with improved access to financial services such as savings and having a financial account. Smallholder agriculture in both countries is primarily rain-fed and therefore easily affected by adverse weather; weather shocks can cause substantial losses to farmers. Poor farmers can therefore be averse to borrowing, for example, due to fear of not being able to repay those loans. In this chapter, we have examined the relevance of a financial inclusion strategy for smallholders in agriculture. Household survey data show that rural households have low access to institutional finance (i.e., banks, MFIs, and cooperatives). Econometric analysis suggests that improved access would mean higher access to institutional finance at the household level, which in turn would lead to higher farm income and productivity. The findings, therefore, support the relevance of a financial inclusion policy. However, expanding rural branches",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "institutional finance (i.e., banks, MFIs, and cooperatives). Econometric analysis suggests that improved access would mean higher access to institutional finance at the household level, which in turn would lead to higher farm income and productivity. The findings, therefore, support the relevance of a financial inclusion policy. However, expanding rural branches of commercial banks may not help the cause. In fact, improved access to cooperatives matters more than improved access to commercial banks or even MFIs when it comes to enhancing farm productivity via improving financial access. Agricultural finance policies must establish an appropriate delivery mechanism that generates greater rural inclusion, productivity, and welfare for smallholders. REFERENCES Ali, D. A., and K. Deininger. 2012. Causes and Implications of Credit Rationing in Rural Ethiopia: The Importance of Spatial Variation. Policy Research Working Paper No. 6096. Washington, DC: World Bank. Ali, D. A., K. Deininger, and M. Duponchel. 2014. Credit Constraints and Agricultural Productivity: Evidence from Rural Rwanda. Journal of Development Studies 50(5): 649–665. Amha, W. 2007. A Decade of Development of MFIs in Ethiopia: Growth, Performance, Impact and Prospects after Ten Years (2007–2016) (mimeo). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 290 Association of Microfinance Institutions of Uganda (AMFIU). 2015. The State of Microfinance in Uganda: 2014/15. Bandiera, O., N. Buehren, R. Burgess, M. Goldstein, S. Gulesci, I. Rasul, and M. Sulaiman. 2020. Women’s Empowerment in Action: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial in Africa. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 12(1): 210–259. Bank of Uganda. 2013. Remarks by Dr. Louis Kasekende, Deputy Governor of the Bank of Uganda, at the official launch of the Uganda Rural Challenge Fund, Kampala, 19 April 2013. Beaman, L., D. Karlan, B. Thuysbaert, and C. Udry. 2014. Selection into Credit Markets: Evidence from Agriculture in Mali. Working Paper 20387, NBER Working Paper Series, Cambridge, MA. Biscaye,",
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    "text": "Deputy Governor of the Bank of Uganda, at the official launch of the Uganda Rural Challenge Fund, Kampala, 19 April 2013. Beaman, L., D. Karlan, B. Thuysbaert, and C. Udry. 2014. Selection into Credit Markets: Evidence from Agriculture in Mali. Working Paper 20387, NBER Working Paper Series, Cambridge, MA. Biscaye, P., C. Clark, K. P. Harris, C. L. Anderson, and M. K. Gugerty. 2015. Review of Rural and Agricultural Finance in Sub-Saharan Africa. EPAR Brief No. 307. Evans School of Public Policy and Governance, University of Washington. Carter, M. R. 1988. Equilibrium Credit Rationing of Small Farm Agriculture. Journal of Development Economics 28(1): 83–103. Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia. n.d. Ethiopia Socioeconomic Survey (ESS4) 2018–2019. Public Use Dataset. Civil Society Budget Advocacy Group (CSBAG). 2014. Effectiveness of the Agriculture Credit Facility: Why Poor Farmers Cannot Access Credit in Uganda. Audit Report, Issue No. 3. July. Kampala, Uganda. Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP). 2020. Uganda: Policy, Regulatory, and Supervisory Covid-19 Responses for Microfinance. CGAP Background Document, June 2020. Demirguc-Kunt, A., L. Klapper, D. Singer, and P. Van Oudheusden. 2015. The Global Findex Database 2014: Measuring Financial Inclusion Around the World. Policy Research Working Paper No. 7255. Washington, DC: World Bank. Demirguc-Kunt, A., L. Klapper, D. Singer, S. Ansar, and J. Hess. 2018. Global Findex Database 2017: Measuring Financial Inclusion and the Fintech Revolution. Washington, DC: World Bank. 291 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa Demirguc-Kunt, A., L. Klapper, D. Singer, and S. Ansar. 2022. The Global Findex Database 2021: Financial Inclusion, Digital Payments, and Resilience in the Age of COVID-19. Washington, DC: World Bank. Dupas, P., D. Karlan, J. Robinson, and D. Ubfal. 2018. Banking the Unbanked? Evidence from Three Countries. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 10(2): 257–297. Economic Policy Research Centre. 2021. Agricultural",
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    "text": "Bank of Ethiopia. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 292 Okeleke, K. 2019. Uganda: Driving Inclusive Socio-Economic Progress through Mobile-Enabled Digital Transformation. GSMA. Quartey, P., C. Udry, S. Al-Hassan, and H. Seshie. 2012. Agricultural Financing and Credit Constraints: The Role of Middlemen in Marketing and Credit Outcomes in Ghana. Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research, University of Ghana, Accra. Suruma, E. S. 2014. Advancing the Ugandan Economy: A Personal Account. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Tabetando, R., T. Matsumoto, and D. C. R. Fani. 2022. Mobile Money, Agricultural Intensification, and Household Welfare: Panel Evidence from Rural Uganda. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 54: 515–530. Wiedmaier-Pfister, M., D. Gesesse, W. Amha, R. Mommartz, E. Duflos, and W. Steel. 2008. Access to Finance in Ethiopia: Sector Assessment Study. Volume 2. Eschborn, Germany: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). Wieser, C., M. Bruhn, J. Kinzinger, C. Ruckteschler, and S. Heitmann. 2019. The Impact of Mobile Money on Poor Rural Households Experimental Evidence from Uganda. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 8913. Washington, DC: World Bank. World Bank. 2007. Ethiopia Accelerating Equitable Growth: Country Economic Memorandum, Part II, Thematic Chapters, Report No. 38662-E. Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit, Africa Region, Washington, DC. ———. 2011. Weather Index Insurance for Agriculture: Guidance for Development Practitioners. Agricultural and Rural Development Discussion Paper 50. Washington, DC. ———. 2014a. Rural Socioeconomic Survey 2011–2012. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/2053. ———. 2014b. Ethiopia’s Great Run: The Growth Acceleration and How to Pace It. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. ———. 2020a. MIX Market DataBank. Washington, DC. https://databank.world bank.org/source/mix-market. 293 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa ———. 2020b. National Panel Survey 2010–2011. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/2166. ———. 2021. National Panel Survey 2019–2020. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/3902. ———. Various years-a. Agriculture, Forestry,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Bank Group. ———. 2020a. MIX Market DataBank. Washington, DC. https://databank.world bank.org/source/mix-market. 293 How Mobile Technology Can Support Agricultural Finance: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa ———. 2020b. National Panel Survey 2010–2011. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/2166. ———. 2021. National Panel Survey 2019–2020. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/3902. ———. Various years-a. Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing, Value Added (% of GDP). Washington, DC: World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/ indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS (accessed 23 March 2024). ———. Various years-b. Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing, Value Added (Annual % Growth). Washington, DC: World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/ indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.KD.ZG (accessed 23 March 2024). ———. Various years-c. GDP Growth (Annual %). Washington, DC: World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG (accessed 23 March 2024). 294 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Jonathan Haughton CHAPTER 8 8.1 Introduction Latin America, with 650 million people, is sometimes referred to as the “breadbasket of the world.” In 2021, it exported $271 billion worth of food, compared to just $115 billion of food imports. While the region has long been a net exporter of food, as Figure 8.1 shows, its contribution has increased dramatically over the past two decades, evidence of a dynamic and increasingly export-oriented agricultural sector. Figure 8.1:\u0003 \u0007Food Exports and Imports, Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990–2021 Food exports Food imports 0 100 200 300 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Billions of $ in 2015 prices Source: World Bank World Development Indicators database. 295 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries At the same time, the great majority of farmers in Latin America operate on a very small scale. For instance, in Brazil, there are 5.2 million farms; the 0.9 million commercial farms occupy 76% of the land, while the remaining 4.3 million family farms manage the remainder. The World Bank (2020) states that almost half of the agricultural",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "farmers in Latin America operate on a very small scale. For instance, in Brazil, there are 5.2 million farms; the 0.9 million commercial farms occupy 76% of the land, while the remaining 4.3 million family farms manage the remainder. The World Bank (2020) states that almost half of the agricultural land in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) is controlled by large-scale commercial farms. They cite one study that suggests that there are about 15 million family farms in the region, with 10 million families living on an average of 10 hectares, and 1 million with farms that average 100 hectares each. Women control between 8% and 30% of agricultural land, with the proportion varying by country (World Bank 2020: 80). Many small-scale farmers lack security of land tenure: only half of the land parcels in Brazil are registered, and only 5% are registered in Guatemala. Agriculture in the region has an enduring dualism, and this presents a challenge for agricultural finance: on the one hand, financing needs to flow to the dynamic and increasingly large-scale segments, and on the other hand, there are large numbers of farmers who may not have sufficient access to financial services, and who may benefit from greater financial inclusion as a way out of poverty. Put another way, there may be a tension between the efficiency and distributive roles of agricultural finance. Our main focus here is on agricultural finance for smaller farms, but as Zeller and Sharma (1998) note, providing credit to small farmers can be challenging. Lenders face high screening costs, and then they have the high expense of monitoring and enforcing loans that are often unsecured. Borrowers have to devote time and provide extensive documentation in order to borrow, and even then the loans available may not fit their needs well,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "farmers can be challenging. Lenders face high screening costs, and then they have the high expense of monitoring and enforcing loans that are often unsecured. Borrowers have to devote time and provide extensive documentation in order to borrow, and even then the loans available may not fit their needs well, typically being too short to cover long-term investments. Zeller and Sharma conclude that there is a role for governments to play in encouraging innovation (such as Brazil’s Pix mobile payments platform) or redesigning funding arrangements to favor poorer borrowers (as proposed for Brazil’s program of finance for family farms, PRONAF). One purpose of this chapter is to identify some of the innovations, and cautionary tales, in Latin America that might have relevance in Asia and elsewhere. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 296 We begin by painting a portrait of agricultural development in Latin America, followed by a discussion of financial inclusion of farmers. In these sections, we draw on information for a sample of countries in order to keep the treatment manageable. We then consider some interesting case studies in agricultural finance and finish with a more extended treatment of credit participation and rationing in Mexico. 8.2 Portrait of Agriculture For Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) as a whole, agricultural value added is about 8% of gross domestic product (GDP) and has been relatively stable over the past three decades, as Figure 8.2 shows. The share of the labor force employed in agriculture has been steadily falling and is now at 14%. This reflects both the low and rising labor productivity of the sector, relative to the rest of the economy. Similar trends are seen in low and middle-income economies, also shown in Figure 8.2. Figure 8.2:\u0003 \u0007Share of Agriculture in Employment and Gross Domestic Product",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "falling and is now at 14%. This reflects both the low and rising labor productivity of the sector, relative to the rest of the economy. Similar trends are seen in low and middle-income economies, also shown in Figure 8.2. Figure 8.2:\u0003 \u0007Share of Agriculture in Employment and Gross Domestic Product in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1991–2021 0 % LAC employ LAC VA LMI employ LMI VA 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 10 20 30 40 50 60 LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean, LMI = low and middle-income, VA = value added. 297 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries To examine these trends further, in Figure 8.3, we graph the ratio of the national shares of agricultural employment to agricultural value added. The top panel provides information on four regions: LAC, sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and East Asia. It is striking that only in Latin America has the ratio fallen sharply since 2000, suggestive of an agricultural sector that is changing relatively rapidly. Figure 8.3:\u0003 \u0007Share of Agriculture in Employment Divided by Share of Agriculture in Gross Domestic Product, by Region (Top Panel) and for Selected Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean SSA South Asia LAC East Asia 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 Brazil Colombia Ecuador Guatemala Mexico Peru 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean, SSA = sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 298 The bottom panel shows this ratio for six LAC countries and shows how the experiences of individual countries in Latin America can diverge: since about 2000, there were major gains in agricultural labor productivity in Peru, Mexico,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "SSA = sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 298 The bottom panel shows this ratio for six LAC countries and shows how the experiences of individual countries in Latin America can diverge: since about 2000, there were major gains in agricultural labor productivity in Peru, Mexico, and Brazil, and a recent improvement in Colombia, but little change in Ecuador and Guatemala. The evolution of agricultural value added over the past two decades is summarized in Table 8.1 for Latin America overall and for seven important or representative countries. Overall, agricultural value added rose by 2.6% per year between 2000 and 2021, cereal output increased by 3.7% annually, and food exports grew by 4.5% per year. These are impressive growth rates, especially given that population growth averaged just 1.2% annually over the same period. Table 8.1:\u0003 \u0007Agricultural Outcomes, Latin America and Selected Countries, 2000–2021 Agricultural Value Added ($ billion in 2015 prices) Cereal Production (Millions of tons) Food Exports ($ billion in 2015 prices) 2000 2021 Growth 2000 2021 Growth 2000 2021 Growth Mexico 28.3 41.8 1.9 27.7 36.4 1.3 10.2 39.6 6.7 Peru 8.2 16.0 3.2 3.5 5.4 2.1 4.2 10.7 4.6 Brazil 43.8 88.8 3.4 47.1 125.6 4.8 27.3 92.7 6.0 Colombia 11.7 20.6 2.7 3.5 4.9 1.6 5.2 7.8 2.0 Ecuador 5.2 10.4 3.4 1.9 2.7 1.8 5.4 11.1 3.4 Guatemala 3.9 6.9 2.8 1.1 2.0 2.6 4.7 6.1 1.3 Nicaragua 1.3 2.5 3.0 0.7 0.9 1.4 1.4 2.9 3.5 LAC 186.7 321.0 2.6 134.3 289.5 3.7 119.3 300.7 4.5 LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. Notes: “2000” is the average of 1999 and 2000; “2021” is the average of 2020 and 2021. Growth rate is annualized percentage growth from 1999/2000 to 2020/2021. Source: World Bank Development Indicators DataBank. By any of these",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "134.3 289.5 3.7 119.3 300.7 4.5 LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. Notes: “2000” is the average of 1999 and 2000; “2021” is the average of 2020 and 2021. Growth rate is annualized percentage growth from 1999/2000 to 2020/2021. Source: World Bank Development Indicators DataBank. By any of these measures, Brazil was the star performer during these two decades, but all but one of the countries listed saw annual increases in agricultural GDP of at least 2.5%, so the growth was widely shared geographically. 299 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries In order to explain this strong agricultural performance, Table 8.2 sorts the countries from richest to poorest, as measured by gross national income per capita (in purchasing power parity terms). It is also worth noting that Mexico and Brazil together account for half the population, and over half the GDP, of Latin America. Most of the countries listed are middle-income, and all have levels of inequality that, as measured by the Gini coefficient of income per capita, are high by world standards. One contributor to this is the unequal distribution of land, where the Gini is 0.79 for LAC, compared to 0.56 in sub-Saharan Africa and 0.55 in Asia (World Bank 2020). Just 1% of farms control over half of all the agricultural land, so industrial-scale farming coexists with large numbers of near-subsistence small farms. Table 8.2:\u0003 Background Information on Income, Agriculture, and Trade Population in 2020/2021 (million) Growth, 1999/2000 to 2020/2021 (% p.a.) GNI/capita, PPP ($ 2017) Gini Share of Agriculture in 2020 Trade Bias Index, 2010 Relative Rate of Assistance, 2010 Gross Subsidy to Farmers, 2010 In GDP (%) In credit Mexico 126.4 1.3 18,154 45.4 3.85 2.08 –0.020 0.065 3.02 Brazil 213.8 1.0 13,960 48.9 5.63 0.83 –0.032 –0.154 1.02",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "p.a.) GNI/capita, PPP ($ 2017) Gini Share of Agriculture in 2020 Trade Bias Index, 2010 Relative Rate of Assistance, 2010 Gross Subsidy to Farmers, 2010 In GDP (%) In credit Mexico 126.4 1.3 18,154 45.4 3.85 2.08 –0.020 0.065 3.02 Brazil 213.8 1.0 13,960 48.9 5.63 0.83 –0.032 –0.154 1.02 Colombia 51.2 1.4 13,836 54.2 –0.005 0.253 3.65 Peru 33.5 1.2 11,237 43.8 6.80a 5.42a Ecuador 17.7 1.7 10,277 47.3 9.80 7.35 –0.389 –0.256 –1.40 Guatemala 17.0 2.0 8,483 10.24 4.53 Nicaragua 6.8 1.5 5,057 15.77 14.41 –0.388 –0.173 –0.16 LAC 652.8 1.2 14,845 GDP = gross domestic product, GNI = gross national income, LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean, p.a. = per annum, PPP = purchasing power parity. Notes: Relative rate of assistance being negative indicates a bias against agriculture. Trade‑bias being negative indicates an anti-trade bias. a for 2014. Sources: World Bank Development Indicators Databank (first four columns); FAO (2022) (center columns); Anderson and Nelgen (2013) for last three columns. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 300 8.2.1 Trade From the early 1950s, most countries in Latin America pursued a policy of import substitution, which put tariffs on imports and so penalized trade. For Mexico, Brazil, and Colombia, these barriers have largely gone, and this is reflected in a trade bias index close to zero—see Table 8.2—although Ecuador and Nicaragua have not yet reached this point.1 The fading of protectionism has provided an opportunity for agricultural exports—a sector where Latin America has comparative advantage—to flourish. This growth of agricultural exports has been surprising to some. After the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) came into effect in 1994, some analysts predicted that Mexico’s large maize-producing sector would decline in the face of imports from the United States. This has not happened, however, and Mexico’s cereal",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "This growth of agricultural exports has been surprising to some. After the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) came into effect in 1994, some analysts predicted that Mexico’s large maize-producing sector would decline in the face of imports from the United States. This has not happened, however, and Mexico’s cereal production has continued to rise, uninterrupted by NAFTA. In fact, Eakin et al. (2014) find “evidence of greater persistence and adaptability in Mexican maize farming than is often presented” (p. 133). A more important effect of NAFTA has been the rapid rise in agricultural trade between the United States and Mexico. Four-fifths of Mexico’s agricultural exports go to the United States, and the value of these exports has increased from $3 billion in 1994 to $43 billion in 2022 (USDA Economic Research Service 2024). In 2016, Mexico exported $24 billion worth of agricultural products to the United States, while comparable imports came to $19 billion. This vigorous trade reflects the increasing specialization of Mexican agriculture. Since 1989, there have been rapid increases in the production of high-value fruit (avocados, pineapples, mangoes, tomatoes) and sugar cane, as well as chickens, mainly geared to the United States market. A similar dynamic may be seen in Peru’s agricultural exports to the United States, which expanded rapidly after the signing of the United States–Peru Free Trade Agreement in 2009, in products such as grapes, mangos, blueberries, and asparagus. 1 The trade bias index is defined as ([1 + NRAx]/[1 + NRAm] – 1), where NRA is the nominal rate of assistance (tariffs, subsidies, etc.) and refers to exports (x) and imports (m). See Anderson and Nelgen (2013). 301 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Some countries, most notably Mexico and Colombia, are relatively supportive of agriculture, while Brazil, Nicaragua,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "NRA is the nominal rate of assistance (tariffs, subsidies, etc.) and refers to exports (x) and imports (m). See Anderson and Nelgen (2013). 301 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Some countries, most notably Mexico and Colombia, are relatively supportive of agriculture, while Brazil, Nicaragua, and Ecuador have a bias against agriculture, as measured by the relative rate of assistance shown in Table 8.2.2 Only in Ecuador is this bias strong enough to amount to a net tax on agriculture, as the final column shows. With the exception of Argentina, most Latin American countries are somewhat supportive of agriculture or at least do not try too hard to extract a surplus from the sector, and this has left the sector free to grow. The case of Mexico is typical, and the country’s changing agricultural production patterns reflect adaptation to the evolution of government policy. The level of protection accorded to agriculture—through tariffs and trade restrictions—was lower than the protection given to nonagricultural trade in the 1980s; the relative rate of assistance to agriculture was negative during this period, according to Anderson and Nelgen (2013), and trade was biased strongly against agriculture. Trade policy swung heavily in favor of agriculture in the early 1990s, but became far less distortionary around 2010, with a trade bias index of essentially zero. The implicit subsidy to farmers due to trade restrictions remains substantial, at about $3 billion or the equivalent of almost $1,000 per farm. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) publishes estimates of the share of formal credit that goes to agriculture (including agricultural processing and supply), and some recent information is shown in Table 8.2 (see too FAO [2022]). In all countries listed, agriculture gets a smaller share of credit than its share",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Organization of the United Nations (FAO) publishes estimates of the share of formal credit that goes to agriculture (including agricultural processing and supply), and some recent information is shown in Table 8.2 (see too FAO [2022]). In all countries listed, agriculture gets a smaller share of credit than its share of GDP. The shortfall in agricultural credit is substantial in Mexico and Guatemala, where agricultural output is growing relatively slowly (and also in Brazil, where the credit figure reported by the FAO is implausibly low). 2 The relative rate of assistance is defined as ([1 + NRAag]/[1 + NRAnonag] – 1), where NRA is the nominal rate of assistance (tariffs, subsidies, etc.) and refer to agriculture (ag) and nonagriculture (nonag). See Anderson and Nelgen (2013). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 302 8.2.2 Farmers As noted above, throughout Latin America, a relatively small number of large commercial farms coexist with a large number of smallholdings. For instance, of Mexico’s 3.3 million farms, only a fifth have some irrigated land. Over two-thirds of all farms are smaller than 5 five hectares and mainly produce for their own consumption (“subsistence” farmers). Just 6% of dryland farms cultivate more than 20 hectares, the cutoff at which they may be considered to be commercial farms. By this definition, Mexico has only about 350,000 commercial farms and close to 3 million farms whose landholdings are too small to provide a good living. It is in this context that Javier Usabiaga, Mexico’s Secretary of Agriculture in 2001, said: \u0007A small farmer, no matter how productive, is not going to be able to make enough money to survive. That farmer is going to have to start transforming his crops to milk, meat or anything else. In essence, he is going to have to find another",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Agriculture in 2001, said: \u0007A small farmer, no matter how productive, is not going to be able to make enough money to survive. That farmer is going to have to start transforming his crops to milk, meat or anything else. In essence, he is going to have to find another job. He is going to have to become a part‑time farmer. (Thompson 2001) Indeed, most Mexican farmers engage in agriculture only part-time. Of the 70,311 households surveyed as part of the National Survey of Financial Inclusion (Encuesta Nacional de Inclusión Financiera, or ENIF) in 2014, 11.4% reported working in agriculture in some capacity, but only 1.08% of households earned more than half of their income from agriculture, and just 1.11% earned at least 20,000 pesos (about $1,000) annually from agriculture. Only 62% of farmers who grow crops sell any of their production. 8.3 Are Farmers Banked? We now turn to the question of whether farmers in Latin America have access to credit. One way to answer this is to examine the data collected by the Gallup Organization for the World Bank’s Global Financial Inclusion (Global Findex) database project (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015). In what follows we mainly report the findings of the 2021 round of the Findex. 303 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries The survey does not identify farmers per se, but it does ask whether the respondent received agricultural payments in the last 12 months, and we treat these respondents as “farmers.” The starting point is to estimate the proportion of farmers who have an account with a financial institution—typically a bank—for all the LAC countries for which we have information for 2021. These are shown in the top panel of Figure 8.4, which also shows the proportion of farmers who borrowed from",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "starting point is to estimate the proportion of farmers who have an account with a financial institution—typically a bank—for all the LAC countries for which we have information for 2021. These are shown in the top panel of Figure 8.4, which also shows the proportion of farmers who borrowed from a financial institution or saved in a financial institution. Almost two-thirds of farmers in Latin America have an account with a financial institution, with the proportions varying from about 30% in Paraguay to nearly 90% in Brazil. Figure 8.4:\u0003 \u0007Percentage of Farmers Who Have a Bank Account (Top Panel) or Any Financial Account (Bottom Panel) for Selected Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean 0 20 Paraguay Nicaragua El Salvador Honduras Colombia LAC Dominican Rep. Panama Bolivia Costa Rica Jamaica Peru Argentina Brazil Uruguay Chile Ecuador 40 60 80 100 Account in financial institution Borrowed from financial institution Saved in financial institution 0 20 Paraguay Nicaragua El Salvador Honduras Colombia LAC Dominican Rep. Panama Bolivia Costa Rica Jamaica Peru Argentina Brazil Uruguay Chile Ecuador 40 60 80 100 Account (financial institution or mobile) Borrowed in past year Saved in past year LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean. Source: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion Database 2021 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 304 While a majority of farmers have bank accounts, it is rare that more than a quarter of farmers borrow from, or save in, a financial institution. However, there are other places to turn for finance: in Paraguay, for instance, more people have mobile money accounts than accounts at a financial institution, and technological change is reducing the need to bank with a formal institution. It is also clear, by comparing the panels in Figure 8.4, that most borrowing is not from",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to turn for finance: in Paraguay, for instance, more people have mobile money accounts than accounts at a financial institution, and technological change is reducing the need to bank with a formal institution. It is also clear, by comparing the panels in Figure 8.4, that most borrowing is not from formal financial institutions, as farmers turn to informal sources such as friends and family, or semiformal sources including microfinance institutions (MFIs) and cooperatives. On average, just over half of farmers in Latin America (based on the data in Figure 8.4) have an outstanding loan. What is more difficult to determine is whether there is an unmet demand for credit, and we address this issue more fully below. The proportion of farmers who have an account somewhere—not necessarily just with a financial institution—is in line with experience elsewhere. In Figure 8.5, we graph this proportion against GNI per capita (in purchasing power parity terms in 2017 international United States dollars) based on the Findex data for 2021. Figure 8.5:\u0003 Proportion of Farmers With a Bank Account, 2021 1.0 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 Proportion of farmers with a bank account 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 GNI/capita in 2017 international $, PPP PAN CRI DOM ECU BRA ARG COL PRY BOL JAM PER SLV HND NIC ARG = Argentina, BOL = Bolivia, BRA = Brazil, COL = Colombia, CRI = Costa Rica, DOM = Dominican Republic, ECU = Ecuador, GNI = gross national income, HND = Honduras, JAM = Jamaica, NIC = Nicaragua, PAN = Panama, PER = Peru, PPP = purchasing power parity, PRY = Paraguay, SLV = El Salvador. Source: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion Database 2021 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). 305 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Each dot represents a country, and the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Nicaragua, PAN = Panama, PER = Peru, PPP = purchasing power parity, PRY = Paraguay, SLV = El Salvador. Source: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion Database 2021 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). 305 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Each dot represents a country, and the curve is a logistic curve fitted to the data. Almost equal numbers of LAC countries fall below and above the line, but there are some outliers, with an unexpectedly low proportion of farmers having accounts in Panama, which has a sophisticated banking system. There are other patterns in the Findex data, which we may examine with the help of Table 8.3. Here we focus on a selection of the LAC countries for which data were collected in 2021. In these cases, and indeed more generally, farmers are somewhat more likely than nonfarmers to have an account. In Brazil and Peru, farmers in the poorest quintiles are almost as likely as those in the top income quintile to have an account, but this is not the case in Colombia, Ecuador, or Nicaragua, suggesting that poor people may be underbanked in these last three countries. About half of those with an account have a debit card, which is a convenience; and a smaller proportion of farmers have a credit card, which can ease liquidity constraints if need be. Although about half of farmers reported saving money in the past year (except in Nicaragua, where the figure was closer to a quarter), where mobile money services are available, these services have quickly become more popular than saving in a bank. Poor people save at only slightly lower rates than those in the top quintile, as Table 8.3 shows. In all of the countries listed, at least half of farmers reported borrowing, and the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "mobile money services are available, these services have quickly become more popular than saving in a bank. Poor people save at only slightly lower rates than those in the top quintile, as Table 8.3 shows. In all of the countries listed, at least half of farmers reported borrowing, and the proportions were broadly similar for those in the bottom and top income quintiles. The great bulk of agricultural payments are still made in cash, although in Brazil and Colombia, a significant number of farmers route payments to their bank accounts. The use of mobile money is growing, and as we report below, this is catching on very quickly in some countries. Part of the explanation is that in almost all countries, 90% or more of farmers have a mobile phone—a rate that is higher than for nonfarmers—and this means that the infrastructure is in place for mobile transactions. Internet access is not as widespread as mobile phones, but generally three-fifths or more of farmers do have such access. Although most farmers have a bank account—see the top row of Table 8.3— there are still significant numbers of farmers in some countries who do not, and it is worth asking why. The essential results are shown in Table 8.4, which again is based on the 2021 Findex data. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 306 Table 8.3:\u0003 Measures of Financial Inclusion for Farmers, 2021 (%) Brazil Colombia Ecuador Nicaragua Peru Has an account 89 61 87 41 78 – In poorest quintile 76 42 68 28 81 – In richest quintile 84 100 90 37 84 Has an account: nonfarmer 84 60 62 25 56 Has a debit card 59 22 44 16 43 Has a credit card 46 16 26 31 22 Saved in past year 55 44",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "In poorest quintile 76 42 68 28 81 – In richest quintile 84 100 90 37 84 Has an account: nonfarmer 84 60 62 25 56 Has a debit card 59 22 44 16 43 Has a credit card 46 16 26 31 22 Saved in past year 55 44 54 72 41 – At a financial institution 26 19 18 11 18 – In poorest quintile 38 21 28 100 34 – In richest quintile 55 44 53 72 41 Borrowed in past year 55 68 62 61 53 – In poorest quintile 56 48 57 77 34 – In richest quintile 55 68 62 61 53 Borrowed in past year: nonfarmer 41 53 55 64 59 Received agricultural payments – Into a bank account 48 23 1 11 2 – To a mobile phone 12 4 ~0 3 6 – In cash 92 75 84 95 81 Has internet access 97 63 77 57 63 – Owns a mobile phone 90 95 96 84 97 – Owns a mobile phone: nonfarmer 84 91 88 69 86 Notes: Refers to farmers, unless otherwise noted. “Farmers” are defined as those who “received agricultural payments in the past 12 months.” Source: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion Database 2021 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). Most respondents gave multiple reasons for not having an account, noting especially the inconvenience, high cost, and lack of need. It follows that there is unlikely to be any simple way to attract these farmers to the formal banking system. 307 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Table 8.4:\u0003 \u0007Reasons Given by Farmers for Not Having a Bank Account, 2021 (% mentioning) Brazil Colombia Ecuador Nicaragua Peru Too far away 34 71 49 38 54 Too expensive 51 87 53 64 58 Lack documentation",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "system. 307 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Table 8.4:\u0003 \u0007Reasons Given by Farmers for Not Having a Bank Account, 2021 (% mentioning) Brazil Colombia Ecuador Nicaragua Peru Too far away 34 71 49 38 54 Too expensive 51 87 53 64 58 Lack documentation 16 63 8 40 27 Lack trust 67 27 27 44 53 Religious 16 18 2 17 14 Lack money 84 84 49 62 48 Family member has an account 83 46 51 34 14 No need 50 33 11 52 57 Notes: Respondents may give more than one answer. The sample sizes for Brazil and Colombia are very small. Source: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion Database 2021 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). The 2021 Findex survey did not ask about the goals of borrowing, but we do have some information on this from an earlier version of the survey. In 2014, an estimated 20% of farmers and 8% of nonfarmers in Mexico reported borrowing for “farm/business purposes.” This rate is comparable to that observed in the same year in Thailand, where the proportions were 18% for farmers and 10% for nonfarmers. The financial system is not just a source of credit for production; it may also help households cope with unexpected shocks. The Findex survey asked respondents how easy it would be for households to come up with emergency funds, and if so, from where. As shown in Table 8.5, in most countries, about two-thirds of farmers would have difficulty getting emergency funds within 30 days. In Nicaragua, half of respondents would respond to a shock by dipping into savings or selling assets; in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, the first choice is to turn to family and friends. The survey was undertaken in 2021, and a very high proportion of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "getting emergency funds within 30 days. In Nicaragua, half of respondents would respond to a shock by dipping into savings or selling assets; in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, the first choice is to turn to family and friends. The survey was undertaken in 2021, and a very high proportion of farmers reported that they were very or somewhat worried about the coronavirus disease (COVID-19). While that concern has surely abated, it is interesting to note that among the financial worries that concerned farmers, the biggest single item was medical costs; worries about funding old age were of less immediate concern. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 308 Table 8.5:\u0003 \u0007Main Source of Emergency Funds over 30 Days for Farmers (% responding) Brazil Colombia Ecuador Nicaragua Peru Difficult to get fundsa 65 76 78 52 74 Main source of funds: Savings 10 8 18 31 12 Family and friends 13 52 36 17 36 Earnings 27 17 15 17 15 Bank borrowing 8 14 12 6 16 Sell assets 19 7 12 16 13 Other 7 2 7 2 Couldn’t/Don’t know 16 1 10 8 Worried about COVID-19b 75 92 86 78 96 Financially biggest worry: Old age 9 33 13 30 25 Medical costs 40 43 45 32 45 Bills 44 11 18 17 14 Education 6 13 24 13 16 Notes: a Either “very difficult” or “somewhat difficult” to get emergency funds within 30 days. b Either “very worried” or “somewhat worried” about COVID-19. Source: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion Database 2021 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). The Findex data come from a comparatively small sample, and the questions are straightforward, but they do highlight several conclusions. First, while many farmers do not have a bank account, most are connected to some element of the financial system, and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Global Financial Inclusion Database 2021 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). The Findex data come from a comparatively small sample, and the questions are straightforward, but they do highlight several conclusions. First, while many farmers do not have a bank account, most are connected to some element of the financial system, and more than half have outstanding loans. Second, cash is still the dominant medium for agricultural transactions, although there is some evidence that this is changing rapidly, as mobile money takes root in Paraguay, Brazil, and elsewhere. Third, it remains unclear whether poor farmers are truly underserved. Their borrowing rates, both for agricultural purposes and overall, are comparable to those of better-off farmers. However, it is not enough to know simply whether someone borrowed, since this does not adequately measure the potential unmet need for credit or the sources and terms of that credit. 309 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries 8.4 Sources and Uses of Farm Credit To examine the sources and uses of farm credit, it is necessary to use farmor household-level data, which can be hard to access. One exception is Mexico’s Encuesta Nacional Agropecuaria (ENA), undertaken between October 2013 and September 2014. The unit of observation for this survey is the farm, and the results are based on 66,398 responses, representing a response rate of 88%. We set out the most important findings in Table 8.6. According to the ENA, 12.6% of farmers requested credit for agricultural purposes during the survey period. One reason why this proportion is so much lower than the rate reported in the 2014 Findex numbers (56%) is that the latter covers loans for all purposes—including to pay for education, cover health costs, smooth consumption, and deal with funerals—while the ENA only asks about loans related to production.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "One reason why this proportion is so much lower than the rate reported in the 2014 Findex numbers (56%) is that the latter covers loans for all purposes—including to pay for education, cover health costs, smooth consumption, and deal with funerals—while the ENA only asks about loans related to production. Of those who asked for credit, just over four-fifths obtained credit. About half of the borrowing (by number of loans) came from a local savings bank (caja de ahorro), the FND (Financiera Nacional de Desarrollo Agropecuario Rural, Forestal, y Pesquero, formerly the Financiera Rural), or a commercial bank. The other main sources of credit were buyers of farm output or suppliers of inputs such as fertilizers, with modest amounts coming from informal sources such as family members, friends, or acquaintances. Most of the loans were used to finance crop production (94%) rather than livestock production (12%), and loans were primarily spent on farm inputs (85%) or wages and salaries (37%). Information regarding the term structure of the loans is not available, but relatively few loans appear to go to long-term investments such as machinery or animals. For those who were denied credit, the main reasons given were a lack of guarantor or collateral, problems with credit reports, or a lack of documents or of a way to verify income. The relatively high proportion of rejections—about one in five applications for credit was denied—suggests that lenders are cautious about whom they lend to. The great bulk of agricultural households (87%) did not apply for credit for production. The single most important reason given for this was high interest rates. The lending interest rate in 2014 was 3.6% per annum (World Bank 2015); however, this does not reflect the true cost of credit to small farm borrowers. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries:",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "not apply for credit for production. The single most important reason given for this was high interest rates. The lending interest rate in 2014 was 3.6% per annum (World Bank 2015); however, this does not reflect the true cost of credit to small farm borrowers. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 310 Table 8.6:\u0003 \u0007Farm-Related Credit to Farmers: Sources, Uses, and Reasons for Denial or Not Applying, 2014 Proportion of Farm Units (%): Who got credit 10.4 Who were denied credit 2.2 of which: of which: Source of loan Reasons for denial Savings bank 26.4 Credit bureau problems 11.2 Rural loan fund 15.3 No guarantor 12.3 Credit union 4.3 Could not verify revenues 22.3 Pawnbroker 2.8 Lacked required documents 25.2 Bank 11.8 Deterred by high interest rate 23.2 Sectoral lender 2.4 Lacked guarantee 15.7 Buyer of farm output 16.0 Other 30.6 Supplier of inputs 12.8 Family member 6.6 Who did not apply for credit 87.3 Friend or acquaintance 7.2 of which: Other 5.0 Reason for not applying Use of loan Not interested 39.8 Crop agriculture 94.1 High interest rates 64.3 Livestock 11.9 Do not trust banks 27.6 Forestry and other 2.6 Too many requirements 49.6 Loan was spent on Don’t want to be indebted 45.4 Farm inputs 84.6 No, or distant, local branch 19.7 Wages and salaries 37.0 Other 4.5 Machinery and equipment 6.3 Work animals 0.9 Breeding stock 4.3 Other 9.0 Notes: Totals may exceed 100% as multiple responses were allowed. Survey undertaken from October 2013 through September 2014. Source: Based on data provided by the Mexican Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI) at the author’s request. 311 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Verteramo Chiu, Khantachavana, and Turvey (2014) use a rate of 35% as their benchmark “market” rate for",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "September 2014. Source: Based on data provided by the Mexican Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI) at the author’s request. 311 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Verteramo Chiu, Khantachavana, and Turvey (2014) use a rate of 35% as their benchmark “market” rate for agricultural credit in September 2011 (when the lending interest rate was 4.9%); unfortunately, the ENA survey did not ask about interest rates. Other reasons given for not applying for credit include “too many requirements”— which may refer to the need for guarantors or paperwork including verification of income—and inconvenience (“no, or distant, local branch”). Over one-quarter of those who did not apply for loans said they “do not trust banks,” a figure far higher than found in Thailand or Viet Nam. The last major reason for not requesting a loan was a fear of being in debt, which was mentioned by 45% of those who did not apply for credit. Are farmers in Mexico credit-rationed? One way to approach this question is to distinguish between three types of rationing. Price rationing occurs when the price of credit (mainly the interest rate) is so high that the potential borrower is priced out of the market; this is represented by a movement up along the demand curve for credit. In the ENA sample, 57% of respondents mentioned high interest rates and thus may be considered to be price-rationed. Quantity rationing occurs when a loan request is denied. While there may be good reasons for such a denial, it has its roots in the absence of collateral coupled with asymmetric information. In short, the lender may be concerned that the borrower will not repay. In the ENA sample, 2.2% of respondents reported rationing of this nature. In the case of both price rationing",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "reasons for such a denial, it has its roots in the absence of collateral coupled with asymmetric information. In short, the lender may be concerned that the borrower will not repay. In the ENA sample, 2.2% of respondents reported rationing of this nature. In the case of both price rationing and quantity rationing, an expansion in the availability of credit is likely to lead to an expansion of borrowing. Risk rationing, a concept formalized by Boucher, Carter, and Guirkinger (2008), occurs when insurance markets are absent and “lenders, constrained by asymmetric information, shift so much contractual risk to the borrower that the borrower voluntarily withdraws from the credit market even when she has the collateral wealth needed to quality for a loan contract” (p. 409). While the ENA questionnaire did not phrase its questions in a way that would measure risk rationing directly, it is worth noting that 45% of those who did not apply for a loan said they did not want to be indebted; many, perhaps most, of these may be considered to be risk-rationed. The importance of this is that even if the supply of credit were to expand, these households would probably not respond. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 312 If there is strong evidence that it would be in their interest to borrow—because the expected return is very high, for instance—then something other than cheap and ample credit would still be needed to change their minds. Possible solutions might include crop insurance, credit insurance, or training about the use of credit. It is worth mentioning that in Peru, Boucher, Carter, and Guirkinger (2008) found the results shown in Table 8.7, based on a survey undertaken in the north coast of Peru in 1997 and 2003. The traditional measure of credit rationing (“quantity",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "credit insurance, or training about the use of credit. It is worth mentioning that in Peru, Boucher, Carter, and Guirkinger (2008) found the results shown in Table 8.7, based on a survey undertaken in the north coast of Peru in 1997 and 2003. The traditional measure of credit rationing (“quantity rationing”) understates the extent to which farmers are unable or unwilling to take on a loan. While policies such as land titling can enhance collateral and reduce quantity rationing, streamlined procedures and insurance may be needed to help reduce the other types of rationing. Table 8.7:\u0003 Frequencies of Rationing Mechanisms (%) 1997 2003 Unconstrained Price-rationed borrower 28 28 Price-rationed non-borrower 17 29 Constrained Quantity rationed 37 10 Risk rationed 9 22 Transaction-cost rationed 10 11 Notes: Sample of 547 farm households in 1997, of which 442 were resurveyed in 2003. Sample representative of irrigated commercial farms in the north coast of Peru. Source: Boucher, Carter, and Guirkinger (2008), Table 3. Verteramo Chiu, Khantachavana, and Turvey (2014) report on an interesting study that compares risk rationing among a sample of farmers in Shaanxi province of the People’s Republic of China (surveyed in 2010) with a sample of farmers in the Mexican state of San Luis Potosí (surveyed in 2011). Although the samples are relatively small—730 farm households in the People’s Republic of China and 372 small landowners in Mexico—the survey instruments used were identical. They found that while 80% of Chinese farmers were price-rationed, only 55% of Mexican farmers were; this is very much in line with the numbers derived from the ENA survey. However, they also estimated that 7% of the Chinese farmers were risk-rationed, compared to 35% of Mexican farmers. This is consistent with our argument that risk rationing may be extensive among Mexican farmers. 313 Dualism and Innovation",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "is very much in line with the numbers derived from the ENA survey. However, they also estimated that 7% of the Chinese farmers were risk-rationed, compared to 35% of Mexican farmers. This is consistent with our argument that risk rationing may be extensive among Mexican farmers. 313 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Further supporting evidence comes from a study by Bouquet, Morvant-Roux, and Rodriguez-Solis (2015), who surveyed 400 rural households in Jalisco state in Mexico. They find substantial use of credit: half of the sample used loans from shopkeepers, while 41% borrowed from financial cooperatives (which use group lending). In addition, they find significant borrowing from family and friends, as well as from banks and moneylenders. They define as risk-rationed households those that “reported not becoming a member of a [credit] cooperative or asking for a loan for fear of the consequences in case of repayment default” (p. 529). Of respondents, 44% fit this category. They also find considerable price rationing, with interest rates from some major credit sources averaging 1.8% per month (almost 22% per annum uncompounded). 8.4.1 Microfinance Lenders State funding for farm credit has its (budgetary) limits, and private funding may shy away from small borrowers. Some of the gap has been filled by microfinance institutions (MFIs), and some relevant information on these is presented in Table 8.8 for six countries of Latin America. The data come from the World Bank’s MIX database, which aims to gather information for all MFIs for all countries, every year. Unfortunately, not all MFIs report in a timely fashion, so there are gaps in the data, and thus the results need to be interpreted with caution. It should also be noted that much of the microfinance is directed to sectors other than agriculture; in the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "for all countries, every year. Unfortunately, not all MFIs report in a timely fashion, so there are gaps in the data, and thus the results need to be interpreted with caution. It should also be noted that much of the microfinance is directed to sectors other than agriculture; in the case of Mexico, for instance, it is estimated that about half of microloans are made in rural areas (although not necessarily for agriculture). Table 8.8:\u0003 Outcome of Microfinance Lenders, 2018 Brazil Colombia Ecuador Guatemala Mexico Peru Borrowers (million) 3.4 2.7 1.4 0.2 7.1 5.1 Loans ($ billion) 2.1 6.07 6.60 0.15 2.99 13.14 Average loan ($) 630 2,270 4,870 610 420 2,580 Average loan (% of GNI per capita) 9 24 86 16 4 41 Loans to women (%) 54 53 50 74 75 52 Borrowers (million), 2010 0.9 2.2 0.7 0.3 4.7 3.1 Number of MFIs reporting 24 28 46 19 52 51 GNI = gross national income, MFI = microfinance institution. Note: Data may be incomplete. Source: World Bank MIX Market DataBank. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 314 Based on the reported data, MFIs lent to 3.4 million people in Brazil in 2018 (Table 8.8). This is more than four times as many as received formal agricultural loans, and a fourfold increase on the number of borrowers reported for 2007. The average loan was just $630, equivalent to 9% of GNI per capita. The importance of microfinance varies widely across the countries listed in Table 8.8. Loans in Ecuador, Colombia, and Peru are relatively large, and many of these hardly qualify as “micro” credit. But the number of borrowers is substantial, with these six countries reaching 20 million households in 2018. Some of the MFIs are large; in the countries in Table 8.8, 24 of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "8.8. Loans in Ecuador, Colombia, and Peru are relatively large, and many of these hardly qualify as “micro” credit. But the number of borrowers is substantial, with these six countries reaching 20 million households in 2018. Some of the MFIs are large; in the countries in Table 8.8, 24 of the MFIs have at least 200,000 borrowers each, and three have more than a million borrowers— Compartamos Banco (Mexico, 2.4 million borrowers), CrediAmigo (Brazil, 2.0 million), and AgroAmigo (Brazil, 1.25 million). These are large, professional, organizations that are able to enjoy economies of scale in their lending operations to small farm operators. As the number of MFIs rises, competition among them rises. Naranjo Galindo (2022) found, in a study of savings and credit cooperatives in Ecuador, that increased competition was associated with a deterioration in loan quality and lower financial sustainability. This would suggest that more marginal MFIs will, in due course, be squeezed out by their larger and more efficient peers. 8.4.2 Government Funding: Mexico As in most other LAC countries, the government of Mexico has created a number of institutions that aim to complement the activities of commercial banks in the agricultural sector. The Fideicomisos Instituidos en Relación con la Agricultura (FIRA), established in 1954, is a government-owned fund for rural development managed by the Banco de México. It is a second-tier financial institution, meaning that it does not lend directly to farmers, but it has provided funding and support for credit unions, financial societies (SOFOLES and SOFOMES), and agribusiness consulting. Its strategic objectives include fostering financial inclusion, improving productivity and efficiency, and ensuring sustainability (USDA Economic Research Service 2022). Most of the 223 billion pesos ($11.8 billion) that FIRA lent in 2017 was to subsidize loan interest, benefiting an estimated 1.5 million producers. About one-fifth covered loan",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and agribusiness consulting. Its strategic objectives include fostering financial inclusion, improving productivity and efficiency, and ensuring sustainability (USDA Economic Research Service 2022). Most of the 223 billion pesos ($11.8 billion) that FIRA lent in 2017 was to subsidize loan interest, benefiting an estimated 1.5 million producers. About one-fifth covered loan guarantees, and four-fifths of the funding was routed through commercial banks. 315 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Many small farmers borrow from the National Financier of Agricultural, Rural, Forestry, and Fishing Development (Financiera Nacional de Desarrollo Agropecuario, Rural, Forestal, y Pesquero, or FND). The FND lends indirectly, through affiliated banks and other outlets. It is barred from taking deposits and so has to seek financing from the government and international financial institutions; in 2016, the FND provided 63 billion pesos ($3.3 billion) to the farming and rural sectors, “benefiting some 492,000 producers and entrepreneurs, 71% of whom were women” (USDA Economic Research Service 2018). In 2015, the World Bank approved a $400 million loan to the FND for expanding rural finance. Mexico also has a substantial number of microcredit lenders. For example, ProDesarrollo serves as a network for 83 organizations that together have 3,082 outlets and lend to 7.2 million people, 93% of whom are women. Mexico’s best‑known microlender is Banco Compartamos, with 2.4 million borrowers, 89% of whom are women; this organization follows a group lending model. 8.4.3 \u0007National Program for Strengthening Family Farming (PRONAF): Brazil The government of Brazil created the National Program for Strengthening Family Farming (PRONAF) in 1996, and about half of farmers who have a loan have obtained it via a government program, mainly PRONAF (World Bank c.2018; see too FAO and IFAD [2017]). The Ministry of Agrarian Development channels funds via public banks, at subsidized interest rates, to",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Program for Strengthening Family Farming (PRONAF) in 1996, and about half of farmers who have a loan have obtained it via a government program, mainly PRONAF (World Bank c.2018; see too FAO and IFAD [2017]). The Ministry of Agrarian Development channels funds via public banks, at subsidized interest rates, to the intended beneficiaries. An estimated 35% of rural credit is provided under the aegis of PRONAF, which has 13 separate programs (World Bank c.2018). According to the World Bank, the 2017 census found that only 780,000 farmers (16%) had a formal loan; of these, about 400,000 had government-supported loans, and 320,000 of these were beneficiaries under PRONAF. To borrow under PRONAF, farmers first need a declaration of PRONAF eligibility; with this in hand, they are eligible to apply for loans at one of the 300 financial institutions that handle PRONAF funds. PRONAF is no longer expanding, and it has been criticized for favoring wealthier regions and larger (and hence less-risky) farmers (Zeller and Schiesari 2020). Table 8.9 shows how PRONAF funds disproportionately favored the relatively affluent south, and avoided the comparatively poor northeast. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 316 The World Bank (c.2018) reaches a similar conclusion. The program does, however, appear to have had a positive effect on agricultural production (Maia, Eusébio, and da Silveira 2020). Table 8.9:\u0003 \u0007Allocation of Funds from the National Program for Strengthening Family Farming by Region (2007) and Regional Breakdown of Farms (2006) North Northeast Central-West Southeast South TOTAL % PRONAF funds 6.4 20.6 6.3 20.6 46.1 100.0 % of farm units 9.3 50.1 5.0 16.1 19.5 100.0 PRONAF = National Program for Strengthening Family Farming. Source: Zeller and Schiesari (2020). The heavily subsidized interest rates made the program attractive to well‑established larger farmers, and given the inherent limitations of budgetary",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "funds 6.4 20.6 6.3 20.6 46.1 100.0 % of farm units 9.3 50.1 5.0 16.1 19.5 100.0 PRONAF = National Program for Strengthening Family Farming. Source: Zeller and Schiesari (2020). The heavily subsidized interest rates made the program attractive to well‑established larger farmers, and given the inherent limitations of budgetary support, this has had the effect of leaving fewer resources for poor people. It is also difficult for private credit to establish market share when farmers are used to cheap loans. The result is that the demand for credit by smaller and poorer farmers in Brazil appears to be partly unmet. One of the larger institutions that disburses PRONAF funds is the Development Bank of Brazil (BNDES 2022). As of September 2021, it provided 9% of the country’s credit, and 6% of its loans and 14% of its clients (about 80,000 in total) were in agriculture. Perhaps surprisingly, the share of credit attributable to BNDES has halved since 2016, perhaps reflecting growing competition, difficulty mobilizing state funds, and the challenge of lending to a shrinking base of farmers. 8.4.4 Who Borrows? Relatively little information has been collected at the household level regarding household credit; when questions related to finance are included in household surveys, they are often incomplete or the survey does not collect important complementary information such as household income. That said, in this section, we marshal the available data in an attempt to determine who borrows for agricultural purposes in Mexico; more specifically, we investigate who requests such loans and, among these, who is successful at borrowing. It is likely that the findings for Mexico are broadly applicable to much of Latin America. 317 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries ENIGH data. Our first model is based on the relatively limited data available",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "loans and, among these, who is successful at borrowing. It is likely that the findings for Mexico are broadly applicable to much of Latin America. 317 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries ENIGH data. Our first model is based on the relatively limited data available from the 2016 National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure (Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares, ENIGH 2016). The survey does not ask about borrowing per se, but it does collect information on the amount that households spend servicing loans and the amount they receive from taking on a loan. This allows us to identify borrowers and to associate this information with socioeconomic and other variables. The nationally representative survey covered 70,311 households, of which 9,531 reported working in some manner in agriculture, forestry, or fishing. When household members are included, the survey reached 257,805 individuals. In what follows, we focus on the agricultural subsample. We define a borrower as a household in which someone reports servicing a loan or receiving the proceeds from a loan. Using this measure, 12.3% of households surveyed were borrowers. This is a low proportion compared to most other measures of borrowing but probably excludes most of the credit extended by shopkeepers, suppliers, buyers, and perhaps family and friends. Tables 8.10 and 8.11 set out some summary statistics related to agricultural households that do, and do not, borrow. Probably the most striking feature is how small the observable differences are between the two groups. Borrowers have incomes that are about 30% higher than non-borrowers, mostly because they earn more from wages and salaries (Table 8.11). Borrowers are also less likely to speak an indigenous language, have somewhat more education, are more likely to be working multiple jobs, and are slightly more likely",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "two groups. Borrowers have incomes that are about 30% higher than non-borrowers, mostly because they earn more from wages and salaries (Table 8.11). Borrowers are also less likely to speak an indigenous language, have somewhat more education, are more likely to be working multiple jobs, and are slightly more likely to own a phone, connect to the internet, or have a fridge. The limitations of the data do not allow us to determine the extent and nature of their holdings of land or other agricultural assets. Table 8.10:\u0003 Household Characteristics of Borrowers and Non-Borrowers Borrower Not a Borrower Overall proportions (%) 12.3 87.7 Speaks an indigenous language 22.3 29.1 No household member is literate 2.6 6.0 Head of household has: No education 13.2 19.5 Some primary education 33.3 34.0 Finished primary education 22.3 21.6 continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 318 Table 8.10:\u0003 Continued Borrower Not a Borrower Some secondary education 23.8 19.1 Some postsecondary education 7.4 5.8 Age of head of household 49.8 43.5 Head of household is male 87.4 85.2 Household size 4.6 4.1 Household lives in the countryside 72.9 73.8 Household has a member who is: Separated/divorced 11.5 9.2 Widowed 10.8 13.5 Working <= 20 hours per week 50.0 44.5 Working > 40 hours per week 95.2 92.0 Disabled 27.9 26.5 Working more than one job 58.7 47.1 Household has a member who has a/an: Phone (or cell phone) 77.1 69.6 Internet connection 7.7 6.2 Fridge 71.7 65.5 Household gets at least half its income from agriculture 7.5 9.6 Household agricultural income >= 40,000 pesos per annum 8.0 10.0 Source: ENIGH (2016). The results of a probit model—in which the dependent variable equals 1 when the household is a borrower and zero otherwise—are shown in Table 8.12. The fit is poor,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "least half its income from agriculture 7.5 9.6 Household agricultural income >= 40,000 pesos per annum 8.0 10.0 Source: ENIGH (2016). The results of a probit model—in which the dependent variable equals 1 when the household is a borrower and zero otherwise—are shown in Table 8.12. The fit is poor, with a pseudo R2 of 0.04. The inclusion of state-level dummy variables did not improve the fit appreciably; thus, they are not included here. Households in small towns or the countryside are less likely to borrow; this may reflect less accessibility to a lender or a greater wariness toward borrowing. Households in which some members are working less than 20 hours per week are more likely to borrow, perhaps because they have slack labor that would be complemented with more capital. Households in which at least one member holds multiple jobs are more likely to borrow; this might provide evidence of these households’ seriousness of purpose. 319 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Table 8.12:\u0003 \u0007Probit Regression Results: Dependent Variable Is Whether a Household Borrows Coefficient P-Value Medium-sized town –0.214 0.01 Rural area –0.227 0.00 Agricultural share of income –0.221 0.01 Member speaks a local language –0.021 0.61 At least one household member is: Literate –0.018 0.86 Separated 0.176 0.00 Widowed –0.036 0.54 Working <= 20 hours per week 0.129 0.00 Working > 40 hours per week 0.097 0.20 Disabled 0.074 0.07 Table 8.11:\u0003 Income Characteristics of Borrowers and Non-Borrowers Borrower Not a Borrower Household income from all sources (pesos/quarter) 29,231 22,808 of which (in %) Income from wages and salaries 38.1 30.8 Business income 22.7 26.7 Of which Agricultural 14.7 18.9 Nonagricultural 7.9 7.9 Other labor income 4.7 3.7 Capital income 2.5 2.5 Transfers received 22.5 24.6 Imputed rent, and other 9.4 11.5 Memo",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "income from all sources (pesos/quarter) 29,231 22,808 of which (in %) Income from wages and salaries 38.1 30.8 Business income 22.7 26.7 Of which Agricultural 14.7 18.9 Nonagricultural 7.9 7.9 Other labor income 4.7 3.7 Capital income 2.5 2.5 Transfers received 22.5 24.6 Imputed rent, and other 9.4 11.5 Memo item Support from PROCAMPO or PROGAN (pesos/quarter) 904 1,186 Source: ENIGH (2016). continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 320 Table 8.12:\u0003 \u0007Continued Coefficient P-Value Working multiple jobs 0.205 0.00 Has a phone 0.155 0.00 Has an internet connection –0.009 0.89 Has a fridge 0.114 0.01 Household size 0.028 0.00 Head of household has: No education –0.143 0.10 Some primary education –0.033 0.66 Finished primary education –0.074 0.32 Some secondary education 0.035 0.62 Some post-secondary education 0.000 Gender of head (M=1) 0.043 0.43 Age of head –0.007 0.00 Number of paid employees 0.003 0.79 Household receives support: from government, has to pay 0.004 0.06 from government, free –0.002 0.50 from private sources, has to pay 0.002 0.06 from private sources, free 0.002 0.68 from PROCAMPO (direct subsidies) –0.016 0.01 from PROGAN (direct subsidies) 0.009 0.09 Household disburses funds: into bank deposits 0.003 0.25 for credit cards 0.020 0.03 to buy assets 0.002 0.50 for a mortgage –0.016 0.34 to buy machinery and equipment 0.000 0.34 to cover business losses 0.000 0.80 Constant term –1.146 0.00 Source: Author’s calculations, based on ENIGH (2016) data. 321 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries ENA data. The National Agricultural Survey (Encuesta Nacional Agropecuaria, or ENA) of Mexican farmers undertaken in 2014 asked a number of useful questions about credit, although it is not a perfect source of information because it gathers limited information on household incomes and is awkward to use because the underlying",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "ENA data. The National Agricultural Survey (Encuesta Nacional Agropecuaria, or ENA) of Mexican farmers undertaken in 2014 asked a number of useful questions about credit, although it is not a perfect source of information because it gathers limited information on household incomes and is awkward to use because the underlying data are not directly available to the public or researchers.3 However, we were able to obtain information on several relevant variables at the level of the 31 Mexican states (plus the federal district); this allows us to compute “between” estimators of the effects of these variables on (i) whether a household applied for a loan and (ii) whether the loan applicant was successful. The essential descriptive statistics are shown in Table 8.13. In 2014, 21.6% of the farmers surveyed applied for an agricultural loan, and 87% of these obtained one. Female and indigenous farmers were less likely to apply for a loan, and their applications were more likely to be rejected. Larger farmers, including those who own a tractor, as well as high-income farmers are more likely to apply for and receive a loan for agricultural purposes. Respondents who complained about high input costs or insecurity were somewhat more likely than others to apply for agricultural credit. We find considerable inter-state variation. For example, the proportion of farmers who asked for a loan varied from less than 10% in Guerrero, Hidalgo, and Yucatán to more than 45% in Baja California, Sinaloa, and Sonora; similarly, the proportion of applicants who were refused agricultural loans was below 5% in Nayarit and Sinaloa but above 25% in Puebla and Tabasco. Wide variation, which is found in most of the potential explanatory variables as well, means that the use of state‑level data may be able to yield useful “between” estimates of the determinants of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "refused agricultural loans was below 5% in Nayarit and Sinaloa but above 25% in Puebla and Tabasco. Wide variation, which is found in most of the potential explanatory variables as well, means that the use of state‑level data may be able to yield useful “between” estimates of the determinants of loan applications and acceptances. In Table 8.14, the left-hand panel sheds some light on who applies for a loan, while the right-hand panel examines the correlates of which loan applicants get approvals for their loans. The mean values refer to the sample used for the regression estimates; for instance, 12.1% of farmers are women but only 10.3% of loan applicants are women. 3 We are most grateful to the staff of the Mexican Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI), and in particular to Natalia Volkow Fernández, for their help in extracting the tabular data that we requested. A summary of published results may be found in ENA (2014b). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 322 Table 8.13:\u0003 Characteristics of Farmers Who Sought Loans, 2014 Farmer Applied for Loan Farmer Did Not Apply for Loan Applications Rejected Got loan Refused loan % of farmers in the group % of applicants Overall 18.8 2.8 78.4 13.0 By gender men 19.4 2.8 77.7 12.7 women 14.5 2.7 82.7 15.8 By ethnicity indigenous 10.4 2.4 87.2 19.0 By education Primary or less 17.7 2.5 79.8 12.4 Secondary (6 years) 20.8 3.0 76.2 12.6 Higher 20.7 3.1 76.3 12.9 By assets Owns a tractor 35.9 3.4 60.7 8.7 Gets govt. support 23.4 2.9 73.7 11.2 High-income household 43.6 3.0 53.4 6.4 Uses a bank 25.2 3.7 71.0 12.9 By type of problem High input costs 21.1 2.8 76.1 11.9 Disaster 17.5 2.9 79.6 14.0 Credit 12.6 6.9 80.5 35.5 Insecurity 21.9 3.8",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "a tractor 35.9 3.4 60.7 8.7 Gets govt. support 23.4 2.9 73.7 11.2 High-income household 43.6 3.0 53.4 6.4 Uses a bank 25.2 3.7 71.0 12.9 By type of problem High input costs 21.1 2.8 76.1 11.9 Disaster 17.5 2.9 79.6 14.0 Credit 12.6 6.9 80.5 35.5 Insecurity 21.9 3.8 74.3 14.6 Memo: Characteristics Work hours/day 7.8 7.6 7.2 Household size 3.1 3.0 2.9 Adults per household 2.2 2.2 2.1 Area: rainfed (hectares) 38.1 27.6 20.5 Area: irrigated (hectares) 35.3 19.1 22.2 Notes: Valid responses from 62,029 farmers. The first three columns show the proportions of people in the group who got a loan, applied but were refused, or did not apply. For instance, 14.5% of women got a loan, compared to 19.4% of men. Source: Author’s calculations, based on data from the 2014 Encuesta Nacional Agropecuaria. 323 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries Table 8.14:\u0003 Correlates of Loan Applications and Their Success, 2014 Model 1: Who Applies for a Loan? Simple regression Multiple regression Mean β̂ p-val β̂ p-val Percentage of farmers who are: Women 12.1 –1.46 0.04 –1.03 0.11 Indigenous 22.3 –0.23 0.02 –0.11 0.32 Percentage of farmers who have: Primary education or less 16.4 –1.27 0.13 Secondary education 39.9 0.87 0.02 0.34 0.44 Higher education 30.5 0.49 0.32 Percentage of farmers who: Own a tractor 37.7 0.38 0.00 Get government support 64.8 0.45 0.00 Have high income 6.4 1.5 0.00 Percentage who have a problem with: High input costs 94.0 0.79 0.00 Disasters 76.2 –0.65 0.01 Credit 23.6 –1.21 0.00 Insecurity 32.0 0.18 0.40 Farm characteristics: Total area (hectares) 107.9 0.0003 0.04 Rainfed agriculture (hectares) 24.3 0.005 0.00 Irrigated agriculture (hectares) 25.4 0.005 0.00 Household characteristics Household size 2.94 –0.19 0.00 –0.17 0.04 Percentage of adults in household 72.20 0.92 0.07 –0.64",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Disasters 76.2 –0.65 0.01 Credit 23.6 –1.21 0.00 Insecurity 32.0 0.18 0.40 Farm characteristics: Total area (hectares) 107.9 0.0003 0.04 Rainfed agriculture (hectares) 24.3 0.005 0.00 Irrigated agriculture (hectares) 25.4 0.005 0.00 Household characteristics Household size 2.94 –0.19 0.00 –0.17 0.04 Percentage of adults in household 72.20 0.92 0.07 –0.64 0.39 Age of farmer (years) 57.9 –0.003 0.77 R squared 0.39 Number of observations 62,029 32 32 continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 324 Table 8.14:\u0003 Continued Model 2: Which Loan Applicants Get a Loan? Simple regression Multiple regression Mean β̂ p-val β̂ p-val Percentage of farmers who are: Women 10.3 –0.83 0.12 –0.94 0.09 Indigenous 18.5 –0.22 0.03 –0.11 0.38 Percentage of farmers who have: Primary education or less 15.3 –0.20 0.77 Secondary education 43.5 –0.34 0.29 –0.59 0.12 Higher education 32.5 0.40 0.17 Percentage of farmers who: Own a tractor 56.2 0.21 0.00 Get government support 73.7 0.35 0.00 Have high income 11.3 0.43 0.04 Percentage who have a problem with: High input costs 98.9 0.45 0.00 Disasters 75.1 –0.57 0.00 Credit 23.4 –0.87 0.00 Insecurity 37.8 –0.15 0.40 Farm characteristics: Total area (hectares) 91.9 0.0002 0.33 Rainfed agriculture (hectares) 36.0 0.002 0.02 Irrigated agriculture (hectares) 32.9 0.002 0.02 Household characteristics Household size 3.11 –0.08 0.10 –0.11 0.07 Percentage of adults in household 71.2 0.13 0.77 –0.13 0.83 Age of farmer (years) 56.0 0.003 0.98 R squared 0.34 Number of observations 13,423 32 32 Notes: Regression results based on tabulations at the level of the 32 states of Mexico. The β̂ are the estimated coefficients, from simple or multiple regressions, and “p-val” refers to the p-value. The mean values are percentages unless otherwise indicated. Of the total sample of farmers, 21.6% applied for a loan, and of these, 87% were granted a",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "level of the 32 states of Mexico. The β̂ are the estimated coefficients, from simple or multiple regressions, and “p-val” refers to the p-value. The mean values are percentages unless otherwise indicated. Of the total sample of farmers, 21.6% applied for a loan, and of these, 87% were granted a loan. Source: Author’s calculations, based on data from the 2014 Encuesta Nacional Agropecuaria. 325 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries We present results from simple as well as multiple regressions. The simple regressions take the form yi = α + βXi, where yi is the proportion of farmers in a state who apply for an agricultural loan (Model 1) or the proportion of loan applicants who successfully obtained a loan (Model 2) and the Xi is one of the variables listed on the left-hand side of Table 8.14. The table shows only the estimated slope coefficients (β̂) and their associated p-values, which show the level of significance (with a low value denoting a statistically significant linear relationship). The results are in line with what we have already seen: women and indigenous farmers, those with a primary level of education or less, those facing disasters or credit problems, and those in larger households are less likely to apply for a loan. If these groups do apply, they are also less likely to be approved for the loan, which in turn may help explain why they are less likely to apply for a loan in the first place. For three reasons, it is not feasible to include all 18 variables shown in Table 8.14 in a multiple regression. First, there are only 32 observations (one per state), so the resulting regression would only have 13 degrees of freedom. Second, there is strong multicollinearity, so separating the effects",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "place. For three reasons, it is not feasible to include all 18 variables shown in Table 8.14 in a multiple regression. First, there are only 32 observations (one per state), so the resulting regression would only have 13 degrees of freedom. Second, there is strong multicollinearity, so separating the effects of one variable from the next is challenging. Third, not all of the variables listed here are clearly independent or truly “explanatory.” For instance, owning a tractor is strongly correlated with applying for, and getting, a loan; however, tractor ownership also reflects other, potentially more fundamental, influences such as the size of the farm and the educational level of the farmer. Thus, we have chosen a limited number of variables (five) that may reasonably be considered exogenous and use these to estimate multiple regressions. These “explain” over one-third of the state-tostate variation seen in the proportions of farmers who apply for loans and who receive a loan. Two of the explanatory variables appear to matter consistently. Specifically, larger households and female farmers are less likely to apply for or get loans. Regressions based on the observations of individual farmers, rather than on the state-level aggregates, would allow us to disentangle the effects with more precision and would be well worth estimating. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 326 8.5 Innovations and Recent Developments 8.5.1 Pix: Brazil In late 2020, the Central Bank of Brazil introduced Pix, an instant-payment platform wholly run by the Central Bank. The public has adopted Pix more rapidly than any comparable scheme elsewhere: from 41 million users in November 2020, Pix came to be used by 124 million users by March 2022, representing two‑thirds of the adult population (World Economic Forum 2022). An estimated 800 payment service providers, such as banks and other financial",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "adopted Pix more rapidly than any comparable scheme elsewhere: from 41 million users in November 2020, Pix came to be used by 124 million users by March 2022, representing two‑thirds of the adult population (World Economic Forum 2022). An estimated 800 payment service providers, such as banks and other financial institutions, participate in making Pix available to the public, in the same way that financial firms work with the private Zelle platform in the United States. The remarkable success of Pix is due to several factors. The Central Bank ended WhatsApp’s own instant payment scheme and forced banks to use Pix. The system is very cheap, with no charges for consumers, minimal fees for payment service providers, and a fee of 0.22% for merchants (compared to 2.2% for credit cards). An estimated 9 million companies, or three-fifths of all firms with a relationship with the financial sector, had signed up by March 2022. The system is also easy to use, with consumers needing just a phone number, e-mail, or QR code in order to sign on. The government now uses the system to pay transfers such as the Bolsa Família. The rapid buy-in has created strong network effects, so that other instant-payment platforms have essentially been squeezed out, but payment service providers can innovate in the products they provide. Mondato (2022) argues that the rapid success of Pix is also the result of good design. The Central Bank of Brazil, unlike the Central Bank of Mexico, was able to enforce no-fee transactions among banks. By running the scheme itself, it created a platform that included a wide swath of financial institutions, unlike the public–private partnerships in instant payment schemes in Asia, where noncommercial financial intermediaries were excluded as a result of high transaction fees. The widespread use of mobile phones",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "no-fee transactions among banks. By running the scheme itself, it created a platform that included a wide swath of financial institutions, unlike the public–private partnerships in instant payment schemes in Asia, where noncommercial financial intermediaries were excluded as a result of high transaction fees. The widespread use of mobile phones in Brazil also provided the necessary infrastructure. 327 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries 8.5.2 Index Insurance: Peru Very few small farmers buy crop insurance, even when it is available. The problem is that this deters lenders, who fear that in the event of a negative shock, they may not be repaid. For instance, in 1998, a year of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the default rate on agricultural loans in the Piura region of northern Peru jumped from 8% to 18% (Skees and Collier 2010). The area is prone to severe flooding in an ENSO year. While traditional insurance pays out in proportion to the damage done, index insurance links compensatory payments to an index. In Peru, an insurance company has begun to sell ENSO insurance that is linked to the temperature of the sea surface. The product is seen as “business-interruption” insurance, and it is likely to be of interest to companies that serve farmers—lenders, cooperatives, suppliers, local governments—rather than to small farmers themselves. To spread the risk, the company also uses reinsurance. Whether insurance of this kind will gain traction is not yet clear, but a recent World Bank report on agriculture in LAC sees a role for it (World Bank 2020). 8.6 Conclusion Mobile money is revolutionizing payments, and when the details are worked out carefully, it is quickly embraced by the public, as recent Brazilian experience shows. This change has the potential to create a revolution in providing credit to",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in LAC sees a role for it (World Bank 2020). 8.6 Conclusion Mobile money is revolutionizing payments, and when the details are worked out carefully, it is quickly embraced by the public, as recent Brazilian experience shows. This change has the potential to create a revolution in providing credit to poor households, including farmers, because it helps address two of the key problems that restrain microlending—screening costs and inconvenience. For lenders, detailed information obtained from the patterns of use of mobile money will make it easier and cheaper to screen potential borrowers; and for borrowers, the use of mobile phones can reduce the time and inconvenience of having to go to a physical location every time one applies for a loan. The evidence on credit rationing is mixed. In Latin America, most farmers have some form of engagement with the financial system, although not necessarily with a bank. In some countries, interest rates are kept low through public subsidies, which reduces price rationing, but the resulting low profitability for lenders may decrease the supply of lending, which increases quantity rationing. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 328 For governments that support lending to rural or farm households—such as Brazil and Mexico—there appears to be scope for better targeting the subsidies to poorer farmers. There is a growing recognition of the importance of risk rationing, where borrowing may be profitable on average, but the risks in the case of a shock are too great. Very few farm households carry any form of production insurance—just 3.6% in Mexico, for instance (ENA 2014a). A promising direction is to expand the availability of index-linked insurance for the institutions that serve farmers, including suppliers, lenders, cooperatives, and local governments; a Peruvian insurer is experimenting with ENSO-indexed insurance, and there other experiments in Mongolia",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "any form of production insurance—just 3.6% in Mexico, for instance (ENA 2014a). A promising direction is to expand the availability of index-linked insurance for the institutions that serve farmers, including suppliers, lenders, cooperatives, and local governments; a Peruvian insurer is experimenting with ENSO-indexed insurance, and there other experiments in Mongolia and Viet Nam. Most farms in Latin America are relatively small, and a majority of farmers supplement their production with earnings from other sources; in Mexico, only 1% of households derive more than half of their income from farming, although 11% of households work in agriculture at least to some extent. As the nonagricultural sectors continue to grow, the movement of labor out of agriculture will continue. While credit for productive purposes—inputs, equipment, working capital—will still be essential for commercial farmers, the financial needs of small farmers appear to be somewhat different: borrowing is largely to smooth consumption and cover unexpected expenses, and the system of payments and transfers needs to be cheap and convenient. The great diversity in engagement in agriculture makes it difficult to determine how much finance would be appropriate for the sector. Most Latin American governments, including those of Mexico and Peru, have opened up the agricultural sector to trade, which has led to greater specialization in high-value export-oriented crops, an important source of dynamism over the past two decades. Most LAC governments also continue to subsidize agriculture, in part through low-interest loans and loan guarantees. However, there appears to be some ambivalence about this support, and some officials argue that a focus on agriculture per se will not do much to raise the incomes of poor households, and that policy relating to agriculture should be de-linked from systematic efforts to address poverty. 329 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries REFERENCES",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and some officials argue that a focus on agriculture per se will not do much to raise the incomes of poor households, and that policy relating to agriculture should be de-linked from systematic efforts to address poverty. 329 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries REFERENCES Anderson, K., and S. Nelgen. 2013. Updated National and Global Estimates of Distortions to Agricultural Incentives, 1955 to 2011, Regional Aggregates. Washington, DC: World Bank. Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Economico e Social (BNDES). 2022. Relatório de efetividade 2020/2021. Rio de Janeiro. Boucher, S. R., M. R. Carter, and C. Guirkinger. 2008. Risk Rationing and Wealth Effects in Credit Markets Theory and Implications for Agricultural Development. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 90(2): 409–423. Bouquet, E., S. Morvant-Roux, and G. Rodriguez-Solis. 2015. Agricultural Workers, Credit Rationing and Family Networks in Rural Mexico. Journal of Development Studies 51(5): 523–537. Demirguc-Kunt, A., L. Klapper, D. Singer, and P. Van Oudheusden. 2015. The Global Findex Database 2014: Measuring Financial Inclusion around the World. Policy Research Working Paper 7255. Washington, DC: World Bank. Demirguc-Kunt, A., L. Klapper, D. Singer, and S. Ansar. 2022. The Global Findex Database 2021: Financial Inclusion, Digital Payments, and Resilience in the Age of COVID-19. Washington, DC: World Bank. Eakin, H., H. Perales, K. Appendini, and S. Sweeney. 2014. Development and Change 45(1): 133–155. Encuesta Nacional Agropecuaria (ENA). 2014a. Crédito y Seguro. Minimonografia. INEGI, Mexico City. ———. 2014b. Resultados. SAGARPA and INEGI, Mexico City. Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares (ENIGH). 2016. Descripción de la base de datos. INEGI, Mexico City. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2022. Credit to Agriculture: Global and Regional Trends, 2012–2021. FAOSTAT Analytical Brief 56. Rome. International Fund for Agricultural Development (FAO and IFAD). 2017. Overcoming Hunger and Rural Poverty: Brazilian",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
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    "text": "Hogares (ENIGH). 2016. Descripción de la base de datos. INEGI, Mexico City. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2022. Credit to Agriculture: Global and Regional Trends, 2012–2021. FAOSTAT Analytical Brief 56. Rome. International Fund for Agricultural Development (FAO and IFAD). 2017. Overcoming Hunger and Rural Poverty: Brazilian Experiences. Rome. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 330 Maia, A. G., G. D. S. Eusébio, and R. L. F. da Silveira. 2020. Can Credit Help Small Family Farming? Evidence from Brazil. Agricultural Finance Review 80(2): 212–230. MIX. 2017. https://www.themix.org/. Mondato. 2022. Brazil’s Pix: Should Instant Payment Rails Be a Public Good? https://blog.mondato.com/brazils-pix-should-instant-payment-rails-bea-public-good/. Naranjo Galindo, F. X. 2022. Competition and Sustainability of Ecuadorian Microfinance Institutions (MFIs). Podium 41: 1–20. https://doi.org/ 10.31095/podium.2022.41.1. Skees, J., and B. Collier. 2010. New Approaches for Index Insurance: ENSO Insurance in Peru. Innovations in Rural and Agriculture Finance. Focus 18, Brief 11. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. Thompson, G. 2001. Farm Unrest in Mexico Challenges New President. New York Times. 22 July. https://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/22/world/farmunrest-in-mexico-challenges-new-president.html. USDA Economic Research Service. 2018. Mexico: Policy. https://www.ers.usda. gov/topics/international-markets-us-trade/countries-regions/naftacanada-mexico/mexico-policy/ (accessed 26 June 2018). ———. 2022. Mexico: Policy. https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/internationalmarkets-u-s-trade/countries-regions/usmca-canada-mexico/mexicopolicy/. ———. 2024. Mexico: Trade and FDI. https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/ international-markets-u-s-trade/countries-regions/usmca-canadamexico/mexico-trade-fdi/. Verteramo Chiu, L., S. Khantachavana, and C. Turvey. 2014. Risk Rationing and the Demand for Agricultural Credit: A Comparative Investigation of Mexico and China. Agricultural Finance Review 74(2): 248–270. World Bank. 2015. Project Appraisal Document on a Proposed Loan in the Amount of US$400 Million to the Financiera Nacional de Desarrollo Agropecuario, Rural, Forestal, y Pesquero with a Guarantee of the United Mexican States for the Expanding Rural Finance Project. Washington, DC. ———. c.2018. Brazil: Rural Finance Policy Note. Washington, DC. 331 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries ———. 2020. Future Foodscapes: Re-imagining Agriculture in Latin American and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Forestal, y Pesquero with a Guarantee of the United Mexican States for the Expanding Rural Finance Project. Washington, DC. ———. c.2018. Brazil: Rural Finance Policy Note. Washington, DC. 331 Dualism and Innovation in Agricultural Finance: Lessons from Latin American Countries ———. 2020. Future Foodscapes: Re-imagining Agriculture in Latin American and the Caribbean. Washington, DC. ———. Various years. World Development Indicators DataBank. Washington, DC. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators. ———. Various years. MIX Market DataBank. Washington, DC. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/mix-market. World Economic Forum. 2022. Brazilians Are Adopting Digital Payments Faster than Anyone Else—What Lessons Can We Learn? World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/05/brazilians-are-adoptingdigital-payments-faster-than-anyone-else-what-lessons-can-we-learn/. Zeller, M., and C. Schiesari. 2020. The Unequal Allocation of PRONAF Resources: Which Factors Determine the Intensity of the Program across Brazil? Revista de Economia e Sociologia Rural 58(3). https://www.scielo.br/j/resr/a/8LG6 fqTR8579K8YTrqGzW9r/?lang=en#. Zeller, M., and M. Sharma. 1998. Rural Finance and Poverty Alleviation. Food Policy Report, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC. 332 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture Shahidur R. Khandker CHAPTER 9 9.1 Scope of Digital Finance in Agriculture Better access to institutional finance is important for running a modern economy. This is equally true for both farming and nonfarming communities. There are four categories of financial services offered by financial institutions that can satisfy the unmet demand of rural households, especially women and smallholders: credit, savings, insurance, and payments (such as mobile money for bill payments and remittance transfers). Credit, especially through microlending schemes, is common in many countries for lending small amounts of money to rural and other disadvantaged people such as women. As for the other categories of financial services, savings services allow farmers to increase their financial assets by encouraging and offering a secure environment for saving money, even in a small amount, and withdrawing deposits when needed. Insurance for crops and livestock helps reduce farmers’ risk of losses from shocks",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "As for the other categories of financial services, savings services allow farmers to increase their financial assets by encouraging and offering a secure environment for saving money, even in a small amount, and withdrawing deposits when needed. Insurance for crops and livestock helps reduce farmers’ risk of losses from shocks or extreme weather conditions. Mobile money services (both payments and transfers) allow people to send and receive money electronically using mobile phones (Biscaye et al. 2015). Except for mobile money services, most of the other financial products use non-digital delivery methods such as branch banking. In order to offer more efficiency (measured in terms of both price and time), digitalization of such bank-run financial services is necessary. Access to digital forms of finance is indeed the hallmark of a modern economy. Saving money, getting access to credit and insurance, sending money, and carrying out other categories of transactions using digital channels—such as cards, internet, and mobile phones—are the essence of digital financial services (DFS). In recent years, the introduction of DFS has alleviated constraints to financial access for many who did not have such access before; these services consequently help enhance the extent of overall financial inclusion as well as reduce the cost of providing financial services (Pazarbasioglu et al. 2020). 333 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture Of course, greater financial inclusion means more reliance on smooth and safe transactions of payments, savings, borrowing, and remittances as well as better plans for emergencies and productive investments. Digital access to such financial services can not only enhance efficiency in transactions but also provide a platform for those who lack physical access to financial institutions such as banks and microfinance institutions (MFIs). Financial services carried out using digital technologies are referred to as “fintech” in the literature. This term refers to financial",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "financial services can not only enhance efficiency in transactions but also provide a platform for those who lack physical access to financial institutions such as banks and microfinance institutions (MFIs). Financial services carried out using digital technologies are referred to as “fintech” in the literature. This term refers to financial services carried out via web, mobile, cloud services, and other new technologies. The most common form of DFS in developing countries is mobile financial services (MFS), which rely on mobile phone technology to deliver secured, fast, and inexpensive financial transactions such as payments and money transfers. In addition, transparency of MFS transactions reduces fraud, contributing to government tax revenue. Thus, as mobile phones are the most extensively used and functionally adaptable method of DFS in developing nations, “mobile money” can be an important instrument for the digitalization of agricultural finance designed to reach smallholders, who cultivate more than 80% of the land but have very limited or no access to physical bank finance (e.g., USAID 2014). Why are MFS/DFS better tools than non-digital banking? DFS are in general characterized by low marginal costs per account or transaction, so they can bring economies of scale and reduce the cost of a financial transaction. For example, while the average cost of sending home $200 in cash is about $14 via the formal banking system, the average cost would be only a fraction of this cost via DFS (Pazarbasioglu et al. 2020). Digitalization of banking also reduces the cost of operation. A study of a South Indian bank shows that the bank saves more than ₹13 per transaction in a banking operation just by shifting branch transactions to digital channels.1 So, digitalizing financial services is a cost‑effective way of carrying out payments or transferring cash. In many developing countries with limited physical financial",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of a South Indian bank shows that the bank saves more than ₹13 per transaction in a banking operation just by shifting branch transactions to digital channels.1 So, digitalizing financial services is a cost‑effective way of carrying out payments or transferring cash. In many developing countries with limited physical financial access, digital financial services such as MFS have managed to enhance payments, money transfers, or insurance purchasing. MFS have leveraged the high mobile phone penetration in many developing countries to deliver money transfers at very low costs. 1 For details on cost estimates, see Philippon (2020). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 334 MFS have enhanced financial inclusion simply via mobile technology—two-thirds of the world’s 1.7 billion adults without access to formal financial services have a mobile phone. More specifically, there are over 850 million registered mobile money accounts across 90 countries with $1.3 billion transacted daily via these accounts. Even though MFS have been in operation for just a decade, more than 70% of the transactions in mobile money systems are basically cash-in or cash‑out types (Pasti 2019).2 In other words, MFS are dominated by payments or remitting money, and they are used very little for lending or other categories of financial services. Mobile money has helped people to remit money and receive money or government transfers, which has opened the door for speedy monetary transactions in several directions: person to person (P2P), person to government (P2G), and government to person (G2P). MFS users are better able to manage financial risk from various factors including climate change. For example, in Kenya, MFS users who experienced an unexpected income and consumption shock were able to reduce such shocks via remittances sent by relatives from distant geographical areas (Jack and Suri 2014). Similarly, in Bangladesh, millions among the unbanked",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to manage financial risk from various factors including climate change. For example, in Kenya, MFS users who experienced an unexpected income and consumption shock were able to reduce such shocks via remittances sent by relatives from distant geographical areas (Jack and Suri 2014). Similarly, in Bangladesh, millions among the unbanked population—especially among poor people and those in remote and rural areas—have greatly benefited (in terms of consumption and income smoothing) from MFS thanks to the high penetration of the mobile phone network into all corners of the country (Murshid et al. 2020). Starting their operations in 2010 in Bangladesh, MFS now have an outreach of 180 million registered customers, the majority of them in rural areas, with a transaction volume exceeding Tk29 billion per day in 2021. MFS also help reduce gender disparity in access to financial services and enhance women’s empowerment in the process. 2 In fact, in most cases (87% of global transactions), customers use digital finance to send/receive money or buy airtime (Kienzle 2015). No doubt, there are many more mobile money accounts than bank accounts in many countries in Africa and Asia, and hence, they are drivers of enhanced financial inclusion. 335 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture 9.2 \u0007Benefits of Digital Financial Services in Agriculture A growing body of literature from Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and South Asia (SAR) shows that DFS, mainly person-to-person (P2P) and government-to-person (G2P) transactions, help boost income and consumption, reduce poverty, and enhance resilience to absorb short-term shocks such as health and natural hazards (e.g., Jack and Suri [2014] on M-PESA in Kenya and Murshid et al. [2020] on bKash in Bangladesh). For example, in Kenya, MFS are found to reduce extreme poverty by 22 percentage points among female-headed households and lift 2% of the households out of poverty. In Bangladesh, bKash",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "natural hazards (e.g., Jack and Suri [2014] on M-PESA in Kenya and Murshid et al. [2020] on bKash in Bangladesh). For example, in Kenya, MFS are found to reduce extreme poverty by 22 percentage points among female-headed households and lift 2% of the households out of poverty. In Bangladesh, bKash helps increase per capita income by some 6%. More importantly, the risk mitigating impacts of bKash are substantial: It helps smooth income and consumption with more pronounced effects due to health and natural shocks (such as floods). At the macro level, MFS account for a large volume of transactions that takes place in everyday business and remittance transfers across households. Simply by lowering reliance on cash handling, MFS transactions generate gains up to 2% of the gross domestic product in the developing world (Pazarbasioglu et al. 2020). A few studies have evaluated digitalized credit and savings programs. In Kenya, a mobile savings and loan service known as M-Shwari was introduced in 2012 by the Commercial Bank of Africa that combines M-Shwari accounts with the M-PESA mobile financial service accounts.3 M-PESA uses mobile phone technology to deliver payments and money transfer services, but it does not offer lending or savings services. By 2019, M-Shwari reached 16 million customers accounting for 70% of the adults in the country. An evaluation of M-Shwari lending shows that access to the mobile banking services of M-Shwari has improved resilience against shocks that would otherwise have forced households to cut back expenditures on education and health. However, access to M-Shwari does not replace access to loans from formal or informal sources. This is not surprising, given that M-Shwari offers very small loans for a very short period, such as 30 days, and thus, may be quite useful during times of high needs (Bharadwaj, Jack, and Suri",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "However, access to M-Shwari does not replace access to loans from formal or informal sources. This is not surprising, given that M-Shwari offers very small loans for a very short period, such as 30 days, and thus, may be quite useful during times of high needs (Bharadwaj, Jack, and Suri 2019). Another study of M-Shwari, using a regression discontinuity method, estimates the impact of a promotional scheme of individual loans and savings. 3 M-Shwari, introduced in 2012, is a digital microcredit platform of M-PESA, the leading MFS provider in Kenya. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 336 Findings show that lending increased during the promotion period, but savings, while increasing at the beginning, declined soon after the promotional period ended (Bharadwaj and Suri 2020). Lee et al. (2019) studied mobile money transfers of garment workers in Dhaka, Bangladesh, who used bKash as opposed to traditional methods to send money to families back home. The study finds significant effects of mobile money transfers on health, education, and the extent of borrowing. More specifically, for active users of bKash, remittances sent from urban centers to rural areas increased by 26%, which resulted in an increase of consumption by 7.5%. Another study carried out in Uganda shows that the expansion of mobile money agents doubled the nonfarm self-employment rate among users, reduced travel costs (expressed as a percentage of per capita expenditures) by 10 percentage points, and reduced food insecurity (Weiser et al. 2019).4 9.3 \u0007Why Is Digitalization of Agricultural Finance Necessary? Farmers, especially smallholders, around the world are highly constrained in the credit market and in access to other forms of financial services. They are also vulnerable to serious negative consequences of climate change and other covariate risks. Yet two-thirds of adults who live in poverty rely on agriculture as",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Necessary? Farmers, especially smallholders, around the world are highly constrained in the credit market and in access to other forms of financial services. They are also vulnerable to serious negative consequences of climate change and other covariate risks. Yet two-thirds of adults who live in poverty rely on agriculture as a source of income, and frequently they lack the means to maximize yields and address production constraint issues including unfavorable weather, crop pests, and diseases, all of which have been made worse by climate change (GSMA 2022). Overall, the evidence suggests that financial products generally have a positive impact on consumption, food security, income, production, and resilience for rural and agricultural households (e.g., Anderson 2015). Results from the study by Peprah et al. (2020) show that financial inclusion significantly increases productivity. Thus, for inclusive finance and sustainable agricultural production via higher yields, smallholder farmers’ access to financial services (including loans, savings, and insurance) must be increased. Another study conducted in Ethiopia 4 For more on the randomized controlled trial studies, see Karlan et al. (2016). 337 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture demonstrates that access to credit services improves the technical efficiency of small-scale maize producers and allows them to achieve the highest possible output level from a given set of inputs (Koricho and Ahmed 2021). According to a recent study, smallholders in lowto middle-income countries are estimated to have an annual loan demand of $238 billion (or 8% of the gross domestic product’s share of the agricultural industry). But only a third of this need is being satisfied (IFC 2022). One of the reasons might be the difficulty for financial institutions to reach farmers in rural areas and the long distance to financial institutions from farmers’ homes. For instance, Witte et al. (2015) found that longer distances to both branch",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "a third of this need is being satisfied (IFC 2022). One of the reasons might be the difficulty for financial institutions to reach farmers in rural areas and the long distance to financial institutions from farmers’ homes. For instance, Witte et al. (2015) found that longer distances to both branch and field offices significantly reduce the volume of new loans. With substantial evidence of the multidimensional dividends accrued from DFS, it is obvious that agricultural finance offered to smallholders by financial institutions should be digitalized. MFS can, for example, make financial services more accessible in rural areas, where traditional banking services might not be available, and minimize the cost of money transfers, which may be particularly costly if carried out using non-digital methods. Financial services now have new options to connect with rural customer segments in the agriculture sector thanks to innovations in DFS and other digital tools. In an area with low customer density and high transportation costs to physically reach and serve customers, digital technologies can help create less expensive scenarios to gather and process information, attract customers, develop and distribute products, and manage services (IFC 2022). More importantly, the continued usage of cash in agricultural value chains exacerbates inefficiencies as well as insecurity. One of the top three major obstacles to increasing agricultural production is cash-based value chains and market inefficiencies, with large transactions that take place within these value chains (IFC 2022). Digital payment systems address the inefficiencies of cash-based transactions by reducing the time and expense of having to travel to make transactions, speeding up the payments to intended recipients, and lowering the risks of theft and fraud associated with carrying cash on long trips (Pazarbasioglu et al. 2020). By enhancing the simplicity and transparency of accounting, DFS provides underserved farmers a point of entry",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "expense of having to travel to make transactions, speeding up the payments to intended recipients, and lowering the risks of theft and fraud associated with carrying cash on long trips (Pazarbasioglu et al. 2020). By enhancing the simplicity and transparency of accounting, DFS provides underserved farmers a point of entry to more comprehensive and efficient financial services. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 338 It is not only farmers who benefit from digital finance. Agribusinesses and other actors in the agricultural value chain also benefit from DFS/MFS by avoiding the inefficiencies and lack of transparency that come with cash transactions while addressing a variety of business concerns, maximizing operational efficiencies, and bringing real-time insights into the supply chain. Another area in which digital financial services such as MFS can have a significant influence is the utilization of inputs and farm outputs. Indeed, studies suggest that the adoption of mobile money technology increases farmers’ use of fertilizer, herbicides, and output by roughly 18%, 13%, and 4%, respectively, in comparison to non-adoption of mobile money transactions (e.g., Abdul-Rahaman and Awudu 2022). Access to financing has a favorable and considerable impact on the amount of fertilizer and herbicide farmers use as well as the produce on their farms. Moreover, digital finance can help manage health risk due to conditions such as the coronavirus disease (COVID-19). A study carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic finds that digital financial services significantly contributed to safeguarding the People’s Republic of China’s agricultural supply lines. The empirical findings demonstrated that the level of financial inclusion in the digital space significantly benefited trading in agricultural goods. More specifically, agricultural commerce rose by about 1.6% for every 1% increase in digital financial inclusion during the pandemic (Fang and Zhang 2021). This means the digitalization of agricultural finance can",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "empirical findings demonstrated that the level of financial inclusion in the digital space significantly benefited trading in agricultural goods. More specifically, agricultural commerce rose by about 1.6% for every 1% increase in digital financial inclusion during the pandemic (Fang and Zhang 2021). This means the digitalization of agricultural finance can help smallholders to mitigate unexpected shocks and disruptions. Finally, there are new categories of digital data that can supplement conventional agricultural data from, say, crop harvests, thanks to sophisticated and more widely accessible sensors, satellites, and other instruments (Pazarbasioglu et al. 2020). This information has the ability to aid in timely decision making for agricultural actors. It can also help external actors such as financial service providers in understanding the industry and the possible risks to investors. The information system created in the process can also be used to develop an array of insurance products appropriate for the given context and necessary to aid the farming community (including small agribusinesses) in the event of uncertainty with climate changes. Digital technology such as mobile technology can augment farmers’ insurance take-up and help them to pay insurance premiums on time.5 5 For details, see Robles (2021). 339 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture 9.4 \u0007Current State of Digital Finance in the Developing World The Global Findex data collected by the World Bank over the years since 2011 provides a snapshot of the increasing level of financial inclusion realized in the developing world and higher financial access by smallholders in agriculture. As Figure 9.1 shows, financial inclusion (defined by whether one has an account with a financial institution such as a bank, credit union, or MFI or an account with mobile financial services) among farmers in the developing world was 37.9% in 2014 compared to 57.1% in 2021.6 The corresponding numbers for nonfarmers are",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "shows, financial inclusion (defined by whether one has an account with a financial institution such as a bank, credit union, or MFI or an account with mobile financial services) among farmers in the developing world was 37.9% in 2014 compared to 57.1% in 2021.6 The corresponding numbers for nonfarmers are 42.4% and 58.7%, respectively. These numbers show that farmers gained as much access to financial services as those not directly involved in agriculture over the past years. One of the key factors underlying the increased level of financial inclusion is the increased coverage of mobile money services (MFS) across developing countries. Farmers, a consumer category that was previously considered too challenging and costly for traditional financial services to reach, are now accessible via mobile phones. For example, in 2021, farmers’ access to financial institutions was 45.0% compared to 52.2% among nonfarmers. 6 See definition of farmers in footnote 5 of Chapter 2. Figure 9.1:\u0003 Financial Access by Farmers and Nonfarmers across Years 37.9% 42.4% 48.2% 48.0% 57.1% 58.7% Farmers Nonfarmers 2014 2017 2021 Sources: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database, 2014–2021 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2018; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 340 But famers’ access to MFS was 30.4% in 2021 against 23.0% among nonfarmers. Most of the expansion in financial inclusion through mobile money was attained in SSA. For example, in 2021, among farmers, MFS account expansion was 42.0% in SSA compared to only 14.7% in SAR (Figure 9.2). For the same period, the financial inclusion rate among farmers due to increased access to financial institutions was higher in SAR (53.0%) than in SSA (32.8%). Figure 9.2:\u0003 \u0007Mobile Financial Service Access by Farmers in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, Across Years SAR SSA 2014 2017 2021 3.0% 15.9% 8.2%",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "For the same period, the financial inclusion rate among farmers due to increased access to financial institutions was higher in SAR (53.0%) than in SSA (32.8%). Figure 9.2:\u0003 \u0007Mobile Financial Service Access by Farmers in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, Across Years SAR SSA 2014 2017 2021 3.0% 15.9% 8.2% 30.2% 14.7% 42.0% SAR = South Asia, SSA = Sub-Saharan Africa. Sources: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database, 2014–2021 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2018; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). Thus, most of this MFS expansion has been concentrated in the SSA region, especially in East Africa, where the use of mobile money is more widespread. For example, 49 of the SSA region’s 111 digital financial services for the agricultural sector are from just five nations: Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. As Figure 9.3 shows, while the average rate of financial inclusion among farmers in SSA in 2021 was 55.2%, it was 91.4% in Kenya and 75.9% in Uganda. This was primarily due to expansion in MFS coverage. 341 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture The mere fact that farmers have expanded financial inclusion via mobile technology does not mean that farmers have increased access to institutional finance, where institutional credit access as per demand, for example, can help increase farmers’ food security and ensure enhanced farm productivity via better utilization of inputs, especially modern inputs such as fertilizers. Figure 9.4 shows the trend in farmers’ access to institutional finance. While 58.5% of the farmers borrowed from any source in 2017 in the developing world, only 14.4% borrowed from financial institutions, and only 18.7% borrowed for agricultural/business purposes. This means that a large percentage of farmers borrowed from informal sources and that a large percentage of money borrowed is not for production purposes but for consumptionor income-smoothening, health, or",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in 2017 in the developing world, only 14.4% borrowed from financial institutions, and only 18.7% borrowed for agricultural/business purposes. This means that a large percentage of farmers borrowed from informal sources and that a large percentage of money borrowed is not for production purposes but for consumptionor income-smoothening, health, or other purposes.7 7 Country-level studies reported in this book support this observation. Figure 9.3:\u0003 \u0007Access to Finance by Farmers in Sub‑Saharan Africa, Kenya, and Uganda, Across Years 2014 2017 2021 SSA Kenya Uganda 29.3% 81.8% 48.8% 42.7% 91.0% 65.5% 55.2% 91.4% 75.9% SSA = Sub-Saharan Africa. Sources: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database, 2014–2021 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2015; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2018; Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 342 That is, improved financial inclusion made possible via mobile financial access did not increase borrowing in countries with higher penetration of mobile technology. For example, in Kenya, with its much higher financial access because of mobile penetration, 71.2% of the farmers borrowed from any source in 2017, while only 25.1% borrowed from financial institutions (banks and MFIs), and 28.5% borrowed for agricultural/business purposes (Figure 9.5). This is evident in all countries. In 2021, while 59.8% of mobile-only account holders borrowed from any source, only 5.3% borrowed from institutional sources (Figure 9.6). This suggests that having mobile financial accounts did not help farmers much to access institutional finance. This is also evident in Bangladesh, which has one of the highest rates of mobile account connections in the world; that is, rural households with a mobile connection do not necessarily have increased access to institutional finance, although it increases their financial inclusion rate (ADB 2022). There are many actors behind the MFS expansion among farmers in SSA. For example, the whole value chain of TruTrade Africa, a",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the world; that is, rural households with a mobile connection do not necessarily have increased access to institutional finance, although it increases their financial inclusion rate (ADB 2022). There are many actors behind the MFS expansion among farmers in SSA. For example, the whole value chain of TruTrade Africa, a social organization acting as a crop aggregator in Kenya and Uganda, has been totally digitalized, again because of higher rates of mobile connection. Farmers deliver their food to the pickup stations, where representatives from TruTrade Africa inspect it for quality, weigh it, and make a purchase offer. The agent initiates a payment to the farmer’s mobile money account if the offer is accepted (GSMA 2022). Figure 9.4:\u0003 \u0007Borrowing by Farmers in Developing Countries, 2017 Borrowed for agriculture/business purpose Borrowed from financial institutions Borrowed from any sources 18.7% 14.4% 58.5% Source: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database, 2017 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2018). 343 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture Figure 9.5:\u0003 Borrowing by Farmers in Kenya, 2017 Borrowed from financial institutions 25.1% Borrowed for agriculture/business purpose 28.5% Borrowed from any sources 71.2% Source: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database, 2017 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2018). Figure 9.6:\u0003 Borrowing by Mobile-Only Account Holders, 2021 Borrowed from financial institutions 5.30% Borrowed from any sources 59.8% Source: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion database, 2021 (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2022). Another example is Safaricom’s DigiFarm platform in Kenya, which leverages the reach of M-PESA, a mobile phone-based money service, to provide farmers access to a comprehensive solution via a mobile phone. The platform gives users access to value-added services including soil analysis, insurance, and financial products as well as advisory services, inputs, and purchasers (GSMA 2022; IFC 2022).8 8 Mobile technology can also help the insurance system. Three major barriers in the agricultural insurance markets are (i) lack",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "a mobile phone. The platform gives users access to value-added services including soil analysis, insurance, and financial products as well as advisory services, inputs, and purchasers (GSMA 2022; IFC 2022).8 8 Mobile technology can also help the insurance system. Three major barriers in the agricultural insurance markets are (i) lack of appropriate index insurance products, (ii) low take-up of insurance among farmers, and (iii) problem of collecting premiums and making payouts. However, both farmers and insurers can take advantage of the outreach of mobile phone and mobile banking technologies. For example, the ACRE Africa enterprise in East Africa allows farmers to pay insurance premiums and receive payouts via the M-PESA mobile banking system (Hess and Hazell 2016). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 344 Table A9.1 presents a number of ongoing experiments in different countries that are providing various services (including credit and savings) to farmers or agribusinesses via mobile transactions. However, most of the experiments are based in SSA countries where access to institutional finance is very limited due to the high transaction costs of banking expansion. No wonder we notice a large expansion of MFS coverage in SSA countries. These experimental digital agri-based financial services use different ecosystems such as agent banking, partnership of financial systems with mobile networks, and digital tools such as credit scoring algorithms to extend a variety of financial services, including credit. 9.5 \u0007What Policies and Infrastructures Are Necessary to Expand Digital Outreach to Farmers? Despite its inability to raise access to institutional finance, the use of a mobile money account has a significant impact on improving input utilization and farm output, which suggests that policies promoting the adoption of the technology should be supported.9 For instance, increasing the number of mobile technology networks and mobile money service locations accelerates technology adoption,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "institutional finance, the use of a mobile money account has a significant impact on improving input utilization and farm output, which suggests that policies promoting the adoption of the technology should be supported.9 For instance, increasing the number of mobile technology networks and mobile money service locations accelerates technology adoption, particularly in rural areas. Increased education spending and opening of financing options to smallholders can also help promote the uptake of mobile money technologies (Abdul-Rahaman and Awudu 2022). There is a prima facie reason for expanding the coverage of mobile financial services for rural households, including smallholders. As mentioned, improved financial access to farmers can be ensured via mobile technology transfer even if it does not ensure farmers’ access to institutional credit. Investment in the foundational components necessary for creating digital financial services, such as expanding digital identification and mobile broadband infrastructures, especially in distant locations, is urgently needed. To ensure a competitive ecosystem and enable the majority of people to make use of digital financial services, these investments should be supplemented with the necessary legal and regulatory frameworks (Pazarbasioglu et al. 2020). 9 That is, even if farmers’ access to institutional finance (credit for example) has not improved, mobile financial services help improve farmers’ access to outside resources, such as remittances from relatives or transfers from the government, that help achieve efficiency in consumption as well as production (Murshid et al. 2020; ADB 2022; Jack and Suri 2014). 345 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture The policy foundations for digital expansion can be divided into three clusters: (i) developing a conducive legal and regulatory framework; (ii) enabling financial and digital infrastructures (such as payment systems, credit infrastructure, and digital connectivity infrastructure); and (iii) ensuring ancillary government support systems (for example, data platforms, digital identification and financial management platforms) (Pazarbasioglu et",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "expansion can be divided into three clusters: (i) developing a conducive legal and regulatory framework; (ii) enabling financial and digital infrastructures (such as payment systems, credit infrastructure, and digital connectivity infrastructure); and (iii) ensuring ancillary government support systems (for example, data platforms, digital identification and financial management platforms) (Pazarbasioglu et al. 2020). A country’s ICT network and power grid are both essential parts of the digital financial infrastructure. Basic DFS require reliable access to mobile services (e.g., M-PESA in Kenya and bKash in Bangladesh). By delivering DFS via apps, access to data services (3G and higher) can enhance the user experience of mobile technology (Alipay in the People’s Republic of China and Paytm in India). Providing access to mobile signals might not be sufficient on its own. A study by Naito and Yamamoto (2022) examined the effects of network accessibility on the use of mobile money in six developing countries (Bangladesh, Kenya, Nigeria, Pakistan, Tanzania, and Uganda) and discovered that network access is strongly connected with the use of mobile money in Pakistan and Tanzania only. In those two nations, the likelihood of utilizing mobile money rises by 10% for every additional 10 kilometers closer that a household gets to the area served by several mobile networks. This shows that expanding network accessibility might not be an efficient way to boost the use of mobile money transactions in some nations. Reluctance to embrace digital money might be one of the reasons for a lack of mobile monetary transactions. In the GSMA’s report on the state of the mobile money industry (GSMA 2022), preference for cash was identified as the most prevalent barrier to having a mobile money account. For a variety of factors relating to established practice, widespread acceptability, trust, and reliability either as a form of currency or a",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "GSMA’s report on the state of the mobile money industry (GSMA 2022), preference for cash was identified as the most prevalent barrier to having a mobile money account. For a variety of factors relating to established practice, widespread acceptability, trust, and reliability either as a form of currency or a method of payment, farmers continue to utilize cash even when digital payment options are available (World Bank 2018). Users with less experience in digital technology feel more secure because of the physicality of cash. In fact, a combination of institutional and human factors strongly contribute to the exclusion of rural residents from digital banking. Most rural residents keep their hard-earned money at home due to the strong word-of-mouth syndrome caused by security worries related to online banking, hacking, and other types of negative news at the individual and community level (Agwu 2020). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 346 DFS must be constructed in a way that is clear and pertinent to the intended users, represent local, contextually determined needs, and be made available through a channel that is both accessible and inexpensive (World Bank 2018). These solutions may inspire confidence in users, especially those with little prior experience using digital technology and financial services. Another conducive policy is expansion of digital literacy, which the Alliance for Financial Inclusion (AFI) defines as “acquiring the knowledge, skills, confidence and competencies to safely use digitally delivered financial products and services, to make informed financial decisions and act in one’s best financial interest per individual’s economic and social circumstance” (AFI 2021: 5). The findings from South Asian and sub-Saharan African countries consistently show that both financial and digital literacy are key factors in building inclusiveness and financial resilience (e.g., savings, borrowing, and risk management) (Kass-Hanna, Lyons, and Liu 2022). The findings",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "financial interest per individual’s economic and social circumstance” (AFI 2021: 5). The findings from South Asian and sub-Saharan African countries consistently show that both financial and digital literacy are key factors in building inclusiveness and financial resilience (e.g., savings, borrowing, and risk management) (Kass-Hanna, Lyons, and Liu 2022). The findings highlight the necessity of expanding traditional financial literacy to encompass digital literacy. Finally, larger injections of credit and lending fund come with a wider risk for the financial system if DFS result in a scenario where financing is aggressively pursued and offered but not properly monitored and supervised (World Bank 2018). Rural market groups may not be prepared to assess the risks of adopting particular services, notably financing, given low levels of formal education, financial literacy, and digital literacy. Business development teams might view risk awareness and mitigation as a barrier to successfully promoting their products, and thus, may need a counterweight from teams who are good at recognizing and managing operational risk (World Bank 2018). This should ensure a check and balance in the digital system. 9.6 \u0007What Can Donors and Other Stakeholders Do for Digitalizing Agricultural Finance? Of all the stakeholders in the digital ecosystem, the viewpoint of poor communities, especially smallholders, is frequently underrepresented (USAID 2014). However, considering their mission, donors can use their position to ensure that smallholders’ viewpoint is considered while expanding DFS coverage to reach smallholders and agribusiness communities, who are used to cash-based transactions. For instance, they could promote easing of customer 347 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture identification requirements or offer financial incentives to serve providers so they will extend their outreach to underprivileged and poor communities. Donors are also not primarily motivated by thoughts of immediate financial success. This encourages experimentation and creativity and enables donors to plan initiatives with results",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Digital Financial Services for Agriculture identification requirements or offer financial incentives to serve providers so they will extend their outreach to underprivileged and poor communities. Donors are also not primarily motivated by thoughts of immediate financial success. This encourages experimentation and creativity and enables donors to plan initiatives with results that prioritize lessons learned. Donors can fund “public good” research that may be broadly distributed and benefit the ecosystem as a whole (USAID 2014). Multiple businesses or organizations are frequently involved in DFS offerings for agriculture. It is beneficial to cooperate and take advantage of strengths of digital providers, including knowledge of financial services. It is also worth supporting the penetration of mobile network service delivery channels, the usability of mobile technology products, and supply chain networks of agribusinesses for the distribution of inputs or collection of outputs in rural areas. The roles of proximity, trust, and knowledge of community-based organizations to rural populations are very important for outreach of DFS in rural areas (World Bank 2018). Additionally, there are numerous new players who are not conventional banks. For instance, fintech is providing solutions to new consumer segments, such as small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), that meet demands that banks have never catered to (World Bank 2018). Because new entities (FinTech and Mobile Network Operators) have joined the market and taken on significant and valuable roles, partnerships are required in this area. They are increasing their market share and momentum. As a result, knowledge and abilities that are acquired, when applied correctly, can be essential (World Bank 2018). It makes sense to collaborate with experts because the capabilities and requirements of new technologies change quickly. Working with low-income agricultural clientele requires partnerships as well. These populations continue to receive inadequate care because dealing with them comes with a number of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "applied correctly, can be essential (World Bank 2018). It makes sense to collaborate with experts because the capabilities and requirements of new technologies change quickly. Working with low-income agricultural clientele requires partnerships as well. These populations continue to receive inadequate care because dealing with them comes with a number of difficulties. Understanding and serving this sector can be made commercially feasible by working with partners such as mobile networks that traditional financial institutions may not generally collaborate with (World Bank 2018). Despite government and donor support, smallholders have very limited access to institutional financial services, including credit and savings in the developing world, for a variety of reasons. Factors such as weather uncertainty and seasonality cause farming to be a risky venture for any type of financial institution to deal with. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 348 Proximity to physical banks and other financial institutions is another barrier. Mobile finance can help address proximity issues but not necessarily weather uncertainty. Addressing climate change and weather uncertainty is a serious bottleneck for any financial system to deal with. It is necessary for a collaborative mechanism of several institutions to deal with natural calamities. Lack of land entitlement or registration is one deterring factor for banks to lend to farmers. Due to lack of adequate information, financial institutions often find it difficult to assess risk in farm lending. MFIs often use social network arrangements, such as group responsibility, to address such issues. In the past, governments tried to circumvent such problems through government-aided national bank systems such as the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development in India, the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives in Thailand, and Bank Rakyat Indonesia in Indonesia. Some of these programs succeeded with continued government and donor support, but many failed because of",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "such problems through government-aided national bank systems such as the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development in India, the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives in Thailand, and Bank Rakyat Indonesia in Indonesia. Some of these programs succeeded with continued government and donor support, but many failed because of lack of innovation in the financial ecosystem. No wonder MFIs have increasingly been supporting farming communities using social network or self-help groups in the developing world, where joint social responsibility affects individual liability. Cross‑country data analysis shows that institutional credit accessed by farmers actually comes largely from a country’s burgeoning microfinance system (Khandker 2021). Hence, digitalization of financial services for farmers means digitalization of microfinance in many countries of Asia and SSA. Donors can help develop support schemes that promote digitalization of microfinance or commercial banks’ finance or cooperative and self-help group finance who intend to reach out to farmers and agribusinesses more efficiently and inclusively. Note that digitalization of microfinance (including cooperative and self-help group finance) often cannot handle a variety of demands for financial services for a particular group and thus, needs partnership with commercial banks that have much liquidity and a large network both in urban centers and peri-urban locales. Governments and other stakeholders can help facilitate such partnerships with the objective of digitalizing an ecosystem of agricultural financial services. 349 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture 9.7 \u0007Digitalizing Microfinance: A Test Case for Determining the Extent of Digital Financial Services Offered to Smallholders Mobile technology has the potential to enhance the efficiency of microcredit and savings services of MFIs for poor people (especially women and smallholders) as well as services of cooperatives and self-help groups of farmers. By integrating mobile technology into financial transactions, MFIs, which practice social collateral‑based banking such as group-based programs in Bangladesh and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "potential to enhance the efficiency of microcredit and savings services of MFIs for poor people (especially women and smallholders) as well as services of cooperatives and self-help groups of farmers. By integrating mobile technology into financial transactions, MFIs, which practice social collateral‑based banking such as group-based programs in Bangladesh and elsewhere to support the income-earning activities of poor people, in principle can save time and money in loan disbursement and collection, cash management, document processing, and verification of potential clients. Consequently, branch operations and staff activities of branch-based MFIs that use DFS are likely to be more efficient. Much of the cost savings can be transferred to clients, with the likelihood of interest rates being decreased. Thus, digitalization of microfinance operations can present a win-win scenario for the providers and the clients alike.10 Because of the observed benefits as well as outreach of microfinance programs, especially in reaching women and smallholders, reducing the cost of borrowing from MFIs is a policy issue that deserves serious attention. Without much innovation for some time, MFIs still carry out operations the traditional way, and as a result, cost optimization has become an issue with growing outreach. Moreover, while the demand for loans has grown, growth in the number of borrowers has not been proportionate or remains stagnated. One way to reduce the cost of operation for an MFI system is to digitalize its operation, especially its lending and mobilizing savings, and extend such services not only to farmers but to an array of other participants in the agricultural value chain. In recent years, commercial banks and fintech companies are trying to penetrate the uncharted financial landscape focusing on the low-income and rural segment of the market. More specifically, agent banking operations of the commercial banks offer loans to rural and unbanked populations at",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "other participants in the agricultural value chain. In recent years, commercial banks and fintech companies are trying to penetrate the uncharted financial landscape focusing on the low-income and rural segment of the market. More specifically, agent banking operations of the commercial banks offer loans to rural and unbanked populations at interest rates similar to those charged by retail banks—much lower than the rates charged by MFIs. 10 This is also true for registered cooperatives specialized in microlending and mobilizing micro‑savings. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 350 In this changing landscape, MFIs may have to use digitalization to innovate with their services in order to remain competitive and sustainable as well as affordable and reachable to poor people, especially women. In Bangladesh, for example, the process of digitalization of microfinance has just started at a limited (pilot) scale, mostly by MFIs such as BRAC and BURO Bangladesh. These programs use MFS such as bKash (directly from the client or through an agent) to disburse loans and collect loan payments, but lending decisions are taken using branch-level operations. Agent banking mechanisms have also been introduced by some commercial banks, such as Dutch‑Bangla Bank and City Bank, which target the rural customers. But data shows that agent banking is engaged much more in savings mobilization than in lending—only 12% of what they mobilized as savings is actually disbursed as loans, but the lending decision is taken by commercial bank branches, not the agents. Digitalization of microfinance (essentially credit and savings programs) does not address, at least by definition, the group dynamics of microcredit operations— group collateral (peer monitoring) to enforce loan repayments or reduce the costs of asymmetric information associated with lending (so-called adverse selection). So, without resolving such issues, simply extending digital technology to carry out microloan transactions may",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "programs) does not address, at least by definition, the group dynamics of microcredit operations— group collateral (peer monitoring) to enforce loan repayments or reduce the costs of asymmetric information associated with lending (so-called adverse selection). So, without resolving such issues, simply extending digital technology to carry out microloan transactions may not resolve the issue of the social collateral mechanism, the foundation of the group-based lending services. For example, if digitalization of group-based financial services is introduced without taking into account the adverse selection bias, it is not clear if such digitalization of group-based lending and savings as practiced by MFIs would be sustainable or interoperable. If we contrast this type of group-based lending program with M-Shwari’s lending programs in Kenya and other African countries, it is clear that M-Shwari introduced individual-based lending that provides very small loans to individuals for a very short period (a month) at a very high interest rates (7.5% per month or 90% per annum). Such lending is good for meeting emergency needs but not for supporting income-earning activities, which require larger loan amounts at a lower rate after a longer period. M-Shwari is an individual-based lending operation where borrower selection is done digitally via machine learning or other scoring algorithms via an individual’s mobile phone subscription to M-PESA. A study has been carried out in the Philippines to evaluate if a group-based savings program is efficient when mobile phone technology is connected to mobilize savings instead of groups mobilizing savings (Harigaya 2020). 351 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture Findings of this study are striking: savings decreased by 20% and reliance on informal borrowing increased among the members of groups who were offered mobile banking with fewer restrictions on group cohesion. Does this mean group‑based banking cannot be digitalized? Developing digitalization of group-based lending with savings",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Services for Agriculture Findings of this study are striking: savings decreased by 20% and reliance on informal borrowing increased among the members of groups who were offered mobile banking with fewer restrictions on group cohesion. Does this mean group‑based banking cannot be digitalized? Developing digitalization of group-based lending with savings mobilization (as practiced in the traditional microfinance system) has therefore remained a challenge. To determine if it is possible to digitalize group-based microcredit and savings programs, some experimentation is perhaps worth undertaking. The idea may be to combine individual credit scoring with credit scoring of groups responsible for reducing adverse selection bias for lending. This may be a way to test out how a group-based lending program such as that of Grameen Bank or BRAC in Bangladesh and elsewhere may be digitalized where groups still support peer monitoring but lending is carried out digitally to address individuals’ needs. Support from government, stakeholders, and development partners would be critical in helping to develop and experiment with digitalization of alternative designs (such as group-based microcredit programs as well as individual-based lending programs) of commercial banks and MFIs that can be geared toward reaching farmers, especially smallholders, and small businesses involved in agribusinesses through digital means. 9.8 \u0007Conclusion Over the last decade, digital financial services (DFS) have expanded coverage using a variety of technologies including mobile technology. In particular, with the expansion of mobile phone technology in remote rural areas of Asia and Africa, financial services such as payments and remittances have been reaching smallholders and small agribusinesses in an unprecedented way. However, digitalized financial services, mainly in the form of mobile financial services (MFS), have not been able to extend other services such as credit disbursements to and savings mobilization from these disadvantaged groups located in remote communities that remain outside the",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "reaching smallholders and small agribusinesses in an unprecedented way. However, digitalized financial services, mainly in the form of mobile financial services (MFS), have not been able to extend other services such as credit disbursements to and savings mobilization from these disadvantaged groups located in remote communities that remain outside the physical network of commercial banks and other entities. Other groups such as MFIs and cooperatives have been active in reaching some of these smallholders and agribusinesses in small ways with lending and mobilizing savings services, albeit at a higher transaction cost for both service providers and customers. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 352 So, there is a dichotomy in the delivery of financial services by the existing financial institutions for two groups of clientele. While large farmers have access to commercial banks, smallholders generally lack access to them but have limited access to MFIs and self-help groups such as cooperatives. On the other hand, mobile financial services provide limited services such as payments and remittance transfers to groups of households and communities, but the digital technology has not been utilized to modernize the other financial services such as lending and mobilizing savings or insuring against uncertainty. Such a dualism in both DFS and non-digital physical financial services is a major barrier to transforming subsistence agriculture into commercial agriculture that can ensure higher productivity and higher food security via promoting high-value food production and associated supply chains. This chapter discusses the lessons learned from the SSA region’s agriculture, which has experienced a large expansion of financial inclusion in many of its countries such as Kenya and Uganda because of high penetration of mobile technology. However, data analysis shows that financial inclusion (simply having account with a bank, MFI, or MFS) does not mean farmers have the desired access",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "which has experienced a large expansion of financial inclusion in many of its countries such as Kenya and Uganda because of high penetration of mobile technology. However, data analysis shows that financial inclusion (simply having account with a bank, MFI, or MFS) does not mean farmers have the desired access to financial services such as institutional credit for promoting private investment to commercialize subsistence agriculture. While institutional credit is absolutely necessary to support agricultural investment, commercial banks cannot meet smallholders’ needs because of their design favoring large volumes of lending, and MFIs and cooperatives cannot cover the needs because of their disbursement of small loan amounts to groups of households. Hence, commercializing subsistence agriculture via large investment financed through institutional credit can be done by promoting linkages between commercial banking and small-scale cooperatives and MFIs. This linkage can be made possible via digitalization of the existing financial system through integration of these two systems. In order to strengthen the DFS to include other financial services such as credit disbursement, experimentation is perhaps necessary to merge MFS with MFIs/ cooperatives as well as with commercial banking. Some form of experimentation for promoting an integration of three parallel financial systems (commercial banking, micro-banking, and mobile banking) is going on in some countries such as Kenya and Bangladesh. Donors and governments must encourage such integration in an appropriate manner that is conducive to the integration of a digitalized financial system to commercialize subsistence agriculture for attaining sustainable growth and food security. Of course, digitalization of agricultural finance must be encouraged by incorporating alternative stakeholders active in the financial ecosystem. 353 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture REFERENCES Abdul-Rahaman, A., and A. Awudu. 2022. Mobile Money Adoption, Input Use, and Farm Output among Smallholder Rice Farmers in Ghana. Agribusiness 38: 236–255. Agwu, M. 2020. Can",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
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    "text": "digitalization of agricultural finance must be encouraged by incorporating alternative stakeholders active in the financial ecosystem. 353 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture REFERENCES Abdul-Rahaman, A., and A. Awudu. 2022. Mobile Money Adoption, Input Use, and Farm Output among Smallholder Rice Farmers in Ghana. Agribusiness 38: 236–255. Agwu, M. 2020. Can Technology Bridge the Gap between Rural Development and Financial Inclusions? Technology Analysis and Strategic Management: 1–11. Alliance for Financial Inclusion (AFI). 2021. Digital Financial Literacy Guideline Note No. 45. Kuala Lumpur. Anderson, L. 2015. Review of Rural and Agricultural Finance in Sub-Saharan Africa. EPAR Brief No. 307. Seattle, Washington: Evans School of Policy Analysis and Research. Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2022. Asia Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise Monitor 2021—Volume III: Digitalizing Microfinance in Bangladesh: Findings from the Baseline Survey. Manila: ADB. Bharadwaj, P., W. Jack, and T. Suri. 2019. Fintech and Household Resilience to Shocks: Evidence from Digital Loans in Kenya. NBER Working Paper 25604. National Bureau of Economic Research. Bharadwaj, P., and T. Suri. 2020. Digital Financial Services in Africa: Improving Financial Inclusion through Digital Savings and Credit. AEA Papers and Proceedings 110: 584–588. Biscaye, P., C. Clark, K. P. Harris, C. L. Anderson, and M. K. Gugerty. 2015. Review of Rural and Agricultural Finance in Sub-Saharan Africa. EPAR Technical Report No. 307. Seattle, Washington: Evans School Policy Analysis and Research Group. Demirguc-Kunt, A., L. Klapper, D. Singer, and P. Van Oudheusden. 2015. The Global Findex Data Base 2014: Measuring Financial Inclusion Around the World. Policy Research Working Paper No. 7255. Washington, DC: World Bank. Demirguc-Kunt, A., L. Klapper, D. Singer, S. Ansar, and J. Hess. 2018. Global Findex Database 2017: Measuring Financial Inclusion and the Fintech Revolution. Washington, DC: World Bank. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 354 Demirguc-Kunt, A., L. Klapper, D. Singer, and S. Ansar.",
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    "text": "2021. Credit for Agricultural Development. In K. Otsuka and S. Fan, eds. Agricultural Development: New Perspectives in a Changing World. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. Kienzle, L. 2015. Microfinance Goes Digital: Opportunities and Challenges in Enabling Pro-Poor Financial Institutions to Connect to the Digital Ecosystem. 17 March. NextBillion. Koricho, M., and M. Ahmed. 2021. The Impact of Credit on the Technical Efficiency of Food Crop Producing Smallholder Farmers in Ethiopia. Agricultural Finance Review 82(5): 847–856. 355 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture Lee, J. N., J. Morduch, S. Ravindran, A. S. Shonchoy, and H. Zaman. 2019. Poverty and Migration in the Digital Age: Experimental Evidence on Mobile Banking in Bangladesh. Mimeo. New York: New York University. Murshid, K. A. S., S. R. Khandker, K. Ali, H. Samad, and M. Hossain. 2020. Impact of Mobile Financial Services in Bangladesh: The Case of bKash. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies. Naito, H., and S. Yamamoto. 2022. Is Better Access to Mobile Networks Associated with Increased Mobile Money Adoption? Evidence from the Micro-data of Six Developing Countries. Telecommunications Policy 46(6). Pasti, F. 2019. State of the Industry Report on Mobile Money. GSMA. Pazarbasioglu, C., A. G. Mora, M. Uttamchandani, H. Natarajan, E. Feyen, and M. Saal. 2020. Digital Financial Services. World Bank: Washington, DC. Peprah, J., I. Koomson, J. Sebu, and C. Bukari. 2020. Improving Productivity among Smallholder Farmers in Ghana: Does Financial Inclusion Matter? Agricultural Finance Review. Philippon, T. 2020. On Fintech and Financial Inclusion. BIS Working Paper 841. Basel, Switzerland: Bank for International Settlements. Robles, M. 2021. Agricultural Insurance for Development: Past, Present, and Future. In Agricultural Development: New Perspectives in a Changing World, edited by K. Otsuka and S. Fan. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). United States Agency for International Development (USAID). 2014. Digital Finance",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
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    "text": "Switzerland: Bank for International Settlements. Robles, M. 2021. Agricultural Insurance for Development: Past, Present, and Future. In Agricultural Development: New Perspectives in a Changing World, edited by K. Otsuka and S. Fan. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). United States Agency for International Development (USAID). 2014. Digital Finance for Development: A Handbook for USAID Staff. Washington, DC: USAID. Weiser, C., M. Bruhn, J. Kinzinger, C. Ruckteschler, and S. Heitmann. 2019. The Impact of Mobile Money on Poor Rural Households: Experimental Evidence from Uganda. Policy Research Working Paper 8913. Washington, DC: World Bank. Witte, T., E. DeVuyst, B. Whitacre, and R. Jones. 2015. Modeling the Impact of Distance between Offices and Borrowers on Agricultural Loan Volume. Agricultural Finance Review 75(4): 484–498. World Bank. 2018. Financial Inclusion: An Overview. Washington, DC: World Bank. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 356 Table A9.1:\u0003 \u0007Recent Examples of Digital Finance Targeted to Agriculture Tigo Rwanda Mobile network provider working in Rwanda Description Tigo Money Rwanda is a mobile money service that provides Tigo mobile subscribers with an e-wallet account, which enables access to a variety of financial services including payments, savings, credit, and other services. Implementation Tigo integrated with three savings and credit cooperative organizations, enabling farmers to draw funds into their Tigo wallets through a “bank-to-wallet” or “push-pull” mechanism. In order to onboard the cooperatives to a core banking software, Tigo and the Wood Foundation sought the support of Access to Finance Rwanda, part of the UK Aid-funded Financial Sector Deepening for Africa initiative, to help facilitate procurement of an appropriate solution. Tigo decided to procure handsets at a wholesale price and distribute them to cooperatives as an advance. The cooperatives then act as the sales agent for the handsets while also providing a payment plan that farmers can choose",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Deepening for Africa initiative, to help facilitate procurement of an appropriate solution. Tigo decided to procure handsets at a wholesale price and distribute them to cooperatives as an advance. The cooperatives then act as the sales agent for the handsets while also providing a payment plan that farmers can choose instead of paying the purchase price up front. myAgro Third-party digital platform provider working in Senegal, Mali, Tanzania Description myAgro is a nonprofit social enterprise with primary operations in Senegal and Mali. It offers smallholder farmers a way to make small payments over time that add up to the cost of a high-quality inputs package. As a layaway payments platform, myAgro provides farmers with agro-information and advice, a way to pay incrementally for input packages using scratch cards or mobile devices, and coordination of input package delivery. Implementation Farmers register through myAgro agents with smartphones that operate the myAgro mobile application. These field agents are typically part of the local community, which helps build trust and communication. Field agents that help enroll farmers also offer periodic agricultural trainings. They collect farmer names, gender, village, and input choices. The myAgro platform issues a unique identification number to track layaway payments back to individual farmers. As it is not a financial institution and does not provide any formal deposit-taking or lending services that accrue interest, myAgro does not require a formal government ID for registration. Bank Asia Commercial bank working in Bangladesh Description Bank Asia adopts a holistic approach to lending and payments whereby farmers and other agro-value chain actors can transact digitally in person (e.g., at a rural collection point such as a cooperative) or remotely via mobile device or rural banking agents. Agents offer deposits, withdrawals, savings, payments, money transfers, credit, lending, and insurance. Implementation Bank Asia currently has about",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "payments whereby farmers and other agro-value chain actors can transact digitally in person (e.g., at a rural collection point such as a cooperative) or remotely via mobile device or rural banking agents. Agents offer deposits, withdrawals, savings, payments, money transfers, credit, lending, and insurance. Implementation Bank Asia currently has about 2,350 registered agents. A majority of these agents currently operate at local municipal centers of the government, but a growing percentage are for-profit entities or NGOs providing microfinance services to specific rural regions. Based on a blended commission structure that draws from float interest and per transaction revenues, agents have thus far demonstrated a motivation to mobilize and effectively safeguard deposits as opposed to simply drive account activation without emphasizing product comprehension and usage. continued on next page 357 Digital Financial Services for Agriculture Table A9.1:\u0003 Continued Apollo Agriculture Third-party digital platform provider working in Kenya Description Apollo Agriculture is a digital lending platform that provides farmers with access to credit based on an alternative scoring method, as well as agro-information and advice services. Apollo has chosen to target smallholder farmers who work in less organized value chains because they are the largest segment of commercially active farmers in the country. Implementation Customer acquisition takes place through radio, refer-a-friend incentive programs, and road shows. Once customers are registered (typically through a low-cost SMS channel) they engage with Apollo through the call center for enrollment and are visited by agents who conduct the data collection. Apollo agents then use smartphones to capture the GPS boundaries of customers’ farms and record additional observations about the applicant that complement satellite imagery used to assess farmers’ yield, crop cycles, crop types, housing, animal/livestock ownership, and access to roads. Apollo then takes these different data sources to help tailor both information services and creditworthiness scoring.",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "capture the GPS boundaries of customers’ farms and record additional observations about the applicant that complement satellite imagery used to assess farmers’ yield, crop cycles, crop types, housing, animal/livestock ownership, and access to roads. Apollo then takes these different data sources to help tailor both information services and creditworthiness scoring. Farmers repay their Apollo loans through mobile money gradually over the course of the season, with full payment due after harvest. Farmers also receive agronomic advice from Apollo through SMS and automated voice calls in multiple languages. Tulaa Third-party digital platform provider working in Ghana and Kenya Description Tulaa is a digital lending platform that links input suppliers, farmers, and commodity off-takers. It also provides financing to farmers for agro-input purchases and coordinates their delivery through existing retail networks or paid field agents. Implementation Tulaa alters the role of the farmer in collection or repayment activity related to lending or crop selling. Loans are disbursed directly from the lender to the input supplier over the Tulaa platform. Loan repayment is made by the output buyers in lieu of paying the farmer directly. The remaining balance is owed to the farmer, who receives this payment to a mobile money account. Tulaa uses digital channels at multiple levels—farmer, input supplier, commodity off-taker, and lender—to enhance and complement existing human networks working within targeted agro-value chains. During farmer registration, Tulaa staff collect KYC data, farmer crop data, and plot location data. Farmers also select their desired inputs packages and determine where and when they will collect them. In most cases (over 90%), farmers apply for a loan to cover the costs of the inputs package. When a loan is requested, the farmer is required to provide cash collateral to the lender, which can be either Tulaa directly or a lending partner such as",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "they will collect them. In most cases (over 90%), farmers apply for a loan to cover the costs of the inputs package. When a loan is requested, the farmer is required to provide cash collateral to the lender, which can be either Tulaa directly or a lending partner such as the MFI Musoni in Kenya. continued on next page Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 358 Table A9.1:\u0003 Continued Hello Tractor Third-party digital platform provider working in Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, and Tanzania Description Hello Tractor provides business asset management services to compact tractor owners or fleet managers as well as a remote mobile app-based booking service for farmers to lease equipment through rural booking agents, which relies on GIS-based software and sensor equipment. Implementation Farmers do not need to have a digital or mobile device to request a tractor, although this is rapidly evolving in some markets based on the geographic location of tractor demand and mobile technology access and usage of farmers. Currently, farmers need only to identify and contact a rural booking agent, who then assumes responsibility for ensuring that a compact tractor and tractor operator arrive as requested. The booking agent, in exchange for coordinating this service, is paid a commission of 10% on each job completed. Farmers that have mobile devices can also access a USSD short code to connect with a booking agent remotely. Virtually all farmers currently pay for this service in cash. Payment is made on the same day the tractor arrives, and two fees comprise the total amount. The farmer pays one fee to the rural booking agent and another to the tractor operator. GIS = geographic information system, GPS = global positioning system, KYC = know your customer, MFI = microfinance institution, NGO = nongovernment organization,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "day the tractor arrives, and two fees comprise the total amount. The farmer pays one fee to the rural booking agent and another to the tractor operator. GIS = geographic information system, GPS = global positioning system, KYC = know your customer, MFI = microfinance institution, NGO = nongovernment organization, USSD = unstructured supplementary service data. Source: IFC (2022). 359 Strengthening Access and Efficiency of Agricultural Finance Shahidur R. Khandker and Takashi Yamano CHAPTER 10 T he stylized facts about agricultural finance based on the latest cross‑country analysis of the Global Financial Inclusion (Findex) data are the following: Agricultural productivity is strongly associated with financial inclusion in agriculture. Financial inclusion is higher in the developed regions such as Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) and lower in the least-developed regions such as the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Developing countries in Asia fall in the middle. The demand for and use of financial services provided by banks (commercial and agricultural development banks) is the highest among rich and educated households, with the highest access to resources from microfinance institutions (MFIs) and cooperatives being among the poorer farm households. Branchless banking with mobile technology is more prominent in difficult-to-reach areas of all developing areas, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). This pattern of financial services through banks and MFIs/cooperatives has been consistent across regions: Banks serve rich farm households and MFIs/cooperatives serve relatively poor farm households. In contrast, mobile financial services (MFS) provide mostly cash transfers/remittances and payments, but not much credit and savings. MFS do not differentiate between boundaries across urban and rural areas nor the people based on wealth and occupation. Several country-level in-depth data analyses from Asia show that perspectives of agricultural finance differ substantially across countries. Financial inclusion among farmers is the highest in Thailand (99.7%) and",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "credit and savings. MFS do not differentiate between boundaries across urban and rural areas nor the people based on wealth and occupation. Several country-level in-depth data analyses from Asia show that perspectives of agricultural finance differ substantially across countries. Financial inclusion among farmers is the highest in Thailand (99.7%) and lowest in Viet Nam (49.0%). India and Bangladesh are somewhere in between—financial inclusion among farmers is 88.0% in India and 69.7% in Bangladesh. There is substantial difference in the farmers’ borrowing status across those four Asian countries. For example, in 2017, some 63% of farmers borrowed in India, Thailand, and Viet Nam, followed by 52% in Bangladesh. However, farmers’ demand for credit from financial institutions such as banks and MFIs/cooperatives is highest in Viet Nam (35%), followed by Thailand (29%), Bangladesh (18%), and India (10%). Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 360 This clearly shows that the majority of farmers in India rely more on informal sources than their counterparts in Bangladesh, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Interestingly, government-run banks play a vital role in extending credit to farmers in Thailand, while such banks have failed to deliver those services in Bangladesh and India. However, MFIs have been able to deliver credit to farmers in Bangladesh and Viet Nam. The MFIs in those countries play a vital role to support agriculture, unlike in other countries in the region. Also, mobile financial services play an important role in extending financial services such as payments and remittance transfers in Bangladesh much more than in India, Thailand, and Viet Nam. No wonder having a mobile financial services account is a major factor in ensuring higher financial inclusion in Bangladesh while having a bank account is the main source in India, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Regional in-depth data analysis from LAC and SSA",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "more than in India, Thailand, and Viet Nam. No wonder having a mobile financial services account is a major factor in ensuring higher financial inclusion in Bangladesh while having a bank account is the main source in India, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Regional in-depth data analysis from LAC and SSA portray not so different perspectives of agricultural finance. LAC is a net exporter of food compared to SSA, which is a net food importer. While 90% of land in SSA is cultivated by subsistence farmers, some 50% of land in LAC is cultivated by commercial farming. Access to institutional finance among farmers is higher in LAC than in SSA, and incidence of mobile finance, mostly in terms of providing payments and remittances, is higher in SSA than in LAC. In a way, the case in LAC resembles that in Thailand, while the case in SSA resembles that in Bangladesh. Nonetheless, in all three regions, smallholders in agriculture have very limited access to agricultural finance to promote investment in farming and, hence, productivity and food security. Household-level data analysis demonstrates that the use of financial services (e.g., credit) is higher among smallholders than among rich landowners, confirming the fact that smallholders are more credit-constrained than rich farmers. This is true in almost all countries and all regions. Data analysis also demonstrates that credit has a significant positive effect on crops and other categories of farm and nonfarm income; it also helps increase consumption, education, and health through enhanced income. Finance enhances resilience among households via resolving seasonal cash flows and variations of agricultural income. 361 Strengthening Access and Efficiency of Agricultural Finance Many governments in developing countries emphasize understandably the need to increase agricultural productivity, especially in smallholder agriculture, in order to develop agriculture sustainably and attain food security. This policymaking",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "resilience among households via resolving seasonal cash flows and variations of agricultural income. 361 Strengthening Access and Efficiency of Agricultural Finance Many governments in developing countries emphasize understandably the need to increase agricultural productivity, especially in smallholder agriculture, in order to develop agriculture sustainably and attain food security. This policymaking for ensuring farmers’ access to reliable financial services has become a more prominent issue since the onset of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic and the start of Russia’s war in Ukraine, and these events have significantly affected supply chains. More importantly, agriculture finance is a critical component of policymaking in many developing countries, where agricultural growth drives overall growth but where agriculture is managed largely by smallholders, who cultivate more than three-fourths of land in the developing world. Agriculture is in general subject to varying covariate risk. On top of that, farmers face idiosyncratic shocks, a binding constraint for any farm-level decision making. While large farmers are rich and have better access to institutional finance to mitigate those risks, smallholders—for a variety of reasons—are constrained in their financial environment. Many do not have access to efficient financial services to save, borrow, pay, and insure against risks due to both demand and supply constraints. This limited access is in part due to the high transaction costs of small loans and savings, as well as the high risk associated with farming caused by unpredictable droughts and excessive rains. The goal of any government decision making, therefore, is to help develop and sustain an appropriate financial ecosystem and policies in support of enhanced financial development for agriculture and innovations for appropriate product and institutional development. For sure, financial development for agriculture needs to embrace innovation and technology, including the development of cost-effective products, services, market access, and institutions to offer appropriate financial services,",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "an appropriate financial ecosystem and policies in support of enhanced financial development for agriculture and innovations for appropriate product and institutional development. For sure, financial development for agriculture needs to embrace innovation and technology, including the development of cost-effective products, services, market access, and institutions to offer appropriate financial services, including digital financial services, to meet the needs of farmers. For example, technologies, such as branchless mobile banking, provide new ways to conduct business with small farmers and businesses who are often neglected in the current landscape of the financial system. Countries’ financial development strategies must be based on two pillars of success: (i) lowering transaction costs for expanding financial services that design savings, credit, payments, and insurance products for smallholders and businesses and (ii) linking the sustainability of the agricultural financial system to sustainable agricultural growth. These twin pillars of success must be the Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 362 guiding principles for agricultural financial support policies of developing country governments, as well as for those of the World Bank and other multilateral and bilateral donors and agencies helping governments in the developing world. In any case, both donors and government policies must support and promote innovations in agricultural finance. Donors and governments, departing from their past misdirected policies of direct intervention in agricultural credit markets, may be providing lines of credit to financial institutions to extend credit, insurance, and other services. Examples of recent World Bank-supported credit access programs include the Rural Finance Project in Viet Nam, the SAGARPA program in Mexico, and the Financial Services for the Poorest project in Bangladesh. Commercial bank lending has increased in recent years to support agriculture. Governments are not directly subsidizing banks’ lending but are increasing resources to extend bank loans and other services targeted to the smallholders",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Viet Nam, the SAGARPA program in Mexico, and the Financial Services for the Poorest project in Bangladesh. Commercial bank lending has increased in recent years to support agriculture. Governments are not directly subsidizing banks’ lending but are increasing resources to extend bank loans and other services targeted to the smallholders and small agribusinesses. Donors may also support programs to upgrade the technology of local financial institutions to deliver digital financial services and also training in developing countries (e.g., Strengthening India’s Rural Credit Cooperatives Project). Commercial bank lending to agriculture has somewhat improved in recent years for such initiatives. Similarly, donors are providing support to expand coverage of MFIs in extending credit to farmers. MFIs in developing countries have no doubt made some headway in reaching small and marginal farmers with finance of donors to resolve supply-side credit constraints. However, MFIs have limited capacity to extend farm lending because they typically lack the required licenses to operate as a bank like Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, which can mobilize savings. Also, many of these microfinance institutions are unable to offer a wide array of financial products to suit the needs of farmers and small producers. As a result, MFIs have tended to operate on a small scale, offering local, demand-driven options, such as group liability for short-term lending, to better reach clients and improve their own profitability and sustainability. Yet with support from donors and governments, microfinance lending is increasingly supporting agriculture, in part extending seasonal credit, sometimes with funds of commercial banks to satisfy their government-set target to reach farmers in their loan portfolio. In order to promote these MFIs as micro-banks, they should be regulated to mobilize savings from and extend insurance to farmers so as to become self-sustainable banks in support of agriculture finance. Converting some of the MFIs",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "banks to satisfy their government-set target to reach farmers in their loan portfolio. In order to promote these MFIs as micro-banks, they should be regulated to mobilize savings from and extend insurance to farmers so as to become self-sustainable banks in support of agriculture finance. Converting some of the MFIs into banks should be a well-recognized policy. 363 Strengthening Access and Efficiency of Agricultural Finance In this case, the recent example of the World Bank’s support in India is worth following. The World Bank financed a nongovernment microfinance facility, called Bandhan, to become a rural bank to support rural finance, including agricultural finance (World Bank 2015). Mobile financial services (MFS) are the latest innovative way of extending financial services to agriculture. While banks and MFIs need physical infrastructure to extend financial services to rural areas, MFS have no such barrier. However, availability of MFS varies substantially—while 88% of financial accounts were facilitated by mobile networks in Uganda as of 2017, MFS were nonexistent in Ethiopia. On the other hand, 100% of financial inclusion in Ethiopia was facilitated by banks and MFIs, compared to only 58% in Uganda. A branch network is an effective way of reaching farmers in more developed agricultural economies such as Thailand. In Thailand as of 2017, 91% of individuals in agriculture had an account with a financial institution such as a bank or MFI, and only 5.7% of financial accounts were facilitated via mobile financial services. A mobile financial account provides financial services such as payments and transfer of remittances, but it is not yet capable of extending credit or mobilizing savings. In 2017 in Uganda, for example, while financial inclusion is high (65.5%), facilitated mostly by mobile phone networks, the extent of borrowing from financial institutions to support agriculture is only 16.4%. Financial inclusion via",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and transfer of remittances, but it is not yet capable of extending credit or mobilizing savings. In 2017 in Uganda, for example, while financial inclusion is high (65.5%), facilitated mostly by mobile phone networks, the extent of borrowing from financial institutions to support agriculture is only 16.4%. Financial inclusion via mobile financial services is nonetheless worth supporting. Mobile finance can reduce reliance on cash transactions and can save time for those living in more geographically isolated areas with less access to transport, financial institutions, and infrastructure. In Kenya, Uganda, and other countries, mobile money accounts are increasingly being developed to link farmers, agents, and buyers. Mobile-based financial services are emerging to draw a greater share of the population into formal financial services (not necessarily for borrowing but for payment services and remitting money), particularly in SSA and other regions. Therefore, innovations promoting linkages of mobile financial services with agricultural finance may be facilitated by the government and donors to promote digitation in agri-finance. Agricultural financial institutions including MFS must learn how to serve small farmers as per demand and deliver products profitably to resolve both Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 364 short‑term cash flow problems and long-term investment needs of smallholders. Institutions must also be developed to address idiosyncratic and systematic risks that characterize agriculture in a highly volatile agroclimatic environment. Government and donor policies must facilitate rather than dictate institutional finance to enhance agricultural investment. Governments can help develop alternative institutions with appropriate incentive structures for promoting agricultural finance; a combination of bank finance, microfinance, and mobile finance is necessary for agricultural finance. One group of finance does not fit the needs of each and every farmer and other stakeholder involved in agriculture. This means governments may support innovations that encourage the facilitating role of financial",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "promoting agricultural finance; a combination of bank finance, microfinance, and mobile finance is necessary for agricultural finance. One group of finance does not fit the needs of each and every farmer and other stakeholder involved in agriculture. This means governments may support innovations that encourage the facilitating role of financial institutions in enhancing smallholders’ access to finance. First, governments need to provide a sound macroeconomic and regulatory framework, establish a prudent monitoring framework through central banks to protect savers, and fund innovations in financial product design and diversification via experimentation. Second, learning from MFIs and informal finance, agricultural finance can utilize social collateral to mitigate risk, and this should be part of the innovation in agricultural finance. Third, institutional innovation may promote linkages between formal financial institutions and MFIs, rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs), and village banks. Above all, government support should be directed toward lowering transaction cost for the marginal farmers and smallholders to access financial services. This is probably the way for any government to support agricultural finance that can be financially viable as well as effective in promoting agricultural development via transforming the traditional agriculture (which is largely based on own finance and produces for self‑consumption). Another lesson worth noting is that governments and policymakers have paid significantly more attention to providing credit than to providing other types of finance, such as savings, payments, and insurance. In addition, misguided government debt-waiving and subsidized interest rate policies to expand credit are often captured by the elites in the rural system, depriving small and marginal farmers who most need access to financial services to enhance their agricultural investment and productivity. 365 Strengthening Access and Efficiency of Agricultural Finance Yet another lesson learned from this book’s studies is that both governments and donors that want to support developing agriculture",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the rural system, depriving small and marginal farmers who most need access to financial services to enhance their agricultural investment and productivity. 365 Strengthening Access and Efficiency of Agricultural Finance Yet another lesson learned from this book’s studies is that both governments and donors that want to support developing agriculture need to better understand the constraints faced by smaller farmers, as well as those faced by institutional lenders active in rural areas, so as to help these stakeholders target and utilize financial services effectively. Institutional lenders must figure out how to reduce the high transaction costs associated with appraising rural borrowers, as well as with monitoring and collecting rural loans. Policymakers also need to strike the right balance between different types of financial instruments (credit, savings, payments, and insurance) for smallholders using alternative forms of financial systems combining both digital (e.g., mobile money and agent banking) and non-digital (banks, MFIs, and cooperatives) financial services. The system must utilize the information and communications technology (ICT) already available in the country or region and all stakeholders (governments, regulators, and financial providers) involved in developing and delivering the appropriate services in the most cost-effective ways for both providers and customers. It must be recognized at the outset that one type of finance may not fit all. For example, smallholders have diverse needs to cope with agroclimatic risk affecting agricultural activities. Some farmers may need more non-credit financial services, such as savings, payments, or insurance, than credit itself. Non-credit financial services may not be more effective than credit in raising farm productivity in the short run, but they may bolster credit demand and credit utilization in smallholders in the long run. Reducing the transaction costs associated with lending by institutional lenders may involve facilitating credit through other local institutions, such as nongovernment organizations, self-help",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "more effective than credit in raising farm productivity in the short run, but they may bolster credit demand and credit utilization in smallholders in the long run. Reducing the transaction costs associated with lending by institutional lenders may involve facilitating credit through other local institutions, such as nongovernment organizations, self-help groups, and input dealers, with which farmers are already associated (Golait 2007). In addition, considering complementary initiatives—such as weather insurance and agricultural extension services—to help foster better monitoring of local agricultural conditions would help institutions to develop better lending products, thus improving smaller farmers’ ability to respond to rainfall and price fluctuations. Technical assistance for smaller farmers is also an important policy instrument to ensure that agricultural finance is effective in raising agricultural investment and productivity, especially among small and marginal farmers. Similar nonfinancial services may be developed for other stakeholders associated with agro-processing, distributing, and other services of the value chain. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities 366 Finally, opportunities are often developed in piecemeal ways. The issue is how to disentangle the system so as to make it more productive and accessible across the agents involved in the agricultural value chain, including smallholder farmers. In this sense, coordinated efforts of all stakeholders, including international development agencies such as the Asian Development Bank and World Bank, are essential for realizing the benefits of emerging opportunities in the financial ecosystem. It is time to evaluate whether the current system of institutional support through the World Bank and other agencies involved in agricultural finance is effective enough to meet the challenges of this century’s global food insecurity and climate change issues. It is also worth considering if it is necessary to establish an International Agri-Bank (IAB) to coordinate the emerging opportunities, including digitizing agricultural financial services and their access",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "agencies involved in agricultural finance is effective enough to meet the challenges of this century’s global food insecurity and climate change issues. It is also worth considering if it is necessary to establish an International Agri-Bank (IAB) to coordinate the emerging opportunities, including digitizing agricultural financial services and their access and efficiency, with the emerging needs of the value chain agents of the challenging system of agricultural production, technology, and distribution. REFERENCES Golait, R. 2007. Current Issues in Agriculture Credit in India: An Assessment. Reserve Bank of India Occasional Papers 28: 79–100. World Bank. 2015. Bandhan Becomes India’s Youngest Bank. 23 August. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/08/23/bandhanbecomes-indias-youngest-bank. Agricultural Finance in Developing Countries Challenges and Opportunities This book explores the critical role of finance in transforming agriculture and fostering sustainable development in developing countries. Its themes include the interplay between financial inclusion, agricultural productivity, and food security in the context of global challenges such as climate change and economic volatility. Featuring case studies from across Asia, Latin America, and sub-Saharan Africa, the book highlights innovative solutions and policy frameworks that bridge the gap between farmers and financial institutions. It examines the effectiveness of tools such as microfinance, mobile financial services, and targeted agricultural development banks in enhancing access to credit, savings, payments, and insurance for rural households. With rigorous analysis supported by household surveys and institutional data, the book sheds light on how tailored financial services can empower smallholders, mitigate risks, and drive agricultural transformation. The insights presented will be invaluable for policymakers, development practitioners, financial institutions, and researchers aiming to address structural barriers and unlock the potential of agriculture as a driver of economic growth and poverty reduction. Shahidur R. Khandker is a development economist with research experience of over 30 years at the World Bank and other development organizations. Takashi Yamano is a",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "financial institutions, and researchers aiming to address structural barriers and unlock the potential of agriculture as a driver of economic growth and poverty reduction. Shahidur R. Khandker is a development economist with research experience of over 30 years at the World Bank and other development organizations. Takashi Yamano is a principal economist at the Asian Development Bank. About the Asian Development Bank About the Asian Development Bank Institute ADB is a leading multilateral development bank supporting sustainable, inclusive, and resilient growth across Asia and the Pacific. Working with its members and partners to solve complex challenges together, ADB harnesses innovative financial tools and strategic partnerships to transform lives, build quality infrastructure, and safeguard our planet. Founded in 1966, ADB is owned by 69 members—49 from the region. ADBI is the Tokyo-based think tank of the Asian Development Bank. It provides demand-driven policy research, capacity building and training, and outreach to help developing countries in Asia and the Pacific practically address sustainability challenges, accelerate socioeconomic change, and realize more robust, inclusive, and sustainable growth. ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK INSTITUTE 3-2-5, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-6008, Japan Tel +813 3593 5500 www.adbi.org",
    "source": "agricultural-finance-developing-countries.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "LAND AND WATER DIVISION WORKING PAPER 14 Land resource planning for sustainable land management Current and emerging needs in land resource planning for food security, sustainable livelihoods, integrated landscape management and restoration 14 Land resource planning for sustainable land management Current and emerging needs in land resource planning for food security, sustainable livelihoods, integrated landscape management and restoration A review of needs at various scales for tools and processes that can help countries and stakeholders meet emerging challenges, address increasing degradation of and competition for resources, support the sustainable use and restoration of land and water resources, and ensure resilient ecosystems FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2017 LAND AND WATER DIVISION WORKING PAPER By Feras Ziadat, Sally Bunning and Eddy De Pauw with contributions from Freddy Nachtergaele, Paolo Groppo, Riccardo Biancalani, Sergio ZelayaBonilla, Theodora Fetsi, Rosalud de la Rosa, Thomas Hammond, Stefan Schlingloff and Stephan Mantel (ISRIC). The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-109896-7 © FAO, 2017 FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated, material may be",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "not mentioned. The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-109896-7 © FAO, 2017 FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated, material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and copyright holder is given and that FAO’s endorsement of users’ views, products or services is not implied in any way. All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights should be made via www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request or addressed to copyright@fao.org. FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/publications) and can be purchased through publications-sales@fao.org. Cover photos: ©FAO/Simon Maina iii Contents Acknowledgements v Glossary vi Acronyms & abbreviations viii Executive summary ix Background 1 Current and emerging needs 3 Land resource planning and integrated land resource management 9 Land resource planning and sustainable land management 12 Features of land resource planning tools 15 Stocktake of needs and emerging issues for updating 18 land resource planning tools and approaches Survey on participatory land resource planning tools 20 Characteristics of survey participants and their organizations 21 Characteristics and perceptions of the tools 23 and data used in land resource planning Eliciting ideas for further tool development 26 Regional accents 27 The Land Resources Planning Toolbox 29 References 34 Annex 1. Survey questions 39 Annex 2. Tools in the Land Resources Planning Toolbox 49 v Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the contribution of Alastair Sarre in editing the working paper and James Morgan for the layout and final production. vi Glossary Biodiversity The 2015 FAO Global Forest Resources",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Annex 1. Survey questions 39 Annex 2. Tools in the Land Resources Planning Toolbox 49 v Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the contribution of Alastair Sarre in editing the working paper and James Morgan for the layout and final production. vi Glossary Biodiversity The 2015 FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment and the Convention on Biological Diversity uses the following definition: \"The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, among species and of ecosystems.\" Ecosystem services The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as flood and disease control; cultural services such as spiritual, recreational and cultural benefits; and supporting services such as nutrient cycling that maintain the conditions for life on Earth (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Integrated landscape management Ensures that by managing the underpinning natural resource base and ecosystem services through a coordinated process across sectors and stakeholders, the range of societal needs can be met in the short and long terms. Diverse landscape management approaches have been developed from different entry points but aimed at realizing multiple outcomes simultaneously. Commonalities include: generating an agreed vision among stakeholders of long-term and wide-scale landscape goals; adopting a mosaic of practices that achieve multiple objectives; devising strategies to manage spatial interactions across different land uses and users; establishing institutions for stakeholder dialogue, negotiation and action; and shaping markets and policies to support desired outcomes. These process, technical, socioeconomic, market and policy dimensions are mutually reinforcing (Landscapes for People, Food and Nature, 2015). Land A delineable area of the Earth’s terrestrial surface, encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately above or below this surface, including those of the",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "markets and policies to support desired outcomes. These process, technical, socioeconomic, market and policy dimensions are mutually reinforcing (Landscapes for People, Food and Nature, 2015). Land A delineable area of the Earth’s terrestrial surface, encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately above or below this surface, including those of the near-surface climate, the soil and terrain forms, the surface hydrology (including shallow lakes, rivers, marshes and swamps), the near-surface sedimentary layers and associated groundwater reserve, the plant and animal populations, the human settlement pattern and the physical results of past and present human activity, such as terracing, vii water storage and drainage structures, infrastructure and buildings (United Nations, 1995). Landscape An area of land containing a mosaic of ecosystems, including humandominated ecosystems. The term cultural landscape is often used when referring to landscapes containing significant human populations. (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003). Land use planning this is the systematic assessment of land potential and alternatives for optimal land uses and improved economic and social conditions through participatory processes that are multisectoral, multistakeholder and scaledependent. The purpose of land-use planning is to support decisionmakers and land users in selecting and putting into practice those land uses that will best meet the needs of people while safeguarding natural resources and ecosystem services for current and future generations. Tools and methods for land-use planning at appropriate scales should encourage and assist the diverse and often competing users of land resources in selecting land-use and management options that increase their productivity, support sustainable agriculture and food systems, promote governance over land and water resources and meet the needs of society (adapted from FAO, 1993). Land resource planning This is similar to land-use planning but, in this paper, the term is used in a broader sense. Thus, land resource planning encompasses land evaluation and land-use planning",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "food systems, promote governance over land and water resources and meet the needs of society (adapted from FAO, 1993). Land resource planning This is similar to land-use planning but, in this paper, the term is used in a broader sense. Thus, land resource planning encompasses land evaluation and land-use planning and addresses the biophysical, socio-economic and negotiatory domains. viii Acronyms & abbreviations CBL Land and Water Division of FAO FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GIS Geographic information system INDC Intended nationally determined contribution ISRIC International Soil Reference and Information Centre LADA Land Degradation Assessment in Dryland Areas LRP Land resource planning NDC Nationally determined contribution SDG Sustainable Development Goal SLM Sustainable land management WOCAT World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies ix Executive summary This working paper provides an overview of the historic development and status of implementation of land evaluation and land-use planning concepts and tools for land resource and landscape management, and it proposes recommendations for future actions. The increasing and juxtaposed challenges of population growth, demands on limited resources by diverse actors, land degradation, biodiversity loss and climate change require the rational use of resources to sustain and enhance productivity and maintain resilient ecosystems. Land-use planning and, more broadly, land resource planning (LRP), are tools for achieving the sustainable and efficient use of resources, taking into account biophysical and socioeconomic dimensions. The availability of suitable tools and information to support and satisfy the needs of decision-makers at different scales, across sectors and among stakeholders is limited, however. The needs of decision-makers to address the challenges and drivers of change and promote effective and sustainable responses calls for an updated set of tools and approaches for participatory LRP. Such a set of tools should take into account biophysical, economic, socio-cultural and governance dimensions, and",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "stakeholders is limited, however. The needs of decision-makers to address the challenges and drivers of change and promote effective and sustainable responses calls for an updated set of tools and approaches for participatory LRP. Such a set of tools should take into account biophysical, economic, socio-cultural and governance dimensions, and it should promote integrated landscape management as a means to satisfy the needs of multiple stakeholders and implement diverse national strategies and commitments. It is proposed that a consultation process involving a wide range of stakeholders operating at different scales be undertaken to bring together lessons and experiences in tools and approaches for LRP and to identify the main gaps and opportunities. This consultation process should lead to the formulation, with partners, of a strategy for the development, testing and validation of updated LRP tools in pilot countries with stakeholders and decision-makers, from the scale of local landscapes to the subnational, national and transboundary scales. To initiate such a process, the Land and Water Division of FAO conducted a survey among stakeholders operating at different scales and in different sectors and regions to compile lessons and experiences from users of LRP tools and approaches and to identify challenges in the use of such tools, the need for and gaps in LRP tools, and possible future actions. The survey provided useful perspectives among professionals on the gaps and bottlenecks in LRP tools and opportunities for future development. It is clear that many disciplines need better LRP, and the various actors and sectors need to be brought together in planning processes. In developing x future actions, more emphasis on LRP will be required at the national and subnational levels. A key principle is to ensure the balanced involvement of all stakeholders in the planning process. It is also important to enhance the",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "sectors need to be brought together in planning processes. In developing x future actions, more emphasis on LRP will be required at the national and subnational levels. A key principle is to ensure the balanced involvement of all stakeholders in the planning process. It is also important to enhance the visibility of user-identified tools, approaches and databases. In all cases, capacity building in the use of specialized tools and databases is necessary. A balanced mix is required of user-friendly computer tools and printed materials. Interventions in different regions to develop LRP tools should recognize region-specific needs and priorities. The FAO survey identified a serious knowledge gap in the LRP community about the tools and approaches available for guiding LRP processes. To address this gap, an inventory of existing tools and approaches was compiled and the Land Resources Planning Toolbox was established. The Toolbox lists the available tools and describes their capabilities, limitations and suitability for various LRP stakeholders, professionals, regions and scales. The Toolbox distinguishes between tools in the biophysical and socio-economic domains and those that integrate both domains, and it can be searched according to several criteria. LRP tools can help decisionmakers and land users put sustainable land management into practice. 1 Background Background Since the approval of the World Soil Charter in 1981 by FAO member countries and the convening of the UN Conference on Environment and Development in 1992, land-use planning has been promoted as an important tool for the sustainable use and management of land resources. A fundamental part of land-use planning is a systematic land evaluation/ assessment process, which has been used widely for determining the suitability of land for various uses (e.g. rainfed and irrigated agriculture; rangelands; livestock; fisheries and aquaculture; forestry and agroforestry; and non-agricultural uses), thus increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "A fundamental part of land-use planning is a systematic land evaluation/ assessment process, which has been used widely for determining the suitability of land for various uses (e.g. rainfed and irrigated agriculture; rangelands; livestock; fisheries and aquaculture; forestry and agroforestry; and non-agricultural uses), thus increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of decision-making processes on land use, management and governance. The discipline of land evaluation was invented in Germany and applied in the former Soviet Union (the Bonitet system) before the Second World War with the aim of determining fertility values for soils and translating those into production estimates. The discipline was reinvented to help in determining the best (agricultural) uses of newly opened land, mainly in colonized tropical countries. In some western countries, land evaluation was used after the Second World War to determine the value of land that needed to be exchanged to form unique plots in the process of land consolidation. Countries actively used land-use planning in the 1980s and 1990s at a range of scales. Users included land authorities in national development plans and specific sectors; government authorities and technical sectors in subnational planning; and a range of concerned local stakeholders in landscape planning.1 Land-use planning proved valuable for developing and developed countries with substantial areas of underexploited land in guiding coordinated efforts to put economic development plans into effect. There has been a loss of interest in the discipline of land-use planning in recent decades, largely because little unused and unexplored land remains; moreover, scientists have realized that the relationship between land productivity and ecological/edaphic factors is dependent not only on land or soil potential but also on social and economic factors. On the other hand, management and inputs are still dependent on natural resources such as soil quality, water availability, biodiversity and climate, as well as",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "that the relationship between land productivity and ecological/edaphic factors is dependent not only on land or soil potential but also on social and economic factors. On the other hand, management and inputs are still dependent on natural resources such as soil quality, water availability, biodiversity and climate, as well as on infrastructure, access to services and labour, and knowledge. For example, less-healthy or less-suitable soils involve a higher cost (e.g. in terms of soil and water conservation measures, irrigation, fertilizers and adapted seeds or 1 In this paper, “local” means the scale of a village, community or landscape. Land-use planning and sustainable resource management Approaches developed to support rational land-use decisions 2 Land resource planning for sustainable land management other germplasm) to attain the same yield as suitable soils, where suitability involves the ability not only to produce but also to store, process and sell surplus products. Consequently, suitability evaluations that address only land resource potential have declined in importance, while the matching of management options (technologies and approaches) with land uses and socio-economic determinants (e.g. knowledge, inputs, costs and benefits) – as proposed, for example, in Land Degradation Assessment in Dryland Areas (LADA) and the World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) – have gained in importance. Modern approaches to land-use planning not only determine appropriate land-use types but also provide decision-makers with sustainable land resource management scenarios that improve productivity and sustainability. The scarcity of land and water increases competition for these resources and forces users to intensify production to meet escalating demand. Decision-makers need assistance in determining and putting into practice the best land-use management options for sustaining production. In most cases, management options are under continuous development. Broad consideration of natural resources and ecosystems is required in the planning process to identify and promote the",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "intensify production to meet escalating demand. Decision-makers need assistance in determining and putting into practice the best land-use management options for sustaining production. In most cases, management options are under continuous development. Broad consideration of natural resources and ecosystems is required in the planning process to identify and promote the most suitable and sustainable production systems over time. Another issue is that land value has less to do with land quality than with the value attached to specific land uses by stakeholders, often driven by socioeconomic factors. This is unfortunate, because environmental considerations (e.g. the ecosystem services provided by land) and resilience in the face of climate change, climate variability and other shocks (such as natural disasters and market volatility) are often undervalued or underestimated. This points to how land resource planning (LRP) can be a valuable tool for sharing information on economically, socially and environmentally sound options, developing alternative scenarios for meeting the goals and aspirations of land users and water users, and building consensus among stakeholders through informed decision-making processes. The term “land-use planning” has often been interpreted as “central” or top-down planning; it is often forgotten, however, that land users – notably farmers, herders and fishers – are primary land-use planners and that those who exploit forest, energy or mineral resources or who use land for settlements, industry, recreation or tourism must also be taken into account in planning processes. Therefore, a participatory negotiation process is needed among stakeholders in planning the use of land and water resources and ecosystems. Such a process may involve modelling optimization techniques; land evaluation; dialogue and consensus building among divergent groups; and the development of regulations, laws and other governance mechanisms. Land suitability has evolved to consider biophysical and socio-economic conditions Scenarios to inform the decision-makers From top-down to participatory, people-centred",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "resources and ecosystems. Such a process may involve modelling optimization techniques; land evaluation; dialogue and consensus building among divergent groups; and the development of regulations, laws and other governance mechanisms. Land suitability has evolved to consider biophysical and socio-economic conditions Scenarios to inform the decision-makers From top-down to participatory, people-centred approaches 3 Current and emerging needs Current and emerging needs The demand for food is escalating, and so is the pressure on natural resources. Significant changes are required to address current trends and to move instead towards sustainable food production and agriculture. FAO (2014) identified five interconnected principles for the transition toward sustainable food and agriculture (Figure 1): 1) improving efficiency in the use of resources; 2) natural resource conservation; 3) improving rural livelihoods; 4) enhancing resilience; and 5) governance. FAO recognizes that the adoption of sustainable land-use and land management practices is important for achieving sustainability in its Strategic Objective 2: “Producers and natural resource managers adopt practices that increase and improve the provision of goods and services in agricultural sector production systems in a sustainable manner”. A new approach to LRP is needed to implement the five principles for the transition to sustainable food and agriculture and to integrate the three dimensions of sustainability – ecological, social and economic (Figure 2) – at various scales and among the competing uses of natural resources. FAO has been a key player in LRP for many years. In the last few decades, 2a wide range of tools and methods has been developed and applied in participatory LRP adapted to various contexts and scales of decisionmaking. Successes have been achieved at the local-to-national scales, but countries are reporting increasing constraints and difficulties, due mainly to new and emerging economic, social and environmental conditions. There are many examples of notable disasters resulting from",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "developed and applied in participatory LRP adapted to various contexts and scales of decisionmaking. Successes have been achieved at the local-to-national scales, but countries are reporting increasing constraints and difficulties, due mainly to new and emerging economic, social and environmental conditions. There are many examples of notable disasters resulting from a lack of LRP, such as building factories on vertisols (which are unstable as they expand and shrink with changes in moisture), and implementing irrigation development programmes on saline soils prone to further salinization and an associated loss of productivity. The International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development, held in 2006, adopted a declaration, vision and principles for the appropriate use of land resources (FAO, 2006). Recently, however, 2 For example, FAO led a “participatory land-use planning development project” in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2000–2008 that highlighted the importance and effectiveness of decentralized participatory approaches as part of a multisectoral planning process. Principles for transitioning to sustainable food and agriculture Difficulties in planning for emerging issues 4 Land resource planning for sustainable land management despite huge technological advances in geospatial tools, data management and communications, FAO and many partner institutions have recognized that developments in LRP have not kept pace with new challenges and increased demand for and pressure on land and water resources. There are doubts that adequate planning and analytical tools, knowledge and skills that compare scenarios, review trade-offs and identify win–win options are available to decision-makers at various scales. Yet such tools, knowledge and skills are crucial for facilitating and supporting effective LRP that addresses conflicts, meets competing local, national and global demands for land and water resources, and enhances governance over resources at all scales. The outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012, “The Future We Want” (United Nations, 2012),",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "crucial for facilitating and supporting effective LRP that addresses conflicts, meets competing local, national and global demands for land and water resources, and enhances governance over resources at all scales. The outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012, “The Future We Want” (United Nations, 2012), stresses (in paragraph 101) the need for more coherent and integrated planning and decision-making at the national, subnational and local levels, as appropriate. It calls on countries to strengthen national, subnational and local institutions and relevant multistakeholder bodies and processes (as appropriate) that deal with sustainable development. The human Figure 1 The principles of sustainable food and agriculture Doubts on the adequacy of planning tools at various scales Integrated planning at the national, subnational and local levels Improving efficiency in the use of resources is crucial to sustainable agriculture Sustainability requires direct action to conserve, protect and enhance natural resources Agriculture that fails to protect and improve rural livelihoods, equity and social well-being is unsustainable Enhanced resilience of people, communities and ecosystems is key to sustainable agriculture Sustainable food and agriculture requires responsible and effective governance mechanisms 1 2 3 4 5 5 Current and emerging needs and biophysical interlinkages, and the impacts of land-use and land management practices on ecosystem resilience and sustainability, are complex, multiscalar and time-dependent. It is an increasing challenge to meet the needs and interests of individual land users and those of urban and rural populations and societies at large, taking into account the dynamics of population growth and migration. The FAO Committee on Forestry achieved progress in this regard in 2014, creating the Forest and Landscape Restoration Mechanism to, among other things, strengthen LRP and its components. FAO has engaged consistently with the Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration, and it has supported",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of population growth and migration. The FAO Committee on Forestry achieved progress in this regard in 2014, creating the Forest and Landscape Restoration Mechanism to, among other things, strengthen LRP and its components. FAO has engaged consistently with the Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration, and it has supported member countries through its field programmes and assisted them in developing capacity in intersectoral planning, institutional development and the implementation of integrated approaches. LRP is also a basis for scaling up sustainable land management (SLM) practices by supporting investment and development plans; this has been happening in Africa, for example, through country strategic investment Figure 2 The three dimensions of sustainability Source: IAASTD, 2009. Reinforcing land-use planning in the Forest and Landscape Restoration Mechanism Health Income Soils Water Climate Biodiversity Social Economic Ecological Recognition of traditional and diversified land use Cultivation and comercialization of traditional foods Valuation of environmental services Marketing Trade Tradition Gender Social Culture Food production 6 Land resource planning for sustainable land management programmes and plans developed under the TerrAfrica partnership programme for sub-Saharan Africa and the Great Green Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative. Good LRP requires adherence to guidelines such as the FAO Principles for Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems (FAO, 2014), the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security (FAO, 2012b), and the Voluntary Guidelines for Sustainable Soil Management (FAO, 2017a). Globally, FAO targets food security, nutrition and sustainable agriculture as key elements for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. There is increasing recognition that this requires the availability of up-to-date, user-friendly and harmonized tools that can improve knowledge and understanding and support well-informed decisions. LRP involves, among other things, elements of good governance and",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "and sustainable agriculture as key elements for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. There is increasing recognition that this requires the availability of up-to-date, user-friendly and harmonized tools that can improve knowledge and understanding and support well-informed decisions. LRP involves, among other things, elements of good governance and the analysis of trade-offs among uses to enable the effective development and implementation of land-use plans that optimize resource use and minimize conflicts among competing users and thereby conserve resources for future generations. Box 1 presents the SDGs that are most relevant to and would benefit from LRP at various scales. In some situations, climate change and climate variability have major implications for land resources and use and will require effective land-use and water-use planning for mitigating and adapting to climate change. Land evaluation can help in matching the existing biophysical and socioeconomic contexts with the most sustainable options or changes to landuse systems to support the climate resilience agenda. For example, land evaluation can be used to formulate, through participatory processes, scenarios for the use and management of land and water resources based on projected changes, which can be used to support decision-making. Negotiations at the 21st Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change concluded with the landmark Paris Agreement on climate change. The Agreement requests countries to develop and implement nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and to report on their progress. Many countries have identified priority actions for the agriculture and land-use sectors in their intended NDCs (INDCs). In the Asia and Pacific region, for example, priority INDCs are seen to be well aligned with FAO’s Country Programming Framework priorities and its Strategic Objectives. Improved land-use planning – as part of an integrated approach – was identified as one of the tools that",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "in their intended NDCs (INDCs). In the Asia and Pacific region, for example, priority INDCs are seen to be well aligned with FAO’s Country Programming Framework priorities and its Strategic Objectives. Improved land-use planning – as part of an integrated approach – was identified as one of the tools that can help countries mitigate and adapt to climate change (Damen, 2016). The impact of land degradation on land productivity is an impediment to achieving food security and reducing hunger. The degradation of Land-use planning for scaling up SLM practices Up-to-date tools for achieving the SDGs Governance and trade-offs for sustainable development Planning to support the climate resilience agenda Planning to support the implementation of NDCs 7 Current and emerging needs BOX 1 Sustainable Development Goals of relevance to land resource planning 1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology and financial services, including microfinance. 2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment. 2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality. 11.3 By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries. 11.a Support positive",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality. 11.3 By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries. 11.a Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning. 12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources. 13.2 Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning. 13.b Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate changerelated planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities. 15.3 By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world. 15.9 By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts. 16.7 Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decisionmaking at all levels. 8 Land resource planning for sustainable land management agro-ecosystems directly affects the food supply and income of the poor, increasing their vulnerability and creating a vicious cycle of poverty, further degradation and hunger (United Nations, 2012). Therefore, direct actions are required at all scales to conserve, protect and enhance natural resource management and combat land degradation. FAO is developing options to avoid further degradation and restore already-degraded lands. This effort is supported by SLM policies and practices, including assessment, planning and management tools. The aim of such efforts – supported by participatory scaling-up strategies and policies – is to reduce the transformation of currently productive and forested lands into unproductive or degraded lands and, where such transformations occur, to",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "effort is supported by SLM policies and practices, including assessment, planning and management tools. The aim of such efforts – supported by participatory scaling-up strategies and policies – is to reduce the transformation of currently productive and forested lands into unproductive or degraded lands and, where such transformations occur, to reverse them. Experiences and lessons learned on the role of SLM in combating land degradation are numerous at the national, regional and global scales. Direct actions to combat land degradation 9 Land resource planning and integrated land resource management Land resource planning and integrated land resource management LRP – which encompasses land evaluation and land-use planning – is the systematic assessment of land potential and alternatives for optimal land use and improved economic and social conditions through participatory processes that are multisectoral, multistakeholder and scale-dependent. FAO promotes the use of SLM across the range of land-use systems – cropping, livestock and forestry – by, on the one hand, reducing further land degradation and, on the other, restoring and rehabilitating degraded lands. LRP is part of the integrated land resource management continuum, which involves a land assessment (i.e. land evaluation), the identification of needs and challenges, the selection and implementation of optimum SLM options and decision-support systems at the farm, landscape and national scales, and the monitoring and assessment of impacts to inform decision-makers and stakeholders. LRP is an approach for selecting and putting into practice the optimum SLM options within an integrated landscape management context, supported by the policy and institutional set-up (Figure 3). The implementation of management plans, involving all stakeholders, must be monitored using participatory processes, and the results and impacts should inform decision-making and planning in a cyclical process. The integrated land resource management process is scale-dependent, and it integrates multiple stakeholders and sectors. The guiding principles",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "institutional set-up (Figure 3). The implementation of management plans, involving all stakeholders, must be monitored using participatory processes, and the results and impacts should inform decision-making and planning in a cyclical process. The integrated land resource management process is scale-dependent, and it integrates multiple stakeholders and sectors. The guiding principles are that people and participatory approaches should be at the centre of the process and that governance and enabling policies and institutions should support the achievement of land-use plans. Policies and institutional support are crucial at all scales to match national and subnational economic, social and environmental goals with the needs of stakeholders (public and private-sector) and to manage trade-offs and inequalities between sectors and actors. Land suitability evaluation is a tool to support decision-makers in the LRP process (see Box 2 for an example of the role of land suitability assessment to strengthen rural development planning in Rodrigues). Land suitability Integrated land resource management Assessment, planning, implementation and monitoring Inform decisionmakers and stakeholders People’s participation Governance Enabling policies and institutions 10 Land resource planning for sustainable land management assessment provides decision-makers with viable land-use options, based on the biophysical potential of resources and socio-economic conditions. These options support the land-use decision-making process in fulfilling the needs of different sectors operating in a landscape while optimizing and sustaining resource use. LRP has an important role to play in integrating the various elements of landscapes and in constructing a comprehensive view of landscape activities and sectors. Opportunities for expanding the area of agricultural land are limited, due to two factors. First, much of the available land is unsuitable for agriculture, and transforming such land into agricultural production would involve high economic, social and ecological costs (FAO, 2014). Second, competition among sectors within landscapes leaves less land for agricultural production. Food security",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of agricultural land are limited, due to two factors. First, much of the available land is unsuitable for agriculture, and transforming such land into agricultural production would involve high economic, social and ecological costs (FAO, 2014). Second, competition among sectors within landscapes leaves less land for agricultural production. Food security should be achieved by increasing (and then maintaining) production on already-existing agricultural land to meet the demands of growing populations (FAO, 2011). LRP provides tools for using land resources in the most efficient way and promotes SLM practices to maintain productive landscapes. Land suitability evaluation provides viable land-use options Integrating landscape elements to optimize resource use Figure 3 Land resource planning as part of an integrated land resource decision-making process Assessment and monitoring Integrated Landscape Management Land use/ resources planning Enabling politics and institutions People centered negotiation process Multi-sector Diagnostic to impact Governance Conservation, sustainable use, and restoration SFA multiple benefits: biodiversity and ecosystem services, sustainable production systems and livelihoods, efficient use of resources, climate resilience, food security and poverty alleviation Land evaluation Multi-stakeholder Multi-scale National Local Provincial 11 Land resource planning and integrated land resource management BOX 2 Assessing land suitability to strengthen rural development planning in Rodrigues Agriculture has a key role to play in the economy of Rodrigues, but the capacity to feed the population is constrained by the island’s limited natural resource base. The island provides a typical example of a situation in which several sectors compete to make the best use of resources in a confined landscape. Land suitability assessment, based on criteria determined through a multistakeholder consultation process, helped raise awareness among decisionmakers in Rodrigues about the value of suitability mapping to optimize resource use among competing sectors in the landscape. Examples of suitability evaluation results for two of seven potential uses. Local stakeholders",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "confined landscape. Land suitability assessment, based on criteria determined through a multistakeholder consultation process, helped raise awareness among decisionmakers in Rodrigues about the value of suitability mapping to optimize resource use among competing sectors in the landscape. Examples of suitability evaluation results for two of seven potential uses. Local stakeholders will establish and maintain a natural resource information system to support development planning and to promote more inclusive, participatory land resource planning that considers competing sectors in the landscape. 12 Land resource planning for sustainable land management Land resource planning and sustainable land management SLM is “the use of land resources, including soils, water, animals and plants, for the production of goods to meet changing human needs, while simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions” (United Nations, 1992). It includes a range of complementary measures adapted to the biophysical and socio-economic context for the protection, conservation and sustainable use of resources (e.g. soil, water and biodiversity) and the restoration or rehabilitation of degraded natural resources and their ecosystem functions. Promising SLM options are available to sustain various productive land uses in landscapes. Crucial elements for guiding an SLM programme include knowledge management, capacity development and the coherence and alignment of policies and investments through integrated LRP strategies. More than 2 billion hectares worldwide offer opportunities for restoration through forest and landscape restoration (UNCCD, 2013), and SLM tools and practices can support this task (WRI, 2014). WOCAT has shown that SLM has the potential to increase yields by 30–170 percent, water-use efficiency by up to 100 percent, and soil organic carbon by 1 percent in degraded soils and by 2–3 percent in non-degraded soils (WOCAT, 2007; CDE, 2010). SLM practices provide options for managing soil, water and plants and the ways these",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the potential to increase yields by 30–170 percent, water-use efficiency by up to 100 percent, and soil organic carbon by 1 percent in degraded soils and by 2–3 percent in non-degraded soils (WOCAT, 2007; CDE, 2010). SLM practices provide options for managing soil, water and plants and the ways these interact under a given set of biophysical and socio-economic conditions. Unfavourable climatic conditions (e.g. those imposed by climate change and climate variability), coupled with the mismanagement or misuse of resources, can increase degradation and vulnerability to change. On the other hand, the adoption of favourable practices, such as selecting proper land uses (based on land suitability evaluation) and implementing SLM, will enhance sustainability and resilience in the face of change (Figure 4). Understanding which part of the land resource is under threat is vital for selecting and putting into practice the most efficient and affordable solutions. The use of LRP in choosing land uses and adopting SLM, therefore, is an entry point to help decision-makers and communities increase the resilience of land-use systems. Selecting the SLM for the restoration of degraded natural resources and ecosystem functions SLM can increase yields by 30–170 percent, wateruse efficiency by 100 percent and soil organic carbon by 1–3 percent Unfavourable climate and mismanagement Degradation Favourable human activities/proper land use Sustainability 13 Land resource planning and sustainable land management Figure 4 Human activities and land use determine the sustainability of land resources Source: FAO, 2017b. most appropriate land uses and implementing SLM (favourable human activities) will enhance sustainability and the efficiency of resource use. LRP tools help decision-makers adopt appropriate options for the use of land resources based on their natural potential, thereby avoiding unsustainable exploitation and minimizing the risk of further degradation. LRP should also help land users in selecting and putting into practice",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "will enhance sustainability and the efficiency of resource use. LRP tools help decision-makers adopt appropriate options for the use of land resources based on their natural potential, thereby avoiding unsustainable exploitation and minimizing the risk of further degradation. LRP should also help land users in selecting and putting into practice SLM options that support land and soil restoration in degraded areas (FAO, 2017b; FAO, 2017c). A comprehensive land-based approach would involve identifying and prioritizing target areas where certain options have high potential for success; selecting the most appropriate SLM regime; and disseminating SLM practices, supported by proper policies, financial mechanisms and continuous monitoring to maintain adaptability in the face of climatic and socio-economic change. The needs and wishes of farmers should be at the centre of sustainable land development processes (Mediterra, 2016; Ziadat et al., 2015). The multiuse nature of land involves various trade-offs that favour one use at the expense of others. Decisions that lead to changes in land use are often made on economic or political rather than ecological or social grounds. This can lead to the inappropriate use or management of land resources, with many potential negative impacts, such as the degradation of soil, water and biological resources; the loss of ecosystem functions and associated services; urbanization on productive soils; the use of poorquality water or inadequate water for irrigation, leading to salinization; and the disturbance of fragile coastal ecosystems accompanied by biodiversity losses and ecological disruption (Mediterra, 2016). Economic, political, ecological and social land-use decisions Water Resources Plant & Livestock (Agriculture, Forest, Rangelands) Soil Terrain Biodiversity Land Resources Human Settlements (Urban/Rural) Climate Human activities Favorable Un-Favorable Sustainability Resilience Degradation Vulnerability 14 Land resource planning for sustainable land management Integrated landscape management is the basis of natural resource management; it ensures that, by managing the underpinning natural",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Resources Plant & Livestock (Agriculture, Forest, Rangelands) Soil Terrain Biodiversity Land Resources Human Settlements (Urban/Rural) Climate Human activities Favorable Un-Favorable Sustainability Resilience Degradation Vulnerability 14 Land resource planning for sustainable land management Integrated landscape management is the basis of natural resource management; it ensures that, by managing the underpinning natural resource base and ecosystem services through a coordinated process across sectors and stakeholders, the full range of societal needs can be met in the short and long terms. Land evaluation, land-use planning, negotiated territorial development and SLM are all tools that support LRP and integrated landscape management. Integrated landscape management 15 Features of land resource planning tools Features of land resource planning tools The following principles and features are essential to consider in the process of updating LRP tools: • The discipline should go beyond agricultural uses to include all involved sectors, focus on evaluating the range of ecosystem services generated, and involve some form of environmental accounting and land valuation. • Modern techniques (e.g. remote sensing, precision farming, modelling, the use of apps, and geographic information systems – GIS) are essential parts of the package to be discussed. • An informal system for matching SLM technologies and land-use systems can be developed (building on the work of LADA and WOCAT). In most cases and for various economic and social reasons, changing existing land uses is difficult. It is desirable, therefore, to introduce SLM practices to help land users in managing existing land uses in more sustainable and productive ways. • Consider people at the centre of the process and adopt negotiatory processes based on the needs of the various users and taking into account power asymmetries, competing demands on resources and ecosystems, the land potential and the socio-economic context. Box 3 provides an example of the multiphase approach proposed",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "• Consider people at the centre of the process and adopt negotiatory processes based on the needs of the various users and taking into account power asymmetries, competing demands on resources and ecosystems, the land potential and the socio-economic context. Box 3 provides an example of the multiphase approach proposed for the implementation of participatory resource planning in the Near East. • To be beneficial for decision-making, LRP should be designed to provide information at the scale at which it is needed. At the national scale, a national development plan is needed to identify major landuse systems; this will be used mainly to inform national policies (Figure 5), and it has a different level of generality to what is needed at the district scale, where planning should consider specific districtlevel problems and opportunities and inform district policies and priorities. At the local scale, consideration should be given to the specific problems of land users as well as their needs and capacities, and a detailed land-use plan should be formulated for the specific land uses and associated management options. The three scales are interrelated, and a two-way information flow should be maintained Features of LRP: go beyond agriculture; use technology; introduce SLM practices; people-centred; multiscalar 16 Land resource planning for sustainable land management to ensure that national policies are in harmony with and are being informed by district-level and local planning. Also, changes at the district and local levels should be adequately reflected in national policies and planning. BOX 3 Negotiated territorial development in a multistakeholder participatory resource planning approach Source: FAO, 2016b. 1. Assess land and water resources 2. Diagnose socio-economic and gender-sensitive issues 3. Build scenarios to optimize productivity and sustainability 4. Support multistakeholder negotiation processes 5. Implement agreed development portfolio 6. Conduct participatory monitoring and evaluation of development",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "territorial development in a multistakeholder participatory resource planning approach Source: FAO, 2016b. 1. Assess land and water resources 2. Diagnose socio-economic and gender-sensitive issues 3. Build scenarios to optimize productivity and sustainability 4. Support multistakeholder negotiation processes 5. Implement agreed development portfolio 6. Conduct participatory monitoring and evaluation of development activities 17 Features of land resource planning tools Figure 5 Land-use planning at three scales Source: FAO, 1993 18 Land resource planning for sustainable land management Stocktake of needs and emerging issues for updating land resource planning tools and approaches FAO proposes a stocktaking exercise to link LRP and its various dimensions with ongoing processes for achieving sustainable food and agriculture, the SDGs, land degradation and land restoration targets and other processes in which FAO members and partners are engaged. Such an exercise would contribute directly to FAO Strategic Objective 2 (sustainable increases in agriculture, fisheries and forestry production) and Strategic Objective 5 (enhanced resilience to shocks) by promoting the optimal use of land and water resources and ecosystems, reducing risks from natural disasters, promoting integrated landscape management, and prioritizing sustainable food and agricultural systems that generate economic, social and environmental benefits in the short and long terms. Consideration should be given to the crucial role and function of LRP at the intersection of policy and practice and to the increased knowledge and improved tools available. Land evaluation and land-use planning (i.e. LRP) are tools to support integrated landscape management and restoration; they consider interactions among the various components of a landscape and help decision-makers put SLM into practice. Recent developments and challenges in the planning process necessitate a closer look at the entire cyclical process: evaluation, planning, management, monitoring and assessment. The complexity of using and managing natural resources sustainably given increasing pressures and demands requires a holistic consideration",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "a landscape and help decision-makers put SLM into practice. Recent developments and challenges in the planning process necessitate a closer look at the entire cyclical process: evaluation, planning, management, monitoring and assessment. The complexity of using and managing natural resources sustainably given increasing pressures and demands requires a holistic consideration of the various sectors, stakeholders and scales and the interactions among these. Planning the sustainable use and management of natural resources requires an understanding of interactions between land, soil, water, natural vegetation, rangelands, arable land (rainfed and irrigated), genetic resources, livestock, fisheries Stocktake of LRP tools FAO Strategic Objectives Tools to support policies and SLM A holistic view of all sectors is indispensable 19 Stocktake of needs and emerging issues for updating land resource planning tools and approaches and aquaculture, forests and mountains, and of the overarching socioeconomic setup, including governance, gender, enabling environments and markets. Changing the existing land-use system may not be necessary; there may be feasible options for intensifying or diversifying production, improving user rights, enhancing governance mechanisms and integrating effective SLM technologies in landscape management approaches. Modern tools that increase the availability of information on land resources should be used to support the development of new planning approaches and methods and to improve the integrated land resource planning and management process. This calls for reviewing the concepts and toolset and for the design of an up-to-date participatory LRP process involving the full range of expertise (e.g. land-use planners, decision-makers, scientists and other specialists) and aiming to provide practical guidance for the full range of stakeholders (e.g. policy-makers, development planners, privatesector investors, and land users). The governance of land and water resources is another driving factor that should be reviewed as an integral part of the LRP process to ensure that proper decisions on land use and",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "provide practical guidance for the full range of stakeholders (e.g. policy-makers, development planners, privatesector investors, and land users). The governance of land and water resources is another driving factor that should be reviewed as an integral part of the LRP process to ensure that proper decisions on land use and management are taken, implemented and (if necessary) enforced. Mechanisms for building trust and allowing fair and honest negotiations between stakeholders with different capacities and power and at various scales (i.e. local to national, and even transboundary) are also needed. Land-use plans should be dynamic instruments that allow for the frequent assessment of implementation and results and which can be adjusted and updated to meet goals and address emerging issues. The capacity of stakeholders to prepare and revise land-use plans must be developed to ensure the continuous fine-tuning of plans in response to challenges and uncertainties. Important questions to be answered include the following: • Is LRP and its component tools, methods and stakeholder processes still valid today in light of challenges such as sustainable development, climate change, land degradation and biodiversity loss? • What changes are required in the process? • How can a renewed LRP process be re-launched most effectively to address such challenges? To answer these questions, FAO initiated a wide-ranging consultation process involving professionals and stakeholders in LRP through an online survey probing their opinions and uses of tools and approaches to planning, as well as gaps and needs. The survey and its outcomes are summarized in the next section. Tools to improve data on land resources Governance of land and water resources Capacity development What needs to be done? LRP stakeholder survey 20 Land resource planning for sustainable land management Survey on participatory land resource planning tools LRP is a process for achieving sustainable and efficient",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the next section. Tools to improve data on land resources Governance of land and water resources Capacity development What needs to be done? LRP stakeholder survey 20 Land resource planning for sustainable land management Survey on participatory land resource planning tools LRP is a process for achieving sustainable and efficient resource use, taking into account biophysical and socio-economic dimensions. From the early topdown (and simplistic) approach to land-use planning, LRP has evolved into a set of approaches, guidelines, methods, datasets and specialist support tools covering biophysical, economic, socio-cultural and governance dimensions, which, for convenience, we label as “tools”. The aim of such tools is to address the needs of advisors and decision-makers in adopting appropriate options for the use of land resources based on natural potential and hence avoiding unsustainable exploitation and preventing further degradation. The diversity of LRP tools, however, makes it challenging to target them at those stakeholder groups that would benefit most from them. The solution to this challenge is to collate an inventory of existing tools and approaches and develop an updated toolbox (hereafter called the LRP Toolbox) in support of participatory LRP. To initiate such a process, the Land and Water Division of FAO conducted a survey among stakeholders operating at different scales and in various sectors and regions to compile experiences and lessons learned among users of LRP tools and approaches. The specific goals of the survey were to: 1) identify stakeholders in LRP; 2) inventory the use of available LRP tools and identify challenges in their use, as well as needs and gaps; 3) support LRP by sharing experiences among users and other stakeholders; and 4) identify possible actions and strategic partners in the targeted development of LRP tools. The survey was designed by a team in the Land and Water Division and",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "challenges in their use, as well as needs and gaps; 3) support LRP by sharing experiences among users and other stakeholders; and 4) identify possible actions and strategic partners in the targeted development of LRP tools. The survey was designed by a team in the Land and Water Division and tested (in English) among a 35-member core group of respondents in FAO and key partner institutions working on LRP. Following this validation phase, the survey was distributed to a worldwide target group in the six FAO working languages (Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish) in late 2016 and announced through several external networks. In its final form, the survey was returned by 747 respondents (454 in English, 88 in Spanish, 79 in French, 71 in Russian, 51 in Arabic and four in Chinese); Annex 1 presents the questions included in the survey, and the survey methods, results and key messages are documented in an unpublished report (FAO, 2017d). Fitting tools to needs is challenging Stocktaking of gaps and opportunities LRP stakeholder survey 21 Characteristics of survey participants and their organizations Characteristics of survey participants and their organizations A wide variety of institutions involved in LRP responded to the survey, including in academic, research, governmental, intergovernmental, international and non-governmental organizations. The good institutional coverage suggests that the gaps and opportunities identified by respondents are comprehensive. The main support provided by the organizations and networks of respondents were advisory services, training and education, and policy support; a smaller number provided support for development, implementation, execution, facilitation, concept-based studies, investment and technical project development. This indicates that there was a diverse base among respondents in terms of the organizational support provided to LRP processes but that there was less support for investment, technical project development and financing. Thus, there may be opportunities",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "for development, implementation, execution, facilitation, concept-based studies, investment and technical project development. This indicates that there was a diverse base among respondents in terms of the organizational support provided to LRP processes but that there was less support for investment, technical project development and financing. Thus, there may be opportunities to increase the use of LRP tools in development, implementation and execution to guide LRP processes and generate more impact. Survey respondents came from a wide range of disciplines, including LRP, soil and water management and conservation, and environmental management/ecosystem services. The diversity of disciplines captured in the survey suggests that LRP is needed in many disciplines and that the results of the survey are comprehensive in identifying the needs of those disciplines. It also directs attention to the need to bring together all actors and sectors in the planning process. Taking into consideration that respondents may have multiple roles in LRP, it is striking that about half the respondents considered themselves in the roles of either technical specialists or scientific advisors. Modellers and other stakeholders were less well represented; policy-makers and facilitators were strongly represented. The majority of respondents operating in FAO regions worked in Africa, followed by Europe and Central Asia; the other continents were also well represented. The regions in which respondents operated were used to Institutional coverage Multidisciplinary 22 Land resource planning for sustainable land management disaggregate certain questions to gain a better understanding of needs in terms of tools, approaches and data for specific regions. This was helpful in deriving key messages to guide proposed actions to address gaps at the global level (i.e. those held in common worldwide), and those that are region-specific. Respondents worked mostly at the subnational or national scales. “Land users” and “local/community/village” were particularly well represented, and a substantial number",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "This was helpful in deriving key messages to guide proposed actions to address gaps at the global level (i.e. those held in common worldwide), and those that are region-specific. Respondents worked mostly at the subnational or national scales. “Land users” and “local/community/village” were particularly well represented, and a substantial number of respondents covered several scales (“multiscalar”). Fewer respondents were working at the regional, transboundary or global levels, implying that, in developing future actions, the emphasis should be at the national and subnational scales. Farmers and other land users, scientists, representatives of farmer groups, non-governmental organizations, women’s groups and foresters were all actively involved in LRP processes. The passive involvement of city inhabitants and local industries indicated by respondents may point to competition between sectors. These results, with a clear differentiation between moreand less-active stakeholder groups, indicate a need to consider the balanced involvement of all stakeholders in planning processes through the adoption of participatory planning at different scales. Regional coverage Level of operation Multistakeholder approaches 23 Characteristics and perceptions of the tools and data used in land resource planning Decision-support tools Integrated approaches Characteristics and perceptions of the tools and data used in land resource planning The most frequently used tools by respondents were those that provided direct biophysical decision-support outputs, such as land evaluation, suitability and similarity analysis; land capability classification; and agro-ecological zoning. Of approaches with a strong socio-economic component, the most commonly used (by 30 percent of respondents) were rapid rural appraisal and guidelines for participatory land-use planning/negotiated territorial planning. There was widespread agreement (70 percent of respondents) on the need for more or better decisionsupport tools for LRP at all scales, although a slightly higher need was indicated for decision-support tools at the local scale. These are important considerations for guiding the development of tools that",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "planning/negotiated territorial planning. There was widespread agreement (70 percent of respondents) on the need for more or better decisionsupport tools for LRP at all scales, although a slightly higher need was indicated for decision-support tools at the local scale. These are important considerations for guiding the development of tools that are helpful to various users. About 20 percent of respondents indicated that they used tools not featured in the survey, such as customized land-use decision models; participatory land-use planning; participatory tools at the local scale; GIS-based modelling approaches; and models and databases for decision support. These results are important for the future development and dissemination of integrated tools to support LRP. In their responses to other questions, respondents indicated the need for integrated approaches – which, to a large extent, they were already using; it was clear that demand for integrated LRP tools is high and that future actions should foster greater use of integrated approaches. Incorporating other user-identified tools and approaches into the LRP Toolbox should be a priority as a way of increasing their visibility and to enable more users to explore the utility of such tools for their own planning purposes. Many respondents reported frequently using databases of soils, agricultural statistics, land degradation, soil conservation and climate. Surprisingly, the 24 Land resource planning for sustainable land management crop requirement databases ECOCROP and GAEZ were not frequently used, although policy-makers consulted them. This could be explained by the fact that most respondents were operating at subnational scales and that the information provided by these two databases is too general for effective use at those scales. There is a need to explore ways of increasing usage of these databases, given their importance to sound LRP. A relatively high percentage (21.5 percent) of databases used by respondents were not listed",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "that the information provided by these two databases is too general for effective use at those scales. There is a need to explore ways of increasing usage of these databases, given their importance to sound LRP. A relatively high percentage (21.5 percent) of databases used by respondents were not listed in the survey, including custom databases (based on satellite image analysis, field surveys and United Nations databases) at the regional-to-local scales containing data on soils, climate, population and land-use patterns. These custom databases were developed to serve various objectives, and they should be included in the LRP Toolbox to increase their exposure to other potential users. The list of additional support tools provided by respondents is an important means of enriching the LRP Toolbox and promoting the sharing of tools among users across regions and scales of operation and to satisfy different interests in the planning process. A common remark by respondents was that it is essential to ensure that tools can be adapted to local conditions. Some respondents mentioned the failure of powerful tools in environments for which they were not designed or for which local data had to be generated through inference rather than observation. Preference was expressed for participatory communityand stakeholder-led planning tools, including gender-sensitive tools, because these better reflect the need to negotiate between interests in the real world and therefore have a greater chance of success. An important result was that the use of tools is often not the most crucial step in the LRP process; rather, it is what happens after diagnostic studies have been conducted and land-use and land management plans have been prepared. Key bottlenecks include shortcomings in legislative frameworks and the lack of procedures for an effective transition from approved plans to budgeted projects and programmes. The most common shortcomings are",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "process; rather, it is what happens after diagnostic studies have been conducted and land-use and land management plans have been prepared. Key bottlenecks include shortcomings in legislative frameworks and the lack of procedures for an effective transition from approved plans to budgeted projects and programmes. The most common shortcomings are low spatial or temporal resolution, resulting in variable data quality and necessitating the use of more general information than is appropriate for a particular scale of operation. To overcome this limitation, several respondents indicated that they were developing their own georeferenced local-level datasets, using GIS and remote sensing inputs. Most respondents viewed easy access to useful information as paramount, and “facilitating easy access to information” was considered the most useful property of a tool. The criteria for integrated holistic approaches Customized tools Adapting tools to local conditions Effective implementation of plans 25 Characteristics and perceptions of the tools and data used in land resource planning were considered very important, and a large majority of respondents recognized gaps in support tools in the three domains (i.e. biophysical, socio-economic and negotiatory). Notably, appropriate tools are missing in the socio-economic domain; most (80 percent) respondents indicated a lack of tools for integrating biophysical/environmental and socioeconomic information. Responses strongly emphasized integration at different scales of planning, the integration of the perspectives of all stakeholders, and the need for holistic approaches. A substantial majority of respondents recognized gaps in the availability of user-friendly computer tools and hard-copy guidelines and manuals. The 61 percent of responses emphasizing a gap in the availability of hard-copy guidelines and manuals is relatively high given the general trend towards electronic and computer-based tools. This shows that there remains a need to provide hard-copy material to increase access to tools, especially where computer facilities are unavailable. An important consideration in developing",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "emphasizing a gap in the availability of hard-copy guidelines and manuals is relatively high given the general trend towards electronic and computer-based tools. This shows that there remains a need to provide hard-copy material to increase access to tools, especially where computer facilities are unavailable. An important consideration in developing future tools and approaches, therefore, is avoiding an overreliance on electronic and computer-based tools. An overwhelming majority of respondents recognized gaps in technical capacity in the use of LRP tools. Data accessibility Hard-copy material Capacity development 26 Land resource planning for sustainable land management Eliciting ideas for further tool development There is a need for more or better decision-support tools for LRP; as a general principle, such tools should offer easy access to information with practical utility. New tools are needed at all scales, although respondents indicated a slightly higher need for decision-support tools at the local level. The demand is highest for tools that integrate the biophysical and socio-economic domains, with “integration” a recurring key theme among respondents for further tool development. It implies “inclusiveness” – the need to link different scales of planning, including the perspectives of all stakeholders, to combine biophysical, socio-economic and negotiatory approaches, and to adapt tools to local conditions. Not all tool development should rely on digital platforms: there is surprisingly high demand for hard-copy guidelines and manuals. It is clear, therefore, that tool development needs to take these pathways. Future actions should foster the integration of biophysical, socioeconomic and negotiatory approaches. Respondents expressed preference for participatory, communityand stakeholder-led, gender-sensitive planning tools because these reflect the need to negotiate among interests in the real world. Nevertheless, the biophysical potential of land resources is the basis for participatory and negotiatory processes. It is also important to enhance the visibility of other user-identified tools, approaches and",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "preference for participatory, communityand stakeholder-led, gender-sensitive planning tools because these reflect the need to negotiate among interests in the real world. Nevertheless, the biophysical potential of land resources is the basis for participatory and negotiatory processes. It is also important to enhance the visibility of other user-identified tools, approaches and databases. In all cases, capacity building is needed in the use of specialized tools and databases. Desirable features of future tools 27 Regional accents Regional accents The following are nuances in regional perceptions of the gaps in tools and necessary actions. In Africa, the main bottlenecks are related to the availability of data on local land resources; awareness among stakeholders and decision-makers about the importance of LRP; limited access to computer hardware and software; and feelings of isolation and loss of interest among extension staff due to the physical distance and limited internet connectivity of their workplaces. Solutions to such bottlenecks could involve developing tools that can generate useful datasets based on simplified land evaluation criteria and minimal field work; the design of participatory approaches that pay adequate attention to continuous dialogue with national decision-makers; stimulating the devolution of responsibilities and budgets to adequately equipped, decentralized planning teams in regions and districts; and creating virtual spaces for exchanging experiences among peers and experts, perhaps through specially developed smartphone apps. By and large, Asia experiences similar challenges in land-use planning to Africa, such as including stakeholders in planning processes; holistic planning to increase the productivity of farming systems while enhancing ecosystem services and mitigating climate change; and enhancing capacity in the use of LRP tools. Because the institutionalization of LRP is generally more advanced in Asia, the region also faces the challenge of combining topdown and bottom-up LRP processes when local-level planning decisions run counter to national planning directives. Such issues",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "services and mitigating climate change; and enhancing capacity in the use of LRP tools. Because the institutionalization of LRP is generally more advanced in Asia, the region also faces the challenge of combining topdown and bottom-up LRP processes when local-level planning decisions run counter to national planning directives. Such issues can only be resolved through the establishment of permanent mechanisms to ensure continuing dialogue between decision-makers at different levels. Given rapid development in much of the region, new LRP tools will be needed to monitor crucial development indicators such as market signals in response to policy initiatives. In Latin America, integrated landscape management approaches – although widely perceived as desirable – are hampered by factors such as the highest inequality in land distribution worldwide and, in many cases, the absence of a legal and policy framework, especially related to the land rights of indigenous peoples. Within these region-specific limitations, efforts are Africa Asia Latin America 28 Land resource planning for sustainable land management being made to implement novel and authentic visions for the indigenous management of territories based on the accepted principles of income generation through the sustainable use of natural resources, biodiversity conservation and adaptation to climate change. To contribute to decision-making within a territorial management framework, tools are needed that enabled detailed analyses at the local scale while remaining economically feasible. Capacity building is essential and should focus on understanding the intervention points at which tools can be integrated into the LRP process and on advancing collaboration and information-sharing among stakeholders, both nationally and subnationally. Approaches to integrated planning are most advanced in Europe, where all sectoral interests (e.g. the natural environment, rural–urban habitats, industry and infrastructure) are taken into account, with a well-defined planning horizon and from the perspective of sustainable development. Development plans follow established procedures",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "information-sharing among stakeholders, both nationally and subnationally. Approaches to integrated planning are most advanced in Europe, where all sectoral interests (e.g. the natural environment, rural–urban habitats, industry and infrastructure) are taken into account, with a well-defined planning horizon and from the perspective of sustainable development. Development plans follow established procedures and are supported by well-functioning legal frameworks. The situation is very different in Central Asia. The process of transforming the region’s formerly centrally planned economies into market economies is ongoing, and there remain a generally high level of poverty, a dependence on agriculture and natural resources for livelihoods and national incomes, and a challenging environmental context. Before deciding which tools are most suitable in Central Asia, an in-depth study is needed on the ways in which land-use planning is done in the region and how to move from top-down, centrally coordinated land-use planning to participatory, decentralized LRP approaches. Respondents in the Near East agreed on the urgency of integrated and inclusive LRP at the national, subnational and local scales because, in the region, land-use planning is a mostly theoretical concept that is rarely applied in practice. Respondents also agreed on the need for guidelines because the principles of LRP are insufficiently recognized – and therefore not supported – by decision-makers. International support may be needed, including through targeted projects for capacity building among decisionmakers and other stakeholders. It is recognized that guidelines cannot cater for all possible planning situations; rather, they should be designed in ways that provide essential skills for preparing participatory land-use plans at the local scale, adapted to representative situations. The integration of biophysical and socio-economic information should consider the dimensions of farming and other production systems, agro-ecological conditions, and projections of climate change. Europe Central Asia Near East 29 The Land Resources Planning Toolbox The Land",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "for preparing participatory land-use plans at the local scale, adapted to representative situations. The integration of biophysical and socio-economic information should consider the dimensions of farming and other production systems, agro-ecological conditions, and projections of climate change. Europe Central Asia Near East 29 The Land Resources Planning Toolbox The Land Resources Planning Toolbox The importance of LRP in the sustainable management of increasingly scarce natural resources is bound to increase, given continued population growth and the expected impacts of climate change. Assisting the LRP process is a growing suite of approaches, guidelines, methods, datasets and specialist support tools covering biophysical, economic, socio-cultural and governance dimensions. The rising demands on decision-makers at the national, subnational and local scales to address emerging challenges and promote effective and sustainable responses call for an updated set of tools and approaches to support participatory LRP processes. The LRP survey described above provided evidence that, even within the LRP target group, there is considerable ignorance on the range of tools, approaches and databases now available for LRP. On the other hand, many survey respondents indicated that they use tools not featured in the survey, some of which were developed locally. To address this serious knowledge gap, a stocktaking exercise was undertaken to build an inventory of existing tools and approaches and to establish a regularly updated toolbox to support participatory LRP. Such a toolbox, it was considered, should be capable of providing answers to questions such as: What tools are available? What are their capabilities and limitations? Which tools best suit which stakeholders and LRP professionals? And for which regions and scales of planning are they suitable? The toolbox should be maintained over time, with new tools added as they become available. Adequate attention should be paid to tools identified by external agents to enhance their",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "limitations? Which tools best suit which stakeholders and LRP professionals? And for which regions and scales of planning are they suitable? The toolbox should be maintained over time, with new tools added as they become available. Adequate attention should be paid to tools identified by external agents to enhance their visibility and enable more users to explore the utility of such tools in meeting their own planning objectives. The LRP survey identified a particular need for decision-support tools that offer easy access to information of practical use; cater particularly to the needs of local planning; deal with themes in all domains but especially the socioeconomic domain; and, most importantly, integrate both the biophysical and socio-economic domains. Tools to support LRP Visibility of LRP tools Inventory of tools 30 Land resource planning for sustainable land management FAO subsequently developed the LRP Toolbox3 as a web-based dissemination platform for the LRP community. The Toolbox provides a comprehensive inventory of available tools, databases and support tools for facilitating LRP. The Toolbox, which is hosted on the FAO website, will be maintained and updated over time. The LRP Toolbox is expected to play a crucial role by filling a major knowledge gap in the community of LRP practitioners and stakeholders. It contains over 100 records (and growing) of LRP tools, including descriptions (Annex 2). The Toolbox makes a distinction between tools in the biophysical and socio-economic domains and those that integrate the two domains. The Toolbox can be searched by several criteria (Box 3). The subcategories depend on the selected main category (Figure 7), and multiple selections can be entered into the other search fields (i.e. thematic area, type of tool and scale of applicability). The Toolbox database contains a short description of each tool, including its objectives, the scale(s) for which it was",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "The subcategories depend on the selected main category (Figure 7), and multiple selections can be entered into the other search fields (i.e. thematic area, type of tool and scale of applicability). The Toolbox database contains a short description of each tool, including its objectives, the scale(s) for which it was developed and can be used, the target user groups that would benefit from its use, and the regions in which it has been used; links to websites and case studies are provided, where available. More work is needed to review the main constraints on, and opportunities for, evidence-based decision-making at various scales and among the full range of stakeholders. The need for integrated information systems and simple, rigorous methods of analysis and planning should be reviewed as a way of informing land-use decisions and investments and bringing about a transformation from unsustainable to sustainable development in support of the SDGs. 3 www.fao.org/land-water/land/land-governance/land-resources-planning-toolbox/en Provide guidance to multiple users BOX 3 The Land Resources Planning Toolbox The Land Resources Planning Toolbox is a web-based dissemination platform that allows users to extract information on land resource planning tools and databases from a centrally maintained database. The database has a hierarchical structure, whereby individual tools can be searched using free text or according to the following five criteria: 1) main category; 2) subcategory; 3) thematic area; 4) type of tool; and 5) scale/level of applicability (Figure 6). LRP Toolbox 31 The Land Resources Planning Toolbox Figure 6 Homepage of the LRP Toolbox 32 Land resource planning for sustainable land management Figure 7 Search criteria and options for the Land Resources Planning Toolbox Agriculture, statistics Agriculture, productivity Cadaster Climate Crops, distribution Crops, productivity Crops, suitability Economy, statistics Environment, the distichs Farming systems Food, statistics forestry, statistics General Land degradation Land evaluation Land management/planning Land/water rights",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "resource planning for sustainable land management Figure 7 Search criteria and options for the Land Resources Planning Toolbox Agriculture, statistics Agriculture, productivity Cadaster Climate Crops, distribution Crops, productivity Crops, suitability Economy, statistics Environment, the distichs Farming systems Food, statistics forestry, statistics General Land degradation Land evaluation Land management/planning Land/water rights Land/cover Population, distribution Population, statistics Remote sensing Social participatory approaches Social, statistics Soils, distribution and properties soils, management and conservation Water, productivity Water, statistics THEMATIC AREAS TYPE OF TOOL MAIN CATEGORIES SUB CATEGORIES SCALE OF APPLICABILITY Data Documentation/manuals Educational materials Framework/guidelines Maps/GIS Model Questionnaire/survey Software Global Regional National Subnational/province/district Watershed/basin/landscape Locality/farm/site Biophysical approaches/tools Integrated biophysical and socio-economic/ negotiated approaches/tools Databases/information systems Support tools Socio-economic/negotiated approaches tools Land Evaluation Agroecological Zoning and derived tools Soil Productivity Indecies Software/Applications Land Resources Planning Farm systems Gender Governance/tenure Household surveys Participatory/negotiated approaches Rural appraisal Spatial planning (Urban/Rural) Territorial development/sustainable land management Soil databases Land degradation databases Climate data bases Statistics data bases Crop databases Assessment and mapping tools: Land, soil, crop, water Assessment and mapping tools: climate Other support tools 33 The Land Resources Planning Toolbox A communication and knowledge platform should be established (or existing platforms adapted) for sharing experiences and results in the use of up-todate, participatory LRP tools and approaches for addressing conflicts and competition over resources and achieving a balanced economic, social and environmental development process. Up-to-date LRP tools have great potential to support integrated landscape management and land restoration processes. Field programmes should be designed and implemented in a range of countries to validate the utility of updated tools and to fine-tune them to ensure that user needs are fully reflected and tools are in place to support land-use decisions at the nationalto-local scales. State-of-the-art LRP guidance, tools and methods are needed to support informed decision-making for the development",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "range of countries to validate the utility of updated tools and to fine-tune them to ensure that user needs are fully reflected and tools are in place to support land-use decisions at the nationalto-local scales. State-of-the-art LRP guidance, tools and methods are needed to support informed decision-making for the development of national land-use strategies and action plans across sectors (e.g. agriculture, environment, forest, energy, land, water, finance and planning). A strategy should be formulated for generating a new paradigm of participatory, multistakeholder LRP to meet the current and emerging needs of countries at various scales (e.g. local, subnational, national and transboundary), paying attention to livelihoods and socio-economic benefits as well as to the maintenance of the natural resource base and sustainable production systems. 34 Land resource planning for sustainable land management References BMZ. 2012. Land use planning concept, tools and applications. German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) (available at www.giz.de/expertise/downloads/Fachexpertise/giz2012en-land-use-planning-manual.pdf). CDE. 2010. Coping with degradation through SLWM. SOLAW Background Thematic Report 12. Centre for Development and Environment (CDE). Rome, FAO (available at www.fao.org/nr/ solaw). Damen, B. 2016. Paris Agreement & FAO-AP. Using nationally determined contributions (NDCs) for country programming in Asia and the Pacific. Presentation at FAO headquarters, Rome, 7 March 2016. EcoAgriculture Partners. 2017. Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Initiative. Webpage (available at www.peoplefoodandnature.org). FAO. 1976. Framework for land evaluation. Rome. FAO. 1993. Guidelines for land use planning. Rome (available at www. fao.org/docrep/t0715e/t0715e00.htm). FAO. 1997. Africover land cover classification. Remote Sensing Centre Series 70. Rome. FAO. 2004. Participatory land use development in the municipalities of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Guidelines. Rome (available at www. fao.org/fileadmin/templates/nr/images/resources/pdf_documents/ PLUD_Guidelines_final_eng_1_.pdf). FAO. 2006. Final declaration, ICARRD – International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (available at www.nyeleni. org/IMG/pdf/2006_03_FinalDeclaration_FAO_Conference_En-1-3. pdf). FAO. 2007. Land evaluation: towards a revised framework Land and water.",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "FAO. 2004. Participatory land use development in the municipalities of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Guidelines. Rome (available at www. fao.org/fileadmin/templates/nr/images/resources/pdf_documents/ PLUD_Guidelines_final_eng_1_.pdf). FAO. 2006. Final declaration, ICARRD – International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (available at www.nyeleni. org/IMG/pdf/2006_03_FinalDeclaration_FAO_Conference_En-1-3. pdf). FAO. 2007. Land evaluation: towards a revised framework Land and water. Discussion Paper 6. Rome (available at www.fao.org/3/aa1080e.pdf). 35 References FAO. 2011. The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture: Managing systems at risk. Rome. FAO. 2012a. Towards the future we want: end hunger and make the transition to sustainable agricultural and food systems. Rome. FAO. 2012b. Voluntary guidelines on the responsible governance of tenure of land, fisheries and forests in the context of national food security. Rome. FAO. 2013b. Sustainable land management. Webpage (available at www. fao.org/nr/land/sustainable-land-management/en/). FAO. 2014. Building a common vision for sustainable food and agriculture, principles and approaches. Rome. FAO. 2016a. Land use planning and policy. Webpage (available at www. fao.org/nr/land/land-policy-and-planning/en/). FAO. 2016b. Negotiated territorial development in a multi-stakeholders participatory resource planning approach: an initial sustainable framework for the Near East region. Land and Water Division Working Paper No. 15. Rome. FAO. 2016c. Agriculture and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. 25th Session of the Committee on Agriculture, 26–30 September 2016. Rome. FAO. 2016d. FAO’s role in monitoring the Sustainable Development Goals. Unpublished report. FAO. 2017a. Voluntary guidelines for sustainable soil management. Rome. FAO. 2017b. Climate-smart agriculture sourcebook. Module B.7 Sustainable soil/land management for climate-smart agriculture. Rome. FAO. 2017c. Landscapes for life: guidance document on integrated landscape management. (In preparation.) Rome. FAO. 2017d. Review and evaluation of participatory land use/resource planning tools. Unpublished report. 36 Land resource planning for sustainable land management FAO, IFAD & WFP. 2013. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2013: The multiple dimensions of food security.",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
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    "text": "guidance document on integrated landscape management. (In preparation.) Rome. FAO. 2017d. Review and evaluation of participatory land use/resource planning tools. Unpublished report. 36 Land resource planning for sustainable land management FAO, IFAD & WFP. 2013. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2013: The multiple dimensions of food security. Rome, FAO, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and World Food Programme (WFP). IAASTD. 2009. Agriculture at a crossroad. International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD). LandPotential.org. 2016. Land potential knowledge system (LandPKS). Webpage (available at http://landpotential.org). Landscapes for People, Food and Nature. 2015. Landscape partnerships for sustainable development: achieving the SDGs through integrated landscape management. A white paper to discuss the benefits of using ILM as a key means of implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals. Presented at the Global Landscapes Forum, Paris, December 2015 (available at http://peoplefoodandnature.org/wp-content/ uploads/2015/12/LPFN_WhitePaper_112415c_lowres.pdf). Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2003. Ecosystems and human wellbeing: a framework for assessment. Washington, DC, Island Press. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and human wellbeing: synthesis. Washington, DC, Island Press. United Nations. 1995. Chapter 40: Information for decision-making and Earthwatch. Commission on Sustainable Development, Economic and Social Council E/CN.17/1995/7, February 1995. United Nations, New York. UNCCD. 2013. Desertification, land degradation & drought (DLDD): some global facts and figures. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). United Nations. 1992. Agenda 21: the United Nations Programme of Action from Rio. New York, USA. United Nations. 2012. The future we want. Rio+20 outcome document. Resolution A/RES/66/288 adopted by the General Assembly on 27 July 2012 (available at www.un.org/disabilities/documents/rio20_ outcome_document_complete.pdf). 37 References WOCAT. 2007. Where the land is greener: case studies and analysis of soil and water conservation worldwide, edited by H.P. Liniger & W. Critchley. World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT). WRI. 2014. Atlas of forest and landscape",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Assembly on 27 July 2012 (available at www.un.org/disabilities/documents/rio20_ outcome_document_complete.pdf). 37 References WOCAT. 2007. Where the land is greener: case studies and analysis of soil and water conservation worldwide, edited by H.P. Liniger & W. Critchley. World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT). WRI. 2014. Atlas of forest and landscape restoration opportunities. Washington, DC, World Resources Institute (WRI). Zdruli, P., Ziadat, F., Nerilli, E., D’Agostino, D., Lahmer, F. & Bunning, S. 2016. Sustainable development of land resources. In Zero waste in the Mediterranean, Chapter 4. Paris, Presses de Sciences Po. Ziadat, F., Berrahmouni, N., Grewer, U., Bunning, S., Bockel, L. & Oweis, T. 2015. Reversing land degradation in the drylands: scaling out and monitoring proven sustainable land management options. In Griffiths, J., ed. Living land, pp. 14–17. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (available at www.unccd.int/ Lists/SiteDocumentLibrary/Publications/Living_Land_ENG.pdf). 39 Annex 1. Survey questions Annex 1. Survey questions 1. What is your affiliation? Answer options: • Individual Farmer/ Land user • Farmers' organization/group • Private firm • Governmental • Intergovernmental/ International • Non-governmental • Academic/ Research • Other 2. Which type of support is provided by your organization? Multiple answers possible. Answer options: • Advisory services • Financial support • Facilitation • Development, implementation and/or execution of land-use plans • Training and education • Concept/desk-based study • Investment and technical project development • Policy support • Combination of above or other 3. What is the main focus of your activities? (Multiple answers possible). Answer options: • Land-use planning/Land evaluation • Soil/Land management • Water management • Basin/Watershed/Landscape management 40 Land resource planning for sustainable land management • Horticulture • Environment management and ecosystem services • Forestry/ Agroforestry • Soil and water conservation • Fishery/Aquaculture • Agronomy • GIS / remote sensing applications • Wildlife / wetlands/ drylands management • Rangeland management •",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "• Water management • Basin/Watershed/Landscape management 40 Land resource planning for sustainable land management • Horticulture • Environment management and ecosystem services • Forestry/ Agroforestry • Soil and water conservation • Fishery/Aquaculture • Agronomy • GIS / remote sensing applications • Wildlife / wetlands/ drylands management • Rangeland management • Crop management/ protection • Irrigation management • Livestock/ pasture management • Socio-cultural aspects • Economic aspects • Legal aspects • Gender equality • Land resources assessments • Coastal zone/area management • Territorial development/planning • Land tenure/common property management • Mountain/highland development • Multifunctional agriculture • Climate-smart agriculture • Urban-rural linkages and peri-urban agriculture • Agricultural heritage systems/ landscapes • Agricultural biodiversity conservation and sustainable use • Biodiversity management (in protected areas etc.) • Sustainable energy and bioenergy development • Combination of the above or other 4. What are your specific roles within the process of land-use planning? More than one answer possible. Answer options: • Technical specialist • Modeler • Policy-maker • Facilitator 41 Annex 1. Survey questions • Scientific advisor • Stakeholder (beneficiary/affected) • Other 5. In which region do you operate? Answer options: • Africa • Asia and the Pacific • Near East and North Africa • Latin America and the Caribbean • Europe and Central Asia • Global • Other 6. At what scale/level do you operate? Answer options: • Land users (farmer, entrepreneur) • Local/community/village • District/Province • Urban/Peri-urban area • Sub-national • National • Multi-scale • Transboundary (across neighbouring countries) • Regional • Global • Combination of above or other 7. Please choose all potential stakeholders that are directly or indirectly affected by a change of land-use (related to your initiative). Answer options: • Farmers/Land-users • Representatives of farmer's groups • Non-governmental organizations • Women's groups • Youth's groups • City inhabitants 42 Land resource",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Combination of above or other 7. Please choose all potential stakeholders that are directly or indirectly affected by a change of land-use (related to your initiative). Answer options: • Farmers/Land-users • Representatives of farmer's groups • Non-governmental organizations • Women's groups • Youth's groups • City inhabitants 42 Land resource planning for sustainable land management • Local industry • Foresters • Politicians • Scientists • Indigenous people • Other 8. Please describe the level of involvement of following stakeholders in the land-use planning process (related to your initiative). Answer options: • Farmers/Land-users • Representatives of farmer's groups • Non-governmental organizations • Women's groups • Youth's groups • City inhabitants • Local industry • Foresters • Politicians • Scientists • Indigenous people • Other (please specify) 9. Did you/do you use tools (software, frameworks, guidelines, databases/inputs, case-studies) in order to support your decision-making in land evaluation and land-use planning?(In case you choose NO, you will skip all questions of this category). Answer options: • Yes • No 10. Which of the following biophysical and/or socio-economic and/or negotiation approaches do/did you use? Answer options: • Land Evaluation, Similarity and Suitability AnalysisExamples • Land Capability Classification • Land Potential Knowledge System (LandPKS) • Agro-Ecological Zoning and derived tools (GAEZ, AEZ-WIN) 43 Annex 1. Survey questions • Soil Potential Ratings & Storie Index, Fertility Capability Classification, Soil Productivity Index • Automated Land Evaluation System (ALES) • Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT), Land Resources Information Management System (LRIMS) • Framework for Evaluating Sustainable Land Management (FESLM) • Guidelines for Participatory Land Use Planning/ Negotiated Territorial Planning • Land Evaluation and Site Assessment (LESA), Planning for Sustainable Use of Land Resources • Participatory and Negotiated Territorial Development (PNTD) • Improving Gender Equality in Territorial Issues (IGETI) • Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) • Voluntary Guidelines",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Land Management (FESLM) • Guidelines for Participatory Land Use Planning/ Negotiated Territorial Planning • Land Evaluation and Site Assessment (LESA), Planning for Sustainable Use of Land Resources • Participatory and Negotiated Territorial Development (PNTD) • Improving Gender Equality in Territorial Issues (IGETI) • Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) • Voluntary Guidelines on Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security (VGGT) • Other 11. Which of the following databases/inputs do/did you use? Answer options: • Soil Databases: SOTER, HWSD, DSMW, SISLAC, AFSIS, European Soil Database and Soil Properties, Soil Grids, EuDASM • Land Degradation databases: LADA, GLADA, GLADIS, GLASOD • Sub-national crop maps: Agro-MAPS • Conservation Approaches and Technologies: WOCAT • Climatic Databases: FAOCLIM, CFSR, CMIP3 • Agricultural Statistics: FAOSTAT, CountrySTAT, AQUASTAT • Crop suitability databases: Ecocrop 1, Ecocrop 2, GAEZ • Other 12. Which of the following supporting tools do/did you use? Answer options: • LADA tools • SLEEP • AQUACROP • CROPWAT • EX-ACT 44 Land resource planning for sustainable land management • SHARP • LPFN • Climate tools: CM Box, LocClim, New_LocClim, AgroMetShell, CLIMWAT, ETo calculator • Other Supporting tools: LCCS, TerrAfrica, WOFOST, HORTIVAR, WISDOM, WINDISP, ADDATI • Other 13. Overall, how satisfied are you with the support the following tools provided? Answer options: Choose one opinion Very dissatisfied / Somewhat dissatisfied/ Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied/ Somewhat satisfied / Very satisfied About tool: • Land Evaluation, Similarity and Suitability AnalysisExamples • Land Capability Classification • LandPKS • Agro-Ecological Zoning and derived tools (GAEZ, AEZ-WIN) • Soil Potential Ratings & Storie Index, Fertility Capability Classification, Soil Productivity Index • ALES • DSSAT, LRIMS • FESLM • Guidelines for Participatory Land Use Planning/ Negotiated Territorial Planning • LESA • PNTD • IGETI • RRA • VGGT • Other 14. Please explain why",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "derived tools (GAEZ, AEZ-WIN) • Soil Potential Ratings & Storie Index, Fertility Capability Classification, Soil Productivity Index • ALES • DSSAT, LRIMS • FESLM • Guidelines for Participatory Land Use Planning/ Negotiated Territorial Planning • LESA • PNTD • IGETI • RRA • VGGT • Other 14. Please explain why these tools did or did not meet your needs. 15. How satisfied are you with the support of your land-use planning activities by following databases/inputs? Answer options: 45 Annex 1. Survey questions Choose one opinion Very dissatisfied / Somewhat dissatisfied/ Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied/ Somewhat satisfied / Very satisfied About database: • Soil Databases: SOTER, HWSD, DSMW, SISLAC, AFSIS, European Soil Database and Soil Properties, Soil Grids, EuDASM • LADA, GLADA, GLADIS, GLASOD • Agro-MAPS • WOCAT • Climatic Databases: FAOCLIM, CFSR, CMIP3 • FAOSTAT, CountrySTAT, AQUASTAT • Ecocrop 1, Ecocrop 2, GAEZ • Other 16. Please explain why these databases/inputs did or did not meet your needs. 17. How satisfied are you with the support of your land-use planning activities by following supporting tools? Answer options: Choose one opinion Very dissatisfied / Somewhat dissatisfied/ Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied/ Somewhat satisfied / Very satisfied About support tool: • LADA tools • SLEEP • AQUACROP • CROPWAT • EX-ACT • SHARP • LPFN • Climate tools: CM Box, LocClim, New_LocClim, AgroMetShell, CLIMWAT, ETo calculator • Other Supporting tools: LCCS, TerrAfrica, WOFOST, HORTIVAR, WISDOM, WINDISP, ADDATI • Other 46 Land resource planning for sustainable land management 18. Please explain why these supporting tools did or did not meet your needs. 19. Please select the most important criteria that makes a tool useful to meet your needs. Answer options: • Facilitates easy access to information • Facilitates integration of different scales and levels of planning • Facilitates integration of all stakeholders' perspectives •",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "tools did or did not meet your needs. 19. Please select the most important criteria that makes a tool useful to meet your needs. Answer options: • Facilitates easy access to information • Facilitates integration of different scales and levels of planning • Facilitates integration of all stakeholders' perspectives • Provides a holistic approach • Is very specific (dealing with a single issue) • Is very practical • Other 20. Which of the following would support your decision-making in the land-use planning process? Multiple answers possible. Answer options: • Diagnostic/Assessment tools • Land-use plans • Maps/GIS • Suitability analysis and maps • Multi-stakeholder dialogue • Community-based participatory approach • Land/ natural resources management plans • Case studies (e.g. using WOCAT tools) • Training materials • Policy advice/briefs • Project design/ development • Other 21. At which scale do you see more gaps in land-use planning decisionsupport tools? Answer options: • National/ Sub-national • Watershed/ Landscape • Local level (Village/ Community) 47 Annex 1. Survey questions 22. For which focus do you recognize more gaps in the land-use planning decision-support tools? Answer options: • Biophysical (environmental) approaches • Socio-economic (people centered) approaches • Integration of these two 23. For which of the following sectors do you recognize more gaps in the land-use planning decision tools? Answer options: • Forestry • Rangeland • Urban • Irrigated • Rainfed • Mountains • Integration of above sectors 24. For which of the data below do you recognize more gaps in the landuse planning decision tools? Answer options: • Biophysical data (soil, current land use, climate, topography, water, resources, etc.) • Socio-economic data (population, tenure, demography, market, cost/benefit, gender etc.) 25. Do you recognize more gaps in the land-use planning decisionsupport tools regarding: Answer options: • Availability of user friendly computer tools • Availability of",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "tools? Answer options: • Biophysical data (soil, current land use, climate, topography, water, resources, etc.) • Socio-economic data (population, tenure, demography, market, cost/benefit, gender etc.) 25. Do you recognize more gaps in the land-use planning decisionsupport tools regarding: Answer options: • Availability of user friendly computer tools • Availability of hard-copy guidelines and manuals 26. Do you recognize gaps regarding the capacity of technical staff and decision-makers on the selection, updating and use of land-use planning tools? Answer options: • Yes • No • Not applicable 48 Land resource planning for sustainable land management 27. Are there any additional gaps in the land-use planning decisionsupport tools? If so, please name them. 28. Please share your experience and provide any other comments or remarks that may be relevant. 29. If you are interested in the results of the survey, please leave your email address. 30. We would like to know more about you, please provide the following information (OPTIONAL). Answer options: • First Name and Last Name • Organisation • City/Town • Country: • Email Address 49 Annex 2. Tools in the Land Resources Planning Toolbox Annex 2. Tools in the Land Resources Planning Toolbox The tools described below are featured in the Land Resources Planning Toolbox developed by FAO (www.fao.org/land-water/land/land-governance/land-resources-planning-toolbox). Abbreviation What? Learn more about it through these links ADDATI A Package for Exploratory Data Analysis http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/aw_6_en.asp AEZ Agro-ecological Zoning. Guidelines ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/prosoil/docs/S521.pdf AEZ-WIN AEZ (Agro-Ecological Zones) for Windows http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/5825/ AFSIS Africa Soil Information Service http://africasoils.net/ Agro-Maps Global Spatial Database of Agricultural Land-Use Statistics http://kids.fao.org/agromaps/ AgroMetShell Software for crop yield forecasting http://www.hoefsloot.com/agrometshell.htm ALES Automated Land Evaluation System http://www.css.cornell.edu/faculty/dgr2/ research/ales/alesprog.htm AQUACROP Crop-Water Productivity Model of FAO http://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-andsoftware/aquacrop/en/ AQUASTAT Global Water Information System of FAO http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/ index.stm CANSIS Canadian Soil Information Service http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/ CFSR Climate Forecast System Reanalysis https://climatedataguide.ucar.edu/climate-data/ climate-forecast-system-reanalysis-cfsr CLIMWAT Climatic Database",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Agricultural Land-Use Statistics http://kids.fao.org/agromaps/ AgroMetShell Software for crop yield forecasting http://www.hoefsloot.com/agrometshell.htm ALES Automated Land Evaluation System http://www.css.cornell.edu/faculty/dgr2/ research/ales/alesprog.htm AQUACROP Crop-Water Productivity Model of FAO http://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-andsoftware/aquacrop/en/ AQUASTAT Global Water Information System of FAO http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/ index.stm CANSIS Canadian Soil Information Service http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/ CFSR Climate Forecast System Reanalysis https://climatedataguide.ucar.edu/climate-data/ climate-forecast-system-reanalysis-cfsr CLIMWAT Climatic Database to be used with CROPWAT http://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-andsoftware/climwat-for-cropwat/en/ CM_Box Crop Monitoring Box http://www.hoefsloot.com/wiki/index. php?title=Main_Page 50 Land resource planning for sustainable land management CMIP3 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project http://cmip-pcmdi.llnl.gov/cmip3_overview.html COMAP Community mapping. A tool for community organizing http://www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/ community-mapping-programme-partnerguidelines.pdf Country_STAT Country Statistics on Food and Agriculture https://www.countrystat.org/default.aspx CPSZ Crop Production Systems Zones of the IGAD Sub-region http://www.paolosantacroce.net/Publications/ Entries/1995/1/1_Crop_Production_System_ Zones_of_the_IGADD_Sub-Region.html CROPWAT Crop Water and Irrigation Requirements Program of FAO http://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-andsoftware/cropwat/en/ DIMITRA Dimitra Clubs http://www.fao.org/dimitra/dimitra-clubs/en/ DSMW FAO Digital Soil Map of the World http://www.fao.org/geonetwork/srv/en/ metadata.show?id=14116 DSSAT Decision-Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSSAT DTR Desarrollo territorial rural http://www.fao.org/3/a-a1253s.pdf ECOCROP Crop Ecological Requirements Database http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/home ECOSYS Ecosystem Classification http://www.ecosystems.ws/ecosystem_ classification_systems.htm ELMO Evaluation of Land Management Options https://wle.cgiar.org/evaluating-landmanagement-options-elmo ET0 Calculator Potential Evapotranspiration Calculation Program of FAO http://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-andsoftware/eto-calculator/en/ EuDASM European Digital Archive of Soil Maps http://esdac.jrc.ec.europa.eu/resource-type/ national-soil-maps-eudasm EX-ACT Ex-Ante Carbon Balance Tool http://www.fao.org/tc/exact/ex-act-home/en/ FAOCLIM World-wide Agroclimatic Data of FAO http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/pub/en1102_ en.asp FAOSTAT Global Food and Agriculture Statistics of FAO http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home FARMDESIGN Bio-economic farm and landscape models, FarmDESIGN and LandscapeIMAGES http://www.farmdesign.net/ FCC Fertility Capability Classification http://gisweb.ciat.cgiar.org/RTBMaps/Docs/ fcc_doc.pdf 51 Annex 2. Tools in the Land Resources Planning Toolbox FERTIREC Online fertilizer recommendations http://stcr.gov.in/Farmer/index.aspx FESLM Framework for Evaluating Sustainable Land Management http://www.fao.org/docrep/T1079E/T1079E00. htm FLE Framework for Land Evaluation http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5310e/x5310e00. htm FSP Farming systems and poverty http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/y1860e/ y1860e00.htm FUTURE_LAND The Future of Our Land. Guidelines for Integrated Planning for Sustainable Management of Land Resources http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/x3810e/ x3810e00.htm GAEZ Global Agro-Ecological Zones http://www.fao.org/nr/gaez/en/ GLADA Global Assessment of Land Degradation and Improvement http://www.isric.org/projects/globalassessment-land-degradation-and-improvementglada GLADIS Global Land Degradation Information System of FAO http://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-andsoftware/gladis/en/ GLASOD Global Assessment of",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "systems and poverty http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/y1860e/ y1860e00.htm FUTURE_LAND The Future of Our Land. Guidelines for Integrated Planning for Sustainable Management of Land Resources http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/x3810e/ x3810e00.htm GAEZ Global Agro-Ecological Zones http://www.fao.org/nr/gaez/en/ GLADA Global Assessment of Land Degradation and Improvement http://www.isric.org/projects/globalassessment-land-degradation-and-improvementglada GLADIS Global Land Degradation Information System of FAO http://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-andsoftware/gladis/en/ GLASOD Global Assessment of Human-induced Soil Degradation http://www.isric.org/projects/global-assessmenthuman-induced-soil-degradation-glasod GlobCover GlobCover land Cover Maps http://due.esrin.esa.int/page_globcover.php GLRDB FAO Gender and Land Rights Database http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/ en/ GNTD Toolkit for the application of Green Negotiated Territorial Development http://www.fao.org/documents/card/ en/c/7ec0cee1-e1c7-41cb-863e-c519238538b9/ GRASS Grassland Regeneration and Sustainability Standard http://www.fao.org/nr/sustainability/grassland/ best-practices/projects-detail/en/c/237687/ Guide_LUP Guidelines for Land Use Planning https://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller-colombia/ FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/guidelup.pdf HORTIVAR Horticulture Cultivars Performance Database http://www.fao.org/hortivar/ HWSD Harmonized World Soil Database http://webarchive.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/ External-World-soil-database/HTML/index. html?sb=1 IDE_MINAGRI Gestionamos informacion geografica para la agricultura nacional http://ide.minagri.gob.cl/geoweb/ IG_UTP International Guidelines on Urban and Territorial Planning https://unhabitat.org/books/internationalguidelines-on-urban-and-territorial-planning/ 52 Land resource planning for sustainable land management IGETI Improving Gender Equality in Territorial Issues www.fao.org/docrep/016/me282e/me282e.pdf KEITA Approche territoriale du projet Keita http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5306f/x5306f08.htm LADA_Tools Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands: the tools include (i) Methodology and results, (ii) maps of land-use systems at global and regional scales, (iii) a questionnaire for mapping land degradation and sustainable land management http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3241e.pdf ; http://www. fao.org/docrep/017/i3242e/i3242e.pdf ; http:// www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3240e/i3240e.pdf LAND_HEALTH Land Health Surveillance, Land Health decisions, Stochastic Impact Evaluation http://www.worldagroforestry.org/landhealth LandPKS Land Potential Knowledge System https://www.landpotential.org/index.html LASUME Land Survey Methods and Training in Participatory Land-use Planning and Land Allocation http://www.mekonginfo.org/assets/ midocs/0001841-planning-cadastre-land-surveymethods-and-training-in-participatory-land-useplanning-and-land-allocation.pdf LCC Land Capability Classification https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE.../ nrcs142p2_052290.pdf LCCS Land Cover Classification System http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x0596e/ x0596e00.HTM LE_Rev Land evaluation: towards a revised framework http://www.fao.org/nr/lman/docs/ lman_070601_en.pdf LEAP Landscape Ecological Assessment Planning (LEAP) http://leap.silvacom.com/ LEFSA Land Evaluation and Farming Systems Analysis for Land-use Planning http://edepot.wur.nl/297638 LESA Land Evaluation and Site Assessment https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/ detail/national/landuse/?cid=nrcs143_008438 LocClim Local Climate Estimator http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/pub/en0201_ en.asp LPFN Landscapes for People, Food and Nature http://peoplefoodandnature.org/ LRIMS Land Record Information Management System https://www.geospatialworld.net/article/lrimsfor-better-administration/ LSMS Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS)",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Assessment Planning (LEAP) http://leap.silvacom.com/ LEFSA Land Evaluation and Farming Systems Analysis for Land-use Planning http://edepot.wur.nl/297638 LESA Land Evaluation and Site Assessment https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/ detail/national/landuse/?cid=nrcs143_008438 LocClim Local Climate Estimator http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/pub/en0201_ en.asp LPFN Landscapes for People, Food and Nature http://peoplefoodandnature.org/ LRIMS Land Record Information Management System https://www.geospatialworld.net/article/lrimsfor-better-administration/ LSMS Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTLSMS/0,,contentMDK: 21610833~pagePK:64168427~piPK:64168435~theSi tePK:3358997,00.html 53 Annex 2. Tools in the Land Resources Planning Toolbox LSRS_Can Land Suitability Rating System for Agricultural Crops http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/publications/ manuals/1995-lsrs/index.html LUDAS Land-use Dynamics Simulator (LUDAS) http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ pii/S1574954110000208 LUPC_TAJ The land-use planning (LUP) Catalogue of Tajikistan http://www.naturalresources-centralasia.org/ flermoneca/assets/files/The%20land%20use%20 planning%20(LUP%20)%20Catalogue%20of%20 Tajikistan_EN_small.pdf LUWES Land-use planning for Low Emission Development Strategy http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/ Publications/files/booklet/BL0040-12.pdf MIRCA2000 Global data set of monthly irrigated and rainfed crop areas around the year 2000 https://www.uni-frankfurt.de/45218023/MIRCA MIREPLA Micro-regional planning http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ Europe/documents/Publications/Mrp_en.pdf NELAWU Negotiating land and water use: participatory planning of resource management http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/mi371e/mi371e. pdf New_LocClim Local Climate Estimator http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/pub/ en3_051002_en.asp NTD_NE Negotiated territorial development in a multi-stakeholders participatory resource planning approach. An initial sustainable framework for the Near East region http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6133e.pdf ORTEMU_BOL Ordenamiento territorial municipal. Una experiencia en el Departamento de Santa Cruz, Bolivia http://www.fao.org/forestry/11741-0aeb2310125 8b35f4fa711fa453afb5e.pdf ORTEMU_CHI Ordenamiento Territorial en el Municipio. Una guía metodológica http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3755s.pdf PI Soil productivity index based upon predicted water depletion and growth http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/clc/195121 PLASULARE Planning for sustainable use of land resources http://www.fao.org/docrep/v8047e/v8047e00. htm PLUP Participatory Land-use Planning http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/mi375e/mi375e. pdf PMAP_ECOS Participatory Mapping of Ecosystem Services in Multiuse Agricultural Landscapes http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/aw_6_en.asp PNTD Participatory and Negotiated Territorial Development http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4592e.pdf 54 Land resource planning for sustainable land management PTP_PHI Participatory territorial planning. The farming systems development approach in community planning in the Philippines http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y8999t/ y8999t06.htm PVIDEO Participatory Video http://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/filming-for-changewhen-farmers-get-behind-the-camera/ RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal http://www.fao.org/docrep/w3241e/w3241e09. htm SEDLAC Socio-Economic Database for Latin America and the Caribbean http://sedlac.econo.unlp.edu.ar/eng/dynamicssearches.php SEEA System of Environmental-Economic Accounting https://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/ seea.asp SHARP Self-evaluation and Holistic Assessment of Climate Resilience of Farmers and Pastoralists http://www.fao.org/in-action/sharp/en/",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "development approach in community planning in the Philippines http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y8999t/ y8999t06.htm PVIDEO Participatory Video http://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/filming-for-changewhen-farmers-get-behind-the-camera/ RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal http://www.fao.org/docrep/w3241e/w3241e09. htm SEDLAC Socio-Economic Database for Latin America and the Caribbean http://sedlac.econo.unlp.edu.ar/eng/dynamicssearches.php SEEA System of Environmental-Economic Accounting https://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/ seea.asp SHARP Self-evaluation and Holistic Assessment of Climate Resilience of Farmers and Pastoralists http://www.fao.org/in-action/sharp/en/ SISLAC Sistema de Informacion de Suelos de Latinoamerica http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-survey/soilmaps-and-databases/soil-profile-databases/en/ SIT_CONAF Sistema de Informacion Territorial http://sit.conaf.cl/ SLEEP Soil Landscape Estimation and Evaluation Program https://ijabe.org/index.php/ijabe/article/ view/1270 SOIL_GRIDS Soil grids http://www.soilgrids.org/ SOTER Soil and Terrain Databases http://www.isric.org/explore/soter SPI Soil Potential Index https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/ detail/soils/ref/?cid=nrcs142p2_054225 SPMLI Spatial Planning and Monitoring of Landscape Interventions: Maps to Link People with their Landscapes: A Users' Guide http://ecoagriculture.org/wp-content/ uploads/2014/11/SpatialPlanningGuide_10Nove mber2014.pdf SPR Soil Potential Ratings https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/ detail/soils/ref/?cid=nrcs142p2_054225 SSA Similarity and Suitability Assessment https://apps.icarda.org/wsInternet/wsInternet. asmx/DownloadFileToLocal?filePath=Wat er_management_series/Water_benchmarks_11. pdf&fileName=Water_benchmarks_11.pdf STCR Soil Test Crop Response (STCR) database https://sites.google.com/a/tnau.ac.in/ soilscience/home/research/stcr STORIE Storie Index http://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/pdf/3203.pdf 55 Annex 2. Tools in the Land Resources Planning Toolbox STORIE_rev Revised Storie Index for use with digital soil information http://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/pdf/8335.pdf SWAT Soil and Water Assessment Tool http://swat.tamu.edu/ TerrAfrica Regional Sustainable Land and Water Management http://terrafrica.org/about/ TPLD_IN A Handbook for trainers on Participatory Local Development. The Panchayati Raj model in India ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/006/ad346e/ ad346e00.pdf VGGT Voluntary Guidelines on Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security http://www.fao.org/cfs/home/activities/vggt/ en/ WEPP Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) https://www.ars.usda.gov/midwest-area/westlafayette-in/national-soil-erosion-research/docs/ wepp/research/ WINDISP Map and Image Display and Analysis Software ftp://ftp.fao.org/Public/GIEWS/windisp/.../ Windisp35en.pdf WISDOM Woodfuel Integrated Supply/Demand Overview Mapping http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/j8027e/j8027e00. htm WOCAT World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies https://www.wocat.net/ WOFOST World Food Studies Simulation Model http://www.wur.nl/en/Expertise-Services/ Research-Institutes/Environmental-Research/ Facilities-Products/Software-and-models/ WOFOST.htm g g Land resource planning for sustainable land management Current and emerging needs in land resource planning for food security, sustainable livelihoods, integrated landscape management and restoration © FAO, 2017 This working paper provides an overview of the historic development and",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "World Food Studies Simulation Model http://www.wur.nl/en/Expertise-Services/ Research-Institutes/Environmental-Research/ Facilities-Products/Software-and-models/ WOFOST.htm g g Land resource planning for sustainable land management Current and emerging needs in land resource planning for food security, sustainable livelihoods, integrated landscape management and restoration © FAO, 2017 This working paper provides an overview of the historic development and status of implementation of land evaluation and land-use planning concepts and tools for land resource and landscape management, and it proposes recommendations for future actions. The increasing and juxtaposed challenges of population growth, demands on limited resources by diverse actors, land degradation, biodiversity loss and climate change require the rational use of resources to sustain and enhance productivity and maintain resilient ecosystems. Land-use planning and, more broadly, land resource planning (LRP), are tools for achieving the sustainable and efficient use of resources, taking into account biophysical and socio-economic dimensions. The availability of suitable tools and information to support and satisfy the needs of decision-makers at different scales, across sectors and among stakeholders is limited, however. The needs of decision-makers to address the challenges and drivers of change and promote effective and sustainable responses calls for an updated set of tools and approaches for participatory LRP. Such a set of tools should take into account biophysical, economic, socio-cultural and governance dimensions, and it should promote integrated landscape management as a means to satisfy the needs of multiple stakeholders and implement diverse national strategies and commitments. It is proposed that a consultation process involving a wide range of stakeholders operating at different scales be undertaken to bring together lessons and experiences in tools and approaches for LRP and to identify the main gaps and opportunities. This consultation process should lead to the formulation, with partners, of a strategy for the development, testing and validation of updated LRP tools in pilot countries with",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "scales be undertaken to bring together lessons and experiences in tools and approaches for LRP and to identify the main gaps and opportunities. This consultation process should lead to the formulation, with partners, of a strategy for the development, testing and validation of updated LRP tools in pilot countries with stakeholders and decision-makers, from the scale of local landscapes to the subnational, national and transboundary scales. I5937EN/1/09.17 ISBN 978-92-5-109896-7 9 7 8 9 2 5 1 0 9 8 9 6 7",
    "source": "land_resource_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "DESIGNING FAIR, COST-OPTIMAL AUCTIONS BASED ON DEEP LEARNING FOR PROCURING AGRICULTURAL INPUTS THROUGH FARMER COLLECTIVES Mayank Ratan Bhardwaj, Bazil Ahmed and Prathik Diwakar Indian Institute of Science Bengaluru {mayankb, bazilahmed, prathikd}@iisc.ac.in Ganesh Ghalme Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad ganeshghalme@ai.iith.ac.in Y. Narahari Indian Institute of Science Bengaluru narahari@iisc.ac.in ABSTRACT Procuring agricultural inputs (agri-inputs for short) such as seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, at desired quality levels and at affordable cost, forms a critical component of agricultural input operations. This is a particularly challenging problem being faced by small and marginal farmers in any emerging economy. Farmer collectives (FCs), which are cooperative societies of farmers, offer an excellent prospect for enabling cost-effective procurement of inputs with assured quality to the farmers. In this paper, our objective is to design sound, explainable mechanisms by which an FC will be able to procure agri-inputs in bulk and distribute the inputs procured to the individual farmers who are members of the FC. In the methodology proposed here, an FC engages qualified suppliers in a competitive, volume discount procurement auction in which the suppliers specify price discounts based on volumes supplied. The desiderata of properties for such an auction include: minimization of the total cost of procurement; incentive compatibility; individual rationality; fairness; and other business constraints. An auction satisfying all these properties is analytically infeasible and a key contribution of this paper is to develop a deep learning based approach to design such an auction. We use two realistic, stylized case studies from chili seeds procurement and a popular pesticide procurement to demonstrate the efficacy of these auctions. 1 Introduction Sourcing the right quality and quantity of agricultural inputs (agri-inputs for short) such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, farm equipment, and human resources is a critical aspect of agricultural operations. This is a universal problem faced by farmers",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "a popular pesticide procurement to demonstrate the efficacy of these auctions. 1 Introduction Sourcing the right quality and quantity of agricultural inputs (agri-inputs for short) such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, farm equipment, and human resources is a critical aspect of agricultural operations. This is a universal problem faced by farmers throughout the globe and especially in emerging economies. Agri-Inputs: In order to maximize yield, it is necessary for farmers to use the right quantities of right quality inputs. Agricultural inputs are external inputs required to help the various farming operations. They range from high-quality seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, to high-tech tractors and farm equipment. There are mainly two categories of agri-inputs: consumable and capital. Consumable inputs are used commonly and regularly by the farmers seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc. These are essentially natural materials that will be consumed by the crops. Capital inputs include farm equipment such as tractors, agricultural robots, trellising materials, etc. In addition to all these, we have human labor. In this paper, we focus on consumable inputs. Seeds that are usually procured include: vegetables, cotton, paddy, maize, sorghum, sunflower, wheat, millets, mustard, chili peppers, and lentils. High quality seeds facilitate smooth farming; low quality seeds can lead to crop losses and arXiv:2304.07341v1 [cs.GT] 14 Apr 2023 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning even crop destruction. Pesticides used by farmers belong to the following categories: (a) herbicides, (b) insecticides, (c) fungicides, (d) nematicides, and (e) rodenticides. The use of pesticides in right quantities at the right time saves the crops from being destroyed. Fertilizers are any materials of natural or synthetic origin that are applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. The Context and Need: In many emerging economies, most of the farmers are small or marginal, holding less than 5 acres of land.",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the crops from being destroyed. Fertilizers are any materials of natural or synthetic origin that are applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. The Context and Need: In many emerging economies, most of the farmers are small or marginal, holding less than 5 acres of land. Their economic condition is weak and they mostly depend on credit for sustaining their operations. The farmers are faced with a dilemma at the start of every cropping season over where to procure agri-inputs from. Most of these farmers, being small, buy the inputs on credit. It is extremely important for them to get quality inputs, but, often, they end up with low quality inputs leading to crop losses or even crop failures. To quote a typical farmer in one of the emerging economies: “If inputs are substandard or fake, we have to go through a minimum of two years of suffering due to debt. Therefore, in addition to the good rains, the quality of inputs we buy decides our farm income season after season.\" In fact, approximately 50 percent of the total cost goes towards inputs [1]. A seemingly simple and promising way in which this problem could be solved is to create economies of scale in procuring high quality inputs through a collective action by setting up a bulk procurement system. Bulk procurement also makes it easier to ensure that the quality of input is maintained. In many countries, the respective governments have taken up the initiative to launch farmer collectives or farmer cooperatives (FCs) to help out the small and marginal farmers in various input and output operations. In particular, FCs would be extremely helpful for reducing the input burden on the farmer through bulk procurement of inputs, after collecting information on the input requirements of individual",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "launch farmer collectives or farmer cooperatives (FCs) to help out the small and marginal farmers in various input and output operations. In particular, FCs would be extremely helpful for reducing the input burden on the farmer through bulk procurement of inputs, after collecting information on the input requirements of individual farmers (this could be done, for example, by a well designed mobile app to reach out to all farmer members of the FC). This paper specifically focuses on this problem and explores the use of systematic methods for harnessing the bargaining power of farmer collectives. There exist more than 1500 FCs in Brazil, more than 7500 FCs in Germany, more than 63000 FCs in India, and more than 1700 FCs in USA. A recent report [2] mentions a staggering 1.2 million agricultural cooperatives across the globe today. It may not be unreasonable to expect a saving of US $ 100 for procuring a typical seed variety in a typical FC which may consist of a few hundreds of farmers. Thus, such collective action for agri-input procurement has the potential for huge impact. To gain a first-hand experience and knowledge of the real situation on the ground, our research group undertook a field study of two FCs, Anekal Horticulture Producers Company Limited and Rajaghatta Horticulture Farmer Producer Company Limited, both within 50 km from Bengaluru, India. Both FCs have a membership of about 1000 farmers each. Small and marginal farmers tend to be low on education and are particularly vulnerable to the strategic tactics of intermediaries. Since the intermediaries offer credit to the farmers for sourcing the inputs, the intermediaries are able to wield their influence in the marketing and selling of the produce as well. In the process, the farmers end up on the losing side. The FCs play a",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the strategic tactics of intermediaries. Since the intermediaries offer credit to the farmers for sourcing the inputs, the intermediaries are able to wield their influence in the marketing and selling of the produce as well. In the process, the farmers end up on the losing side. The FCs play a key role in streamlining the supply of inputs to the farmers and can counter the selfish moves of the intermediaries. Our team had a detailed discussion with the FCs on how they collect indents, aggregate the input requirements of the farmers and bulk-procure the right quantities of inputs to be sold subsequently to the farmers at affordable prices. During these conversations, we also realized numerous issues which were hampering a successful execution of the bulk procurement process. For example, FCs do need a healthy amount of money and resources to execute this process more efficiently. We also discussed with the FCs the discounts that they would be able to obtain because of both volume and variety of their purchases. Here again, we found that the discounts on offer from the suppliers could be much higher if the right kind of procurement mechanisms are put in place. Note that there are numerous types and varieties of seeds. There are numerous types of pesticides and fertilizers. The total savings, by conservative estimates, easily runs into Billions of Dollars (a more methodical and accurate estimate of this is beyond the scope of this paper). Above all, the farmers, who are often naive, are insulated from the transactions and further, the quality levels of agri-inputs are assured. Since scientifically designed auction mechanisms can promote honest behavior and healthy competition among suppliers [3], we propose to develop a suitable procurement auction (also called reverse auction) mechanism for bulk procurement of agri-inputs by FCs. Procurement Auctions",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "insulated from the transactions and further, the quality levels of agri-inputs are assured. Since scientifically designed auction mechanisms can promote honest behavior and healthy competition among suppliers [3], we propose to develop a suitable procurement auction (also called reverse auction) mechanism for bulk procurement of agri-inputs by FCs. Procurement Auctions for Bulk Procurement by Farmer Collectives: We explain the workflow of the proposed agri-input procurement with an example. Let us consider procurement of paddy seeds. Suppose the farmer collective has 1000 farmer members (like Anekal or Rajghatta described above) who want to grow paddy and suppose there are five varieties of paddy seeds. The FC will collect from the farmers (this can be done using a mobile app), the quantum and type of seeds required by each farmer. The FC will aggregate these requirements into five buckets, each bucket corresponding to a particular seed variety. Each bucket will then correspond to a certain large volume of seeds of 2 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning that variety needed by all the farmers. For each bucket, the FC will identify suppliers for the seeds, qualify them based on the reputation and quality standards, and conduct an auction involving the qualified suppliers. First, we bring out the most desirable properties for such an auction mechanism. Our analysis is based on our familiarity with and study of FCs and agri-input procurement. 1. Incentive compatibility (IC) Incentive compatibility ensures truthful bidding by the suppliers and is a fundamental requirement of any auction mechanism. The most powerful version of IC is dominant strategy incentive compatibility (DSIC), which means bidding true values is best irrespective of the bids of the other players. 2. Individual rationality (IR) Individual rationality ensures that the suppliers obtain non-negative utility by participating in the auction. The most powerful version of",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "The most powerful version of IC is dominant strategy incentive compatibility (DSIC), which means bidding true values is best irrespective of the bids of the other players. 2. Individual rationality (IR) Individual rationality ensures that the suppliers obtain non-negative utility by participating in the auction. The most powerful version of IR is ex-post IR, which implies that the utility to each participating player will be non-negative irrespective of the bids of the other players. 3. Social welfare maximization (SWM) This implies maximizing the sum of utilities of the participants in the auction. In a procurement auction, the participants involved are the FC and the suppliers. 4. Cost minimization (OPT) This means the expected total cost of procurement is minimized by the auction. Cost minimization is a key requirement since we wish to minimize the input costs to the small and marginal farmers. 5. Fairness (FAIR) Fairness implies that the winning suppliers are chosen in a fair way. An index of fairness would be envy-freeness – no supplier can increase her utility by adopting another supplier’s outcome. If envy-freeness is not achievable, the next best option is envy minimization (which is what we pursue in this paper). 6. Business constraints (BUS) Satisfaction of business constraints refers to constraints such as having a minimum number of winning suppliers (to avoid monopoly), a maximum number of winning suppliers (to minimize logistics costs), a maximum fraction of business to be awarded to any supplier, etc. Further, the auction should extract volume discounts or quantity discounts from suppliers. This final requirement points to using auctions where the suppliers can specify volume discounts as a part of their bids. Volume discount auctions or quantity discount auctions, which are very relevant to this work are covered in [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. In a volume discount auction,",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "discounts from suppliers. This final requirement points to using auctions where the suppliers can specify volume discounts as a part of their bids. Volume discount auctions or quantity discount auctions, which are very relevant to this work are covered in [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. In a volume discount auction, the buyer wishes to procure a large volume of a certain item type and the suppliers announce supply curves or volume discount bids. A supply curve specifies the discounted prices offered by the supplier. Example 1: Suppose we are procuring paddy seeds in packets (usually a packet may correspond to a certain number of kilograms). Let an example supply curve be ((1-500: 20), (501-1500: 18), (1501-2500: 16)). This would mean: the supplier offers a per unit price of $20 when the quantity is in the range 1-500; a per unit price of $18 when the quantity is in the range 501-1500; and a per unit price of $16 when the quantity is in the range 1501-2500. If the seller is supplying 1800 units, the total bid price will be 500 × $20 + 1000 × $18 + 300 × $16 = $32800. Our field studies have shown that such supply curves are quite common in bulk procurement of agri-inputs. In this paper, we are concerned with design of such auctions. Contributions and Outline: A recent paper [9] has addressed the problem of procuring agri-inputs through farmer collectives by proposing volume discount auctions and combinatorial auctions. [9] proposes Vickrey-Clarke-Groves (VCG) payments to ensure that the auction is dominant strategy incentive compatible and maximizes social welfare. Their auction also takes into account certain business constraints such as minimum number of winning suppliers and maximum number of winning suppliers. Their auction is based on the methods described in [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "to ensure that the auction is dominant strategy incentive compatible and maximizes social welfare. Their auction also takes into account certain business constraints such as minimum number of winning suppliers and maximum number of winning suppliers. Their auction is based on the methods described in [4, 5, 6, 7, 8] and performs better than the naive methods which are currently being used. However, their auction crucially does not minimize the total cost of procurement and does not implement any notion of fairness. Satisfying all of the six properties listed above (IC, IR, SWM, OPT, FAIR, BUS) is clearly a tall order. Mechanism design theory [10, 11] is replete with impossibility theorems which make it clear that these properties cannot be simultaneously satisfied. The ambitious goal of this paper is to innovatively devise auctions that achieve maximal subsets of these objectives with as little compromise as possible. The methodology proposed in this paper hinges on our technically novel extension to a recent line of research [12, 13, 14] that explores a deep learning approach to optimal auction design and achieves, in the sense of regret minimization, 3 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning properties IC, IR, and OPT. Our methodology considers volume discount bids and achieves, properties FAIR and BUS in addition, with a slight compromise in SWM. This is a key technical contribution of this paper, which is described in the next section (Section 2). The design of the auction mechanism above is clearly motivated by the agri-input procurement by farmer collectives. We demonstrate the efficacy of these mechanisms through thought experiments in Sections 3 and 4. In Section 3, we conduct experiments on data that are synthetically generated based on real-world observations of the volume discounts offered by different suppliers. In Section 4, we describe two realistic, stylized",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "by farmer collectives. We demonstrate the efficacy of these mechanisms through thought experiments in Sections 3 and 4. In Section 3, we conduct experiments on data that are synthetically generated based on real-world observations of the volume discounts offered by different suppliers. In Section 4, we describe two realistic, stylized case studies: (1) procurement of chili pepper seeds (2) procurement of a popular, commonly used pesticide. We describe our experiments on these case studies; the results again highlight the superior performance of the proposed mechanism. Finally, Section 5 concludes the paper and provides some directions for future work. 2 A Deep Learning Approach for Volume Discount Procurement Auctions As stated already, a volume discount auction satisfying DSIC, IR, OPT, FAIR, and BUS is impossible in mechanism design [10, 11]. To surmount this, we adopt a deep learning approach, which solves this design problem as a regret minimization problem on the lines of [13]. Even though our architecture resembles the RegretNet architecture proposed by [13], it is notable that the RegretNet architecture cannot be applied as an off-the-shelf mechanism for volume discount procurement auctions. There are two technical reasons for this. The first reason has to do with satisfying individual rationality. RegretNet is designed for forward auctions (selling scenario) while the procurement auction is a reverse auction. IR requires that all agents receive a higher utility by participating in the auction than by not participating. In a forward auction, this means that no buyer should be paying more than their valuation of the items allocated to them. In a procurement auction, on the other hand, this means that no seller would accept a payment lower than their valuation for the items they are selling. For the procurement auction setting, the network requires a subtle modification (see Section 2.3) to satisfy the",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the items allocated to them. In a procurement auction, on the other hand, this means that no seller would accept a payment lower than their valuation for the items they are selling. For the procurement auction setting, the network requires a subtle modification (see Section 2.3) to satisfy the IR condition. The second reason is more fundamental. We are dealing with the procurement of homogeneous units with volume discounts whereas the work of [13] considers auctions with additive (or unit-demand) valuations. Our volume discount auction setting is not additive and is not unit-demand either. To see this, observe that the value of 2x units with volume discounts is not the same as twice the value of x units. Additionally, the suppliers in our setting wish to sell any number of units, unlike the unit-demand buyers considered by [13]. Auctions with additive valuations and unit-supply valuations make it possible to use allocation networks whose outputs are simply (stochastic) allocation matrices. We simply cannot do this in our case, so instead, we produce an allocation tuple as output with each element in the tuple being the allocation for the corresponding supplier. This complicates the computation of the payments and makes theoretical analysis significantly complex. 2.1 The Volume Discount Procurement Auction Setting In this section, we formally describe the volume discount auction setting. There is a single buyer who intends to procure m homogeneous units of a certain item from n suppliers using a procurement auction with volume discount bids. Let ℓ:= ⌊m k ⌋for some predefined k. The volume discount bidding is implemented as follows. First, each supplier i submits a volume discount bid in the form of a vector b(i) = (b(i) 1 , b(i) 2 , · · · , b(i) k ) of k intervals (See Remarks subsection",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "⌊m k ⌋for some predefined k. The volume discount bidding is implemented as follows. First, each supplier i submits a volume discount bid in the form of a vector b(i) = (b(i) 1 , b(i) 2 , · · · , b(i) k ) of k intervals (See Remarks subsection below for details). Then, given the vector of bids b = (b(1), · · · , b(n)) as input, the procurement mechanism outputs allocation and payment vectors denoted by the tuple ⟨a(b), p(b)⟩. Here, a(b) = (a1(b), · · · , an(b)) denotes the allocation vector and p(b) = (p1(b), · · · , pn(b)) denotes the payment vector with each ai(b) being the number of units bought from supplier i and pi(b) being the payment made to supplier i. Note that such auctions or variants have been considered earlier in [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. In this paper we seek nontrivial extensions, to satisfy additional properties such as FAIR and BUS. The suppliers have their own private willingness to sell (WTS), which determines the minimum price at which the supplier is ready to sell. For supplier i, denote the WTS by v(i) = (v(i) 1 , ..., v(i) k ). These valuations are assumed to be drawn from some prior distribution F. In our setting, F is common knowledge among all the suppliers and the buyer, whereas the realized vector of valuations v(i) is known privately only to the individual supplier i. The utility for a supplier is defined as a function of her private valuations v(i), allocation a, and payment p, and is given by ui(v(i); b) = pi(b) − ai(b) X j=1 v(i) ⌈j/ℓ⌉ (1) 4 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning We now recall some definitions. A mechanism is DSIC if no agent can gain",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "as a function of her private valuations v(i), allocation a, and payment p, and is given by ui(v(i); b) = pi(b) − ai(b) X j=1 v(i) ⌈j/ℓ⌉ (1) 4 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning We now recall some definitions. A mechanism is DSIC if no agent can gain utility by misrepresenting its valuations, regardless of the strategies adopted by the other agents. That is, ui(v(i); (v(i), b(−i))) ≥ui(v(i); b) ∀v, b, i. (2) An auction mechanism is called ex-post IR if every agent earns non-negative utility by participating in the auction. We assume that there is no participation/entry cost. Our proposed neural network architecture is designed to ensure the ex-post IR condition which is equivalent to ui(v(i); v) ≥0 ∀v, i. (3) The goal is to minimize the cost incurred by the buyer, subject to DSIC and ex-post IR for the sellers. The total cost to the buyer is given by cost = n X i=1 pi(b). (4) We remark here that the cost minimization under DSIC and IR constraints corresponds to a nontrivial extension of the celebrated revenue optimal auction theory [15] (Myerson’s auction only considers a single item and a weaker form of incentive compatibility, namely Bayesian incentive compatibility). Our approach considers additional, practically motivated constraints (multiple units, volume discount bids, envy minimization, and business constraints). Following section 2.2.2 of [13], one can guarantee DSIC property by ensuring that the expected ex-post regret for every supplier, ri, is 0. The expected ex-post regret of a procurement mechanism is defined as ri = Ev∼F[max b [ui(v(i); b) −ui(v(i); (v(i), b(−i)))]]. (5) The regret is computed empirically, which adequately approximates the real regret [13]. Remarks: • The mechanism solicits volume discount bids from each supplier. These bids represent each agent’s valuation for a single unit from each ‘lot’",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "mechanism is defined as ri = Ev∼F[max b [ui(v(i); b) −ui(v(i); (v(i), b(−i)))]]. (5) The regret is computed empirically, which adequately approximates the real regret [13]. Remarks: • The mechanism solicits volume discount bids from each supplier. These bids represent each agent’s valuation for a single unit from each ‘lot’ of units. There are k lots of (almost) equal size. The supplier i’s bid b(i) 1 is applied to all the goods if the buyer procures at most one lot; i.e. ℓgoods. For the goods from the second lot, the bid b(i) 2 is used, i.e., a price of b(i) 1 per unit for the first ℓgoods and a price of b(i) 2 for the remaining goods (up to ℓ). And so on. • All the goods from a given lot are valued equally. Thus, if the supplier sources more lots, her valuation per good decreases. In the agricultural domain, this corresponds to savings from the use of bulk transport, warehouse clearance, mass production, etc. • In many practical settings, the value of k is determined endogenously. This value depends on factors such as packaging method, carton size, nature of the goods, etc. However, when k is a design parameter, it presents an interesting challenge in auction design. A larger value of k introduces more granularity, which is better for the buyer. But it also introduces complex bidding procedures possibly leading to a less effective implementation. We leave the study of this aspect as an interesting future work. Example 2: Recall Example 1 where we had the supply curve: ((1-500: 20), (501-1500: 18), (1501-2500: 16)). Here m = 2500. Suppose k = 5. We will have ℓ= 500. The intervals would be [1, 500], [501, 1000], [1001, 1500], [1501, 2000], [2001, 2500]. Let the first supplier’s WTS be v(1) =",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Recall Example 1 where we had the supply curve: ((1-500: 20), (501-1500: 18), (1501-2500: 16)). Here m = 2500. Suppose k = 5. We will have ℓ= 500. The intervals would be [1, 500], [501, 1000], [1001, 1500], [1501, 2000], [2001, 2500]. Let the first supplier’s WTS be v(1) = (20, 18, 18, 16, 16). If 1800 items are acquired from the first supplier, the supplier’s WTS for the allocation would be 500 × 20 + 500 × 18 + 500 × 18 + 300 × 16 = 32800. Now assume that the second supplier has a production capacity of 1500 units, and she offers a fixed volume discount after 500 units. That is, v(2) = (18, 17, 17, ∞, ∞). If the allocation for the second supplier is 700 units, then her WTS for the allocation is 500 × 18 + 200 × 17 = 12400. Thus, the suppliers may have a wide variety of different supply curves and still fit within the setting considered in this paper. 2.2 Deep Learning Based Formulation We propose a neural network based formulation to obtain DSIC and IR guarantees along with some other desirable and practical constraints. The goal is to minimize a composite loss function that consists of the following three parts. The objective cost (i.e., the total payment), the regret penalty, and the Lagrangian term (as we use the method of differential multipliers [16]) for regret. In particular, we have 5 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning loss = cost + penaltyregret + LagrangianLoss cost = n X i=1 pi(b) LagrangianLoss = n X i=1 λ(i) regret˜ri penaltyregret = ρregret n X i=1 ˜r2 i Here, ˜ri is the empirical regret. We compute ˜ri by using another optimizer over the bids, coming from the same distribution as F, which",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "cost + penaltyregret + LagrangianLoss cost = n X i=1 pi(b) LagrangianLoss = n X i=1 λ(i) regret˜ri penaltyregret = ρregret n X i=1 ˜r2 i Here, ˜ri is the empirical regret. We compute ˜ri by using another optimizer over the bids, coming from the same distribution as F, which maximizes the utility for agent i. To approximate the expectation over the distribution F, we maximize the sample mean of regret over the batch. We discuss more on this subsequently. 2.2.1 Business Constraints The buyer may wish to impose various business constraints in the procurement auction for example, the buyer may require that at least 3 suppliers supply at least 20% of the items each. We take care of this by adding a penalty term for violating various business constraints while training the network. For having a minimum of s suppliers each with an allocation of at least amin, the penalty would be penaltybusiness = \u001a0 a(s) ≥amin ρbusiness a(s) a(s) < amin (6) where a(s) is the sth-highest allocation. Other business constraints are also possible. For instance, no supplier is allocated more than 50% of the units. The loss function in this case also adds the penalty for violating business constraints. 2.2.2 Envy Minimization In auctions, it is often desirable to have some additional fairness constraints, specifically, minimization of envy. Envy (or dissatisfaction) for an agent is defined as the maximum utility they could gain if they were given the allocation and payment of some other agent. So the envy for supplier i, given the valuation tuple v = (v(1), ..., v(n)) is ei(v) = max h∈[n][(ph(b) − ah(b) X j=1 v(i) ⌈j/ℓ⌉)] −ui(v(i); v) (7) We minimize envy by adding a term for envy in our Lagrangian loss, along with an envy penalty. loss = cost + penaltyregret",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "envy for supplier i, given the valuation tuple v = (v(1), ..., v(n)) is ei(v) = max h∈[n][(ph(b) − ah(b) X j=1 v(i) ⌈j/ℓ⌉)] −ui(v(i); v) (7) We minimize envy by adding a term for envy in our Lagrangian loss, along with an envy penalty. loss = cost + penaltyregret + penaltyenvy + LagrangianLoss cost = n X i=1 pi(b) LagrangianLoss = n X i=1 λ(i) regret˜ri + λ(i) envyei penaltyregret = ρregret n X i=1 ˜r2 i penaltyenvy = ρenvy n X i=1 e2 i 6 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning 2.2.3 Business Constraints With Envy Minimization If we wish to have business constraints while simultaneously minimizing envy, the loss function for the network is loss = cost + penaltyregret + penaltyenvy + penaltybusiness + LagrangianLoss cost = n X i=1 pi(b) LagrangianLoss = n X i=1 λ(i) regret˜ri + λ(i) envyei penaltyregret = ρregret n X i=1 ˜r2 i penaltyenvy = ρenvy n X i=1 e2 i penaltybusiness = \u001a0 a(s) ≥amin ρbusiness a(s) a(s) < amin 2.3 Allocation Network and Payment Network The model consists of two feed-forward networks an allocation network and a payment network (See Fig. 1, Fig. 2 for details). The input for both networks is the n × k matrix where the ith row is the bid b(i) for supplier i, which is assumed to be equal to the valuation. The output of the allocation network is the allocation tuple described in Section 2.1. The allocation network uses soft-max to ensure that the allocation tuple is a probability vector. This is multiplied by m to ensure that the allocations across the agents sum up to exactly m. The output of the payment network is a payment multiplier tuple, ˆp = (ˆp1, ..., ˆpn), which, when multiplied by the total WTS of",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "that the allocation tuple is a probability vector. This is multiplied by m to ensure that the allocations across the agents sum up to exactly m. The output of the payment network is a payment multiplier tuple, ˆp = (ˆp1, ..., ˆpn), which, when multiplied by the total WTS of the allocation, gives the payment tuple, i.e., pi(b) = ˆpi(b) ai(b) X j=1 v(i) ⌈j/ℓ⌉ (8) Each ˆpi is guaranteed to be within the range [1, ∞) in order to ensure IR. The network architecture ensures this by using a sigmoid layer followed by the addition of the constant 1, thus constraining the output to (1, 2). Figure 1: Allocation Network 7 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning Figure 2: Payment Network 2.4 Training Procedure In all our experiments, 4 or 5 layers, with 60 to 150 neurons in each layer, were used for both the payment and allocation networks. The Adam optimizer was used for training the network weights, while stochastic gradient descent was used to learn the Lagrangian parameters and compute the empirical regret. During the training phase, we performed nested optimizations. For one step of optimization over the network weights, we executed R steps of optimization over the bids, to compute the empirical regret. We did gradient ascent over the Lagrangian parameters after every 2-4 epochs with gradual increase in learning rate over the epochs. This was done to ensure that, first, the network weights converge towards minimizing the cost objective and then, the learned weights get projected in the constrained region to satisfy other required properties of the auction. The above idea for empirical regret computation is the same as the one proposed in [13]. 2.5 Some Notes on the Methodology Versatility: The methodology presented in this paper is versatile in the sense of its",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "get projected in the constrained region to satisfy other required properties of the auction. The above idea for empirical regret computation is the same as the one proposed in [13]. 2.5 Some Notes on the Methodology Versatility: The methodology presented in this paper is versatile in the sense of its ability to model the minimization or maximization of a wide variety of performance metrics. For example, we can use this methodology to maximize the Nash social welfare subject to incentive compatibility, individual rationality, and business constraints. Nash social welfare maximization is widely known for its fairness properties [17]. The techniques presented in [4, 5, 6, 7, 8] correspond to very specific settings and are not generalizable. The approach presented here offers many powerful features that can be modeled in volume discount auctions. Computational Complexity: The methodology proposed here essentially transforms a mechanism design problem into an optimization problem. So the question would arise as to why an efficient optimization procedure cannot be used to solve the problem, at least approximately. The constraints we deal with such as business constraints and envy minimization are nonlinear and linear approximations do not work well with such constraints. Moreover, the linear approximation will have an exponential number of variables. The deep learning technique has the advantage that a single substantial effort of training will amortize the computational complexity over a large number of experiments. 3 Experimental Results In this section, we present experimental results for the following six auctions. Notably, all these auctions satisfy DSIC and IR. 1. A standard VCG auction (satisfies SWM) 2. A VCG auction subject to a limit on the minimum number of winning suppliers (satisfies SWM and BUS) 8 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning 3. A cost minimizing volume discount auction (satisfies OPT) 4. A cost minimizing",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "DSIC and IR. 1. A standard VCG auction (satisfies SWM) 2. A VCG auction subject to a limit on the minimum number of winning suppliers (satisfies SWM and BUS) 8 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning 3. A cost minimizing volume discount auction (satisfies OPT) 4. A cost minimizing volume discount auction with envy minimizing allocation (satisfies OPT and FAIR) 5. A cost minimizing volume discount auction with a limit on the minimum number of winning suppliers (satisfies OPT and BUS) 6. A cost minimizing volume discount auction with envy minimizing allocation and with a limit on the minimum number of suppliers (satisfies OPT, FAIR, and BUS) In this experiment, we have 5 suppliers. 5 is a realistic number in agri-settings. In a high volume agri-input procurement, the number of qualified suppliers is typically small. Also, an initial qualification process can be used to weed out suppliers who do not satisfy the quality requirement. This is a definite advantage of bulk procurement; since the FC negotiates the quality and cost, a desired quality and a competitive price are assured. Left to themselves, individual farmers have no bargaining power on either quality or price. In the current experiment, we assume 5000 or 10000 units procured from the suppliers who submit volume discount bids. Each bid will have a set of intervals and a certain discount corresponding to that interval. We use a minimum interval size of 500 and each interval in a bid has a size that is an integer multiple of the minimum interval size. We assume a base price of US $ 5 per unit, and a minimum profit margin that ranges from 10% to 30%. Recall that the base price plus the minimum profit margin is the willingness to sell of the supplier. The volume discounts typically",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "multiple of the minimum interval size. We assume a base price of US $ 5 per unit, and a minimum profit margin that ranges from 10% to 30%. Recall that the base price plus the minimum profit margin is the willingness to sell of the supplier. The volume discounts typically range from 1% at the first discounted interval to as high as 25% on the highest discounted interval. The data were synthetically generated based on our experience with the field visits we had undertaken to two FCs. For business constraints, we assume at least 3 winning suppliers have to be selected for procurement. This helps introduce redundancy for decreasing fragility in the supply chain. Table 1 shows the total procurement cost with six different auctions. We ran the simulation for over 12000 instances, randomly generated from the same distribution as of the training data, and averaged the results to populate the table. We dynamically generate these data to ensure that the model has never seen these data during training. This shows that our model generalizes over the data distribution rather than just over-fitting a particular set of instances. Auction Type 5000 Units 10000 Units 1 VCG Auction 27935 52930 2 VCG Auction + Business Constraints 30550 60100 3 Cost Minimizing 27550 51950 4 Cost Minimizing + Envy Minimizing 27700 52350 5 Cost Minimizing + Business Constraints 29050 56800 6 Cost Minimizing + Envy Minimizing + Business Constraints 29600 54050 Table 1: Total procurement cost in US $ Clearly, Auction (6) is the most desirable. It has a cost higher than that of a VCG auction but lower than that of a VCG auction with a limit on the number of winning suppliers. Auction (6) clearly will have a cost lower than that of a VCG auction with envy minimization and",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "is the most desirable. It has a cost higher than that of a VCG auction but lower than that of a VCG auction with a limit on the number of winning suppliers. Auction (6) clearly will have a cost lower than that of a VCG auction with envy minimization and limited number of winning suppliers. As expected, Auction (3) (cost minimizing) has the least cost. If envy minimization and business constraints are not a consideration, we go for Auction (3). If envy minimization is important but not business constraints, we go for Auction (4). If business constraints are important but envy minimization can be ignored, we go for Auction (5). If all properties are important, we go for Auction (6). The deep learning based methodology thus enables different options to be exercised based on the context. The key direct benefit is reduction of cost to farmers and the key indirect benefit is assurance of minimum quality. 4 Two Case Studies: Chili Pepper Seeds and a Popular Pesticide In a typical farmer collective the farmers usually approach intermediaries for sourcing their inputs. The intermediaries allure the farmers by providing credit for sourcing the agri-inputs. In the process, the intermediaries are able to capture the marketing and selling of the produce as well, with huge commissions, causing severe loss of revenue to the farmers. Small and marginal farmers tend to be low on education and are particularly vulnerable to the selfish moves of the intermediaries. This is where the FCs can help; the FCs can play a key role in streamlining the supply of inputs to the farmers and counter the intermediaries. 9 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning 4.1 Procurement of Chili Pepper Seeds Our first case study is on chili pepper. This is inspired by the study presented in",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "the FCs can play a key role in streamlining the supply of inputs to the farmers and counter the intermediaries. 9 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning 4.1 Procurement of Chili Pepper Seeds Our first case study is on chili pepper. This is inspired by the study presented in [9]. There are numerous varieties of chili pepper seeds (more than 50). We consider here two types of seeds (A and B). The seeds come in packets of 4 kg each. There is a demand of 2000 packets for seeds of type A while there is a demand of 1000 packets for seeds of type B. Call each packet a unit. The FC can bulk-procure this requirement from major suppliers of these seeds and then distribute the required volume of seeds to farmers at affordable prices. We consider a volume discount auction where each volume discount bid has four equal segments offering 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% discount on per unit price. For example, in the case of seeds of type A, the 2000 units are divided into four segments, namely, [1,500], [501,1000], [1001, 1500], and [1501, 2000] and in these segments, the discounts offered are 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10%, respectively of the bid amount when discounts are not offered. Table 2 presents the results for all six types of auctions separately for type A seeds and type B seeds. These results are computed as averages over 12800 samples with bid amounts drawn from a uniform distribution around the respective base values for different parameters. These results are computed using a trained model, but on data generated separately from the data used for training the model. In all cases, the interval size, l, was fixed to be 100. The base prices for A and B are $17.11 and $14.47",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "respective base values for different parameters. These results are computed using a trained model, but on data generated separately from the data used for training the model. In all cases, the interval size, l, was fixed to be 100. The base prices for A and B are $17.11 and $14.47 respectively. The minimum profit margin (in %) was assumed to be distributed uniformly over [8, 12]. Here, we assume there are 10 suppliers. Auction Type 2000 A 1000 B 1 VCG Auction 34880 14750 2 VCG Auction + Business Constraints 36000 15220 3 Cost Minimizing 34760 14700 4 Cost Minimizing + Envy Minimizing 34960 14775 5 Cost Minimizing + Business Constraints 34770 14710 6 Cost Minimizing + Envy Minimizing + Business Constraints 35225 14960 Table 2: Chili Pepper seeds: Total procurement cost in US $ From Table 2, it is clear that Auction (6) is the most desirable. In the current context of chili pepper seeds, envy minimization and business constraints are both important and we go for Auction (6). Note that this is an auction that (nearly optimally) satisfies dominant strategy incentive compatibility, ex-post individual rationality, envy minimization, business constraint of minimum number of winning suppliers, and cost minimization. The deep learning based methodology thus enables the best option to be exercised, with the direct benefit of reduction of cost to farmers and the indirect benefit of assured quality of chili pepper seeds. 4.2 Pesticide Procurement For our experimentation, we have chosen a popular pesticide.This pesticide comes in packets of 250 grams. A typical small farmer may need several packets of pesticides (say 5 to 10). We assume 1000 farmers in the FC and a requirement of 5000 packets to be sourced from 5 suppliers who offer volume discounts. Let S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5 be the five",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "of 250 grams. A typical small farmer may need several packets of pesticides (say 5 to 10). We assume 1000 farmers in the FC and a requirement of 5000 packets to be sourced from 5 suppliers who offer volume discounts. Let S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5 be the five suppliers. The following are the supply curves of these suppliers. S1: [1-500; 2.75];[501-1000; 2.69];[1001-2000; 2.62];[2001-3000; 2.56] S2: [1-100; 3.02];[101-300; 2.94];[301-700; 2.87];[701-1000; 2.81]; [1001-1400: 2.77];[1401-1800; 2.75];[1801-2200: 2.72];[2201-3000; 2.69] S3: [1-500: 3.30];[501-1500; 2.87];[1501-3000: 2.81];[3001-4000; 2.77] S4: [1-500: 3.74];[501-1000; 3.25];[1001-2000; 3.00];[2001-4000; 2.87] S5: [1-5000; 3.00] These supply curves have been formulated after conversations with a few pesticide suppliers. The results given are computed using a trained model specifically tuned for this task. We also provide some additional information for Auction (3). The same for the other auctions is omitted for the sake of brevity. The model provided an allocation of [2937, 1980, 83, 0, 0] and a payment of [8299, 5731, 274, 0, 0] for the 5 suppliers (in order). The total payment is thus 14304 (rounded to 14300). This is in contrast to Auction (1) where the allocation is [3000, 2000, 0, 0, 0] and the payment is [8626, 5931, 0, 0, 0] for the 5 suppliers (in order). Thus, total payment for VCG is 14557 (rounded to 14560). 10 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning Table 3 presents the results for all six types of auctions. The trends exhibited are identical to the case of chili pepper seeds. Here again, envy minimization and business constraints are both important and we go for Auction (6). The deep learning based methodology thus enables the best option to be exercised, with the direct benefit of reduction of cost to farmers and the indirect benefit of assured quality of pesticide procured. Auction Type Cost",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "envy minimization and business constraints are both important and we go for Auction (6). The deep learning based methodology thus enables the best option to be exercised, with the direct benefit of reduction of cost to farmers and the indirect benefit of assured quality of pesticide procured. Auction Type Cost (in US $) 1 VCG Auction 14560 2 VCG Auction + Business Constraints 14710 3 Cost-Minimizing 14300 4 Cost-Minimizing + Envy-Minimization 14490 5 Cost-Minimizing + Business Constraints 14390 6 Cost-Minimizing + Envy-Minimization + Business Constraints 14640 Table 3: Pesticide: Total procurement cost in US $ 5 Conclusions and Future Work In this paper, we have designed a powerful mechanism for procurement of agri-inputs by farmer collectives using volume discount auctions. The designed auctions minimize the total cost of procurement subject to fairness constraints and business constraints. Simulation experimentation on these auctions on synthetic data as well as two stylized case studies show the efficacy of the mechanisms designed. Our work provides clear evidence that the proposed mechanisms will be more cost-effective than existing traditional methods, in addition to many other benefits they bring in, such as ensuring quality of agri-inputs, inducing honesty in bidding, bargaining power, selecting deserving suppliers, and the possibility to ensure fairness of allocation. It is important to see how such mechanisms can be deployed. There is euphoria about these mechanisms in the two farmer collectives that we have surveyed. We are currently implementing and deploying these auctions in the two FCs. Deploying these on the ground does pose a few challenges. A key challenge is to convince the farmer collective and the farmers that these mechanisms will indeed work. This is directly connected to the explainability of these mechanisms. We are currently working on this. Acknowledgments The first author would like to thank the Government of",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "does pose a few challenges. A key challenge is to convince the farmer collective and the farmers that these mechanisms will indeed work. This is directly connected to the explainability of these mechanisms. We are currently working on this. Acknowledgments The first author would like to thank the Government of India, Ministry of Education, for providing the doctoral fellowship. All the authors would like to thank the national Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), Government of India, for supporting this work. The fourth Author would like to thank the support from SERB grant CRG/2022/007927 for the support. References [1] ICRISAT. Does the smallholder farmer have access to quality inputs? Happenings, June 2020. [2] Earth Observing System. Agricultural cooperatives: Specifics, role, pros, and cons. https://eos.com/blog/ agricultural-cooperatives/, 2022. [3] Paul Milgrom. Auctions and bidding: A primer. Journal of economic perspectives, 3(3):3–22, 1989. [4] Gail Hohner, John Rich, Ed Ng, Grant Reid, Andrew J Davenport, Jayant R Kalagnanam, Ho Soo Lee, and Chae An. Combinatorial and quantity-discount procurement auctions benefit mars, incorporated and its suppliers. Interfaces, 33(1):23–35, 2003. [5] Martin Bichler, Andrew Davenport, Gail Hohner, and Jayant Kalagnanam. Industrial procurement auctions. Combinatorial auctions, 1:593–612, 2006. [6] Tallichetty S Chandrashekar, Y Narahari, Charles H Rosa, Devadatta M Kulkarni, Jeffrey D Tew, and Pankaj Dayama. Auction-based mechanisms for electronic procurement. IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering, 4(3):297–321, 2007. [7] Garud Iyengar and Anuj Kumar. Optimal procurement mechanisms for divisible goods with capacitated suppliers. Review of Economic Design, 12(2):129–154, 2008. 11 Fair and Optimal Auctions using Deep Learning [8] Raghav Kumar Gautam, N. Hemachandra, Y. Narahari, Hastagiri Prakash, Datta Kulkarni, and Jeffrey D. Tew. An optimal mechanism for multi-unit procurement with volume discount bids. International Journal of Operational Research, 6(1):70—91, 2009. [9] Mayank Ratan Bhardwaj, Azal Fatima, Inavamsi Enaganti, and Yadati Narahari. Incentive compatible",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "Auctions using Deep Learning [8] Raghav Kumar Gautam, N. Hemachandra, Y. Narahari, Hastagiri Prakash, Datta Kulkarni, and Jeffrey D. Tew. An optimal mechanism for multi-unit procurement with volume discount bids. International Journal of Operational Research, 6(1):70—91, 2009. [9] Mayank Ratan Bhardwaj, Azal Fatima, Inavamsi Enaganti, and Yadati Narahari. Incentive compatible mechanisms for efficient procurement of agricultural inputs for farmers through farmer collectives. In ACM SIGCAS/SIGCHI Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies (COMPASS), pages 696–700, 2022. [10] Vijay Krishna. Auction theory. Academic press, 2009. [11] Y. Narahari. Game Theory and Mechanism Design. IISc Press (Bengaluru, India) and The World Scientific (Singapore), 2014. [12] Zhe Feng, Harikrishna Narasimhan, and David C Parkes. Deep learning for revenue-optimal auctions with budgets. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (AAMAS 2018), pages 354–362, 2018. [13] Paul Dütting, Zhe Feng, Harikrishna Narasimhan, David C. Parkes, and Sai S. Ravindranath. Optimal auctions through deep learning. Communications of the ACM, 64(8):109–116, 2021. [14] Zhanhao Zhang. A survey of online auction mechanism design using deep learning approaches. Technical Report arXiv:2110.06880v1, arXiv Preprint, 2021. [15] Roger B Myerson. Optimal auction design. Mathematics of operations research, 6(1):58–73, 1981. [16] John Platt and Alan Barr. Constrained differential optimization. In Neural Information Processing Systems, 1987. [17] Ioannis Caragiannis, David Kurokawa, Hervé Moulin, Ariel D Procaccia, Nisarg Shah, and Junxing Wang. The unreasonable fairness of maximum nash welfare. ACM Transactions on Economics and Computation (TEAC), 7(3):1–32, 2019. 12",
    "source": "production_management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agricultural management"
  },
  {
    "text": "See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338719333 RANGELAND MANAGEMENT Book · October 2018 CITATIONS 0 READS 41,819 1 author: Deepak Gautam Institute of forestry Tribhuvan University 66 PUBLICATIONS 407 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Deepak Gautam on 27 May 2021. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338719333 RANGELAND MANAGEMENT Book · October 2018 CITATIONS 0 READS 7,694 1 author: Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Chinese Research Fund! View project Grassroot Journal of Natural Resources View project Deepak Gautam Beijing Forestry University & Tribhuvan University 32 PUBLICATIONS 82 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Deepak Gautam on 26 January 2020. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com A REFRESH BOOK OF RANGELAND MANAGEMENT BY DEEPAK GAUTAM deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Assistant Professor Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Jan-2020 For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com 1. RANGELAND INTRODUCTION Rangelands are vast natural landscapes in the form of grasslands, shrub lands (bushy lands), woodlands, wetlands, and deserts. Types of rangelands include tall grass and short grass prairies, desert grasslands and shrub lands, woodlands, savannas, chaparrals, steppes, and tundras. It is perhaps easier to define rangelands by clearly describing what they are not. Rangelands are not: barren desert, farmland, closed canopy forests, or land covered by solid rock, concrete and/or glaciers. Types of Rangeland Prairies are considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas and shrub lands biome by ecologists, based on similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, grasses, herbs, and shrubs rather than trees, as the dominant vegetation type. Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and forbs (non-woody plants). Grasslands",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Rangeland Prairies are considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas and shrub lands biome by ecologists, based on similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, grasses, herbs, and shrubs rather than trees, as the dominant vegetation type. Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and forbs (non-woody plants). Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica. Steppe: The term is used to denote the climate encountered in regions too dry to support a forest, but not dry enough to be a desert. Pampas are the fertile South American lowlands that include the part of Argentine. The climate is mild, with precipitation of 600 mm, more or less evenly distributed through the year, making the soils appropriate for agriculture. These plains contain unique wildlife because of the different terrains around it. Shrub land is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by shrubs, often also including grasses, herbs and geophytes. Shrub land may either occur naturally or be the result of human activity. Woodland is a low-dense forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. Woodlands may support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses. Savanna is a grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees being sufficiently small or widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support grasses. Desert (less than 250 mm rainfall per year) is a landscape or region that receives an extremely low amount of precipitation, less than enough to support growth of most plants. Tundra is a biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The term tundra means treeless mountain tract. In tundra, the vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs, grasses, mosses, and lichens. Scattered trees grow in some tundra. The eco-tone",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "support growth of most plants. Tundra is a biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The term tundra means treeless mountain tract. In tundra, the vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs, grasses, mosses, and lichens. Scattered trees grow in some tundra. The eco-tone (or ecological boundary region) between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timber line. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Characteristics of Rangeland 1. Low rainfall/moisture stress 2. Not suitable for agriculture 3. High or low temperature 4. Degraded land (rocky/stony) 5. Shallow soil (low soil fertility) 6. Shorter growing season of the vegetation 7. Prevalence of rain shadow 8. Poor drainage 9. Desert like environmental situation RANGE ECOSYSTEM OF NEPAL BY GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS/CLIMATIC REGIONS Collectively, rangelands in Nepal comprise grasslands, pastures, scrubland and forests (MOPE 1998). The rangeland environment supplies forage or vegetation for grazing or browsing livestock. Nepal's rangelands have high biodiversity as they range from subtropical savannahs to temperate grasslands and alpine meadows, and include the cold, arid steppes north of the Himalayas. Nepal's total grassland areas are estimated to cover about 1.75 million hectares, or nearly 12% of Nepal’s total land area. About 70% of the rangelands are situated in the western and mid-western regions, and it is estimated that only 37% of rangeland forage is actually available or accessible for livestock (LMP 1993; Pariyar 1998). Based on the physiographic, the range ecosystem of Nepal is categorized into five types: Tropical rangelands (Approximately extended up to 1000 m) • Poorly drained clay. • Dominated by the grasses like Saccharum, Imperata cylindrical, Eulaliopsis binata etc. • Some grasses are 2 m tall, found in Rapti valley of Chitwan NP and Suklaphanta. • Lantana Camera (banmara) is gradually replacing many palatable species. • Warm",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "(Approximately extended up to 1000 m) • Poorly drained clay. • Dominated by the grasses like Saccharum, Imperata cylindrical, Eulaliopsis binata etc. • Some grasses are 2 m tall, found in Rapti valley of Chitwan NP and Suklaphanta. • Lantana Camera (banmara) is gradually replacing many palatable species. • Warm temperature and long dry seasons. • Level land and dotted trees with low vegetation. • Dominated by Acacia spp. in river sides and Shorea, Termaniallia etc on other places. • Rhino in CNP, Arna in Koshi tappu, S.Deer in Suklaphanta, tiger etc. Sub-tropical rangelands (Approximately extended from 1000-2000 m) • Mostly associated with Pinus roxburghii, schima-castonopsis. • More grasses in slopes than in plain area. • They are heavily grazed and are infested with Eupatorium adenophorum (Banmara), Pteridium aquilinum (bracken fern), Urtica parviflora (Stinging Nettle) and Artemisia vulgaris. • The main forage species are A. bengalensis, A. nepalensis, Imperata cylindrica etc. • Barking deer, common leopard etc are found here. Temperate rangelands (Approximately extended from 2000-3000 m) • Associated with oak or mixed broad-leafed species such as Quercus or bluepine forests. • These pasture lands are very important, but due to heavy grazing for many years, less palatable species such as Arundinella hookeri are found. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com • In many areas, Andropogon tristis has been replaced with less palatable forage species such as Arundinella hookeri. • The common forage species are Arundinella hookeri, Andropogon tristis, Poa spp. • Low rainfall and low evapo-transpiration • Very dry seasons e.g lower mustang, humla,jumla. • Mostly dominated by pinus spp. and rhododendron spp. in upper temperate regions. Sub-alpine rangelands (Approximately extended from 3000-4000m) • Dominated by Abies spp. and Rhododendron spp. including betula and juniper. • Caragana spp. are low spiny shrubs rarely exceeding 1.5 m high. • Caragana spp.",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "e.g lower mustang, humla,jumla. • Mostly dominated by pinus spp. and rhododendron spp. in upper temperate regions. Sub-alpine rangelands (Approximately extended from 3000-4000m) • Dominated by Abies spp. and Rhododendron spp. including betula and juniper. • Caragana spp. are low spiny shrubs rarely exceeding 1.5 m high. • Caragana spp. grow in low rainfall areas (less than 250 mm)e.g mustang. • Associated with a variety of shrubs. • The common genera are Berberis and Caragana. • Short growing seasons • Cold temperature with low rainfall with dry seasons. Alpine rangelands (Approximately extended above 4000 m) • Lichens, mosses, dwarf plants including Rhododendron shrubs and junipers shrubs. • Snow leopard, musk deer, mountain goats, wild yak etc. • Cold area with snow • High mountain region. Note: refer Annexes FORAGE RESOURCES OF NEPAL: FARM FORESTRY LINKAGE Nepal has a livestock population of about 6.5 million LU (livestock Unit) and the Nepalese farmers own on an average of 3.3 LU per household. Statistically shows that Nepal has one of the world’s highest livestock populations per unit of the cultivated land. However, the productivity per unit of livestock is very low. One of the main constrains in the livestock development in the country is considered to be the lack of animal feed. The major sources of nutrient provided to the ruminants are derived mainly from straws (31%), green grass (30%), fodder tree leaves (12%) and the concentrates (7%).Forest resources has been considered the most important resources. The feed resources in Nepal are given below: Land types Availability of Resource Cropland • Terrace, raisers, bunds and fallow lands • Crop residue, grass, weeds, leaf fodder • 33% of the total feed stuffs Rangeland • Alpine, meadow, steppe, open grazing lands • 30%of the total feed Forestland • Leaf fodder and grasses • 20% of",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "below: Land types Availability of Resource Cropland • Terrace, raisers, bunds and fallow lands • Crop residue, grass, weeds, leaf fodder • 33% of the total feed stuffs Rangeland • Alpine, meadow, steppe, open grazing lands • 30%of the total feed Forestland • Leaf fodder and grasses • 20% of the total feed Wasteland • Wasteland fodder and grasses • 16% of the total feed For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Figure: A model of traditional Nepalese hill farming system For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com IMPORTANCE OF LIVESTOCK IN NEPALESE AGRO-ECOSYSTEM Livestock plays a key role in the overall agricultural production system in the country. More than 80% of the economically active population is engaged in agriculture. From terai to high mountains a strong integrated system of livestock crops forest is in existence. Over 70% farmers of Nepal are based on animals to sustain soil fertility and agriculture production. Sheeps are the major sources of local economy of the mountains people. Livestock provides milk and fibres and their dried manure are the major sources of energy. Some animals are used for trading as well. For e.g horses, donkey, goats, sheeps etc. In Terai animals are used for transportation and land cultivation as well. Major sources of manure come from livestock farm. Livestock contribute 53% to GDP, in Terai 27.6% and Mountains 8.6%. Similarly, wool production, leathers production, meat production etc also contribute a lot etc. Importance of Livestock 1. Agricultural production: Play key role in agricultural production (Livestock : > 14% of National GDP and >24% of Agriculture GDP (NPC, 1993) 2. Economic importance: Production of milk, meat and wool 3. Cultural importance: Worship for religious purposes 4. Draft power: Pulling carts and carrying goods and things 5. Provides fuel: dried dung and biogas. 6. Recreational values: keeping dogs, cats, rabbit",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "of National GDP and >24% of Agriculture GDP (NPC, 1993) 2. Economic importance: Production of milk, meat and wool 3. Cultural importance: Worship for religious purposes 4. Draft power: Pulling carts and carrying goods and things 5. Provides fuel: dried dung and biogas. 6. Recreational values: keeping dogs, cats, rabbit etc in a home. Some limitation of livestock forming in Nepal • Laborious Job • Cultural and religious barrier. • Needs huge amount of grass land • Huge amount of initial cost • Competition with food of human • Breakout of diseases Distribution of livestock in Nepal. • High hills: major source of income. (horse +donkey +chauri+ sheep) • Mid hills: second major source after cultivation ( Cow +buffalo +oxen +goat) • Terai: Second major source after cultivation. (Buffalo + cow +oxen +goat) For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com 2. RANGELAND ECOLOGY AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR Introduction: The removal of leaves or any lives part/s of a plant including leaves by any means by animals grazing or by human intervention is called defoliation. The effects of defoliation may be positive or negative, which are explain below. a. Plant morphology: • Removal of terminal bud and Growth of several lateral buds, • Increment of foliage, • Thickness of crown • Sprouting of roots etc. b. Plant physiology: • Adverse effect on metabolism • Damage on photosynthetic tissues  Reduced carbohydrate reserve in the roots o Root growth and forage production. c. Seed production: • Disturbance of entire physiology results  Less seed production  Reduced seed sizes and numbers d. Vegetative reproduction: • Reduces the photosynthesis plant tissues  Hindering food synthesis process. o Reduced size of the rhizomes, bulbs, culms etc. • Effect of frequent early grazing affects on rhizomes production. e. Root system: • Reduced photosynthesis decreases nutrient uptake and root",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": " Reduced seed sizes and numbers d. Vegetative reproduction: • Reduces the photosynthesis plant tissues  Hindering food synthesis process. o Reduced size of the rhizomes, bulbs, culms etc. • Effect of frequent early grazing affects on rhizomes production. e. Root system: • Reduced photosynthesis decreases nutrient uptake and root size. • Hinders water intake capacity. • Stop root growths results moisture stress in plants. f. Soil conditions: • Soil compact  Reduces infiltration and increase runoff. o Prohibits normal root development and poor germination. g. Plant condition: • Defoliated plants are susceptible to diseases, insects and rodents. • Deteriorates soil moisture conditions • Directly affects biodiversity. PLANT TOLERANCE TO DEFOLIATION Plant reacts to the defoliation in many ways. Different plants have different ability to tolerate the phenomenon of defoliation. Following factors affect the phenomenon of defoliation. 1. Species to species: Deciduous plants have more tolerance capacity than evergreen plants. 2. Seasons/timing: in dry seasons (winter) recovery from defoliation is slow. 3. Frequency: rate of defoliation is more on particular months. 4. Intensity: serious defoliation focused on specific areas or parts. 5. Cutting height: recovery process affect by plants cutting height. .g cut Napier grass by leaving 20-30 cm on ground. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com 6. Stage of maturity, growth and protein content of the plant. (less Nitrogen more defoliation) 7. Competition of plants for water, nutrients and light (survival under stress). 8. Carbohydrate cycle in the grass: less synthesis of carbohydrate during photosynthesis results more defoliation. 9. Grazing resistance capacity of the plants reduces the probability of defoliation. (a) Avoidance mechanisms: A mechanism in which plant start to produce large no of small tillers, reduced leaf number, leaf blade areas. This reduces the amount of biomass removed by herbivorous and plants stated to avoid by animals. (b) Tolerance",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "resistance capacity of the plants reduces the probability of defoliation. (a) Avoidance mechanisms: A mechanism in which plant start to produce large no of small tillers, reduced leaf number, leaf blade areas. This reduces the amount of biomass removed by herbivorous and plants stated to avoid by animals. (b) Tolerance mechanisms: A mechanisms in that facilitates re-growth of the plant following defoliation. It increases the no of apical meristem that may contribute growth after defoliation. Plant started to produces reproductive tillers. GRASSLAND (FACTORS THAT DEFINE GRASSLANDS) Land area composed by the herbaceous species of grass as the dominant component. Types: (a) Natural Grassland (b) Artificial grassland Natural Grassland: The grassland in which the plant communities have perennial grass as dominant species. There may be few or no shrubs at all. However, trees are completely absent. Main factors determining such grassland are: (a) Determined by the extreme climate (b) Low moisture availability (c) Get just enough precipitation (d) Found between desert and forest or at the rain shadow of mountains. Artificial Grassland: These are the grassland of more recent origin. They have been formed by destroying forest mainly by cutting and fire. These have been maintained largely through grazing animals. Main factors determining such grasslands are: Climatic factors: Precipitation, Temperature, Humidity Edaphic factors: physical and chemical properties of soil Biotic factors: influenced by: Fire, Grazing and land clearing Category of grassland Found in Tropical grasslands Africa, South America, northern Australia, India Prairie/steppe North America, Central Eurasia, South Africa Temperate grasslands Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand, Asia Tundra all subarctic grasslands Grassland categories according to climatic zones (NBS, 2002) Zone Remarks Tropical Grasslands grazed almost all the year round. Subtropical Non-palatable species such as ferns, stinging nettle, and Eupatorium species are becoming dominant because of heavy grazing. Temperate Winter grazing for",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "North America, Australia, New Zealand, Asia Tundra all subarctic grasslands Grassland categories according to climatic zones (NBS, 2002) Zone Remarks Tropical Grasslands grazed almost all the year round. Subtropical Non-palatable species such as ferns, stinging nettle, and Eupatorium species are becoming dominant because of heavy grazing. Temperate Winter grazing for cattle, sheep and goats. Burning to improve grasslands is a common practice, causing increased soil erosion. Subalpine Seasonal grazing only because of heavy snow cover in winter. Burning of grasslands at the end of the grazing season and in early spring is common. Alpine Grasslands are grazed only during the summer (June September). For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com FACTORS THAT DEFINE GRASSLAND Stress: It is defined as a Pressure and tension from the defoliation. It is a factor that inhibits growth and production. Plant can survive under stress. Stress is due to: Climate factors, edaphic factors, Topographic factors and biotic factors.  Climatic factors: it is influence by: Precipitation, Temperature & Humidity  Edaphic factors: it is influence by: Soil depth, Soil structure, Soil Texture, Soil Moisture & Soil fertility  Biotic Factors: it is influence by: Fire, Grazing, Land Clearing, land slides Fire: To the range manager, fire and grazing are the principle tools of rangeland vegetation management. The research has proved that increase in fire frequency decreases the grass productivity. Wild and uncontrolled fire may be devastating to all perennial vegetation. The role of fire is considered to be a little controversial. That is why; in many countries burning of the land is prohibited by laws. Grazing: Heavy grazing seriously weakens the pressure species particularly, legumes and encourages the weed to develop better. It retarded photosynthesis process resulting in reduced manufacture of food, nutrient uptake and plant vigor. Lang clearing: Clearing is accomplished mainly for cultivation. It exposes",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "burning of the land is prohibited by laws. Grazing: Heavy grazing seriously weakens the pressure species particularly, legumes and encourages the weed to develop better. It retarded photosynthesis process resulting in reduced manufacture of food, nutrient uptake and plant vigor. Lang clearing: Clearing is accomplished mainly for cultivation. It exposes the soil, increase surface runoff, reduces soil permeability, and increases soil erosion leading to the big landslides. If clearing is confined to remove unwanted grass species in the rangeland, it may have some positive impact. PLANT SUCCESSION AND COMMUNITY COMPOSITION IN RANGE ECOSYSTEM Plant succession: It is the change of the range vegetation from earlier stage to more developed stage. Therefore, Understanding of succession is basic to range management. Succession begins when an area is made partially or completely devoid of vegetation because of a disturbance. Some common mechanisms of disturbance are fires, wind storms, volcanic eruptions, logging, climate change, severe flooding, disease, and pest infestation. Succession stops when species composition changes no longer occur with time, and this community is said to be a climax community. Process involve in succession: Colonization, Establishment and Extinction. TYPES OF SUCCESSION Primary Succession: It is the establishment of plants on land that has not been previously vegetated. It begins with colonization and establishment of pioneer species. Succession in primary area such as newly formed dunes, deltas etc. It takes long period of time to attain the climax (autogenic succession). Secondary Succession: It is the invasion of a habitat by plants on land that was previously vegetated. Removal of past vegetation may be caused by natural or human disturbances such as fire, logging, cultivation, or hurricanes, grazing etc. Succession after disturbance imposed on the path of primary succession (allogenic succession). Progressive succession: It is a succession where the community becomes complex and contains more",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "was previously vegetated. Removal of past vegetation may be caused by natural or human disturbances such as fire, logging, cultivation, or hurricanes, grazing etc. Succession after disturbance imposed on the path of primary succession (allogenic succession). Progressive succession: It is a succession where the community becomes complex and contains more species and biomass over time. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Retrogressive succession: It is a succession where the community becomes simplistic and contains fewer species and less biomass over time. Some retrogressive successions are allogenic in nature. For example, the introduction of grazing animals results in degenerated rangeland. Model in the Succession process 1. The Facilitation Model  Pioneer species establish a presence on the site of a disturbance.  They modify a site, for instance, by regenerating the soil with organic material making the area more attractive for invasion by other species.  Eventually, new species move in, edging out the pioneers.  This process may repeat itself several times, until the ecosystem reaches the climax stage 2. The Tolerance Model  All species involved in succession are equally capable of establishing themselves on a recently disturbed site.  But those capable of attaining a large population size quickly are likely to become dominant  This model is more akin to natural selection 3. The inhibition Model • All species have equal opportunity to establish population after a disturbance. • Some of the early species actually make the site less suitable for the development of other species. • An example of this is when plant secretes toxins in the soil, thus inhibiting the establishment and growth of other species. SUCCESSIONAL RESPONSE OF GRAZING Desirable (Decreaser): Highly productive and palatable species that provide good environmental protection. Less Desirable (Increaser): Species which are less productive and palatable than desirable species and",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "example of this is when plant secretes toxins in the soil, thus inhibiting the establishment and growth of other species. SUCCESSIONAL RESPONSE OF GRAZING Desirable (Decreaser): Highly productive and palatable species that provide good environmental protection. Less Desirable (Increaser): Species which are less productive and palatable than desirable species and which provides less environmental protection. Undesirable (Invader): Species that yield very little, if any, forage that is not particularly palatable. They impair the ecosystem. They can also be noxious. The terms decreaser, increaser and invader are used in the United States. Two types of succession are realized due to grazing: 1) Retrogressive succession 2) Progressive succession Retrogression or degeneration is the replacement of a community of plants of higher ecological order with a community of lower ecological order. Disturbance of the stabilized climax through overgrazing or cultivation causes retrogression. Improper grazing management are responsible for this. Too intensive grazing is marked by a disappearance of the preferred plants or those physiologically less resistant to grazing. Vegetation deterioration is followed by soil degradation. The latter begins with loss of organic matter and structure breakdown followed by erosion. If disturbance is compensated or eliminated in time, succession moves back towards climax. When the supply of desirable species becomes limited, the animals then turn to the next most palatable species, which are usually less productive and nourishing and For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com less desirable in respect to soil and water conservation. While the desirable species are decreasing, these species increase to a point, but with continued overuse, they also weaken and die. These species are termed \"increasers\" or \"less desirable\". Only unpalatable species and grazing evasive species can survive such a system of overgrazing and eventually these will invade and they are termed \"invaders\" or \"undesirable\". Invaders are less productive than increasers",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "point, but with continued overuse, they also weaken and die. These species are termed \"increasers\" or \"less desirable\". Only unpalatable species and grazing evasive species can survive such a system of overgrazing and eventually these will invade and they are termed \"invaders\" or \"undesirable\". Invaders are less productive than increasers and are of very little value as regards soil and water conservation. Some are excessive consumers of water, giving nothing in return, and livestock refuse to graze. Stages in vegetative Retrogression induced by grazing  Physiological Disturbance of Climax plants  Composition Changes of the Climax cover  Invasion of New Species  Disappearance of Climax plants  Decreased Density of Invaders Progressive succession:  Development of vegetation towards climax  If soil is not disturbed much by overgrazing GRAZING BEHAVIOUR OF LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE Grazing behavior of animals differ from each other, some examples are given below. • Goats: prefer browse woody plants then forbs. • Sheep: prefer forbs then grasses • Cattles: Prefer grasses • Horse: selective grazers • Buffalos: prefer long grass • Zebra: feeds upper parts of the grasses • Elephants: clumps of grass, barks, and branches of the tree etc. PALATABILITY AND PREFERENCE Palatability is defined as plant characteristic. Palatability can be defined as the relative attractiveness of plants to a feeding animal. The palatability of a plant is determined by a variety of characteristics, such as fiber content, flavor, nutrient and chemical content, and morphological features such as roughness or spines. Different kinds of animals are differentially attracted by a particular species. Preference refers to the selection of plants by animals. Relative preferences indicate proportional choice among two or more foods. Preference is a combination of learned and genetically programmed. Palatability and preference have been used as synonyms (Ivins, 1952). Palatability or preference measure",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "animals are differentially attracted by a particular species. Preference refers to the selection of plants by animals. Relative preferences indicate proportional choice among two or more foods. Preference is a combination of learned and genetically programmed. Palatability and preference have been used as synonyms (Ivins, 1952). Palatability or preference measure in the percentage utilization observed at a particular time or place. 70% utilization of a species commonly is taken to mean both palatability and preference] (e.g. if the plant makes an animal sick, it learns to avoid it). Legumes, such as alfalfa, seem to maintaining their good taste. livestock will always eat the wild white clover first (in between red clover and white clover).Many broadleaves are even more palatable. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Dandelions are extremely tasty and feel very pleasant in the mouth (trendy restaurants use them in salads). They remain palatable for longer periods than grasses or legumes. Younger, less fibrous leaves are preferred. However else can we use our knowledge of palatability and animal preferences to improve pasture management. Ryegrass is very tasty and has a pleasant feel in your mouth during the early stages of maturity. PREFERENCE INDEX It is defined as a Utilization Percent/Represent percent. It is not clearly know why certain plants are selected over other. Some plants are eaten by one kind of animals while others plants may be eaten by more than one kind of animals. It depends on species, breed of livestock. Reason for plant selectivity by animals depends on following factors: (a) Nutrients content: Protein (b) Taste: Salty, bitter, sour, sweet (c) Moisture content: (d)Mineral content: (e) Essential oil: (f) Fiber or lignin content (g) Texture Rejection level of four animals Salty: Cattle> sheep> normal goats> pigmy goats Sour: Cattle> Sheep> normal goats> Pigmy goat Bitter: Sheep and Cattle>",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "following factors: (a) Nutrients content: Protein (b) Taste: Salty, bitter, sour, sweet (c) Moisture content: (d)Mineral content: (e) Essential oil: (f) Fiber or lignin content (g) Texture Rejection level of four animals Salty: Cattle> sheep> normal goats> pigmy goats Sour: Cattle> Sheep> normal goats> Pigmy goat Bitter: Sheep and Cattle> normal and Pigmy goat Sweet: No rejection thresholds established Plant use factor may vary according to which affect the preference for range plants by livestock and wild life depends on: (a) Associated species (b) Kind of stock (c) Season (d) Year (e) Past grazing use (f) Undefined local condition (g) Familiarity with plant FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE FORAGE PALATABILITY Animal Factors: The animal factors that influence palatability may be partitioned into five major categories: (a) Senses (b) Species or breeds, (c) Individual variations, (d) Previous experience or adaptation (e) Physiological condition. Plant Factors: Among the numerous plant factors that may at times influence forage palatability to animals are: (a) Species (b) Intra specific variation (c) Chemical composition (d) Morphology or physical traits (e) Succulence or maturation (f) Availability in non-controlled situations, and (g) Form of forage controlled by mechanization. Environmental Factors: Natural and induced environmental factors frequently influence plant selection by ruminant animals. Among these are: (1) Plant diseases: (presence or absence is environment dependent), (2) Soil fertility, (3) Animal dung, (4) Feed additives, (5) Climatic variation, For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com 3. RANGE INVENTORY Range: Range means broad, open, unfenced areas over which grazing animals roam. Inventory: To make a systematic list of something. Range inventory is the process of gathering and analyzing information of Physical characteristic of range or rangeland and Biological characteristic of range or rangeland. Rangeland information is obtained by observation or from public and private records. Information collected in the inventory is used as a framework",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "systematic list of something. Range inventory is the process of gathering and analyzing information of Physical characteristic of range or rangeland and Biological characteristic of range or rangeland. Rangeland information is obtained by observation or from public and private records. Information collected in the inventory is used as a framework to aid in the development of range classification systems. Rangeland Inventory involves collection of range data systematically, evaluation the data scientifically and production a practical, and a workable range management plan under improved management condition. Rangeland inventory includes: • Classification of rangeland • Mapping of the vegetation types of the range • Range improvement process • Prevailing trend, its production and utilization • Readiness of the range for the specific purpose • Season of the range use PURPOSE OF RANGE INVENTORY (a) Ecological classification: To determine Physical and environmental factors such as precipitation, topography, soil, vegetation (b) Range forage inventories: To determining grazing capacity ( domestic or wild animals) and to focus on plant species (c) Utilization survey: To assessing the current grazing pressure and to determining appropriateness of current stocking level or management system (d) Condition and Trend analysis: To judge the adequacy of stocking and management practices which is based on successional and community dynamics concept. (e) Multiple use surveys: To determine the entire biological and physical resource based with the objective of integrating all capabilities. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com (f) Rangeland appraisals: To determining economic productivity of a range area. Range inventory is particularly concerned with the classification of shrubs (tall and low) and herbs (forbs and graminoids), which are forage for livestock and wildlife. Vegetation inventories: (a) To find out the absolute or relative abundance of plant species (c) Data quantified by: Numeration, volume or weight Vegetation inventory range samples consist of: (i) a complete",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "the classification of shrubs (tall and low) and herbs (forbs and graminoids), which are forage for livestock and wildlife. Vegetation inventories: (a) To find out the absolute or relative abundance of plant species (c) Data quantified by: Numeration, volume or weight Vegetation inventory range samples consist of: (i) a complete listing of plant species present (ii) shrub transects to measure shrub abundance (iii) Micro-plots to estimate forage production and utilization. METHODS OF VEGETATION ANALYSIS OR RANGE SPECIES INVENTORY SPECIES LISTING The Process of identification and listing of all available species (grasses, grass-like plants, herbs, shrubs and tree of a rangeland is called species listing. It require  Local people discussion and their experience and investigator experience.  Survey of the range area.  Collection of sample plants.  Identification of all the plant collected.  You need to do species listing at first. Format for species listing I Local Name English Name Scientific Name Symbol Napier ghas Napier Pennisetum purpureum Pepu Setaria Ghans Setaria Setaria acepa Seac Panic Ghans Green Panic Penicum maximun Pama .............. ............ ...... ......... After species listing in format I, available data need to further divided into several group based on the preference Format for species listing II Preference Type Local Name English Name Scientific Name Symbol Desirable sp Napier ghas Napier Pennisetum purpureum Pepu Intermediate sp Setaria Ghans Setaria Setaria acepa Seac Least Desirable Sp Panic Ghans Green Panic Penicum maximun Pama Not Desirable Sp .............. ............ ...... ......... For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com There may be many species of vegetation that cannot be recognized and identified that may be specific to the area under study. They should be brought to the highly specialized person for their identification. Consult with expert of Department of plant resources. GENERAL OBSERVATION In this method overall condition of rangeland",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "may be many species of vegetation that cannot be recognized and identified that may be specific to the area under study. They should be brought to the highly specialized person for their identification. Consult with expert of Department of plant resources. GENERAL OBSERVATION In this method overall condition of rangeland observed by ocular method. It is highly subjective study of vegetation study. It may vary from observer to observer and required a lot of experience. It aims to make a quick assessment on the species of a grassland site and assess any current or potential threats. As well as providing baseline survey data it will allow the project team to priorities sites for future conservation management. COVER: Cover is the vertical projection of vegetation from the ground as viewed from above. Two types of cover are recognized for the study. 1. Basal cover is the area where the plant intersects the ground; 2. Aerial cover is the vegetation covering the ground surface above the ground surface. You can visualize aerial cover by considering a bird's-eye view of the vegetation. It is the indicator of the dominance of a particular species of vegetation in the rangeland and also, the biomass of the vegetation in the rangeland can be estimated. It can be expressed in fraction or percentage. Cover can be estimated by the following method (a) Visual estimation (b) Point method (c) Line interception method Visual estimation: It is the estimation of a vegetation cover in a particular area based on general visualization. So it required a lot of experience to be close to the correctness. This is also subjective method, may vary with surveyor. In this method, several circular or rectangular quadrants are used and each of them is estimated individually to have the estimate of overall area. Point/Frame/Hit method:",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "general visualization. So it required a lot of experience to be close to the correctness. This is also subjective method, may vary with surveyor. In this method, several circular or rectangular quadrants are used and each of them is estimated individually to have the estimate of overall area. Point/Frame/Hit method: It Consists of Metallic frame, sliding pins at equal intervals set in vertical position by means of rigid crossbars. The length of pin varies from few inches to a foot depending upon the vegetation. Commonly, frame consists of 10 sliding pins of one ft length. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Procedure:  Samples are ocular surveyed.  Vegetation species to be estimated are identified.  Set frame in field randomly.  All pins are pulled and each pin is lowered  Hits by the pins are recorded Cover %= Mean of all the hits (total hits on a particular vegetation species) X 100 Total number of pin lowered Drawback of Point/hits method  Broad leaf plants are hit more  Blunt pins are likely to overestimate  Wind movement biasness  Time consuming Line interception method: It consists of recording horizontal linear measurement of a particular species or more than a species alone a line.Plant foliage that is intercepted along the line is measured and the total intercepts of the vegetation species to be estimate along the line is the percentage of the ground surface covered by that particular species. % cover= Distance Intercepted x 100 Total Length Procedure  A metallic tape of 100 ft or as required  Sample area is surveyed.  Plant species to be estimated and identified.  Transacts are drawn randomly holding two ends of the tape  It is stretched at a uniform height  Plant foliage intercepted by the transact is recorded.",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "A metallic tape of 100 ft or as required  Sample area is surveyed.  Plant species to be estimated and identified.  Transacts are drawn randomly holding two ends of the tape  It is stretched at a uniform height  Plant foliage intercepted by the transact is recorded. DENSITY For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com It is defined as the number of individual species present in unit area. It can be express in fraction or percentage. It is more precise method than the cover method. It involves the actual counting of vegetation species and involves little or no estimation. Generally 2.5 X 2.5 cm plots are used Density of species = Total no. of individuals of species Total no. of plots sampled X area of a plot FREQUENCY It is the number of occurrence of a species of vegetation in a particular area. It reflects a good indication of the spatial distribution of a vegetation species over a particular area. It can also be expressed in terms of either fraction or in percentage.  Frequency of species = No. of plots in which species occurs X 100 Total no of plots sampled DETERMINATION OF CARRYING CAPACITY AND GRAZING CAPACITY Animals Unit (AU/au): It is referred to as a mature buffalo or its equivalent or a mature cow of 1000 Ibs with its calf on the ground up to six months old.  Number of animals= pasture size X pasture yield per acre ( Daily intake X average animal weight X days of grazing) Grazing Capacity: The maximum animal number that can graze each year on a given area of rangeland for a specific numbers of days of the year without inducing a downward trend of forage biomass production, and forage and soil quality. Carrying capacity: The maximum number of",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "X days of grazing) Grazing Capacity: The maximum animal number that can graze each year on a given area of rangeland for a specific numbers of days of the year without inducing a downward trend of forage biomass production, and forage and soil quality. Carrying capacity: The maximum number of individual animals that can survive the greatest period of stress each year on a given land area depending upon the range capability to produce different products and within inducing downward trend of the range condition. Thus, the carrying capacity is the number of individuals an environment can support without significant negative impacts to the given organism and its environment. Grazing capacity Carrying capacity Maximum number of animals that produces the greatest return from a given area of land Maximum number of individuals that can survive With out damaging the physical resources Physical condition with in limitation GC= Total forage production Forage requirement/animal/day* 365* area of the grazing land CC= Total forage production in the rangeland forage acre requirement/animal AU Grazing capacity have less animals than carrying capacity. Carrying capacity includes more than maximum numbers of animals that can survive in the given area. Term used for rangeland management and Wide coverage (Tourism, engineering, For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com livestock management forestry) Animal population can increase above the grazing capacity. Below carrying capacity, populations typically increase, while above, they typically decrease. Used simply for grazer Use for game animals such as area of suitable habitat, sufficient foraging area, appropriate cover and a large enough area to cater for social needs (Furstenburg 2002). LIMITATION OF CARRYING CAPACITY CONCEPT  Possibilities of Under utilize (lower production year)  Possibilities of over utilize of the forest resources (higher production year)  Not suitable when animals to be grazed, its distribution, and the season to",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "a large enough area to cater for social needs (Furstenburg 2002). LIMITATION OF CARRYING CAPACITY CONCEPT  Possibilities of Under utilize (lower production year)  Possibilities of over utilize of the forest resources (higher production year)  Not suitable when animals to be grazed, its distribution, and the season to use are not obvious.  It depends on different factors Dependent factors  Biomass composition /Vegetation composition  Palatable species/unpalatable species  Environment factor (Temp, rainfall, wind,)  Topographic factors ( Slope, Aspect) RANGE CONDITION CLASSIFICATION FOR NEPAL/ CONCEPT AND DEFINITATION The production and productivity of rangelands are very low, ranging from 0.12 to 3.2 metric ton (mt) dry matter (DM)/ha. Only 64% of the rangelands are accessible. Most of the rangelands are overstocked and severely grazed out. The estimated carrying capacity ranges from 0.06 to 1.4 livestock units (LU)/ha. The stocking rate on rangelands is very high -up to 37 times the carrying capacity (Pandey, 2008) The concept of classification of range condition was first develop in USA. It described as the state and health of the range based on what range is naturally capable of producing. The term range condition has a special meaning for the range manager. The condition of the rangeland depends on the seasonal factors. If rains have been frequent and temperature favorable, range are good. Range manager attempts to look beyond the immediate greenness of the herbage. It is the classification of the condition of the rangeland to the potential of a particular area that is capable of producing forage. Range-condition classification is based upon ecological concept of plant succession and climax. Range vegetation can be classified as climatic, edaphic, and biotic factors. The main factors responsible for depletion of range condition are:  Early grazing  Over grazing  Selective grazing  Invasion",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "that is capable of producing forage. Range-condition classification is based upon ecological concept of plant succession and climax. Range vegetation can be classified as climatic, edaphic, and biotic factors. The main factors responsible for depletion of range condition are:  Early grazing  Over grazing  Selective grazing  Invasion by the undesirable species of vegetation and  Climatic variability CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (Criteria for range condition classification). The criteria for range condition depend on the purpose of classification (Soil Factors, Plant Composition, and Forage value). SN Factors Criteria Description Classification For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com 1 Soil Type Depth of soil Soil Erosion Soil Moisture Moisture retention capacity , Soil texture, Soil structure 2 Vegetation Composition Vegetation Species Vigor Density Age Litter formation Status of Regeneration and Reproducing capability 3 Forage Value Nutritive value of the forage, its palatability and productivity Methods of range condition classification 1. Quantitative Climax Approach This approach is based on the percentage of climax vegetation or species composition. All range plants are grouped in three (Decreaser, Increaser, and Invaders).Commonly called Soil conservation service method. Range condition have been recognized in to ( Dyksterihius); Range Condition Percent of Climax Poor 0-25% Fair 25-50% Good 50-75% Excellent 75-100% 2. USDA Forest Service Method Due to the limitation of the Species composition classification which describe above, this method is used. This is based on various factors which determine range condition, these factors have been given rating and marks have been allotted for each. a) Soil Condition Characteristic Point Class 1 No soil loss, well dispersed accumulation of litter and older litter Rating 20 Class 2 Soil movement slight, noticed of rill erosion, no accumulation of past litter Rating 17 Class 3 Soil loss more noticeable, top soil loss, rill marks and poorly dispersed litter Rating 7 Class 4",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Class 1 No soil loss, well dispersed accumulation of litter and older litter Rating 20 Class 2 Soil movement slight, noticed of rill erosion, no accumulation of past litter Rating 17 Class 3 Soil loss more noticeable, top soil loss, rill marks and poorly dispersed litter Rating 7 Class 4 Advance stage of erosion, active gullies, exposed plant roots Rating 0 For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com b) Density of ground cover Density Rating 0.50 plus 10 0.45 9 0.40 8 0.35 7 0.30 6 0.25 5 0.20 4 0.15 3 0.10 2 Less than 0.10 1 c) Vegetation Composition and Age Class Characteristics Rating 1 The perennial herbaceous forage of better quality are abundant. Better quality of forage plant 10 2 The perennial herbaceous forage of better quality are moderately, 7 3 The perennial herbaceous forage of better quality are scarce 5 4 The perennial herbaceous forage of better quality are relices. 1 d) Plant Vigour Class Characteristics Rating 1 Palatable plants vigorous, grassess robust with numerous leaves, leaves dark green. 10 2 Palatable plants lacking in vigour. Forage species are shorter, fewer seed stalks, 7 3 Palatable plants lacking in vigour, gresses weak forage plants are nor reproducing 5 4 Palatable plants sickly and weak. Grasses may be pale yellowis in color, seed stalks few and short, no seedling 1 You need to add above A, B, C and D number according the condition and compare your data with the table below to find range condition. Range condition Point Good Over 40 pts. Fari 30-40 Poor 15-29 For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Very Poor Less than 15 3. Site Potential approach SN Range condition Vegetation type Percent compositon 1 Excellent Palatable grass, herbs, forbs, browse 75-100 2 Good Above species in less amounts 50-75 3 Fair Above species in",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Good Over 40 pts. Fari 30-40 Poor 15-29 For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Very Poor Less than 15 3. Site Potential approach SN Range condition Vegetation type Percent compositon 1 Excellent Palatable grass, herbs, forbs, browse 75-100 2 Good Above species in less amounts 50-75 3 Fair Above species in lesser amounts 25-50 4 Poor Above species in very less amounts 0-25 CONDITION TREND ANALYSIS The nutritive value of the forage change with its growth and maturity. Such as the protein content is higher during earlier stage and biomass increase with the age. Higher nutritive value as well as palatability is realized at the mid of maturity period when the biomass is also at its optimum and advise to fed to animal for maximum benefit. With maturity, the protein as well as the phosphorus content of vegetation decrease and consequently, the carbohydrate content increases. Mature grasses have more fiber content and less palatable. At the same time, the vitamin content is reduced with the age of the plant. Judging range trend is even more hazardous than judging range conditions, because there are few objective means for assessing trend. We analyze the soil factors and Plant factors for this.  Soil factors  Presence of litter  Evidence of soil trampling  Presence condition of gullies  Plant factors For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com  Plant vigor  Seeding establishment  Degree of percent utilization  Evidence of past utilization 4. RANGE IMPROVEMENT Range Improvement: Its aim is based on the ecological principles of competition/succession. It includes 1. Increase production (quality/quantity) of species. 2. Balance species by inducing succession towards desirable direction. 3. Effective utilization of forage production. 4. Increase productivity of range depended animals ( both livestock and wildlife) How to improve rangeland 1. Direct methods: (a) Seedling (b) Controlling",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "ecological principles of competition/succession. It includes 1. Increase production (quality/quantity) of species. 2. Balance species by inducing succession towards desirable direction. 3. Effective utilization of forage production. 4. Increase productivity of range depended animals ( both livestock and wildlife) How to improve rangeland 1. Direct methods: (a) Seedling (b) Controlling undesirable/noxious plants (c) Cultural operation ((weeding, hoeing, pitting, furrowing, fertilizer application, irrigation) 2. Indirect methods (a) Fencing (b) Trail improvement (c) Water availability (d) Effective utilization of the herbage (e) Grazing management GRAZING PRESFERENCE OF VEGETATION WITH GRAZING ANIMALS Different animals have different grazing behavior and dietary preference Types of animals Grazing preference Cattle Less selective and less severe in pasture mainly eat grasses but browse any edible shrubs that appear in path Buffalo Long grasses Sheep Closer grazer ( remove tall grasses from top to bottom, select a diet much more nutrition Goat Browse mainly Horse/donkey Selective grazer, close to ground ignore browse Elephant Clumps of grasses, bark, branches of the tree Dietary Preference of different type of animals Types of animals Dietary Preferences High Medium Low Cattle Ground grass Shrubs/Forbs Buffalo Ground grass Shrubs/Forbs Sheep Shrubs/grass Goat Shrubs Forbs For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Horse Close grass Forbs Grass Deer Shrubs/Browse Forbs Grass By knowing animals’ behaviours range vegetation can be manipulated. So we can combine different types of animals. If we want to control shrubs of the range we can keep goat. For control herbs of the rangeland horse/donkey will be best. Similarly, to utilize both shrubs and grasses: combination of goat and cattle will be best. Strategies for range improvement 1. Balance the number of animals to be grazed with the carrying capacity of the area. 2. To allow the livestock which are best suited for the existing vegetation. 3. Proper distribution of the grazing animals",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "and grasses: combination of goat and cattle will be best. Strategies for range improvement 1. Balance the number of animals to be grazed with the carrying capacity of the area. 2. To allow the livestock which are best suited for the existing vegetation. 3. Proper distribution of the grazing animals over the entire grassland. 4. Reseeding the grassland with improved variety of grasses which have a higher yield, and nutritive and more palatable. 5. Application of manure and fertilizer and keeping the area weedfree. 6. Adopting the principles of grazing management and encouraging stall feeding and storage of grasses. 7. Adopting proper soil conservation measures needed for the improvement of the grassland. GRAZING MANAGEMENT: It consists of wise and skillful manipulation of two basic biological elements: (i) Pasture area (ii) Grazing animals The principal factors that are under the direct control of the manager includes: (a) Choice of the species (b) Manipulation of agronomic practices (c) Selection of livestock feeding (d) Use of supplementary feeding (e) Choice of the grazing system. Objective of grazing system: (a) To restore the plant vigour (b) To allow plants to produce seeds (c) To accomplish uniform utilization of forage (d) To maintain animal productivity (e) To maintain ecological stability GRAZING SYSTEM (TYPES) (a) Continues Grazing system (b) Rotation Grazing system (c) Deferred grazing system (d) DeferredRotation grazing system (e) Controlled Grazing CONTINUOUS GRAZING SYSTEM It is extensive grazing in which the stocks are grazed in the same grazing area over a prolonged period of time. After a long period of continuous grazing with high stocking rate pasture deteriorates is the common. It changes the species composition /succession (favourable for thorn like plants). This is common practice in Nepal. Advantages: (a) Requires less management (b) Capital costs are minimal Disadvantages: • Lower forage quality and",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "time. After a long period of continuous grazing with high stocking rate pasture deteriorates is the common. It changes the species composition /succession (favourable for thorn like plants). This is common practice in Nepal. Advantages: (a) Requires less management (b) Capital costs are minimal Disadvantages: • Lower forage quality and yields For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com • Lower stocking rate and less forage produced per acre • Uneven pasture use • Greater forage losses due to trampling • Animal manure is distributed unevenly • Weeds and other undesirable plants may be a problem ROTATIONAL GRAZING SYSTEM It is an intensive system of grazing in which stocks are grazed in the different area of the rangeland moving from one part to another in rotation. The aim of this system of grazing is to use the grassland when it is young and highly nutritious and then allow an adequate recovery period. Advantages: • Can increase forage production and improve pasture condition. • Allows pastures to rest and allows for forage re growth • Can provide a longer grazing season, reducing the need for feeding harvested forages • Better distribution of manure throughout the pasture Disadvantages: • Costs for fencing and water systems can be higher than with continuous grazing • Forage production and pasture utilization is not as high as intensive rotational grazing systems DEFERRED GRAZING SYSTEM In this system, grazing is delayed until after the most important species have seed, rhizomes, etc for reproduction and propagation. Grazing land vegetation allows to grow fully, root systems are allowed to develop and self sown seeds established. This practice is beneficial for improving degraded pasture and for the conservation of endangered range vegetation. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com DEFERRED ROTATIONAL GRAZING SYSTEM: It consists of dividing the grazing land into several compartments, usually three",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "grow fully, root systems are allowed to develop and self sown seeds established. This practice is beneficial for improving degraded pasture and for the conservation of endangered range vegetation. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com DEFERRED ROTATIONAL GRAZING SYSTEM: It consists of dividing the grazing land into several compartments, usually three compartments, and the animals are grazed alternatively into two while protecting the third compartment during the growing season. It will allow the palatable species to recoup their vigour. The animals are then allowed to graze the third protected compartment after grass has seeded. Protection of one compartment for once in three years. STRIP GRAZING SYSTEM: Strip grazing is more intensive and modified form of rotational grazing. In this case a movable electric fence is placed across the grazing paddock and is moved forward once or twice in a day. This system is applied generally to high productive dairy animals. This will require a small outlay on suitable fencing (ie electric tape which will be highly visible to the horse), plastic stakes which can be moved, and an energiser. CONTROLLED GRAZING In this system the number of animals that are allowed to graze per unit area of rangeland is fixed in accordance with the carrying capacity of rangeland. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Choosing a grazing system: Continuous grazing does, however, have the benefit of low capital investment, since few fencing and watering facilities are required. Because livestock are seldom moved from pasture to pasture, management decisions are simple. Rotational (or controlled) grazing, on the other hand, increases pounds of animal production per acre. FIRE AS A MANAGEMENT TOOL (controlled burning): The controlled burning is recognized practice in the management of rangelands. But the practice has great diversity of opinions and has become a controversial subject. In range management controlled burning",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "controlled) grazing, on the other hand, increases pounds of animal production per acre. FIRE AS A MANAGEMENT TOOL (controlled burning): The controlled burning is recognized practice in the management of rangelands. But the practice has great diversity of opinions and has become a controversial subject. In range management controlled burning has defined as the “Planned application and confinement of fire to preselected wild land area.” Many studies have revealed that the judicious use of fire has great role in range management but too frequent and unseasonal burning, especially if not followed by good management practices is harmful for the rangelands. Objectives and importance: 1. To remove unutilized material of previous years and to stimulate growth of new vegetation. 2. To remove unwanted species (thorny, noxious) in more effective and economical way thus to increase the growth of preferred grasses. 3. In tropical areas the grasslands are bunt to induce early spring growth of grasses. 4. To produce ash for fertilization. (Burnt material increases the fertility of the soil.) 5. To produce quality and quantity of forage for livestock (The crude protein % in the herbage increased after burning. (Smith,1960)) 6. To control undesirable animals and insects such as ticks and reptiles. a. Fire removes old, steamy and fibrous growth which would not be eaten by animals. b. Fire burns litter which suppresses the desirable species. c. It helps to obtain the desirable species composition. d. High temperature of the fire imitates the sprouting as result new tillers formed even in the dry season. e. It facilitates the movement of livestock by controlling/destroying the bushes. f. It controls pests and pathogens and increases the soil ph. Some results of burning in the grassland: a. The root and shoot production in Dichanthium grassland of Varansi has increased after burning (Pandey, 1971). b.",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "the dry season. e. It facilitates the movement of livestock by controlling/destroying the bushes. f. It controls pests and pathogens and increases the soil ph. Some results of burning in the grassland: a. The root and shoot production in Dichanthium grassland of Varansi has increased after burning (Pandey, 1971). b. Total annual net production of 2480g/m2 on plots burned twice in a year as compared to 1325g/m2 for unburned plots c. Nitrogen content of soil has also increased rapidly in burned grassland. d. Changes the vegetative composition in some area in some extends. Summery, burning is a valuable tool in the management of rangelands. But at the same time it has an adverse effect also. Each individual area has to be analyzed critically before the practice of burning is adopted. The results obtained in one area should not be made a basis for the application in similar areas. It should always be practiced with great care and should be regulated in respect of frequency, intensity and time of burning. CONTROL OF WEEDS To improve the rangeland we have to control and eradicate the unwanted weeds. The invasion of grazing lands by the weed reduces the carrying capacity of the range land. The weeds have and adverse effects on the forage production of the area as they compete with main crop for water, soil nutrients, light and space. The poisonous weeds and shrubs may be injurious to the grazing livestock if these are grazed during the For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com period of scarcity or accidently eaten by them, when mixed with the main crops it reduces the forage value of the crop. Methods of weeds control: 1. Cultural control: The establishment of competitive and desirable vegetations prevents or slows down the invasion by weeds which are the key component of",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "period of scarcity or accidently eaten by them, when mixed with the main crops it reduces the forage value of the crop. Methods of weeds control: 1. Cultural control: The establishment of competitive and desirable vegetations prevents or slows down the invasion by weeds which are the key component of successful weeds management. 2. Biological Control: Living agents are used to control the unwanted weeds. Such agents may be useful insects, bacteria or may be grazing animals. 3. Mechanical control: The process of eradicating the weeds manually by restoring to hand pulling, hoeing, tilling or by mowing (grubbing). Tractor may be used also. 4. Chemical control: In the chemical method, the use is made of herbicides and weedicides for the eradication of weeds and unwanted plants. The methods are quite effective and have certain advantages than other methods. The herbicides can be used in the immediate vicinity of the weeds. Some of the herbicides clear the area covered by weeds permanently. This increase forage yield of the range lands. It is easier in application and less expensive. Herbicides should be: economical, easy in handling, sure result, and non toxic to animals Herbicide is a chemical that kills the plants. The chemicals employed can be classified into: (a) Selective herbicides (b) Non-selective herbicides. (a) Selective herbicides are those which are effective in killing only certain weeds or broad leaved plants when provided with a given dosage and may not affect the growth of grasses and certain other plants. it can be applied directly to the foliage part of the growing plants. (b) Non-selective herbicides are those which kill the above ground parts of most of the plants that are treated. To destroy the roots of perennial weeds, trans-located herbicides may be used which move with in the plants. Some of the",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "applied directly to the foliage part of the growing plants. (b) Non-selective herbicides are those which kill the above ground parts of most of the plants that are treated. To destroy the roots of perennial weeds, trans-located herbicides may be used which move with in the plants. Some of the trans-located herbicides are: carbine, 2 methyl-4chlorophenoxy acetic acid. Name of some herbicides are: TCA (Trichloracetic acid) and 2, 4 DB (2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Note: Invasive species such as Lantanma Camera, Mikania Macarantha (in CNP) Water hyacinth (in lakes) are common in Nepal. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com 5. GRAZING MANAGEMENT INDIFENEOUS HEARDING SYSTEM OF NEPAL Livestock rearing in the area depends upon the overall farming system of the area. Herding system is governed by factors as cropping intensity, Availability and proximity of forest resource, Animal Species and productive stage, Labour availability, Animal population per household. Farming systems at different altitude are different upon the temperature, irrigation, and other interrelated factors and will vary. Common herding system in Nepal (a) Transhumance system (b) Sedentary System (c) Stall Feeding TRANSHUMANCE SYSTEM This system is adopted in the high Himalayan area where the herds of animals migrate from one place to another throughout the year. Herdsmen settle at about 2500 m elevation and this system applicable in where sedentary animal husbandry is not possible due to snowfall and shortage of grazing areas. All the herbage remains under snow for about six months in a year. Therefore, as soon as temperature rises, animals start ascending to the high elevations in March for grazing and they start moving down in August and reach at 2000m elevation. Herds of animal migrate from one place to another throughout the year. In this system alpine pasture utilizes during monsoon and crop stubble of the fallow land utilize during",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "ascending to the high elevations in March for grazing and they start moving down in August and reach at 2000m elevation. Herds of animal migrate from one place to another throughout the year. In this system alpine pasture utilizes during monsoon and crop stubble of the fallow land utilize during winter. During upward and downward migration, the undergrowth in the forest region is the major forage source. The ruminant animals involved in this system are; Yak, Sheep, goat, and cattle. But in some area buffaloes are also included. The pure breed yak can not come down below 3000m elevation, they either have to go to Tibet for grazing while all the grass land remain under snow in Nepal, or remains in Nepal under starving condition. Owners go to see their herd once a while and offer some corn bread, which does not help even for maintenance. Other animals while on the way to lower elevations graze on the crop stubble of arable field and lopped branches of Quercus and Castonopsis. SENDENTARY SYSTEM Ruminant livestock make daily grazing and return evening. The main grazing area during the summer is the scrubland and community grazing area around the village. The sedentary population consists of working oxen, dry buffaloes and small number of cattle. STALL FEEDING SYSTEM This type of animals rearing is found mostly in the area with intensive cultivation and availability of crop residues are abundantly in addition to tree leaves and other grass and weeds are available. Mostly the high value animal like milking buffalos and exotic or crossbreed animals are kept under this system. TRANSHUMANCE SHEEP HEARDING SYSTEM This system is followed in the High hill and Himalayan areas (Mustang, Dolpa, Jumla and Humla). Animals are moved to different area throughout the year. The flock migrates from lower hills",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "value animal like milking buffalos and exotic or crossbreed animals are kept under this system. TRANSHUMANCE SHEEP HEARDING SYSTEM This system is followed in the High hill and Himalayan areas (Mustang, Dolpa, Jumla and Humla). Animals are moved to different area throughout the year. The flock migrates from lower hills (south) to the high alpine pasture and back again based on climatic condition. Supplemented with 40-50 gm salt/head/week .This is one of oldest system evolved when animals were domesticated. In migratory flocks, sheep and goat are run together, with the goats acting as the lead animals. Baruwal and Bhyanglung sheep, Sinhal goat are the principal breeds in this system. In Transhimalayan area Chyangra “Mountain goat” also form the considerable number in herd composition.2 or more shepherds accompanied by Tibetan mastiff dogs look each migratory flock. Animals are not owned by single individual and belong to several owners. Shepherds may be owners as well as hired. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Socio-economic factors influencing Livestock Population and Structure: Geographical region along with socioeconomic issues play an importance role in livestock population and structure. Pastoralism has a long history in the northern region. Geographical region along with socioeconomic issues play an importance role in lives. Horses are the fulcrum of society and one of the most significance measures of wealth in Himalayan area. Villager of the Himalayan offset their income and low-yielding field by keeping domestic livestock. The number and kinds of animals kept by residents vary with Village to village, House to house. It also depends on Community wealth, Individuals family income and Available rangeland and forage resources. Death from cold and starvation during harsh winter is common for the livestock in the Himalayan area. In the last twenty years, however the number of horses kept by the people of Mustang",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "to house. It also depends on Community wealth, Individuals family income and Available rangeland and forage resources. Death from cold and starvation during harsh winter is common for the livestock in the Himalayan area. In the last twenty years, however the number of horses kept by the people of Mustang has continued to increase due to income generated by tourism trade ( @ Nrs 400 to 1000/day) but current development of road network can decrease these source of income. Goats (Capra hircus) are common in all Mustang as a domestic animals. Goats, sheep and yak are reared for their meat, milk, skin and wool and carry salt from Tibet. Mules, donkey, yak cow cross breeds: Ploughing and Transporting. Their dried dung is an important fuel, used all over Tibet, and is often the only fuel available on the high treeless Tibetan plateau. Yak milk is often processed to a cheese called chhurpi in Tibetan and Nepali languages Constraints in herding systems: 1. Excessive Population Depending on Limited Natural Resources: Lack of Forage resource and water for livestock 2. Severe Forage Deficit: Availability of feed and fodder during the winter and early summer is a major constraint 3. Disease and their effects: (a) High incidence of disease and parasitism is common (b) Poor nutrition © Mostly disease and parasite are endemic to Nepal (d) Many more yet to be diagnosed (e) Approx 90% death or mortality occurs due to starvation and 10% due to accidents and disease. 4. Labour availability: (a) High labour requirement and minimum Net return (b) The size of the herds depends upon the labor availability. (c) One herder can take care of approx 500 heads. (d) Sheep and goats are generally looked after by either children or by old people incapable for doing other operations. 5.Poor productivity",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "High labour requirement and minimum Net return (b) The size of the herds depends upon the labor availability. (c) One herder can take care of approx 500 heads. (d) Sheep and goats are generally looked after by either children or by old people incapable for doing other operations. 5.Poor productivity potential of indigenous animals: (a) Low milk production (b) Low meat production/body size (c) Quantity and quality of wool low (d) Long calving interval (e) Late sexual maturity 6. Poor marketing Structure: (a) For livestock and it’s byproducts (b) Hat Bazaar System: Weekly system (c) No competitive market (d) Middleman control 7. Poor Transportation and Communication: Narrow trails and bridges to pasture 8. Lack of specialized industries. 9. Climate change: Changes resulting in disaster such as floods, landslides can also have devasting effect on local rangeland and create the situation difficult for trans-humance herding. 10. Livestock depredation: Snow leopard, bears, CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS TABOOS Most villagers in SPNP in Dolpa are Buddhists and have strict religious beliefs against the killing of animals. Certain places are considered sacred where animal entry is not allowed: movement of human and livestock restricted in Himalayan pick after crops are cultivate; beliefs to be the homes of gods and goddesses. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com 6. FORAGE MANAGEMNT IN CONTEXT OF COMMUNITY FORESTRY INTRODUCTION In Nepal more than 80% of the population derives their livelihood from agriculture. Existing farming systems are traditional, labour intensive and complex in nature. Livestock husbandry, forestry and arable cropping are inter-dependent, being part of same system. Average land holding of the farmer in the country is around 0.5 ha which can barely meet staple food that required for the families. The situation continues to deteriorate, stressed by continues reduction in size of landholding, shortage of traditional forms of forest litter",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "inter-dependent, being part of same system. Average land holding of the farmer in the country is around 0.5 ha which can barely meet staple food that required for the families. The situation continues to deteriorate, stressed by continues reduction in size of landholding, shortage of traditional forms of forest litter and animals litter linked with declining crop yield. Under these conditions, in particular the poor have become increasingly dependent on exploiting governmental/communal forest areas to sustain their animals, on which they depend for their survival. Over the past 30 years, human population and animal population in the country continue to increase faster than forage resource can be developed. Cause of resource decline in Nepal • Increase in LS population • Resettlement programme • Timber export to India (past and present) • Shifting cultivation • Development project • Encroachment on resources • Illegal harvesting and selling etc. Under present condition, more than 50% of farmer’s fodder requirements are derived from forest (Paudel &Tiwari; 1992). Forest Act 1993 and Regulation 1995 provide opportunity for increasing user involvement, responsible, accountable for fodder, bedding and litter. Forest based Concept for Forage Development: Community Forestry, Leasehold Forestry concept are currently towards forage development established during the 1990s and 1970s respectively. The community forestry concepts supports livestock development indirectly by increasing the supply of animals bedding, fodder trees resources and indigenous grasses. No planned attempts to promote improve fodder cultivation and utilization from the understory of the forestland. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com In leasehold Forestry: it mostly focuses on fodder (trees, shrubs and pasture). Each farm family gains access to approx.1 ha of forestland for improve fodder production. Forage and Pasture Intervention on Community Forestry 1. Protection from Grazing to Facilitate the Natural Regeneration of Indigenous and Naturalized Exotic Fodder and Pasture Species ( Paudel",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "it mostly focuses on fodder (trees, shrubs and pasture). Each farm family gains access to approx.1 ha of forestland for improve fodder production. Forage and Pasture Intervention on Community Forestry 1. Protection from Grazing to Facilitate the Natural Regeneration of Indigenous and Naturalized Exotic Fodder and Pasture Species ( Paudel &Tiwari 19920) reported that simple protection of CF of 19.2 ha had produced 24 m of grass in dry matter basis and had a potentially to produce 30 m grass along with 100mt of wood biomass annually. 2. Strategic Use of Exotic Fodder and Pasture Species: (Legumes and some grass which required low and medium fertility). Stylo (Stylosanthes guinensis), molasses grass (Melinins minutiflora) are successful in warmer climate. White clover (Trifolium repens), cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) and or Perennial grass (Lolium perenne) has shown limited potential in cooler climates 3. Multipurpose/Fodder Tree Plantation and Silvi-pasture: Nitrogen fixing plan should be promoted in plantation area: pasture as a under story. 4. Broom Grass, Bamboo and Nigalo Plantation: Broom (Tyosanaleana maxima), bamboo (Dendrocalamus spp) and nigalo ( Arundanaria spp): These include soil conservation, to provide fodder during scarce period, and to increase household income by providing raw material to village based cottage industries and selling brooms in nearby markets. OVERSTORY/UNDERSTORY VEGETATION MANAGEMENT Light intensity determines the forage production in forest and may largely determine the species present in natural condition. In dense stand of most conifer: few plants will grow on the forest floor. Heliophytes: Plants that thrive best in bright light or full sunshine are known as sun plants Skiophytes: Those that are shade tolerant, as shade pants SECONDARY GROWTH FOREST It is found beneath the primary layer of trees and are less dominant. It consists of herbs, shrubs and small trees. It’s determined by the amount of available light and moisture.",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "full sunshine are known as sun plants Skiophytes: Those that are shade tolerant, as shade pants SECONDARY GROWTH FOREST It is found beneath the primary layer of trees and are less dominant. It consists of herbs, shrubs and small trees. It’s determined by the amount of available light and moisture. They may attain prominence when the canopy is not too dense. The pasture yield decrease as the tree canopy increases. The establishment of pasture-tree combination system ( Silvo pastoral system) is an ideal use practice in this. Saccharum under the Leucaena leucocephala or Cynoden dactylon under the Acacia nilotica PLANTATION FOREST Dry tropical: Acacia catechu, A. nilotica, Albizia lebbek, Azadarichta indica, Leucaena leucocephala, Melia azadarichta, Bauhinia variegata. Moist Tropical: A. Catechu, Adina cardifolia, Anthocephalus chinensis, Morus alba, Syzygium cumini, Terminalia chebula, Melia azadarich, Ficus religiosa Sub Tropical: Alnus nepalensis, Bauhinia racemosa, Ficus religiosa, Mallotus philippinesis, Toona ciliata, Temperate: Populus ciliata, Quercus floribunda, Q. glauca For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Multiple uses of forest grazing land: Multiple uses means management of the grazing land for the variety of purposes likes: Forage production, Wildlife management, Fuel wood production, Timber production, Litter production, Eco-tourism and Medicinal herb production The relation between the components in multiple uses could be: Competitive, Complementary AND Supplementary FODDER PRODUCTION FROM GARAZING LAND It supports both wildlife and domestic animals. It should be based on overstory/understory concept. The species selected should have the following criteria: Well recovering species, Longer producing, Compatible with tree, Soil stabilizing, Shade tolerant As many as 33 tree species are lopped for tree fodder in the central Himalayan at an elevation of 300 – 3100 m. Tree leaf fodder is available between OctJuly. FODDER FOR TERAI FOR MIDHILLS SN Botanical Name Nepali Name SN Botanical Name Nepali Name 1 Albizzia procera Seto siris 4 Brassiopsis",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "as 33 tree species are lopped for tree fodder in the central Himalayan at an elevation of 300 – 3100 m. Tree leaf fodder is available between OctJuly. FODDER FOR TERAI FOR MIDHILLS SN Botanical Name Nepali Name SN Botanical Name Nepali Name 1 Albizzia procera Seto siris 4 Brassiopsis hainla Chuletro 2 Dalbergia sissoo Sisau 5 Castanopsis tribuloides Musure katus 3 Ficus semicordata Khanyu 6 morus alba Kimbu 4 Gmelina arborea Gamari 7 Saurauria nepalensis Gogan\\Tingur 5 Grevia optiva Bhimal 8 Albizzia odratissima 6 Acacia nilotica Babul 9 Erythrina arborescens Phaledo 7 Leuceana leucocephala Ipilipil 10 Ficus roxburghii Nimaro 8 Litsea monopetala Kutmero 11 Ficus nimarolis Dudhilo 9 Michelia champaca Champ FOR HIGH MOUNTAIN 10 Sesbania grandiflra Dhaincha SN Botanical Name Nepali Name 11 Terminali alata Asna 1 Celtis australis Khari 12 Zizyphus jujube Bayer 2 Quercus lamellose Thulo phalant 13 Ficus nimarolis Dudhilo 3 Q.leucotricphora Sano banjh 14 Azadirahta indica Neem 4 Q. semecarpofolia Khasru FOR MIDHILLS 5 Salix babylonica SN Botanical Name Nepali Name 6 Taxsus baccata Lauth salla 1 Artocarpus lakoocha Badhar 7 Populus ciliate Banghe kath 2 Bauhinia purpurea Tanki 8 Brassiopsis glomerulata Kalo chuletro 3 Bauhinia variegate Koiralo 9 Quercus lanata Thulo banjh FUELWOOD AND TIMBER PRODUCTION It brings nutrients from sub-surface to make it available to the companion crops. Deeper rooting species pumps minerals up from deeper soil layers to the surface. Some times considered by experts as ‘Wishfulthinking’ especially for phosphorus. But fast growing forage species could well extract all the available nutrients in the topsoil in the first years of production. Many forage species grows well under low soilPH. From the mineral point of view, the non-fertilizer, option is not enhancing the sustainability of the intervention on the long run. Species selected should have following character apart from the general character",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "nutrients in the topsoil in the first years of production. Many forage species grows well under low soilPH. From the mineral point of view, the non-fertilizer, option is not enhancing the sustainability of the intervention on the long run. Species selected should have following character apart from the general character of fuel wood and fodder: (a) Compatible with grass (b) Deep rooted (c) Light Shading FUELWOOD FOR TERAI FOR MIDHILLS SN Botanical Name Nepali Name SN Botanical Name Nepali Name For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com 1 Acacia nilotica Babool 1 Aesculus indica Kandar 2 Acacia auricoloformis 2 Albizzia lebbeck Kalo siris 3 Anogeissus latifolia Banjhi 3 Alnus nepalensis Utis 4 Terminali tomentosa Asna 4 Betula alnoides Bhojpatra 5 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Masala 5 Eurya acuminata Jhingane 6 Gmelina arborea Gamari 6 Bauhinia variegata Koiralo 7 Largerstroemia parviflora Bot dhangero 7 Castanopsis indica Katus 8 Azadiracta indica Neem 8 Quercus lanata Thulo banjh 9 Dalbergia sissoo Sisau FOR HIGH MOUNTAIN 10 Bauhinia variegata Koiralo 1 Betula utilis Bojpatra 11 Albizzia lebbeck Kalo siris 2 Betula alnoides 12 Adina cordifolia Haldu 3 Juniperus spp. 13 Bombax ceiba Simal 4 Quercus lanata Thulo banjh TIMBER FOR TERAI FOR MIDHILLS SN Botanical Name Nepali Name SN Botanical Name Nepali Name 1 Shorea robusta Sal 4 Castanopsis indica Katus 2 Tectona grandis Teak 5 Cedrus deodara Deodar 3 Terminalia alata Asna 6 Cryptomeria japonica Dhupi salla 4 Dalbergia sissoo Sisau 7 Pinus roxburghii Kote salla 5 Dalbergia latifolia Satisal 8 Quercus lemellosa Thulo phalant 6 Acrocarpus fraxinifolius 9 Toona ciliate Tooni 7 Eucalytus camaldulensis FOR HIGH MOUNTAIN 8 Gmelina arborea Gamari 1 Abies pindrow Gobre salla 9 Albizzia lebbeck Kalo siris 2 Abies spectibilis Talis patra 10 Albizzia procera Seto siris 3 Cedrus deodara Drodar 11 Largerstromia parviflora Bot dhangero 4 Cupressus torulosa Raj salla FOR",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "fraxinifolius 9 Toona ciliate Tooni 7 Eucalytus camaldulensis FOR HIGH MOUNTAIN 8 Gmelina arborea Gamari 1 Abies pindrow Gobre salla 9 Albizzia lebbeck Kalo siris 2 Abies spectibilis Talis patra 10 Albizzia procera Seto siris 3 Cedrus deodara Drodar 11 Largerstromia parviflora Bot dhangero 4 Cupressus torulosa Raj salla FOR MIDHILLS 5 Juglans regia Okhar SN Botanical Name Nepali Name 6 Pinus wallichiana Gobre salla 1 Exbucklandia populnia Pipal 7 Quercus floribunda Thinke 2 Aesculus indica Kandar 8 Q. semecarpifolia Khasru 3 Betula alnoids Bhjpatra 9 Aesculus indica Kandar LITTER COLLECTION Leaf Litter collection is another important component of Nepalese farming system. At present; 50% of the litters produced are removed2.3 mt Litter and manure are applied per hectare of cultivated land. The practices of collecting litter seriously interrupt the nutrient cycle. The quantity of manure production by livestock are depends on (stall feeding; no of livestock, and amount of bedding materials). The use of litter will be further increase to replace chemical fertilizer. Criteria of species for the little production have • Easily decomposable leaves • No other effect on cultivated land ( Pine needle) In Cool climates: coniferous forest: decomposition of litter is very slowly where as in the Warm, moist: rapidly decomposition takes places. Mor Moder Mull For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Typical for slow humification Typical for moderately slow humification Typical for fast humification No mixing with mineral soil Mixing with mineral soil Intense mixing with mineral soil forming clay-human complexes Presences of fungi, low biotic activity Residues of small insects, medium biotic activity Present of earth worms C/N Ration >20 C/N ration 10-20 C/N Ratio < 12 PH 3.5-4.5 Ph 5 PH 5-7 Erica, Rhododendron, coniferous spp Deciduous tree Grass and Crop residues 7. FORAGE MANAGEMENT IN CONTEXT OF THE FARMING SYSTEM INTRODUCTION Different forage",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "activity Residues of small insects, medium biotic activity Present of earth worms C/N Ration >20 C/N ration 10-20 C/N Ratio < 12 PH 3.5-4.5 Ph 5 PH 5-7 Erica, Rhododendron, coniferous spp Deciduous tree Grass and Crop residues 7. FORAGE MANAGEMENT IN CONTEXT OF THE FARMING SYSTEM INTRODUCTION Different forage development program in Nepal are already well accepted. E.g. use of the winter annuals oats/berseem and improvement of communal cut and carry area with Stylo and molasses grass. Leucaena is widely grown, although management is sub optional. STRATEGY Emphasis should be promoting more strategy options and introducing a wider range of genetic materials, whilst allowing well established activities. Strategies and species need to be continually refined, and the ranking of importance of strategies will continually change. Strategies should be focus on use of leguminous species because of their roles in livestock nutrition and in stabilizing cropping systems. Species recommendations should continually change, in the light of local experience and availability of new genetic materials. Species recommended should mostly well adopt to low soil fertility. In the cut and carry system large quantity of nutrients are removed from the soil, and eventually these must be replaced For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com by the addition of organic or inorganic fertilizer. Generally use mixture to reduce risk of failure. And we need to familiarize farmers with the alternatives species. Key strategy for implementation of forage development  Over sowing: for the more production of forage, available land (Communal grazing areas, roadsides, landslides) should be sown with forage species.  Forage should be raise on terrace risers  Leguminous forage/cover crops should be promoted under citrus and other trees  Under sowing/ relay cropping of forage legumes in annual crops such as finger millet will be effective  Hedgerows of multi-purpose tree legumes should",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "be sown with forage species.  Forage should be raise on terrace risers  Leguminous forage/cover crops should be promoted under citrus and other trees  Under sowing/ relay cropping of forage legumes in annual crops such as finger millet will be effective  Hedgerows of multi-purpose tree legumes should be promoted.  Communal cut and carry plots should be develop.  Intensive individuals cut and carry plots should be established. TERRACE AND BUND TMPROVEMENTT 1. Planting should be started on the upper terrace and should be continued to the edge of the field in downhill terraces. 2. As far as possible fallowing should be avoided. 3. All the operations should be done across the slope. 4. Minimum tillage and relay cropping should be practiced. 5. Over grazing should be avoided and maximum crop residue should be left to keep the ground well covered. 6. Safe disposal of water. Planted grass in waterways. 7. Manures and fertilizers should be applied. 8. Bunds are relatively on lower slope and should be protected by seeding or planting grasses. UTILIZATION OF NON-AGRICULTURAL INCLUSIONS (Gullies, Kharbari) In the small gullies, at the head of a gully, grasses and other herbaceous cover often hold the top few centimeters of the soil with a mass of fibrous roots. Woody plants and tap root species hold a thicker layer of soil than do the grasses. Gullies that are deeper than 0.5 m and that are growing both upstream and downstream need control measures at these critical points. A series of small dams are used to control gullies or large flows. Dams may be constructed from materials available at the site. After sedimentation and filling to a stable extent, extensive planting with suitable species. In case of Kharbari, if it contains some palatable species, these should be used",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "A series of small dams are used to control gullies or large flows. Dams may be constructed from materials available at the site. After sedimentation and filling to a stable extent, extensive planting with suitable species. In case of Kharbari, if it contains some palatable species, these should be used for grazing for animals, if not, the land under Kharbari should be cleared and reseeding with palatable grasses and forage may be done. FODDER TREE IMPROVEMENTS In Nepal, there is long tradition of using fodder tree leaves during winter and dry summer period, particularly in the hills of Nepal whether it comes from farm land or from forests. Farmers have traditionally protected or planted tree seedling for fodder available place and in marginal land. In Nepal more than 130 species of trees used as fodder and it plays an importance role in livestock husbandry. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Advantage: (a) Natural preservation (b) Multiple species: trough out the years (c) Use of Marginal land Disadvantage: (a) Late producer (b) Production less per unit area as compare to ground fodder (c) Mostly single or two time harvesting system (d) Shading effects on crops Improvement options:  Planting only selective species  More focus on legume and NFT species  Can withstand multi harvesting  Focus on hedgerows species: produce more forage per unit area.  Manage lopping operation/practices IMPROVEMENT OF CROP RESIDUES MANAGEMENT In Nepal Mostly green grass are available from June to September so crop byproducts plays very important role. Crop By products Quantity (000 ton) Percent Rice straws 4400 59.8 Maize Stover 1800 22.4 Wheat straw 1200 14.3 Millet straw 240 3.0 Barley straw 43 0.5 Total 9843 In general crop by products are inferior in quantity. They contain high fiber low protein. How to improve quality: (a)",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "role. Crop By products Quantity (000 ton) Percent Rice straws 4400 59.8 Maize Stover 1800 22.4 Wheat straw 1200 14.3 Millet straw 240 3.0 Barley straw 43 0.5 Total 9843 In general crop by products are inferior in quantity. They contain high fiber low protein. How to improve quality: (a) Treating with urea (b) Ammonia treatment (c) Maize Stover ensiling (d) Urine treatment These treatments increase the protein% and palatability. For the improved use of the byproduct it can be used by supplementing with high quality forage like berseem, stylo etc. Problem associate with crop byproduct improvement in Farmers Level: (a) Lack of technical know how (b) Cost factor (c) Limited response to animals (d) Lack of extension PROPER FEEDING TECHNIQUES In general good quality forage meets all the requirement of the animals. Feed requirement differ with stage of production. Producing animals needs extra nutrition over maintenance. When the animals loose their condition some concentrate need to be provided such as grains, cakes etc. Some time additional salt and bone meal improve the condition of animals and feed intake. Vet licks or mineral blocks are available commercially in the market for mineral supplement. Supplement feeding required for: (a) Young animals (b) Pregnant animals (b) Meat/Milking animals Supplement feeds: Protein, fats, vitamins, minerals Concentrates feeding time: (a) Winter: scarcity of grains and fodder (b) Summer: inaccessible season Concentrates: Rice bran, Whet grain, Barley bran, Maize bran, Oil seed cakes HAY (PARAL) AND SILAGE PRODUCTION Hay is grass, legumes or other herbaceous plants that have been cut, dried, and stored for use as animal fodder, particularly for grazing livestock. It is also fed to pets such as rabbits and pigs. Hay is fed For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com when or where there is not enough pasture or rangeland due to weather (such",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "plants that have been cut, dried, and stored for use as animal fodder, particularly for grazing livestock. It is also fed to pets such as rabbits and pigs. Hay is fed For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com when or where there is not enough pasture or rangeland due to weather (such as during the winter) or It is also fed during times when an animal is unable to access pasture, such as when animals are kept in a stable or barn.  Drying of the grass at right stage of maturity for the further use.  Reduce moisture down to 15-20%  Protect it from rain, reduce the possibility of loosing leaves of dried grass.  Utilize instead of green forage when such green forages are not available and it equally good as green grass. Good quality of Hay: The quality of hey depends on the species, time of harvest and freedom from moulds and bacteria.  Should have sufficient leaves  Mixed hay of legume and grass are better than grass only.  Harvest forage immediately after flowering started (10% flowering), earlier quantity is less and later than this the quality is poor.  It should be green in color (dry in shade)  No fungus/ moldy growth  Soft and nutritious  Should able to store for long period. Types of hay 1. Legume hay: Made from legumes: more nutritious 2. Non-legume hay: hay made without legume 3. Mixed hay; contains both legume and grasses Suitable species to make hay: Any grass and legume which can be easily dried quicker, like oats, cynodon, berseem, Pennisetum, Heteropogan SILAGE: It is defined as the product obtained by packing fresh fodder in a suitable container and allowing it to ferment under anaerobic condition with out undergoing much loss of nutrients. It can",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "hay: Any grass and legume which can be easily dried quicker, like oats, cynodon, berseem, Pennisetum, Heteropogan SILAGE: It is defined as the product obtained by packing fresh fodder in a suitable container and allowing it to ferment under anaerobic condition with out undergoing much loss of nutrients. It can be storage for more than a year. Quality of silage depends upon time of harvesting, type of forage, storage. Good quality silage is usually greenish or yellowish brown in color and with pleasant aroma. Advantage  Can be store without reducing the quality  Less space required  Control weed problem  There are may ways of silage making  Pit silage  Tower silage  Plastic bag silage ▪ Pit silage is more common in Nepal, in small farming system. Pit should be narrower in bottom than in the top for better compaction.  Types of grass: Any forage can be use for silage but it should have around 60-65% moisture content.  Forage like maize, bajra, sorghum makes good silage.  Silage can be made by mixing legume and grasses. But in general grass can easily preserve as silage than the legumes. Method of silage making For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com  Harvest crop at suitable time  Reduce the moisture % of forage into 60-65%  Chop it into pieces of 2-2.5’’  Place plastic sheet at the bottom of pit to check the contamination with soil.  Place the chopped forages and continue compaction for removal of air  Continue up to 1 foot above ground level  Cover with plastic again and plaster with mud.  Temperature ensiled place will be 30-38 0c  Take care not to allow airs and water in the silage pit. In North America, Australia, North-Western Europe, and frequently in",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "of air  Continue up to 1 foot above ground level  Cover with plastic again and plaster with mud.  Temperature ensiled place will be 30-38 0c  Take care not to allow airs and water in the silage pit. In North America, Australia, North-Western Europe, and frequently in New Zealand, silage is placed in large heaps on the ground and rolled by tractor to push out the air, then wrapped in plastic covers held by recycled tires. Good quality silage: Soft, smelling like curd, green or dark  Lab test for silage quality Characters Good silage Bad silage PH 4.1 5.4 Lactic acid 8.5 1 Acetic acid 2.5 3 Butyric Acid 0 3.5 Ammonium nitrate 1.9 4 Silage can be feed after 3 months of ensiling. It should be started to feed from one part of pit and cover after every use. Some time the animals may not like it so it should be fed slowly to adopt the animals. Hay is grass, legumes or other herbaceous plants that have been cut, dried, and stored for use as animal fodder, particularly for grazing livestock such as cattle, horses, goats, and sheep. Hay is also fed to pets such as rabbits and guinea pigs. Pigs may be fed hay, but they do not digest it as efficiently as more fully herbivorous animals. Hay is fed when or where there is not enough pasture or rangeland on which to graze an animal, when grazing is unavailable due to weather (such as during the winter) or when lush (green) pasture by itself is too rich for the health of the animal. It is also fed during times when an animal is unable to access pasture, such as when animals are kept in a stable. Good quality hay is green and not",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "as during the winter) or when lush (green) pasture by itself is too rich for the health of the animal. It is also fed during times when an animal is unable to access pasture, such as when animals are kept in a stable. Good quality hay is green and not too coarse, and includes plant heads and leaves as well as stems. This is fresh grass/alfalfa hay, newly baled. Commonly used plants for hay include mixtures of grasses such as ryegrass (Lolium species), timothy, brome, fescue, Bermuda grass, orchard grass, and other species, depending on region. Hay may also include legumes, such as alfalfa (lucerne) and clovers (red, white and subterranean). Other pasture forbs are also sometimes a part of the mix, though other than legumes, which ideally are cut pre-bloom, forbs are not necessarily desired. Certain forbs are toxic to some animals. Oat, barley, and wheat plant materials are occasionally cut green and made into hay for animal fodder; however they are more usually used in the form of straw, a harvest byproduct where the stems and dead leaves are baled after the grain has been harvested and threshed. Straw is used mainly for animal bedding. Although straw is also used as fodder, particularly as a source of dietary fiber, it has lower nutritional value than hay. It is the leaf and seed material in the hay that determines its quality. Farmers try to harvest hay at the point when the seed heads are not quite ripe and the leaf is at its maximum when the grass is mowed in the For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com field. The cut material is allowed to dry so that the bulk of the moisture is removed but the leafy material is still robust enough to be picked up from the ground by",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "leaf is at its maximum when the grass is mowed in the For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com field. The cut material is allowed to dry so that the bulk of the moisture is removed but the leafy material is still robust enough to be picked up from the ground by machinery and processed into storage in bales, stacks or pits. Poor quality hay is dry, bleached out and coarse-stemmed. Sometimes, hay stored outdoors will look like this on the outside but still be green inside the bale. A dried, bleached or coarse bale is still edible and provides some nutritional value as long as it is dry and not moldy, dusty, or rotting. Hay is very sensitive to weather conditions, particularly when it is harvested. In drought conditions, both seed and leaf production are stunted, making hay that has a high ratio of dry coarse stems that have very low nutritional values. If the weather is too wet, the cut hay may spoil in the field before it can be baled. The hay may also develop rot and mold after being baled, creating the potential for toxins to form in the feed, which could make the animals sick. It also has to be stored in a manner to prevent it from getting wet. Mold and spoilage reduce nutritional value and may cause illness in animals. The successful harvest of maximum yields of high-quality hay is entirely dependent on the coincident occurrence of optimum crop, field, and weather conditions. When this occurs, there may be a period of intense activity on the hay farm while harvest proceeds until weather conditions become unfavorable. Silage is fermented, high-moisture fodder that can be fed to ruminants (cud-chewing animals like cattle and sheep) or used as a bio-fuel feedstock for anaerobic digesters. It is fermented",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "occurs, there may be a period of intense activity on the hay farm while harvest proceeds until weather conditions become unfavorable. Silage is fermented, high-moisture fodder that can be fed to ruminants (cud-chewing animals like cattle and sheep) or used as a bio-fuel feedstock for anaerobic digesters. It is fermented and stored in a process called ensiling or silaging, and is usually made from grass crops, including corn (maize), sorghum or other cereals, using the entire green plant (not just the grain). Silage can be made from many field crops, and special terms may be used depending on type (oatlage for oats, haylage for alfalfa – but see below for the different British use of the term haylage). Silage is made either by placing cut green vegetation in a silo, by piling it in a large heap covered with plastic sheet, or by wrapping large bales in plastic film. Silage must be made from plant material with suitable moisture content, about 50% to 60%, depending on the means of storage, the degree of compression, and the amount of water that will be lost in storage. For corn (maize), harvest begins when the whole-plant moisture is at a suitable level. For pasture-type crops, the grass is mowed and allowed to wilt for a day or so until the moisture content drops to a suitable level. The plant material is collected, chopped into pieces about 0.5 in (1.3 cm) long and packed. In the early days of mechanized agriculture, stalks were cut and collected manually using a knife and horse drawn wagon, and fed into a stationary machine called”silo filler\" that would chop the stalks and blow them up a narrow tube to the top of a tower silo. Current technology uses mechanical forage harvesters that collect and chop the plant material,",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "and collected manually using a knife and horse drawn wagon, and fed into a stationary machine called”silo filler\" that would chop the stalks and blow them up a narrow tube to the top of a tower silo. Current technology uses mechanical forage harvesters that collect and chop the plant material, and deposit it in trucks or wagons. These forage harvesters can be either tractor-drawn or self-propelled. Harvesters blow the silage into the wagon via a chute at the rear or side of the machine. Silage may also be emptied into a bagger, which puts the silage into a large plastic bag that is laid out on the ground. In North America, Australia, North-Western Europe, and frequently in New Zealand, silage is placed in large heaps on the ground and rolled by tractor to push out the air, then wrapped in plastic covers held down by re-used tires or tire ring walls. Fermentation: Before starting the anaerobic stage there is an aerobic phase in which the trapped oxygen is utilized. After finishing that oxygen, the anaerobic phase starts. Silage undergoes anaerobic fermentation, which starts about 48 hours after the silo is filled. In the past, the fermentation was conducted by indigenous microorganisms, but, today, some bulk silage is inoculated with specific microorganisms to speed fermentation or improve the resulting silage. The process converts sugars to acids and exhausts any oxygen present in the crop material. Fermentation is essentially complete after about two weeks. Silage inoculants contain one or more strains of lactic acid bacteria, and the most common is Lactobacillus For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com plantarum. Other bacteria used in inoculants include Lactobacillus buchneri, Enterococcus faecium and Pediococcus species. Pollution and waste: The fermentation process of silo or pit silage releases liquid. Silo effluent contains nitric acid (HNO3), which is corrosive.",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "lactic acid bacteria, and the most common is Lactobacillus For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com plantarum. Other bacteria used in inoculants include Lactobacillus buchneri, Enterococcus faecium and Pediococcus species. Pollution and waste: The fermentation process of silo or pit silage releases liquid. Silo effluent contains nitric acid (HNO3), which is corrosive. It can also contaminate water courses unless collected and treated – the high nutrient content can lead to eutrophication (growth of bacterial or algal blooms). Plastic sheeting used for sealing pit or baled silage needs proper disposal, and in some areas there are recycling schemes for it. Storing silage: Silage must be firmly packed to minimize the oxygen content, or it will spoil. Four major stages silage goes through in a silo: • Presealing, which, after the first few days after filling a silo, enables some respiration and some dry matter (DM) loss, but stops • Fermentation, which occurs over a few weeks; pH drops; there is more DM loss, but hemicelluous is broken down; aerobic respiration stops • Infiltration, which enables some oxygen infiltration, allowing for limited microbial respiration; available carbohydrates (CHOs) are lost as heat and gas • Emptying, which exposes surface, causing additional loss; rate of loss increases. Anaerobic digestion: Silage is a useful feedstock for anaerobic digestion. Here silage can be fed into anaerobic digesters to produce biogas that, in turn, can be used to generate electricity and heat. Safety: Silos are hazardous, and deaths occur in the process of filling and maintaining them. There is a risk of injury by machinery or from falls. When a silo is filled, fine dust particles in the air can become explosive because of their large aggregate surface area. Also, fermentation presents respiratory hazards. The ensiling process produces \"silo gas\" during the early stages of the fermentation process. Silage",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "a risk of injury by machinery or from falls. When a silo is filled, fine dust particles in the air can become explosive because of their large aggregate surface area. Also, fermentation presents respiratory hazards. The ensiling process produces \"silo gas\" during the early stages of the fermentation process. Silage gas contains nitric oxide (NO), which will react with oxygen (O2) in the air to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which is toxic.[5] Lack of oxygen inside the silo can cause asphyxiation. Molds that grow when air reaches cured silage can cause toxic organic dust syndrome. Silage bales are heavy, and can fall, roll or overbalance machinery. Collapsing silage from large bunker silos has caused deaths. Silage itself poses no special danger. Nutrition: The ensiled product retains a much larger proportion of its nutrients than if the crop had been dried and stored as hay or Stover. Bulk silage is commonly fed to dairy cattle, while baled silage tends to be used for beef cattle, sheep and horses. Since silage goes through a fermentation process, energy is used by fermentative bacteria to produce volatile fatty acids (VFA), such as acetate, propionate, lactate, and butyrate, which preserve the forage. The result is that the silage is lower in energy than the original forage, since the fermentative bacteria use some of the carbohydrates to produce VFA. Thus, the ensiling process preserves forages, but does not improve the quality or the nutrient value. 8. INTEGRATED FORGAE RERSOURCE MANAGEMENT INTEGRATION OF FARM, FOREST AND LIVESTOCK SYSTEM For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Important linkage exists between forestry and farming. Forestry support agriculture and livestock husbandry. It is importance to understand this linkage in the context of forestry development and to future forestry activities to fulfill the needs of the local people. Some common integrated systems 1.",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "SYSTEM For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Important linkage exists between forestry and farming. Forestry support agriculture and livestock husbandry. It is importance to understand this linkage in the context of forestry development and to future forestry activities to fulfill the needs of the local people. Some common integrated systems 1. Silvo-agriculture: Tree+ Agriculture crop 2. Agrosilviculture: Agriculture+ Trees 3. Silvopastoral: Trees+ grazing land (Pasture) 4. Spatial arrangement: 1. Border or boundary planting: line fences, wind breaks 2. Alternate row and alternative strips: alley or hedgerow cropping 3. Random mixing: no specific arrangement 4. Home garden PLANNING THE ANNUAL FORAGE BUGET Annual forage budget is the input-output relationship for particular forage crop. A forage budget includes all the variable resources per unit area (Ha), cost, the expected output, grass returns and net returns etc. Budget sheet For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com S.N Particulars Unit Amount A Land preparation 1 Tractor fuel cost for ploughing and leveling 2 Land preparation may be done by bullock drawn plow 3 Human labor for removing stubbles, weeds etc B Manure and fertilizers Farmyard manure/compost Urea Others Labour for fertilizer application C Seed sowing Seed Labour for seed sowing D Irrigation E Insect control Insecticide Human labour F Weed control Herbicide Human labour G Human labour for cutting and grazing Total cost Supposes Total production: 30 ton green grass/ha and selling at 0.5 paisa/kg Gross benefit: Rs 15000 Net benefit= Gross benefit – Total Cost BOTTLENECKS TO IMPLEMENTATION OF FORAGE RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT It is generally claimed that ruminants are the best way to accumulate capital and are important for the maintenance of crop production. The common premise is that ruminant production and productivity is low and that is mainly due to shortage of feed. Very litter importance is given in the government programme to resolve these",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "that ruminants are the best way to accumulate capital and are important for the maintenance of crop production. The common premise is that ruminant production and productivity is low and that is mainly due to shortage of feed. Very litter importance is given in the government programme to resolve these issues. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Bottlenecks 1) Policy Issues I. Lack of coherent policy on rangeland management II. Responsibility split into different agencies I. Forestry II. Agriculture III. Lack of co-ordination between agencies 2) Management Issues IV. Negligence on indigenous knowledge while formulating plans. V. Poor state of knowledge on scientific management 3) Technological issues I. Most of the research activities carried out in the past have been a failure to recognize the need of the farmer and country II. Most of the researches are either a duplication of the pervious finding of focused on sophisticated study that is less applicable in the existing situation. III. Lack of available technology on grazing management, stocking rate etc related to the local situation. IV. Lack of exposure to the modern management techniques V. Lack of suitable propagation materials VI. Poor linkage between extensionist, researcher and farmers. 4) Institutional Issues • Low capacity of NGOs, GOs and CBOs and private institutions • No defined role of the above mentioned organizations 5) Socioeconomic Issues • Poor understanding of local priorities, situation and interests. • Roles of WPDM groups are not well recognized 6) Others • Difficult accessibility • Population pressure • Low productive animals • Marketing of animals product • Lack of extension education to the farmers • Lack of trained manpower in this field • Infrastructure and incentives POLICY RECOMMENDATION TO OVERCOME LIMITATION For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Any activities, which try to address the above problem, may have significance positive impact",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "animals • Marketing of animals product • Lack of extension education to the farmers • Lack of trained manpower in this field • Infrastructure and incentives POLICY RECOMMENDATION TO OVERCOME LIMITATION For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Any activities, which try to address the above problem, may have significance positive impact to resolve the existing bottleneck to implement the forage development problem in the country. We should have Collaborative works on technology development, – rangeland management, – Human resource development – Socio-economic studies • Should develop Rangeland database • Policy should be Bottom up • Alternative feeds and fodder resources • Management of grazing areas – Rangeland management plans – Improvement of grazing area by scientific inputs. – Imposition of adequate rational fees – Improvement of herbage resource along the migratory routes – Introduction of alternative system of hortisilvipasture, wherever feasible. • Capacity building of institutions • Proper attention to incorporate gender prospective • Establishing strong resource centers for range/pastureland Policy recommendation: 1. Community forest management 2. Improved stove management 3. Improved irrigation and hydro facilities 4. Improved grazing system 5. Winter forage resource management 6. Improved animals husbandry 7. Alternative income generating activities 8. Tourism management plan including trekking permit limitation 9. Coordinate with local labour 10. Restricted fuel wood use (trekking, camping) 11. Sustainable forest management. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com GLOSSARY • Range: Natural and uncultivated grassland, shrub land and forest land that produces forage for grazing and browsing livestock and wildlife. • Forage: Herbaceous palatable plants mostly used as grazing. • Fodder: Herbaceous palatable plants mostly used by cut and carry system. • Herbage: Both palatable and non-palatable fodder and forage. • Browse: Palatable leaves or shoots/twig. • Range analysis: The critical study of range classes in individual form. • Defoliation: Removal of leaves or live parts",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "used as grazing. • Fodder: Herbaceous palatable plants mostly used by cut and carry system. • Herbage: Both palatable and non-palatable fodder and forage. • Browse: Palatable leaves or shoots/twig. • Range analysis: The critical study of range classes in individual form. • Defoliation: Removal of leaves or live parts of plant. • Range ecosystem: interaction between biotic and a biotic components of rangeland. • Range science: it deals with the use of rangeland to obtain return of the resources benefit to meet the needs and desire of the people in a sustainable way. • Forbs: Plants with solid, non-woody stem, usually, broadleaf with netted venations. For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Plant species found in the rangelands of Nepal RANGELAND PLANT SPECIES Tropical (Terai) Ageratum conyzoides, Artemesia vulgaris, Arthraxon sikkimensis, Arundinella nepalensis, Bothriochloa glabra, Bothriochloa intermedia, Brachiaria villosa, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Cissus repens, Cymbopogon pendulus, Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus difformis, Desmodium heterocarpon, Desmostachys bipinnata, Digitaria longiflora, Eragrostiella nardoides, Eragrostis atrovirens, Eragrostis nigra, Eragrostis pilosa, Eragrostis unioloides, Hackelochloa granularis, Heteropogon contortus, Hymenachne pseudointerrupta, Imperata cylindrica, Ischaemum rugosum, Narenga porphyrocoma, Neyraudia reynaudiana, Panicum notatum, Paspalidium flavidum, Paspalum conjugatum, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Phragmites karka, Pogonatherum paniceum, Rotala indica, Saccharum arundinaceum, Saccharum spontaneum, Sacciolepis indica, Setaria pallidefusca, Sporobolus diander, Trudax procumbens, Vetiveria zizaniodes. Subtropical Ageratum conyzoides, Agrostis pilosula, Anaphallis busua, Apluda mutica, Apocopis paleacea, Artemisia vulgaris, Arthraxon sikkimensis, Arundinella bengalensis, Arundinella nepalensis, Arundinella setosa, Bothriochloa intermedia, Bothriochloa pertusa, Brachiaria ramosa, Brachiaria villosa, Campanula cana, Capillipedium assimile, Capillipedium parviflorum, Carex alopecuroides, Cheilanthus grisea, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Chrysopogon fulvus, Chrysopogon gryllus, Cymbopogon jawarancusa, Cymbopogon pendulus, Cymbopogon stracheyi, Cynodon dactylon, Cynogolossum zeylanicum, Cyperus niveus, Cyperus rotundus, Desmodium heterocarpon, Desmodium microphyllum, Digitaria longiflora, Digitaria setigera, Dimeria fuscescens, Dryopteris fillix-mass, Elephantopus scaber, Eleusine indica, Eragrostiella nardoides, Eragrostis atrovirens, Eragrostis nigra, Eragrostis pilosa, Eragrostis unioloides, Eulalia mollis, Eulaliopsis binata, Eupatorium adenophorum, Euphorbia thymifolia, Gonostegia",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "gryllus, Cymbopogon jawarancusa, Cymbopogon pendulus, Cymbopogon stracheyi, Cynodon dactylon, Cynogolossum zeylanicum, Cyperus niveus, Cyperus rotundus, Desmodium heterocarpon, Desmodium microphyllum, Digitaria longiflora, Digitaria setigera, Dimeria fuscescens, Dryopteris fillix-mass, Elephantopus scaber, Eleusine indica, Eragrostiella nardoides, Eragrostis atrovirens, Eragrostis nigra, Eragrostis pilosa, Eragrostis unioloides, Eulalia mollis, Eulaliopsis binata, Eupatorium adenophorum, Euphorbia thymifolia, Gonostegia hirta, Heteropogon contortus, Heteropogon contortus, Imperata cylindrica, Isachne globosa, Ischaemum rugosum, Justicia procumbens, Laggera alata, Micromeria biflora, Paspalidium flavidum, Paspalum distichum, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Pennisetum pedicellatum, Perotis hordeiformis, Phyllanthus parvifolius, Pogonatherum paniceum, Rotala indica, Saccharum spontaneum, Sacciolepis indica, Schizachyrium brevifolium, Setaria pallidefusca, Sida For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com rhombifolia, Sporobolus fertilis, Thysanolaena maxima. Temperate Agrostis myriantha, Agrostis gigantea, Agrostis micrantha, Agrostis munroana, Agrostis pilosula, Anaphalis triplinervis, Andropogon munroi, Apluda mutica, Apocopis paleacea, Artemisia dubia, Arthraxon sikkimensis, Arundinella birmanica, Arundinella hookeri, Arundinella nepalensis, Arundinella setosa, Berberis aristata, Berberis asiatica, Bothriochloa intermedia, Bothriochloa ischaemum, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Bromus nepalensis, Calamagrostis emodensis, Calamagrostis epigejos, Calamagrostis pseudophragmites, Capillipedium assimile, Chrysopogon gryllus, Colquhounia coccinea, Cotoneaster microphyllus, Cymbopogon distans, Cymbopogon pendulus, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Dactylis glomerata, Danthonia cumminsii, Deschampsia caespitosa, Desmodium elegans, Deyeuxia scabrescens, Digitaria longiflora, Elymus canaliculatus, Elymus semicostatus, Elymus thomsonii, Eragrostis nigra, Erianthus longesetosus, Eulalia mollis, Eulaliopsis binata, Festuca gigantea, Festuca leptopogon, Festuca modesta, Festuca ovina, Festuca rubra, Festuca wallichiana, Glyceria tonglensis, Hackelochloa granularis, Helictorichon virescens, Helictotrichon asperum, Helictotrichon virescens, Imperata cylindrica, Koeleria cristata, Miscanthus nepalensis, Muhlenbergia duthieana, Muhlenbergia himalayensis, Muhlenbergia huegelii, Oryzopsis lateralis, Pennisetum flaccidum, Phleum alpinum, Poa alpina, Poa angustifolia, Poa annua, Poa pagophila, Poa pratensis, Pogonantherum crinitum, Pteridium acquilinum, Rosa brunonii, Schizachyrium delavayi, Setaria pallidefusca, Stipa roylei, Themeda anathera, Themeda quadrivalvis, Themeda triandra, Trisetum clarkei, Trisetum spicatum. Sub-alpine Agrostis inaequiglumis, Agrostis pilosula, Anthoxanthum hookeri, Artemisia stricta, Bromus grandis, Bromus himalaicus, Calamagrostis pseudophragmites, Calamagrostis emodensis, Chrysopogon gryllus, Cymbopogon schoeanthus, Danthonia cumminsii, Deyeuxia scabrescens, Duthiea nepalensis, Elymus canaliculatus, Elymus dahuricus, Elymus nutans, Elymus schrenkianus, Elymus sibiricus,",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "pallidefusca, Stipa roylei, Themeda anathera, Themeda quadrivalvis, Themeda triandra, Trisetum clarkei, Trisetum spicatum. Sub-alpine Agrostis inaequiglumis, Agrostis pilosula, Anthoxanthum hookeri, Artemisia stricta, Bromus grandis, Bromus himalaicus, Calamagrostis pseudophragmites, Calamagrostis emodensis, Chrysopogon gryllus, Cymbopogon schoeanthus, Danthonia cumminsii, Deyeuxia scabrescens, Duthiea nepalensis, Elymus canaliculatus, Elymus dahuricus, Elymus nutans, Elymus schrenkianus, Elymus sibiricus, Festuca leptopogon, Festuca ovina, Festuca polycolea, Helictotrichon virescens, Koeleria cristata, Pennisetum flaccidum, Poa alpigena, Poa ludens, Stellarea chamaejasme, Stipa consanguinea, Stipa duthiei, Stipa royleii, Stipa sibirica, Stipa staintonii, Trigonella emodi, Trisetum spicatum. Alpine Androsace delavayi, Aster stracheyi, Bistorta vivipara, Carex atrofusca, Cortia depressa, Gernium donianum, Kobresia nelpalensis, Kobresia caricina, Kobresia duthei, Kobresia kanaii, Nardostachys grandiflora, Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Poa pagophila, Potentilla peduncularis, Rheum moocroftianum, Saussurea gossypiphora, Swertia multicaulis. Steppe Agrostis pilosula, Andropogon munroi, Aristida adscensionis, Arthraxon submuticus, Arundinella setosa, Berberis angulosa, Berberis concinna, Bothriochloa intermedia, Bothriochloa pertusa, Bromus grandis, Bromus himalaicus, Bromusporphyranthos, Calamagrostis emodensis, Calamagrostis garhwalensis, Calamagrostis pseudophragmites, Caragana brevifolia, Caragana versicolor, Carex atrata, Cerastostigna ulicinun, Chrysopogon gryllus, Cymbopogon schoeanthus, Cymbopogon strachey, Cymbopogon stracheyi, Danthomia cumminsii, Danthonia cachemyriana, Deyeuxia holciformis, Deyeuxia pulchella, Deyeuxia scabrescens, Elymus canaliculatus, Elymus dahuricus, Elymus schrenkianus, Elymus semicostatus, Eulalia mollis, Festuca ovina, Fimbristylis complanata, Helictotrichon virescens, Indigofera cylindracea, Juniperus indica, Juniperus squamata, Kobresia macrantha, For comment and suggestions: deepakgautamiof@gmail.com Kobresia seticulnis, Koeleria crista, Koeleria cristata, Lespedeza juncea, Medicago falcata, Melica jacquemontii, Melica scaberrima, Oryzopsis lateralis, Pennisetum flaccidum, Poa alpigena, Poa pagophila, Poa poophagorum, Poa pratensis, Potentilla fructicosa, Rhododendron anthopogon, Rhododendron lepitodum, Rhododendron nivale, Rosa sericea, Stipa moocroftiana, Stipa sibirica, Themeda roylei, Themeda triandra, Trisetum aeneum. Sources: Whyte (1968), Field & Pandey (1968), Stainton (1972), Pariyar & Shrestha (1984), Miller (1987), Archer (1990). THE END View publication stats View publication stats View publication stats",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "(1968), Field & Pandey (1968), Stainton (1972), Pariyar & Shrestha (1984), Miller (1987), Archer (1990). THE END View publication stats View publication stats View publication stats",
    "source": "RANGELAND_MANAGEMENT.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Introduction to Soil Science AMBER ANDERSON IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY DIGITAL PRESS AMES, IOWA Introduction to Soil Science Copyright © 2023 by Amber Anderson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. You are free to copy, share, adapt, remix, transform, and build upon the material as long as you follow the terms of the license. This is a publication of the Iowa State University Digital Press 701 Morrill Rd, Ames, IA 50011 https://www.iastatedigitalpress.com digipress@iastate.edu Cover image art was provided by Audrey Jenkins Contents Introduction 1 Getting started Introduction: Function of soils 4 Soil physical properties Soil texture 8 Soil horizons 11 Soil structure 15 Soil color 21 Parent materials 25 Soil development 34 Soil Orders 37 Soil Classification 44 Bulk Density/Idealized soil 46 Soil water Soil water 49 Infiltration and Permeability 53 Soil life Soil organic matter 57 Soil life 61 Soil erosion Soil erosion 67 Soil erosion factors and calculations 72 Erosion control strategies 75 Soil chemistry CEC 81 Soil pH 84 Salts 89 Soil management Soil testing 95 Fertilizer analysis 98 Problem solving 102 Soil input recommendations 105 Soil Fertility Nutrient basics 115 Nitrogen 118 Phosphorus 122 Potassium 125 Micronutrients 128 Case studies Western Iowa hillslope 133 Corn deficiency symptoms 134 Tree with Chlorosis 135 NC Iowa crops 136 Erosion around houses 138 Uganda management challenge 140 Hoop house 141 Soil Geography Geography 144 Cartography and maps 148 Soil geography 152 Mapping methods 157 Soil maps around the world 165 Amber in her preferred habitat. Photo Credit: Lee Burras. Welcome soils students! My name is Amber Anderson, I’m an associate teaching professor at Iowa State University in the Agronomy Department as well as coach of ISU’s soil judging team. I look forward to sharing my knowledge of soils and interacting with those",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "her preferred habitat. Photo Credit: Lee Burras. Welcome soils students! My name is Amber Anderson, I’m an associate teaching professor at Iowa State University in the Agronomy Department as well as coach of ISU’s soil judging team. I look forward to sharing my knowledge of soils and interacting with those of you both at Iowa State University and beyond. To those outside of Iowa State-hope you have a great soils learning experience, and feel free to contact me! I would like to acknowledge the contributions, review, and support of Dr. Lee Burras, Dr. Cole Dutter, Heidi Ackerman, Ala Khaleel, Arturo Flores-Godoy, Hallie Sandeen, Casey Luke, and many others at Iowa State University Department of Agronomy. Thank you to external reviewer Sam Indorante. Cover illustration by Audrey Jenkins. 2 | Introduction Introduction: Function of soils AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Define soil and soil science • Discuss soil functions • Summarize the importance of soil Keywords: ecosystem services, soil science, soil functions We may take what lies below our feet for granted, but soils are critical to our everyday life. From the food we eat, buildings we take refuge within, products we use, even to antibiotics we rely on, soils supply far more than we initially imagine. What is soil? Several definitions exist. We will start with the pair below: “The unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the surface of the Earth that has been subjected to and shows effects of genetic and environmental factors of: climate (including water and temperature effects), and macroand microorganisms, conditioned by relief, acting on parent material over a period of time. A product-soil differs from the material from which it is derived in many physical, chemical, biological, and morphological properties and characteristics.” ― Soil Science Society of America 1 or “Soil is a natural body",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "effects), and macroand microorganisms, conditioned by relief, acting on parent material over a period of time. A product-soil differs from the material from which it is derived in many physical, chemical, biological, and morphological properties and characteristics.” ― Soil Science Society of America 1 or “Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and gases that occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both of the following: horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result of additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy and matter or the ability to support rooted plants in a natural environment.” ― Soil Taxonomy, second edition 2 1. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/edu/?cid=nrcs142p2_054280 2. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/edu/?cid=nrcs142p2_054280 4 | Introduction: Function of soils Clay being harvested near Kamuli, Uganda, is being made into bricks in this oven on site. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. Overall, we see the important components, a medium that supports a variety of functions on which plants and animals rely. These diverse functions can be grouped into a few major categories according to the Soil Science Society of America: products, resources, culture, and environment. 3 Products Straightforward uses like the majority of food production, building materials like clay to make bricks, and unexpected items like many of the antibiotics that we rely on are all derived from the soil. In the case of plant growth, soil provides the physical structure, many nutrients, water, and insulation from changing temperatures that allow for plants to grow and produce. Resources Holding water and carbon are also critical functions of soil. Consider a situation where the soil did not hold water for plant growth. Management and production of crops would suddenly be far more complicated. Carbon is also important within the soil and will be covered",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "to grow and produce. Resources Holding water and carbon are also critical functions of soil. Consider a situation where the soil did not hold water for plant growth. Management and production of crops would suddenly be far more complicated. Carbon is also important within the soil and will be covered in a later chapter of this book. Culture While it might not be obvious, soils are also important for cultural aspects such as recreation. Central campus with its open space for enjoying nice weather, the intramural fields that host a variety of activities, or Reiman Gardens displaying a diversity of plants, flowers and artistic displays, all rely on soil properties and functions to exist. Environment Additional benefits of soil come from the soil’s ability to filter water, hold water to avoid flooding, recycle waste, and other ecological services. A variety of interactions will be covered over the course of this semester. 3. https://www.soils.org/files/science-policy/issues/reports/sssa-soils-eco-serv.pdf Introduction: Function of soils | 5 Soil science, or pedology, is the study of this amazing resource. I’m looking forward to sharing with you this semester, and looking forward to you sharing your observations as well! Check it out! Soils don’t all function the same, even for a similar use, or in a similar area: Soil Your Undies Challenge: Assessing your soil health Marion county, Iowa comparison Key Takeaways • Soils are critical in a variety of different ways • General functions can fall into production, resource, cultural, and environmental categories • Wooo! Soil! Get excited to learn more about soil this semester! 6 | Introduction: Function of soils SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Soil physical properties | 7 Soil texture AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Define soil texture • Match the three major sizes of particles to influences on other soil properties • Given percentages of sand, silt,",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "learn more about soil this semester! 6 | Introduction: Function of soils SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Soil physical properties | 7 Soil texture AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Define soil texture • Match the three major sizes of particles to influences on other soil properties • Given percentages of sand, silt, and clay, provide a textural class • Predict potential management concerns with a given textural class Keywords: Sand, silt, clay texture, textural class Soil particles One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=34#oembed-1 Particle sizes Sand The largest of the fine soil materials since anything larger is considered a rock fragment. Like marbles, these particles don’t fit tightly together, leading to plenty of space for air and water to move through. Normally, this means good drainage and higher gas exchange for roots. Don’t assume that a sandy soil will be dry though, as even a sandy soil at the water table will have water-filled pores. Think of a beach when the tide is high; the sand is wet or under water, but when the tide goes out, the sand can quickly drain. Silt These are medium-sized particles, that generally feel soft and like flour. While they are considered more erodible and low strength for building purposes, they are generally favorable for plant growth. A higher percentage of water held in this soil is available for plants, and these are normally younger soils with weatherable minerals to provide some fertility for plant growth. Erosion can be a significant challenge to manage in a high-silt soil. 8 | Soil texture Clay These are the smallest particles, and generally feel ‘sticky’ to the touch. The surface area per gram is significantly higher than sand, leading to more ability to interact",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "some fertility for plant growth. Erosion can be a significant challenge to manage in a high-silt soil. 8 | Soil texture Clay These are the smallest particles, and generally feel ‘sticky’ to the touch. The surface area per gram is significantly higher than sand, leading to more ability to interact with other things in the soil, such as water. Think of clay more like sheets of paper in a book; there is a lot of surface area in a given weight or volume and it would take a long time to dry out or move water through. While they hold significant amounts of water, not all is available for plant uptake. Timing field operations, providing aeration, and improving drainage can all be challenging aspects in a clay soil. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=34#h5p-1 Textural Class Textural classes group soils with similar sand, silt, and clay amounts into categories that help with management decisions. While we may say ‘clay’ as a particle, a ‘clay texture’ requires over 40% of the soil to be in the clay-sized particle range. Generally, the most important word for management is last, with modifiers added to the front. For example, consider a sand, loamy sand, and a sandy loam. Following the axis at the bottom of the triangle, we see that a sand needs at least 85% sand, whereas a loamy sand needs 70% and a sandy loam could have as low as 45% sand if it also has low clay. We would therefore expect the management challenges associated with the sand-sized particle, like low water holding capacity, to be most limiting in a sand, followed by a loamy sand, and then a sandy loam. One or more interactive elements has",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "low as 45% sand if it also has low clay. We would therefore expect the management challenges associated with the sand-sized particle, like low water holding capacity, to be most limiting in a sand, followed by a loamy sand, and then a sandy loam. One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=34#oembed-2 Links to Learn More Visit the NRCS Soil Texture Calculator to calculate a single point texture for soil class based on the percent of sand, silt, and clay. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=34#h5p-2 Soil texture | 9 Key Takeaways • Particles are grouped into sizes: sand, silt, and clay • Each particle is associated with different soil functions or properties ◦ Sand is associated with high aeration, low water and nutrient holding capacities ◦ Silt associated with low strength and high erodibility, but high available water ◦ Clay is associated with high nutrient and water holding capacity, low aeration • Texture is an important factor for determine function and management challenges for a soil 10 | Soil texture Soil horizons AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Match soil horizons with processes occurring within the zone • Identify horizons given characteristics • Predict potential management or use challenges based upon given horizon sequence Keywords: Horizons, development, subhorizons Horizons One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=126#oembed-1 Horizon overview An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=126#h5p-5 An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=126#h5p-3 Soil",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=126#oembed-1 Horizon overview An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=126#h5p-5 An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=126#h5p-3 Soil horizons | 11 Illustration by Madeline Schill. 2021 in Soils-Iowa’s Nature Series. Transition horizons Sometimes a layer is not clearly one process or another, but rather where two are combining. These are called transitional horizons, and indicated by two capital letters like AB or BA. The first of the two is the more dominant of the two processes. A similar-looking notation but with an added /, like E/B or B/E mean that there are distinct areas of each in the layer rather than a smooth transition. Check it out! Visit the NRCS Official soil series description page to find a soil series description and the horizons found in that soil. Hint: see if your name or home town/favorite town in the US have their own soil series 12 | Soil horizons Subhorizons Additional lowercase letters are used to further differentiate horizons. One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=126#oembed-2 Check it out! Descriptions of all horizons and subhorizons used in NRCS classifications can be found on page 46–51 in this reference. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=126#h5p-4 Numbering In order to distinguish one horizon from another, numbers at the end indicate multiple of the same zone, split by other differences like structure, redox features, or color. Numbers at the beginning of the horizon indicate it is part of a different deposit or parent",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=126#h5p-4 Numbering In order to distinguish one horizon from another, numbers at the end indicate multiple of the same zone, split by other differences like structure, redox features, or color. Numbers at the beginning of the horizon indicate it is part of a different deposit or parent material. Because we might not know how many exist or be able to dig down far enough to find all parent materials, we start numbering from the surface even though the older deposit is on the bottom. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=126#h5p-10 Soil horizons | 13 Key Takeaways Takeaways: • Horizons are general concepts used to describe the major process(es) happening in the layer • Not all horizons are found in every soil, sometimes multiple of the same horizon are found in one profile 14 | Soil horizons Even in the same soil or area, management practices can influence structure. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge. Soil structure AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Identify soil structures and factors influencing their development • Predict what structure might be present given additional information such as soil conditions or horizon • Explain how structure may impact plant growth or other soil functions • Predict how management factors might impact structure Keywords: Structure, aggregation, granular, platy, blocky, prismatic, columnar, massive Structure Soil structure is the shape in which soil particles group together and form aggregates. A soil aggregate, or conglomerate of sand, silt, clay, and sometimes organic material, may be a variety of different shapes. Structure is important because it allows critical areas of open space, vital for water to move, roots to grow, and soil organisms. Consider a classroom or the space in which you are currently",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "or conglomerate of sand, silt, clay, and sometimes organic material, may be a variety of different shapes. Structure is important because it allows critical areas of open space, vital for water to move, roots to grow, and soil organisms. Consider a classroom or the space in which you are currently viewing this: when the materials are put together effectively, it allows space for interactions. If only a pile of building materials, the space doesn’t serve the same function. One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/ introsoilscience/?p=22#oembed-1 Factors influencing aggregation A variety of factors influence how soil particles aggregate or group together. Biological activity, organic Soil structure | 15 addition, wetting/drying cycles, freezing/thawing cycles would be expected to increase aggregation, whereas tillage, compaction, and chemical properties such as sodium would decrease aggregation. Shapes Granular These rounded groups of particles don’t pack together well, allowing more space for water to move through. They are most commonly found in A horizons with higher levels of organic matter, healthy root growth, without significant compaction. This forest A horizon has primarily granular structure, with a few small blocks. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Platy Commonly found in E horizons, the natural breaks in this soil are horizontal rather than vertical. These are easily destroyed by tillage. Note that this is different from ‘plates’ formed by operating equipment when a soil is wet. Although they look somewhat similar, this structure is naturally formed over time. Although fragile, platy structure can be seen here, especially around 7-8 cm as the lines in the soil run horizontally rather than vertically. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge 16 | Soil structure Blocky Blocky structural units are common to find in a B",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "is naturally formed over time. Although fragile, platy structure can be seen here, especially around 7-8 cm as the lines in the soil run horizontally rather than vertically. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge 16 | Soil structure Blocky Blocky structural units are common to find in a B horizon or cultivated A horizon. They can be grouped by either angular blocky having sharp angles likely found in higher-clay soils, or subangular blocky, the more rounded corners. The impact of tillage can be seen here, with more blocky structure found in the right, cultivated core, while more granular structure is found on the left core, taken from a permanent pasture area. Photo credit Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Prismatic These have longer natural breaks vertically in the soil rather than horizontally. As was the case with this large prism in the photo, they are generally found in B horizons. Water and roots in this soil will likely move preferentially through the breaks between these units. A very large prismatic structural unit found in NW Minnesota. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge. Soil structure | 17 Columnar structure on a sodium-impacted soil in South Dakota. Significant sodium accumulation above the orange nail, around 25 cm of depth. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Columnar Columnar are a special type of structure created when sodium impacts a prismatic structure. A ‘muffin top’ or ‘popcorn’ looking appearance on the top of a prism develops from sodium dispersing particles. These are agronomically challenging soils to manage. Both water and roots will likely have problems moving through this soil easily. 18 | Soil structure Massive or Single grained These units of ‘non structure’ indicates there has been limited changes to this soil since deposition. In glacial till materials, a large piece will",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "agronomically challenging soils to manage. Both water and roots will likely have problems moving through this soil easily. 18 | Soil structure Massive or Single grained These units of ‘non structure’ indicates there has been limited changes to this soil since deposition. In glacial till materials, a large piece will likely break between the points of pressure applied, rather than falling apart on pre-determined lines. A midwestern soil at perhaps five feet of depth may not have developed structure because this takes something acting on it. Roots, freeze-thaw, wetting-drying and other factors are less active here, slowing down changes. This soil has been recently deposited, and has not had time for structure to develop, so would be classified as massive. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge For single-grained soils, a lack of fine particles or organic matter means that there are not significant forces to hold sand grains together. This is an effect you may have seen in a sandbox or beach, as a small disturbance will cause the sand to fall apart to individual grains. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=22#h5p-6 Soil structure | 19 Management Impacts Since plant growth tends to increase soil structure, more plant growth tends to lead to a better structure. In prairie ecosystems, a strong granular structure is expected. Tillage can have negative impacts on soil structure, particularly when done in poor (generally too wet) conditions. Consider the building construction of the earlier example in this discussion. When being built from that pile of building materials, a wall is removed or damaged, so this must be rebuilt first, slowing down progress. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "construction of the earlier example in this discussion. When being built from that pile of building materials, a wall is removed or damaged, so this must be rebuilt first, slowing down progress. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=22#h5p-7 Key Takeaways • Structure is important as it indicates the arrangement of soil particles • Soil structure can change over time due to changing conditions or disturbance • A variety of shapes exist, these tell you where water and roots are likely to move along those natural breaks • Management has an impact on soil structure 20 | Soil structure Unique soil colors found in Tennessee. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Soil color AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Identify major factors contributing to soil color • Outline how to use a munsell soil color book • Use the soil color to potential challenges to management for a given use Keywords: Color, hue, value, chroma, Munsell soil color book, redox features Soil color is one of the first properties many people identify when asked to describe a soil. Although we may think of it as uniform, soil color can change quickly, both when moving down into the soil and across the landscape. These changes can be indicators of important processes happening in the soil. For example, grey colors may indicate wetness, and it therefore may not be a good place to construct a basement. Major factors contributing to soil color include accumulation of organic material and accumulation of materials. This is described in more detail below. Accumulation of organic material Accumulation of organic material turns the soil darker, as is commonly found in the surface layers. This may be several feet in some prairie-derived soils as pictured",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "to soil color include accumulation of organic material and accumulation of materials. This is described in more detail below. Accumulation of organic material Accumulation of organic material turns the soil darker, as is commonly found in the surface layers. This may be several feet in some prairie-derived soils as pictured to the left, or even the whole visible depth, especially in cases like a floodplain or footslope receiving additional materials. Soil color | 21 This image and the one to the right show a large accumulation of organic matter in the top horizon. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Strong redox features are present in this ped. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Redox reactions Redox, short for reduction-oxidation, is due to changes in soil oxygen levels, generally from having water-filled pores rather than air-filled pores. Oxygen diffuses slowly through standing water, and microbial activity can use up existing supplies causing reduced or anaerobic conditions. If the reduced iron reaches oxygen, like a root channel or near the top of the water table, it will oxidize, creating a red spot in the soil. These spots are visible even in dry conditions, providing a record of normal conditions, regardless of recent rainfall. 22 | Soil color Accumulation of materials Accumulations of materials, such as calcium or gypsum, can also color soil in certain circumstances. In the case of calcium or gypsum, white colors appear, frequently in the B horizon in semi-arid conditions or places on the landscape where water moves in carrying calcium, gypsum, or other salts, and evaporates off. Since the salts cannot evaporate, they remain in the soil. White calcium accumulation in the B horizon of a Kansas soil. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge In semi-arid regions, rainfall is sufficient to carry materials, such as calcium, out of",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "calcium, gypsum, or other salts, and evaporates off. Since the salts cannot evaporate, they remain in the soil. White calcium accumulation in the B horizon of a Kansas soil. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge In semi-arid regions, rainfall is sufficient to carry materials, such as calcium, out of the surface layer, but insufficient to leach materials completely out of the profile, leading to an accumulation generally in the B horizon. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=36#h5p-8 Soil color | 23 Holding a ped under the Munsell Soil Color Book helps identify the color of the soil, as demonstrated in the pictures. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Munsell soil color book Since simple color description works like “dark” or “red” won’t mean the same thing to different people, soil scientists use a standard notation to indicate a soil’s color. Soil color is formatted this way: Page/Value/Chroma Example: 10YR 2/1 • Page: mix of colors or hue • Value: lightness or darkness • Chroma: intensity How to use a Munsell Soil Color book One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=36 Key Takeaways • Color is important as it indicates potential processes occurring in the soil • Accumulations of material, redox reactions, and minerology impact observed colors • The Munsell soil color book is a tool used to standardize soil color across locations 24 | Soil color Parent materials AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Match depositional forces and the resulting material/properties • Predict properties of an area based upon parent materials • Identify potential management challenges based upon a given parent material Keywords: Parent material, glacial till, outwash, alluvium, lacustrine, marine,",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "across locations 24 | Soil color Parent materials AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Match depositional forces and the resulting material/properties • Predict properties of an area based upon parent materials • Identify potential management challenges based upon a given parent material Keywords: Parent material, glacial till, outwash, alluvium, lacustrine, marine, colluvium, loess, aeolian sand, residuum Parent material A parent material is the substance in which a soil develops. The properties of the original substance will significantly influence the resulting soil profile and properties. Transporting forces Several different forces transport materials to the places we find them today. Sometimes, multiple forces combined to deposit the material, such as ice or gravity plus water. Other times, one force deposited a new material on top of an existing, like loess over glacial till, or alluvium over other material. High-energy transporters, like ice, don’t sort the particles as low-energy transporters, like water and wind. Therefore, low-energy transported materials tend to be well-sorted, whereas high-energy transported materials tend to be unsorted. Ice During past ice ages, parts of the central US were covered in thick sheets of ice. The massive weight and power of these sheets ground down bedrock in Canada, transporting both small particles and huge boulders. This history of material deposition, along with the following prairie vegetation, have given Iowa the fertile soils present today. Parent materials | 25 This glacial-till derived slope has exposed rocks on a rolling landscape in NW Iowa. Photo credit Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Outwash profile in Northwest Iowa Close up of outwash profile, Northwest Iowa. Photo credits: Amber Anderson. Glacial Till This material was both carried and deposited by ice. Glaciers covered much of the northern part of the United States, and down into the Northeast corner of Kansas and northern part of Missouri in the",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Northwest Iowa Close up of outwash profile, Northwest Iowa. Photo credits: Amber Anderson. Glacial Till This material was both carried and deposited by ice. Glaciers covered much of the northern part of the United States, and down into the Northeast corner of Kansas and northern part of Missouri in the central US. Since the ice crossed a variety of bedrock on its trip, these materials usually contain loamy textures (indicating mixed sand, silt, and clay), as well as assorted shapes, colors, and sizes of rocks. Management concerns could be related to the rock fragments found in the material. Glacial Outwash This material was carried by ice but sorted by water as it was rushing out of the glacier. Small particles that could stay suspended in water, like silts and clays, were washed away. Larger particles, like sands and gravels, were sorted and deposited at the edge of the current glacier. Management concerns may include low water or nutrient holding capacity. Deposits of outwash can be found across the same region as glacial till, but in pockets or slopes across rather than across a widespread area. 26 | Parent materials Water The alternating horizon color shows that water was a transporting force in this soil. Photo Credits Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Water is considered a low-energy transporter, leading to sorted materials. These could be coarse or fine. These might have alternating layers if periods of high and low flow normally occur. Alluvium Alluvium deposits are formed from running water, as might be found next to a river. Since the size of the material potentially transported is highly dependent on the speed or energy of the water, these are well sorted materials. They can also change in short distances both vertically or horizontally, as rivers may move or carry different amounts",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "might be found next to a river. Since the size of the material potentially transported is highly dependent on the speed or energy of the water, these are well sorted materials. They can also change in short distances both vertically or horizontally, as rivers may move or carry different amounts of water over time. Alluvial deposits can be found near streams or sometimes upland drainageways, generally on the flat part of the landscape or steps above the stream or channel. Management concerns could include active flooding or may differ in short distances across the field. Parent materials | 27 This soil, found on the Kansas river flood plain, shows significant recent deposits burying the prior surface. These materials are relatively unchanged since deposition. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson Stony alluvium in Costa Rica indicates very fast-moving water when these were deposited. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. Pictured is an example of lacustrine parent materials. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Lacustrine Lacustrine materials were deposited in lake environments. Since these were former lake beds, they tend to occur on lower parts of the landscape and be relatively flat. Rivers flowing into lakes may be carrying significant sediment, but larger materials are dropped as soon as the water enters the lake and slows. Therefore, lacustrine deposits are generally composed of smaller particles, such as silts and clays. As water flowing into the lake has periods of higher and lower flow, small alternating layers can frequently be found in the C horizon of these deposits as can be seen in the photo. Management concerns are likely related to the fine textures and low/wet part of the landscape. 28 | Parent materials Recent colluvium in Ames, IA, due to destabilization of the soil surface above this location. Photo credit Amber Anderson. Marine This marine-derived",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "these deposits as can be seen in the photo. Management concerns are likely related to the fine textures and low/wet part of the landscape. 28 | Parent materials Recent colluvium in Ames, IA, due to destabilization of the soil surface above this location. Photo credit Amber Anderson. Marine This marine-derived soil profile was found in Arkansas. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge These deposits are found along former coastal areas, not necessarily where coasts exist today. Fertility may be a concern since materials remaining after water movement may be high in resistant minerals like quartz, which is low in weatherable plant nutrients. Gravity Colluvium Colluvium is highly variable, as it depends what was uphill at the time of deposition. These are most commonly found on current or former footslopes, where material slowed down due to the decrease in slope. Management concerns may be stability of the landscape or vary based upon the uphill material’s properties. Parent materials | 29 Loess showing irregular erosion pattern as water moves through a surface small feature, like animal burrow, and removes additional material. Locally, near Maywood, Nebraska, these were called ‘jugs’ and were indicated to get ‘large enough to swallow a side by side or horse’. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. Thick loess exposure found in western Iowa south of Sioux City. Photo credit: Amber Anderson Wind Wind has shaped this landscape next to the Platte River, near Grand Rapids, NE. Photo credit: Amber Anderson Loess Loess is wind-blown silt materials. Western Iowa is known as one of the deepest accumulations of this material, in the Loess Hills. These deposits are generally both fertile and highly erodible, leading to need for careful management. As one moves away from the source, the depth thins and the texture becomes finer. Across the state of Iowa, this",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "known as one of the deepest accumulations of this material, in the Loess Hills. These deposits are generally both fertile and highly erodible, leading to need for careful management. As one moves away from the source, the depth thins and the texture becomes finer. Across the state of Iowa, this means a shift from over 100 feet to just a few feet, while the texture shifts from silt loams to silty clay loam textures. The material may appear slightly yellow, as seen in the photo. 30 | Parent materials Aeolian sand bedding layers, found in Nebraska. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. Aeolian deposits rising above the flatter floodplain of the Platte River near Grand Rapids, NE. Photo credit: Amber Anderson Aeolian Sand Aeolian sand can be found downwind of a source, such as near a sediment heavy river, especially during periods of low water flow when the sediments would be exposed. These are generally found closer to the source, and are fine sands rather than larger or mixed sands, due to the weight of the sands-coarse sands being too heavy to transport in the wind column. Parent materials | 31 This profile in Southern Ghana is due to weathering of bedrock, in spite of no bedrock physically being present within visible depth. Photo credit: Andrew Manu. This shallow profile in Northern Kansas was not able to be dug more than 2 feet thick due to the solid bedrock underneath. The upper part of the profile was derived from the underlying sedimentary bedrock. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Residuum Soils with a parent material of residuum form into bedrock that was brought to the surface. In some cases, that may be at significant depths as in highly weathered tropical conditions found in the picture (left). In conditions where less weathering has occurred, it",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "bedrock. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Residuum Soils with a parent material of residuum form into bedrock that was brought to the surface. In some cases, that may be at significant depths as in highly weathered tropical conditions found in the picture (left). In conditions where less weathering has occurred, it may be found at shallow depths. Properties are based upon the original parent material properties, like sandstone resulting in a soil with low water and nutrient holding capacity, but high aeration. 32 | Parent materials Organic accumulation Occasionally noted in soil descriptions, some surface materials are due to organic accumulation. This may occur when anaerobic conditions have prevented decomposition at a rate equal to plant production. If drained, as in the picture on the right, decomposition can occur and subsidence may be a significant concern. Found in a lacustrine area in NE Minnesota, the upper portion of this profile is organic accumulation due to previous lack of decomposition. In some cases, this can be tens of feet thick, and be the primary material into which a soil can develop. This area was drained for peat harvest. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Key Takeaways • Soil materials can be deposited by a variety of forces under different conditions • Depositional differences (high energy, low energy) influence the resulting soil properties • Parent material properties can significantly influence management concerns Parent materials | 33 Soil development AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Identify soil forming factors • Relate factors to increased or decreased rate of soil development • Predict how soil profiles change over time or space Keywords: weathering, soil forming factors, material, topography, organisms, climate, time Soil Development Soil develop, or weathering, is the amount of change that has occurred since the material was originally deposited. In order to get",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "or decreased rate of soil development • Predict how soil profiles change over time or space Keywords: weathering, soil forming factors, material, topography, organisms, climate, time Soil Development Soil develop, or weathering, is the amount of change that has occurred since the material was originally deposited. In order to get change, energy is put in, materials are added or taken away. Rainfall moving through the soil may carry away calcium; plant growth may add organic material to the soil; biological as well as physical interactions change the soil structure; clays may accumulate or break down. Factors A variety of factors influence the amount of change that has occurred since deposition. Generally referred to as soil forming factors, the following five aspects of a soil’s history significantly influence what it looks like today. One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=40 Material The type of material makes a significant difference in the rate of development. One example is a loose material, like glacial till, compared to a shale bedrock. As the material receives rainfall, water can move into the loose material, whereas the shale will take first breaking up the material before it can start the same process. Water can move most easily through (and therefore change) sands most easily, then other 34 | Soil development loose materials, then a loosely cemented material (like sedimentary sandstone), and very hard materials (like slate) will be slowest to change, given identical other factors. Topography While material may be consistent across an area, the same hillslope will not develop or change at the same rate. Stable upper parts of the landscape will have water moving through them, changing the profile (moving or transforming clays, carbonates, etc), and the organic-rich surface or",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "identical other factors. Topography While material may be consistent across an area, the same hillslope will not develop or change at the same rate. Stable upper parts of the landscape will have water moving through them, changing the profile (moving or transforming clays, carbonates, etc), and the organic-rich surface or residues are likely to stay in place. In the steeper slopes, water may run off or erosion may remove the top layer of soil. Additionally, low parts of the landscape may receive deposits from above (erosion) or below (flooding) and then need to start developing or changing those materials. Therefore, holding other factors equal, we see the most development on the stable upper portion of the landscape. Organisms (including humans) Organisms can have a significant impact on changes. In former prairie regions, like across Iowa, areas where prairie dominated have or had A horizons of significant thickness with less developed B horizons, whereas areas where trees dominated are more likely to have an O-A-E-Bt or A-E-Bt horizon sequence. Humans drastically alter the landscape and soil processes as well, moving A material, removing cover that significantly increases the rate of erosion, compacting soil (on purpose for structural support or unintentionally), to name a few. Climate Since energy to change a soil and reactions require both moisture and warmth, warmer and wetter conditions lead to more development. Changes are slow or non-existent if the soil is in a frozen state-as water can’t move through, biological activity is minimal, and chemical reactivity is generally decreased. Time As one might expect, more time since deposition means more time for changes to occur. Therefore, time is a significant factor, with more time leading to more development if other factors are the same. Soil development | 35 Key Takeaways • Soils change over time • The",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "generally decreased. Time As one might expect, more time since deposition means more time for changes to occur. Therefore, time is a significant factor, with more time leading to more development if other factors are the same. Soil development | 35 Key Takeaways • Soils change over time • The five major soil forming factors that influence soil development are parent material, topography, organisms, climate, and time 36 | Soil development Photo Credit: Amber Anderson Soil Orders AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Distinguish basic features of the 12 NRCS soil orders Keywords: classification, soil order NRCS Soil Taxonomy This system organizes soils into twelve major groups, or orders, that each end in -sol. Orders are determined by major climate factors, dominant materials, or degree of weathering. Underlined letters are what is used to indicate that order in further classification. US map of soil order extent One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=42#oembed-1 Gelisol These soils, found under permafrost conditions, have unique features from the freeze-thaw cycles. They are quite challenging to build on, but interestingly, can have organic accumulations due to slow decomposition. Cold temperatures are the most limiting factor for plant growth. Soil Orders | 37 Histosol These soils form when organic matter accumulates rather than decaying. Common areas to find them include saturated conditions, where organic matter is unable to decompose due to anaerobic conditions. Northeast Minnesota contains some of these soils, as does parts of Florida. Histosol in NE Minnesota in a lacustrine area. This area had been drained for peat harvest, would otherwise be submerged. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Limitations for plant growth are likely whatever is slowing organic matter decomposition, like an extremely shallow water table. 38 |",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "parts of Florida. Histosol in NE Minnesota in a lacustrine area. This area had been drained for peat harvest, would otherwise be submerged. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Limitations for plant growth are likely whatever is slowing organic matter decomposition, like an extremely shallow water table. 38 | Soil Orders Amber examining an Oxisol in Southern Ghana Photo Credit: Andrew Manu. Click to enlarge Spodisol Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge These soils are formed from organic matter complex with a metal like aluminum and move down in the profile. They are found under conditions that allow for movement-generally under acidic vegetation and sandier or coarse materials. In the US, these are found in the Northeast, Northern WI and MI, as well as parts of Florida. Challenges for management are likely fertility. Andisol This organic vegetable farm is on volcanic ash in Costa Rica, a volcanically active area. Click to enlarge These soils are derived from volcanic ash, giving them unique structural and chemical properties. They are quite stable (see farm in picture found in Costa Rica), until saturated. The amorphous crystal structure also changes chemical and physical properties. In the US, these are found in the Pacific Northwest. Oxisol Deeply weathered and dominated by iron and other resistant minerals, these soils are only found in the most weathered conditions on Earth-near the tropics where warm and wet conditions dominate along with long-term stability in the soil surface. These soils can have meters and meters of B horizon materials, with no C or R within diggable depths. Fertility is more dependent upon the rapid decomposition of the prior crops than the soil releasing weatherable minerals. Soil Orders | 39 Vertisol ISU soil judgers examining a vertisol in Southern California near San Luis Obispo. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson.",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "horizon materials, with no C or R within diggable depths. Fertility is more dependent upon the rapid decomposition of the prior crops than the soil releasing weatherable minerals. Soil Orders | 39 Vertisol ISU soil judgers examining a vertisol in Southern California near San Luis Obispo. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Vertisols are challenging soils to manage. Composed of high amounts of shrink-swell clays, these soils crack when dry, and swell up when wet. This can crack roads or foundations built upon these soils without proper precautions. Fenceposts in the picture are tilted, in spite of it being a recent installation. Field operations have a narrow window between too wet and too dry. If excavating, these are also unstable, so should be shallow with wide access. 40 | Soil Orders Aridisol This aridisol in Southern California has significant calcium carbonate accumulation, cementing soil particles together. Unconsolidated soil can be seen under this cemented layer. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge These are soils in arid conditions that contain developed features (not shifting sands). The low rainfall means materials can accumulate, such as the significant amounts of calcium found in this example. Water is the primary limiting factor for plant growth in these soils. In the US, these are found in the Southwest. Ultisol This soil near Martin, Tennessee, shows characteristic red colors common with more red soils, along with having the base saturation needed to be characterized as an ultisol. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge These are highly weathered soils, but not to the extent found in the tropics. They have low base saturation (associated with low fertility) and have many of their weatherable minerals removed. In the US, these are found dominantly across the Southeastern states. Soil Orders | 41 This soil face has",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "These are highly weathered soils, but not to the extent found in the tropics. They have low base saturation (associated with low fertility) and have many of their weatherable minerals removed. In the US, these are found dominantly across the Southeastern states. Soil Orders | 41 This soil face has young development , it also shows weak development in the lower profile. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Mollisol This central Iowa soil has almost 80 cm of dark soil (far more than minimum for a Mollisol) before redox features are visible. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge These soils are characterized by the depth and color of the A horizon, as an indicator of organic matter accumulation. Found dominantly under areas with prairie as their native vegetation, these soils are generally quite fertile. Limiting factors for crop growth may be wetness or limited growing season. Across the US, these are found across the great plains region. In most cases, 25 cm of colors with value and chroma 3 or less are required, along with high base saturation. Alfisol This soil face shows both an E and Bt horizon, indicating a movement of clay from the upper portion to the lower. Photo Credit Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge These soils generally have a Bt horizon, but still a high base saturation, generally associated with higher fertility. They generally have an E and Bt horizon, indicating a movement of clay from the upper portion to the lower. If under an established forest, they may also have an O horizon. Inceptisol These soils are young, but show some development. They normally have an ABw-C or similar horizonation, showing weak development in the lower profile. These may be found on stream terraces, where soils are fairly young, but no longer being",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "an established forest, they may also have an O horizon. Inceptisol These soils are young, but show some development. They normally have an ABw-C or similar horizonation, showing weak development in the lower profile. These may be found on stream terraces, where soils are fairly young, but no longer being flooded. They also may be found in areas that lack sufficient rainfall, time, or temp to have changed the soil from the time of the last deposit. 42 | Soil Orders This soil, found on the Kansas river flood plain, shows significant recent deposits burying the prior surface. These materials are relatively unchanged since deposition. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson This soil, found at the base of a hill in Iowa, shows evidence of recent instability uphill, as the surface 25-30 cm are on top of the prior surface. Photo credit: Amber Anderson Entisol These are underdeveloped soils. Recent deposition or instability mean that the soil hasn’t had enough time to change since deposition. These are common along flood plains, and can be found in other unstable areas, where erosion or deposition has removed the prior soil horizons. Key Takeaways • 12 major soil orders exist in the US system of soil taxonomy, by either degree of development or special cases • These broad categories are based upon degree of weathering (change from when deposited) or special circumstances. Soil Orders | 43 Soil Classification AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Understand structure of both NRCS and FAO classification systems • Discuss major soils features given a classification at the great group or subgroup level Keywords: classification, soil order, suborder, great group, subgroup, reference soil groups Classification As for classification systems of living organisms, classification for soils helps organize our knowledge and communicate important information. Different systems have been developed in different countries,",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "soils features given a classification at the great group or subgroup level Keywords: classification, soil order, suborder, great group, subgroup, reference soil groups Classification As for classification systems of living organisms, classification for soils helps organize our knowledge and communicate important information. Different systems have been developed in different countries, so in this section we will cover the basics of the classification system commonly used in the US, as well as the younger world reference base classification. Using the system This system works on the first-fall out principle, accept whatever order you cannot reject first when moving down the list as ordered above. • Order-most broad group, 12 options (ex: Mollisol, Entisol) • Suborder-adds one more distinct trait, usually related to water/climate (ex: udoll, aquent) • Great group-adds another trait for a total of three syllables (ex: hapludoll, fluvaquent) • Subgroup– additional trait (ex: Typic Hapludoll, Aeric Fluvaquent) • Family-adds temperature, mineralogy, and textural info (Fine-loamy, mixed, superactive, mesic Typic Hapludolls) • Series-locally described soil with a range of properties and horizons within a described range: (ex: A Clarion series is a Fine-loamy, mixed, superactive, mesic Typic Hapludoll) One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=276#oembed-1 44 | Soil Classification World Reference Base Classification system View full WRB documentation and versions here The international classification system, developed more recently than the NRCS system, to create an ‘international units’ for communicating soil properties globally. This system incorporates aspects of several national systems, including the US and Russian systems. Instead of soil orders, 32 reference soil groups (RSG) are used instead of soil orders. Principal and supplementary qualifiers are used to communicate additional information. Key Takeaways • Soils are classified by major features, generally that impact management • Classification",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "of several national systems, including the US and Russian systems. Instead of soil orders, 32 reference soil groups (RSG) are used instead of soil orders. Principal and supplementary qualifiers are used to communicate additional information. Key Takeaways • Soils are classified by major features, generally that impact management • Classification helps us to communicate significant amounts of information quickly Soil Classification | 45 Bulk Density/Idealized soil AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Identify what components might be found in an idealized soil • Discuss impacts of compaction and management • Calculate bulk density when given appropriate measurements Keywords: bulk density, compaction, available water, unavailable water, pore space Idealized soil One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=399#oembed-1 Bulk Density Bulk Density is the oven dry weight of the soil over the total volume of the soil. Since we expect particle density to be somewhere around 2.65 grams/cm3, in an idealized situation with 50% pore space, we would expect bulk density to be about half of that value. Bulk densities significantly higher slow or stop root growth. One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=399#oembed-2 Compaction One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=399#oembed-3 46 | Bulk Density/Idealized soil Key Takeaways • An idealized soil has a balance of pore space filled with air, available, and unavailable water • Compaction has a variety of negative impacts if managing for plant growth • Bulk density is a measurement of soil density, and high values may be helpful for building but stop plant growth Bulk Density/Idealized soil | 47 Soil water AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "air, available, and unavailable water • Compaction has a variety of negative impacts if managing for plant growth • Bulk density is a measurement of soil density, and high values may be helpful for building but stop plant growth Bulk Density/Idealized soil | 47 Soil water AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Describe where water is held in the soil • Match water potentials to plant growth conditions • Discuss factors involved in water movement into and throughout the soil • Predict how water will move given soil conditions or properties Keywords: saturation, field capacity, wilting point, air dry, oven dry, hygroscopic water, capillary water, available water, unavailable water Overview Water interacts with soil in a variety of different important ways, from storage and plant uptake to impacts on soil strength characteristics. Water for plant growth Water storage within the films around soil particles are critical for storing water for future plant growth. Not all water is held at equal tensions. Soil water | 49 Soil moisture curve, Colby Moorberg and David Crouse, 2021 Saturation Saturation is reached when all pores are fill with water, both microand macropores, and there is no space available for air. It becomes problematic when the condition stays for long because plant roots need oxygen to function. In terms of soil properties, saturation affects soil strength and makes it more susceptible to degradation through compaction or water erosion. Saturated conditions may exist below the water table low on the landscape, or higher on the landscape when drainage is impeded. Closed depressions on the top of the landscape can also have saturated conditions, as it receives water from the surrounding area. Water here is held at a soil moisture tension of zero. Field Capacity Field Capacity is reached 24 to 48 hours after soil is saturated, assuming",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "drainage is impeded. Closed depressions on the top of the landscape can also have saturated conditions, as it receives water from the surrounding area. Water here is held at a soil moisture tension of zero. Field Capacity Field Capacity is reached 24 to 48 hours after soil is saturated, assuming that no more water is added into the system, and gravitational water has already been freely drained. At this point macropores contain air and micropores contain water. Soil particles have a thick film surrounding them and can be removed by plant roots with little energy. Water is held at a tension of -1/10 to -1/3 bar or -10 to -40 kPa. Wilting point or wilting coefficient The Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) is reached when water is strongly held by soil particles that plant roots are no longer able to absorb it. At this point, the retention forces exceed the suction force of roots. If plants experience this condition for long time, they start losing turgor, they wilt and may cause irreversible 50 | Soil water damages if moisture is not increased. Soil particles are still surrounded by a thin film of moisture, but it does not move as easily as before. Water here is held with a tension of about -15 bars or about -1500 kPa. Air dry When no more water is entering the system after reaching PWP, water slowly evaporates because of the impact of environmental conditions (e.g., heat and wind). The thin film of water that was previously coating particles, still remains but keeps getting thinner, increasing even more the attraction force between soil colloids and water molecules. Soil is said to reach ‘air dry moisture content’ when it is exposed to the environment, and it has decreased its moisture content to suction forces of around -30",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "previously coating particles, still remains but keeps getting thinner, increasing even more the attraction force between soil colloids and water molecules. Soil is said to reach ‘air dry moisture content’ when it is exposed to the environment, and it has decreased its moisture content to suction forces of around -30 bars or -3000 kPa. There is no need to say that this moisture content is not readily available and can cause detrimental effects on plant growth. Oven dry ‘Oven dry moisture’ exists when extra energy is applied to detach the last water molecules and the remaining ones can be held at up to -10,000 kPa.This extra energy can be present in different forms, such as extra heat and low relative humidity. Soil at this point will be so depleted of moisture that little water films exist and colloids harden as the cohesion forces of soil increase. If an oven-dry soil is placed in ambient air, it can pull water vapor from the atmosphere to compensate the free extra charges existing in the soil colloids. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=441#h5p-21 Types of water • Gravitational or free water: This water moves in response to gravity and isn’t held in the soil (free drainage water). • Capillary water: This water moves around in films, generally from field capacity until air dry. • Hygroscopic water: This water is held the most tightly, find it between air and oven dry. • Available water: Plants can use this water, held between field capacity and permanent wilting point. • Unavailable water: This is water held more tightly than the wilting point, it is unavailable for plant growth. Soil water | 51 An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "dry. • Available water: Plants can use this water, held between field capacity and permanent wilting point. • Unavailable water: This is water held more tightly than the wilting point, it is unavailable for plant growth. Soil water | 51 An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=441#h5p-20 Forces in soil (potentials) • Gravitational potential results from gravity pulling down on the water. Gravity pulling the water downward must be countered by the soil forces to keep water from all draining out of a soil. • Matric potential results from the soil forces pulling on the water. Plants must overcome this potential to uptake water. • Osmotic potential results from solutes in the water. Higher loads of dissolved salts in the soil solution make plant uptake more challenging. Soil water demonstration One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=441#oembed-1 An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=441#h5p-22 Key Takeaways • Soil water is not held equally in the soil 52 | Soil water Infiltration and Permeability AMBER ANDERSON AND ARTURO FLORES Learning Objectives • Identify factors influencing infiltration and permeability • Predict how a soil difference, either management or natural, might impact permeability or infiltration rates Keywords: Infiltration, permeability Overview from the NRCS One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=198#oembed-1 As seen in the video or during any rainfall, a raindrop hits the ground with significant force. This force could dislodge the particles, leading to runoff and erosion discussed in the following chapters, or it could enter (infiltrate) and",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=198#oembed-1 As seen in the video or during any rainfall, a raindrop hits the ground with significant force. This force could dislodge the particles, leading to runoff and erosion discussed in the following chapters, or it could enter (infiltrate) and move through the soil (soil permeability or hydraulic conductivity). Infiltration and percolation are two concepts that describe the rate at which water moves into the soil (infiltration) and through the soil profile, vertically and horizontally (percolation). And permeability explains how well water can move through the porous media or the soil. Water movement in soil video: This video shows water movement in soil with contrasting particles or other changing scenarios. One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=198#oembed-2 An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=198#h5p-18 Infiltration and Permeability | 53 Passive Capillary drainage in a saturated soil in Florida. Picture by: Arturo Flores. Check it out! You can measure infiltration in your own field or yard using this method Check out more information about infiltration here One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=198#oembed-3 One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=198#oembed-4 An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=198#h5p-19 Examples Capillary movement is the water movement through the soil profile thanks to adhesivity and cohesion forces. Adhesion forces allow water molecules to stick together, and cohesion describe the attraction force that bonds water to other",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=198#h5p-19 Examples Capillary movement is the water movement through the soil profile thanks to adhesivity and cohesion forces. Adhesion forces allow water molecules to stick together, and cohesion describe the attraction force that bonds water to other surrounding particles different from water (eg., soil particles). Based in this principle, PC-Drainage (passive capillary drainage) is a modern technology being implemented in golf courses. As the picture shows, rope is buried underground all around the main basin. This rope is porous material with a hollow stainless-steel mesh core that transports water to the basin. When the rope is installed, a layer of sand is poured on top, this creates a different texture barrier that makes water percolate deeper faster than laterally, increasing the water captured by the rope. This method is widely used in golf courses because its installation does not require digging deep trenches for conventional pipe, allowing golfers to play right after its installation. Also, the porous media replaces the conventional tile drainage that is easily clogged with fine soil particles, like silt. 54 | Infiltration and Permeability Key Takeaways • Texture, structure, residue, and crusting influence infiltration or how water move into a soil • Texture, structure, contrasting particle sizes influence permeability or how water moves through a soil Infiltration and Permeability | 55 Soil organic matter AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Discuss importance of organic matter in the soil • Identify mechanisms of addition or loss • Predict a management change’s impact on soil organic matter Keywords: humus, organic matter Carbon cycle Carbon dioxide is all around us, but plants convert that carbon into organic forms and remove it from the atmosphere. The soil is a significant storehouse for previous generation’s carbon, in a variety",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "loss • Predict a management change’s impact on soil organic matter Keywords: humus, organic matter Carbon cycle Carbon dioxide is all around us, but plants convert that carbon into organic forms and remove it from the atmosphere. The soil is a significant storehouse for previous generation’s carbon, in a variety of different forms. Organic matter The term ‘organic matter’ is used to refer to things consisting of organic carbon-so anything that was alive. However, not all of these components are equal when considering function in soil. Some materials break down rapidly, releasing nutrients within a few months or years, while some carbon contained in organic structures have been in the soil for hundreds of years. Impact on soil properties Darker soil colors generally correlate to higher levels of organic matter in the soil. Organic matter is also helpful in other soil properties, such as nutrient and water holding capacity, resistance to compaction, and soil structure. Organic matter | 57 Check it out! • Check out the NRCS discussion on Organic Matter value in soil here • Carbon cycle Decomposition Decomposition rates vary based on soil conditions. As you make the environment more favorable for various microbes, decomposition will increase. Therefore, the most significant deposits of organic material are found where decomposition is slowed or stopped, but plant growth or other addition still occurs. One place might be a wetland-where anaerobic conditions slow decomposition, but water-tolerant plant species or even organisms like mosses are adding to the carbon pool. • Oxygen: Anaerobic conditions decrease microbial activity and efficiency, so decomposition slows down significantly in these circumstances. • Food source: In addition to being present, the food source will influence the rate of decomposition. For example, materials with large amounts of carbon per unit nitrogen-like wood-are harder to break down than fresh",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Anaerobic conditions decrease microbial activity and efficiency, so decomposition slows down significantly in these circumstances. • Food source: In addition to being present, the food source will influence the rate of decomposition. For example, materials with large amounts of carbon per unit nitrogen-like wood-are harder to break down than fresh grass clippings. • Temperature: Microbial activity, and therefore decomposition, is generally highest in the moderate temperatures. 58 | Organic matter Organic matter accumulation in the tropical rainforest. Picture by: Arturo Flores Waterlogged soil in Costa Rica. Picture by: Arturo Flores Organic Matter Accumulation in the Rainforest The first picture shows a thick layer of leaves accumulated on the soil. The exuberant vegetation is constantly growing throughout the year and rarely reduces its biomass production. The second picture shows how soils tend to be underwater when high precipitation events occur in a short period of time. It is possible to see how the organic matter is submerged with little to non-decomposition at all. High environmental humidity and waterlogged soils have low decomposition rates as microbial activity is limited. Also, the constant accumulation of new materials buries the old materials, and the process of decomposition starts again. However, it is important to know that although the soil might appear to have a high organic matter content, this is not completely true. Of more importance is the active soil organic matter, which has already been decomposed to some degree and actively contributes to the soil properties, such as in CEC and physical aggregation. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=187#h5p-17 Organic matter | 59 For further thought: Think about a compost pile. What happens when only leaves are there? What happens if you add a pile of fresh greens (or",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=187#h5p-17 Organic matter | 59 For further thought: Think about a compost pile. What happens when only leaves are there? What happens if you add a pile of fresh greens (or leave them out on your counter/in the bottom of the fridge for too long)? Exercises Assume that a 2 million pound acre furrow slice of soil (an acre to approximately 6 2/3″) contains 5% organic matter. How many pounds of organic matter exist in the area? (2,000,000 x 0.05) Since organic matter contains approximately 5% nitrogen, how much nitrogen is contained within that organic matter? To get this answer, we would take the previous question’s answer, as that is how much organic matter is contained in the acre furrow slice and multiply by the percent nitrogen. (100,000 x 0.05) If 3% of this was released per year, about how many pounds could be released? To get this answer, we would take the previous answer (lbs of nitrogen) and multiply by the amount released per year. (5,000 x 0.03) Key Takeaways • The soil is an important carbon store • Soil organic matter has a variety of benefits in the soil • Management decisions impact organic matter levels and distribution 60 | Organic matter Soil life CDUTTER Learning Objectives • Explain the importance of soil life • Compare major classes of organisms found in the soil • Identify interactions of other soil properties and organisms • Predict impacts of a management decision on soil organisms Keywords: primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, ecosystem engineers, symbiosis, rhizobacteria, mycorrhizae, rhizobium Soil Life is important for the breakdown and stabilization of organic matter, breakdown of toxic compounds, nitrogen fixation and nutrient cycling. Click to",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "soil properties and organisms • Predict impacts of a management decision on soil organisms Keywords: primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, ecosystem engineers, symbiosis, rhizobacteria, mycorrhizae, rhizobium Soil Life is important for the breakdown and stabilization of organic matter, breakdown of toxic compounds, nitrogen fixation and nutrient cycling. Click to enlarge the image Primary Producers Primary producers is the term used for organisms that use energy from the sun to create organic molecules Soil life | 61 (autotrophs). Vascular plants are the most commonly known form of primary producers, however in the soil, other primary producers are mosses, algae, and certain photosynthesizing bacteria. Primary producers hold a central role in soil due to their importance to synthesize and produce new compounds and introduce them to the soil environment. In other words, they are the base of the food web. Primary Consumers Primary consumers are organisms that feed off of the primary producers. Some may try to term these organisms herbivores, but that is only a portion of the group considered primary consumers. Herbivores are organisms that eat live plants and contain parasitic nematodes, insect larva, ants, and larger vertebrates. Detritivores are organisms that consume debris from live tissue. Detritivores include larger mesofauna: springtails and mites. A third group is the saprophytic microorganisms. These microorganisms consume dead tissue and include bacteria and fungi. These consumers’ purpose is to break down (decompose) plant and animal tissue and begin to facilitate the cycling of nutrients. Secondary and Tertiary Consumers Secondary and tertiary consumers are the predators of the soil, they feed off of other consumers. These consumers include bacteria, fungi, and larger fauna considered carnivores (centipedes, nematodes, snails, etc.). This group can also contain parasites of other animals. This group is titled after the old “food chain” paradigm, thus we distinguish between secondary",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "are the predators of the soil, they feed off of other consumers. These consumers include bacteria, fungi, and larger fauna considered carnivores (centipedes, nematodes, snails, etc.). This group can also contain parasites of other animals. This group is titled after the old “food chain” paradigm, thus we distinguish between secondary and tertiary consumers. In the newer paradigm of the “food web” there is less distinction between these two groups. This group helps cycle the nutrients that are stored in the primary consumer group. Ecosystem Engineers Ecosystem engineers are larger animals that are capable of altering the physical environment that influence other soil fauna habitat. In the Midwest, these are primarily burrowing animals such as ants, worms, or gophers. These animals affect air and water movement through the soil, as well as create channels for plant roots. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=189#h5p-14 Not all earthworms help the soil: Check out this study! Invasive earthworms erode soil biodiversity: A meta-analysis 62 | Soil life Producer Consumer Symbiosis One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=189#oembed-1 One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=189#oembed-2 Symbiotic relationships occur between the plants and microbes because they are both benefiting from each other. The plant is able to provide a food source and home for the microbes and, in exchange, the microbes provide the plant with nutrients it requires. Soil fungi that have formed symbiotic relationships with plants is one of the most economically important groups of soil organisms. Mycorrhizae have been studied for benefits such as increased drought tolerance and increased phosphorus uptake in",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "the microbes and, in exchange, the microbes provide the plant with nutrients it requires. Soil fungi that have formed symbiotic relationships with plants is one of the most economically important groups of soil organisms. Mycorrhizae have been studied for benefits such as increased drought tolerance and increased phosphorus uptake in crops. Mycorrhizal fungi also help soil structure by contributing to aggregation through the production of glomalin. Rhizobium or Bradyrhizobium bacteria species are best known for their relationships with legumes. These species are not generalists but are either host specific or have a range of hosts, however they do not inoculate all legume species. These species are responsible for the root nodules on legumes that fix nitrogen. Fixing nitrogen is a critical function because it takes nitrogen from the air and makes it available for the plants to use. Rhizobacteria is a term for the bacteria that have adapted to living along the root surface. These species are the most common symbiosis, yet are seldom studied. The root surface becomes so encrusted with bacteria that little soil actually interacts with the root without some intervening microbial influence. These species assist in cycling nutrients near the root, including nitrogen. Rhizobium are the face of nitrogen fixation yet Rhizobacteria also help supply nitrogen to the plant as well. There are also pathogenic species as well! Sudden Oak Death is a Phytophthora species that kills trees. Named for the fact that early victims of this disease were oaks, this species can also prey on agriculturally important species such as Almonds. Sudden Death Syndrome is caused by a Fusarium species and is common in soybeans. Phytophthora and Fusarium are two genera that contain many diseases that attack economically important plants. Examples include: damping off disease, root and stem rot, crown rot, fusarium wilt, and fruit",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "agriculturally important species such as Almonds. Sudden Death Syndrome is caused by a Fusarium species and is common in soybeans. Phytophthora and Fusarium are two genera that contain many diseases that attack economically important plants. Examples include: damping off disease, root and stem rot, crown rot, fusarium wilt, and fruit rot. These diseases are commonly controlled through crop rotation and planting resistant varieties. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=189#h5p-16 Soil life | 63 Management and Soil Life Soil life, in general, needs two things to thrive: minimized disturbances and an adequate food source. In terms of management this means that practices that increase soil organic matter, decrease erosion, and increase soil structure are the key to increasing microbial communities and thus nutrient cycling. This can take many forms but there are two easy management practices that fulfill this: no-till and cover crops. Generally speaking, it can be said that “life creates life.” One interpretation of this is that the more plants there are on the ground, the more microbial activity there is in the ground. In California, farmers are often concerned with weeds competing for water with the crop. Which leads to the implementation of strip spraying (pictured below). Removing the plants around the trees may reduce the amount water used, but it also reduces the amount of nutrients cycled near the tree in the early years of the orchard. As a consequence of this, many nutrients need to be applied either by pelletized fertilizer or foliar application. Similarly cover crops may cost the farmer a little more, but the plants contributions to microbial food sources or food complexity is important for a sustained robust microbial community. Soil aggregation, facilitated by no-till agriculture, is not simply",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "nutrients need to be applied either by pelletized fertilizer or foliar application. Similarly cover crops may cost the farmer a little more, but the plants contributions to microbial food sources or food complexity is important for a sustained robust microbial community. Soil aggregation, facilitated by no-till agriculture, is not simply for better drainage and less erosion. Soil aggregation is important for niche complexity within the soil environment. Niche complexity allows for community complexity. Soil life, much like all forms of life, is not homogenous. Certain microbes may do well in saturated soils, others like drier spaces. A stable aggregate allows for the microbes to find their niche, the moisture desiring microbe will colonize the outside of the aggregate while the other will colonize the interior of the aggregate. Disease pressure in the soil can be tricky to manage, however, one of the best methods to simply manage it 64 | Soil life is to rotate crops or plant resistant varieties. Soil fumigants can be used but commonly are expensive and difficult to employ. In California, the threat of nematodes have caused farmers to fumigate their fields with methyl bromide. This procedure was effective for two reasons, the farmers deep rip the field to open up the soil and the soil texture is sand to sandy loam. This allowed for effective use of the fumigants. Methyl bromide has now been phased out and farmers are struggling to find effective fumigants for the soil borne diseases. The new fumigants are targeted towards specific pests within the soil and are not generalists. While farmers complain about the ineffectiveness of the new fumigants, the overall effect will be for a healthier soil. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=189#h5p-15 Key Takeaways",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "specific pests within the soil and are not generalists. While farmers complain about the ineffectiveness of the new fumigants, the overall effect will be for a healthier soil. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=189#h5p-15 Key Takeaways • Soil Life is important for a variety of reasons: ◦ Breakdown and stabilization of organic matter ◦ Breakdown of toxic compounds ◦ Nitrogen fixation ◦ Nutrient uptake and cycling • Mycorrhizal associations with plants influence: ◦ Drought tolerance ◦ Nutrient uptake ◦ Soil Structure • Management effects soil life in three ways: ◦ Food sources ◦ Disturbances ◦ Disease cycles Soil life | 65 Soil erosion AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Describe the impacts of erosion • Outline the process of erosion • Identify soil erosion indicators on the landscape Keywords: Wind, water, gully, rill, sheet, saltation Process Erosion is the removal of the upper layer of soil or topsoil. Since that layer tends to have higher organic matter and nutrients, erosion of the surface layer can cause significant negative effects on the soil for future crops as well as runoff. An inch of soil may take a thousand years to build, but could be removed in one rainstorm. Areas with shallow bedrock (R horizon) are particularly sensitive, as erosion may lead to a loss of the area for agriculture. Erosion requires three main steps: detachment, transport, and deposition. We separate erosion into two major categories by the force that transports the soil particle. Detachment Not all soils or soil particles are equally susceptible to erosion. Sand may be easy to pick up, but is heavier to carry, so tends to stay closer to the source. Clay is hard to detach, but once separated, can stay in the air",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "that transports the soil particle. Detachment Not all soils or soil particles are equally susceptible to erosion. Sand may be easy to pick up, but is heavier to carry, so tends to stay closer to the source. Clay is hard to detach, but once separated, can stay in the air or water column for significant periods of time. Silt is generally considered the most erodible particle, as it is both reasonable to detach and carry. Well aggregated soils are also considered less erodible-since the force would have to either break up the strong aggregate, or transport the whole aggregate. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=201#h5p-28 Soil erosion | 67 Transport by Wind One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=201#oembed-1 Wind erosion during sugarcane harvest, Costa Rica, Spring 2019. Photo credit: Amber Anderson An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=201#h5p-27 Transport by Water One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=201#oembed-2 68 | Soil erosion Observe from the video: • When does the water slow down? • When does the water appear more dirty/less dirty? • What do you notice about the plants/plant roots? (soybean plants in particular) • What else do you notice? In Iowa, water is considered the dominant eroding force, but this does not mean that wind erosion is not occurring. Check it out! The Daily Erosion Project is a model based upon the rainfall data received along with soil characteristics to estimate loss after a given storm. Find a watershed of interest and",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "is considered the dominant eroding force, but this does not mean that wind erosion is not occurring. Check it out! The Daily Erosion Project is a model based upon the rainfall data received along with soil characteristics to estimate loss after a given storm. Find a watershed of interest and see how much soil they lost in a given storm. Shapes Gully Gully formation near Ames High School. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Soil erosion | 69 Uphill from the previous gully picture, this shows the slope and how the cut has progressed up the hill. Photo credit Amber Anderson Gully forming on a farm outside Ames. Photo Credit Amber Anderson Water erosion after land shaping in Southern California. This damage started as a smaller rill, and has continued to erode away material significantly increasing in size. Photo credit: Amber Anderson Water erosion, forming rills, on ISU campus, south of Landscape Architecture and Hamilton Halls. Photo credit: Amber Anderson Water erosion through a cultivated field, near Martin Tennessee in a particularly wet March. If not controlled, this will continue to erode and likely form a gully. Photo credit: Amber Anderson Most noticeable, gully erosion appears as large channels being cut into the ground, looking like a stream. These are impassable with equipment due to size. If not stabilized, water plunging down the wall will continue to move up the hillslope. It is easiest to deal with before this point, but controlling water as high up on the slope as is feasible. Simply filling the gully with sediment or rock will not solve the issue. Rill These are smaller channels, appearing more like fingers on the landscape. They can be destroyed by tillagehowever, that is only destroying the evidence, not putting the soil back to the original condition. If the problem is",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Simply filling the gully with sediment or rock will not solve the issue. Rill These are smaller channels, appearing more like fingers on the landscape. They can be destroyed by tillagehowever, that is only destroying the evidence, not putting the soil back to the original condition. If the problem is ignored, future erosion will likely occur down the same path. 70 | Soil erosion Sheet Least noticeable, this type of erosion takes a small layer equally off the soil surface. One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=201#oembed-3 An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=201#h5p-24 Deposition As “what goes up comes back down” so does detached and transported soil need to be deposited at some point. Sometimes this is only a few inches, or it could be hundreds of miles away. Additional damage or costs may result at that point, from filling in ditches or lakes, damaging human lungs, or covering other infrastructure-requiring removal or treatment costs as well as the loss to the source. In some cases, the previous A horizon is buried, as in the videos below: One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=201#oembed-4 One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=201#oembed-5 Key Takeaways • Erosion can occur in a variety of ways, but always includes detachment, transport, and deposition • Erosion has significant negative impacts on soil properties and productivity, with potential costs of clean up as well. Soil erosion | 71 Soil erosion factors and calculations AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Discuss factors",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Erosion can occur in a variety of ways, but always includes detachment, transport, and deposition • Erosion has significant negative impacts on soil properties and productivity, with potential costs of clean up as well. Soil erosion | 71 Soil erosion factors and calculations AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Discuss factors influencing differences in rates of loss • Estimate erosion loss under a given management scenario • Predict how management changes could increase or decrease potential erosion losses Estimating erosion If the removal or deposit is clearly visible, as may be the case in gully, losses could be roughly estimated based upon the area removed. Generally, the losses are more subtle. Estimate the weight of soil in one inch across one acre An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=514#h5p-23 72 | Soil erosion factors and calculations Soil core from central Iowa showing a shallow depth to C horizon (and calcareous conditions) very shallow due to significant past erosion. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. Estimating erosion after it has occurred, while may be needed to understand the extent of the damage and prevent future damage, is often too late. Ideally, we would like to know the potential impact of a change before the erosion occurs. We use predictive models like the Universal Soil Loss Equation, or updated Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (one or two) to predict the erosion under a given scenario. The major differences between these three equations is how conditions are calculated-with the first using one value for the year while updated equations divide up the year to recognize that conditions are not uniform throughout the year. This equation only estimates rill and sheet erosion due to water. Where: A= estimated erosion in tons per acre per",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "is how conditions are calculated-with the first using one value for the year while updated equations divide up the year to recognize that conditions are not uniform throughout the year. This equation only estimates rill and sheet erosion due to water. Where: A= estimated erosion in tons per acre per year R=rainfall erosivity value K=soil erodibility (between 0.05 for sandy soils and ~0.35-0.4 for more silty materials) LS=slope factor accounting for both length and steepness C=cropping factor P=other practices T=”Tolerable” erosion A note on T factor: This is set not at replacement rate, that is much smaller. It is what the soil could lose per year and maintain productivity for a medium term-it shouldn’t be considered sustainable for long-term productivity. Practice using the equation: • See the canvas assignment to walk through practice scenarios Soil erosion factors and calculations | 73 Key Takeaways • USLE is one tool to estimate losses anticipated (water erosion from sheet and rills) under a current or proposed management scenario 74 | Soil erosion factors and calculations Erosion control strategies AMBER ANDERSON Overall The main goals of erosion control strategies are simple-control either detachment or transport of soil. Specifics are dependent upon the situation, as what works in one location may not work for another. Soil health Maintaining soil health increases resilience to erosive forces. Aggregate stability-as shown in the video below, is one of the factors impacting erosion. If aggregates stay together, water erosion will only take place if there is enough force to move the whole aggregate, rather than the single particle. One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=516#oembed-1 One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here:",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "move the whole aggregate, rather than the single particle. One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=516#oembed-1 One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=516#oembed-2 Wind erosion control Major strategies to control wind erosion include protecting the soil from initial detachment, or slowing the wind so it cannot detach or carry the sediment. These may look different depending upon the situation, but a few examples might be windbreaks, eliminating or decreasing tillage, or adding cover crops or a perennial cover. Windbreaks A common feature around sensitive sites, like farmsteads or high value crops, is a windbreak. Installed upwind from the location, the area protected is approximately 10x the height of the windbreak downwind of the feature. Closest to the windbreak is most protected and protection decreases with distance away. Erosion control strategies | 75 Windbreak resources • Field windbreak • Farmstead windbreak An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=516#h5p-29 Water erosion A variety of techniques can be utilized for decreasing water erosion. Main principles are the same, to control detachment and/or slow down the water so it is unable to carry the sediment. In agricultural fields Soybeans planting into standing rye cover. The rye was planted in the early fall starting growth then and continuing in the early spring to protect the surface over the fall and increase biological activity/ organic matter. This rye was terminated near the soybean planting time. 76 | Erosion control strategies Strips project-strip of perennial vegetation meant for erosion, water, and pollinator benefits. Photo Credit: Lisa Schulte-Moore. This corn has additional plant cover growing under it",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "the surface over the fall and increase biological activity/ organic matter. This rye was terminated near the soybean planting time. 76 | Erosion control strategies Strips project-strip of perennial vegetation meant for erosion, water, and pollinator benefits. Photo Credit: Lisa Schulte-Moore. This corn has additional plant cover growing under it to protect the soil from excess erosion. New construction is particularly sensitive to erosion, this disturbed shoulder off of I-35 near Ankeny is using a few techniques to control erosion-straw waddles and straw to help grass seed establishment. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. This road ditch in Uganda has complete covered the area water would run with cement and rocks so it cannot erode and undermine the road. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Other practices might include terraces, that break up the slope length allowing infiltration. Waterways, protecting the path of the water off the field instead of allowing rill or gully erosion. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=516#h5p-30 Roads Erosion control strategies | 77 As the perennial cover of grass gets established next to the new Ames High School, these black strips are used to slow water and stop sediment moving down the hill. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. During construction, this black bag was used to capture sediment and any other materials that would have otherwise moved into the storm sewer and water system. Photo credit: Amber Anderson. This reinforced mat is being used on a steeper part of the landscape while grass is being established that will stabilize the area for the long term. Photo credit Amber Anderson After construction of the business building addition, hydromulch was used to protect the surface and help establishment of the new grass seed. Photo credit Amber Anderson This mat",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "part of the landscape while grass is being established that will stabilize the area for the long term. Photo credit Amber Anderson After construction of the business building addition, hydromulch was used to protect the surface and help establishment of the new grass seed. Photo credit Amber Anderson This mat is used to help protect the soil surface and keep seed in place during establishment. Photo credit Amber Anderson Construction sites 78 | Erosion control strategies Runoff off of construction site on ISU campus Runoff off of a construction site on ISU campus Erosion control strategies | 79 CEC ALA KHALEEL AND AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Identify sources of cation exchange capacity • Calculate CEC and base saturation given soil test information • Explain how management may change based upon CEC/AEC • Predict differences between CEC/AEC could be found given soil characteristics Keywords: adsorption, cation exchange capacity, anion exchange capacity, buffering capacity, exchangeable cations Nutrients Nutrients are held (or not) in different ways in the soil: • Adsorption: is the retention of ions or molecules to a surface. The prefix “ad” describes a reaction “at” the surface of a solid. • Cations: positively charged ions (for example, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium,,,etc) • Anions: negatively charged ions (for example, chloride) • Exchangeable cations: cations that are replaced/exchanged by soil solution. Ion Exchange in soils: • Ion exchange involves the movement of anions or cations through the soils. • In ion-exchange reactions, cations or anions that are adsorbed on soil surfaces are exchanged/ replaced by another cations or anions in the soil solution. • Ion exchange in soils occurs on surfaces of: ◦ o Primarily on clay minerals (layer silicate minerals) ◦ o Soil organic matter • Soils in the United States have more negatively charged minerals than positively charged minerals;",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "are exchanged/ replaced by another cations or anions in the soil solution. • Ion exchange in soils occurs on surfaces of: ◦ o Primarily on clay minerals (layer silicate minerals) ◦ o Soil organic matter • Soils in the United States have more negatively charged minerals than positively charged minerals; therefore, cation exchange is much more common. CEC | 81 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=310#oembed-1 CEC is a measure of the total amount of negative charges on soil surfaces that are available to hold cations, usually plant nutrients. This is based on the organic matter and clay minerals, along with the pH of the soil. Consider it a measure of the soil’s ability to attract and hold nutrient cations or the sum of total exchangeable cations that the soil can absorb. Like a positive side of a magnet attracts the negative, and strength is influenced by factors like size and type of material, not all soils hold equally. CEC is very important to plant productivity as it influences what or what quantity of plant nutrients held and made available in the soil. It is reversible and adjusts to be in equilibrium with the soil solution. Buffering capacity is the ability to resist those changes-higher CEC values mean the system will be slower to change. We call this a higher buffering capacity. CEC is very important for management because soils with low CEC cannot hold and retain too many important nutrients (ammonium (NH4+), and base cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and Na+)) like soils with higher CEC. An anion like nitrate (NO3-) is repelled rather than attracted to soil surfaces in most midwestern US conditions and can leach. In areas with anion",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "low CEC cannot hold and retain too many important nutrients (ammonium (NH4+), and base cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and Na+)) like soils with higher CEC. An anion like nitrate (NO3-) is repelled rather than attracted to soil surfaces in most midwestern US conditions and can leach. In areas with anion exchange capacity, like highly weathered soils where CEC is low, nutrient management strategies change. These areas may rely more heavily on forms of nutrients that can be held and released as plants need them, like organic material. In highly weathered, acidic conditions, anion exchange capacity may dominate. This requires different management strategies as well, as different nutrients are likely limiting plant productivity. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=310#h5p-36 Percent Base Saturation (BS) Cations in the soil can be classified into base (non-acid forming) cations (Ca+2, Mg+2, K+1, Na+, and NH4+) and acidic cations (Al+3 and H+1). Most bases are plant nutrients, excluding sodium, so higher BS is generally better. However, base saturation is simply a percentage of the total, rather than a total amount available to the plant. Higher values are also considered to have higher ‘buffering capacity’ or ability to resist change. If you have two soils both with a base saturation of 50%, and want to increase it to near 95%, the soil with the higher CEC will require more material to adjust, even though the percentages are the same. 82 | CEC Example I have a soil reported to contain 3 cmolc/kg of Ca, 1 cmolc/kg K, 1 cmolc/kg Mg, and 5 cmolc/kg H. Since these numbers add up to 10 (assuming this is all of the cations), then my CEC is about 10 cmolc/ kg. Five of these (Ca, K, and Mg)",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "I have a soil reported to contain 3 cmolc/kg of Ca, 1 cmolc/kg K, 1 cmolc/kg Mg, and 5 cmolc/kg H. Since these numbers add up to 10 (assuming this is all of the cations), then my CEC is about 10 cmolc/ kg. Five of these (Ca, K, and Mg) are basic cations, resulting in a 50% (5 bases/10 total) base saturation for this soil. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=310#h5p-32 Key Takeaways • CEC results from organic matter and clays within the soil • CEC is the measure of cations (usually plant nutrients) held within a soil • Base saturation is a measure of percentage of charges occupied by basic (non-acid forming) cations CEC | 83 Source: USGS. Click to enlarge Soil pH ALA KHALEEL AND AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Identify pH values associated with basic or acidic conditions • Identify basic vs. acid-forming cations • Discuss the impact of pH on soil and plant growth Keywords: pH, soil buffering capacity, neutral, alkaline, acidic, ag lime, liming materials Soil pH Soil pH is the measure of soil acidity or alkalinity, specifically the inverse log of the Hydrogen ion concentration on a scale from 0-14. Neutral pH is around 7, with ‘acids’ being below 7 and ‘bases’ being from 7 to 14. Therefore, a change from a pH value of 5 to a pH value of 4 indicates a 10x increase in H+. Most soils have pH values between 4 to 10. Most soils in Iowa have a pH between 5.5 to 7.5. More weathered soils generally have lower pH values, with soils in arid regions having higher pH values due to accumulations of calcium or sodium. Some soils have higher ‘buffering capacity’ or ability",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "have pH values between 4 to 10. Most soils in Iowa have a pH between 5.5 to 7.5. More weathered soils generally have lower pH values, with soils in arid regions having higher pH values due to accumulations of calcium or sodium. Some soils have higher ‘buffering capacity’ or ability to resist change. In higher organic matter or those high in particular types of clays, those with higher CEC values, the same management will have a lesser impact on the pH. Therefore, when trying to raise the pH, additional lime or input will be required. 84 | Soil pH Example-buffering capacity Consider a perfectly hot large coffee pot vs. a cup freshly poured in your hand. Predict which would change temperature most quickly if an ice cube were added. The larger volume of the coffee pot makes the temperature change more slowly than your cup and has a higher ability to resist that temperature change. This would be the higher buffering capacity in the soils example. Small changes in either direction-either an ice cube added or perhaps 30 seconds in the microwave would be expected to have a bigger change on the temperature of your cup than of the large coffee pot. Importance Soil pH is sometimes considered the “master variable” that has several impacts on plant nutrients and plant growth. Soil pH also impacts or interacts with other properties in the soil. Soil pH influences • Amount and availability of plant nutrients; some plant nutrients are more available under acidic conditions, while others are more available under basic or alkaline conditions • The activity of soil microorganisms responsible for residue decomposition • Charges on soil organic matter and on some mineral surfaces, influencing the soil’s cation exchange capacity Soil pH | 85 Source: Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 4.0 Factors",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "acidic conditions, while others are more available under basic or alkaline conditions • The activity of soil microorganisms responsible for residue decomposition • Charges on soil organic matter and on some mineral surfaces, influencing the soil’s cation exchange capacity Soil pH | 85 Source: Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 4.0 Factors influencing pH values in soil • Parent material: original pH of the material. • Nitrogen fertilization: over time, can lower pH values. • Management for particular crop: agricultural lime or ‘liming materials’ may be added to raise pH, or elemental sulfur or acidifying materials may be added to lower the pH for a particular target crop. • Time: over time, removal of base-forming cations with weathering or cultivation will decrease the soil pH • Buffering capacity: the soil’s ability to resist change or a higher buffering capacity, means that a soil pH will be slower to change with the same action that may more significantly lower the value elsewhere. 86 | Soil pH Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Did you know? The color of old-fashioned hydrangeas are an indicator of pH, displaying blue flowers in acidic conditions and pink in higher pH-alkaline soils. This hydrangea was photographed in the highland regions in Costa Rica. Raising the pH Low pH values in soil may lead to decreased availability of some nutrientslike phosphorus, decreased activity of some organisms-like bacteria, or cause aluminum toxicity in highly weathered soils. Liming materials, such as ‘ag lime’, generally ground calcium carbonate from limestone, are used to raise pH across the Midwest due to regional mining and presence of limestone bedrock. Dolomitic limestone, or rock containing a higher amount of magnesium carbonate, may be used if magnesium is also needed. Other materials are used if regionally available. For the lime requirement guidelines, especially for Iowa or the Midwest",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "pH across the Midwest due to regional mining and presence of limestone bedrock. Dolomitic limestone, or rock containing a higher amount of magnesium carbonate, may be used if magnesium is also needed. Other materials are used if regionally available. For the lime requirement guidelines, especially for Iowa or the Midwest US, you can consult the Iowa State University soil pH and lime application guidelines (extension publication PM 1688). How do we measure pH? • In the lab, the pH of a soil solution is usually measured with a glass electrode. The soil sample is prepared with either water or dilute salt solution, as the electrode only measures acidity in solution rather than H+ ions held on the soil surface. • In the field, pH paper strips can be used to get an approximate value to determine the need for further testing or management. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=308#h5p-33 Soil pH | 87 Key Takeaways • Soil pH is an important factor in the soil, influencing nutrient availability and organism activity • pH value of soil is impacted by management, such as crop removal or limining • pH value can be increased by application of liming materials, or decreased by sulfur-containing materials 88 | Soil pH Degraded structure at the top of the profile here due to sodium accumulation. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Click to enlarge Salts AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Given an electrical conductivity or exchangeable sodium value, indicate anticipated plant growth impacts • Match impacts of saline or sodic conditions on soil properties and plant growth • Understand management practices for sodic, saline, and saline-sodic soil • Predict management decisions’ impact on soil chemical properties Keywords: Salinity, saline, sodic, saline-sodic Salts in the",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "or exchangeable sodium value, indicate anticipated plant growth impacts • Match impacts of saline or sodic conditions on soil properties and plant growth • Understand management practices for sodic, saline, and saline-sodic soil • Predict management decisions’ impact on soil chemical properties Keywords: Salinity, saline, sodic, saline-sodic Salts in the soil Soluble salts have a harmful effect on the soil and over plant growth. Salinity exists when there is an excessive content of soluble salts, which has a significant effect on soil properties and plant growth. It can be caused by different reasons: • Primary salinity: caused by natural conditions, such as weathering of parent materials with high content of soluble salts or at places where evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation rates. • Secondary salinity: as a result of human activities, such as poor irrigation practices and excessive use of fertilizers. It is important to understand that salinity includes a diversity of soluble salts, some of the most common ions are Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, HCO3, and Na. However, excessive content of Na is problematic, causing sodic soil conditions with negative effects on soil aggregation. Salinity is measured by Electrical Conductivity, and Sodium through the Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) or the Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP), which compares the sodium content to total soluble salts. Salts | 89 Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Salts accumulating on the soil surface in a hoop house. Photo Credit: Amber Anderson. Assessment • Normal soil: pH < 8.5, EC < 4 mmhos/cm, ESP < 15 %, SAR < 13 • Saline soil: pH <8.5, EC > 4 mmhos/cm, ESP < 15 %, SAR < 13 • Sodic soil: pH > 8.5, EC < mmhos/cm, ESP > 15%, SAR > 13 • Saline-Sodic: pH < 8.5, EC < mmhos/cm, ESP >15%, SAR > 13 Problems with salts in soil",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "13 • Saline soil: pH <8.5, EC > 4 mmhos/cm, ESP < 15 %, SAR < 13 • Sodic soil: pH > 8.5, EC < mmhos/cm, ESP > 15%, SAR > 13 • Saline-Sodic: pH < 8.5, EC < mmhos/cm, ESP >15%, SAR > 13 Problems with salts in soil • Can interfere with water and nutrients uptake • Poor infiltration/permeability, and aeration • Sodium degrades structure and aggregation • Sodium also increases pH and affects nutrient availability Management of salts in the soil While saline soils can be leached to remove the salts, that may be challenging due to lack of either quality or quantity of water availability. Sodic soils are more problematic, as gypsum 90 | Salts should be applied first, and then leached, but soil properties may be degraded to make water moving through the soil more challenging. In some cases, planting more resistant species is a more viable option. • Colorado State Extension publication on managing saline soils • Colorado State Extension publication on managing sodic soils Quick overview of testing for salts in soil Beyond looking for salt rinds on top of the soil, one can also use a fairly simple procedure in a soil lab to find out the salinity of the soil. Below is a summary of how soils are tested for salts using electrical conductivity. A Thermo Scientific Orion4Star pH and conductivity bench top meter was used for this example. Photo Credit: Lydia Brown. 1. Combine soil sample with deIonized water to create a saturated soil in a 1:1 ratio. Allow the soil to settle or centrifuge for 5-10 minutes. Salts | 91 Photo Credit: Lydia Brown. 2. Separate the settled solid soil from the water and remove water from sample tube. Photo Credit: Lydia Brown. 3. Set up the meter to",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "create a saturated soil in a 1:1 ratio. Allow the soil to settle or centrifuge for 5-10 minutes. Salts | 91 Photo Credit: Lydia Brown. 2. Separate the settled solid soil from the water and remove water from sample tube. Photo Credit: Lydia Brown. 3. Set up the meter to read electrical conductivity (dS/m or mmhos/cm). Place the meter in the water sample. 92 | Salts Photo Credit: Lydia Brown. 4. Calculate Sodium Absorption Ratio and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage. • Sodium Absorption Ratio (meq/L) = Na+ / ((Ca+2 + Mg+2)/2) • Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (%) = (Na+/ CEC) * 100 Key Takeaways • Different kinds of salts in the soil can limit water uptake and destroy soil structure and aggregation. • Above 4 mmohs/cm is a saline soil. • Exchangeable sodium greater than 15% or Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) above 13 is a sodic soil. Salts | 93 Soil testing AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Outline steps for taking a reliable soil sample • Match soil test output levels to recommended management • Predict expected relative test values given site characteristics Farmers utilize soil sampling to determine soil fertility, pH, nutrient variability, organic matter, and texture. Soil testing might be recommended for several reasons, including unexplained nutrient deficiencies. When compared to a tissue or sap test, soil sampling is typically a less expensive option but may not be the most appropriate for all situations. The test results are meant to guide your management plan for the current or following year. Several factors should be considered when determining when and where to sample. When to soil sample • At a time when application can occur before next cropping season or harvest. Typically late summer or early fall in Midwestern US annual systems. • Consistent time of year each time you soil",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Several factors should be considered when determining when and where to sample. When to soil sample • At a time when application can occur before next cropping season or harvest. Typically late summer or early fall in Midwestern US annual systems. • Consistent time of year each time you soil sample. Commonly every 3 to 4 years following the same crop in the same environmental conditions. Places to avoid when sampling: • Field edges • Areas near roads • Near livestock • Near buildings or former buildings • Uneven areas or unusual areas, unless they are given their own sample Factors to remember during sampling: • History, different past land use can result in different test levels. Sampling the area so one sample does not represent both areas will result in more accurate results. Soil testing | 95 • Consistent depth, timing, and lab procedures with clean equipment to maintain uniformity and accurate lab results. • More samples will likely eliminate potential inconsistencies and bias. • Avoid sampling in poor conditions, like excessively wet or frozen soil conditions. • Samples should represent a small enough area to be representative, typically no more than 10 acres in annual row crop systems or an acre in more intensively managed situations. Best practices for sampling Follow the specific recommendations of your testing laboratory, but generally: • Use clean equipment • Subsamples should be used, mixed, and submitted sample used • Sampling depth as indicated by your test/laboratory • Differing areas should have their own soil sample, as combining them will not provide reliable results for either area Strategies used for sampling Grid This method takes samples within regular divisions or zones of equal size, 1, 2.5, 5, or 10 acres. This regular sampling is meant to capture viability across the landscape. The method",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "own soil sample, as combining them will not provide reliable results for either area Strategies used for sampling Grid This method takes samples within regular divisions or zones of equal size, 1, 2.5, 5, or 10 acres. This regular sampling is meant to capture viability across the landscape. The method may be more helpful if the management history is unknown or variable rate application technology will be used. Drawbacks could include the additional cost resulting from more samples and samples less representative of the larger area. Zone This method is used when there is some historical knowledge of the area and to assess changes over time. Areas of similar soils, topography, and management are grouped for testing – samples are taken within the “zones”. This method can provide some basic information for management decisions at a decreased cost when compared to grid sampling, but may be less reliable if there is a history of manure application or specific concerns across the field. Assessing your soil sample results Reports received from testing laboratories generally include both a value and a rating, like ‘high’ or ‘very low’ to indicate relative status. Fertilizer application, when a soil test level is very high or high, is unlikely to provide economical return on investment and may be environmentally irresponsible. Fertilizer applications with low or very low values are likely to result in yield increases and should generally be applied at rates higher than anticipated crop removal rates. 96 | Soil testing Considerations High pH values may be associated with roads in some areas due to limestone used in road material or the potential transport of liming materials. Many standard soil tests don’t include heavy metals or other potentially harmful contaminants. A test may be warranted if you are producing food in an area with potential",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "may be associated with roads in some areas due to limestone used in road material or the potential transport of liming materials. Many standard soil tests don’t include heavy metals or other potentially harmful contaminants. A test may be warranted if you are producing food in an area with potential contamination (particularly urban areas or former industrial sites). Previous livestock on the land can contribute to high or very high phosphorus levels long after animals are present. Erosion and/or further application in these areas can negatively impact water quality. Soil testing publications: • Taking a good soil sample • Interpreting results • Recommendations for Iowa/Midwest US Soil testing review An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=607#h5p-31 Soil testing | 97 Fertilizer analysis AMBER ANDERSON AND ARTURO FLORES Learning Objectives • Identify components of fertilizers • Calculate quantity of a given fertilizer needed to meet nutrient needs Guaranteed analysis Commercial fertilizers sold in the US are required to share amount of nutrients contained in the product on the label. The standard way to share this information is called a guaranteed analysis, like 10-10-10. The first number refers to percent nitrogen by weight, the second phosphorus as P2O5, and the third refers to potassium as K2O. Note that this exact form of nutrient isn’t required to be in the bag, but an equivalent amount of P or K is required, so this is simply a standardized way to express quantity of a nutrient. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=312#h5p-34 Other material in a bag Note that the percentages of N, P2O5, and K2O don’t add up to 100% of the bag contents. Other materials that",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "quantity of a nutrient. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=312#h5p-34 Other material in a bag Note that the percentages of N, P2O5, and K2O don’t add up to 100% of the bag contents. Other materials that wouldn’t be counted in this guaranteed analysis number could be nutrient carriers that contain the nutrient, conditioners that improve some property of the material, or inert materials that may make a small quantity of nutrient easier to spread uniformly over a large area. Carriers Not all molecules in a compound are the target nutrient for fertility. In urea, a nitrogen fertilizer, nitrogen is contained, but not all of the molecule. 98 | Fertilizer analysis Other nutrients Nutrients besides nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium are still needed by plants, and may be included in a fertilizer mix. Those contents would not be reflected in the guaranteed analysis of the material Conditioners Some fertilizers have less than ideal handling or storage properties-so materials to prevent caking, adjust the pH, or otherwise create more favorable conditions for storage or handling may be included. Example See this container of fish emulsion fertilizer: Note the three numbers in the lower part of the label, the guaranteed analysis of this product: 2-3-1 Fertilizer analysis | 99 Example Fertilizer bag from a Costa Rican Coffee Cooperative: This Costa Rican fertilizer bag has percentages of each nutrient contained instead of the guaranteed analysis required on US fertilizer bags. Note that this label shares nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, and organic material percentages. 100 | Fertilizer analysis Organic fertilizer bag for turfgrass. Photo Credit: Arturo Flores. Example Organic-derived fertilizer used for turfgrass management: • Compared to commercial syntethic formulas, this product contains significantly lower levels of each nutrient. The",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "that this label shares nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, and organic material percentages. 100 | Fertilizer analysis Organic fertilizer bag for turfgrass. Photo Credit: Arturo Flores. Example Organic-derived fertilizer used for turfgrass management: • Compared to commercial syntethic formulas, this product contains significantly lower levels of each nutrient. The reason is they are meant for soil-nutrient maintenance and not for building the main nutrient pool. • Also important to note, Nitrogen is divided into three categories: ◦ Ammoniacal Nitrogen: represents instant availability for root absorption. ◦ Water Insoluble Nitrogen: this is some type of slow-release fertilizer, which means it requires different process to break down and takes longer to be readily available, reducing leaching potential and providing long-term nutrition. ◦ Other Water-Soluble Nitrogen: also instant available nitrogen but in different form than ammoniacal nitrogen. Key Takeaways • Guaranteed analysis on fertilizer bags indicates percentage of N-P2O5-K2O contained • Other materials, like conditioners, carriers, or micronutrients may also be found Fertilizer analysis | 101 Problem solving AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Outline a process to determine potential diagnoses in a problem solving scenario • Utilize knowledge of soils, nutrient behavior, and other factors to narrow down potential causes • Determine how you might confirm or rule out potential causes of identified problem How might you go about determining or ruling out soil-related causes for a symptomatic plant? What is the plant supposed to look like at this stage? Is it stunted or abnormally colored? Purple leaves in some varieties, particularly horticultural crops, may be normal. However, purple colors in a plant that is not supposed to have that coloration may indicate a phosphorus deficiency. Pattern? Is there a pattern in where symptomatic plants are occurring in the field (low spots, edge of field, steep areas)? Area with recent construction or",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "horticultural crops, may be normal. However, purple colors in a plant that is not supposed to have that coloration may indicate a phosphorus deficiency. Pattern? Is there a pattern in where symptomatic plants are occurring in the field (low spots, edge of field, steep areas)? Area with recent construction or newly replaced topsoil? How about within the plant (new growth vs old growth)? Conditions? What have conditions been like in the area recently? Have they been abnormally cold, wet, hot, dry? How 102 | Problem solving about last season (potential herbicide carryover if dry)? Cool springs may contribute to more nutrient deficiency symptoms, as root growth and microbial activity may both be slower than normal. Field operations? What has happened to the site recently? Any major disturbance (topsoil removal, compaction, installation that displaced or inverted significant soil)? Application of nutrients or chemical materials? Testing? Has any testing been done that may help support a potential nutrient deficiency diagnosis? Soil pH is one that may be helpful if only limited testing has been done, as high pH soils may cause nutrient availability issues with metals like iron. At low pH values, there may be different nutrient deficiencies, or even toxicity of something like aluminum in highly weathered conditions. Now what? In order to support your diagnosis, you may want to gather additional evidence. For example, a soil test if you suspect a nutrient deficiency. Some issues may not have a feasible treatment at the point of diagnosis, like an herbicide carryover due to a dry year, but could be considered in future management of the area if another dry year is expected. In annual crop management, seeing significant deficiency symptoms throughout the season mean that decreased yield is already expected and it may be too late to adjust conditions for the",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "due to a dry year, but could be considered in future management of the area if another dry year is expected. In annual crop management, seeing significant deficiency symptoms throughout the season mean that decreased yield is already expected and it may be too late to adjust conditions for the current crop, so adjustments or applications would likely be for the next season or crop. In perennial crops, other strategies might be more desirable, like foliar application, injections, or more intensive methods. Additionally, considering the soil and potential problems before they are planted means that some issues, like iron deficiency of a full-sized pin oak due to high pH soils, could be avoided. As in many things-an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of the cure. Problem solving | 103 Key Takeaways • Identifying patterns (across the field or within the plant) is important for determining potential causes of the issue: straight lines are likely human-caused, eroded soil areas may show an issue correlated with low organic matter or high pH first • Identifying • Matching 104 | Problem solving Soil input recommendations ARTURO FLORES Learning Objectives Type your learning objectives here. • Interpret soil test reports • Calculate the required fertilizer to amend soil nutrient deficiencies • Design fertilizer formulas based on the soil needs and materials available Make soil input recommendations One of the big questions in agriculture has been and will be ‘what and how much should I apply to increase yield?’ It is a common question asked by most farmers, with the belief that there is a magic formula to once and for all improve the soil quality and boost yield. However, this is far from being true. As has been discussed throughout this course, soil is a complex and dynamic system. Therefore, improving soil",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "question asked by most farmers, with the belief that there is a magic formula to once and for all improve the soil quality and boost yield. However, this is far from being true. As has been discussed throughout this course, soil is a complex and dynamic system. Therefore, improving soil is a holistic process that should consider each one of its factors that could be limiting production. Soil laboratory analysis is an accepted measure performed by farmers around the globe to obtain some insight about what is going on in their soils and use it as a starting point to take management decisions. The soil test report obtained after analysis may include recommended fertilizer application rates and even recommended products. Nevertheless, this service is not always available or economically accessible for every user. The process of interpreting a soil test report is not rocket science, and with a basic understanding of the overall condition of soil, it is possible for any user to improve the soil quality. It should be noted that a soil test report is not completely accurate and may just represent the condition of the soil where the sample was taken. However, is still valuable to be able to read, understand, interpret and act according to what the report is telling the user. The most important thing to remember when interpreting soil test results, is that soil quality or fertility is not just a matter of nutrient balance, but also about the chemical and physical conditions of soil, including acidity, salinity, and moisture content. FIRST: Evaluate and improve the physical condition of the soil Porosity and moisture content are limiting factors that can reduce agricultural productivity. Fine soil textures are good for retaining moisture, but bad for resisting compaction. Conversely, sand and gravel retain low quantities of",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "soil, including acidity, salinity, and moisture content. FIRST: Evaluate and improve the physical condition of the soil Porosity and moisture content are limiting factors that can reduce agricultural productivity. Fine soil textures are good for retaining moisture, but bad for resisting compaction. Conversely, sand and gravel retain low quantities of humidity, but resist compaction better than clays. Compacted soils and not Soil input recommendations | 105 granular structures make root growth, water infiltration and percolation significantly harder. When roots can’t penetrate deep and water sits for too long on the root-zone (0 – 12 in), the root system becomes shallow and relies on the surface conditions to thrive. This is a problem, especially when water has trouble draining away because waterlogging near the surface increases nutrient reduction reactions and changes the chemical soil conditions. As a result, crops are more susceptible to drought and nutrient deficiencies. Moreover, soil physical conditions can be managed temporarily to better adequate the soil with optimal growing conditions. Artificial drainage, such as tile pipe or canals can be implemented to reduce waterlogging and increase draining rates. Canals are built to collect excess water from run-off after high precipitation events, and also to regulate the water table, preventing it from reaching the root-zone. Conversely, when soil is too dry, there is no moisture that can be used to absorb nutrients. Nutrients use water as transport to move through the soil and to be absorbed by the plant’s roots. Irrigation can be useful to maintain optimal soil moisture and the effects of drought stress, including plasmolysis and the inability to feed on plant nutrients. Surface structure and compaction are modified with soil tilling with chisel and disc plows, or with rotovators. These technologies increase soil porosity in the short term but may lead to the development of",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "moisture and the effects of drought stress, including plasmolysis and the inability to feed on plant nutrients. Surface structure and compaction are modified with soil tilling with chisel and disc plows, or with rotovators. These technologies increase soil porosity in the short term but may lead to the development of hardpans when mechanization occurs regularly on not optimal conditions (eg., excess soil moisture). Soil texture is hardly altered because it requires large amounts of material. This is seen more often in sport turf management, where the soil is amended with large quantities of sand that increase drainage and reduce the risk of compaction. However, the economic cost represents a significant restriction for conventional agriculture, and the incorporation of organic matter is more common for enhancing texture and structure. Commonly, these problems are not presented in a conventional soil fertility test, unless otherwise specified. However, they can be the reason for crops not being able to thrive as expected. When the growing medium lacks proper soil physical fertility, the application of other inputs, such as lime or fertilizers, may not result in a significant improvement of yield. If the soil’s physical condition is considered optimal, it is time to address the chemical fertility problems identified from the soil test report. SECOND: Improving Soil Chemical Fertility Soil pH is the primary chemical property regulating nutrient availability, and most soil test reports include this value. Acid soils (pH<7) tend to have more aluminum readily available, which results toxic for plants, and calcium, phosphorus and magnesium are less available. Alkaline conditions (pH>7decrease phosphorus and micronutrients availability and increase salinity susceptibility. Nutrient deficiencies caused by soil pH can be reduced with the application of lime (increase pH), or with acidifying materials containing sulfur (reduce pH). These solve the problem in the short term and pH",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "and magnesium are less available. Alkaline conditions (pH>7decrease phosphorus and micronutrients availability and increase salinity susceptibility. Nutrient deficiencies caused by soil pH can be reduced with the application of lime (increase pH), or with acidifying materials containing sulfur (reduce pH). These solve the problem in the short term and pH will return to the original level if it is not constantly managed. Liming corrects passive acidity but does not change soil natural behavior and mineralogy, which is the reason for the soil’s natural pH. For example, in tropical countries like Costa Rica where precipitation rates are very high (>120 in/year), it is common to find soils with pH of 5 or even lower. Thus, for farmers in the region, liming pastures and other agricultural fields becomes a regular practice every one or two years. 106 | Soil input recommendations Soil salinity negatively affects soil aggregation, structure, infiltration, and salts may be toxic for crops. It’s important to remember that soil salinity is not the same as sodic soils. The difference is in the type of salts present in the soil. Sodicity means higher sodium content, and general salinity includes calcium, magnesium, chloride, and carbonate accumulation. Common techniques to deal with these conditions include washing salts away and applying gypsum. When water for irrigation is available, applying large quantities of water help leach salts away from the root zone. However, the constant application of irrigation water or the poor quality of it can help build up the salt accumulation. Therefore, the efficacy of this method will greatly depend on the quality of water. The application of gypsum is done to reduce the effect of sodium. The calcium contained in gypsum replaces the sodium adhered to the colloids, which then reacts with the sulfur creating soluble sodium sulfate in the soil solution",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "efficacy of this method will greatly depend on the quality of water. The application of gypsum is done to reduce the effect of sodium. The calcium contained in gypsum replaces the sodium adhered to the colloids, which then reacts with the sulfur creating soluble sodium sulfate in the soil solution that is easily leached away. Soil test reports include salinity obtained through measuring the electrical conductivity of the soil sample. Sodicity is obtained by comparing the concentration of sodium with the total CEC. Soil input recommendations | 107 Leaching requirement example To efficiently leach salts away, the soils profile should be wet enough for water to drain and carry salts away. The following are used to calculate the leaching requirement: • LR = ECw / ( 5xECc – ECw) • WR = ET / ( 1 – LR) where LR stands for Leaching Requirement and the result has no unit it is a factor, ECw is the electrical conductivity of water to be used (in dS/m), and ECc is the desired electrical conductivity to achieved or the threshold that the crop can handle. In the second equation WR is the water required to leach salts away, and the ET represent the evapotranspiration of the area which means the total moisture being lost through evaporation and transpiration that has to be compensated for to achieve and optimal salt flush (in mm/day). Example There is a hotel in a dry region of the western territory of Costa Rica, where they are having problems with their gardens. The soil and water were sent for analysis, and they obtained that their soil has a ESP of 10% and an EC of 5 dS/m. And their water turns out to have an ECw of 1 dS/m. They decided to work better with plants that can",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "problems with their gardens. The soil and water were sent for analysis, and they obtained that their soil has a ESP of 10% and an EC of 5 dS/m. And their water turns out to have an ECw of 1 dS/m. They decided to work better with plants that can tolerate up to ECc of 1 dS/m in the soil, but first they have to determine the water requirement to maintain the soil in the 1 dS/m range. If the ET of the area is 6 mm/day, help them calculate how much water they should apply per day through irrigation. 1. Obtain the Leaching Requirement factor: LR = (1 dS/m) / (5x1 dS/m 1 dS/m) LR = 0.25 2. Calculate the Water Requirement per day: WR = (6 mm/day) / (1 0.25) WR = 8 mm/day Result: The recommended water requirement is 8 mm/day to maintain optimal growing conditions for their plants. Because they have an ESP < 15%, they don’t have sodium related problems, therefore, the application of gypsum is not critical. 108 | Soil input recommendations Gypsum requirement example Gypsum requirement can be calculated with the following equation: • Gypsum requirement (ton/ha) = Na content (cmol/kg) x 4.5 Example A farm in Guatemala is having problems growing crops. Soil samples were submitted for analysis and the results showed a ESP of 18% and a CEC of 20cmol/kg. They decided to apply gypsum to improve their soil quality but need help calculating the total requirement. Help them solve the problem. 1. Calculate the sodium content: Na (cmol/kg) = Total CEC x ESP Na = (20 cmol/kg) x 0.18 3.6 cmol Na / kg 2. Calculate the gypsum requirement: Gypsum = (3.6 cmol/kg) x 4.5 16-ton Gypsum / ha Result: they need to apply 16 tons of gypsum per hectare.",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "problem. 1. Calculate the sodium content: Na (cmol/kg) = Total CEC x ESP Na = (20 cmol/kg) x 0.18 3.6 cmol Na / kg 2. Calculate the gypsum requirement: Gypsum = (3.6 cmol/kg) x 4.5 16-ton Gypsum / ha Result: they need to apply 16 tons of gypsum per hectare. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=1158#h5p-41 THIRD: Make fertilizer recommendations Fertilizer application is an alternative solution to compensate for nutrient deficiencies. They can be applied to build up the soil nutrient pool up to a critical threshold, to compensate for the nutrient mining done by the crops, or a combination of both. It is important to remember that over application of nutrient may result in luxury consumption by the crop, which results in toxicity and can be as detrimental as the deficiency of such nutrients. Therefore, it becomes vital to correctly interpret the nutrient levels and apply fertilizing products accordingly. Organic derived fertilizers contained lower levels of nutrients compared to synthetic fertilizers, but they can also help improve microbial activity and provide the benefits of soil organic matter. Conversely, synthetic formulas are intended to provide higher rates of nutrients and make them available more easily compared to organic products. Bulk blended fertilizers contained raw particles of different materials, in which each particle provides a different element. These tend to be cheaper but nutrient distribution is not as even and effective as chemical formulas can be. Granular fertilizers contained particles of equal size and chemical composition that are obtained by mixing together raw Soil input recommendations | 109 materials through chemical reactions. These required some extra processing and prices may be higher, however, they ensure that each particle contains an equal amount of nutrients, providing a more",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "fertilizers contained particles of equal size and chemical composition that are obtained by mixing together raw Soil input recommendations | 109 materials through chemical reactions. These required some extra processing and prices may be higher, however, they ensure that each particle contains an equal amount of nutrients, providing a more even application. It is on the farmer’s judgement and accessibility the preference and acquisition of one over the other. 110 | Soil input recommendations Nutrient ratio example Sometimes the nutrient ratio to apply is given in the soil test report, however, this is not always the case. The nutrient ratio indicates the proportion of NPK in the product to apply. For example, a 15-15-15 fertilizer has a ratio of 1-1-1, and the ratio 18-6-12 is 3-1-2. This helps decide on the product to apply and provide guidance when a custom formula is being created. In this picture we can see the soil test report from a dairy farm in Guatemala. Soil in the region is derived from volcanic ashes and tends to have acidity problems due to high precipitation rates in the region. The results inside the red box show the required nutrients needed to bring the soil to an ‘adequate’ or optimum level, this means above deficiency. Soil test report example. Picture by: Arturo F. To decide in which fertilizer to apply, obtaining the recommended nutrient ratio can help. To do this follow the steps: 1. Obtain the recommended rate of each nutrient by subtracting the actual level from the desired ‘optimum’ level (Rate = optimum – actual). In this case the lab already reports this result (we just have to transform it into our desired units). 160 kg P2O5 ha-1 = 142.51 lb P2O5 acre-1 140 kg K2O ha-1 = 124.60 lb K2O acre-1 2. Nitrogen is not",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "the desired ‘optimum’ level (Rate = optimum – actual). In this case the lab already reports this result (we just have to transform it into our desired units). 160 kg P2O5 ha-1 = 142.51 lb P2O5 acre-1 140 kg K2O ha-1 = 124.60 lb K2O acre-1 2. Nitrogen is not commonly analyzed in this kind of tests because of its mobility and ease to leach and volatize. Therefore, tissue analysis is preferred, and nitrogen fertilization attempts to compensate for the biomass produced in certain are. The image shows the crop here is Bracharia, and a commonly accepted rate of N for this is 100 kg N ha-1. Soil input recommendations | 111 100 kg N ha-1 = 89 lb N acre-1 3. The ratio is obtained by dividing the total required of each nutrient by the smallest value, in this case N. 89 lb N acre-1 / 89 = 1 142.51 lb P2O5 acre-1 / 89 = 1.6 124.60 lb K2O acre-1 / 89 = 1.4 The recommended ratio here will be 1 – 1.6 – 1.4. Knowing this ratio, it is possible to choose from commercial formulas that best fit the needs or to mix fertilizing materials to supply the required nutrients. 112 | Soil input recommendations Fertilizing recommendation examples The process of balancing soil nutrients consists in bringing deficient nutrients up to an optimal threshold. The following videos provide a step by step in the process and help understand how to make fertilizer recommendations. When creating a fertilizing mix, it is important to consider the compatibility of the materials to avoid precipitation or insolubility of some nutrients. Video 1: Calculate the nutrient ratio One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=1158 Video 2: Calculate how",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "mix, it is important to consider the compatibility of the materials to avoid precipitation or insolubility of some nutrients. Video 1: Calculate the nutrient ratio One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=1158 Video 2: Calculate how many bags of fertilizer we need One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=1158 Video 3: Create your own NPK fertilizer One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=1158 Extra: One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=1158 Soil input recommendations | 113 Nutrient basics AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Compare and contrast macro vs micronutrients • Relate mobility in plant to expected deficiency symptom location • Identify potential deficiency patterns on the plant or in the field Macronutrients vs Micronutrients While both macro and micronutrients are required for plant growth, there are needed in differing quantities. Macronutrients are needed in larger quantities and are usually involved in the structural components of plants. Micronutrients are just as required for healthy plant growth but needed in smaller quantities. They are usually components of enzymes or metabolic functions. A micronutrient deficiency may be corrected with a few pounds per acre, while a significant macronutrient deficiency will likely take significantly more fertilizer. Deficiency symptoms vs hidden hunger A plant may not appear clearly nutrient deficient immediately, but may grow or yield poorly. Deficiency symptoms likely indicate a significant issue that should be addressed, but it may be too late to obtain the full yield of an annual crop this season. Deficiency symptoms can include",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "vs hidden hunger A plant may not appear clearly nutrient deficient immediately, but may grow or yield poorly. Deficiency symptoms likely indicate a significant issue that should be addressed, but it may be too late to obtain the full yield of an annual crop this season. Deficiency symptoms can include a variety of visual abnormalities, including yellow striping, stunted plants, purple coloration, malformed structures, or others depending upon the plant and nutrient. Deficiency vs Toxicity Both too much and too little of a nutrient can significantly impact plant growth. At excessive levels, too much of a nutrient accumulating in tissues can cause damage, or interfering with uptake of other nutrients. This can be more significant of an issue at low pH values, when metals are more soluble. Nutrient basics | 115 Mobile vs Immobile A nutrient can be mobile in the plant and the soil. If a nutrient is immobile in the plant, it can’t be moved to new growth if the plant runs out, where as a mobile nutrient couple be transported within the plant to the area of most need. Therefore, a mobile nutrient deficiency will appear in the older growth, where an immobile nutrient deficiency will first appear in the new growth. If a nutrient is immobile in the soil, a root needs to grow to it rather than relying on water to help carry it to the root. Therefore an immobile nutrient deficiency may occur in conditions of poor root growth, such as a cool, wet Midwest US spring. Examples • View a table of nutrient availability in the plant vs in the soil here Remember: Don’t assume that a nutrient deficiency means a soil deficiency. Sometimes soil or plant conditions simply don’t allow for sufficient uptake, like iron in a high pH soil. Iron chlorosis",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Midwest US spring. Examples • View a table of nutrient availability in the plant vs in the soil here Remember: Don’t assume that a nutrient deficiency means a soil deficiency. Sometimes soil or plant conditions simply don’t allow for sufficient uptake, like iron in a high pH soil. Iron chlorosis is not effectively solved by adding more iron. Depending upon the plant or conditions, management options could include foliar application, adjusting the pH, or simply choosing a more tolerant crop. What to look for in the field Patterns can be helpful in determining or narrowing out potential diagnoses. A strip of yellow corn across a field or deficiency symptoms matching the width of the application equipment could be associated with equipment malfunction. Straight lines are unusual in nature, so could point to a human interaction, such as nutrient or chemical application equipment, change in plant hybrid selected, or past fenceline/treatment change. One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=753#oembed-1 Alternatively, an area on a steep slope showing a deficiency may be associated with erosion and resulting lower organic matter, significantly different pH value (as is common across calcareous parent materials like 116 | Nutrient basics in the central US), or some other soil factor. Using the soil map and further soil testing can help problem solving, and may result in multiple issues being discovered. Key Takeaways • Nutrients have a variety of properties that influence when and where a deficiency may appear along with how much may be needed to address the deficiency. • Challenging soil conditions may limit options for addressing the plant nutrient needs. Nutrient basics | 117 Nitrogen AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Outline basic steps in the nitrogen cycle • Identify potential sources",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "where a deficiency may appear along with how much may be needed to address the deficiency. • Challenging soil conditions may limit options for addressing the plant nutrient needs. Nutrient basics | 117 Nitrogen AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Outline basic steps in the nitrogen cycle • Identify potential sources of loss or transformation resulting in decreased available N in the soil • Predict differences in loss of nitrogen under contrasting conditions. Importance Nitrogen is critically important to plant growth as it is a part of chlorophyll, nucleic acids (DNA), amino acids, and proteins. Therefore, a nitrogen-deficient plant will appear yellow with decreased growth. Despite being a major component of the air around us, nitrogen can regularly be a plant-limiting nutrient. Today, commercial nitrogen production, known as the Haber-Bosch process, uses large amounts of energy to convert the nitrogen in the atmosphere to plant-usable forms. Previously, legumes and manures were used for nitrogen management within agricultural systems. A corn field with a strip of grasses through it. 118 | Nitrogen Lower leaf of corn (maize) plant showing nitrogen deficiency symptoms US geological Survey simplified nitrogen cycle Nitrogen is a challenge for management due to its significant biological reactivity, interactions with soil, and potential negative impacts on human health and the environment. The US Environmental protection agency (EPA) has set a limit of 10 ppm (10 mg/L) in its safe drinking water standard due to the potential negative health implications, such as blue baby syndrome. Environmentally, nutrient enrichment coming from the corn belt contributes to the dead zone in the gulf of Mexico. Simplified Nitrogen Cycle Transformations • Fixation: N2 gas converted to plant-usable form through either free-living or symbiotic organisms. Commercially or industrially, atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed using significant amounts of energy through the Haber-Bosch process. This nitrogen is",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "corn belt contributes to the dead zone in the gulf of Mexico. Simplified Nitrogen Cycle Transformations • Fixation: N2 gas converted to plant-usable form through either free-living or symbiotic organisms. Commercially or industrially, atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed using significant amounts of energy through the Haber-Bosch process. This nitrogen is added to the soil and/or plant available pool. • Nitrification: N is biologically converted to nitrate (NO3 –), which can be lost due to leaching. • Denitrification: Nitrate (NO3 –) to N2 or nitrous oxide (greenhouse gas), usually occurs due to biological activity and anaerobic conditions, like could exist in a waterlogged soil. This is a loss from both the soil and available pool. • Immobilization: Nitrogen removed from plant-available pool due to uptake by microbial tissues, so a short-term loss from the plant-available pool, but not a long-term loss. • Mineralization: Organic nitrogen converted to plant-available nitrogen, the reverse of immobilization. • Leaching: Nitrate (usually) lost due to moving in the water out of the system. Nitrogen | 119 • Volatilization: Ammonia (NH3) lost from the soil as a gas, like if anhydrous ammonia is applied to dry soil or with equipment that didn’t successfully seal the furrow. • Ammonification: N is converted to NH4 + form of nitrogen. Note that microbial activity is a major component of many transformations, with soil conditions, such as low oxygen or warmer soil temperatures, change the types and rates of transformations present. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=755#h5p-38 Legumes and nitrogen management Historically, legumes like alfalfa, beans, and peas, in combination with animal manures or composts, were used to add nitrogen or manage nitrogen in agricultural or horticultural settings. Many of these techniques are still used, based upon",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=755#h5p-38 Legumes and nitrogen management Historically, legumes like alfalfa, beans, and peas, in combination with animal manures or composts, were used to add nitrogen or manage nitrogen in agricultural or horticultural settings. Many of these techniques are still used, based upon available resources. Nitrate testing In Iowa, any nitrate remaining in August is assumed to be lost before the next cash crop would utilize it, so it is not regularly included in standard fall soil testing. In drier climates, this may not be the case, and fall or winter nitrate testing may occur. The spring soil nitrate test may be used after corn has begun its growth to determine if an additional side-dress application of nitrogen would be warranted. Fall cornstalk testing could be used to assess if nitrogen was sufficient or likely in excess to determine future management. If still possible, a cover crop could be used to uptake the remaining nitrate and prevent it from leaching. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=755#h5p-39 Additional Nitrogen Cycle video One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=755#oembed-1 This video was developed by Dr. John Sawyer with ISU Extension. 120 | Nitrogen Check it out! • Check out the nitrogen rate calculator here Key Takeaways Nitrogen management is dynamic due to its biological reactivity • Potential losses can occur to either air or water • Biological transformations significantly impact the plant-available N Nitrogen | 121 Phosphorus AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Identify major pieces within the phosphorus cycle and factors impacting plant availability • Explain potential impacts on the environment from contrasting management • Recommend practices",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "losses can occur to either air or water • Biological transformations significantly impact the plant-available N Nitrogen | 121 Phosphorus AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Identify major pieces within the phosphorus cycle and factors impacting plant availability • Explain potential impacts on the environment from contrasting management • Recommend practices to decrease the environmental impact of phosphorus fertilization Phosphorus Characteristics in Soil There is a small amount of phosphorus in the soil solution and, therefore available to a plant at any point in time. Low total amounts in the soil and low solubility mean that the plant can lack sufficient phosphorus for growth, particularly in cool and wet spring conditions when Iowa’s annual crops have a minimal root system exhibiting lots of branching. Availability can be impacted by soil pH, at both low or high ranges, as phosphorus can form calcium phosphates or iron phosphates. Due to low plant availability, mycorrhizal associations can be significant contributors to plant uptake for phosphorus. Phosphorus fertilizers include animal manures, DAP (Diammonium phosphate) or MAP (monoammonium phosphate) are made by combining ammonia and phosphoric acid. Alternatively, mined rock phosphate or other unique materials such as guano. Role in Plant Growth As a part of ATP, phosphorus is important for energy transfer within the plant. Therefore, stunted plants are expected, but purple coloring is also common. 122 | Phosphorus Photo credit: Lizzie Dykstra The top plant is from the center of a disturbed area (pipeline construction), the edge of disturbed area, and just outside of the disturbed area on the bottom. Photo credit: Lizzie Dykstra. Phosphorus Loss Phosphorus loss from Iowa soils or to Iowa water bodies is generally attributed to erosion of the entire soil rather than via water. Therefore, strategies to decrease loss or improve water quality focus on decreasing erosion rather than",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "the disturbed area on the bottom. Photo credit: Lizzie Dykstra. Phosphorus Loss Phosphorus loss from Iowa soils or to Iowa water bodies is generally attributed to erosion of the entire soil rather than via water. Therefore, strategies to decrease loss or improve water quality focus on decreasing erosion rather than biological mechanisms for nitrate loss. Decreasing erosion, through decreasing tillage, increasing cover, buffer strips, increasing perennial cover on the landscape, decrease phosphorus loss to water bodies. Additionally, livestock manure can be detrimental to local water quality, resulting in decreased use and function as can be seen in the photo below. Stream exclusion fencing, keeping livestock from wallowing in the water and adding manure, can decrease the risk to water quality. Application of manure should be incorporated, not applied to frozen ground when it would be more likely to run off, and should be set back from the stream or water body. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=757#h5p-40 By how much do practices decrease loss of N and P? • Reducing Nutrient Loss-Science Shows What Works-see what expected decrease to N and P levels by potential practices. Phosphorus | 123 Importance in Water Bodies Significant water quality issues result from phosphorus enrichment, both at local and national scales. Nutrient contribution from the upper midwest contributes to the significant hypoxic or ‘dead zone’ in the US Gulf of Mexico. Eutrophication, or the nutrient enrichment of these water bodies causes excessive growth, and then excessive decomposition, which decreases oxygen in the water. Since organisms in the water need oxygen, this causes a collapse in the local ecosystem. Therefore, it is important to minimize loss from our soils and decrease impact on nearby water bodies. Nutrient Reduction Strategy • Nutrient",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "causes excessive growth, and then excessive decomposition, which decreases oxygen in the water. Since organisms in the water need oxygen, this causes a collapse in the local ecosystem. Therefore, it is important to minimize loss from our soils and decrease impact on nearby water bodies. Nutrient Reduction Strategy • Nutrient reduction strategy details here Key Takeaways Phosphorus is limiting in many environments and must be carefully managed to ensure successful plants and environmental quality. 124 | Phosphorus Potassium AMBER ANDERSON Learning Objectives • Identify the function of potassium in the plant and potential deficiency symptoms. • Define the concept of “luxury consumption” • Identify under what conditions potassium deficiencies might be more likely Role in the plant Potassium is contained in the sap rather than structural components of the plant. It is involved in water regulation, such as stomata opening and closing, as well as some enzymatic and energy reactions within the plant. Because of this function, deficiency symptoms may be more evident in hot and dry growing seasons. Potassium | 125 Potassium deficiency on soybean Potassium cycle Potassium cycle illustrated. Image Source: Compost Camel, CC BY SA The primary location of potassium in soils are the primary minerals. Small amounts are held on the cation exchange capacity, and significantly less of that is available to the plant in the solution at one time. If the soil can’t supply potassium, fertilizer application would be required. Historically, materials like ‘pot-ash’, or ash from burned materials would be used for potassium enrichment. Luxury consumption Luxury consumption is the concept of plant uptake beyond plant needs. If the crop is harvested for grain, this may not be a significant issue. However, if a forage like alfalfa, or silage is produced, this would result in a higher export of potassium from the soil. Deficiency",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Luxury consumption Luxury consumption is the concept of plant uptake beyond plant needs. If the crop is harvested for grain, this may not be a significant issue. However, if a forage like alfalfa, or silage is produced, this would result in a higher export of potassium from the soil. Deficiency symptoms Deficiencies in potassium may be found in areas where the entire plant is removed, while green, 126 | Potassium Potassium and forage management: • Soil potassium and alfalfa Key Takeaways • Potassium is important in water regulation within the plant • Risk of potassium deficiency increases in areas where plants are harvested green and removed • Symptoms may be more evident in hot and dry years Potassium | 127 Micronutrients MEGAN BLAUWET Learning Objectives • Identify functions of micronutrients in the plant • Match soil properties with potential deficiencies Micronutrients make up a small percentage of the overall plant, but are critical for growth. Most are used in enzymes rather than structural components of the plant. Extreme cases, like extreme pH values, peat soils, or otherwise unusual conditions makes deficiencies more likely. Since deficiencies are resolved by small quantities per area, they may be added to other mixes or strategy that allows more effective spreading. Materials such as manure or composts may be used, depending upon analysis. There are eight micronutrients that are essential for plant growth. These include boron, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iron, copper, chlorine, and nickel. All micronutrients are needed in small amounts so when soils contain too much of them, toxicity can occur. Boron (B) Boron is used in plants for germination, pollination, sugar transport, cell wall development, protein formation, and carbohydrate metabolism. Boron is one of the most common micronutrient deficiencies. Boron is most often limited in alkaline soils and oppositely can have toxic amounts",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "too much of them, toxicity can occur. Boron (B) Boron is used in plants for germination, pollination, sugar transport, cell wall development, protein formation, and carbohydrate metabolism. Boron is one of the most common micronutrient deficiencies. Boron is most often limited in alkaline soils and oppositely can have toxic amounts in acidic soils. A deficiency in boron will affect the vegetative and reproductive growth of the plant. Deficiency symptoms include chlorosis, death of buds/flowers, and death of new growth. A fertilizer most often used to add boron to the soil is sodium borate which contains around 10-20% boron. Zinc (Zn) Zinc is a part of many enzymes in the plant that are used for metabolic functions. A lack of zinc will create problems with protein, carbohydrate, and chlorophyll formation. Deficiencies are most likely to occur in calcareous soils with low organic matter and high pH. Zinc has a relationship with phosphorus in the soil where too much phosphorus can result in Zn deficiency. Deficiency symptoms include striping of corn leaves or yellowing of leaves. Zinc sulfate is the most common fertilizer used to add Zn to soils. 128 | Micronutrients Iron chlorosis on a tree in central Iowa Manganese (Mn) Manganese is an important micronutrient involved in critical functions in the plant such as photosynthesis, nitrogen assimilation, and respiration. Deficiency is most likely to occur in high pH soils and toxicity can occur in low pH soils. Manganese competes with iron in the soil so it is important to keep them balanced. The symptoms of Mn deficiency includes yellowing of leaves with wide green areas on the veins. Manganese sulfate is a common fertilizer added to soils that are deficient. Molybdenum (Mo) Molybdenum is a part of enzymes that are used in nitrogen fixation, nitrate reductase (converting nitrate into proteins),",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "them balanced. The symptoms of Mn deficiency includes yellowing of leaves with wide green areas on the veins. Manganese sulfate is a common fertilizer added to soils that are deficient. Molybdenum (Mo) Molybdenum is a part of enzymes that are used in nitrogen fixation, nitrate reductase (converting nitrate into proteins), and the conversion of inorganic phosphate to organic. Unlike most other micronutrients, molybdenum deficiencies occur in acidic soils. Toxic amounts of molybdenum in plants used to feed animals can be quite harmful. Since molybdenum is related to nitrogen functions in plants, deficiencies can look similar and result in yellowing of leaves and stunting of growth. Fertilizers that add molybdenum include sodium molybdate and ammonium molybdate. Iron (Fe) Iron is a part of many enzymes and is used for chlorophyll formation, cell division and growth, and oxygen transport. Iron deficiencies are found in soils with high clay content or high pH soils. Interveinal chlorosis is the most typical iron deficiency symptom. Iron added to the soil in fertilizers is often chelated iron which will be available for longer in the soil. A foliar spray of ferrous sulfate is also available and commonly used. Copper (Cu) Copper is a part of enzymes critical for photosynthesis, respiration, and lignin production. Copper deficiencies are not very common in most soils but can be found in sandy soils or peat soils with very high organic matter. Plant deficiency symptoms include slight yellowing of leaves and leaf tip twisting or death. Copper sulfate is a common fertilizer applied to fix copper deficient soils. Chlorine (Cl) Chlorine is used in stomata regulation, osmotic regulation, and disease resistance. Chlorine can be problematic in arid regions due to it largely being found in salt forms in soil. Chlorotic or necrotic spots on leaves and wilting are common deficiency symptoms.",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "fertilizer applied to fix copper deficient soils. Chlorine (Cl) Chlorine is used in stomata regulation, osmotic regulation, and disease resistance. Chlorine can be problematic in arid regions due to it largely being found in salt forms in soil. Chlorotic or necrotic spots on leaves and wilting are common deficiency symptoms. Potash (KCl) fertilizer is often applied for its potassium, but it also provides chloride to the soil. Micronutrients | 129 Nickel (Ni) Nickel is the most recently discovered plant micronutrient. Its function in the plant is as a cofactor for the conversion of urea into a plant available form. Nickel deficiency in plants is very rare but can appear as necrosis of leaves (due to buildup of urea) and is most likely to be found in high pH soils. If a soil is low on nickel, nickel sulfate fertilizer can be added. Figure showing pH influence on plant nutrient availability from Potash Development Association. An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=771#h5p-42 An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/introsoilscience/?p=771#h5p-43 130 | Micronutrients Key Takeaways Type your key takeaways here. • Micronutrients are essential to plants but needed in small amounts. • There are 8 essential plant micronutrients and most are a part of enzymes or used in metabolic functions. Micronutrients | 131 Western Iowa hillslope AMBER ANDERSON Grass seed was planted equally across the area after road construction was complete, but the upper part of this slope started to establish vegetation when the lower part did not, as shown in this picture. This area is located in Western Iowa, west of the Missouri river valley in fairly sloping area. 1. What soil properties might explain",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "after road construction was complete, but the upper part of this slope started to establish vegetation when the lower part did not, as shown in this picture. This area is located in Western Iowa, west of the Missouri river valley in fairly sloping area. 1. What soil properties might explain what is seen in this picture? What might the next management step be if you are in charge of the location? Western Iowa hillslope | 133 Corn deficiency symptoms AMBER ANDERSON This photo was taken at the end of June, in a cool, wet spring. Corn on the slope shows the yellow striping, but corn at the top and bottom of the hill do not show the same pattern, in spite of being the same variety and planted on the same day. These plants were slightly smaller than the ones at the bottom of the hill. This soil core was pulled from the location showing the deficiency patterns: 134 | Corn deficiency symptoms Tree with Chlorosis AMBER ANDERSON This tree is located in a yard in Ames, IA. Foliage appeared normal as a smaller tree, but has become more pronounced as it has gotten larger. No treatments have been applied to either the tree or the surrounding yard. 1. What soil features might be contributing to this appearance? Why would it be changing as the tree gets larger? What might you recommend for this homeowner? Tree with Chlorosis | 135 NC Iowa crops AMBER ANDERSON These soybeans are located in North-Central Iowa. This was a particularly dry spring, and this shoulder/ backslope area showed yellowing on the leaves. 1 1. Photo credits Angie Rieck-Hinz, ISU Extension North Central Region Agronomist. 136 | NC Iowa crops 1. What soil factors could be contributing to this? What other questions do you have",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "North-Central Iowa. This was a particularly dry spring, and this shoulder/ backslope area showed yellowing on the leaves. 1 1. Photo credits Angie Rieck-Hinz, ISU Extension North Central Region Agronomist. 136 | NC Iowa crops 1. What soil factors could be contributing to this? What other questions do you have to figure out the cause of the solution? NC Iowa crops | 137 Erosion around houses AMBER ANDERSON You are asked to look at erosion happening at two different houses: House one: This house was built approximately 10-12 years ago, is on a slight slope. Over time, this has developed: 138 | Erosion around houses House two: This front yard has about 1-2″ of sediments over the previously established garden edge, along with a gully forming off the back downspouts off a of a C to D slope into a wooded area. 1. What soils factors may be contributing to these two scenarios? 2. The homeowner asks you what to do about each of these, what do you recommend/why? Erosion around houses | 139 Uganda management challenge AMBER ANDERSON This corn is in Kamuli District, Uganda, and would normally yield sufficient crop to be used as a staple food for the season and sold in the market, this is not used for animal feed. Fertility/tillage is not significantly different in these pictures than in years with good yields sufficient to sustain the family on the 1-2 acre plot. They can grow multiple crops per year depending upon rainfall and crops chosen, as temperatures do not fall much below 60 degrees F at any point in the year. Recently, the little purple flowers on the right have appeared at the edge of the field, and the ears in the picture are empty. They have asked you to figure out what is",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "chosen, as temperatures do not fall much below 60 degrees F at any point in the year. Recently, the little purple flowers on the right have appeared at the edge of the field, and the ears in the picture are empty. They have asked you to figure out what is going on and how might they manage this problem so they can produce enough crop. 1. What management recommendations do you have? 2. What significant differences exist when considering management here than in the Midwest US? 140 | Uganda management challenge Hoop house AMBER ANDERSON Tomatoes in this hoop house were reported to yield less this year than the last several years. This hoop is located in central Iowa, and has had a hoop (see below) for approximately 6 years. Soil samples for calcium and magnesium were the following (mehlich extraction): Sample Id Ca Conc (mg/kg) Mg Conc (mg/kg) In irrigation line 3-4″ 1 6326 95 Edge of row 0-1″ 2 6591 139 edge of row 0-4″ 3 6358 171 2-6″ 4 5188 80 Hoop house | 141 Samples of the water came back with the following results: Sample Id Ca Conc (mg/L) Mg Conc (mg/L) R-1 159 104 R-2 156 10?3 1. What additional questions do you have for this grower? What additional results would be helpful? 142 | Hoop house Geography ARTURO FLORES AND BRADLEY MILLER Learning Objectives • Discuss the concept of geography. • Understand the relationship between geography and soil science. Keywords: geography, human and physical geography, spatial distribution. Introduction to geography The most basic form of geography answers to “Where are things located.” However, it is more complex and dynamic than that. Geography is the science that studies the Earth’s surface and the phenomena occurring in it from a spatial perspective. It explores ‘where’ phenomena",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "geography, spatial distribution. Introduction to geography The most basic form of geography answers to “Where are things located.” However, it is more complex and dynamic than that. Geography is the science that studies the Earth’s surface and the phenomena occurring in it from a spatial perspective. It explores ‘where’ phenomena occur and tries to explain the ‘why’ it occurs there. Geography studies single and independent features, like geographic landforms and places, or complex events, like human migrations and soil type distribution. 144 | Geography World Map by Gerard van Schagen (1698) The geographic space includes a delimited area where natural elements from the environment (eg., rivers, mountains, vegetation, climate) interact with humans or with other environmental elements. In the beginning, human settlements and cultural expansion occurred to where natural conditions where more favorable for agriculture, thus, for nourishment. Geographically speaking, soil fertility tends to be higher in alluvial systems (next to big rivers or regions prone to flooding). It was expected that cities would develop closer to this fertile land enriched with alluvial sediments brought in by water bodies, such is the case of the Egyptians in the Nile River and the Southern Asia cultures along the Mekong River. Higher precipitation rates and higher average temperatures throughout the year tend to facilitate and boost agricultural yield. Whilst the Norse struggled to grow few crops during the relatively ‘warm’ summer months in Greenland, people in Mesoamerica where able to harvest corn up to three times per year. This is the result of different geographical conditions, including climatic patterns and topography that regulate soil development and weather. From a different point of view, more ‘favorable’ geographic conditions are not always so beneficial. Mayans exploited fertile soils so intensely, that soil quality decreased, fertility Geography | 145 was reduced, and agriculture significantly limited",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "of different geographical conditions, including climatic patterns and topography that regulate soil development and weather. From a different point of view, more ‘favorable’ geographic conditions are not always so beneficial. Mayans exploited fertile soils so intensely, that soil quality decreased, fertility Geography | 145 was reduced, and agriculture significantly limited to new deforested land through slash-and-burn systems. This caused massive Mayan migrations towards more ‘fertile’ land (south) and started a slow but constant decay of the civilization, leaving behind impoverished soils. Also, closeness to river systems may facilitate navigation and communication between cities. However, catastrophic flows have limited the rise of human settlements along them, such is the case along the Yangtze River basin in China. This shows how the geographical space is a 2-way system, in which natural elements and human distribution affect and are affected by their own action. Focus areas Geography has two main focus areas: humans and the Earth. Human geography emphasizes human activities in the geographical environment, and physical geography focuses on the landscape and the process occurring in it. Yet, both try to provide an explanation for phenomena correlated with space and sometime with time as well. LEFT: Example of Human geography map about the Eurasian expansion. RIGHT: Physical geography map representing the temperatures across the Unites States. Human geography is emphasized in the spatial distribution of people in respect to the natural environment. Some of the subdisciplines include cultural, economic, historic, political, and urban geography. It is commonly associated with social sciences because they work together to understand the human behavior. It differs from conventional social sciences in that human geography also includes the spatial dimension of the feature being studied. For example, economics is focused on understanding how the market operates, but economic geography also wants to explain how wealth and markets",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "they work together to understand the human behavior. It differs from conventional social sciences in that human geography also includes the spatial dimension of the feature being studied. For example, economics is focused on understanding how the market operates, but economic geography also wants to explain how wealth and markets are distributed within a country. Embedded in human geography, some understanding of the landscape becomes useful to understand human distribution or cultural spatial patterns. The landscape is all the visible space captured by the human eye at one specific moment in time. Each one of the shapes that exist in the landscape are called landforms, and some include mountains, volcanos, valleys, and plateaus. Because landforms regulate the flow of wind and water through the landscape and these are eroding and weathering factors, it is possible to conclude that landforms are the reason why landscapes are the way they are. However, the explanation for this is much more complex and requires a good understanding of the Earth’s surface and processes. This is where physical geography takes place. 146 | Geography Physical geography aims to explain why the landscape has a particular shape in the place where it is located. It is focused on all the natural features and processes shaping the Earth. To do so, physical geography needs to understand how the different environmental elements interact with each other and affect the Earth’s surface. Hence, it studies the different layers that constitute the Earth: air, soil, water, and biology (atmos-, litos-, hydros-, and biosphere, respectively). Some of the subdisciplines include pedology, geology, geomorphology, hydrology, and biogeography. All of these emphasize the study of the physical features of the Earth and the dynamic interaction among them. Key Takeaways • Geography studies spatial patterns of phenomena. • Geography is not only applied for",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "hydros-, and biosphere, respectively). Some of the subdisciplines include pedology, geology, geomorphology, hydrology, and biogeography. All of these emphasize the study of the physical features of the Earth and the dynamic interaction among them. Key Takeaways • Geography studies spatial patterns of phenomena. • Geography is not only applied for natural environments, but also in social sciences. Geography | 147 Cartography and maps BRADLEY MILLER AND ARTURO FLORES Learning Objectives • Discuss the importance of maps for geography. • Define the concept of geographic maps. • Identify the different elements of a map. Keywords: cartography, map, scale, legend, coordinates. Cartography and map creation Cartography is a subdiscipline of geography that graphically represents geographic data on flat surfaces. The preferred method of geography to represent spatial phenomena is with maps. A map is defined as a flat representation of spatial phenomena. Maps support visualizing data that is linked to a specific location within a geographic extent. These are easily interpreted by the users and help explain how features are spatially distributed. 148 | Cartography and maps A person is seen on a desk using a contour finder to delineate a map from a photograph (Source: Wikimedia). Maps represent topographic features (related to the landscape) or thematic themes (quantitative or qualitative data). Topographic maps represent landforms or geographic accidents in the landscape. Thematic maps include cities and roads, land use, soil properties, and even religions distribution. It includes the absolute location of a feature (position in the Earth’s surface using coordinates) or a relative location (position using another object as reference). A map of a 10-acre farm with a pond next to a field may be useful to navigate through the locally. However, it will lack context about where that farm is located in respect to the world. On the contrary, a",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "a relative location (position using another object as reference). A map of a 10-acre farm with a pond next to a field may be useful to navigate through the locally. However, it will lack context about where that farm is located in respect to the world. On the contrary, a world map may provide the location of the farm on the Earth’s surface but will fail to be a precise navigation tool when trying to locate features, eg., the pond. Elements of a map For a map to be efficient in transmitting spatial information, it has to include at least the following items: Data. Also, the actual map. It is the flat representation of the geographic space and the spatial phenomena occurring in it and is the most important part because without it the map would not exist. Title. The title is the first approximation of the user to the map’s content. It should provide some background on what the map represents. The title “Organic Matter Content” provides enough information to know which soil property is being mapped. However, it may not be completely clear where this field is located for someone other than the author. Hence, other guidance is required. Coordinates and Reference Point. The coordinates help locate the geographic feature in the world. They are commonly included in the border of the map as ticks or as a grid overlaying the image. Different Cartography and maps | 149 coordinates systems exist, and it should also be included in the map. A reference point can include a compass or arrow pointing towards the north, letting the reader situate itself better in the geographic space. Scale. A basic concept of cartography for paper maps (fixed map scale) is that the level of detail is dictated by the map scale. For",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "the map. A reference point can include a compass or arrow pointing towards the north, letting the reader situate itself better in the geographic space. Scale. A basic concept of cartography for paper maps (fixed map scale) is that the level of detail is dictated by the map scale. For example, if we made a map of Polk County, Iowa, it would make sense to delineate the city boundaries of Des Moines. In contrast, if we made a map of the world, we would only mark the locations of cities with dots and only include the largest cities. The scale explains the relationship between the map and the real world. It describes the ratio at which an area was reduced to be fitted on the map. For example, a scale of 1:100,000 means that 1 measuring unit in the map represents 100,000 units in the real world. Such units can be meters, centimeters, feet, yards, or even kilometers and miles. Small-scale maps cover big areas like the whole world, and large-scale maps cover smaller areas like farm fields. The level of detail present in small-scale maps is significantly lower than on greater scales. Large-scale maps can go as low as 1:1, but they would not be practical. Therefore, a scale of 1:5,000 can provide a good level of detail to navigate through the streets of a town. Small scales of around 1:1,000,000 can be optimal to represent a country boundary, perhaps not for precise land management but for a broad understanding of the region’s physical geography. Legend. A map without a legend provides little context on what the visuals represent. A legend is a reference guide to decode the symbology of the map and includes a description of what each color or icon represents. Remember to include the units when",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "understanding of the region’s physical geography. Legend. A map without a legend provides little context on what the visuals represent. A legend is a reference guide to decode the symbology of the map and includes a description of what each color or icon represents. Remember to include the units when quantitative values are mapped. Map items: A) Title, B) Reference point and coordinates, C) Scale bar, D) Legend (Map by: Arturo F.). 150 | Cartography and maps Key Takeaways • A map is the preferred tool of geography to share spatial data. • A map should contain a title, a reference point and coordinates, the scale, and a legend for the reader to properly understand it. • Images are not maps but can be used as base “maps” to reference and locate features in space. Cartography and maps | 151 Soil geography BRADLEY MILLER AND ARTURO FLORES Learning Objectives • Define soil geography as a tool of soil science. • Understand the importance of spatial variability of soil. • Discuss the interest of soil science to create soil maps. Keywords: soil geography, spatial variability, soil map, dynamic properties. Soil geography If not all soil is the same and different soils have different capabilities, then it becomes important to know where these different soils exist. So, to match land use and management planning to the capability of soil, we need to understand the spatial distribution of soils. In addition, the soil is changing. Some soil properties change faster than others and they are dynamic both in space and time. LEFT: Soil heterogeneity across a corn field in Boone, Iowa. Notice the change in colors depending on the position on the landscape, especially the hillslope position. RIGHT: Soil variability in a forest trail in Crosby, Minnesota. Even on a 1 m2 of",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "they are dynamic both in space and time. LEFT: Soil heterogeneity across a corn field in Boone, Iowa. Notice the change in colors depending on the position on the landscape, especially the hillslope position. RIGHT: Soil variability in a forest trail in Crosby, Minnesota. Even on a 1 m2 of soil, it is possible to have diverse content of materials, colors, and possibly chemical properties (Pictures by: Arturo F.). The spatiotemporal variability of soil is the result of different forming factors, weathering rates, time of development, and human intervention. It is known that soil not only varies vertically (soil profile), but laterally (across the landscape). Variability is easily observed from one place to another (macroscopic 152 | Soil geography variability), or it can exist at a microscopic level. However, despite the level of detail at which soil is being evaluated, heterogeneity exists and is critical for land management. Therefore, it is possible for geography to study soil as a geographic unit. Soil geography applies geographic principles into the spatial study of soil heterogeneity. Soil properties or characteristics are a response to their location. Soil forming processes occur differently across the landscape. The location of a point the geographic space is determinant for weathering intensity. The fundamental concept of ‘catena’ was explained by Geoffrey Milne, who defined it as ‘the regular repetition of soil profiles in association with certain topography.’ This concept captures the impact slope has on hydrology, and how the last serves as a critical factor for soil dynamics. The most influential factor in weathering and sediment translocation is slope gradient. This is the inclination or degree at which a slope gains or loses elevation compared to the horizontal level. It can be measured in degrees (45°) or in percentage (100 %), meaning that a slope of 100 %",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "The most influential factor in weathering and sediment translocation is slope gradient. This is the inclination or degree at which a slope gains or loses elevation compared to the horizontal level. It can be measured in degrees (45°) or in percentage (100 %), meaning that a slope of 100 % has an inclination of 45 ° and gains one unit of elevation for every horizontal unit. Steeper slopes increase water kinetic energy and its erosive potential, whilst gentle slopes or almost level ground decrease the speed of water fluxes and increase material accumulation. Convex slopes tend to be easily eroded from surface particles that accumulate more in concave regions. Higher deposition may be correlated with high enrichment areas as sediments carry nutrients along. However, they can also be problematic as water tends to accumulate more and optimal rooting conditions can be limited. Slope orientation has a regulating effect on soil properties. Regions facing to the south (in the northern hemisphere) and to the north (in the southern hemisphere) are exposed longer to solar radiation. This results in higher soil temperatures that increase biological activity, production of biomass, and perhaps reduce the time soil remains frozen after freezing winters. Wind also impacts soil development, and the east-west orientation of the slope is therefore critical in wind erosion. Slopes facing directly to the wind current are more prone to suffer from erosion than slopes on the other side of the hill. Assuming that wind is flowing west to east, a slope facing west will be slowly depleted from fine surface particles and will end up with higher accumulation of coarser materials, whether opposing slope (facing east) might end up less disrupted and with more fine sediments. Soil geography | 153 Graphic representation of the hillslope position effect (Image by: Arturo F.) The",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "west will be slowly depleted from fine surface particles and will end up with higher accumulation of coarser materials, whether opposing slope (facing east) might end up less disrupted and with more fine sediments. Soil geography | 153 Graphic representation of the hillslope position effect (Image by: Arturo F.) The position on a slope will also determine the speed at which water can erode surface materials, the infiltration rates, and the accumulation of sediments. From top to bottom, hills can be divided into summit, shoulder, back slope, foot slope, and toe slope. The first two correspond to less slope steepness (inclination) and have higher infiltration rates. Where slope starts to increase, water potential increases and with it, runoff. The back slope is the steepest section of a slope, and this causes finer particles to be carried down through water fluxes (surface water erosion). This region does not allow much time to infiltrate and has higher translocation of finer materials. Therefore, back slopes have higher content of sand or gravel and less developed soil horizons. As the slope starts to settle, the foot slope and toe slope are located at the bottom of it. Here steepness is reduced and water potential decreases as its speed also is reduced. This causes the sediments to settle and increase the thickness of the surface materials, which can include silts, clays, and nutrients carried along. The previous image demonstrates the sections of a slope and what processes are more likely to occur in each one of them. Soil maps We use soil maps for many things. The original purpose of soil maps was cadastral, which means land valuation for the purposes of taxation. The idea is that owners of land with more productive soil will have higher yields, higher income, and thus can afford to",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "of them. Soil maps We use soil maps for many things. The original purpose of soil maps was cadastral, which means land valuation for the purposes of taxation. The idea is that owners of land with more productive soil will have higher yields, higher income, and thus can afford to pay a higher portion of taxes. This use of soil maps is still common today for agricultural land. Another fundamental purpose for soil maps is interpretations for land use capability. Some of the earliest soil surveys were part of geologic reports and were essentially inventories of natural resources. This was especially common for colonies and other lands newly set up for settlement. In the early history of the USA, European settlers were setting up new farms and the soil survey maps provided guidance for which crops were best suited for that land. These reports were typically organized and paid for by county and state governments. 154 | Soil geography Napoleonian cadastral map from 1809 of Recahorts Hautes-Pyrénées, France. Another common type of soil map that serves a different purpose than soil survey maps are soil fertility maps. These soil maps focus on soil properties that change quickly and support decisions that are important to the annual economics of field management. To differentiate between long-term and shortterm soil properties, we categorize them as static and dynamic soil properties. Soil survey maps focus on static soil properties because they are more reflective of the natural capability of a soil. Also, given that soil survey maps have taken a long time to create for the large extent they cover, they focus on soil properties that won’t make the maps out of date only a few years after they are created. In support of the cadastral purpose of soil survey maps, focusing on the",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "soil survey maps have taken a long time to create for the large extent they cover, they focus on soil properties that won’t make the maps out of date only a few years after they are created. In support of the cadastral purpose of soil survey maps, focusing on the natural capability of soils avoids the variability in management. In other words, the taxation rate is based on standard management practices, not if the farmer is especially good or poor at managing their fields. The dynamic nature of soil fertility properties makes them more challenging to predict. While the factors of soil formation still apply, the relationship with those factors changes over time. For example, the application of a nitrogen fertilizer may level soil nitrate concentrations across a whole field. As time goes by, plants are consuming some of that nitrate and other biological processes are converting it to nitrous oxide gas (denitrification). While the plants may be taking up nitrate at spatially consistent rates, denitrification occurs at different rates depending on spatially variable factors such as soil water content. In addition, water moving through the soil leaches nitrate downward. Sometimes that leaching takes the nitrate straight down and sometimes that water transport is more lateral, causing the nitrate concentrations to decrease in the upper elevations and increase in the lower elevations. At any particular point in time, we could measure soil nitrate concentrations by soil sampling and identify patterns with respect to landscape position. However, as the nitrate migrates down the slopes the relationship with landscape position changes, which makes spatially predicting nitrate concentrations across the field a moving target. Soil geography | 155 Key Takeaways • Soil geography studies the formation and distribution of soil on the Earth’s surface. • Soil maps are representations of the spatial variability",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "down the slopes the relationship with landscape position changes, which makes spatially predicting nitrate concentrations across the field a moving target. Soil geography | 155 Key Takeaways • Soil geography studies the formation and distribution of soil on the Earth’s surface. • Soil maps are representations of the spatial variability of soil at one specific moment in time. • Dynamic properties (which change over time) become challenging to represent on a static map. 156 | Soil geography Mapping methods BRADLEY MILLER AND ARTURO FLORES Learning Objectives • Understand how maps are created. • Discuss two mapping methods. • Define GIS and its importance and relationship with soil mapping. Keywords: map delineation, spatial autocorrelation, spatial association, GIS. Creating a map Thinking about the logistics of making a soil map, we must come to terms with how we map something that by definition exists mostly underground. Making an accurate road map is relatively easy since the advent of aerial photography. All one has to do is trace the roads that one sees in that image and then label them. Unlike road maps, soil maps are a game of spatial prediction. A soil mapper could poke hundreds of holes in the ground and still only directly observe a small portion of the soil landscape. Aerial photographs have played a key role in the creation of soil survey maps, but they don’t let the soil mapper see much of the soil. Traditional soil maps were created using the soil surveyor’s knowledge, intuition, and understanding of the available soil information It is impossible for farmers to sample all locations within their fields because it is unpractical and time and cost expensive. To address this problem, maps are created by making predictions at unsampled locations based on scatter observations across the landscape. Soil sampling provides a",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the available soil information It is impossible for farmers to sample all locations within their fields because it is unpractical and time and cost expensive. To address this problem, maps are created by making predictions at unsampled locations based on scatter observations across the landscape. Soil sampling provides a broad understanding of the soil for that specific point. However, this knowledge is useful to identify patterns and relationships among soil properties. Spatial predictions Our best clues for predicting soil properties come from the environment that they formed in. Recall the factors of soil formation that describe environmental variables that influence soil processes. Such factors were probably credited to Hans Jenny, but they were listed sixty years before that by Vasily Dokuchaev when he was describing how to map soil in Russia. Nobody had thought to use combinations of factors to predict soil variation. The environment, including topography, climate, and vegetation, may explain more Mapping methods | 157 about soil properties than we can think of. The ancient Greeks knew to look at the vegetation for clues and the German agrogeologists of the 20th century knew to look at texture and mineralogy for clues, but previously these were considered to be competing ideas. Spatial association Utilizing the factors of soil information to associate patterns of soil variation is known as the soillandscape paradigm. This is a specific example of the geographic concept of spatial association, which is that some variables covary with each other in space. By looking at variables that are more readily observed, one can infer variables that aren’t as easily observed. In the case of the soil landscape paradigm, a soil mapper could observe soil properties in one location and infer that other locations with matching climate, vegetation (the part of organisms that can be seen in",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "that are more readily observed, one can infer variables that aren’t as easily observed. In the case of the soil landscape paradigm, a soil mapper could observe soil properties in one location and infer that other locations with matching climate, vegetation (the part of organisms that can be seen in an aerial photograph), landscape position, and parent material would also have the same combination of soil properties. For example, the Clarion soil series is mapped on the tops of the gentle hills of the Dows geologic formation (region known as the Des Moines Lobe). Within a county scale map, climate doesn’t change very much. However, there are measurable differences in climate across multiple counties. For this reason, the Clarion soil series is not associated with exactly the same soil properties from one county to the next. Although parallel in the other factors of soil formation, the Clarion soil series is associated with slightly different soil properties as observed in each county and the same is done for all soil series. This strategy allows for a general concept of soil series to be easily communicated, while also helping the county soil maps to be more accurate. 158 | Mapping methods Spatial association with a machine learning approach Artificial intelligence is a power and modern tool that has supported and improved the creation of high-quality maps. The idea behind this method is make spatial predictions at unsampled locations by recognizing relationships between known values and some ancillary data (covariates). Such covariates include topography, vegetation, satellite imagery or even other soil maps that may provide enough background information to explain soil’s behavior at the locations where predictions want to be made. Different machine learning algorithms arrange the data at a specific known location and associate it with the covariates for that same point.",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "topography, vegetation, satellite imagery or even other soil maps that may provide enough background information to explain soil’s behavior at the locations where predictions want to be made. Different machine learning algorithms arrange the data at a specific known location and associate it with the covariates for that same point. The machine learning algorithm fits a model over that data and help make predictions of unknown values at unsampled locations. The following image represents the process: Use known locations where samples were taken and associated those values with covariates for that specific location. This way a model is fitted on the data and a soil map can be created based on spatial associations between the property being mapped and the covariates explaining its behavior (Image by: Arturo F). Spatial autocorrelation To make soil fertility maps, all the same basic principles apply for mapping something that we can only directly observe in a few locations while wanting to know the spatial distribution of that target variable across the whole map area. We still must predict the status of the soil belowground based on a small proportion of samples and whatever clues we can find aboveground. Because dynamic soil properties are changing quickly and with them their relationships to aboveground variables, soil fertility mapping tends to lean on a different geographic principle. This other principle is spatial autocorrelation, which means that things that are close together tend to be more similar to each other than things that are farther away. By this principle, two measurements of soil nitrate concentrations taken 3 feet (1 meter) apart are more likely to be similar that two samples taken 100 feet (30 meters) apart. Now, any soil scientist will tell you that you can be surprised by differences in soil cores taken almost side by side,",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "principle, two measurements of soil nitrate concentrations taken 3 feet (1 meter) apart are more likely to be similar that two samples taken 100 feet (30 meters) apart. Now, any soil scientist will tell you that you can be surprised by differences in soil cores taken almost side by side, and in the case of soil fertility you want to be careful not to sample on a hot spot where fertilizer was recently applied (e.g., the thin band produced by targeted side-dressing). However, part of being a dynamic soil property is being Mapping methods | 159 relatively more mobile than static soil properties and that lends to more diffuse spatial distributions. Not having hard breaks in concentrations works better for the spatial autocorrelation approach to mapping. The most basic method for using spatial autocorrelation to create a map is to take the sample points and then draw polygons identifying the area closest to the respective points. This identifies the areas that are likely to be similar to each of those measured points. Then we assign the measured value of each point to its respective surrounding area. In doing this, we are predicting values in an area based on the nearest measured location. A common practice in soil fertility mapping is to take soil samples on a regular grid, and then assign sample results to equally size squares surrounding each of the sample points. Although variability likely exists within those squares, if the squares are not larger than the size of area that a farmer can vary their management practices, then a finer resolution would not be useful. In the era of precision agriculture, rates of applying soil amendments can be increasingly targeted. This means that a 2.5-acre grid (100 x 100 m squares) or even a 1-acre grid (60 x",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "area that a farmer can vary their management practices, then a finer resolution would not be useful. In the era of precision agriculture, rates of applying soil amendments can be increasingly targeted. This means that a 2.5-acre grid (100 x 100 m squares) or even a 1-acre grid (60 x 60 m squares) may be too coarse of a resolution to supply the information needed to fully utilize the capabilities of precision agriculture. With the basic spatial autocorrelation approach described above, making a finer resolution map would require taking more soil samples. Instead of a sample in every acre, maybe management zones of 0.5 acre can have unique fertilizer prescriptions. In which case, a sample in every 0.5 acre would double the quantity of samples needed. However, spatial autocorrelation can be more useful than single value blocks. Spatial interpolation uses the concept of spatial autocorrelation to predict a smoother gradient of values in between observed locations. Within a geographic computer-based software, algorithms such as inverse distance weighting (IDW) or kriging can create prediction surfaces at any resolution the user specifies. 160 | Mapping methods Spatial autocorrelation approach (variogram) The variogram is the statistical tool used with kriging methods to predict values at unsampled locations based on distance from a known point. It tells how much two samples can vary based on the distance that exists between them. The range is the distance at which the variogram levels off and points at this distance or farther apart are not spatially correlated. The nugget effect is a representation of the smallscale variability, and the sill is the maximum variability between a pair of points. In this example, a model was fitted into a variogram while performing an ordinary kriging analysis for Phosphorus content in the soil. The model fitted into the variogram",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "The nugget effect is a representation of the smallscale variability, and the sill is the maximum variability between a pair of points. In this example, a model was fitted into a variogram while performing an ordinary kriging analysis for Phosphorus content in the soil. The model fitted into the variogram is telling us how much the data is expected to vary as the distance from a point starts increasing (lag distance in x axis). Variogram showing the range, the sill and the nugget (Image by: Arturo F.). Geographic Information Systems (GIS) The acronym GIS stands for Geographical Information Systems. GIS is the implementation of software and hardware for the storage and manipulation of spatial data. Digital geographers combine computing power and computer-based analysis to store, modify, analyze, and present geographic data using digital maps. Its capabilities allow users to even tie non-spatial data to a specific location and obtain geographical results. For example, a list of coffee shops does not provide much information beyond the name of each Mapping methods | 161 and probably an idea of what they sell. However, if a set of coordinates is assigned to each of those names, it is possible to locate them in space and navigate towards each. To store and manipulate data, GIS utilizes layers of information to simplify the process. Each one of these layers includes objects with georeferenced data (data assigned to a fixed location), and values (quantitative or qualitative). Objects include: • – Vector data, or discrete objects. Each one of the items in each vector layer contains a fixed value for a certain location, it assumes the feature remains constant throughout space. Vector data can be represented by points (simple set of coordinates), lines (continuum of points), or polygons (objects that form a closed area defined by connecting",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "one of the items in each vector layer contains a fixed value for a certain location, it assumes the feature remains constant throughout space. Vector data can be represented by points (simple set of coordinates), lines (continuum of points), or polygons (objects that form a closed area defined by connecting lines). Commonly these are used to represent soil sample locations, stores, cities, roads, streams, or regional boundaries. • – Raster data, or continuous objects. Because object values can vary over space (e.g., soil properties), independent locations are included at all locations of the study area. A raster is an image created by a composition of grid-arranged squared cells. Each one of the cells is called a pixel, has a unique absolute location, an individual value, and the same size as all other cells. More pixel density per area increases the level of detail, resulting in smoother images. When pixel size increases, the resolution of the map reduces and gives it a blockier appearance. The process of obtaining data is either done by directly evaluating the object by touching it or evaluating it from a certain distance. Direct measurements of certain feature are obtained with in-field sensors. In agriculture such measurements can be either from the soil (e.g., moisture readings) or the crop (e.g., chlorophyll-meter). As an alternative, remote sensing allows farmers to obtain data from a distance. This includes images from drones, planes, or satellites, which can measure topography or spectral bands (color). Actually, both are being combined with GIS and artificial intelligence methods to increase the quality of the maps. 162 | Mapping methods Raster vs. Vector data Difference between raster data and vector data for any geographic space. Because raster pixels have a square shape, they cannot represent other geometry than that. Therefore, rasters fail to perfectly delineate",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "and artificial intelligence methods to increase the quality of the maps. 162 | Mapping methods Raster vs. Vector data Difference between raster data and vector data for any geographic space. Because raster pixels have a square shape, they cannot represent other geometry than that. Therefore, rasters fail to perfectly delineate non-squared objects. Instead, vector objects can delineate any figure better because the main unit is the point and by arranging infinite amounts of points, any shape can be delineated. Vector polygons may provide a better alternative for delineating irregular objects, but they assign a uniform value to the are enclosed within and detail is lost. On the contrary, because rasters can include infinite number of pixels, they are able to capture all the variability that exists within certain area. Soil survey maps that have been digitized are composed of vector objects. Each one of the lines enclosing a certain region assumes that all the area inside is homogeneous. Instead, rasters allow to capture any kind of heterogeneity that exists, especially with dynamic soil properties like nitrogen. One of the most valuable things about GIS is that scale is no longer a problem. Instead of scale being limited by the map’s extent, in GIS it is possible to zoom in and out of the object and increase the level of detail that can be seen. This does not mean that GIS has better resolution than paper maps. Resolution is still limited by the availability of data and density of it. The difference with paper maps is that to fit a large region within a paper, the level of detail was compressed so intensely that it lost usability, especially with new Precision agriculture technologies. Now, GIS allows the user to zoom in and be able to see that detail that was lost",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "difference with paper maps is that to fit a large region within a paper, the level of detail was compressed so intensely that it lost usability, especially with new Precision agriculture technologies. Now, GIS allows the user to zoom in and be able to see that detail that was lost in the transcription to paper maps. Nevertheless, if the smallest unit of sampling represents 1km2, for example, GIS won’t be able to see beyond that and all the area will be represented by a big pixel of 1 km2 of resolution. Mapping methods | 163 Examples of GIS technologies. LEFT: screen of QGIS (free access GIS software) where a base topographic map is being used to overlap vector layers of the Guatemalan political boundary and the waterways within the country. RIGHT is a base map created using a drone image to georeferenced an irrigation map for a golf course in Florida (Pictures by: Arturo F.) Key Takeaways • Making spatial predictions is required because it is not possible to sample soil at every location, therefore, soil maps are realistic representations of soil heterogeneity and can involve error. • Soil spatial patterns may be explained by landscape position associations or by distance to known soil locations. • GIS integrates software and hardware to boost the mapping process and spatial data analysis. 164 | Mapping methods Soil maps around the world BRADLEY MILLER AND ARTURO FLORES Learning Objectives • Compare the difference between soil maps in the United States versus the rest of the world. • Discuss the available alternatives for the lack of soil maps. Keywords: soil survey, site specific maps, Soil maps around the world A paradox in public support for soil mapping is that users are increasingly asking for the maps to do more. Then, when the soil maps",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the world. • Discuss the available alternatives for the lack of soil maps. Keywords: soil survey, site specific maps, Soil maps around the world A paradox in public support for soil mapping is that users are increasingly asking for the maps to do more. Then, when the soil maps fall short of those expectations, opinions shift to the soil survey maps not being useful. For example, many farm managers have sought to be more strategic with their sampling for soil fertility by dividing a field into management zones (the core concept of Precision Agriculture). A common approach to identify those management zones is to use the delineations from the soil survey maps. Sometimes this works well, and sometimes the soil survey maps do not include important variations. Note that sub-field management was not included as one of the purposes for soil survey maps. Given the many purposes of soil maps and the large success of the soil survey program in the USA, many Americans take for granted that they can go online and look at a soil map for around 99% of the land in the USA. Few countries have soil maps with the coverage extent and level of detail provided by the USA soil survey program. At least part of this achievement can be explained by synergistic public investments, such as soil conservation efforts and providing jobs for veterans after major wars/conflicts. Many countries shut down their soil survey programs during the Farm Crisis of the 1980s (Farm Crisis). The USA stands out in its continued funding of soil surveys through that time. Soil maps in the United States In 1899 the USA’s federal government established the Bureau of Soils to conduct a consistent and coordinated soil survey. Today, the USA soil survey maps include a plethora of",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Crisis). The USA stands out in its continued funding of soil surveys through that time. Soil maps in the United States In 1899 the USA’s federal government established the Bureau of Soils to conduct a consistent and coordinated soil survey. Today, the USA soil survey maps include a plethora of interpretations to help translate the knowledge of soil scientists into information needed by landowners to make management decisions. These interpretations can include the suitability for recreational facilities (e.g., campgrounds or Soil maps around the world | 165 golf courses), wildlife habitat, building site development (e.g., basements or streets), sanitation facilities (e.g., septic tanks or landfills), as a construction material (e.g., source of fill dirt or gravel), and water management (e.g., reservoirs or irrigation). Early soil mappers in 1923 from the Berau of Soils (USDA). One of the early soil surveyors for the USA’s Bureau of Soils was Hugh Hammond Bennet. During the soil mapping of Louisa County, Virginia in 1905, he was directed to investigate declining crop yields in the area. He was struck by the differences in the condition of soil under virgin timberland compared to cultivated fields. His advocacy for soil conservation led to him becoming the first director of the Soil Erosion Service in 1933. Although the degradation of soil has always been a challenge for human civilizations, the USA experienced a particularly cataclysmic series of events in the 1930s. Coincidently, on the day that Bennet testified before congress in 1935, a dust storm event from the central USA occurred so dramatically that it darkened the sky in Washington D.C. Commonly referred to as the Dust Bowl, the combination of management practices not suited for dryland ecosystems and multiple droughts wiped out tens of thousands of farms. Spurred by the start of the Dust Bowl and investment",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "central USA occurred so dramatically that it darkened the sky in Washington D.C. Commonly referred to as the Dust Bowl, the combination of management practices not suited for dryland ecosystems and multiple droughts wiped out tens of thousands of farms. Spurred by the start of the Dust Bowl and investment in public works to stimulate the economy during the Great Depression, Congress elevated the Soil Erosion Service in the USDA and renamed it the Soil Conservation Service. By 1938, the Soil Conservation Service –known today as the Natural Resource Conservation Service – subsumed the Bureau of Soils, making soil conservation the supervisor of soil mapping. While all the previously mentioned needs of a soil survey have remained in place, the lead purpose of soil survey in the USA has been to support soil conservation policy since that time. Prior to the adoption of aerial photography for soil mapping, most of the maps made by the USA soil survey were made at the county scale. Because of this relatively small extent (large map scale), USA soil survey maps can include more detail. However, until they started using aerial photographs, these maps were more 166 | Soil maps around the world like geologic maps because they could only recognize differences in soil parent material (e.g., bedrock, till, or alluvium) but could not see where different topographic positions occurred in the map. After World War I, aerial photography became more readily available, and the USA soil survey was then able to differentiate landscape positions. In the USA Midwest, where single season crops were grown, it was possible to have aerial photographs of bare soil. Seeing patterns of lighter and darker soil allowed soil mappers to delineate the tops of hills and the swales between them. This style of soil mapping is called high-low",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "positions. In the USA Midwest, where single season crops were grown, it was possible to have aerial photographs of bare soil. Seeing patterns of lighter and darker soil allowed soil mappers to delineate the tops of hills and the swales between them. This style of soil mapping is called high-low mapping. In areas where there was continuous vegetation cover, the aerial photographs enabled soil mappers to see the type of vegetation growing in different areas and delineate differences in expected soil series based on that. In this way, the level of detail that could be included in a map depended on the map scale, availability of information in base maps, and the purpose of the map. The USA method of fully utilizing the factors of soil information to associate patterns of soil variation is known as the soil-landscape paradigm. This is a specific example of the geographic concept of spatial association, which is that some variables covary with each other in space. By looking at variables that are more readily observed, one can infer variables that aren’t as easily observed. In the case of the soil landscape paradigm, a soil mapper could observe soil properties in one location and infer that other locations with matching climate, vegetation (the part of organisms that can be seen in an aerial photograph), landscape position, and parent material would also have the same combination of soil properties. For example, the Clarion soil series is mapped on the tops of the gentle hills of the Dows geologic formation (region known as the Des Moines Lobe). Within a county scale map, climate doesn’t change very much. However, there are measurable differences in climate across multiple counties. For this reason, the Clarion soil series is not associated with exactly the same soil properties from one county to",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "Dows geologic formation (region known as the Des Moines Lobe). Within a county scale map, climate doesn’t change very much. However, there are measurable differences in climate across multiple counties. For this reason, the Clarion soil series is not associated with exactly the same soil properties from one county to the next. Although parallel in the other factors of soil formation, the Clarion soil series is associated with slightly different soil properties as observed in each county and the same is done for all soil series. This strategy allows for a general concept of soil series to be easily communicated, while also helping the county soil maps to be more accurate. Soil maps around the world | 167 Soil map of the world using soil taxonomy classification. Soil maps elsewhere The intensive and constant improvements on the USA Soil Maps have produced high-quality and reliable sources of information both for agricultural development and policy making. However, the reality is different outside of the United States. Underdeveloped countries, especially, rely on existent soil classification systems to map their own soils. There is no one concrete reason for the nonexistent efforts on mapping the regions soils in detail as the US has done with their own. Perhaps lack of economic resources, competent politicians, or even disinterest caused by underestimating soil. However, despite the lack of regional soil maps, Central America has thrived and managed soil so efficiently that agriculturally it is one of the most productive regions in the world. Contrary to the popular use of public available soil maps in the USA, private parties have created their own maps to suit their interests, rather than complying with the national demand. In Guatemala, significant efforts have been made by the sugar cane industry to create reliable soil maps that otherwise are not",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "the popular use of public available soil maps in the USA, private parties have created their own maps to suit their interests, rather than complying with the national demand. In Guatemala, significant efforts have been made by the sugar cane industry to create reliable soil maps that otherwise are not available. However, these maps have a limited geographic extent, that is, the region that falls within the sugar cane producing region. Also, because those maps are created with private interests, their accessibility is limited to the general public. Private universities have tried to provide useful data regarding 168 | Soil maps around the world the status of Guatemalan soils, but they are not widely spread and are little known even among farmers. A similar situation occurs in other tropical countries, such as in Honduras and Costa Rica, where banana and pineapple companies invest in their own soil and topography departments to evaluate their land, map their soils, and try to enhance agricultural production. Overall, the private sector efforts are always with the intention of increasing the economic benefit that soil maps can provide. These situations leave small and medium-sized farmers relying on scarce soil maps. Costa Rica soil map using Soil Taxonomy classification system. Map created by Universidad de Costa Rica and other institutions. Soil survey maps provide an overview of the distribution of soil variability; however, they fail to represent fertility parameters and any kind of abnormalities, temporal or permanent, of greater importance mainly for agriculture. This situation puts every farmer in the world at the same starting point: specific soil maps for their land with enough detail to make decisions. Precision agriculture (PA) has slowly gained importance and acceptance among farmers because it relies only on data gathered for that specific field, instead of using regional soil maps.",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "every farmer in the world at the same starting point: specific soil maps for their land with enough detail to make decisions. Precision agriculture (PA) has slowly gained importance and acceptance among farmers because it relies only on data gathered for that specific field, instead of using regional soil maps. Agriculture is undergoing a paradigm shift in which conventional agriculture is turning into a more data-supported method. Whereas conventional agriculture treats fields as a whole homogeneous unit, PA addresses the local and independent variability that may explain A) soil’s fertility, and B) soil’s dynamic behavior. Different technologies are being adopted to practice PA at different scales. Portable equipment, like Veris® technologies (Figure3), that can instantly measure soil pH, EC, and organic carbon by just dragging the equipment once over the field. The most valuable feature of this type of sensors is that the observations Soil maps around the world | 169 are directly transformed into spatial maps. Sugar cane companies in Guanacaste, Costa Rica, are seeing benefits of just tilling compacted soils and doing localized fertilizer applications, as input efficiency increases, and yield is boosted while reducing costs. The more detailed maps are, the more specific agricultural treatment can be. Conventional sprayers used in pineapple farms are not able to easily adjust their settings once they start working. Drones with individual nozzle control allow adjustments on-the-go depending on treatment maps previously created based on field observations. Dota in Costa Rica is the region of the country known for its coffee production. It is in the mountains and the soil is derived from volcanic materials. Accessibility is limited to machinery and conventional agriculture becomes harder because of the steep topography. Now, drones are being used to evaluate coffee plantations and determine fertilizer requirements based on spectral data captured by the UAV.",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "production. It is in the mountains and the soil is derived from volcanic materials. Accessibility is limited to machinery and conventional agriculture becomes harder because of the steep topography. Now, drones are being used to evaluate coffee plantations and determine fertilizer requirements based on spectral data captured by the UAV. In Guatemala, sugar cane, pineapple and banana producers use UAVs to also spray fertilizers and pesticides in access-restricted zones, close to urban development’s and where planes are not able to reach. A revolutionary company called DISAGRO® works in Latin America and offers PA services that combine meteorology, soil, vegetation, and satellite data to create site-specific management plans. Many other companies and technologies are being developed in the region, demonstrating that the lack of detailed soil maps is not a limiting factor for the region’s agricultural success. Key Takeaways • The United States soil maps provide an adequate level of detail to evaluate soil properties and determine management concerns; however, despite their quality and public availability, they are not suitable for site-specific management. 170 | Soil maps around the world",
    "source": "crop and soil science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "INTRODUCTION TO HORTICULTURE AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY CHAPTER TWO Contents HORTICULTURE DEFINED.......................................................1 CLIMATE IN HORTICULTURE................................................. 2 Macroclimate Microclimate ROLE OF TEMPERATURE IN HORTICULTURE.....................3 High Temperatures Low Temperatures Temperature Modification ROLE OF LIGHT IN HORTICULTURE......................................6 Light Quality Light Intensity Light Duration FURTHER READING AND RESOURCES...............................8 JoAnn Robbins Former Extension Educator, Jerome County, Jerome Susan Bell Extension Educator Ada County INTRODUCTION TO HORTICULTURE AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY Learning Objectives • Define horticulture and the different areas of horticulture • Describe macroclimates and microclimates and discuss how they affect gardens and landscapes • Explain the role of temperature in horticulture • Understand how to calculate heat units and their relation to plant growth • Describe techniques to modify low temperatures in a garden • Explain the role of light in horticulture • Understand how light quality, intensity, and duration affect plant growth Horticulture Defined Horticulture is defined by Webster’s dictionary as “the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, and flowers.” It is the intensive commercial production of highvalue and high-yielding plants. But it also includes the cultivation of garden crops and landscape ornamentals and the interaction of science and art. Horticulture contributes to the economy, provides good nutrition, and is a valuable spiritual and psychological therapy. Horticulture beautifies and enhances the environment. Areas of horticulture include the following: • Pomology. Fruit culture, including pome fruits (apple, pear, quince), stone fruits (peach, cherry, plum, nectarine, apricot), small fruits (blueberry, raspberry, grape, strawberry), and nut tree fruits. • Vegetable production. Culture of food crops from vegetable plants including roots, fruits, and seeds. 2 IDAHO MASTER GARDENER HANDBOOK • 2-2 CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO HORTICULTURE • Floriculture. Growing of cut flowers, potted plants, bedding plants, and bulbs and floral design. • Environmental horticulture. Nursery production of herbaceous and woody plants for landscape design and management. • Postharvest",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "plants including roots, fruits, and seeds. 2 IDAHO MASTER GARDENER HANDBOOK • 2-2 CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO HORTICULTURE • Floriculture. Growing of cut flowers, potted plants, bedding plants, and bulbs and floral design. • Environmental horticulture. Nursery production of herbaceous and woody plants for landscape design and management. • Postharvest physiology. Harvest, handling, and storage of horticultural crops including flowers, fruits, and vegetables. Climate in Horticulture MACROCLIMATE The term “climate” refers to the long-term weather patterns of a large geographical area and is used interchangeably with “macroclimate.” Macroclimate is determined mainly by an area’s latitude, elevation, nearness to large bodies of water, nearby ocean and wind currents, relation to nearby forests and irrigated areas, and location in relation to topographic features such as mountains. Temperature and light are two fundamental features of climate that profoundly affect gardening. Rainfall, wind, hail, clouds, snow, and humidity also create the climate of a region. Short-term variations in rain, wind, snow, and other climatic characteristics are the weather. Climatologists have calculated the statistical probabilities of certain climatic occurrences that are likely to affect plant growth. The United States Department of Agriculture hardiness zone map, for example, is based on an area’s average minimum temperatures. The Arbor Day Foundation has produced an updated version of the climate zone map based on the last fifteen years of warmer temperatures (1990–2005) (Figure 1). MICROCLIMATE Microclimates are variations in climate within a community, yard, or other restricted area and result from topographic features, soil types, aspect, or location of buildings, fences, and/or plantings. Different microclimates will be more or less conducive to differFigure 1. Hardiness zone map of the continental United States. Courtesy of the Arbor Day Foundation. 1-2 • IDAHO MASTER GARDENER HANDBOOK CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO HORTICULTURE ent outdoor activities and will limit or enhance the",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "of buildings, fences, and/or plantings. Different microclimates will be more or less conducive to differFigure 1. Hardiness zone map of the continental United States. Courtesy of the Arbor Day Foundation. 1-2 • IDAHO MASTER GARDENER HANDBOOK CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO HORTICULTURE ent outdoor activities and will limit or enhance the success of plantings. For example, a shady northern exposure may make a better summer patio space than the sunny south side. Gardeners can create or modify microclimates to increase livability and diversify planting conditions on their property. Landscape features that produce microclimates include the following: • Hills and low areas. Hillside locations are less subject to frost since cold air is denser than warm air and will flow downhill to settle in low areas. A south-facing slope warms earlier in the spring than a north-facing slope, but will be hotter and dryer during summer. The leeward side of a ridge is less subject to wind or breeze than the windward side. • Structures. Structures such as buildings, fences, driveways, or sidewalks serve as heat sinks for solar radiation. Planting areas around them will be warmer, especially on their southern sides or next to pavement. Northern sides of buildings and fences are shady and will remain cooler and moister. • Bodies of water. Water has a moderating effect on air temperature. A lot more energy is required to raise the temperature of water than the temperature of air. Likewise, water releases large amounts of heat energy when it cools. Thus, water acts as a buffer to heat or cold. Air blowing over cool water will cause adjacent land to warm up slower in the spring, thus delaying bloom and growth. This can protect plants from spring frosts. In the fall, air moving over warm water keeps the surrounding land warmer longer",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "acts as a buffer to heat or cold. Air blowing over cool water will cause adjacent land to warm up slower in the spring, thus delaying bloom and growth. This can protect plants from spring frosts. In the fall, air moving over warm water keeps the surrounding land warmer longer than areas farther away. • Elevation. The higher the elevation, the cooler the temperature; there is less atmosphere to retain the heat from solar radiation at high elevations. Each 300-foot gain in elevation results in an average 1°F drop in temperature. • Raised beds. Raised beds heat quicker than surrounding flat soil surfaces, but plants in raised beds may dry out faster and suffer root damage due to freezing in winter. • Plants. Large plants create microclimates by reducing wind speed, creating shade, and raising the humidity beneath them. • Soil. Sandy soil will warm more rapidly in the spring than clay soil and can be planted earlier, resulting in a crop that will mature more rapidly. By identifying and using microclimates to your advantage, you can maximize the conditions for individual plants or strategically locate garden beds, patios, and other outdoor spaces. The right microclimate often will make the difference between failure and survival for some landscape plants (Figure 2). Role of Temperature in Horticulture Temperature is the climatic factor that, more than any other, determines the kinds of plants that will grow in an area. Photosynthesis, transpiration, and respiration increase with rising temperature. Many horticultural crops thrive in warm climates such as California’s and Florida’s, but are challenged in northern climates like Idaho’s. Cold temperatures restrict plant growth, freeze plants in midwinter, and damage plants during fall and spring frosts. Surviving cold temperatures requires well-adapted plants. Hardiness is especially important for permanent landscape plants such as woody ornamentals",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "warm climates such as California’s and Florida’s, but are challenged in northern climates like Idaho’s. Cold temperatures restrict plant growth, freeze plants in midwinter, and damage plants during fall and spring frosts. Surviving cold temperatures requires well-adapted plants. Hardiness is especially important for permanent landscape plants such as woody ornamentals and fruit trees. Each plant type has an optimal temperature needed for growth. Some plants prefer cooler nights or days, whereas others prefer warmer nights or days. Temperate zone vegetables and annual flowers are classified as cool-season or warm-season crops. Figure 2. Soil, large objects, bodies of water, and large plants all create microclimates. IDAHO MASTER GARDENER HANDBOOK • 2-4 CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO HORTICULTURE Vernalization Some plants require a chilling treatment to induce flowering. This is especially common in biennials and spring-flowering bulbs. Plant Pests Plant diseases often grow well at 96°F or higher, increasing the chance of infection. Similarly, insect pests reproduce more rapidly during periods of high temperatures, with resultant high pressure on plants. Heat Units Plants have a base temperature below which they grow very little. Average temperatures above a threshold “base” temperature (40°F–50°F, depending on plant type) accumulate on a seasonal basis and are called “heat units” (or “degree days”) for that season (Figure 3). Heat units are useful in estimating time of maturity, predicting the latest feasible date for fall planting, and deciding if long-season fruit cultivars will mature in a specific locality. To calculate heat units, use the following equation: Add heat units for each day to those of the previous days to calculate the season’s total heat units thus far. A negative number for daily heat units does not Cool-season crops (sweet peas, pansies, garden peas, onions, carrots, potatoes, lettuce, cabbage, and broccoli) grow best in the northern portions of the United",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "for each day to those of the previous days to calculate the season’s total heat units thus far. A negative number for daily heat units does not Cool-season crops (sweet peas, pansies, garden peas, onions, carrots, potatoes, lettuce, cabbage, and broccoli) grow best in the northern portions of the United States, at higher elevations, or during the spring and fall in warm-climate areas. Warm-season crops (sweet corn, tomatoes, peppers, melons, zinnias, and marigolds) do best during the warmth of summer in the north but are ideally suited for growth over a longer season in warmer parts of the country. Seeds of warm-season crops require a soil temperature of 60°F or higher to germinate, whereas seeds of cool-season crops will germinate at a soil temperature of just 40°F. HIGH TEMPERATURES Plant growth is measured by the food energy produced thorough photosynthesis above that used for respiration. Plants generally grow best at the higher end of their optimal temperature range. In the temperate zone, the minimum temperature for growth is about 40°F. Photosynthesis and respiration increase as temperatures rise until the energy used in respiration equals photosynthetic capacity, when growth ceases. For most plants, this temperature is around 96°F. For many cool-season crops, growth may cease at temperatures considerably lower than 96°F. Warm temperatures cause stored carbohydrate reserves to be used up thorough respiration or to be converted to starch. This affects the sweetness of crops such as sweet corn and peas and thus their quality. Very high temperatures can cause physiological damage to plants resulting in burnt leaves and slowed growth. Other high-temperature considerations in plant growth are discussed below. Overcoming Dormancy Most temperate zone perennials need a cold period to overcome their physiological dormancy, or rest period, for either the entire plant or only for their flower and vegetative buds.",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "damage to plants resulting in burnt leaves and slowed growth. Other high-temperature considerations in plant growth are discussed below. Overcoming Dormancy Most temperate zone perennials need a cold period to overcome their physiological dormancy, or rest period, for either the entire plant or only for their flower and vegetative buds. Temperatures that are not cold enough during the winter will keep these plants from forming normal leaves and buds in the spring. For example, peach cultivars for northern climates require 700–1,000 hours below 45°F and above 32°F before they break their rest period and begin growth. If grown in the southern part of the United States, these peaches will not thrive because this requirement is not met. Figure 3. Calculation of accumulated heat units (degree days) in Twin Falls, Idaho, given a base temperature of 50°F (the base temperature for corn). Calculated using the Oregon State University Degree-Day Calculator (http:pnwpest.org/cgi-bin/ddmodel.pl) ) High temp for day Low temp for day Base temp Heat units for that day 2 + − = ( 1-2 • IDAHO MASTER GARDENER HANDBOOK CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO HORTICULTURE decrease seasonal heat units, but rather leaves it unchanged. Certain sweet corn cultivars mature at 1,500 heat units (degree days). Cool nights like we have in Idaho will slow the accumulation of heat units in comparison with areas of the country that have warm nights. This is why corn labeled “matures in 65 days” can take much longer to mature in a cooler climate! LOW TEMPERATURES Many plants are susceptible to frost and cold temperatures. If temperatures are too cool, there will be a lack of plant growth, a failure of seed germination, and some plants will not set fruit. Species originating in the tropics, for example, are injured by temperatures below 40°F. Plants have a minimum survival",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "are susceptible to frost and cold temperatures. If temperatures are too cool, there will be a lack of plant growth, a failure of seed germination, and some plants will not set fruit. Species originating in the tropics, for example, are injured by temperatures below 40°F. Plants have a minimum survival temperature below which they will be severely injured or killed. The amount of plant damage depends on many variables such as the kind of plant, the plant part, the nutrients and moisture in the plant tissues, the season of the year, the temperature during the freeze, the temperature after the freeze, the amount of air movement, and the moisture level in the soil. Other low-temperature considerations in plant growth are discussed below. Premature Flower Stalk Formation (Bolting) Premature flowering in plants is related to the weather and other environmental conditions. Many biennials will bloom in the first year if cool temperatures follow shortly after planting. Since many biennial plants are grown for their roots, petioles, or leaves rather than for seed, flowering and seed formation make the plant inedible. (Other temperature conditions that will cause plants to bloom early are summer heat and fluctuating temperatures.) Development of Winter Hardiness or Dormancy Perennial plants become more cold tolerant in the fall after they shed their leaves. This is part of the “hardening” process brought on by cooler temperatures and shorter days. Freezing temperatures are necessary for most plants to increase their resistance to cold damage, while sustained freezing temperatures are necessary for maximum cold tolerance. If temperatures rise for any length of time, plants lose their tolerance to the cold. Cold tolerance will return with colder temperatures, but not if the buds have broken dormancy. Buds will break dormancy during a warm spell if they have already been exposed to chilling",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "for maximum cold tolerance. If temperatures rise for any length of time, plants lose their tolerance to the cold. Cold tolerance will return with colder temperatures, but not if the buds have broken dormancy. Buds will break dormancy during a warm spell if they have already been exposed to chilling temperatures for the period required for bud break. This type of damage is common in northern climates like Idaho’s. Carbohydrate Reserves Plant tissues well supplied with carbohydrates will reach deeper dormancy and be less susceptible to winter cold. Make fertilizer applications and prune well in advance of cool fall temperatures. Plants that are stress free and without new growth will move carbohydrates to the roots and other storage tissues in the fall. Stress from insects, diseases, or other sources will lessen carbohydrate production and storage. Water Status of Plant Tissue Winter damage can occur due to a lack of moisture in the plant or plant part. If the plant goes into the winter with little moisture in the root zone, or if dehydration occurs while the soil is frozen, the plant will be injured due to water stress. This is called “physiological drought.” This type of damage is particularly detrimental to evergreen trees and will show up as browning needles that dry from the tips down. The windward and sunny, southwest sides of trees are particularly at risk for browning needles and for bark injury called “sunscald.” The windy conditions that are common in many parts of Idaho will intensify injury due to cold temperatures and physiological drought. To prevent this damage, supply ample moisture during the growing season. However, it is advisable to cut back on moisture in late August and early September in order to allow the plant to enter its dormancy. Water well again in late October",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "injury due to cold temperatures and physiological drought. To prevent this damage, supply ample moisture during the growing season. However, it is advisable to cut back on moisture in late August and early September in order to allow the plant to enter its dormancy. Water well again in late October or early November after the plant has become completely dormant. Plant roots are still active up until the ground freezes and soil temperatures drop below 40°F. Frost Heaving Alternate freezing and thawing can force some plants completely out of the soil. This is called “heaving” and young plants without a wellestablished root system are particularly susceptible to this type of damage, especially when planted in the fall. IDAHO MASTER GARDENER HANDBOOK • 2-6 CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO HORTICULTURE Spring Frosts Cold temperatures will freeze tender transplants, emerging seedlings, and opening buds in the spring. Fruit buds are easily frozen once they begin to expand and bloom. Even expanding leaf buds can freeze when unusually cold spring temperatures occur. On still nights, when temperatures hover near freezing, cold air, which is heavier than warm air, will settle to the bottom of valleys and depressions. These cold spots are called “frost pockets” and may result in cold damage to plants in that area. TEMPERATURE MODIFICATION Modifying High Temperatures You can modify high temperatures by shading plants with larger plants or with structures such as lath houses. Shade cloth suspended over plants will also moderate temperature. Cooler conditions exist on the shady side of a building and under trees. Plants poorly adapted to high temperatures are not good choices in hot, dry areas because extreme measures must be taken to ensure their survival. Modifying Low Temperatures There are many ways to avoid or modify cold temperatures. The most obvious are planting frostsusceptible annual",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "of a building and under trees. Plants poorly adapted to high temperatures are not good choices in hot, dry areas because extreme measures must be taken to ensure their survival. Modifying Low Temperatures There are many ways to avoid or modify cold temperatures. The most obvious are planting frostsusceptible annual crops after all frost danger is past and selecting perennial plants that are adapted to the cold temperatures in your area. Other methods of modifying cold temperatures include the following: • Using covers or heat sinks. Surround the plants with mediumto large-sized rocks to absorb heat or cover them with fabric row covers, plastic sheeting, or waxed paper cloches in early spring or when frosts are predicted. These techniques reduce outgoing stored solar radiation from soil, rocks, and plants. Depending on the type of cover, you can gain 2°F–6°F of nighttime warmth. Remember that during sunny days it may be 20°F–25°F warmer under the cover, which may require venting to keep plants from becoming too hot. • Mulching. Use a covering of mulch to modify soil temperature. Applied soon after the ground freezes in early winter, mulch will keep the soil frozen and the covered plant crowns at a consistent cold temperature to prevent winter damage. Applied in the spring after the soil warms, mulch moderates soil temperature extremes during the growing season. Certain dark or colored mulches can warm the soil early and maintain warmer temperatures when the weather is still cool. To be most effective, an organic mulch layer should be 3–4 inches deep. Small stones can be used as mulch to gather heat around plants. • Using heaters or fans. Protecting tree fruits from early spring frosts is done in orchards using heaters or large fans. This equipment stirs the air and prevents an air “inversion,” when",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "layer should be 3–4 inches deep. Small stones can be used as mulch to gather heat around plants. • Using heaters or fans. Protecting tree fruits from early spring frosts is done in orchards using heaters or large fans. This equipment stirs the air and prevents an air “inversion,” when cooler air is trapped under a layer of warm air. • Sprinkling. When liquid water changes to solid ice, it releases heat. When water is sprinkled on plants as they cool, the heat of freezing will keep the plant surface at or near 32°F. This technique is often used in orchards during bloom time when frost or cold temperatures are predicted. Role of Light in Horticulture Light is the part of the sun’s energy visible to the human eye. Solar radiation reaching the earth includes some light near and on either side of the visible light spectrum. Plants use mostly those light rays that can be seen (Figure 4). LIGHT QUALITY Water vapor in the air acts as a prism to separate light into its various wavelength components. The human eye interprets these wavelengths as color. Beginning with the longest visible wavelength, the rays become shorter through the rainbow color spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Violet rays are the shortest and are slightly longer than ultraviolet rays, which cause sunburn. The following rays are used by plants in physiological processes (Figure 4): • Violet. These are important for the development of red pigments in plants like apples. At higher elevation, there is less atmosphere to screen out the violet and ultraviolet, resulting in well-colored apples (and maybe sunburn on our skin!). Indigo and violet rays are also responsible for bending flower heads and other plant parts toward the sun (phototropism). • Blue-violet and orange-red. These rays",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "apples. At higher elevation, there is less atmosphere to screen out the violet and ultraviolet, resulting in well-colored apples (and maybe sunburn on our skin!). Indigo and violet rays are also responsible for bending flower heads and other plant parts toward the sun (phototropism). • Blue-violet and orange-red. These rays provide the light energy for photosynthesis. In fact, plants appear green to the human eye simply 1-2 • IDAHO MASTER GARDENER HANDBOOK CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO HORTICULTURE because plant pigments in leaves do not absorb and use green light for photosynthesis; instead, it is reflected back to our eyes. • Orange-red and far-red (longer than red). This part of the spectrum is absorbed by plants and produces the day-length response (photoperiodism). Supplemental light varies in quality, with fluorescent or cool white bulbs emitting wavelengths in the blue range. Incandescent light is high in the red and orange ranges but also emits the longer heat waves and is too warm to be useful for plant growth. The light bulbs specifically designed for plants are balanced in the wavelengths used by plants. LIGHT INTENSITY Gardeners generally use foot-candles to measure intensity or concentration of light, even though the foot-candle is an older unit based on English measurements (amount of light falling on 1 square foot from a candle burning 1 foot away). You will also hear the term lux to indicate the amount of light that falls on a surface. Lux is a metric unit equal to 1 lumen per square meter. One foot-candle is 10.76 lux. Physicists use a more precise mathematical measure (millimoles per square meter per second). Gardeners use foot-candles because many existing light meters are calibrated in foot-candles. In full sunlight at noon on a summer day in the desert, light intensity measures about 12,000–15,000 foot-candles, possibly as",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "One foot-candle is 10.76 lux. Physicists use a more precise mathematical measure (millimoles per square meter per second). Gardeners use foot-candles because many existing light meters are calibrated in foot-candles. In full sunlight at noon on a summer day in the desert, light intensity measures about 12,000–15,000 foot-candles, possibly as high as 20,000 footcandles. Light intensity is less in the morning and late afternoon because light from the sun reaches the earth at an oblique angle, filtered through more layers of atmosphere before reaching the surface. For the same reason, light intensity is much lower in winter in the Northern Hemisphere. On a heavily overcast winter day at noon, light intensity may be as low as 600–900 foot-candles in northern latitudes. The interior of a well-lighted home will measure from 50–300 foot-candles. Tropical plants, like many of our houseplants, thrive in nature under a jungle canopy that provides very low light intensity. Plants not from the jungle are able to grow in and use very bright or intense light. Most crop plants use about 1,200 foot-candles of light, but they will grow better in light up to 4,000 foot-candles because of the shading from surrounding leaves. Figure 4. Wavelengths and the responses of plants to the visible rays. (Reprinted from Bienz, D.R. 1980. The Why and How of Home Horticulture. San Francisco: WH Freeman.) IDAHO MASTER GARDENER HANDBOOK • 2-8 CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO HORTICULTURE Plants and leaves adapted to low light intensity will sunburn, wither, or die if they are suddenly exposed to higher light intensity. Light intensity can be decreased through shading or increased with supplemental lights, reflective material, or white backgrounds. Insufficient light will cause plants to stretch and become “gangly” or unusually long. Nodes will be far apart, leaves broad and thin, and the plants will",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "are suddenly exposed to higher light intensity. Light intensity can be decreased through shading or increased with supplemental lights, reflective material, or white backgrounds. Insufficient light will cause plants to stretch and become “gangly” or unusually long. Nodes will be far apart, leaves broad and thin, and the plants will have a loose, open structure. Reduced light intensity can also induce succulence. LIGHT DURATION Plants respond to particular day lengths. Actually, processes that occur during an uninterrupted dark period bring about the plant’s response, not processes that occur during the day, but we use day length as the measure. How plants respond to day length is modified somewhat by temperature. Depending on the plant type, blooming, for example, may be delayed or sped up by warm or cool weather. The bloom period can be intentionally altered with specific light treatments or unintentionally altered by lights coming from streetlights or other artificial sources. Long-Day Plants Long-day plants respond to day lengths longer than a certain minimum (usually about 12 hours). Spinach, for example, is a long-day plant and, if planted late in the spring, it will make a flower stalk before producing leaves. Onion bulbing is a long-day response. Onions produce bulbs during long days, and onion types that do well in northern latitudes require longer days (16 hours) compared with those adapted to more southern locations (11–12 hours). Northern-type onions will not produce bulbs in southerly locations because the days never get long enough! Southern types, when grown in the north, produce bulbs before the plant reaches a size adequate to develop a goodsized onion bulb. Short-Day Plants Short-day plants respond to day lengths shorter than a certain maximum (less than about 12 hours). Chrysanthemums are short-day plants and will bloom when day lengths range from 16 hours down to",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "north, produce bulbs before the plant reaches a size adequate to develop a goodsized onion bulb. Short-Day Plants Short-day plants respond to day lengths shorter than a certain maximum (less than about 12 hours). Chrysanthemums are short-day plants and will bloom when day lengths range from 16 hours down to 7 hours depending on the cultivar. They grow and develop plant tissue and carbohydrate reserves during the spring and summer to support fall flowering. Poinsettia is another short-day plant. Day-Neutral Plants Day-neutral plants do not respond to day length, but must have sufficient growth to support flowering. Temperatures must also be acceptable, roughly above 32°F and below 96°F. Geraniums and certain strawberry cultivars are examples of dayneutral plants. Further Reading and Resources BOOKS Benz, D. R. 1980. “Climate, Temperature and Light.” Chapter 7 in The Why and How of Home Horticulture. San Francisco: WH Freeman. BOOKLETS AND PAMPHLETS University of Idaho Extension PNW 497 Short-Season Vegetable Gardening. Websites National Weather Service, Climate Prediction Center. http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US Department of Commerce. https://www.noaa. gov/climate. Idaho Climate Summaries, Western Regional Climate Center. http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/summary/ climsmid.html. Frost and Freeze Information, National Climatic Data Center, NOAA Satellite and Information Service. https://www.weather.gov/iwx/fallfrostinfo. Online Phenology and Degree-day Models, Integrated Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University. http://ippc2.orst.edu/cgi-bin/ddmodel.pl. Chapter 2 published 1993. Revised 2008.",
    "source": "horticulture.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture and forestry"
  },
  {
    "text": "See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374861277 Organic Farming in India and its Way Forward Article in Defence Life Science Journal · May 2023 DOI: 10.14429/dlsj.8.18975 CITATION 1 READS 2,018 4 authors, including: Monika Sharma Delhi Technological University 5 PUBLICATIONS 39 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Rajeev Kumar Mishra Delhi Technological University 81 PUBLICATIONS 862 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Monika Sharma on 03 November 2023. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Received : 20 March 2023, Revised : 18 April 2023 Accepted : 21 April 2023, Online published : 12 October 2023 239 Defence Life Science Journal, Vol. 8, No. 3, July 2023, pp. 239-247, DOI : 10.14429/dlsj.8.18975  2023, DESIDOC Organic Farming in India and its Way Forward N. Krithika, Rishabh Jain, Monika Sharma, and Rajeev Kumar Mishra* Department of Environmental Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi–110 042, India *Email: rajeevkumarmishra@dtu.ac.in ABSTRACT India is home to 30% of the world’s organic growers and is likely to expand in the coming years. The solution to the issues of sustainability, global warming, land degradation and food security is Organic Farming, which is seen as a sign of dynamic change for the agricultural industry. Organic Farming discards the use of synthetic fertilizers and promotes sustainable agricultural practices. Organic Farming holds immense potential to revive the degrading state of the agricultural sector in the world by offering environmental benefits, quality products and conserving non-renewable resources. It is a promising alternative to conventional farming and is expanding quickly. Organic Farming is gaining worldwide attention with 2.30 million hectares of land being used for the purpose. It helps to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and improves soil fertility, boosting productivity and crop health. Organic Farming can also be used for land reclamation purposes. The",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "farming and is expanding quickly. Organic Farming is gaining worldwide attention with 2.30 million hectares of land being used for the purpose. It helps to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and improves soil fertility, boosting productivity and crop health. Organic Farming can also be used for land reclamation purposes. The aim of the present study is to examine the development of Organic Farming in India and globally, as well as identify any potential barriers to its implementation. Keywords: Agriculture; Sustainability; Organic farming; Pesticides; Land degradation 1. INTRODUCTION India derives 20 percent of its GDP from agriculture, with 66.6 percent of India’s population being dependent on it for their livelihood. Over the last 30 years, cropping intensity has increased from 118 percent to 135 percent1. Due to the expansion of agriculture, arable land is rapidly decreasing. The most significant barrier is the excessive consumption of chemical fertilizers, causing soil quality to degrade over time and thus be harmful in the long term. Another important aspect is land degradation due to anthropogenic activities such as mining which disrupts the soil and nearby land. Reclamation of such areas is highly recommended, especially in India, a major player in the mining sector. To remedy this alarming situation, organic fertilizers are highly recommended. However, the availability and adoption of Organic Farming in India are low. These nonchemical options are critical for the agricultural transition to a sustainable farming practice but are expensive due to their low cost compared to chemical fertilizers2. Organic Farming is an eco-friendly technique that originated due to the adverse effects of chemical fertilizers. Organic Farming holds immense potential to revive the degrading state of the agricultural sector in the world by offering environmental benefits, quality products and conserving non-renewable resources. It not only helps to sustain the soil and ecosystem but",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "eco-friendly technique that originated due to the adverse effects of chemical fertilizers. Organic Farming holds immense potential to revive the degrading state of the agricultural sector in the world by offering environmental benefits, quality products and conserving non-renewable resources. It not only helps to sustain the soil and ecosystem but also improves the health of producers and consumers3. Figure 1. State-wise organic coverage in India (net sown area percentage) Data Source: apeda.gov.in Organic Farming is an amalgamation of innovation and science to promote a sustainable relationship between plants, wildlife, and humans4. They help promote a balanced supply of nutrients, keeping the plants healthy, enhancing soil biological activity and nutrient mobilization in the soil. Due to Organic Farming practices, there has been an increase in the soil water retention capacity and a decrease in the acidity and salinity of soil. Organic Farming also helps to supply food for microorganisms and earthworms beneficial for soil fertility. Organic fertilizers have a low nutrient content and are required in large amounts to work effectively. This might lead to nutrient deficiency due to slow nutrient release to meet the crop 240 DEF. LIFE SCI. J., VOL. 8, NO. 3, JULY 2023 requirements. The cost of pursuing Organic Farming is very high compared to chemical and conventional farming resulting in its slower growth and adoption amongst farmers. Figure 1 depicts the current progress of the Indian states under Organic Farming. With 35% of its poor population, Sikkim was long regarded as one of India’s poorest states and became the first organic state in the world5. Going entirely organic was not an easy transition for Sikkim. On the high, terraced slopes of the Himalayas, there were countless small farms. The 66,000 farmers in the state received agroecological farming instruction and a robust policy framework from the state",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and became the first organic state in the world5. Going entirely organic was not an easy transition for Sikkim. On the high, terraced slopes of the Himalayas, there were countless small farms. The 66,000 farmers in the state received agroecological farming instruction and a robust policy framework from the state government6. Many harvests failed in the first few years, which reduced agricultural output. The rapid removal of synthetic fertilizers from the soil necessitated many years for the earth to regain fertility. Ladakh, Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, and Goa follow this. Figure 2. Area under organic cultivation and area in conversion to organic farming of North Eastern States (from 2017-18) (Source: apeda.gov.in). Farming practices in North East India have traditionally been organic, using little chemical fertilizers (Fig. 2). Islands and tribal territories are now getting developed to maintain their biological history. India owns 26% of certified land under cultivation and 74% of the forest area, making it ranked 9th in terms of area under Organic Farming. With 585200 producers and 0.7% organic share, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh are the greatest regions covered under Organic Farming, followed by Sikkim, which is recognized as a fully organic state as it completely disregards the usage of chemical fertilizers 7. India has one of the largest organic wild harvest collections. More than 1.34 million metric tonnes of highly attested organic products, comprising all types of food items, which are consumable and nonconsumable, were produced in India in the years 2015 and 20168. Table 1. Organic products exported from India Product Type Organic Produce Cereals Wheat, Rice, Maize or Corn Pulses Red gram, Black gram Fruits Banana, Orange, Mango, Pineapple, Passionfruit Oil and Seeds Soyabean, Sunflower, Mustard, Groundnut, Cotton Seed Vegetables Brinjal, Garlic, Potato, Tomato, Onions Herbs and Spices Chilli, Peppermint, Cardamom, Turmeric, Black Pepper, Amla, Ginger",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "exported from India Product Type Organic Produce Cereals Wheat, Rice, Maize or Corn Pulses Red gram, Black gram Fruits Banana, Orange, Mango, Pineapple, Passionfruit Oil and Seeds Soyabean, Sunflower, Mustard, Groundnut, Cotton Seed Vegetables Brinjal, Garlic, Potato, Tomato, Onions Herbs and Spices Chilli, Peppermint, Cardamom, Turmeric, Black Pepper, Amla, Ginger Others Jaggery, Sugar, Tea, Coffee Source: Chandrashekar 2010 Furthermore, the Agri-export Policy 2018 asserts the country is a potentially significant player in the world organic market. According to government estimates, India’s top organic exports include flax seeds, sesame, soybean, tea, medicinal plants, rice, and pulses (Table 1), expanding India’s organic exports by about 50% in 2018–19, reaching Rs 5,151 million9. This study aims to understand the history of Organic Farming in India and the world through various scientific literature and draw inferences about Organic Farming’s potential growth in the country. Organic Farming is slowly gaining pace in India and is becoming widespread. However, Organic agricultural methods are unknown to the local farmers, who favor traditional agriculture, which yields goods faster by utilizing poisonous chemical pesticides and fertilizers, affecting human health and the environment. Awareness-raising initiatives should be planned to increase the practice of Organic Farming so that farmers may learn about Organic Farming and its benefits. The ultimate goal is to evaluate the factors which may facilitate the adoption of Organic Farming in the country and provide recommendations to expedite the adoption of organic agriculture in India10. Based on scientific literature and reports on Organic Farming practices at the Global and Indian levels, a thorough literature review was carried out. Most studies seek to minimize extraneous variations such as soil type, geographic location and living standards with different degrees of success. We further read and researched case studies to understand the real-life impact of Organic Farming on countries. China and",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Indian levels, a thorough literature review was carried out. Most studies seek to minimize extraneous variations such as soil type, geographic location and living standards with different degrees of success. We further read and researched case studies to understand the real-life impact of Organic Farming on countries. China and Sri Lanka have been chosen to show contrasting viewpoints on the advantages and disadvantages of Organic Farming and to emphasize formulating an accurate action plan for India. The study concludes by identifying potential challenges of expanding Organic Farming in India and providing a long-term and short-term implementation plan to expand Organic Farming culture in India with strengthening governmental policies and support. 2. INTERNATIONAL STATUS OF ORGANIC FARMING Lockeretz, et al. (1987) compared the economic performance of 14 organic crop/livestock farms in the Midwest to that of 14 conventional farms11. The farms 241 N. KRITHIKA, et al.: ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA AND ITS WAY FORWARD were linked based on the physical characteristics and different types of agricultural operations. Organic farms’ market value of the crops produced per unit area was 11% lower. But, because the cost of production was also lower, both systems had equivalent net revenue per unit area. The net returns on organic farms were often more. According to both research, organic farms had reduced production costs. The yield of the organic movement is a frequent topic of inquiry. Can Organic Farming feed everyone on the planet? Even high-input, high-yield systems are now failing to feed the globe due to problems with food distribution, social organization, and grave concerns about poverty, racism, and gender12. Less food will be available if the land is converted from inorganic to Organic Farming because of yield losses during the conversion phase. Such organically grown food is only purchased by the wealthy. As a",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to problems with food distribution, social organization, and grave concerns about poverty, racism, and gender12. Less food will be available if the land is converted from inorganic to Organic Farming because of yield losses during the conversion phase. Such organically grown food is only purchased by the wealthy. As a result, less food is accessible to the poor. The price of the food they can buy goes up. Issues with equity result from this. Despite all of this, Organic Farming is effective. Some research showed sustained yields (albeit somewhat lower in many years) without agrochemicals in temperate climatic conditions based on tests running for 25 years in Switzerland. On the other hand, many agricultural experts think that large amounts of farm yard manure (FYM) and other biomass material, which will be required to make up for the fertilizers, are inaccessible without chemical fertilizers. Moreover, they think that some crops need the help of agrochemicals, particularly fertilizers to achieve greater output yield-wise and that adopting Organic Farming results in food insecurity for the nation13. Darnhofer (2010) noted that consumer tastes shifted towards chemical-free organic foods 14. Organic Farming has spread to 187 nations, with 3.1 million farmers managing 72.3 million hectares of land. Australia (35.69 mha) has the highest amount of organic land, followed by Argentina (3.63 mha) and Spain (2.35 mha)15. All areas have seen growth in organic agricultural land and retail sales. Organic Farming is a promising sector with immense potential to grow and revolutionize the global agricultural industry. Due to its numerous advantages, Organic Farming has become globally popularized as a propitious alternative to conventional agriculture. Since 2000, there has been a prominent rise in the overall Organic Farming production area, especially in industrialized countries16. Oceania accounts for approximately half of the world’s farmed land with an estimated",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Due to its numerous advantages, Organic Farming has become globally popularized as a propitious alternative to conventional agriculture. Since 2000, there has been a prominent rise in the overall Organic Farming production area, especially in industrialized countries16. Oceania accounts for approximately half of the world’s farmed land with an estimated 35.9 million hectares (mha) of Organic Farming, followed by Europe (14.6 mha), South America (8 mha), Asia (6.1 mha), North America (3.2 mha), and Africa (3.2 mha). Figure 3 depicts the Top 10 countries for Organic Farming in Asia. China has an Organic Farming land area of 1,90,000 hectares and is the fourth largest consumer of organic goods. Under arable and permanent crops, oil seeds, coconuts, cotton, coffee, temperate fruits, and tea make up the majority of the organic output in Asia. In 2015, 5.5 million hectares of wild organic agricultural land was used for growing fungi produce, medicinal plants, and oil17. In 2015, organic food sales in Asia, Australia, and other areas totaled 7.2 billion US dollars, boosting Asia’s export market. The key nations with the highest sales of domestic organic products are South Korea, Taiwan, Japan, Malaysia, and Singapore18. 3. STATUS OF ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA According to Tambe 2020, Organic Farming is a labor-intensive procedure that is highly restricted to farmers with abundant resources and the export market. It relies on external support systems for the price, market data, and product certification. As a result, he has concluded that Organic Farming likewise has a narrow area of application and societal value. Instead, he has advocated ecological farming; the major goals are maintaining high output, lowering production costs, and increasing self-sufficiency19. Both resource-poor and resource-rich farmers may benefit from it. The method is straightforward, it targets local markets, and its scope of coverage and social significance are decently",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "application and societal value. Instead, he has advocated ecological farming; the major goals are maintaining high output, lowering production costs, and increasing self-sufficiency19. Both resource-poor and resource-rich farmers may benefit from it. The method is straightforward, it targets local markets, and its scope of coverage and social significance are decently high. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare, in 2020-21, 0.98 million farmers were brought under Organic Farming. Under the schemes, about 0.94 million ha area in India is under Organic Farming. The Government of India has been consistently promoting the country’s chemical-free farming practices through dedicated schemes since 2015. Schemes such as PKVY and MOVCDNER provide end-to-end support to farmers in establishing, certifying and marketing the Organic Farming practice on their land20. However, Organic Farming production has been volatile, as seen in Table 2. The amount spent on schemes and programmes to promote Organic Farming is dwarfed by the annual subsidy provided on chemical fertilizers21. Table 2. Growth of organic farming in India over the years Year Organic Farming Area (Hectares) Organic Production (MT)* No. of Farmers Figure 3. Top countries for organic farming in asia [Source: USDA] (Source: agricoop.nic.in) 242 DEF. LIFE SCI. J., VOL. 8, NO. 3, JULY 2023 2015-16 19281 6321661 19355 2016-17 96291.16 8760811 173846 2017-18 6455 17132676 84618 2018-19 124990 989255 166571 2019-20 222369 2047536 365253 2020-21 7568 3399520 12074 Source: NCOF report; *MTMetric Tonnes There has been a rapid decrease in organic fertilizer production in India from 338720 million tonne in 2017-18 to 3879 million tonne in 2020-21. The possible reasons could be the organic fertilizer industry is hampered by low and uncertain demand, which prevents it from using its capacity optimally and discourages additional investment. Duplicity in securing licenses and official permission for manufacturing, selling, and quality testing of organic",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "2017-18 to 3879 million tonne in 2020-21. The possible reasons could be the organic fertilizer industry is hampered by low and uncertain demand, which prevents it from using its capacity optimally and discourages additional investment. Duplicity in securing licenses and official permission for manufacturing, selling, and quality testing of organic fertilizers hinder the manufacturing, selling, and quality testing of organic fertilizers. Using organic fertilizers and on-farm inputs can take time and resources compared to using chemical fertilizers22. A minimal financial allocation has been set out in public research institutes for organic fertilizer research and development. Drylands that are semiarid and arid, on various occasions, have inadequate organic matter and waterholding ability23. Soil fertility is declining and certain serious pests are developing a resistance to synthetic pesticides in many areas where heavy input agricultural systems are used24. Many of these are signs of inefficient land use, which contributes to desertification; adopting Organic Farming techniques suited for drylands can assist in improving these situations. 4. ORGANIC VS CONVENTIONAL FARMING Organic agriculture varies fundamentally from conventional agriculture. Thus, the ongoing use of Organic Farming practices appears to change the agro-functioning ecosystem. Organic farms typically support 30% more biodiversity than traditional farms. Even while conventional farming consistently adheres to some ecological principles, Organic Farming tends to increase soil fertility in a way that conventional farming cannot25. One approach to sustainable agriculture is Organic Farming. Many of these techniques utilized crop rotation, intercropping, mulching, double digging, and crop integration26. Figure 4 explains the existing drawbacks of conventional farming, emphasizing why there must be a significant shift to Organic Farming from conventional farming. Health consciousness and public readiness to pay for expensive organic goods are the main variables affecting consumer demand for organic food. Organic products have a rich, health-conscious customer base driven by a liberal",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of conventional farming, emphasizing why there must be a significant shift to Organic Farming from conventional farming. Health consciousness and public readiness to pay for expensive organic goods are the main variables affecting consumer demand for organic food. Organic products have a rich, health-conscious customer base driven by a liberal price premium and environmental concerns 27. Figure 4. Bottlenecks of conventional farming The literature research has demonstrated differences in viewpoints on Organic Farming, particularly among specialists. Although there is much disagreement on the profitability and yield growth of Organic Farming, there is broad agreement regarding its potential to safeguard human health and preserve the environment. Studies testify that Organic Farming is environmentally friendly. Still, there have been fewer efforts to promote Organic Farming in the form of subsidies, training facilities, etc., compared to conventional farming. This drawback can be addressed with the right incentives and policies. India, particularly in the dryland areas of the nation, may benefit from the varied soil and climatic conditions. 5. POLICIES FOR ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA Some initiatives the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare took to promote Organic Farming in the country and equip farmers with the proper knowledge and skills are mentioned in Table 328. In order to develop a plan of action for Organic Farming implementation in India, it is essential to study the growth and failures of other countries and learn from their methods. The prime focus of this section is to scrutinize the past experiences of India’s neighbouring countries Sri Lanka and China’s approaches to Organic Farming, as well as the key actions that have been made to ensure the success or failure of this type of farming. 6. THE SRI LANKA CASE In 2021, the President of Sri Lanka, Gotabaya Rajapaksa, decided to stop the import of chemical fertilizers",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Lanka and China’s approaches to Organic Farming, as well as the key actions that have been made to ensure the success or failure of this type of farming. 6. THE SRI LANKA CASE In 2021, the President of Sri Lanka, Gotabaya Rajapaksa, decided to stop the import of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Due to this, Organic Farming was picked up by all Sri Lankan farmers, and then the devastating effects ensued36. According to a source, Sri Lanka’s president Gotabaya Rajapaksa planned to save $400 million yearly on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Along with this, the president believed that using chemicals in agriculture affected the health of humans and the environment. Once independent in rice production, the country spent $450 million on its imports. The ban reduced production by 20% in six months37. Due to this reason, Sri Lanka saw a decrease in its output 243 N. KRITHIKA, et al.: ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA AND ITS WAY FORWARD Table 3. Policies to promote organic farming in India Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) The PKVY started in 2015 to encourage cluster-based Organic Farming through a participatory guarantee system for India. The Bhartiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati, based on principles of natural farming, was included in the PKVY as a sub-scheme in 2020–21. The National Mission on Clean Ganga (NMCG) has also been made part of PKVY[29]. Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER) With a vision to establish certified organic production in a sustainable value chain, the scheme has helped to connect farmers with customers since 2015. They aim to create a sustainable value chain from the input of seeds to establishing facilities for aggregation, processing and marketing of organic products via brand-building initiatives[30]. One District-One Product (ODOP) It was initiated in 2018 and the program uses the One District",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to connect farmers with customers since 2015. They aim to create a sustainable value chain from the input of seeds to establishing facilities for aggregation, processing and marketing of organic products via brand-building initiatives[30]. One District-One Product (ODOP) It was initiated in 2018 and the program uses the One District One Product (ODOP) strategy to leverage scale in input procurement, shared services, and product marketing. In districts, there could be more than one cluster of ODOP products[31]. National Policy for Farmers, 2007 This strategy supports farmers’ adoption of Organic Farming and highlights its significance. It supports using organic inputs and traditional knowledge for sustainable agriculture and offers incentives for Organic Farming[32]. National Program for Organic Production (NPOP) It is an Indian certification scheme for organic goods. The program specifies requirements for organic cultivation, certification, and body accreditation. In India, NPOP certification is a requirement for all organic[33]. Sikkim Organic Mission The first entirely organic state in India is Sikkim. The Sikkim Organic Mission was established in 2010 to make all of the state’s agricultural land organic. Farmers that embrace organic agricultural methods receive incentives and subsidies from the state government[34]. Karnataka State Organic Farming Policy The Karnataka State Organic Farming Policy was introduced in 2017 to elevate Organic Farming practices in the state. The policy aims to promote Organic Farming practices and increase the area under organic cultivation in the state. It encourages farmers to adopt Organic Farming practices through awareness campaigns, capacity building, and financial incentives[35]. of crops by 18%. The Sri Lankan government had to spend a lot of money in the form of subsidies to help the farmers cover up for this loss in productivity. 7. THE CHINA CASE China is rated 3rd internationally in certified organic products and 4th globally in sales. In China, organic food",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "18%. The Sri Lankan government had to spend a lot of money in the form of subsidies to help the farmers cover up for this loss in productivity. 7. THE CHINA CASE China is rated 3rd internationally in certified organic products and 4th globally in sales. In China, organic food production and sustainable agricultural methods are increasing, based on a government study from 2019. Between 2005 and 2018, the total area under cultivation for certified organic agriculture expanded more than five times to 3.1 million hectares38. China exports agri-food products worth US$65 billion annually. With various forms of official assistance, farmers are abandoning using chemicals in their agriculture to promote and advance individuals’ health, environmental preservation, and economic motivations. Chinese customers are eager to eat food without chemicals, mainly for health reasons. Organic and “green” food demand is rising quickly, particularly among the middle and upper classes39. 8. INFERENCE FROM THE CASES Chemical fertilizers and pesticides considerably affect the health of humans and the environment. This was the primary reason for the ban, but it is also important to realize that these chemicals allowed the farmers to grow more crops on a smaller piece of land. This quality of chemicals that enable the farmer to produce higher yields is a huge plus in upcoming nations like Sri Lanka. In 2000, 83% of Sri Lankan population was categorized as nourished. However, in 2019, the population of Sri Lankans who were nourished was just 7%. At the same time, China has made significant research investments and has institutions supporting the organic industry that offers training and information sharing. Twenty-one million farmers were taught soil, water, and fertilizer management. This initiative increased maize, wheat, and rice yields by 11% while reducing nitrogen fertilizer consumption by 15% to 18%. The Chinese experience has been",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "significant research investments and has institutions supporting the organic industry that offers training and information sharing. Twenty-one million farmers were taught soil, water, and fertilizer management. This initiative increased maize, wheat, and rice yields by 11% while reducing nitrogen fertilizer consumption by 15% to 18%. The Chinese experience has been innovative in that it has established a local standard, the Green Food standard, and has spread, tested, and refined it away from the international spotlight. It has also differentiated certification into Grade A and Grade AA. This tactic has aided in China’s quick adoption of organic foods. While the Chinese gradually acclimated the farmers towards Organic Farming through flexible and lucrative policies, the sudden policy shift in Sri Lanka and the lack of a concrete supply chain system led to the downfall of the economy and the environment in Sri Lanka. 244 DEF. LIFE SCI. J., VOL. 8, NO. 3, JULY 2023 9. CHALLENGES IN ORGANIC FARMING India can learn from other countries’ successes and mistakes in expediting the Organic Farming development process. To implement an effective action plan, it is necessary to identify potential challenges which may be a roadblock to Organic Farming expansion in India. 9.1 Shortage of Biomass Many erudite scholars and experienced farmers are skeptical about the nutrient value that organic fertilizers could impart. Researchers believe this organic matter is not enough to be accessible to all. 9.2 Disparity of Supply and Demand Fruits and vegetables cannot be grown or moved to any area like non-perishable grains can, yet nonperishable grains can be cultivated anywhere. It ought to be produced close to the demand, and there ought to be willing businesses and farmers there. However, the demand mostly originates from urban areas where no farms can grow organic fruits. The solution to this smart transfer is",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "grains can, yet nonperishable grains can be cultivated anywhere. It ought to be produced close to the demand, and there ought to be willing businesses and farmers there. However, the demand mostly originates from urban areas where no farms can grow organic fruits. The solution to this smart transfer is through experienced routes. 9.3 Time More interaction between a farmer and his crops is required in Organic Farming, such as weed control, early intervention, and crop monitoring. With conventional techniques and chemical fertilizers, the time taken to produce more crops is less. 9.4 High MRP Organic Farming is cost sensitive due to the extreme care needed in its practice, as a result their cost of production is also high. This leads to customer segmentation, mostly the rich and environmentally conscious people would buy organic products which hinders its expansion over the country. 9.5 Lack of Special Infrastructure Handling organic produce is a very necessary step in expanding and flourishing the organic farming industry in the country. Due to lack of infrastructure and facilities there is massive spoilage which is a major challenge. 10. APPLICATION OF ORGANIC FARMING IN LAND RECLAMATION India accounts for 16% of the global population, although its land only covers 2% of its total area. Naturally, the soil is sometimes under more stress than it can handle. As a result, India’s productive resources, particularly its agricultural land, are constantly undergoing varying degrees of deterioration and are quickly becoming a wasteland. In India, there are currently 68.35 million hectares of wastelands on the planet. About 50% of these areas are non-forest lands of this type, which, with the proper care, may be restored to fertility40. The chemical and physical functions of the soil, such as sorption capacity, nutrient mobilization, and long-term fixation, are all improved by organic additions.",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "hectares of wastelands on the planet. About 50% of these areas are non-forest lands of this type, which, with the proper care, may be restored to fertility40. The chemical and physical functions of the soil, such as sorption capacity, nutrient mobilization, and long-term fixation, are all improved by organic additions. Organic matter improves soil quality and serves as a store for nutrients, preventing nutrient loss through leaching and erosion. Green manures act as mulch for the soil, protecting it from moisture loss and wind/water erosion and increasing the soil’s organic matter. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria of their root nodules aid in absorbing nitrogen from the atmosphere. Land Remediation Techniques cover methods like composting and farming on land. Inland farming, polluted soils are transported to farming locations where they are repeatedly turned over and tilled to provide for aeration. The government or local authority concerned must provide financing or approve large-scale, expensive soil remediation projects41. 11. SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT THROUGH ORGANIC FARMING Because Organic Farming needs more effort, each farm creates more employment that generates cash. Their occupational health is enhanced since farmers and laborers on organic fields are less likely to be exposed to agriculture-related chemicals42. Organic produce is healthier and more durable due to low nitrate and high levels of antioxidants which assist in extending their shelf life43. The industry is experiencing a boom in the economy due to increased profits generated by Organic Farming. The idea of industry-driven “One district One product” is now being encouraged, as is the creation of new clusters close to larger towns where the demand for organics will be considerably greater. By eliminating synthetic fibers and carbon sequestration, Organic Farming can also help lower emissions and the atmospheric carbon dioxide level44. The second aspect impacting farmer inclination towards Organic Farming is perceived benefit. An individual is",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "new clusters close to larger towns where the demand for organics will be considerably greater. By eliminating synthetic fibers and carbon sequestration, Organic Farming can also help lower emissions and the atmospheric carbon dioxide level44. The second aspect impacting farmer inclination towards Organic Farming is perceived benefit. An individual is more open to adopting new behavior the larger its benefits. Farmers are more likely to use Organic Farming if they believe that cultivating organic crops would minimize crop disease and produce better harvest quality yielding more profits. 12. THE ANNUAL BUDGET OF INDIA 2023 The government would help 10 million farmers switch to natural (or chemical-balanced) farming during the following three years, according to Budget 2023. The budget initiated a PM PRANAM program for the restoration, awareness, nutrition and improvement of Mother Earth. The increase in soil health in India is one of the main advantages of natural farming. In traditional agriculture, the misuse of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides can degrade the soil, lowering its fertility and capacity to sustain strong plant development45. The livelihoods of Indian farmers may potentially be improved through natural farming. Natural food is frequently more expensive than traditionally produced, giving farmers better incomes and more stable living 245 N. KRITHIKA, et al.: ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA AND ITS WAY FORWARD conditions. Natural farming can also lower the danger of crop failures since organic farmers use a variety of crops, which lowers the chance of crop failures brought on by pests and diseases46. 13. RECOMMENDATIONS 13.1 Strategies to promote Organic Farming in India After analyzing the scenario of Organic Farming in Sri Lanka and China, we feel it would be in India’s best interest to adopt the following practices and develop a comprehensive action with both long-term and short-term strategies explained in Figure 5 and 6.",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Strategies to promote Organic Farming in India After analyzing the scenario of Organic Farming in Sri Lanka and China, we feel it would be in India’s best interest to adopt the following practices and develop a comprehensive action with both long-term and short-term strategies explained in Figure 5 and 6. Figure 6. Long-term and Short-term map to implement strategies. This chart bifurcates the above-mentioned strategies into long-term and short-term implementation goals. The size of these bubbles is directly proportional to the expected impact, while the color represents the priority of the steps mentioned above. Green bubbles are recommended for immediate implementation, while grey bubbles depend on government budgetary constraints. 14. CONCLUSION Organic Farming is an amalgamation of innovation and science to promote a sustainable relationship between plants, wildlife, and humans. They are beneficial to the environment and increase the quality of life by producing healthier products. Organic Farming also helps to supply food for microorganisms and earthworms beneficial for soil fertility. The sector is pacing up with time and has spread to 187 nations, with 3.1 million farmers managing 72.3 million hectares of land. Despite being a consumer-centric and market-controlled sector, the organic industry has expanded to approximately 30% annually over the past ten years. The government is taking relevant measures to promote Organic Farming in India through multiple schemes and policies. However, organic agricultural methods are unknown to the local farmers, who favor traditional farming, which yields goods faster using poisonous chemical pesticides and fertilizers. Awareness-raising initiatives should be planned so that farmers can learn about Organic Farming and its benefits. It can be used in land rehabilitation practices across the country and help to reclaim barren land by improving soil quality and serving as a store for nutrients, preventing nutrient loss through leaching and erosion. However, there is",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "planned so that farmers can learn about Organic Farming and its benefits. It can be used in land rehabilitation practices across the country and help to reclaim barren land by improving soil quality and serving as a store for nutrients, preventing nutrient loss through leaching and erosion. However, there is a need to create the right technology and infrastructure to distribute the farmers. Farmers must receive training in value-added technologies. India must learn from the cases of Sri Lanka and China and focus on prioritizing Organic Farming by addressing the existing problems and difficulties. The nation needs a robust organic policy creation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors express their gratitude to everyone who contributed to the project at various stages and shared their research and findings. The authors thank the Advance Air and Acoustics Research laboratory members, Department of Environmental Engineering, Delhi Technological University, for supporting the entire study. REFERENCES 1. FAO Publications Catalogue 2022, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, Oct. 2022, 136 p. doi: 10.4060/CC2323EN. 2. Kumar, Vineet. CSE report flags poor state of Figure 5. Strategies to promote organic farming in India. 246 DEF. LIFE SCI. J., VOL. 8, NO. 3, JULY 2023 organic fertilisers, biofertilisers sector in India, India, 2022. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/ agriculture/cse-report-flags-poor-state-of-organicfertilisers-biofertilisers-sector-in-india-82647 (Accessed Feb. 28, 2023). 3. A. K. Barik & Sarkar, N.C. Organic Farming in India: Present Status, Challenges and Technological Break Through. In Proceedings of Third International Conference on Bio-resources and Stress Management, 2017, 84-93. 4. Babu, C. & Karunakaran, N. Status, benefits and future prospects of Organic Farming in India: A review. J. of Management Res. and Anal., 2021, 8(3), 103–111. doi: 10.18231/J.JMRA.2021.022. 5. Chadha, D. & Srivastava, S. K. Growth Performance of Organic Agriculture in India. Current J. of Appl. Sc. and Tech., 2020, 39(33), 86–94. doi: 10.9734/ CJAST/2020/V39I3331022. 6.",
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    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
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    "text": ", “Land use/land cover change detection analysis using remote sensing and gis of dhanbad district, india,” Eurasian Journal of Forest Science, 2018, doi: 10.31195/EJEJFS.428381. 42. Doran J.W. and Zeiss M., “Soil health and sustainability: Managing the biotic component of soil quality,” Applied Soil Ecology, 15(1), 3–11, doi: 10.1016/ S0929-1393(00)00067-6. 43. Urra J., Alkorta I., and Garbisu C., “Potential Benefits and Risks for Soil Health Derived from the Use of Organic Amendments in Agriculture,” Agronomy 2019, 9(9), 542, doi: 10.3390/AGRONOMY9090542. 44. “Reclamation of Problem Soils (RPS)-A Sub Scheme of RKVY Government of India Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare Department of Agriculture, Cooperation& Farmers Welfare (Natural Resource Management Division)”. https://pib.gov.in/ PressReleseDetail.aspx?PRID=1741966 (Accessed Feb. 28, 2023) 45. McArthur J.W. and McCord G.C., “Fertilizing growth: Agricultural inputs and their effects in economic development,” Journal of Development Economics, 2017, 127, 133–152, doi: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2017.02.007. 46. Kalpana P., SaiBramari G., and Anitha L., “Formulation of potential vegetable waste compost in association with microorganisms and Spirulina platensis,” Asian Journal of Plant Science & Research, 2011,1(1), doi: 10.1107/s14573-026-0404-6. CONTRIBUTORS Ms N.Krithika is a final year undergraduate student pursuing B.Tech. in Environmental Engineering from Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India. In this study, she has contributed to data interpretation, literature analysis of the work and text writing of the manuscript Mr Rishabh Jain is a final year undergraduate student pursuing B.Tech. in Environmental Engineering from Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India. In this study, he has contributed to data interpretation, literature analysis of the work and text writing of the manuscript. Ms Monika Sharma holds a Master of Science degree in Environmental Science from Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar Univesity, Agra, India. She is currently pursuing her PhD at Delhi Technological Univesity, Delhi, India. In this study, she has performed a critical review and edited the manuscript. Dr Rajeev Kumar Mishra is an",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Ms Monika Sharma holds a Master of Science degree in Environmental Science from Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar Univesity, Agra, India. She is currently pursuing her PhD at Delhi Technological Univesity, Delhi, India. In this study, she has performed a critical review and edited the manuscript. Dr Rajeev Kumar Mishra is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Environmental Engineering at Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India. He holds a PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. He has contributed to the guidance and framing of the research study for this work. He has also performed a critical review and edited the manuscript.",
    "source": "18975-ArticleText-80055-1-10-202310121.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "~ 113 ~ International Journal of Research in Agronomy 2022; 5(2): 113-118 E-ISSN: 2618-0618 P-ISSN: 2618-060X © Agronomy www.agronomyjournals.com 2022; 5(2): 113-118 Received: 20-05-2022 Accepted: 24-07-2022 Koyel Mukherjee Department of Rural Development and Management, Seacom Skills University, Santiniketan, Bolpur, Birbhum, West Bengal, India Abhishek Konar Department of Botany, School of Bio Science, Seacom Skills University, Santiniketan, Bolpur, Birbhum, West Bengal, India Pranabesh Ghosh School of Agriculture & School of Bio Science, Seacom Skills University, Santiniketan, Bolpur, Birbhum, West Bengal, India Corresponding Author: Pranabesh Ghosh School of Agriculture & School of Bio Science, Seacom Skills University, Santiniketan, Bolpur, Birbhum, West Bengal, India Organic farming in India: A brief review Koyel Mukherjee, Abhishek Konar and Pranabesh Ghosh DOI: https://doi.org/10.33545/2618060X.2022.v5.i2b.120 Abstract Various food crops are produced in India, including cereals, pulses, and oilseeds. The biggest challenge in India since Independence has been supplying enough food for the growing population. Therefore, highyielding varieties are cultivated with irrigation water, fertilizers, or pesticides. Government policy continues to encourage the growth of the agribusiness sector through substantial investment in infrastructure and food processing. Technological advancements and agri-infrastructure upgrading are still a concerning matter to achieve excellent status. With the time high use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides for high production soil fertility is losing as well as food safety is in challenging conditions. In the present scenario, organic farming is the backbone of the great Indian civilization. Organic Farming is the safest way of maintaining soil fertility and public health, too. As a result, organic farming can provide quality food without adversely affecting the soil health, the environment and without compromising the human health as well. Organic products include all varieties of food products like tea, fruits, rice, pulses, honey, spices, coffee, oilseeds, cereals, herbal products or maybe cotton, cosmetics, functional foods, body care products, and other",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "provide quality food without adversely affecting the soil health, the environment and without compromising the human health as well. Organic products include all varieties of food products like tea, fruits, rice, pulses, honey, spices, coffee, oilseeds, cereals, herbal products or maybe cotton, cosmetics, functional foods, body care products, and other similar products. The present review focuses on the organic farming importance and its status in India. Keywords: Organic farming, green revolution, high-yielding varieties, soil fertility, human health Introduction Due to the growing demand for safe and healthy food and concerns about environmental pollution caused by the indiscriminate application of agrochemicals, organic farming has become a major priority area worldwide. In India, 68% population and 52% of the total work depends on agriculture and other related activities. It is reported that to reach a double-digit GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and agricultural growth in India around 4% expenses is required [1]. In the Indian economy, Agriculture is the main concern area, as well as India, is the world’s largest producer of wheat, rice, and cotton. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane, fruit, vegetables, and tea [2, 3]. During 1966-1967 to 1970-1971 food, grain production increased the crop revolution and which is termed as Green Revolution. The Green Revolution of India was announced during the Plan Holiday (1966-1969) under the leadership of MS Swaminathan [4]. A steering committee which was led by MS Swaminathan, who appointed by the Ministry of Agriculture and the cooperation task force on organic farming, advocated promoting organic farming in rain-fed regions and the northeastern states, where fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals such as pesticides were limited. The main objective of the Green Revolution was the production of high-yielding seed varieties that was adopted in 1966-1977 [4]. The eleventh plan (2007-2012) of the Indian economy is known",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "organic farming in rain-fed regions and the northeastern states, where fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals such as pesticides were limited. The main objective of the Green Revolution was the production of high-yielding seed varieties that was adopted in 1966-1977 [4]. The eleventh plan (2007-2012) of the Indian economy is known as the Ever Green Revolution. High-yielding production technology has contributed to a food surplus in the country and soil health, pollution, pesticide toxicity, and sustainability need to be a concern in this part. Agricultural Geography experts use the term to describe a broad transformation of agriculture in developing countries to reduce food shortages [1-4]. In January 2016, the Indian Government initiated a scheme Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY). PMFBY is a dedicated agri-insurance company and aims to save the needs of Indian farmers and to proceed towards sustainable agricultural growth [4]. The 42nd Report of the Parliament Standing Committee on Agriculture of the 14th Lok Sabah has well highlighted the progress in organic agriculture development and the need to promote it further. International Journal of Research in Agronomy http://www.agronomyjournals.com ~ 114 ~ The committee suggested that organic farming is one of the best options that will be creating profitable agricultural products in India. Hence, therefore, it must be included as a priority area and the impact of organic farming on agriculture and national food security can analyse [4]. First organic crop-yielding programs launched from Madhya Pradesh of India. Mango, Pineapple, Bananas, and Papaya are organic fruits cultivated in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh of India. Among the Indian states Haryana, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh cultivate organic crops like Wheat, Maize, and Sorghum and Oilseeds organic crops produce in only Madhya Pradesh [5]. Concept of organic farming The word ‘organic’ denotes ‘the plant or animal origin’. Additionally, it",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Madhya Pradesh of India. Among the Indian states Haryana, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh cultivate organic crops like Wheat, Maize, and Sorghum and Oilseeds organic crops produce in only Madhya Pradesh [5]. Concept of organic farming The word ‘organic’ denotes ‘the plant or animal origin’. Additionally, it refers to an organism’s organizational structure. The term organic farming was used by Lord Northbound in 1940. JI Rodale, the founder of the Rodale Research Institute and magazine Organic Farming and Gardening. According to the United States Department of Agriculture study it is defined as ‘organic farming is a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs like feed additives, fertilizer, pesticide, hormone and the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection’ [5]. Another definition according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) organic farming is a special type of production management that uses on-farm agronomic, biological, and mechanical approaches instead of any artificial off-farm inputs to support and increase the health of agro-ecosystems, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activities [5]. Organic Farming during Ancient Time in India Organic farming was initiated several thousand years ago. Farmers of that, time starts crop production in the riversides by using natural resources. Indian scriptures Ramayana, Rig-Veda, and Mahabharata briefly narrate the organic agricultural inputs by the farmers at that time [2]. In Mahabharata Kamadhenu cow was found which is related to agricultural practices. Ramayana explains the cycle of dead things and foul waste stuff that returns to earth in the form of nutrients [3]. The ‘Aryans’ word comes from the root word, ‘Arya’ which means to cultivate. The word ‘Veda’ means knowledge and Agriculture inspired by Vedic",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "which is related to agricultural practices. Ramayana explains the cycle of dead things and foul waste stuff that returns to earth in the form of nutrients [3]. The ‘Aryans’ word comes from the root word, ‘Arya’ which means to cultivate. The word ‘Veda’ means knowledge and Agriculture inspired by Vedic knowledge called Vedic Agriculture. Vedic texts describe the principles of organic farming like Krishi Parashar, Brihatsamhita, and Manusmriti etc. Rigveda describes the use of organic manure and the importance of cow dung for plant Growth [3]. In a study, it was discussed that the concepts of agriculture of the times of Kautilya (Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya), who wrote the Arthasastra in the 3rd-4th century. Kautilya mentions oil cake and animal excreta in Kautilya’s Arthashastra, which was used for agricultural purposes [5]. Various components of organic farming The most important components of organic farming are biological nitrogen fixation, crop rotation, residues of crops, biopesticides, and biogas slurry. Vermicomposting is a major element in organic husbandry, which is effective in increasing the soil fertility and growth of crops in a sustainable way [7]. The components of organic farming are as follows: Crop Residue India has great eventuality of using remainders of crops and straw of cereals and beats in the recycling of nutrients during organic husbandry. These residues are stalks, stems, leaves, and seedpods. Crop Remainders when invested with fungal species ameliorate physic-chemical parcels of soil and crop yields [6]. Crop Rotation For rehearsing sustainable husbandry there should be gyration of crops on the same land over a period of two times or further for maintaining soil fertility and control of insects, weeds and conditions. For example, the use of legumes in rotation improves soil fertility [6, 7]. Organic Manure Organic manure is obtained from biological sources like plants, animals, human",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "crops on the same land over a period of two times or further for maintaining soil fertility and control of insects, weeds and conditions. For example, the use of legumes in rotation improves soil fertility [6, 7]. Organic Manure Organic manure is obtained from biological sources like plants, animals, human residues, and birds. Organic ordure is a wellspoiled material used in organic husbandry it is free from chemicals, dangerous organisms and weed seeds whether it is from a beast or factory origin. Organic ordure helps in adding crop growth directly by perfecting the uptake of humic substances and laterally promoting soil productivity by adding vacuity of major and minor factory nutrients through soil microorganisms [6, 8]. Animal manure is used to fertilize grasslands and crops. The vacuity of beast wastes is projected to rise in unborn decades, specifically in developing countries. The operation of beast coprolites in reducing the toxin of soils defiled with heavy essence, chancing that their operation corresponds to a good volition of phytoremediation [9]. In bird manure, uric acid is the main source of nitrogen. Bird manure is an important, inexpensive fertilizer that is readily available in the market. Sea Bird normally contains 8-21% nitrogen by mass, primarily in the form of uric acid (80%), protein (10%), ammonia (7%), and nitrate (0.5%). Sea Bird stool is considerably studied because soils that admit it with high attention to nutrients are similar to NO3 and NH4 [9]. Wastes The word waste denotes a product or a substance that cannot use as intended. Waste from human activities is often highly resilient and takes a long time to decompose, as opposed to waste from natural ecosystems (e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide, dead organic matter). Wastes are two types i.e. Industrial Waste and Municipal and Sewage waste. Industrial by-products similar to spent",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "cannot use as intended. Waste from human activities is often highly resilient and takes a long time to decompose, as opposed to waste from natural ecosystems (e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide, dead organic matter). Wastes are two types i.e. Industrial Waste and Municipal and Sewage waste. Industrial by-products similar to spent marshland and coir waste can be used as ordure. Municipal and Sewage waste are the most important components of organic waste [6, 10]. Urine Urine contains the macronutrients like N, P, and K that are required for fertilizer production. Mortal urine is a precious toxin, although its value is undervalued, and it is underutilized. The exercise of mortal urine is entering attention as an indispensable toxin because it contains nutrients similar to Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Sulphur (S), Calcium (Ca), and Magnesium (Mg) [11]. Biofertilizers The term biofertilizer or microbial inoculants can be generally defined as an idle cell of effective strains of nitrogen fixing, phosphate solubilising or cellulite microorganisms used for the operation of seed, soil or composting areas with the idea of adding the figures of similar microorganisms and accelerate the International Journal of Research in Agronomy http://www.agronomyjournals.com ~ 115 ~ certain microbial process to compound the extent of the vacuity of nutrients in a form which can be assimilated by factory [11]. There are two types of bio-fertilizers, Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation and Asymbiotic Nitrogen Fixation. Nitrogen is a very essential nutrient for crop growth. In Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation, Rhizobium has symbiotic commerce with legume roots, and Rhizobacteria inhabit on root face or in rhizosphere soil. Rhizobium Bacteria fixes atmospheric nitrogen in the roots of leguminous shops, forming tumour growth known as root nodes [5, 11]. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers and phosphate solubilising microorganisms allow nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers to be used sustainably. In Asymbiotic Nitrogen fixation",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Rhizobacteria inhabit on root face or in rhizosphere soil. Rhizobium Bacteria fixes atmospheric nitrogen in the roots of leguminous shops, forming tumour growth known as root nodes [5, 11]. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers and phosphate solubilising microorganisms allow nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers to be used sustainably. In Asymbiotic Nitrogen fixation Blue Green Algae (BGA), Azolla, Azotobacter, Mycorrhizae and Azospirillium grow on decomposing soil organic matter and fixes atmospheric nitrogen in suitable soil medium. Azolla Biofertilizer are used for rice civilization in different countries similar as Vietnam, China, Thailand, and Philippines. Azospirillium has a salutary effect on oats, barley, sludge, and probe crop and plum millet. It fixes nitrogen by colonising root zones [12]. Vermi Compost Vermicomposting is a process in which earthworms are used to convert organic accoutrements into guck like material known as vermicompost [9]. Vermiculture means “worm-husbandry”. Earthworms feed on the organic waste accoutrements and give out excreta in the form of Vertices that are rich in nitrates and minerals similar to phosphorus, magnesium, calcium and potassium. Vermicompost increased contents of soil total organic carbon, total N, P, K, Ca, Zn and Mn mainly compared with control plots that can help plant growth [11]. Bio-pesticide Bio-pesticides are fungicides deduced from natural accoutrements, similar to creatures, shops, bacteria, and certain minerals [13]. The biological activity of these compounds affects the behaviour and physiology of insects, fungi, and nematodes. Bio-pesticides are of factory origin and include products like alkaloids, phenolics, and some secondary chemicals [6]. Plant nutrient from organic sources Estimation of NPK availability based on total nutrient content from organic sources, the efficiency of these sources to meet nutritional needs not sure as mineral fertilizer for crops, while the combined use of chemical fertilizers and organic sources can increase soil quality and crop productivity over the long run. NPK",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Estimation of NPK availability based on total nutrient content from organic sources, the efficiency of these sources to meet nutritional needs not sure as mineral fertilizer for crops, while the combined use of chemical fertilizers and organic sources can increase soil quality and crop productivity over the long run. NPK fertilizer treatment significantly decreased soil pH, whereas organic fertilizer treatment significantly increased soil ph. The organic sources provide the plants with NPK, as well as making unavailable sources of nitrogen, bound phosphates, micronutrients, and decomposed plant residues available [14]. Organic farming consists of a variety of elements (Table 1). Table 1: The Building Blocks of Organic Farming Building Elements Role and Impacts References Crop Rotation (i) Control of weeds and crop diseases (ii) Fertility maintenance for soils (iii) Improve soil stability (iv) Soil environment that promotes biotic-abiotic interactions (v) Water and soil contamination are reduced [14] Organic Manure (i) Supply nitrogen to crops (ii) The fertility and structure of the soil can be improved (iii) Higher essential nutrients for plant growth [15] Bio-fertilizers (i) Regulate nutrient balance of soil (ii) Conversion of insoluble phosphate in soluble forms [16] Organic and Crop Residue (i) Regulation of soil temperature (ii) Helps mineralize insoluble plant minerals (iii) Assist soil microbes in obtaining carbon [17] Organic Farming and the Indian Economy Organic farming has various roles in India's rural or rustic economy. Agricultural land has become scarce in rural India due to rapid industrialization. Due to the exponential growth in India’s population, food sufficiency has become more essential than ever before. At the same time, organic farming produced high amounts of antioxidant content, Vitamin E, and omega-3 fatty acids in the soil that help the plant's growth like photoprotection, and blooming. Farmers who lack the financial resources to explore chemical solutions have to rely",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "has become more essential than ever before. At the same time, organic farming produced high amounts of antioxidant content, Vitamin E, and omega-3 fatty acids in the soil that help the plant's growth like photoprotection, and blooming. Farmers who lack the financial resources to explore chemical solutions have to rely solely on organic fertilizers and natural pest control [9]. Traditionally the green revolution and the process of modernization have increased the use of chemicals in Indian agriculture. Recent research shows that chemical use and intensive irrigation can be detrimental to agriculture which is why organic farming has become increasingly popular. Interest in organic agriculture has mainly two causes, agricultural yields decline in some areas due to decreased soil fertility and excessive chemical inputs [13]. The Ministries of Industries and Commerce, Government of India implemented the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) in 2001. Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry controls National Program for Organic Production (NPOP). NPOP provides an institutional framework for accreditation and certification of various facets of organic agriculture processes [13]. The main key objective of the National Programme for Organic Production is as it has developed a certification program for organic agriculture, aquaculture, and livestock and it is accomplishing the development of organic farming and organic processing [13]. In October 2003, the Government of India established the National Institute of Organic Farming (NIOF) and its main aim is to develop rules, regulations, and certification for organic products that adhere to international standards. The major product sold in global markets include cocoa, spices, herbs, oil crops, non-food items including cotton, cut flowers, livestock and potted plants [13]. In 2002, with over 200 million tonnes of total food production, India produces only 14,000 tonnes of organic food products. Currently,",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "that adhere to international standards. The major product sold in global markets include cocoa, spices, herbs, oil crops, non-food items including cotton, cut flowers, livestock and potted plants [13]. In 2002, with over 200 million tonnes of total food production, India produces only 14,000 tonnes of organic food products. Currently, India has only 1426 certified organic farms. The largest producer is Madhya Pradesh, followed by Maharashtra, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan. The total volume of organic crops, exported during 2019-20, was 6.389 lakh Metric International Journal of Research in Agronomy http://www.agronomyjournals.com ~ 116 ~ Tonnes [18]. Promotion of Organic Farming by the Indian Government Over the years, organic promotion activities have led to the development of state-specific organic brands, increased domestic supply, and export of organic products from the Northeast region. Awareness programs, availability of adequate post-harvest infrastructure, marketing facilities, and premium price of organic products among others will surely encourage farmers towards organic farming thereby increasing organic coverage in the country. The government has launched many programs to promote organic farming [4]. These are as follows: Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) The Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) was launched in 2015. The PKVY is one of the components of the National Mission of Sustainable Agriculture project. The aim of PKVY is to promote organic farming and provide the latest information on organic farming technologies. The scheme supports cluster formation, training, certification, and marketing [4]. One District-One Product (ODOP) The Uttar Pradesh Government launched it on 24th January 2018. It aims to create employment at the district level by increasing the visibility and sales of indigenous and specialized products/crafts of Uttar Pradesh [4]. Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER) Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs) are promoted as thirdparty organic farmers of niche crops in the north-east region.",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "aims to create employment at the district level by increasing the visibility and sales of indigenous and specialized products/crafts of Uttar Pradesh [4]. Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER) Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs) are promoted as thirdparty organic farmers of niche crops in the north-east region. An organic input assistance program of Rs. 25,000 per hectare is offered for three years to farmers. A maximum of two crores was also provided for the formation of FPOs, capacity building, and post-harvest infrastructure. Awareness programs, availability of adequate post-harvest infrastructure, marketing facilities, and premium price of organic produce among others will surely encourage farmers towards organic farming thereby increasing organic coverage in the country [4]. National Food Security Mission (NFSM) National food security mission (NFSM) was launched in October 2007. The main aim of this scheme, is to encourage chemical-free farming, Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Padhati (BPKP) of PKVY promotes organic farming inputs. Kerala and Andhra Pradesh have allocated 0.8 lakh and 1 lakh hectares, respectively, for promoting organic farming or natural agriculture [4]. Organic farming and west Bengal West Bengal has plentiful natural resources and six different agro-climatic zones, fertile soil and a vast array of biodiversity. A major part of the State’s economy is agriculture, which employs nearly three out of every four people [19, 8]. During the last five times, the area under certified organic husbandry in West Bengal has increased by 18% despite facing several challenges while rehearsing organic husbandry [20]. Modern farming methods came to West Bengal in the late 1970s. While only in West Bengal, 26% of the total agricultural areas used high yielding varieties (HYV) technology in 1977-78 and this increased to 90% in 1998-99. Now West Bengal is a leading state in agriculture in India and the help of organic farming",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to West Bengal in the late 1970s. While only in West Bengal, 26% of the total agricultural areas used high yielding varieties (HYV) technology in 1977-78 and this increased to 90% in 1998-99. Now West Bengal is a leading state in agriculture in India and the help of organic farming developed this [33, 22]. Advantages of organic farming Pests and diseases are naturally resistant to it Using organic farming methods increases yields by eliminating synthetic products. Organic farming creates healthier soil encouraging healthy plants that are naturally resistant to complaints and pests. These shops have stronger natural defence mechanisms through this fashion, which thickens the cell walls of the shops being grown [13]. A specific commodity crop is the focus of traditional farming practices. The most common crops are soybeans, wheat, and corn are grown in the United States [13]. Organic Food for Health Organic foods frequently have more salutary nutrients, similar to antioxidants, than their conventionally grown counterparts and people with disinclinations to foods, chemicals, or preservatives may find their symptoms lessen or go down when they eat only [22]. Organic fertilizer reduces pollution The fungicides (Captan, folpet, dithiocarbamates, pentachlorophenol, and mercurial) used in non-organic product run off with water and contaminate our water too. Organic husbandry is extensively considered a far more sustainable volition when it comes to food products. Therefore, organic farming reduces pollution [23]. The advantages of organic farming are summarized as: A. Organic fertilizers are safe and do not yields harmful chemical substance like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxin [24] B. Chemical fertilizer needs huge amounts of water to activate its molecule, but organic fertilizers do not need such conditions [24] C. Approximately 2.4 million hectares of certified forest area for the collection of wild herbs [24] D. Poor client service from Indian dealers is",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxin [24] B. Chemical fertilizer needs huge amounts of water to activate its molecule, but organic fertilizers do not need such conditions [24] C. Approximately 2.4 million hectares of certified forest area for the collection of wild herbs [24] D. Poor client service from Indian dealers is the major problem in import marketing [23] Disadvantages of organic farming Crop yield is low With the use of organic sources of nutrients, the yield of the crop is veritably low, especially during the original stages, although it may stabilize latterly, complete dependence on pure organic husbandry would not be sustainable in the long run [23]. High Cost The high costs involved with organic farming are one of its major disadvantages. Pests and diseases frequently attack crops grown without the use of pesticides. Therefore, farming can lose. The husbandry can be a lot further labour ferocious and the cost of organic feed is much more advanced than non-organic feed [23, 25]. These costs are transferred to the consumer making organic food more precious to buy than conventionally produced food. Whilst numerous people are, further than willing to pay further for their food because it is organic, but during hardship time and recession people are less likely to buy organic. On one hand, target groups of organic food products similar as big hospices, caffs, airlines, cafes, etc. that can go to pay decoration prices for high-quality organic foods are fully lacking [23]. The lack of Knowledge In organic farming, the quality of a crop depends heavily on the knowledge, skills, and wisdom of the farmer. There is a lack of International Journal of Research in Agronomy http://www.agronomyjournals.com ~ 117 ~ mindfulness and knowledge about ultramodern styles or ways of composting, and vermin composting among the growers from the medication as well",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of a crop depends heavily on the knowledge, skills, and wisdom of the farmer. There is a lack of International Journal of Research in Agronomy http://www.agronomyjournals.com ~ 117 ~ mindfulness and knowledge about ultramodern styles or ways of composting, and vermin composting among the growers from the medication as well as operation point of view and therefore both quality and efficacy are poor at the end [7]. Lack of Supply Request development, especially domestic requests, continues to be one of the biggest challenges facing organic husbandry. Lack of supply and very little product diversity is one of the most disadvantages of organic farming in India [13]. Costly inputs Now a day’s resources like neem cakes, groundnut cakes, cow dung, earthworms, etc. are becoming costlier day by day. Because the number of trees and Vermin Compost are decreasing for use in organic farming. That is why one of the major closes that increasing the price of organic farming. Chemical fertilizers are easier to purchase given the farmer has purchasing power [13]. Conclusions In organic farming, sustainability and environmental sensitivity go hand in hand. A number of rules and standards developed to achieve these two goals. In the organic farming system, food and fibre are produced in an environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable manner. The organic food market is steadily increasing worldwide. Now-a-day Consumers buy organic food because they believe they are naturally produced, safe, healthy, and of advanced quality. Whereas organic crops have advanced antioxidant exertion and advanced attention of a range of individual antioxidants; increased inputs of polyphenolics and antioxidants have been linked to a reduced threat of certain habitual conditions similar to cardiovascular and neurodegenerative conditions and certain cancers. India with different agroclimatic conditions has great eventuality for organic husbandry and numerous products produced organically in India [26-32]. High",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "range of individual antioxidants; increased inputs of polyphenolics and antioxidants have been linked to a reduced threat of certain habitual conditions similar to cardiovascular and neurodegenerative conditions and certain cancers. India with different agroclimatic conditions has great eventuality for organic husbandry and numerous products produced organically in India [26-32]. High prices for organic products and lack of proper marketing functions within domestic requests are the major constraints in organic husbandry in India. Organic fertilizer does not contain the same number of bad replicas and really has bones that advance life span and well-being. Organic foods' health benefits are not only good for individuals but society in general. Conflict Of Interest The author declares no conflict of interest. References 1. Chandrashekar HM. Changing scenario of organic farming in India: An Overview. 2010;5(1):34-39. 2. Bhattacharyya P, Chakraborty G. Current status of organic farming in India and other countries. Indian Journal of Fertilisers. 2005;1(9):111-123. 3. Dhiman V. Organic Farming for Sustainable Environment: Review of Existed Policies and Suggestions for Improvement. 2020;7(2):22-31. 4. Layaraja M and layaraja C. Organic farming in India: Benefits and Challenges. 2020;7(11):3021-3029 5. Kulhade A, Gupta A et al. Role of organic farming in indian agriculture. 2016;22(1):41-48. 6. Santhoshkumar M, Reddy GC, Sangwan PS. A Review on Organic Farming Sustainable Agriculture Development. 2017;5(4):1277-1282. 7. Akhtar MS and Siddiqui ZA. Effect of phosphate solubilising microorganisms and Rizobium sp. on the growth, nodulation, yield and root-rot disease complex of chickpea under field condition. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2009;8(15):3489-3496. 8. Koner N, Laha A. Economics of alternative models of organic farming: empirical evidences from zero budget natural farming and scientific organic farming in West Bengal, India. 2021;19(3):22-28 9. Mariappan K, Zhou DA. Threat of Farmers’ Suicide and the Opportunity in Organic Farming for Sustainable Agricultural Development in India. 2019;11:2-17. 10. Rai A, Thomas",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "A. Economics of alternative models of organic farming: empirical evidences from zero budget natural farming and scientific organic farming in West Bengal, India. 2021;19(3):22-28 9. Mariappan K, Zhou DA. Threat of Farmers’ Suicide and the Opportunity in Organic Farming for Sustainable Agricultural Development in India. 2019;11:2-17. 10. Rai A, Thomas T, David AA, Khatana RS. Assessment of Physical Properties of Soils of Darjeeling District, West Bengal. 2021;13(2):481-487. 11. Mohammadi K, Sohrabi Y. Bacterial biofertilizers for sustainable crop production: A review. 2012;7(5):307-316. 12. Singh R, Jat N, Ravisankar N, Kumar S, et al. Present Status and Future Prospects of Organic Farming in India; c2019. p. 275. 13. Wani SA, Wani MA, Mehraj S, et al. Organic farming: Present status, scope and prospects in northern India. 2017;9(4):2272-2279. 14. Kumar M, Kumar S and Kumar K. Role of bio-pesticide in vegetables pest management: A review. 2019;8(2):17571763 15. Bullock DG. Crop Rotation. 1992;11(4):309-326. 16. Han SH, AN JY, Hwang J, et al. The effects of organic manure and chemical fertilizer on the growth and nutrient concentrations of yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera Lin.) in a nursery system. Forest Science and Technology. 2016;12(3):137-143. 17. Mishra D, Rajvir S, Mishra U, et al. Role of bio-fertilizer in organic agriculture: A review. 2013;2(2012):2277-2502. 18. Lim SL, Wu TY, Lim PN et al. The use of vermicompost in organic farming: Overview, effects on soil and economics. 2015;95(6):1143-1156. 19. Rai A, Thomas T, David AA, Khatana RS. Assessment of Physical Properties of Soils of Darjeeling District, West Bengal. 2021;13(2):481-487. 20. Patra S, et al. Modelling impacts of chemical fertilizer on agricultural production: A case study on Hooghly district, West Bengal, India. 2016;2(180):1-11. 21. Patil KH. A study of agriculture transformation and development in India. Int. J Geogr Geol. Environ. 2021;3(1):29-30. 22. Ram A, Biswas A, Datta J. Organic farming A",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Patra S, et al. Modelling impacts of chemical fertilizer on agricultural production: A case study on Hooghly district, West Bengal, India. 2016;2(180):1-11. 21. Patil KH. A study of agriculture transformation and development in India. Int. J Geogr Geol. Environ. 2021;3(1):29-30. 22. Ram A, Biswas A, Datta J. Organic farming A source of livelihood security of the farmers of Cooch Behar district in West Bengal. 2015;19(2):281-288. 23. Muscanescu A. Organic versus conventional: advantages and disadvantages of organic farming. 2013;13(1):252-156. 24. Vilvijayan C, Lalitha N. Organic Food in India: Health and Environmental Advantages and Disadvantages. 2021;25(5):289-297. 25. Das S, et al. Role of agri-business entrepreneurship, innovation, and value chains/networks in farmer income improvement: models, policies and challenges. 2021;76(3):515-532. 26. Konar A, Mukherjee K, Ghosh P, et al. Traditional Medicinal Plants Used in Different Districts of West Bengal by the Tribal Communities. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2022;11(5):104-110. 27. Poddar S, Sarkar T, Choudhury S, Chatterjee S, Ghosh P. Indian traditional medicinal plants: A concise review. International Journal of Botany Studies. 2020;5(5):174-190. International Journal of Research in Agronomy http://www.agronomyjournals.com ~ 118 ~ 28. Sarkar T, Ghosh P, Poddar S et al. Oxalis corniculata Linn. (Oxalidaceae): A Brief Review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2020;9(4):651-655. 29. Ghosh P et al. Green synthesis and characterization of silver nano-conjugates using some common medicinal weeds leaf aqueous extracts. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Nanotechnology. 2020;13(1):4752-4758. 30. Biswas S, Ghosh P, Dutta a et al. Analysis of nutritional constituents and evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial potentiality of some underutilized parts of vegetables. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Journal. 2021;9(1):62-74. 31. Ghosh P et al. Green synthesis and characterization silver nano-conjugates using Heliotropium indicum and Glycosmis pentaphylla leaf aqueous extracts. Journal of Nanoscience, Nanoengineering & Applications. 2019;9(2):22-30. 32. Ghosh P et al. Some Roadside Medicinal Weeds",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "some underutilized parts of vegetables. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Journal. 2021;9(1):62-74. 31. Ghosh P et al. Green synthesis and characterization silver nano-conjugates using Heliotropium indicum and Glycosmis pentaphylla leaf aqueous extracts. Journal of Nanoscience, Nanoengineering & Applications. 2019;9(2):22-30. 32. Ghosh P et al. Some Roadside Medicinal Weeds as Bioindicator of Air Pollution in Kolkata. Journal of Applied Biology & Biotechnology. 2021;9(2):164-168. 33. Biswas RK, Majumder D, Sinha A. Impacts and Constraints Evaluation of Organic Farming in West Bengal; c2011.",
    "source": "5-2-25-521.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE) ISSN: 2277-3878, Volume-8 Issue-5, January 2020 1566 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering & Sciences Publication Retrieval Number: D4239118419/2020©BEIESP DOI:10.35940/ijrte.D4239.018520 Journal Website: www.ijrte.org Abstract: Milk provides nutritious food and supplements the income of rural people of the country. The study investigates the growth and development of the dairy industry in India. It studies the status of milk production and consumption of the country. The study attempts to forecast the production of milk in the country at the current trend of production. It tries to find the relationship between milk production of the country with its global export and imports. The findings will be helpful for both the policymakers and the dairy farm industry in making a production decision. Descriptive statistics, forecasting, and correlation analysis were used during the study to bring out the relationship between production, consumption, and distribution of milk products. It was found that with the current production trend in the country, India will be able to produce about 217 million tonnes of milk by 2025. The per capita milk availability of the country stands at 351 gms in 2016-17, which exceeds the global milk per capita availability of 229 gms per day. Correlation analyses were used to determine if there is a relationship between import and export of milk products with that of the amount of milk produced. The findings indicated that the production of milk has a positive impact on the export of milk products (r = 0.220, p = 0.601), whereas it has a negative effect on the imports (r = 0.228, p = 0.588). The study found that there is ample room for promotion, production, and distribution of liquid milk and its products, which policymakers and dairy industry can use it in their favour. Keywords: Dairy",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "p = 0.601), whereas it has a negative effect on the imports (r = 0.228, p = 0.588). The study found that there is ample room for promotion, production, and distribution of liquid milk and its products, which policymakers and dairy industry can use it in their favour. Keywords: Dairy Industry, Production, Consumption, Development, per capita milk availability and correlation analysis. I. INTRODUCTION Milk production and dairy farming as a subsidiary occupation to agriculture have been given immense importance as dairy farming not only gives employment opportunities but also act as a catalyst to improves the dietary supplement of the family and provides a steady income to a large number of people to both the rural and urban poor of the country. With the introduction of ‘Operation Flood’ in the country, the importance of dairy units as the potential source of income and employment has gain momentum in the rural areas. Hence, the dairy industry plays a vital role in the production of milk products and helps in making milk production as one of the most profitable sectors in the economy. Manuscript received on January 02, 2020. Revised Manuscript received on January 15, 2020. Manuscript published on January 30, 2020. * Correspondence Author Lalgoulen Khongsai*, Department of Commerce, Manipur University, Imphal © The Authors. Published by Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP). This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Avhad, Kadian, Verma, and Kale (2015) have acclaimed that entrepreneurs play a pivotal role in promoting economic and technological growth. They opine that developing entrepreneurs through entrepreneurship development is directly related to the socio-economic development of the country. They cited that entrepreneurship has a massive contribution to the development of a country in numerous ways. Entrepreneurial activities of developing one’s country include; assembling, harnessing, bearing",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "promoting economic and technological growth. They opine that developing entrepreneurs through entrepreneurship development is directly related to the socio-economic development of the country. They cited that entrepreneurship has a massive contribution to the development of a country in numerous ways. Entrepreneurial activities of developing one’s country include; assembling, harnessing, bearing risks, innovating, imitative learning of tools and techniques, market expansion, coordinating and managing the manufacturing units at various levels, develop ways and means to reduce production cost and enhance its quality and quantity. They recognised the central role played by the dairy producers in the socio-economic development of the country and also making our country on the global map as the largest milk producer of the world. In 1970 India was a milk deficient country with a mere production of 20 million tonnes has now developed as the world’s largest milk producers with more than 160 million tonnes which accounts for 18.5 % of the global milk production. Milk production was enhanced extensively from 137.7 million tonnes in 2013-2014 to 164 million tonnes in 2016-2017. During 2011 – 2014, the annual growth rate of milk production was 4%, which was improved to 6% during 2014-2017 whereas the improvement of global milk production was only 2% during the same period. Further, it was estimated that India's milk production would outperform the global milk production at 4.2% compounded annual growth rate producing around 185 million tonnes annually and is expected to surpass European Union and emerge as the largest producer by 2020 (The Economic Times, 2017). India, Inspite of its massive production milk and its products, the consumption of milk is increasing at a very fast pace. This massive consumption of milk is due to the increase in the purchasing power of people, growing urbanisation, changing food practice, lifestyles, and demographic growth.",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "(The Economic Times, 2017). India, Inspite of its massive production milk and its products, the consumption of milk is increasing at a very fast pace. This massive consumption of milk is due to the increase in the purchasing power of people, growing urbanisation, changing food practice, lifestyles, and demographic growth. The per capita availability of milk is 351 grams in 2016-2017, which was enhanced from 307 grams in 2013-2014. Milk with its wide range of benefits is the only source of animal protein and the needed nutrients for the largest vegetarian population in the world. The driving force of demand for milk products is the increased consumer interest in high protein diets and increasing awareness and accessibility of value-added dairy products through structured retail chains. Thus, due to its tremendous and rapidly growing domestic demand and increased population with increasing purchasing power, most of the production is domestically consumed with no surplus for the export market. Lalgoulen Khongsai Growth and Development of Dairy Industry in India Growth and Development of Dairy Industry in India 1567 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering & Sciences Publication Retrieval Number: D4239118419/2020©BEIESP DOI:10.35940/ijrte.D4239.018520 Journal Website: www.ijrte.org India’s ranked 52 in the world global milk export market with a mere 0.01% of the total global milk exports in 2017. Khamkar (2014) had highlighted that household producing milk had consumed almost 55% of the milk they produced. Out of the total milk produced in the country, 2/3 of the products are sold in the informal markets, and only 15-16 % enters the regulated market which is operated by the cooperatives and the private sector. The massive production ability, consumption capacity, the global export opportunity of milk, and also government policy of doubling the farmers' income in the country, there is a need to promote entrepreneurship in milk",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "only 15-16 % enters the regulated market which is operated by the cooperatives and the private sector. The massive production ability, consumption capacity, the global export opportunity of milk, and also government policy of doubling the farmers' income in the country, there is a need to promote entrepreneurship in milk production through dairy farming. The study attempts to carry out an analysis of the Indian dairy industry through the production of milk and also crucially examines the significant challenges and strategies for promoting milk production through the dairy industry. Against this background, the purpose of this paper is to answer the research question: “How can production of milk be augmented in the dairy farm through entrepreneurship development”? II. LITERATURE REVIEW Kumar and Parappurathu (2014), analyzed the data collected from National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) of the 38th, 50th, 61st, and 66th rounds covering the years 1983, 1993–94, 2004–05 and 2009–10 including both the rural and urban households. The average per capita consumption of over 30 days of all foods and non-foods commodities in a household are included in their analysis. The rising significance of dairy products in the food basket of the people of India are revealed in their study. The increasing demand for dairy products is found to be due to the higher income elasticity of demand, which is more significant in rural than urban areas. They found that the demand for value-added milk products like ice cream is increasing rapidly, whereas the demand for traditional milk products like butter and ghee is found to be in a negative trend. They commented that the rising demands for milk and milk products would put India under pressure to maintain at least the existing growth trend in milk production in the country. A slight deceleration in the growth of milk production",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "butter and ghee is found to be in a negative trend. They commented that the rising demands for milk and milk products would put India under pressure to maintain at least the existing growth trend in milk production in the country. A slight deceleration in the growth of milk production would risk India’s ability to maintain self-sufficiency and also have implications for the evolving international milk market. If India falls short of meeting its domestic need, it will have a substantial impact on the prices of dairy products in domestic as well as global markets. They suggested that the government of India, as well as the international community, arrange alternative supply sources to avoid milk deficiency in the future. Birthal and Negi (2012) have opined that the demand for animal products is projected to rise rapidly, offering significant opportunities for enhancing agricultural growth and reducing rural poverty through the livestock route. The productivity of Indian livestock, however, is low and constrained by a low level of adoption of technologies, scarcity of feed and fodder, and poor animal health. Institutional and policy support to the livestock in terms of investment, credit, insurance, extension, and the market is not commensurate with its economic contribution. On the note of the financial contribution of livestock and dairy farming share in agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employment generation (Patel, 2017) gave his opinion to recognise dairy farming as an important sector like agriculture rather than its subsidiary status. Sethumadhavan (2017) concluded that the productivity of Indian cows and buffaloes are very low. The average milk yield from local cows, buffaloes and crossbreed cow 3 to 3.5 liters, 3.96 to 5.39 liters 5.82 to 7.80 liters per day, respectively. The milch yield is found to be significantly lower than cattle in the developed countries. The",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Indian cows and buffaloes are very low. The average milk yield from local cows, buffaloes and crossbreed cow 3 to 3.5 liters, 3.96 to 5.39 liters 5.82 to 7.80 liters per day, respectively. The milch yield is found to be significantly lower than cattle in the developed countries. The feed conversion efficiency is high in developed countries. The best-run farms in the world produce 1.6 kilograms of milk for every kilogram feeds, which is less than a kilogram in India. Scientific dairy practices like proper breeding, feedings, and hygienic management, along with quality inputs and extension support services, is required to achieve better productivity. However, Chakravarty (2017) has preferred indigenous dairy cattle despite their low productivity because indigenous cattle are more sustainable in comparison to crossbreed cattle. He further said that indigenous cattle are more tolerant of heat, comparatively resistant to many diseases, low maintenance costs, and higher feed conversion efficiency. He also added that indigenous cattle milk contains a substance called A2 allele, which is good for human health. He also claims that an intense selection of dairy animals for higher milk production and milk quality has shown the decline in reproductive performance, including the fertility of dairy animals. Khamkar (2014) opines that the method of operation of the current dairy industry has developed into more consumers oriented. The producers have employed various innovative practices of organised retailing, supply chain management, balanced product portfolio, and product development. He also supplements how to milk producers have used mass media and advertisement for their competitive advantage. Consumers' awareness of product quality and variants coupled with consciousness have led the producer for new product development. He also adds that western culture also influences eating habits related to dairy products. Lastly, he concluded by stating that the immense growth of milk production",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and advertisement for their competitive advantage. Consumers' awareness of product quality and variants coupled with consciousness have led the producer for new product development. He also adds that western culture also influences eating habits related to dairy products. Lastly, he concluded by stating that the immense growth of milk production was due to demand-side development and supply-side promotions. It is known from his observation that with extensive dairy development programs and promoting entrepreneurs by increasing the value of milk products can go a long way in the milk market of the country. Nargunde (2013), in his study on the role of the dairy industry in rural development, concludes that milk production has supplemented as a year-round source of income for small seasonal crops farmers and occasional labour. He estimated that up to 60-65 per cent of the marginal and small scale farmers’ incomes derive from dairying. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE) ISSN: 2277-3878, Volume-8 Issue-5, January 2020 1568 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering & Sciences Publication Retrieval Number: D4239118419/2020©BEIESP DOI:10.35940/ijrte.D4239.018520 Journal Website: www.ijrte.org He found that dairying is more profitable in rural areas which surpassed crop production for marginal, small, and medium-sized holdings. Whereas for irrigated small scale farmers, Mixed farming that includes dairying and crop production to be more profitable than crop farming alone. He pointed out that the dairy industry had acquired the status of a fully-fledged industry in the country for improving the lives of those engaged in this business, directly or indirectly, which bring significant socio-economic changes in the country. He concluded that dairy sector still is characterized by small–scale scattered and unorganized farmers and hence face various constraints like low productivity, lack of scientific feeding practices, animal health care, lack of assured year-round remunerative prices of milk, inadequate infrastructure for provision",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "which bring significant socio-economic changes in the country. He concluded that dairy sector still is characterized by small–scale scattered and unorganized farmers and hence face various constraints like low productivity, lack of scientific feeding practices, animal health care, lack of assured year-round remunerative prices of milk, inadequate infrastructure for provision of production inputs and services, procurement, transportation, processing and marketing of milk and lack of professional management. He viewed that liberalisation of world trade in dairy products under the new trade regime of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has posed new challenges and has opened up new export opportunities for dairy products in terms of quality, cost, and credibility in international markets. He highlighted the importance of increasing milk yield of cattle to decrease the per litre cost of production. He believes that enhancing the export of dairy products can be achieved with the adoption of the latest processing and packaging technology. Jha (2005) concluded that the efficient yet cost-effective procurement network, hygienic and economical processing facilities and innovativeness in the market place are the key to the success of dairy-enterprise. He emphasised the need for training to be imparted to the entrepreneurs to achieve this. He also highlighted the importance of commercial facilities, micro-level planning, and intervention by central and state governments on unexplored areas and, lastly, promoting awareness among educated and uneducated unemployed youth are important for the development of dairy industry in India. III. OBJECTIVES The current quest has the following objectives: 1. To study the production and consumption pattern of milk in the country. 2. To study the imports and export trends of milk in the country. 3. Attempt to forecast the future production of milk in the country. 4. To suggest ways and means promote milk production through entrepreneurship development. IV. HYPOTHESIS Ho1: The production",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and consumption pattern of milk in the country. 2. To study the imports and export trends of milk in the country. 3. Attempt to forecast the future production of milk in the country. 4. To suggest ways and means promote milk production through entrepreneurship development. IV. HYPOTHESIS Ho1: The production of milk does not have any significant impact on the export and import of dairy products. V. MATERIALS AND METHODS Secondary data were used for the study. They were collected from various publications, journals, magazines, articles from the newspaper, publications from state and central government departments, research articles available on various websites and other internet sources. VI. ANALYSES The data gathered were codified and then administered using MS excel 2000 and SPSS English version 21.0 for analyses. Statistical tools like descriptive statistics, forecasting analysis, and correlation analysis were used for the analyses of research data. VII. PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION PATTERN OF MILK Dhawan (2016) has commented that the production of milk in India exceeds 258 million liters per day, accounting to around 94 million tonnes per annum. He pointed out that about 70 million farmers maintain a milch cattle of about 105 million, of which 58 million is cows and 47 million buffaloes which account for 98 % of all milk produced in India. These large numbers of farmers feed their cattle on crop residues. He observed that the dairy sector in India is vital for its subsequent relationship with agriculture and for its potential to provide a protein-rich diet to the large vegetarian population. He further said that the milk economy had been transformed from a subsistence activity to business activity the reason being receiving of remunerative price by the farmers. He concluded that the consumer has also benefited because of the fact that the increase in milk prices",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to the large vegetarian population. He further said that the milk economy had been transformed from a subsistence activity to business activity the reason being receiving of remunerative price by the farmers. He concluded that the consumer has also benefited because of the fact that the increase in milk prices has generally been lower than the rate of inflation comparing to other food products Business Standard (2017) reported that the production of milk in India has increased from 22 million tonnes in 1970 to 156 million tonnes in 2015-2016. This report shows a growth of 700 per cent during last the 46 years resulting in the per capita availability of milk in India enhanced to 337 grams per day in 2015-2016 as compared to the average global milk per capita availability of 229 grams per day during the same period. Figure.1: Production, Distribution and Consumption Pattern of Milk Produced In India Source: National Dairy Plan 2007-08 to 2011-12, Department of Animal Husbandry, Government of India.(adopted from Chawla & Chawla, 2009) Growth and Development of Dairy Industry in India 1569 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering & Sciences Publication Retrieval Number: D4239118419/2020©BEIESP DOI:10.35940/ijrte.D4239.018520 Journal Website: www.ijrte.org Figure 2: Year-wise Production of milk and per capita availability in India Source: Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, GoI. Figure 2 shows the average milk production for the last eight years at the national level. From the table, it is understood that the average production of milk at the national level is 131.28 million tonnes (min=112.20 and max=155.50). The average per capita availability of milk for the last eight years was 298.13 gms/day (min=266 and max=337). VIII. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF MILK Despite being the largest milk producer in the world in terms of absolute quantity, India’s average milk yield",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "level is 131.28 million tonnes (min=112.20 and max=155.50). The average per capita availability of milk for the last eight years was 298.13 gms/day (min=266 and max=337). VIII. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF MILK Despite being the largest milk producer in the world in terms of absolute quantity, India’s average milk yield per cattle remains comparatively very low compared with the developed nations and other developing countries. The small size milk production of rural India finds it difficult to adopt a modern dairy technology due to its economic inviability, which hampers quality management of milk at the farm levels. Milk consumption in India is substantial due to its largest vegetarian population in the world whose only source of an animal-based protein and essential nutrient is milk. Unlike other major dairy exporting countries, only a few surpluses remain for exports. Table 1: Year-wise dairy India’s export and imports in quantity and value Year Export Import Quantity Value Quantity Value (in Metric tonnes) (in lakhs) (in Metric tonnes) (in lakhs) 20082009 48045.75 66107.09 1516.9 2435.48 2009-2010 26135.26 29817.14 31374.76 32224.6 20102011 27475.35 39646.7 54334.61 82240.52 20112012 23194.13 24726.47 70699.92 120393.14 20122013 69366.42 110351.04 7417.44 16653.65 20132014 113972.5 240545.2 9916.42 21283.6 2014-2015 55909.55 93722.18 11901.61 28278.12 2015-2016 28967.43 63333.54 16986.74 32230.14 Total 393066.99 668249.36 204148.48 335739.25 Source: Authors' calculation based on Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) latest Report. Table 1 shows India's dairy export and import for the last eight years. From the table it is understood that the average export of dairy products was 49,133.30 metric tonnes (min=23,194.13 and max=1,13,972.50) with an average value of Rs 83,531.17 lakhs (min=24,726.47 and max=240545.20). During the year under study and the average import was 25,518.55 metric tonnes (min=1516.90 and max=70,699.92). Quantifying the value of imports in Rupees for the last eight years, we",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of dairy products was 49,133.30 metric tonnes (min=23,194.13 and max=1,13,972.50) with an average value of Rs 83,531.17 lakhs (min=24,726.47 and max=240545.20). During the year under study and the average import was 25,518.55 metric tonnes (min=1516.90 and max=70,699.92). Quantifying the value of imports in Rupees for the last eight years, we had Rs 33,5739.25 lakhs with an average of Rs 41967.41 lakhs, of which the minimum was 2435.48 lakhs and the maximum of Rs 1,20,393.14 Lakhs. Table 2: Correlation analysis of Export and Import of the country with production Variables Export Import Pearson correlation Milk Production sig. (2-tailed) 0.220 0.601 -0.228 0.588 Source: Computed from Table 1 and Figure 2 Correlation analyses were used to examine the relationship between import and export of milk products with that of the amount of milk produced. The result indicated that the production of milk has a positive impact on the export of milk products (r = 0.220, p = 0.601), whereas it has a negative impact on the imports (r = 0.228, p = 0.588). IX. FORECASTING FUTURE TREND OF MILK PRODUCTION Table 3: Milk output forecasting based on the last eight years of production Year Milk production in (million tonnes) Projected Year Projected milk output 2008 112.20 2017 165.03 2009 116.40 2018 171.65 2010 121.80 2019 178.30 2011 127.90 2020 185.12 2012 132.40 2021 191.55 2013 137.70 2022 197.44 2014 146.30 2023 203.57 2015 155.50 2024 210.59 2016 158.32 2025 216.96 Source: Calculated from Fig.2 Table 3 showed the year wise estimated milk output until 2025 based on the production trend for the last eight years using forecasting analysis in MS Excel. As per the estimated data, it was found that the total output forecasted for the year 2025 is 216.96 million tonnes, International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE) ISSN: 2277-3878,",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "output until 2025 based on the production trend for the last eight years using forecasting analysis in MS Excel. As per the estimated data, it was found that the total output forecasted for the year 2025 is 216.96 million tonnes, International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE) ISSN: 2277-3878, Volume-8 Issue-5, January 2020 1570 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering & Sciences Publication Retrieval Number: D4239118419/2020©BEIESP DOI:10.35940/ijrte.D4239.018520 Journal Website: www.ijrte.org which is not incongruent with the projection for the demand of milk made by the National Dairy Development Board by 2021-2022 which stands at 200 million tonnes. To meet the domestic consumption needs, livelihood to more than 90 million farm families and also generate revenue through export to the milk deficient countries, and we have a long way to go in producing milk through innovative farming models by promoting and motivating large numbers of small milk entrepreneurs in the country. X. POTENTIAL FOR FUTURE GROWTH Patel (2017) has cited that milk production grows annually only at 4% against consumption which grows at around 6% annually. The increase in per capita availability of milk is substantial with an increased from 120 gm per day per person in 1960 to 307 grams per day per person in 2013 – 2014 and further increase to 359 grams per day per person in 2014 – 2015. He highlighted that the National Dairy Development Board projected that India's demand for milk might be increased to 200 million tonnes by 2021-2022. He also expressed his concerned that though India is the largest producer of milk in the world had an insignificant share in the global export market. The large quantity of milk stills remains unprocessed (or is handled by the unorganised sector as given in Fig.1). India is surrounded by milk deficient countries like China,",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "concerned that though India is the largest producer of milk in the world had an insignificant share in the global export market. The large quantity of milk stills remains unprocessed (or is handled by the unorganised sector as given in Fig.1). India is surrounded by milk deficient countries like China, Japan, Bangladesh, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Philipines, UAE, and other gulf countries. India can explore this market through a systematic approach, research, and feasibility studies on sustainable production. Government intervention on entrepreneurship development is the need of the hour. XI. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION This study investigated the entrepreneurship development through milk production. India’s position in the global market as the supplier is shallow despite its massive production. It was also found that the productivity of cattle is comparatively very low with that of developed and also developing countries in the world. Maximum of the milk products are consumed domestically, which are also handled by the unorganised sector. The present study is incongruent with the study by (Imam, Zadeh, & Dubey, 2011), where they pointed out that India consumed 100% of its production. Analyzing the current economic conditions, the technical knowledge that our farmers posses, the climatic condition, and the lifestyle of rural India, it is observed that promoting indigenous cattle with the available resources and inputs from the government can boost production of milk in the country. After extensive research on the study area, few suggestions can be made on entrepreneurship development on milk production of the country. Firstly, Electricity charges should be given at a subsidized rate to the small farmer. Secondly, credit facilities at a concessional rate with a more extended moratorium period and the longer repayment schedule should be arranged for the rural entrepreneur. Thirdly high-quality local breed cattle with high lactation yield must be made available to",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "should be given at a subsidized rate to the small farmer. Secondly, credit facilities at a concessional rate with a more extended moratorium period and the longer repayment schedule should be arranged for the rural entrepreneur. Thirdly high-quality local breed cattle with high lactation yield must be made available to the farmers by the government, which will also include insurance cover to their cattle. Fourthly, a Milking machine should be provided to the small entrepreneur at an affordable price. Lastly, training on feed management, value addition on milk products, marketing, and also providing suitable marketing for their processed items will be a boon for the small producer, which will, in turn, help us in realizing our dreams of not only milk sufficient countries but also milk surplus country. Some limitations were found in the collection and interpretation of the data. Although the period and amount of data were deemed acceptable, a more extended period and more extensive data would have allowed us to run more analyses. The current study was limited to the overall milk production and consumption scenario of the country. An in-depth study can be undertaken on a specific area like management of feeds, breeds, marketing by the future researcher. REFERENCES 1. Anil Chawla, Nidhi Chawla, Y. P. & P. K. (2009). Milk and Dairy Products in India-Production, Consumption and Exports. Hindustan Studies and Services (Second Edi). Hindustan Studies & Services Ltd and Infolitics. 2. APEDA. (2016). Agricultural & Processed Food Products Export Development Authority, Ministry of Commerce & Industry, GOI. Retrieved August 29, 2018, from http://apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/ 3. Avhad, S. R., Kadian, K. S., Verma, A. K., & Kale, R. B. (2015). Entrepreneurial behaviour of dairy farmers in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra, India. Agricultural Science Digest A Research Journal, 35(1), 56. https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-0547.2015.00011.7 4. Birthal, P. S., & Negi,",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "& Industry, GOI. Retrieved August 29, 2018, from http://apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/ 3. Avhad, S. R., Kadian, K. S., Verma, A. K., & Kale, R. B. (2015). Entrepreneurial behaviour of dairy farmers in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra, India. Agricultural Science Digest A Research Journal, 35(1), 56. https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-0547.2015.00011.7 4. Birthal, P. S., & Negi, D. S. (2012). Livestock for Higher, Sustainable, and Inclusive Agricultural Growth. Economic and Political Weekly, XLVII(26), 89–99. 5. Business Standard. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-cm/per-capita-availa bility-of-milk-in-india-is-337-gram-day-as-compared-to-the-averageworld-per-capita-availability-of-229-gram-day-117011300843_1.htm l 6. Chakravarty, D. A. K. (2017). Sustainable development of indigenous dairy cattle in India. In Kurukshetra (Vol. 65 (3), pp. 9–12). 7. Dairy sector: Dairy sector to grow at 15% CAGR till 2020 to Rs 9.4 trillion: Report The Economic Times. (2017). Retrieved August 29, 2018, from https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/agriculture/dair y-sector-to-grow-at-15-cagr-till-2020-to-rs-9-4-trillion-report/articles how/62105938.cms 8. Dhawan, S. (2016). A study of consumer behaviour towards various branded and non-branded milk with special reference to Jabalpur District in Madhya Pradesh. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR), 2(12), 1582–1586. 9. Imam, A., Zadeh, M. N., & Dubey, L. R. (2011). Dairy Marketing Strategies in the Context of Globalization : Issues and Challenges. International Journal of Trade, Economics and Finance, 2(2), 138–144. 10. K. Jha, A. R. & S. (2005). Entrepreneurship Development in Dairy sector. In M. A. P. and M. P. K. S. Dr Alok Jha (Ed.), Souvenir: National workshop on Entreprenuerrship Development in Dairy and Food Industry (pp. 95–96). Karnal: Dr S. Singh. https://doi.org/10.15713/ins.mmj.3 11. Khamkar, S. K. (2014). The Consumption Pattern of Dairy Products by Indian Consumers Since 2000. Asian Journal of Management Sciences, 02(March), 170–172. 12. Kumar, A., & Parappurathu, S. (2014). Trends in the consumption of milk and milk products in India: implications for self-sufficiency in milk production. Food Security: The Science, Sociology and Economics of Food Production and Access to Food, 6(August). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-014-0376-y 13. Nargunde, A.",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Asian Journal of Management Sciences, 02(March), 170–172. 12. Kumar, A., & Parappurathu, S. (2014). Trends in the consumption of milk and milk products in India: implications for self-sufficiency in milk production. Food Security: The Science, Sociology and Economics of Food Production and Access to Food, 6(August). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-014-0376-y 13. Nargunde, A. S. (2013). Role of Dairy Industry in Rural Development. International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology, 4(2), 8–16. Growth and Development of Dairy Industry in India 1571 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering & Sciences Publication Retrieval Number: D4239118419/2020©BEIESP DOI:10.35940/ijrte.D4239.018520 Journal Website: www.ijrte.org 14. Patel, D. A. (2017). Enhancing milk productivity and quality in India. Kurukshetra, 65 (3)(January), 13–16. 15. Sethumadhavan, D. T. (2017). Animal Husbandry: Scope and challenges for entrepreneurship. In Kurukshetra (Vol. 65 (3), pp. 18–21). AUTHORS PROFILE Lalgoulen Khongsai, is a Senior Research Fellow in the Department of Commerce, Manipur University ( A Central) completing his M.Com in 2008 with Entrepreneurship Development as his specialization and his area of interest is in agriculture, livestock and its allied sector. He is also the author of the paper titled \"Consumption behaviour of liquid milk in Imphal East District of Manipur\" published in \"Think India Journal\" a UGC care approved International Indexed and referred journal, indexed with Crossref and DOI https://doi.org/10.26643/think-inida. His PhD course in the topic \"Milk Production and its Impact on the Socio-Economic Status of Milk Producers in Manipur\" is in the advanced stage.",
    "source": "D4239118419.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Manmeet Singh Junior Research Fellow (JRF) Department Of Economics Punjabi University, Patiala,India P: ISSN No. 2394-0344 RNI No. UPBIL/2016/67980 VOL.IX , ISSUEII May 2024 E: ISSN No. 2455-0817 Remarking An Analisation Dairy Farming In India: A Theoretical Review Paper Id : 18920 Submission Date : 09/05/2024 Acceptance Date : 23/05/2024 Publication Date : 25/05/2024 This is an open-access research paper/article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. DOI:10.5281/zenodo.11610230 For verification of this paper, please visit on http://www.socialresearchfoundation.com/remarking.php#8 Abstract Indian dairy farming sector is among the high priority sectors that provide active linkage between agriculture and industry. According to economic survey 2022-23, the livestock sector grew at a CAGR of 7.9 percent during 2014-15 to 2020-21 and its contribution to total agricultural GVA has increased from 24.3 percent in 2014-15 to 30.1 percent in 202021. Recognizing the importance of dairy sector in India this study has been done to review the works of other scholars on dairy farming in India. The success in dairy farming improved the socio-economic status and the position of farm women in their home and village. The modern milk supply chain seems to have an inclusive structure and the scalability of the modern milk supply chain depend on the development of milk collection and transportation facilities. The association with modern milk supply chain enhanced the prospects of higher compliance with food safety measures. With various positive aspects dairy farming too had various problems including inadequate infrastructure, lack of quality control, inefficient supply chain, absence of adequate policies and untrained manpower. Keywords Dairy farming, Supply chain, Marketing Chain, Food Safety Measures, Entrepreneurial behavior, Efficiency. Introduction India is primarily an agricultural economy with more than 47 percent",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "positive aspects dairy farming too had various problems including inadequate infrastructure, lack of quality control, inefficient supply chain, absence of adequate policies and untrained manpower. Keywords Dairy farming, Supply chain, Marketing Chain, Food Safety Measures, Entrepreneurial behavior, Efficiency. Introduction India is primarily an agricultural economy with more than 47 percent of its population living in villages depend on agriculture, animal husbandry and allied activities for their livelihood. Though there are various livestock enterprise, dairy farming is the most ancient occupation in India and rural people are practicing it from long time. Generating employment opportunities and helping the small and marginal farmers and laborers in India, dairying practices play a crucial role besides providing food security. Products from milk such as curd, ghee, paneer, sweets and other byproducts are valuable and important nutrient for daily life. Through proper dairying practices dairy farmers could be benefited and economy will get sustainability (Tamang et al., 2023) Dairying plays an important role in strengthening rural economy of India. It is perceived to be an effective instrument for bringing socio-economic transformation. Dairying contributes more than one-fifth to the agricultural value of output and provides employment to about 21 million people, the majority of whom are resource poor. In India dairying has come a long way, from being written off as a basket case to the largest milk producer in the world. Milk production has increased tremendously despite the fact that 70 percent of its producers are small landholders and landless households (Kumar et al., 2013). The livestock sector helps ease inequality and poverty in the country’s rural areas and creates jobs for farmers. Dairy is an important sub-sector in India’s rural economy within the livestock sector (Parida et al., 2022). The Indian dairy farming system is witnessing a gradual transformation from traditional production to commercial",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "The livestock sector helps ease inequality and poverty in the country’s rural areas and creates jobs for farmers. Dairy is an important sub-sector in India’s rural economy within the livestock sector (Parida et al., 2022). The Indian dairy farming system is witnessing a gradual transformation from traditional production to commercial production during the last decade. Creating employment opportunities to convert small and medium scale dairy farming into commercial farming ventures is another dimension. The ever increasing demand for milk cannot be ignored due to growth of three key drivers, population, urbanization and per capita income. Indian dairying has a massive and mounting domestic market in which milk consumption is constantly rising in concord with the increase in purchasing power of people, increasing urbanization, changing food habits and lifestyle, and demographic growth (Gayathri et al., 2023) P: ISSN No. 2394-0344 RNI No. UPBIL/2016/67980 VOL.IX , ISSUEII May 2024 E: ISSN No. 2455-0817 Remarking An Analisation Objective of study The following are the objectives of the study: 1. The main objective of the paper is to study the works and views of other scholars on dairy farming in India. 2. To study the aspects of supply chain and marketing chain of dairy farming in India. 3. To study the aspects of food safety measures of dairy farming in India. 4. To study the aspects of entrepreneurial behavior and sources of information utilized by dairy farmers in India. 5. To study the aspects of efficiency in dairy industry in India. Review of Literature Many research studies related to the overview of dairy farming in India have been reviewed. The contribution of dairy sector in respect of women empowerment, supply chain and marketing chain, food safety measures in dairy sector, entrepreneurial behavior and sources of information utilized by dairy farmers and efficiency in dairy",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Many research studies related to the overview of dairy farming in India have been reviewed. The contribution of dairy sector in respect of women empowerment, supply chain and marketing chain, food safety measures in dairy sector, entrepreneurial behavior and sources of information utilized by dairy farmers and efficiency in dairy sector along with its growth aspects and relevance has been analyzed. Methodology The paper is based on secondary work. This information is taken from different journals, google scholar and annual reports of various departments and ministries of government of India. Analysis A. Supply Chain and Marketing Chain The set of findings related with dairy farming include supply chain and marketing chain aspects. Kumar et al., (2011) studied the smallholder dairy farmer’s access to modern milk marketing chain in India. The data for the study was collected from two states Bihar and Punjab. The total sample size was 450 comprising 225 dairy farmers from each state. The study used logit model for the analysis. The study revealed that education, milk price, milk test and presence of cooperative milk collection centers in villages have a significant positive influence on farmers’ decision to integrate with modern formal milk marketing supply chain whereas household size implying greater labour availability has negative influence on farmers decision to integrate with formal markets. The study concluded that the modern milk supply chain seems to have an inclusive structure and the scalability of the modern milk supply chain will depend on the development of milk collection and transportation facilities. Brar et al., (2018) explored the factors influencing choice of milk marketing channel among small and medium dairy farmers in Punjab. The study used a binomial logistic regression model for the analysis. The study categorized marketing channels into organized and unorganized and revealed that age of household and distance",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "facilities. Brar et al., (2018) explored the factors influencing choice of milk marketing channel among small and medium dairy farmers in Punjab. The study used a binomial logistic regression model for the analysis. The study categorized marketing channels into organized and unorganized and revealed that age of household and distance to selling point has negatively influenced the producers’ likelihood towards the organized sector. Other factors influencing were total milch animal holding, price of milk sold and availability of advances. The study suggested strengthening of collection of milk, promotion of liberal loans and remunerative prices for growth and expansion of dairy business in Punjab. In one of the studies Mor et al., (2018) explored the supply chain practices in dairy industry. The study did this with the help of a structured literature review. The study revealed that food safety, product quality and associated economic benefits in dairy industry can be achieved through technological innovation, eradication of uncertainties and introducing the global supply chain management practices into lean and green initiatives. Kumar, (2022) tried to evaluate the effect of information and communication technology (ICT) on supply chain performance in the dairy industry. The study revealed that the supply chain performance parameters such as transportation cost, order fulfillment cycle time, on time delivery, frequency of stock out, backorder rate, cash to cash cycle, return on assets to firm, procurement cost, production cost were significantly impacted by adopted ICT tools and techniques. The study concluded that ICT tools and techniques play a crucial role in enhancing the performance of the dairy companies in the form of an increase in performance matrix indicators. The study suggested the dairy firms to shift their business from the traditional approach to ICT enabled supply chain system as it enables the dairy firms to support with the various business",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "in enhancing the performance of the dairy companies in the form of an increase in performance matrix indicators. The study suggested the dairy firms to shift their business from the traditional approach to ICT enabled supply chain system as it enables the dairy firms to support with the various business functions along with focusing on new business tactics. Narayanan et al., (2023) empirically investigated the production-consumption relationships among households that participate in organized markets versus those that do not. The study used the data from International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and regression model for the analysis. The study revealed that milk consumption is correlated with production and a large presence of formal milk buyers in a village was associated with lower milk consumption in dairy household. The presence of formal value chains were found uncorrelated with the milk consumption of households that do not own dairy animals. The study suggested that policymakers should focus on market development and market segmentation based on marketing channels while designing interventions. In another recent investigation Chaturvedi and Singh (2024) examined sustainable milk supply chain practices in the Indian dairy industry. The study used Logistic Multiple regression analysis to test statistical hypothesis and P: ISSN No. 2394-0344 RNI No. UPBIL/2016/67980 VOL.IX , ISSUEII May 2024 E: ISSN No. 2455-0817 Remarking An Analisation revealed that adopting sustainable supply chain management practices and technological adoption in the dairy business improves the overall performance and productivity of milk supply chain. B. Food Safety Measures Ruegg, (2003) explored the practical interventions that can enhance the safety of dairy products and dairy farm environment. The study reviewed other works and revealed that safety of dairy products can be enhanced by minimizing the sources of microbial contamination of milk by adopting adequate hygienic standards. The other",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Measures Ruegg, (2003) explored the practical interventions that can enhance the safety of dairy products and dairy farm environment. The study reviewed other works and revealed that safety of dairy products can be enhanced by minimizing the sources of microbial contamination of milk by adopting adequate hygienic standards. The other management practices recommended by the study for safety measures are diagnosis of salmonellosis or listeriosis on farm, coliform counts as an indicator of fecal contamination, reduction in national regulatory limit for somatic cells in bulk tank etc. In an another study Kumar et al., (2011) tried to examine the status of compliance with food safety measures in the Indian dairy sector at farm level and cost implications of compliance with food safety measures in Bihar, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. The study revealed that the adoption intensity of food safety practices varied from 0.42 in Bihar to 0.57 in Punjab, this implied that farmers were adopting only 42 to 57 percent of the food safety measures at farm level. The additional per liter cost of compliance with food safety measures was 0.70 Indian Rupees (INR) in Bihar, INR 0.44 in Uttar Pradesh and INR 0.39 in Punjab. The logit model analysis reveals that education level of farm household head and herd size had a significant influence on adoption of food safety practices. Kumar et al., (2020) examined the impact of the adoption of food safety measures (FSM) on milk yield and profitability of the smallholder dairy farms in Patna, Bihar. The study used two-stage residual inclusion method for the analysis. The study revealed that on an average dairy farmer adopted only 29 percent of the recommended FSM. The herd size, experience in dairy farming, caste of farmers and share of milk consumed at home were found to influence adoption of FSM",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "study used two-stage residual inclusion method for the analysis. The study revealed that on an average dairy farmer adopted only 29 percent of the recommended FSM. The herd size, experience in dairy farming, caste of farmers and share of milk consumed at home were found to influence adoption of FSM positively. The econometric analysis showed a positive relationship between FSM and milk yield and profitability, the adoption of an additional FSM increased milk yield by 1 percent and profits by 2.3 percent. In another investigation Singh et al., (2020) investigated the knowledge and practices of dairy farmers at farm level regarding milk quality and safety in five villages of five different agro climatic zones of Punjab. The study revealed that 64 percent farmers had low knowledge scores in respect of milker’s hygiene, animal hygiene, environmental hygiene, milk handling and chemical residue in milk. The milk handling was ranked first in affecting milk quality and safety followed by animal hygiene, personal hygiene, environmental hygiene and other residues in milk. The study suggested that extensive awareness program on milk safety and quality should be undertaken for dairy farmers. Another study Arshad et al., (2023) examined the link between the willingness of smallholder dairy farmers to adopt minimum food safety standards and country’s ability to export agri-food products. The data was analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The study found significant mediation of supply chain learning and value addition between compliance with minimum food safety standards and country’s export potential. In a recent study Nyokabi et al., (2024) empirically invested the adoption of Food Safety Measures (FSM) in small holder dairy systems. The study used the cross sectional survey including 159 farming households and 18 participant observations from participating farms. The study considered 36 different FSM and constructed",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "export potential. In a recent study Nyokabi et al., (2024) empirically invested the adoption of Food Safety Measures (FSM) in small holder dairy systems. The study used the cross sectional survey including 159 farming households and 18 participant observations from participating farms. The study considered 36 different FSM and constructed a weighted food safety index ranging from 0 to 100. The study revealed that overall food safety index ranged between 59.97 60.75 and majority of dairy farmers were categorized as moderate adopters of FSM 9 (Index ranging between 30 – 70 percent). The study suggested that there is need to enable farmers to access financing and technology that can lead to increased adoption of FSM. C.Entrepreneurial behavior and sources of information utilized by Dairy Farmers Some of the authors throw light on the aspects of entrepreneurial behavior and information sources utilized by dairy farmers. In a study of Tamil Nadu Lawrence and Ganguli, (2012) revealed that most of the dairy farmers (55 percent) had medium entrepreneurial behavior. The majority of small and medium dairy farmers had medium entrepreneurial behavior. The majority of large dairy farmers had high entrepreneurial behavior; this was due to resource richness and high risk taking ability of large farmers. The regression analysis revealed significant relationship between entrepreneurial behavior and variables like education, landholding, housing, material possession, economic status, social participation, training on dairy farming, knowledge about AI and extension services. On the other hand Singh et al., (2016) undertook a study titled “information needs and seeking behavior of dairy farmers in Punjab” to ascertain these needs of dairy farmers of state Punjab in India. The study revealed that 23.52 percent dairy farmers had attended training programmes organized by universities, dairy development board, cooperatives; animal husbandry department etc at some point of time, the remaining 76.48 percent",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "behavior of dairy farmers in Punjab” to ascertain these needs of dairy farmers of state Punjab in India. The study revealed that 23.52 percent dairy farmers had attended training programmes organized by universities, dairy development board, cooperatives; animal husbandry department etc at some point of time, the remaining 76.48 percent respondents had not participated in any such training program. The 70.58 percent of dairy farmers needed information about different subsidy P: ISSN No. 2394-0344 RNI No. UPBIL/2016/67980 VOL.IX , ISSUEII May 2024 E: ISSN No. 2455-0817 Remarking An Analisation schemes of the government, followed by 70 percent on feed and fodder and 64.70 percent on animal breeding. About 89.21 percent dairy farmers fulfilled their information needs from Pashu Palan Mela and animal welfare camps and 85.29 percent received the needed information from television and newspapers. Rakesh et al., (2016) explored the entrepreneurial behavior of dairy farmers in Hisar and Jind district of Haryana. The study revealed that majority of dairy farmers possessed medium level of entrepreneurial behavior. Only age of dairy farmer was negatively correlated with entrepreneurial behavior and all other variables such as education, annual income, dairy farming experience, market orientation etc had positive and significant relation with entrepreneurial behavior. The variables fitted in the regression analysis explained 95.42 percent of variations towards entrepreneurial behavior of dairy farmers. In another study of rural Punjab Singh et al., (2022) used a three point continuum Total Rank Order Score (TROS) and revealed that among all the information sources, ICT was having maximum utilization with Mean Rank Score (MRS) of 5.31 and Mean Score (MS) of 1.063 followed by mass media sources with MRS of 6.41 and MS of 0.802, followed by personal cosmopolite channel with MRS of 7.61 and MS 0.755 and the least used were personal localite sources with MRS",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "maximum utilization with Mean Rank Score (MRS) of 5.31 and Mean Score (MS) of 1.063 followed by mass media sources with MRS of 6.41 and MS of 0.802, followed by personal cosmopolite channel with MRS of 7.61 and MS 0.755 and the least used were personal localite sources with MRS of 1.28 and MS 0.517. The regression analysis revealed that the estimates of education, information source utilization and knowledge level had a significant effect on ICT utilization. The Mann-Whitney U Test revealed that large farmers had significantly higher information source utilization as compared to small farmers. Deepanka et al., (2023) examined the level of entrepreneurial behavior of women and their social participation among different organizations of dairy farming at Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh. The study revealed that 62.50 percent respondents had no social participation, 25.83 percent had participation in one organization and 11.67 percent had participation in more than one organization. Another study in Telangana by Karthik et al., (2023) revealed that education, dairy farming experience, social participation, land holding, livestock possession, milk production, milk sale, annual income, marketing behavior, information seeking behavior, knowledge on improved dairy farming practices had positive and significant relationship with entrepreneurial behavior of young in dairying, whereas gender and family size had negative and significant relationship. The independent variables covered in the study explained 78 percent of variations in entrepreneurial behavior. In another recent study about entrepreneurial behavior among Farmer Producer Organization (FPO) members in Kerala Jose et al., (2023) revealed that there was positive and significant relationship between education, annual income, training, scientific orientation, group cohesion and creativity with entrepreneurial behavior. The variables such as age and credit orientation exhibited non-significant correlation coefficients and thus indicated no significant relationship with entrepreneurial behavior. D. Efficiency in Dairy Farming A fair amount of scholars and",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "positive and significant relationship between education, annual income, training, scientific orientation, group cohesion and creativity with entrepreneurial behavior. The variables such as age and credit orientation exhibited non-significant correlation coefficients and thus indicated no significant relationship with entrepreneurial behavior. D. Efficiency in Dairy Farming A fair amount of scholars and authors investigated the efficiency of dairy industry. In one of the studies Ohlan, (2013) investigated the Total Factor Productivity (TFP) growth and efficiency levels in the Indian dairy processing industry. The study used Tornqvist index and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) for the study. The study revealed that TFP of the Indian dairy processing industry had grown significantly. The average technical efficiency level was revealed as 72 percent implying 28 percent of inefficiency. The decomposition of TFP growth indicated that growth was driven more by technical efficiency changes than that of scale efficiencies. Anand & Aggarwal, (2019) tried to compare the efficiency of Indian dairy industry by using different efficiency ratios of Amul, Kwality and Mother Dairy for the period 2011-18. The study revealed that for capital turnover ratio the p value was 0.442 which was more than 0.05 resulting in acceptance of null hypothesis at 5% level of significance, revealing no significant difference between working capital turnover ratios in Indian dairy industry. For fixed asset turnover ratio the p value was 0.081 which was more than 0.05 resulting in acceptance of null hypothesis at 5% level of significance, revealing no significant difference between fixed asset turnover ratios in Indian dairy industry. For total asset turnover ratio and inventory turnover ratio the p value was 0.000 which was less than 0.05 resulting in rejection of null hypothesis, revealing significant differences between total asset turnover ratios and inventory turnover ratio in Indian dairy industry. George et al., (2022) tried to examine the",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "industry. For total asset turnover ratio and inventory turnover ratio the p value was 0.000 which was less than 0.05 resulting in rejection of null hypothesis, revealing significant differences between total asset turnover ratios and inventory turnover ratio in Indian dairy industry. George et al., (2022) tried to examine the resource use efficiency in milk production among different types of dairy farms in Kerala. The study revealed that coefficient of concentrate, total roughage and adoption index were positive and statistically significant (P<0.01) in small farms with R² as 63 percent, indicating the importance of these inputs in increasing milk production. The labour cost was positive and significant (P<0.05) in small farms. At medium farms the coefficient of concentrate was highly significant and roughage was significant at 5% level. At large farms also the coefficient of concentrate was highly significant. The overall results showed positive and highly significant effects of concentrate and adoption index and significant effect of total roughage (P<0.05) with an R² value of 67 percent. P: ISSN No. 2394-0344 RNI No. UPBIL/2016/67980 VOL.IX , ISSUEII May 2024 E: ISSN No. 2455-0817 Remarking An Analisation Some set of the authors investigated the technical efficiency of dairy farmers. Nagrale et al., (2023) examined the technical efficiency and determinants of technical inefficiency of dairy farmers in Maharashtra. The study reveal that mean technical efficiency of dairy farmers was 80.17 percent. Only 28.6 percent of milk producers were found highly efficient realizing 90 percent of technical efficiency. The feed cost and capital cost was found positively significant to milk production whereas labor cost was negatively significant. The determinants of technical inefficiency estimates revealed that the education, marketed surplus and distance from milk sale place had negative association with technical inefficiency. Yadaveni et al., (2023) investigated the levels of production efficiencies and its",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "cost was found positively significant to milk production whereas labor cost was negatively significant. The determinants of technical inefficiency estimates revealed that the education, marketed surplus and distance from milk sale place had negative association with technical inefficiency. Yadaveni et al., (2023) investigated the levels of production efficiencies and its determinants across private and cooperative structures in Andhra Pradesh. The study revealed a marginal but significant efficiency advantage to the cooperative plants over private plants. The mean technical efficiency of all the firms was 0.69, that of the cooperatives at 0.72 and private dairies at 0.66. The cooperative ownership of the plant and greater women employment rate was found to enhance production efficiency. Conclusion The above discussed literature reviews clearly indicate that dairy farming sector is quite significant in Indian economy. The livestock sector grew at a CAGR of 7.9 percent during 2014-15 to 2020-21 and dairy sector being its important sub sector has vast growth potential. Dairy sector has various forward and backward linkages with agriculture sector and its characteristics such as abundant livestock, suitable agro climate conditions, and growing consumer demand for its products has contributed to the growth of dairy sector in India. The dairy sector is likely to accelerate agricultural growth through diversification and thus has created various sources of income and employment for the people employed in dairy farming. Dairy sector boosts the manufacturing sector by providing cheap material used in the manufacturing process. With several advantages of the dairy sector various constraints were found in the literature relevant to the dairy sector including inadequate infrastructure, lack of quality control, inefficient supply chain, absence of adequate policies and untrained manpower. Despite of this, the dairy sector has awesome potentials for development in the coming decades and requires proper policy initiatives and their proper implementation by",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the literature relevant to the dairy sector including inadequate infrastructure, lack of quality control, inefficient supply chain, absence of adequate policies and untrained manpower. Despite of this, the dairy sector has awesome potentials for development in the coming decades and requires proper policy initiatives and their proper implementation by the government to boost the rural Indian economy. References 1. Akila, N., & Senthilvel, K. (2012). Status of dairy farming in Karur district of Tamil Nadu. Indian Journal of Animal Research, 46(4), 401-403. 2. Alam, M. S., Velayudhan, S. M., Dey, D. K., Adilieme, C., Malik, P. K., Bhatta, R., ... & Schlecht, E. (2023). Urbanisation threats to dairy cattle health: Insights from Greater Bengaluru, India. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 55(5), 350. 3. Anand, T., & Aggarwal, S. A STUDY ON COMPARATITIVE ANALYSIS OF EFFICIENCY OF INDIAN DAIRY INDUSTRY. 4. Arshad, M. W., Moazzam, M., Raziq, M. M., & Ahmed, W. (2023). Linking the willingness of smallholder dairy farmers to adopt minimum food safety and quality standards to the country's export potential. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 58(10), 5557-5567. 5. Brar, R. S., Kaur, I., Singh, V. P., & Chopra, S. (2018). Analysis of factors influencing choice of milk marketing channel among small and medium dairy farmers in Punjab. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 71(3). 6. Chaturvedi, A. K., & Singh, R. CUSTOMER INTENTION TOWARDS EMERGING AND SUSTAINABLE MARKETING PRACTICES IN INDIAN DAIRY SECTOR. 7. Deepanka, R. S., Singh, A., & Singh, S. (2023). Study of women entrepreneurs in dairying enterprise of Mathura district on the basis of social participation. 8. Gayathri, S. L., Bhakat, M., & Mohanty, T. K. (2023). An outlook on commercial dairy farming in India: A review. Indian Journal of Animal Production and Management, 37(1), 45-56. 9. George, S., Saseendran, P. C., Anil,",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
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    "text": "entrepreneurs in dairying enterprise of Mathura district on the basis of social participation. 8. Gayathri, S. L., Bhakat, M., & Mohanty, T. K. (2023). An outlook on commercial dairy farming in India: A review. Indian Journal of Animal Production and Management, 37(1), 45-56. 9. George, S., Saseendran, P. C., Anil, K. S., Gleeja, V. L., Benjamin, E. D., Aslam, M. M., & Pramod, S. (2022). Resource use efficiency of milk production among different types of dairy farms in Kerala. J. Vet. Anim. Sci, 53(2), 241-245. 10. Jose, A. E., Jayalekshmi, G., Lade, A. H., & Karde, R. (2023). Socio-psychological Constructs and Perceived Economic Variables on Entrepreneurial Behavior among Farmer Producer Organization Members in Kerala: A Comprehensive Analysis. Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology, 41(9), 241-250. P: ISSN No. 2394-0344 RNI No. UPBIL/2016/67980 VOL.IX , ISSUEII May 2024 E: ISSN No. 2455-0817 Remarking An Analisation 11. Karthik, D., Devi, M. C. A., & Subash, S. (2023). Factors influencing dairy entrepreneurship among youth. 12. Kumar, A., Mishra, A. K., Saroj, S., Sonkar, V. K., Thapa, G., & Joshi, P. K. (2020). Food safety measures and food security of smallholder dairy farmers: empirical evidence from Bihar, India. Agribusiness, 36(3), 363-384. 13. Kumar, A., Parappurathu, S., & Joshi, P. K. (2013). Structural Transformation in Dairy Sector of India §. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 26(2), 209-220. 14. Kumar, A., Staal, S. J., & Singh, D. K. (2011). Smallholder dairy farmers’ access to modern milk marketing chains in India. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 24(3472016-16969), 243-254. 15. Kumar, A., Wright, I. A., & Singh, D. K. (2011). Adoption of food safety practices in milk production: Implications for dairy farmers in India. Journal of International Food & Agribusiness Marketing, 23(4), 330-344. 16. Kumar, R. (2022). Information and communication Technology (ICT) effect on supply chain performance in",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
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    "text": "243-254. 15. Kumar, A., Wright, I. A., & Singh, D. K. (2011). Adoption of food safety practices in milk production: Implications for dairy farmers in India. Journal of International Food & Agribusiness Marketing, 23(4), 330-344. 16. Kumar, R. (2022). Information and communication Technology (ICT) effect on supply chain performance in the dairy Industry: A study in the Indian Context. International Journal of Asian Business and Information Management (IJABIM), 13(1), 1-16. 17. Lawrence, C., & Ganguli, D. (2012). Entrepreneurial behaviour of dairy farmers in Tamil Nadu. Indian Research Journal of Extension Education, 12(1), 66-70. 18. Mor, R. S., Bhardwaj, A., & Singh, S. (2018). A structured-literature-review of the supply chain practices in dairy industry. Journal of Operations and Supply Chain Management, 11(1), 14-25. 19. Nagrale, B. G., Paul, P., & Franco, D. (2023). Estimation of technical efficiency and determinants of technical inefficiency of dairy farmers in Maharashtra. 20. Narayanan, S., Negi, D. S., & Gupta, T. (2023). Separability, spillovers, and segmented markets: Evidence from dairy in India. Agricultural Economics, 54(6), 884899. 21. Nyokabi, N. S., Korir, L., Lindahl, J. F., Phelan, L., Gemechu, G., Berg, S., ... & Moore, H. L. (2024). Exploring the adoption of food safety measures in smallholder dairy systems in Ethiopia: implications for food safety and public health. Food Security, 1-13. 22. Ohlan, R. (2013). Efficiency and total factor productivity growth in Indian dairy sector. Quarterly, Journal of International Agriculture. 23. Parida, Y., Parmar, P., & Misra, H. (2022). Role of the Government in Promoting Dairy Sector: Evidence from Indian States. International Journal of Innovative Research in Engineering & Management, 9(2), 196-206. 24. Paul, U. K. (2024). Estimation of technical efficiency of chemical-free farming using data envelopment analysis and machine learning: evidence from India. Benchmarking: An International Journal, 31(1), 140-161. 25. Rakesh Ahuja, R. A., Singh, S.",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
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    "text": "Evidence from Indian States. International Journal of Innovative Research in Engineering & Management, 9(2), 196-206. 24. Paul, U. K. (2024). Estimation of technical efficiency of chemical-free farming using data envelopment analysis and machine learning: evidence from India. Benchmarking: An International Journal, 31(1), 140-161. 25. Rakesh Ahuja, R. A., Singh, S. P., Sangwan, S. S., & Gautam, G. (2016). Entrepreneurial behaviour of dairy farmers in Haryana. 26. Ruegg, P. L. (2003). Practical food safety interventions for dairy production. Journal of dairy science, 86, E1-E9. Shefner‐Rogers, C. L., Rao, N., Rogers, E. M., & Wayangankar, A. (1998). The empowerment of women dairy farmers in India. 27. Singh, A., Tiwari, R., Panda, P., Kour, G., & Dutt, T. (2022). Information source utilization for organic waste management with special reference to digital technologies: A qualitative study on dairy farmers of district Ludhiana, Punjab. Cogent Education, 9(1), 2062093. P: ISSN No. 2394-0344 RNI No. UPBIL/2016/67980 VOL.IX , ISSUEII May 2024 E: ISSN No. 2455-0817 Remarking An Analisation 28. Singh, H., Singh, J., Verma, H. K., & Kansal, S. K. (2020). Milk quality and safety issues inside the farm gate of dairy farmers of Punjab (India). Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 73(6). 29. Singh, N., Malhotra, P., & Singh, J. (2016). Information needs and seeking behaviour of dairy farmers of Punjab. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 69(1), 98-104. 30. Subburaj, M., Babu, T. R., & Subramonian, B. S. (2015). A study on strengthening the operational efficiency of dairy supply Chain in Tamilnadu, India. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 189, 285-291. 31. Tamang, R., Chutia, P., Talukdar, D., Swargeary, B. D., & Kalita, D. J. (2023). Study on socio economic status of dairy farmers and its impact on environment at Topatoli village of Kamrup Metropolitan district of Assam, India. In Report of the ICSSR Sponsored National Seminar on",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
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    "text": "Sciences, 189, 285-291. 31. Tamang, R., Chutia, P., Talukdar, D., Swargeary, B. D., & Kalita, D. J. (2023). Study on socio economic status of dairy farmers and its impact on environment at Topatoli village of Kamrup Metropolitan district of Assam, India. In Report of the ICSSR Sponsored National Seminar on (Vol. 13, p. 148). 32. Upreti, N., & Bhardwaj, N. (2018). Women empowerment through women dairy cooperative society in Uttarakhand. Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu.[Internet], 18(4), 1-6. 33. Yadaveni, S. A., & Patoju, S. K. S. (2023). Assessing Technical Efficiency of Cooperative Vis-à-Vis Private Dairy Plants in Andhra Pradesh, India: A Stochastic Frontier Analysis. The Indian Economic Journal, 00194662231207005.",
    "source": "Dairy Farming In India A Theoretical Review.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "AI-Based Teat Shape and Skin Condition Prediction for Dairy Management Yuexing Hao *†, Tiancheng Yuan *, Yuting Yang *, Aarushi Gupta, Matthias Wieland, Ken Birman, Parminder S. Basran Ithaca NY, USA {yh727, ty373, yy354, ag2288, mjw248, psb92, kpb3}@cornell.edu Abstract Dairy owners spend significant effort to keep their animals healthy. There is good reason to hope that technologies such as computer vision and artificial intelligence (AI) could reduce these costs, yet obstacles arise when adapting advanced tools to farming environments. In this work, we adapt AI tools to dairy cow teat localization, teat shape, and teat skin condition classifications. We also curate a data collection and analysis methodology for a Machine Learning (ML) pipeline. The resulting teat shape prediction model achieves a mean Average Precision (mAP) of 0.783, and the teat skin condition model achieves a mean average precision of 0.828. Our work leverages existing ML vision models to facilitate the individualized identification of teat health and skin conditions, applying AI to the dairy management industry. Keywords Digital Agriculture, Machine Learning, Computer Vision, Decision Support Under Uncertainty, Applications Introduction Traditionally, dairy cow teat health assessment requires close examination by a trained professional. Although veterinarians routinely perform this task as part of dairy clinical practice, dairy workers in small farms find the task timeconsuming, reducing the accessibility of a valuable predictive tool. On large farms, individualized teat health assessments are impractical: thousands of cows might be managed by a few dozen workers. Yet daily examination of cow teat health could help identify changes that might be early precursors of animal health issues. Our work focuses on dairy cow teat health assessment through the 1) automated and accurate teat shape assessment, and 2) creation and deployment of computer vision. There has been limited research on machine-learning techniques for solving this problem even in",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "changes that might be early precursors of animal health issues. Our work focuses on dairy cow teat health assessment through the 1) automated and accurate teat shape assessment, and 2) creation and deployment of computer vision. There has been limited research on machine-learning techniques for solving this problem even in rotary milking parlors with excellent lighting, good animal separation, and high-quality animal identification. One widely cited effort *These authors contributed equally, ordered alphabetically by last name. †corresponding author Copyright © 2024, Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (www.aaai.org). All rights reserved. studied cow teat condition classification from a veterinary perspective (Mein et al. 2001), but focused on clinical settings and did not consider the use of machine learning models for identifying teat shape. Our project provides a more comprehensive machine learning solution for use in milking parlors. Here we report on data collection, preparation of training data sets labeled with domain-expert knowledge, development of fully-trained ML models, and assessment of its performance using data from commercial farms. A well-known concern about ML is that training models can be prohibitively expensive. Unusually, our approach avoids the need to undertake model training from the ground up. We evaluated a variety of preexisting opensource computer-vision models, identifying one model that had good baseline performance. We then performed finetuning of its model parameters and conducted additional training with our labeled data, obtaining a refined opensource model that can perform cow teat localization, teat shape, and skin condition classification with high accuracy and yet at low cost. Accordingly, this paper focuses on three questions: 1. Can we obtain high quality still images (keyframes) from fixed video cameras in a rotary milking parlor? 2. Given a choice of images for one cow, can we select the image that best visualizes the stall-id and the cow’s",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "at low cost. Accordingly, this paper focuses on three questions: 1. Can we obtain high quality still images (keyframes) from fixed video cameras in a rotary milking parlor? 2. Given a choice of images for one cow, can we select the image that best visualizes the stall-id and the cow’s teats? 3. Can we accurately classify teat shape and skin condition? Answering these questions will contribute to dairy science in several ways. In a practical sense, our work is a step towards routine monitoring of teat shape and teat skin condition in a medium-size dairy farm, enabling us to study the actual value of this sort of information. We hypothesize that deploying our ML models could improve dairy herd management, pinpoint issues that arise, and enable timely intervention to head off mastitis or prevent the spread of potentially contagious pathogens, but follow-up studies of deployed solutions will be needed to validate or refute this belief. Our approach additionally yields data suitable for inclusion into repositories that could be used to develop followon machine-intelligent solutions (such as for evaluating animal gait and to sense evidence of discomfort), even as we also use to further refine our models. We also hope to extract a variety of metrics for dairy productivity, which would be valuable when optimizing farm performance. arXiv:2412.17142v1 [cs.AI] 22 Dec 2024 Production deployment of our ML solution still lies in the future: this paper is focused on the ML tools themselves. As noted, our approach can be carried out on standard laptops because we based our solutions on existing open-source, off-the-shelf AI vision tools. This contrasts with past approaches that required data-center scale computing resources and were environmentally problematic. Moreover, we expose trade-offs that other researchers with similar goals might encounter by identifying and resolving the practical problems that arise",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "standard laptops because we based our solutions on existing open-source, off-the-shelf AI vision tools. This contrasts with past approaches that required data-center scale computing resources and were environmentally problematic. Moreover, we expose trade-offs that other researchers with similar goals might encounter by identifying and resolving the practical problems that arise when deploying ML solutions into a rotary milking parlor. As an example, we find that there are only a few locations at which cameras can conveniently be placed, and identify timing constraints that would arise if an immediate response to a teat condition (such as spraying a medicinal solution) should occur before the animal leaves the parlor. For each identified question, we discuss our proposed solutions, lowering the bar to further work in this domain. Scientific Background Dairy Cow Teat Health Metrics Dairy cow teat condition is widely used as a predictor of animal health and anticipated milk quality (A J Seykora 1985; Wieland et al. 2018; Seykora and McDaniel 1985b). Poor or gradually degrading teat health is recognized as a risk of mastitis: one of the most important dairy diseases due to its harmful consequences for farm productivity (Ruegg 2003). Mastitis prevention strategies typically focus on two approaches: minimizing bacterial presence at the teat end and enhancing the cow’s natural resistance to these pathogens (Hogeveen et al. 2011). Studies have shown that teat-end shape is correlated with a cow’s resistance to developing mastitis (Lojda and Matouskova. 1976), somatic cell count and milkability (Seykora and McDaniel 1985a; Wieland, Nydam, and Virkler 2017). To create a ground-truth data set for teat condition classification, our team works with veterinarians and veterinary assistants, who supervise certain milking sessions, manually scoring each cow’s teats with respect to shape and skin condition. The scoring metrics used for teat shape assessment are based on Seykora and",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Virkler 2017). To create a ground-truth data set for teat condition classification, our team works with veterinarians and veterinary assistants, who supervise certain milking sessions, manually scoring each cow’s teats with respect to shape and skin condition. The scoring metrics used for teat shape assessment are based on Seykora and Daniel (A J Seykora 1985) guidelines, wherein teat shape is scored as [1: pointed, 3: flat, 7: round-flat, 8: round-ring]. For skin condition assessment, the veterinary team employed Neijenhuis (Mein et al. 2001) guidelines, scored as: [1: normal skin, 3: teat with open lesion]. In a clinical setting, visual teat analysis would be supplemented by tactile assessments. There are other condition scoring dimensions that could be performed, including evidence of hyperkeratosis (Hillerton 2005), presence of hock lesions (Kielland et al. 2009), quality of lower leg hygiene, quality of udder hygiene (Schreiner and Ruegg 2003; Cook and Reinemann 2007), and presence of skin-open lesions. All of these are important in clinical mastitis risk health assessment, and our future work will need to explore, although physical manipulation of the teats would not be practical in our setting, hence we would need to explore other traits that track the evolution of teat condition over time, such as redness/swelling and painful reaction to contact with the milking equipment. Machine Learning for Dairy Health Management Our effort contributes within the broader area of technology development for dairy farm automation and management. The area is active, and includes prior work that studied, evaluated, and deployed machine learning techniques for tasks that include overall farm management (nutrition, hydration, animal activity), herd reproduction management, and animal behavior analysis (Slob, Catal, and Kassahun 2021a; Cockburn 2020; M R, N K, and V 2022a). Many in the field are arguing that the future dairy farm could be reconceived as having",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "learning techniques for tasks that include overall farm management (nutrition, hydration, animal activity), herd reproduction management, and animal behavior analysis (Slob, Catal, and Kassahun 2021a; Cockburn 2020; M R, N K, and V 2022a). Many in the field are arguing that the future dairy farm could be reconceived as having a cyber counterpart (sometimes called a digital twin), in which the farm is modelled as a generator of many distinct data streams, each with its own purpose and data formats, and each used to train and then trigger a specialized taskspecific model or database functionality (Gupta et al.). Figure 1: Milking parlor and duo-camera setting illustration Dairy cows must be identified when entering the rotary milking parlor so the milking data can be obtained from each cow and integrated with the existing dairy information management system. Currently, this is done using numbered ear tags, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), and (as needed) human visual inspection. Our work does not currently explore options for augmenting these with computer vision tools, but such a step is certainly a possibility for future investigation. Given an identified animal, two data types can be used as inputs to a machine-learning pipeline. One category consists of numerical (tabular) data. Numerical metrics can be captured using sensors, laboratory reports, and milk quantity measurements. The resulting data set can then be used to train models for assessing health metrics, such as heat stress (Gorczyca and Gebremedhin 2020), estrus (Fauvel et al. 2019), mastitis (Fadul-Pacheco, Delgado, and Cabrera 2021) prediction, and behavioral analysis (Rutten et al. 2013) to assist dairy management. For example, (Fauvel et al. 2019) utilized cow’s activity and temperature data in their LCE algorithm that enables automatic estrus detection. (FadulPacheco, Delgado, and Cabrera 2021) integrated data from cow’s health records to develop machine learning models for early",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and behavioral analysis (Rutten et al. 2013) to assist dairy management. For example, (Fauvel et al. 2019) utilized cow’s activity and temperature data in their LCE algorithm that enables automatic estrus detection. (FadulPacheco, Delgado, and Cabrera 2021) integrated data from cow’s health records to develop machine learning models for early prediction of clinical mastitis. The real-time system utilizes these models through data integration across sensors and other data sources to provide analysis and information that help decision-making (Perez et al. 2020). The second pipeline involves images and other image-like data such as ultrasound. For example, computer vision models have been developed that can produce a Body Condition Scoring (BCS) metric, computed by analysis of twodimensional or three-dimensional photos or videos, thermal images, and even by fusing multiple imaging modalities by capturing simultaneous information using more than one imaging device (Bercovich et al. 2013; Spoliansky et al. 2016; Halachmi et al. 2008). Vision-based machine learning models can be trained for tasks such as identifying individual dairy cows, categorizing feeding behavior monitoring (Achour et al. 2020), and labeling body parts in a full animal image (Jiang et al. 2019). In future work we will link the two kinds of data to arrive at a single holistic perspective on animal health that integrates all forms of information and tracks temporal evolution of animal health. Cow ID Teat Shape Teat Skin Condition Parallel Angle Video Lower Angle Video Lower Keyframe Parallel Keyframes AI Predictions Single Teat Extraction Single Teat Extraction Milking Statistics (Powered by DeLaval) Milking Statistics (Powered by DeLaval) Milking Statistics (Powered by DeLaval) Time-Series of Milking Statistics Stall ID Keyframes (Lower Angle) Timepoint + (Parallel) Timepoint Match Match Figure 2: Overall System Workflow As noted earlier, most prior research on the use of ML in dairy animal health assessment has occurred in",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "DeLaval) Milking Statistics (Powered by DeLaval) Milking Statistics (Powered by DeLaval) Time-Series of Milking Statistics Stall ID Keyframes (Lower Angle) Timepoint + (Parallel) Timepoint Match Match Figure 2: Overall System Workflow As noted earlier, most prior research on the use of ML in dairy animal health assessment has occurred in clinical settings, where a veterinarian is examining a single animal (M R, N K, and V 2022b; Porter, Wieland, and Basran; Gupta et al. 2024). In Slob et al.’s systematic review of ML applications on dairy farm management, teat health classification is the most heavily used ML metric, and mastitis detection is the most important task dependent upon the assessment results (Slob, Catal, and Kassahun 2021b). Also relevant are clinical tools that can assess teat conditions for individual animals (Basran, Wieland, and Porter 2020). Although our work explores ideas motivated by these clinical tools, we believe that the long term future will tend to differentiate routine health management of the herd (“outside the clinic”) from the types of tools and tests performed in clinical environments. Data Processing Data Collection We collected video datasets from an Upstate New York dairy farm on October 9th, 2023. The video streams were captured using dual GoPro cameras positioned at lower and parallel angles relative to the cow teats. The veterinarian (a milk quality and udder health specialist with 17 years of experience as bovine veterinarian, certifications: Dip. ECBHM, PhD, DVM) scored the teat shape and skin condition manually, following the Seykora and Daniel (Seykora and McDaniel 1985a; Mein et al. 2001) guidelines. Although a GoPro captures video, the video data stream itself consists of a series of still images called keyframes separated by zero or more delta frames. For our work, we limited consideration to the key frames. We disable GoPro data compression and",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and McDaniel 1985a; Mein et al. 2001) guidelines. Although a GoPro captures video, the video data stream itself consists of a series of still images called keyframes separated by zero or more delta frames. For our work, we limited consideration to the key frames. We disable GoPro data compression and automated image touchup: any image transformation could conceal a teat condition issue much as makeup and digital transformations can conceal skin defects or artificially manipulate an actor’s appearance in a movie. As shown in Figure 1, the milking parlor consists of a series of stalls that move slowly in a circle. The cow enters for premilking teat preparation, is milked, then released back into the dairy herd. Our cameras are fixed in place and continuously record video of the cows’ teats and udders as the parlor rotates past. This yields multiple images of each animal after milking, but while still in the rotary parlor (Green stalls, Figure 2). Our camera position allowed for an automated response to the analysis, provided the assessment is completed within one to two seconds. Data Labeling Traditionally, computer vision training starts with the acquisition and annotation of comprehensive image datasets that often have hundreds of thousands of examples. In contrast, our work adopts a preexisting computer vision model trained on very general data but then additionally trains it for the daily task. Thus, our focus is on aspects specific to dairy teat health assessment. We start by selecting high-quality keyframe images from the data set collected from the farm. This selection process discards images where teats are difficult to distinguish, with blurring or poor lighting and motion effects. For training purposes, our veterinary experts considered only the selected data, annotating a portion that we used to refine the vision model’s ability to detect the teats,",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "collected from the farm. This selection process discards images where teats are difficult to distinguish, with blurring or poor lighting and motion effects. For training purposes, our veterinary experts considered only the selected data, annotating a portion that we used to refine the vision model’s ability to detect the teats, classify teat end shape, and assess teat skin condition. Data preparation is carried out using a package called LabelMe1. LabelMe output takes the form of JSON files containing annotation details for each image in a dataset (Russell et al. 2008). To conform to the standard COCO (Common Objects in Context) object detection dataset format (Lin et al. 2014), a format favored in many deep learning frameworks, we then implement a custom aggregation process that consolidates these annotation files into cohesive datasets. Data consolidation involves the development of a tailored script to systematically collate annotation data from the individual JSON files generated by LabelMe. The resulting 1http://labelme.csail.mit.edu/Release3.0/ dataset is organized into two comprehensive JSON files: one intended for use during model fine-tuning (training), and the other for validation. A conventional train-test split is applied, with 90% of the data allocated for model training and the remaining 10% used for validation. Automated Keyframe Selection The first step is to create an ML specialized in evaluating image quality within a stream of keyframes. There are two subtasks: (1) identification of images that include the cow’s stall ID; (2) selection of 2-3 high-quality teat images. These both occur on the same video segment, which shows an individual cow for approximately 3 seconds each. Data selection proves to be surprisingly challenging. As an example, consider the identification of the stall ID. Even if an image contains an ID tag, it could be out of focus, the tag may be obstructed, or the frame may capture",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "shows an individual cow for approximately 3 seconds each. Data selection proves to be surprisingly challenging. As an example, consider the identification of the stall ID. Even if an image contains an ID tag, it could be out of focus, the tag may be obstructed, or the frame may capture half of it as the parlor rotates. For example, Figure 3a is a frame in which the stall ID tag is blocked by the milking parlor device. Accordingly, the algorithm uses two criteria for the frame selection (1) high confidence from the Optical Character Recognition (OCR) model; (2) if the location of the tag is not on the left or right edge in the frame, which is likely to truncate out part of the number. Figure 3b shows a frame in which the stall id is easily visible. The OCR model we use to identify the numbers in a frame has an accuracy of 99%. We fine-tune a FasterRCNN model to identify and segment the sub-keyframe. The model achieves an accuracy of 99% on a given frame. An example of a stall ID is seen in 3b. Pseudocode for the data extraction task appears in Algorithm 1. Having selected an image, we organize data about a given cow using a single file system folder per animal, per milking session. To this end, we write a Python program that automatically extracts keyframes, determines the stall ID, creates a suitable folder, and then stores the associated keyframes in that folder. The program obtains frame-by-frame access using the OpenCV package 2. To perform teat localization,, we trained an ML model which entails identifying each of the cow’s teats and segmenting them using bounding boxes. Similar to the process used for stall ID identification, line 8 uses the function Loc(teat segments) to check two",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "obtains frame-by-frame access using the OpenCV package 2. To perform teat localization,, we trained an ML model which entails identifying each of the cow’s teats and segmenting them using bounding boxes. Similar to the process used for stall ID identification, line 8 uses the function Loc(teat segments) to check two things: (1) whether all teats were identified with high confidence; (2) whether the teats are centered in the frame. The first one uses the ML model confidence score to check not only if there are teats in the frame, but also that they were properly segmented. The second one uses the 2D coordinate of the ML result, to ensure that all the teats are captured in the frames, avoiding the frames where just a subset of the teats were captured. If a frame satisfies both criteria, it is saved to the folder under its stall ID folder, on line 15. Experimental Evaluation Model Settings For teat health assessment purposes, we consider a set of candidate object detection models. We select Faster-RCNN 2https://opencv.org Algorithm 1: Key Frame extraction program Require: video path, extraction rate 1: cur stall id ←null 2: folder name ←null 3: cap ←V ideoCapture(video path) 4: while ∃unprocessed frame do 5: frame ←cap.read() 6: is stall key ←OCR(frame) 7: teat segments ←seg model(frame) 8: is teat key ←Loc(teat segments) 9: if is stall key then 10: if stall key ̸= cur stall id then 11: folder name = cur stall id 12: Create folder with folder name 13: end if 14: else if is teat key then 15: Store teat segments to folder name 16: end if 17: end while (Ren et al. 2015) model as a baseline. The foundational vision models in this project utilize either convolutional layers or multi-head attention blocks, and sometimes both. These models",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "end if 14: else if is teat key then 15: Store teat segments to folder name 16: end if 17: end while (Ren et al. 2015) model as a baseline. The foundational vision models in this project utilize either convolutional layers or multi-head attention blocks, and sometimes both. These models are benchmarked in our dataset with different scales to study the trade-off between better model system metrics (run time, memory consumption) and better model performance metrics (validation accuracy and bounding boxes mean average precision for small objects). We include both twoand single-stage models and will discuss this in the following section. In the experiment described below, we use mean average precision (mAP) as the performance metric, more specifically, mAP for small objects. We defer the detailed discussion of the metric in later sections. Fine-tuning the Candidate Models Our overall approach is as follows. First, we undertake an offline process to fine-tune each of the candidate computer vision models using an inexpensive training process that refines the standard model parameters to optimize performance for data collected in our milking parlor. Next, we expose each tuned model to production data. The humanexpert ground truth labels are used to assess the performance of our automated scoring solutions. Our work requires models for teat shape identification and teat skin condition classification. We run both tasks on each sub-image (each distinct teat). We consider both two-stage models and single-stage models. Faster-RCNN (Ren et al. 2015) is a two-stage detector, which relies on a Regional Proposal Networks (RPN) to propose many potential regions of interest (RoI) and then applies a classifier backbone. YOLO-F (Chen et al. 2021), a modified version of YOLO, is a single-stage detector. We then consider the State-Of-TheArt (SOTA) models often observed to have end-to-end transformer architecture. DINO (Zhang et al. 2022), a",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Networks (RPN) to propose many potential regions of interest (RoI) and then applies a classifier backbone. YOLO-F (Chen et al. 2021), a modified version of YOLO, is a single-stage detector. We then consider the State-Of-TheArt (SOTA) models often observed to have end-to-end transformer architecture. DINO (Zhang et al. 2022), a modified version DETR (Carion et al. 2020), uses a transformer architecture. Our review of prior research on automated teat condition (a) Example of non-keyframe (b) Example keyframe of stall ID (c) Example non-keyframe of cow Teat (d) Example keyframe of cow Teat Figure 3: Examples of keyframes to be processed scoring suggests that the two-stage Faster-RCNN should be viewed as today’s best baseline option for teat localization. We evaluate this baseline both in terms of the scoring performance achieved and the time needed to carry out the scoring procedure: a rotary milking parlor never stops, and this imposes a form of deadline. Next, we use our collected and hand-labeled dataset to fine-tune the candidate ML models for cow teat localization and then to optimize skin condition and shape classification within the localization sub-images. We explore ML models under two different network architectures: a two-stage detector and a single-stage detector. Models with two-stage detector architecture, rely on a Regional Proposal Networks (RPN) to propose many potential regions of interest (RoI), and then applies a classifier backbone. Faster-RCNN (Ren et al. 2015) comes from this setup. Models with singlestage detector architecture merge the two stages into one. Under this architecture, we trained a modified version of YOLO (Joseph Redmon 2015), YOLO-F (Chen et al. 2021). Over the past few years, transformers have achieved great success in the vision domain. We select DINO (Zhang et al. 2022) (a modified version of the first end-to-end object detector, DETR (Carion et al. 2020)) as a",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "a modified version of YOLO (Joseph Redmon 2015), YOLO-F (Chen et al. 2021). Over the past few years, transformers have achieved great success in the vision domain. We select DINO (Zhang et al. 2022) (a modified version of the first end-to-end object detector, DETR (Carion et al. 2020)) as a candidate transformer-based solution. Experimental Results All experiments are carried out on an NVIDIA RTX 4090 GPU. We use mAP as our performance metric. For COCO datasets, mAP is calculated for Intersection over Union(IoU) values. The IoU is derived by the area of overlap divided by the area of the union in between the ground truth bounding box and the predicted bounding box. Our dataset consists of only small-scale objects whose areas are often smaller than 32 × 32 pixels. So, during training, we focus on the mAPs. For the teat shape identification task, we adopt the aforementioned scoring system and assign one of four class labels [1, 3, 7, 8] from worst to best teat shape conditions. For the skin condition detection, we consider a total of 2 class labels, [C1, C3], with class C3 indicating the existence of skin lesions (Mein et al. 2001), and C1 indicating the healthy skin condition. For the model configurations, we use a standard ResNet50 as the classifier backbone for all three models, while the model scales are rather different. For Faster-RCNN, if we use a batch of 100 images with an input shape of 2704 × 1520 × 3, the model consists of 41.364 million parameters, and it requires 0.208 TFLOPs (tera floating-point operations per second). For YOLO-F, using the same input shape, the model consists of 42.409 million parameters and requires 98.808 GFLOPs (giga floating point operations per second) to execute. For DINO, we have a model with 47.546 million parameters and",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "41.364 million parameters, and it requires 0.208 TFLOPs (tera floating-point operations per second). For YOLO-F, using the same input shape, the model consists of 42.409 million parameters and requires 98.808 GFLOPs (giga floating point operations per second) to execute. For DINO, we have a model with 47.546 million parameters and requires 0.274 TFLOPs. model name validation mAPs avg inference time DINO 0.783 628 ms YOLO-F 0.634 598 ms Faster RCNN 0.573 576 ms Table 1: List of Teat Shape model performance, mAPs stands for the bounding boxes mean average precision for small objects Manual Labels ML Predictions 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1000 2000 3000 iter 4000 5000 6000 Faster-rcnn DINO YOLO-F Bounding Box Train Loss 7: 31.2 7 7 8 8 7: 33.9 8: 32.2 8: 39.2 Figure 4: Teat shape images, labels and train loss curve model name validation mAPs avg inference time DINO 0.828 505 ms YOLO-F 0.615 498 ms Faster RCNN 0.695 463 ms Table 2: List of Teat Skin Condition model performance As seen from Table 2, DINO delivers the best performance and only consumes around 110% in runtime, compared to the baselines. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 epoch 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 Bounding Box Train Loss DINO YOLO-F Faster-RCNN Figure 5: Skin Condition bounding-box training loss curve In figure 5, we notice that DINO’s loss value is actually higher than the loss for our baseline model, and yet DINO outperforms our baseline by around 0.133 when deployed. Such a finding indicates that the baseline model is prone to overfitting to the training set, becoming a “narrow specialist” on training data and yet giving weaker results in actual deployment. DINO is slightly slower than other models, but not significantly so. Indeed, the sub-second performance",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "around 0.133 when deployed. Such a finding indicates that the baseline model is prone to overfitting to the training set, becoming a “narrow specialist” on training data and yet giving weaker results in actual deployment. DINO is slightly slower than other models, but not significantly so. Indeed, the sub-second performance we obtained is still more than adequate to enable an automated action if a teat health problem is sensed, provided that the computer vision inference task will run physically close to the video camera, with a fast way to access the video data. Had we deployed our solution on a cloud, delays for uploading video to the cloud could easily have dominated the inference time, but given that our model is small enough to run on a standard laptop, on-premise deployment is reasonable. Discussion Efficient Data Storage The automatic data processing pipeline described in Section transfers the camera-captured video to a keyframe for storage as part of an animal health record and training dataset. One of the reasons for using keyframes instead of raw video is memory efficiency. While raw video contains a lot of information, much of that information is irrelevant to the research, and the video camera continues to run even when there is no cow in the milking parlor. Moreover, there are circumstances such as the one shown in Figure 3c where the image shows crossed teats, or where one teat obscures another, and hence little can be determined about the condition of the hidden teats. From a different angle, that same teat might have been clearly visible. A keyframe is much smaller then a full video clip, and the segmented portion of the frame containing the cow teats even more so. From our collected data, the measured average size per image frame that contains full image",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "a different angle, that same teat might have been clearly visible. A keyframe is much smaller then a full video clip, and the segmented portion of the frame containing the cow teats even more so. From our collected data, the measured average size per image frame that contains full image with four teats is 800KB on disk. The average size for a segmented teat image is 10KB on the hard disk. In comparison, for a clip of 10-minute raw video that takes 4GB on disk, the distilled keyframe folder is only 139.5MB, whereas removable intermediate images occupy 581MB. The intermediate images contain the keyframes for stall ID and teat candidate images, from which we choose the one where the teats are centered and clear as the record to store. The memory required to store the raw video file would be almost 28 times more than is required to store the keyframe. Machine Intelligence for Dairy Farms ML models can significantly enhance dairy farm health management by operating more efficiently and effectively, capturing nuances that expert veterinarians might miss during long working hours or in an intense farming environment. These roles often involve repetitive teat health scoring tasks. Our duo-camera models can operate 24/7, collecting time series data of teat keyframes. This machine intelligence can provide veterinarians with valuable evidence to support their evaluations and judgments. Furthermore, this technology can be scaled and adapted to other agricultural fields. We discuss our positive Life Cycle for iteratively improving our model’s performance with the improved quality and quantity of data we collected. We consider a multi-phase setup, where the deliverable for each stage would be deployed to help with further improvement that happens during the next stage. In particular, we started with a low-data paradigm, where we have quite a limited amount of",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "the improved quality and quantity of data we collected. We consider a multi-phase setup, where the deliverable for each stage would be deployed to help with further improvement that happens during the next stage. In particular, we started with a low-data paradigm, where we have quite a limited amount of data, but with high-quality annotation. We train a model based on this preliminary dataset. With this model deployed, we were able to automate the process of data collection and remove the unnecessary storage overhead of most video files, and only obtain keyframes. Our animal scientist would move on to annotate the high-quality raw keyframes. While we are expanding our dataset, we will be expecting our dataset to incorporate the quantity and quality requirements for developing the ML models. Additionally, we also argue that with the amount of data we are aggregating, we will be able to automatically eliminate the long-tail distribution of classes that currently exists in our dataset. Limitations & Future Work This paper focuses solely on teat shape identification and skin condition score predictions. However, in future studies, we aim to incorporate additional criteria for teat evaluations, such as predicting teat-end hyperkeratosis scores or assessing udder health in multidimensional teat health analysis. By expanding the scope of teat evaluations, we can achieve a more comprehensive analysis of teat health. Moreover, there is a need for more balanced datasets in AI-based duo-dimensional teat health analysis, particularly due to the scarcity of labels for rare cases. For instance, in our current skin condition dataset, our ratio between normal C1 labels and abnormal C3 labels is 925:44. The unbalanced dataset limits the model to learn from the abnormal situations and impacts model performance. Through largescale, long-term data collection efforts, we anticipate that our models will demonstrate improved performance in identifying and",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "current skin condition dataset, our ratio between normal C1 labels and abnormal C3 labels is 925:44. The unbalanced dataset limits the model to learn from the abnormal situations and impacts model performance. Through largescale, long-term data collection efforts, we anticipate that our models will demonstrate improved performance in identifying and analyzing these less common labels. In the future work, we plan to collect data from additional farms to ensure more balanced datasets. We could further investigate additional data augmentation techniques, such as large-scale jittering (LSJ), to enhance image resolutions, camera angles, and lighting conditions, ultimately improving the overall performance of our models. Given that our current datasets were collected under favorable lighting conditions, future large-scale data collection efforts will involve capturing keyframes from diverse environments and implementing methods to enhance image quality. Our project relies on ground truth labels derived from veterinary expertise. However, teat condition is subjective, hence any single professional could err when scoring, creating a puzzle: if our model is incorrect, did it learn from incorrect training data, or was it confused by poor lighting, animal skin pigmentation, or some other factor? In situations where ground truth eventually becomes available, techniques such as a confusion matrix (gradient ascent) can offer insights into when and why automation classification errors arise. This suggests that one could eventually create systems that might dynamically improve their performance, effectively learning from experience. Conclusion We explore teat localization and shape classification using ML models using a preliminary dataset of 348 images with 968 objects from 4 distinct classes. For teat skin conditions, we generate 946 labels to train ML models for teat health analysis. In this paper, we explore different object detectors across various architectures and found that DINO performs best overall. Our automated digital-twin approach has been shown to yield accurate classifications.",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "objects from 4 distinct classes. For teat skin conditions, we generate 946 labels to train ML models for teat health analysis. In this paper, we explore different object detectors across various architectures and found that DINO performs best overall. Our automated digital-twin approach has been shown to yield accurate classifications. Although our experiments are performed on a size-limited initial dataset, we plan to aggregate a dataset that incorporates both the quantity and quality requirements for developing ML models in the future. Acknowledgments This project is sponsored by the Cornell Institute for Digital Agriculture (CIDA) and receives data support from DeLaval Inc, with sincere appreciation to Mario Lopez and Hayley Hopkins. References A J Seykora, B. T. M. 1985. Udder and teat morphology related to mastitis resistance: a review. Journal of dairy science vol. 68,8. Achour, B.; Belkadi, M.; Filali, I.; Laghrouche, M.; and Lahdir, M. 2020. Image analysis for individual identification and feeding behaviour monitoring of dairy cows based on Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN). Biosystems Engineering, 198: 31–49. Basran, P.; Wieland, M.; and Porter, I. 2020. Technical note: A digital technique and platform for assessing dairy cow teat-end condition. Journal of Dairy Science, 103(11): 10703–10708. Bercovich, A.; Edan, Y.; Alchanatis, V.; Moallem, U.; Parmet, Y.; Honig, H.; Maltz, E.; Antler, A.; and Halachmi, I. 2013. Development of an automatic cow body condition scoring using body shape signature and Fourier descriptors. Journal of Dairy Science, 96(12): 8047–8059. Carion, N.; Massa, F.; Synnaeve, G.; Usunier, N.; Kirillov, A.; and Zagoruyko, S. 2020. End-to-end object detection with transformers. In European conference on computer vision, 213–229. Springer. Chen, Q.; Wang, Y.; Yang, T.; Zhang, X.; Cheng, J.; and Sun, J. 2021. You only look one-level feature. In Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, 13039–13048. Cockburn, M. 2020. Review: Application",
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    "text": "End-to-end object detection with transformers. In European conference on computer vision, 213–229. Springer. Chen, Q.; Wang, Y.; Yang, T.; Zhang, X.; Cheng, J.; and Sun, J. 2021. You only look one-level feature. In Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, 13039–13048. Cockburn, M. 2020. Review: Application and Prospective Discussion of Machine Learning for the Management of Dairy Farms. Animals, 10(9). Cook, N. B.; and Reinemann, D. J. 2007. A tool box for assessing cow, udder and teat hygiene. In annual meeting of the NMC, 21–24. Fadul-Pacheco, L.; Delgado, H.; and Cabrera, V. E. 2021. Exploring machine learning algorithms for early prediction of clinical mastitis. International Dairy Journal, 119: 105051. Fauvel, K.; Masson, V.; Fromont, E.; Faverdin, P.; and Termier, A. 2019. Towards Sustainable Dairy Management A Machine Learning Enhanced Method for Estrus Detection. 3051–3059. Gorczyca, M. T.; and Gebremedhin, K. G. 2020. Ranking of environmental heat stressors for dairy cows using machine learning algorithms. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 168: 105124. Gupta, A.; Hao, Y.; Yang, Y.; Yuan, T.; Wieland, M.; Basran, P. S.; and Birman, K. ???? Digital Twin-Driven Teat Localization and Shape Identification for Dairy Cow (Student Abstract). 38(21): 23510–23511. Number: 21. Gupta, A.; Hao, Y.; Yang, Y.; Yuan, T.; Wieland, M.; Basran, P. S.; and Birman, K. 2024. Digital Twin-Driven Teat Localization and Shape Identification for Dairy Cow (Student Abstract). In Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, volume 38, 23510–23511. Halachmi, I.; Polak, P.; Roberts, D.; and Klopcic, M. 2008. Cow Body Shape and Automation of Condition Scoring. Journal of Dairy Science, 91(11): 4444–4451. Hillerton, J. E. 2005. Teat condition scoring-an effective diagnostic tool. In Proc. of National Mastitis Council Regional Meeting, 37–43. Hogeveen, H.; Pyorala, S.; Waller, K. P.; Hogan, J. S.; Lam, T. J.; Oliver, S. P.; Schukken, Y.",
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    "text": "on dairy farms. Journal of Dairy Science, 96(4): 1928–1952. Schreiner, D.; and Ruegg, P. 2003. Relationship between udder and leg hygiene scores and subclinical mastitis. Journal of dairy science, 86(11): 3460–3465. Seykora, A.; and McDaniel, B. 1985a. Heritabilities of Teat Traits and their Relationships with Milk Yield, Somatic Cell Count, and Percent Two-Minute Milk1. Journal of Dairy Science, 68(10): 2670–2683. Seykora, A.; and McDaniel, B. 1985b. Udder and teat morphology related to mastitis resistance: a review. Journal of Dairy Science, 68(8): 2087–2093. Slob, N.; Catal, C.; and Kassahun, A. 2021a. Application of machine learning to improve dairy farm management: A systematic literature review. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 187: 105237. Slob, N.; Catal, C.; and Kassahun, A. 2021b. Application of machine learning to improve dairy farm management: A systematic literature review. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 187: 105237. Spoliansky, R.; Edan, Y.; Parmet, Y.; and Halachmi, I. 2016. Development of automatic body condition scoring using a low-cost 3-dimensional Kinect camera. Journal of Dairy Science, 99(9): 7714–7725. Wieland, M.; Nydam, D.; and Virkler, P. 2017. A longitudinal field study investigating the association between teat-end shape and two minute milk yield, milking unit-on time, and time in low flow rate. Livestock Science, 205: 88–97. Wieland, M.; Nydam, D.; ¨Alveby, N.; Wood, P.; and Virkler, P. 2018. Short communication: Teat-end shape and udderlevel milking characteristics and their associations with machine milking-induced changes in teat tissue condition. Journal of Dairy Science, 101(12): 11447–11454. Zhang, H.; Li, F.; Liu, S.; Zhang, L.; Su, H.; Zhu, J.; Ni, L. M.; and Shum, H.-Y. 2022. Dino: Detr with improved denoising anchor boxes for end-to-end object detection. arXiv preprint arXiv:2203.03605.",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Shum, H.-Y. 2022. Dino: Detr with improved denoising anchor boxes for end-to-end object detection. arXiv preprint arXiv:2203.03605.",
    "source": "Dairy science.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "arXiv:2006.12387v3 [cs.CY] 15 Sep 2020 Leveraging traditional ecological knowledge in ecosystem restoration projects utilizing machine learning BOGDANA RAKOVA, Accenture, Responsible AI, USA ALEXANDER WINTER, California Institute of Integral Studies, USA Ecosystem restoration has been recognized to be critical to achieving accelerating progress on all of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. Decision makers, policymakers, data scientists, earth scientists, and other scholars working on these projects could positively benefit from the explicit consideration and inclusion of diverse perspectives. Community engagement throughout the stages of ecosystem restoration projects could contribute to improved community well-being, the conservation of biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and the resilience of socio-ecological systems. Conceptual frameworks are needed for the meaningful integration of traditional ecological knowledge of indigenous peoples and local communities with data science and machine learning work practices. Adaptive frameworks would consider and address the needs and challenges of local communities and geographic locations by improving community and inter-agent communication around restoration and conservation projects and by making relevant real-time data accessible. In this paper, we provide a brief analysis of existing Machine Learning (ML) applications for forest ecosystem restoration projects. We go on to question if their inherent limitations may prevent them from being able to adequately address socio-cultural aspects of the well-being of all involved stakeholders. Bias and unintended consequences pose significant risks of downstream negative implications of ML-based solutions. We suggest that adaptive and scalable practices could incentivize interdisciplinary collaboration during all stages of ecosystemic ML restoration projects and align incentives between human and algorithmic actors. Furthermore, framing ML projects as open and reiterative processes can facilitate access on various levels and create incentives that lead to catalytic cooperation in the scaling of restoration efforts. ACM Reference Format: Bogdana Rakova and Alexander Winter. 2020. Leveraging traditional ecological knowledge in ecosystem restoration projects utilizing machine learning.",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "actors. Furthermore, framing ML projects as open and reiterative processes can facilitate access on various levels and create incentives that lead to catalytic cooperation in the scaling of restoration efforts. ACM Reference Format: Bogdana Rakova and Alexander Winter. 2020. Leveraging traditional ecological knowledge in ecosystem restoration projects utilizing machine learning. In Proceedings of ACM Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) 2020 Conference Workshop \"Fragile Earth: Data Science for a Sustainable Planet\". ACM, New York, NY, USA, 9 pages. https://doi.org/10.1145/nnnnnnn.nnnnnnn 1 INTRODUCTION United Nations (UN) has recently announced 2021-2030 to be the UN decade on ecosystem restoration [31] and aims to act as an accelerator towards the achievement of a shared vision: \"A world where we have restored the relationship between humans and nature: Where we increase the area of healthy ecosystems and put a stop to their loss and degradation âĂŞ for the health and well-being of all life on earth and that of future generations\" [32]. Ecosystem restoration holds increasing potential for maintaining and increasing the rates of carbon sequestration [40]. Furthermore, it conserves biodiversity through maintaining a range of ecosystem services and safeguarding rich cultures and traditional ways of life. Indigenous and local knowledge systems for ecosystem restoration have been recognized by researchers as key components of sustainable development [4]. Reyes-Garcia V et al. (2019) propose that actively involving indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLCs) in restoration efforts (1) can help in selecting sites Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be honored.",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from permissions@acm.org. © 2020 Association for Computing Machinery. Manuscript submitted to ACM 1 ACM Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) 2020 Conference Workshop \"Fragile Earth: Data Science for a Sustainable Planet\", August 23–27, 2020, Virtual Conference Bogdana Rakova and Alexander Winter and species, (2) can increase local participation in the planning, execution, and monitoring of restoration activities, and (3) can provide historical information on ecosystem state and management [43]. The importance of IPLCs knowledge systems for environmental sustainability have been acknowledged by the UN System Task Team on the Post 2015 UN Development Agenda, stating that \"traditional and indigenous knowledge, adaptation, and coping strategies can be major assets for local response strategies\" [30]. Similarly, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report Summary for Policymakers emphasizes that \"indigenous, local and traditional knowledge systems and practices, including indigenous peoples’ holistic view of community and environment, are a major resource for adapting to climate change, but these have not been used consistently in existing adaptation efforts\" [24]. Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) encapsulates indigenous cultural practices, world views, and ways of life which offer myriad epistemological and ontological approaches, including mythologies passed down as songs and stories, embedded in geographic representations, and more [5]. It is a field of study in anthropology defined as the cumulative body of knowledge, practices, and beliefs, passed",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "indigenous cultural practices, world views, and ways of life which offer myriad epistemological and ontological approaches, including mythologies passed down as songs and stories, embedded in geographic representations, and more [5]. It is a field of study in anthropology defined as the cumulative body of knowledge, practices, and beliefs, passed down from one generation to the next. However, the romanticization of indigeneity poses a common trap in which the complexities of indigenous epistemologies are reduced and distorted. Historically, this has negatively impacted indigenous peoples and local communities [39]. A common perspective within the growing body of work on fairness, accountability, and transparency of AI is that various unwanted consequences of ML algorithms arise in some way from bias in the datasets used during the training and evaluation stages of model development, the limitations of the modeling techniques to capture real-world sociotechnical contexts [51], or as an artefact in the way people interact with a ML model after its deployment [53]. For example, consider geographic diversity in image datasets. ImageNet is a widely-used image dataset consisting of 1.2 million labeled images, 45% of which were taken in the United States, and the majority of the remaining images are from North America or Western Europe. Only 1% and 2.1% of the images come from China and India, respectively [10]. It has been shown that such representational biases lead to worse image classification performance for underrepresented countries [52]. While ML methods typically rely on many iterations to reach a good solution, in many real-world applications there is often no possibility of having many feedback loops due to the high cost of failures. In the context of environmental sustainability unintended consequences of ML algorithms might have irreversible impacts. An interdisciplinary worldview can help practitioners recognize the need for multifaceted feedback loops in order to",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "real-world applications there is often no possibility of having many feedback loops due to the high cost of failures. In the context of environmental sustainability unintended consequences of ML algorithms might have irreversible impacts. An interdisciplinary worldview can help practitioners recognize the need for multifaceted feedback loops in order to inform the discussion of how ML could meaningfully contribute to sustainability while adequately addressing issues of fairness, accountability, and transparency of how ML is used and what errors and edge-cases might occur. This could be facilitated by improving the capability of stakeholders to interface with and be accountable to one another. The concept of personhood for natural entities like rivers and forests, for example, could provide the ability for nature to interface with the other stakeholders within legal fictions. In 2017, the Whanganui River in New Zealand was legally recognized as a living being, turning it into an agent whose voice is embodied by appointed guardians with the following duties: (1) to act and speak for and on behalf of the river; (2) to uphold the riverâĂŹs recognition and values as an indivisible entity and as a legal person; (3) to promote and protect the environmental, social, cultural, and economic health and well-being of the river; (4) to take any other action reasonably necessary to achieve its purpose and perform its functions [2]. The main contribution of our work is to demonstrate the need for data science and ML-based environmental projects to consider the diverse perspectives within place-based and traditional ecological knowledge systems. We provide an overview of how ML is currently used in the planning, execution, and monitoring stages of forest ecosystem restoration 2 Leveraging traditional ecological knowledge in ecosystem restoration projects utilizing machine learning ACM Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) 2020 Conference Workshop \"Fragile Earth: Data Science",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "ecological knowledge systems. We provide an overview of how ML is currently used in the planning, execution, and monitoring stages of forest ecosystem restoration 2 Leveraging traditional ecological knowledge in ecosystem restoration projects utilizing machine learning ACM Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) 2020 Conference Workshop \"Fragile Earth: Data Science for a Sustainable Planet\", August 23–27, 2020, Virtual Conference projects and aim to highlight how IPLCs could participate and immensely contribute to achieving positive environmental impacts. Ultimately, by building on existing climate governance models, we propose that new methodological and governance frameworks could reduce the negative impacts of the use of ML in restoration efforts. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW There has been a growing interest in the intersection of data science, machine learning, and sustainability. Recent work by Rolnick et al. provides an overview of how ML is being applied to address climate change in the domains of: electricity systems, transportation, buildings and cities, industry, farms and forests, carbon sequestration, climate prediction, societal impacts, solar geoengineering, education, and finance [48]. Related to ecosystem restoration projects, they highlight the use of computer vision techniques, transfer learning, reinforcement learning, and control theory [48]. For example, computer vision on satellite images is used for modeling the amount of carbon stored in forests [46]. The model is then used for predicting the carbon storage potential of deforested areas. ML is also employed for verification of conservation projects through satellite imagery [49]. More broadly, the field of Computational Sustainability has enabled computer scientists to apply their skills towards a broad range of sustainability challenges. Gomes et al. call for transformative synthesis by incorporating a combination of techniques from (1) data and ML, (2) optimization and dynamic models simulation, and (3) multi-agent crowdsourcing and citizen science [16]. Levy et al. go on to investigate the links between",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "skills towards a broad range of sustainability challenges. Gomes et al. call for transformative synthesis by incorporating a combination of techniques from (1) data and ML, (2) optimization and dynamic models simulation, and (3) multi-agent crowdsourcing and citizen science [16]. Levy et al. go on to investigate the links between specific areas of sustainability and broader social challenges by studying the role of global commodity supply chains in deforestation through ML modeling [14]. The question of malicious use and unintended consequences of ML in society has emerged from the early work of Norbert Wiener (1954) and others. More recently, such interest has led to the development of the areas of Social Informatics, Participatory Design, Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, Critical Algorithm Studies, and others. The main challenges they discuss include the negative impacts of biased and non-representative datasets [27], the lack of diversity and inclusion in the perspectives taken into account [23], the need for algorithmic impact assessments that evaluate ML models based on the broader socio-technical context within which they are situated [51]. The decisions informing the design, development, and deployment of ML applications are often vulnerable to various forms of bias. The use of non-representative or culturally-skewed datasets, oversimplifications in optimization algorithms, model interpretation assumptions, and self-reinforcing feedback loops have lead to unintended and harmful consequences, for example reinforcement of gender, sex, and race inequities in facial recognition models [1, 27]. In the context of ecosystem restoration, biases may result in damages and harm to ecosystems and stakeholder communities. Principles for ML governance in regenerative ecosystem practices could make use of a framework proposed by Suresh and Guttag which identifies the following biases: (1) historical bias, (2) representation bias, (3) measurement bias, (4) aggregation bias, (5) evaluation bias, and (6) deployment bias [53]. Margins of error can arise at each",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "for ML governance in regenerative ecosystem practices could make use of a framework proposed by Suresh and Guttag which identifies the following biases: (1) historical bias, (2) representation bias, (3) measurement bias, (4) aggregation bias, (5) evaluation bias, and (6) deployment bias [53]. Margins of error can arise at each step of the ML process, highlighting the importance of a systemic approach for risk mitigation. Environmental and social problems are ultimately interconnected and therefore can only be overcome by changing fundamentally the way society is organized, and not simply through technical interventions [44]. Rico (1986) argues that \"human and environmental dimensions of sustainability are inseparable, and that this link is a result both of the aggregate effect of social relationships and actions as they influence the natural ecology, and of the impact of environmental changes on society\" [44]. Recent focus on investigating the downstream societal effects of the use of machine learning have lead to the development of multiple assessment and governance models [13, 15, 25]. We build on these works and aim to highlight the need for such methodological frameworks in the way ML is used in restoration projects, also building on prior work in climate governance models. 3 ACM Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) 2020 Conference Workshop \"Fragile Earth: Data Science for a Sustainable Planet\", August 23–27, 2020, Virtual Conference Bogdana Rakova and Alexander Winter The negotiations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have instigated the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, the 2009 Copenhagen Accord, and the 2015 Paris Agreement. These can be considered as distinct climate governance models which have been studied by policymakers and other scholars. Held and Roger (2019) provide a comparative analysis of these models [20], while other scholars bring political economy perspectives to the increasing but uneven uptake of transnational",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and the 2015 Paris Agreement. These can be considered as distinct climate governance models which have been studied by policymakers and other scholars. Held and Roger (2019) provide a comparative analysis of these models [20], while other scholars bring political economy perspectives to the increasing but uneven uptake of transnational climate governance [47]. Hale (2018) identify the unique characteristics of the Paris Agreement which allow for the re-framing of the international politics of climate change as a \"catalytic\" collective action problem [18]. In collective action problems, individual stakeholders could benefit from cooperation. Particularly, we hope our work could inspire new kinds of cooperation between applied machine learning researchers, policymakers, and IPLCs, leveraging traditional ecological knowledge systems. Uprety et al. provide a review of the use of TEK in ecological restoration and planning in 17 different kinds of restoration projects around the world [54]. However, scholars have also been concerned about the incorporation of traditional knowledge systems into \"top-down\" approaches to ecological restoration, pointing out ethical and social challenges [7]. We aim to bring these perspectives to data scientists and machine learning researchers working in sustainability, highlighting the need for participatory methodological frameworks that are centered on equity and collective action. 3 LEVERAGING TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE Ecologist Fikret Berkes (1999) brings together indigenous knowledge systems and Western scientific theories of conservation and biodiversity through his extensive fieldwork around the world. He explains TEK through four interrelated levels of ecosystem management, defined by a model known as the knowledge-practice-belief complex [5]. The levels in this model are: (1) the local knowledge of animals, plants, solids, and landscapes; (2) resource management, composed of local environmental knowledge, practices, and tools; (3) community and social organizing offering coordination, cooperation, and governance; and (4) worldviews involving general ethics and belief systems [5]. We propose that there’s",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "levels in this model are: (1) the local knowledge of animals, plants, solids, and landscapes; (2) resource management, composed of local environmental knowledge, practices, and tools; (3) community and social organizing offering coordination, cooperation, and governance; and (4) worldviews involving general ethics and belief systems [5]. We propose that there’s an opportunity to further bridge knowledge gaps between TEK and scientific knowledge through participatory methods building on decades of fieldwork. Utilizing methodologies such as participatory action research and appreciative inquiry in the planning stage of ecosystem restoration projects could improve the well-being of climate-vulnerable communities by building trust and facilitating collaborations among stakeholders. It could allow machine learning engineers, community members, and stakeholders to collectively make decisions about data collection, usage, storage, and removal protocols to ensure data sovereignty and build local capacity. We suggest that any ecosystem restoration effort needs to consider and plan for the economic and social-equity aspects of the proposed project. For example, ML projects might leverage IPLCs’ deep knowledge and understanding of their land, while the IPLCs could co-benefit from the social and economic value created by the restored ecosystem services in the area. Luedeling et al. (2019) highlight the importance of drawing upon \"expert knowledge to ensure that relevant constraints are considered\" [26]. Working closely with experts and IPLCs will help guard against misguided strategy in the implementation stages by aligning incentives between stakeholders, including ecosystems, with well-being in mind. There are numerous examples illustrative of TEK. The Maya Milpa is an agroecological system and multi-crop field historically employed in Latin America. These shifting cultivation systems, referred to as swiddens, comprise lands which are transformed for cultivation by means of skilled slashing and burning of vegetation. The Milpa woodland ecosystems are shaped without the use of fertilizers and pesticides, increasing soil fertility through forest",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and multi-crop field historically employed in Latin America. These shifting cultivation systems, referred to as swiddens, comprise lands which are transformed for cultivation by means of skilled slashing and burning of vegetation. The Milpa woodland ecosystems are shaped without the use of fertilizers and pesticides, increasing soil fertility through forest succession [34]. In the foothills Mount Kilimanjaro, the Chagga cultivate Kihamba forest gardens involving the management of multipurpose trees and shrubs in symbiosis with annual and perennial agricultural crops and livestock. The Kihamba are a densely vegetated tropical forest ecosystem resulting in high biodiversity with over 500 species in a single forest 4 Leveraging traditional ecological knowledge in ecosystem restoration projects utilizing machine learning ACM Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) 2020 Conference Workshop \"Fragile Earth: Data Science for a Sustainable Planet\", August 23–27, 2020, Virtual Conference garden [21]. In the Xingu River Basin of Amazonia, the KayapÃş have been protecting one of the largest tropical forests on Earth. The KayapÃşâĂŹs use of fire in agriculture successfully works as a soil fertilizer and stimulates forest regeneration. They construct forest islands, or apÃłtÃł, which maximize biodiversity utilizing a polycrop relay system. Resulting in 250 food plants and 650 medicinal plants within the forest gardens [38]. Tyson Yunkaporta emphasizes the importance of holistic reasoning to create dialogue between scientific and Indigenous knowledge systems. He elucidates five principles, each as symbols which are simultaneously further encoded into a singular symbolic image. This way of sensemaking through metaphors are comprised of story-mind, kinship-mind, dreaming-mind, ancestormind, and pattern-mind, which can be mapped onto the five fingers of a hand and made to interact. We suggest such processes could be incorporated into ML and data science approaches in the context of ecosystem regeneration [55]. In what follows, we provide a brief analysis of how ML is",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "ancestormind, and pattern-mind, which can be mapped onto the five fingers of a hand and made to interact. We suggest such processes could be incorporated into ML and data science approaches in the context of ecosystem regeneration [55]. In what follows, we provide a brief analysis of how ML is used in the planning, executing, and monitoring stages of forest ecosystem restoration projects. We don’t aim to provide a full overview of the ecological restoration practices and point interested readers to the work of Egan and Howell for a detailed review [12]. 3.1 Planning of restoration ML on satellite and drone image data is being used in various ways throughout the planning stage of forest restoration projects. Through complex ML modeling, researchers aim to more accurately determine forest carbon sequestration potential worldwide [28, 46]. We propose that satellite and drone image data alone cannot be sufficient resources in the restoration planning stage because ML-based pattern recognition algorithms may fail to capture the significance of socio-ecological aspects of the land. In order to communicate the importance of these aspects, ethnographers have evolved the concept of cultural keystone place to denote \"a given site or location with high cultural salience for one or more groups of people and which plays, or has played in the past, an exceptional role in a people’s cultural identity, as reflected in their day to day living, food production and other resource-based activities, land and resource management, language, stories, history, and social and ceremonial practices\" [9]. We suggest that ML practitioners will benefit from new organizing principles allowing for and incentivizing teaming up with people from interdisciplinary fields during all stages of an ecosystem restoration project. In order to partner with IPLCs, a technical ML team might employ qualitative research methods while collaborating with local municipalities, foresters,",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "suggest that ML practitioners will benefit from new organizing principles allowing for and incentivizing teaming up with people from interdisciplinary fields during all stages of an ecosystem restoration project. In order to partner with IPLCs, a technical ML team might employ qualitative research methods while collaborating with local municipalities, foresters, and other subject matter experts. The organizing principle needs to enable open and transparent participation of all involved stakeholders, including seeing the IPLCs as equally participating actors throughout the process. Restoration efforts looking to enable higher levels of biodiversity need to assess the flow of ecosystem services in the target restoration areas [9]. Ecosystem services encompass supporting, provisioning, regulating, and cultural services [9], where there exists a reciprocal relationship between people and ecosystems. Ethnographic surveys of communities impacted by ecological degradation could serve as helpful resources to ML practitioners. The consideration of cultural ecosystem services [6] could further enable practitioners to plan how a proposed ML project could be integrated in a socio-economic and socio-ecological context. For example, the planning project stage could explore topics such as (1) impact on the well-being of local communities, (2) long-term environmental and biodiversity impact, (3) economic opportunities likely to be created through the implementation of the project, (4) provision of new educational and knowledge-generation value, and (5) resource stewardship. Ecosystems maintain stability through interactions between various feedback loops [33]. ML systems interfacing with ecosystems could create ecosystemic dependencies with ML feedback loops becoming an integral part of the ecosystem. We propose the assessment of necessary resources for ongoing ML efforts and the consideration of ML applications toward and beyond a threshold for ecosystemic self-sufficiency. 5 ACM Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) 2020 Conference Workshop \"Fragile Earth: Data Science for a Sustainable Planet\", August 23–27, 2020, Virtual Conference Bogdana Rakova and Alexander Winter",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of necessary resources for ongoing ML efforts and the consideration of ML applications toward and beyond a threshold for ecosystemic self-sufficiency. 5 ACM Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) 2020 Conference Workshop \"Fragile Earth: Data Science for a Sustainable Planet\", August 23–27, 2020, Virtual Conference Bogdana Rakova and Alexander Winter 3.2 Execution of restoration Environmental scholars have argued about the need for recognition of the roles of communities in actively cultivating, improving, and positively contributing to ecosystem services, challenging \"the false concept of ecosystem services as a one-way flow of benefits from ecosystems to humans\" [8]. Building on cultural ecosystem services as well as the concept of \"services to ecosystems\" [8], we suggest ML practitioners who execute restoration projects need to see these projects as continuous reiterative efforts where involved stakeholders such as IPLCs might be the ones providing the needed services to ecosystems support in return for sharing the benefits from social, economic, and other values created by the restoration projects. We propose that in order to ensure equity in the IPLCs’ involvement in restoration efforts, ML developers need to create rich interaction interfaces which lower the barriers to access, allow for people from varying backgrounds and levels of technical skills to participate, provide explanations for algorithmic outcomes [11], and allow for people to intervene at every step [35]. 3.3 Monitoring of restoration Among the many applications of ML operating on satellite and drone image data in the monitoring stages of forest ecosystem restoration projects are detecting and mapping selective logging [22], high-resolution land cover mapping [45], and predicting forest wildfire spread [41]. Monitoring is also an important stage in the lifecycle of any ML model which is deployed in a real-world system. Continuous monitoring, integration, re-training and tuning of model parameters is part of a more general quality",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "selective logging [22], high-resolution land cover mapping [45], and predicting forest wildfire spread [41]. Monitoring is also an important stage in the lifecycle of any ML model which is deployed in a real-world system. Continuous monitoring, integration, re-training and tuning of model parameters is part of a more general quality assurance process which ultimately aims to make sure that a ML model is able to perform efficiently as people are interacting with it. An increased number of feedback loops between the model-users and model-creators will positively contribute to models which are adaptive to the dynamic context within which they operate. As explored by Ortega et al., monitoring and control of system activity, framed as assurance, is an integral part of building safe artificial intelligence [36]. We suggest that community engagement could help large-scale continuous ML model assurance efforts, enabling the alignment of incentives between human and algorithmic actors. During the execution of the restoration stage, partners in the project collaboratively act and implement solutions to address an agreed-upon goal. Similarly, during the monitoring stage, the outcomes of their actions are collectively reviewed and evaluated. This could include engaging communities as a sensor network, sharing examples of the changes they see, or early indications that something new or different might happen. Should the efforts of the implementation be found unsuccessful or partially successful, the adjusted results are fed into the next iteration of the planning cycle. We suggest that throughout this adaptive process it is important to establish ongoing commitments for each project stakeholder. For the ML research team, this could include establishing practical ethical guidelines, adopting an impact assessment framework, involving impacted communities in active participation rather than passive acceptance to ensure cultural relevance to the community, as well as building community capacity and resiliency with new skills. This could",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "each project stakeholder. For the ML research team, this could include establishing practical ethical guidelines, adopting an impact assessment framework, involving impacted communities in active participation rather than passive acceptance to ensure cultural relevance to the community, as well as building community capacity and resiliency with new skills. This could also include an exit strategy of ML interventions once desired outcomes have been achieved. 4 ENABLING CATALYTIC COOPERATION THROUGH A SHIFT IN ML GOVERNANCE MODELS An interdisciplinary worldview helps us recognize the need for multifaceted feedback loops in order to inform the discussion of how ML could meaningfully contribute to Sustainability. As Gregory Bateson would say, some questions are not meant to be answered but they show us new perspectives about the relations between all involved actors [3]. Similarly, the question of how to use ML to alleviate the fragility of our planet could bring awareness to these relations and inform new organizing principles. One such organizing principle is modeling the responsible design, development, 6 Leveraging traditional ecological knowledge in ecosystem restoration projects utilizing machine learning ACM Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) 2020 Conference Workshop \"Fragile Earth: Data Science for a Sustainable Planet\", August 23–27, 2020, Virtual Conference and deployment of ML as a tragedy of the commons problem [17, 19, 37, 42] as well as investigating how the problem of reducing the negative impacts of ML departs from the logic of the tragedy of the commons. Leveraging work on other tragedy of the commons systems such as climate action [20], we could make more informed decisions about the organizing and governance principles that could enable positive results, reducing the negative impacts of ML-based ecosystem restoration efforts. The problem of reducing environmental degradation has the characteristics of joint products, preference heterogeneity, and increasing returns discussed by Hale [18]. Joint",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "action [20], we could make more informed decisions about the organizing and governance principles that could enable positive results, reducing the negative impacts of ML-based ecosystem restoration efforts. The problem of reducing environmental degradation has the characteristics of joint products, preference heterogeneity, and increasing returns discussed by Hale [18]. Joint products means that actions could benefit the actors while also contributing public good to communities. Preference heterogeneity relates to the fact that there’s no symmetry of preferences across actors and actions. In the tragedy of the commons model, the free-rider problem poses that an actor is generally disincentivized from action by the efforts of others. In reality, many actions reinforce themselves through a variety of feedback loops that generate increasing returns to action over time action in the past can reduce the cost and increase the benefit of action in the future. We propose that many ML applications fit the features of joint products, preference heterogeneity, and increasing returns, which creates the possibility for re-framing the methodological and governance frameworks towards a \"catalytic cooperation\" model [18]. An example of such a governance model is the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change. By doing a comparative analysis of the problem structures of climate action and the use of ML, we find that they exhibit similarities in their distributional effects, the spread of individual vs. collective harms, and first-order vs. second order impacts. Hence, we propose that it is helpful to restructure and address ML governance questions through a catalytic cooperation model which recognizes that: • Good intentions are not good enough. Acknowledging the fallacy of technological solutionism, there’s a need to stimulate incremental action within academia, the private sector, civil society, etc. Frameworks can facilitate measurability, which helps actionability and adds to the conceptual toolbelt for the assessment of complex problems",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "which recognizes that: • Good intentions are not good enough. Acknowledging the fallacy of technological solutionism, there’s a need to stimulate incremental action within academia, the private sector, civil society, etc. Frameworks can facilitate measurability, which helps actionability and adds to the conceptual toolbelt for the assessment of complex problems arising from the interplay of many agents [50]. • Scale matters. There’s a need for new ways to participate. For every area of sustainability, it is possible to shift from a worldview where negative impacts of ML are diffused in society towards an increasing number of positive examples of ML contributing to socio-economic and socio-ecological well-being of people and the planet. Increasing the number of actors working on these issues lowers the costs and risks for more actors to become involved in this space until the kickstart of a \"catalytic effect\" resulting in a tipping point where the new behaviors and norms become self-reinforcing [18]. • There’s a need for intergenerational consent, consensus, commitments, and cooperation through transparent normative goal-setting and benchmarking. Metrics frameworks, standards, best-practices, and guidelines could contribute to an iterative evaluation process which enables collective action aligned with society’s broader values and beliefs [29]. 5 CONCLUSION Ecological restoration and regeneration efforts sit at the heart of moving towards accelerating positive environmental impacts. However, there’s a growing need for governance frameworks which could enable collective action through empowering community engagement, equity, and long-term impacts. Traditional ecological knowledge systems of indigenous peoples around the world have been globally recognized as a major asset in local restoration efforts. By bringing interdisciplinary perspectives to the work of data science and machine learning scholars, we aim to highlight 7 ACM Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) 2020 Conference Workshop \"Fragile Earth: Data Science for a Sustainable Planet\", August 23–27, 2020, Virtual Conference",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "as a major asset in local restoration efforts. By bringing interdisciplinary perspectives to the work of data science and machine learning scholars, we aim to highlight 7 ACM Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) 2020 Conference Workshop \"Fragile Earth: Data Science for a Sustainable Planet\", August 23–27, 2020, Virtual Conference Bogdana Rakova and Alexander Winter the methodological opportunities and principles for integrating traditional ecological knowledge systems in the design, development, and deployment of ML-based forest restoration projects. We have provided an overview of how machine learning is used in the planning, execution, and monitoring stages of ecological restoration and hope to engage in applied work in our ongoing research. Future work needs to also consider what methodological frameworks could bridge the gaps between applied ML-based projects and environmental policy. We imagine that ensuring stakeholder equity could unleash conceptual tools, building on the principles we have hereby proposed. Furthermore, catalytic cooperation shows immense potential as a systemic approach towards such an integration between data scientists, indigenous and local communities, policymakers, and others, while optimizing for ecosystem regeneration, maximizing biodiversity, and community well-being. REFERENCES [1] Julia Angwin, JeffLarson, Surya Mattu, and Lauren Kirchner. 2019. Machine bias: ThereâĂŹs software used across the country to predict future criminals and itâĂŹs biased against blacks. 2016. URL https://www. propublica. org/article/machine-bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing (2019). [2] Aikaterini Argyrou and Harry Hummels. 2019. Legal personality and economic livelihood of the Whanganui River: a call for community entrepreneurship. Water International 44, 6-7 (2019), 752–768. [3] Gregory Bateson. 2000. Steps to an ecology of mind: Collected essays in anthropology, psychiatry, evolution, and epistemology. University of Chicago Press. [4] Fikret Berkes. 1993. Traditional ecological knowledge in perspective. Traditional ecological knowledge: Concepts and cases 1 (1993). [5] Fikret Berkes. 2017. Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Management. Routledge. [6] Pedro HS Brancalion, Ines Villarroel",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
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    "text": "of mind: Collected essays in anthropology, psychiatry, evolution, and epistemology. University of Chicago Press. [4] Fikret Berkes. 1993. Traditional ecological knowledge in perspective. Traditional ecological knowledge: Concepts and cases 1 (1993). [5] Fikret Berkes. 2017. Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Management. Routledge. [6] Pedro HS Brancalion, Ines Villarroel Cardozo, Allan Camatta, James Aronson, and Ricardo R Rodrigues. 2014. Cultural ecosystem services and popular perceptions of the benefits of an ecological restoration project in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Restoration Ecology 22, 1 (2014), 65–71. [7] Nigel Chalmers and Christo Fabricius. 2007. Expert and generalist local knowledge about land-cover change on South AfricaâĂŹs Wild Coast: can local ecological knowledge add value to science? Ecology and Society 12, 1 (2007). [8] Claudia Comberti, Thomas F Thornton, V Wyllie de Echeverria, and Trista Patterson. 2015. Ecosystem services or services to ecosystems? Valuing cultivation and reciprocal relationships between humans and ecosystems. Global Environmental Change 34 (2015), 247–262. [9] Alain Cuerrier, Nancy J Turner, Thiago C Gomes, Ann Garibaldi, and Ashleigh Downing. 2015. Cultural keystone places: conservation and restoration in cultural landscapes. Journal of Ethnobiology 35, 3 (2015), 427–448. [10] Jia Deng, Wei Dong, Richard Socher, Li-Jia Li, Kai Li, and Li Fei-Fei. 2009. Imagenet: A large-scale hierarchical image database. In 2009 IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition. Ieee, 248–255. [11] Finale Doshi-Velez and Been Kim. 2017. Towards a rigorous science of interpretable machine learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:1702.08608 (2017). [12] Dave Egan. 2005. The historical ecology handbook: a restorationist’s guide to reference ecosystems. Island Press. [13] European Commission High-Level Expert Group on AI. 2019. Trustworthy AI Assessment List. Technical Report. https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=60440 [14] Toby A Gardner, Magnus Benzie, Jan Börner, Elena Dawkins, Stephen Fick, Rachael Garrett, Javier Godar, A Grimard, Sarah Lake, Rasmus K Larsen, et al. 2019. Transparency and sustainability in global",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
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    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "A framework for understanding unintended consequences of machine learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:1901.10002 (2019). [54] Yadav Uprety, Hugo Asselin, Yves Bergeron, Frédérik Doyon, and Jean-François Boucher. 2012. Contribution of traditional knowledge to ecological restoration: practices and applications. Ecoscience 19, 3 (2012), 225–237. [55] Tyson Yunkaporta. 2019. Sand talk: How Indigenous thinking can save the world. Text Publishing. 9",
    "source": "Ecological Restoration_Resource Management.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "1. Introduction The Indian Journal of Animal Science (IJAS) is one of the most popular scientific journals in the areas of animal breeding, diseases, physiology, nutrition, dairying, animal production and fisheries. It is a peerreviewed and open access journal. It is being published by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi. IJAS is being regularly indexed in citation database web of science from 1989. IJAS scored 6.28 rank of NAAS in 2021 which is rated as a good score among the Indian journals on animal sciences. According to Journal Citation Report 2020, impact factor of IJAS was 0.316. Thirty three years of continuous and long journey of monthly animal science journal publication motivated the researchers to highlight its contribution through comprehensive Scientometrics study. 2. Literature Review Patra et.al (2005) analysed growth pattern, core journals and author’s distribution in the field of bibliometrics using data from Library and Information Science Abstracts. Braodford’s law of scattering and Lotka’s Law were also applied. It was observed that the authors’ distribution did not follow the Lotka’s Law. Sen (2010) in his short communication demonstrated that it was simpler to calculate the value of ‘n’ and ‘c’ for Lotka’s Law as compared to the Pao’s method. Rajendran et. al. (2011) analysed 633 research articles published in the Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research for performing Comprehensive Bibliometric study in respect of number authored contribution, authorship pattern, average citations, etc. They observed that out of 633 publications, only 51 were single authored. The degree of collaboration was also found 0.92 which is considered to be a weak collaboration between the authors. To cite this paper: Rohila, N.S., Singh, B.P., and Bankar, R.S.“Indian Journal of Animal Science: A Scientometric Assessment and Application of Lotka ’s Law (2015 -2020 ).” In Innovation , Growth and Sustainability",
    "source": "ICALUC_2022.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of collaboration was also found 0.92 which is considered to be a weak collaboration between the authors. To cite this paper: Rohila, N.S., Singh, B.P., and Bankar, R.S.“Indian Journal of Animal Science: A Scientometric Assessment and Application of Lotka ’s Law (2015 -2020 ).” In Innovation , Growth and Sustainability of Agricultural Libraries , 244–249. Jorhat, Assam: BS Publishers, 2022. http://eprints.rclis.org/43190/. INDIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE: A SCIENTOMETRIC ASSESSMENT AND APPLICATION OF LOTKA’S LAW (2015-2020) Narendra Singh Rohila1, B. P. Singh2 and Ravindra S. Bankar3 Sr. Technical Officer1, Asstt. Chief Technical Officer2 and Librarian3 National Library in Dairying1&2 ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana Anand Niketan College of Agriculture, Warora, Maharasthtra3 e-mail: ns.ndri@gmail.com ABSTRACT The Indian Journal of Animal Science is a popular scientific journal in animal breeding, physiology, nutrition, dairying, animal production and fisheries areas as well as respective disease. It is the peerreviewed and open access journal. This review is aiming to analyse the scientometric attributes of its publications from years 2015-2020. The bibliographic records of publications were retrieved from the Web of Science database on dated 25-11-2021. During the study period, 1720 research papers were published. The data were analysed by using Web of Science and biblioshiny software. The results revealed that maximum number of research papers were published during the year 2020 and also received maximum citations in same year. The research contribution also followed the Lotka’s Law. It was interesting to note that the maximum contribution was given by the researchers of ICAR Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly. During the study period the highest research publications were also found from India. Keywords: Scientometrics, Bibliometrics, biblioshiny, Web of Science (WoS), Indian Journal of Animal Science (IJAS), Lotka’s Law. Indian Journal of Animal Science: A Scientometric Assessment… 245 Bankar and Lihitkar (2021) study involved the scientometric analysis",
    "source": "ICALUC_2022.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Research Institute, Bareilly. During the study period the highest research publications were also found from India. Keywords: Scientometrics, Bibliometrics, biblioshiny, Web of Science (WoS), Indian Journal of Animal Science (IJAS), Lotka’s Law. Indian Journal of Animal Science: A Scientometric Assessment… 245 Bankar and Lihitkar (2021) study involved the scientometric analysis of Indian Journal of Animal Research (IJAR). The study period was 2008 to 2020. The data was retrieved from scopus database. The numbers of records were 1890. The analysis covered annual research growth, document type, prolific authors, highly cited documents, etc. Article published by Nagaiah et.al. (2021) presented a process of assessing the scientific productivity of authors in the field of open education resources as well as checking the applicability of Lotka’s Law in the literature of open education resources for the given data set by K-S Test. The results obtained indicated that Lotka’s Law did not support the literature of open education resources. 3. Objectives 1. To find out the year wise production of publications. 2. To find out the citations of publication year wise. 3. To check the Lotka’s Law applicability on IJAS publications. 4. To find out the affiliation wise contribution. 5. To find out the funding agencies of research. 6. To find out the country wise authored research papers. 4. Data Analysis and Interpretation 1. Year wise publications: Graph 1 shows the year wise publications of IJAS. It is evident from the graph that the maximum publications were counted as 309 in the year 2020 while the minimum 262 in the year 2018. Graph 1: Yearwise production of research publications. 2. Yearwise citations of publications: Graph 2 reflects the yearwise citations received by the publisher of IJAS as per Web of Science citation database. It is evident from the graph that the maximum (522) citations received",
    "source": "ICALUC_2022.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "the minimum 262 in the year 2018. Graph 1: Yearwise production of research publications. 2. Yearwise citations of publications: Graph 2 reflects the yearwise citations received by the publisher of IJAS as per Web of Science citation database. It is evident from the graph that the maximum (522) citations received were of the year 2020 followed by (519) in the year 2019. The minimum (10) citations received were of the year 2015. The total citations received from 2015 to 2020 by the published articles were 1278. 246 ICALUC-2022 | Innovation, Growth and Sustainability of Agricultural Libraries Graph 2: Year wise citations of research publications. 3. Lotka’s Law applicability on Research Publications: Equation of Lotka’s Law is – xn * y = c [Equation 1] Where, x = No. of Papers y = No. of Authors c = Constant * = multiplication To calculate the value of n and c, B.K.Sen’s easy method was applied. Table 1 manifests the distribution of number of articles according to authors. Table 1: Distribution of number publications according to authors No. of Articles (x) N. of Authors (y) 1 2575 2 574 3 251 4 133 5 82 6 61 7 43 8 31 9 30 10 15 Calculation of value of c, putting the values x=1 and y=2575 in equation 1. We know [1n = 1], so 1n * 2575 = c; Therefore c = 2575 Now calculation of value n, putting the from the 2nd row of table 1, i.e. x=2, y=574 and c=2575 2n * 574 = 2575 2n = 2575/574 = 4.486 Indian Journal of Animal Science: A Scientometric Assessment… 247 Taking log both Sides n log 2 = log 4.486 n * 0.301 = 0.651 Therefore, [log2 = 0.301] n = 0.651/0.301 n = 2.16 Table 2: Observed values of",
    "source": "ICALUC_2022.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "c=2575 2n * 574 = 2575 2n = 2575/574 = 4.486 Indian Journal of Animal Science: A Scientometric Assessment… 247 Taking log both Sides n log 2 = log 4.486 n * 0.301 = 0.651 Therefore, [log2 = 0.301] n = 0.651/0.301 n = 2.16 Table 2: Observed values of y and calculated value of y when n=2.16 No. of Articles (x) No. of Authors (y) Observed Values No. of Authors (y) With value n=2.16 1 2575 2575 2 574 576 3 251 239 4 133 128 5 82 79 6 61 53 7 43 38 8 31 28 9 30 22 10 15 17 Graph 3: Indicates that publications of IJAS followed the Lotka’s Law. In graph series 2(observed values) & 3(calculated values n=2.16) have overlapped on each other, hence we can thus follow the Lotka’s Law. 4. To find out the affiliation wise contribution in IJAS during study period. The data analysis and results reflected by Web of Science of top 15 ICAR Institutes and State Universities given in Table 3 revealed that out of the 15 top entries, 09 are of ICAR institutes and rest from state universities. ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Bareilly stood at 1st position with 266 research papers and ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal was on 2nd position with 245 numbers of contributions. 248 ICALUC-2022 | Innovation, Growth and Sustainability of Agricultural Libraries Table 3: Top 15 affiliations and their contributions in IJAS. Sr. No. Affiliation No. of Publications 1. ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly 266 2. ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal 245 3. Guru Angad Dev Veterinary Animal Science University 125 4. ICAR-National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources 94 5. ICAR-Central Avian Research Institute 72 6. Tamil Nadu Veterinary Animal Sciences University 65 7. ICAR Central Institute for Research on Goats",
    "source": "ICALUC_2022.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Research Institute, Bareilly 266 2. ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal 245 3. Guru Angad Dev Veterinary Animal Science University 125 4. ICAR-National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources 94 5. ICAR-Central Avian Research Institute 72 6. Tamil Nadu Veterinary Animal Sciences University 65 7. ICAR Central Institute for Research on Goats 60 8. Maharashtra Animal Fishery Science University 45 9. ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region 44 10. Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary Animal Sciences 44 11. U P Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go 44 12. ICAR Central Institute for Research on Cattle 42 13. ICAR Directorate of Poultry Research 41 14. ICAR Central Sheep Wool Research Institute 38 15. West Bengal University of Animal Fishery Sciences 37 5. Funding Agency of Contributed Research It is evident from the Table 4 that, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) funded maximum 130 projects during the period of study followed by Department of Biotechnology DBT, India with 57 projects. Table 4: Top 10 funding agencies and their funded projects Sr. No. Funding Agency No. of Research 1. Indian Council of Agricultural Research 130 2. Department of Biotechnology DBT India 57 3. University Grant Commission, India 22 4. Department of Science & Technology, India 13 5. National Natural Science Foundation of China 12 6. ICAR-NDRI, Karnal 10 7. Council of Scientific Industrial Research (CSIR) India 8 8. ICARIndian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly 7 9. Consejo Nacional De Ciencia Y Tecnologia Conacyt 6 10. ICAR-NBAGR 5 6. Country-wise authored research papers It is clear from graph 4 that maximum number of papers (1501) authored by Indian authors followed by Iran (40), China (35), Turkey (31), Mexico (20), South Korea (19), Egypt (9), Canada (8), Malaysia (8) and Pakistan (8). These data also witness a good reputation of IJAS among",
    "source": "ICALUC_2022.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "research papers It is clear from graph 4 that maximum number of papers (1501) authored by Indian authors followed by Iran (40), China (35), Turkey (31), Mexico (20), South Korea (19), Egypt (9), Canada (8), Malaysia (8) and Pakistan (8). These data also witness a good reputation of IJAS among the abroad countries. Indian Journal of Animal Science: A Scientometric Assessment… 249 Graph 4: Countrywise contribution of top 10 countries 5. Findings of study In the comprehensive bibliometric study of journal, following findings are obtained by authors: 1. The Indian Journal of Animal Science (IJAS) is a popular scientific journal in animal breeding, diseases, physiology, nutrition, dairying, animal production and fisheries areas. 2. Researchers showing keen interest in this journal for publishing their research in animal science domain. 3. The journal shows significant growth in number of publications as well as day by day increase in citation of research papers. Web of Science database indexing IJAS from 1989 continuously. 4. Publication of IJAS follow the Lotka’s law with value n=2.16. 5. India is most contributed country in publications. 6. ICAR-IVRI, Bareilly contributed maximum papers followed by ICAR-NDRI Karnal. References Bankar, Ravindra S. and Lihitkar, Shalini R (2021). Thirteen year of Indian Journal of Animal Research: A scientometric view. Proceedings of Association of Agricultural Documentalists of India (AALDI), pp. 623629. Nagaiah. M, Thanuskodi, S and Alagu, A (2021). Application of Lotka's Law To The Research Productivity In The Field Of Open Educational Resources During 2011-2020. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal). https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/6365 Patra, Swapan K, Bhattacharya, Partha and Verma, Neena (2005). Bibliometric Study of Literature on Bibliometrics. DESIDOC, 26(1), pp. 27-32. Rajendran, P., Jayashanker, R. and Elango, B (2011). Scientometric Analysis of Contributions to Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research. International Journal of digital Library Services, 1(2), pp. 79-89. Sen, B.K. (2010).",
    "source": "ICALUC_2022.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Patra, Swapan K, Bhattacharya, Partha and Verma, Neena (2005). Bibliometric Study of Literature on Bibliometrics. DESIDOC, 26(1), pp. 27-32. Rajendran, P., Jayashanker, R. and Elango, B (2011). Scientometric Analysis of Contributions to Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research. International Journal of digital Library Services, 1(2), pp. 79-89. Sen, B.K. (2010). Lotka’s Law: A view point. Annals of Library and Information Studies, 57, pp.166-167.",
    "source": "ICALUC_2022.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "www.ijcrt.org © 2018 IJCRT | Volume 6, Issue 2 April 2018 | ISSN: 2320-2882 IJCRT1892619 International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (IJCRT) www.ijcrt.org 751 DAIRY INDUSTRY IN INDIA: DEVELOPMENT AND CHALLENGES Sonwane Rajkumar Sopanrao Assistant professor of dairy science, Dept. of Dairy Science, Yeshwant Mahavidyalaya, Nanded. MS, India Abstract: The current study development of dairy industry and its challenges. The government of India has started various dairy development programs like Operation Flood largest rural development programme in the world, Intensive cattle development programme and key village scheme for the development of Indian dairy. Indian dairy development and have played important role in becoming self-sufficient in dairy production. Although India is self-sufficient in dairy products, its dairy industry is facing challenges we have to overcome it through systematic approach and planning. Keywords: Development of Dairy Industry, Operation Flood, Self-sufficient, Challenges. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ I.INTRODUCTION: The Indian dairying has made fast progress since independence. Indian dairying has been practised as rural cottage industry since the remote past semi-commercial dairying started with the establishment of military dairy farm and cooperative milk unions through the country towards the end of ninety century. During early 1920‘s military dairy farms were established for an adequate supply of milk to army stations. These farms were well maintained and even in their early stages were raising improved milch animals. Elsewhere in urban areas, dairying was largely left in the hands of traditional producers, middleman and small producers, dealers and milk and milk product vendors. To some extent, World-War-II gave impetus to private dairies with metropolitan cities such as Bombay, Calcutta and Delhi and some other larger townships could claim of making available processed milk, table butter and ice cream, though not on large scale. In India, market milk industry started in 1950-51when central dairy and AERY milk colony was commissioned",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to private dairies with metropolitan cities such as Bombay, Calcutta and Delhi and some other larger townships could claim of making available processed milk, table butter and ice cream, though not on large scale. In India, market milk industry started in 1950-51when central dairy and AERY milk colony was commissioned and with the establishment of AMUL dairy, Anand in 1956. India is the largest milk producer in the world. It sustains the first position in the milk production for last two decades. The dairy industry in the country also has undergone considerable transformation may be due to the application of scientific production techniques. Dairy sector today provides benefits of nutritive food, supplementary income and provide employment for family labour, mainly for women. Dairying with crossbred cattle and high yielding buffaloes has become a lucrative business. Milk processing has now become a profitable business on low margin high volume basis. The organized milk marketing has gone up from one million tons in the early seventies to 30 million tons annually presently. This is an explosive growth. About half of the milk processed in the organized sector is now handled by the private sector. Its growth without any government assistance demonstrates that free market of this sector. By considering all the facts the present study was carried out with the following objectives. Objectives: 1. An overview of the development of Indian Dairy Industry. 2. To understand the challenge faced by the dairy sector units. II.RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: The above objectives are achieved by using secondary data collected from the various published reports, books and internet source. From the websites of NDDB.The collected data is analyzed to arrive at logical conclusions. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Dairy development under-operation flood programme: As a result of Operation Flood (OF) project more village level cooperative societies function",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "using secondary data collected from the various published reports, books and internet source. From the websites of NDDB.The collected data is analyzed to arrive at logical conclusions. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Dairy development under-operation flood programme: As a result of Operation Flood (OF) project more village level cooperative societies function with millions of producer members to procure milk. Theses co-operatives form a part of national milk grid, which links the milk producers throughout India with consumers in towns and cities. With the completion of Operation Flood project, the pace of investment in the dairy sector has slow down. Indian dairy industry has acquired sustained growth from VII Five Plan towards achieving an annual output of over 88.1 million tons of milk. India’s output has not only placed the industry first in the world but also represents sustained growth in availability of milk and milk products. The dairy sector is now the largest contributor of the agriculture sector to the national GDP. The huge increase in milk supply through concerted efforts on a comparative level is known as the white revolution. In 1965 the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) was set up to promote, plan and organize dairy development through cooperatives. The NDDB launched Operation Flood in 1970 with commodity gifts from the European Economic Community, which included skimmed milk powder and butter oil. The Operation flood is considered as the world’s largest dairy development programme. Under this programme, professionals were employed at every level, particularly in marketing and application, and science and technology. A multitiered www.ijcrt.org © 2018 IJCRT | Volume 6, Issue 2 April 2018 | ISSN: 2320-2882 IJCRT1892619 International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (IJCRT) www.ijcrt.org 752 co-operative structure was established under the operation with primary village co-operative societies at the base, district unions at the district level",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "science and technology. A multitiered www.ijcrt.org © 2018 IJCRT | Volume 6, Issue 2 April 2018 | ISSN: 2320-2882 IJCRT1892619 International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (IJCRT) www.ijcrt.org 752 co-operative structure was established under the operation with primary village co-operative societies at the base, district unions at the district level and national co-operative dairy federation of India at the apex body for milk cooperative societies. They also provide support facilities like balanced cattle feed, health services, AI and veterinary treatment backed by research in production, processing, and marketing. The programme was completed in three phases. Phase I: It ongoing in July 1970 and ended in 1981. The objectives were to set up dairy co-operatives in 100 milk sheds in ten states, so as to link them with the four best metropolitan markets of Mumbai, Delhi, and Calcutta. This phase operated between 1971 and 1981. By the end of phase-I, 13,000 village dairy co-operatives covering 15 lakh farmer families. Phase II: It covered the sixth Plan periods from 1981 to 1985. Phase I and IDA assisted dairy development programme in Karnataka, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. By the end of phase–II there were 136 milk sheds, 34500villages’ dairy co-operatives covering 36 lakh members. This phase linked 136 rural milk shed to 148 cities and towns and established a national milk grid and 15 million people were connected through this grids. Phase III: In this phases by improving the productivity of co-operative dairy sector and its institutional base for long-term sustainability. About 73,300 dairy co-operative societies had been organized in 170 milk sheds involving over 9.4 million farmer members. Thus Operation Flood has helped to establish a White revolution in the country. It is started in 1985 and came to an end in April 1996. Dairy development through following: Key village scheme ↓",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "dairy co-operative societies had been organized in 170 milk sheds involving over 9.4 million farmer members. Thus Operation Flood has helped to establish a White revolution in the country. It is started in 1985 and came to an end in April 1996. Dairy development through following: Key village scheme ↓ Intensive cattle development Scheme ↓ All India coordinated research project (AICRP) on cattle and buffaloes ↓ Drought Prone Areas Programme ↓ Small farmers Development Agency ↓ Integrated Rural Development Programme ↓ Women dairy Programme ↓ Dairy educational activities ↓ Breeding programme ↓ Embryo Transfer Technology Indicators of dairy development  Milk production in India  Per capita milk availability  Livestock population  Annual growth rate value of output from GDP Table 1. Overall achievements under operation flood programme Source: Dairy India (1997) LLPD=Lakh liters per day. 1971 1981 1985 1990 1996 No. of milk shed 5 39 136 170 170 No of .DICS 1600 13300 34500 60800 70000 Former membership 2811 17.51 76.31 70.1 93141 Average milk LLPD 5.2 25.6 52.6 91.8 115 Total processing LLPD 16.8 64.9 122.8 178.2 226 Total marketing LLPD NA 27.9 50.1 72.5 100 No. of A.I centers NA 4.9 7.5 10.9 10.5 No. of A.I zones NA 8.2 13.3 30.1 39.5 Investment NA 116.54 277.17 411.59 1303.5 www.ijcrt.org © 2018 IJCRT | Volume 6, Issue 2 April 2018 | ISSN: 2320-2882 IJCRT1892619 International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (IJCRT) www.ijcrt.org 753 1. Key village scheme and Intensive cattle development Scheme This schemes implemented by Government for the development of dairy sectors of India. After Independence, the first organized attempt to develop village cattle on an effective scale was initiated with the launch of key village scheme (KVS) in 1950 during the first five-year plan. KVS is a general comprehensive scheme drawn up by",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "by Government for the development of dairy sectors of India. After Independence, the first organized attempt to develop village cattle on an effective scale was initiated with the launch of key village scheme (KVS) in 1950 during the first five-year plan. KVS is a general comprehensive scheme drawn up by Government of India for development of cattle population in India by employing scientific methods for improvement of cattle viz., Artificial insemination, Grading & selective breeding, Formulation of co-operative societies for marketing the pure breed cattle and development of feed & fodder. A key village is defined as an area or part of the village or whole village or group of villages. Initially, the aim was to cover 5000 breedable cows and buffaloes & later on increase up to 10,000. The key village scheme thus employed all aspects of cattle improvement for e.g. controlled breeding, improved feeding, disease and health control, better management and marketing and adoption of improved animal husbandry practice through proper extension methods. KVS thus has helped greatly in developing good quality cattle in different parts of the country. KVS was a sound approach for implementing programmes of cattle development in an integrated manner, but due to the vastness of the country (vast magnitude of Problem), the KVS was not able to make a necessary impact for immediately increasing the milk production. Each KVS was only a tiny area of well-organized activity surrounded by a vast area where indiscriminate breeding was adopted. This obliterated the good work of KVS. In 1968, 479 village blocks were functioning in various states and they covered 5 million cows and she-buffaloes which were about 6.5% of the total breedable female cattle of the country. On review of the functioning of key village scheme, it was revealed that it did not produce results",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "KVS. In 1968, 479 village blocks were functioning in various states and they covered 5 million cows and she-buffaloes which were about 6.5% of the total breedable female cattle of the country. On review of the functioning of key village scheme, it was revealed that it did not produce results according to the expectations. Many dairy plants which were set up during the second and third five-year plan were not able to procure sufficient quantity of milk. This led to the development of yet another programme of the dairy development project, This ICDPs were to be started in breeding tracks of indigenous breeds of cattle & buffaloes and in the milk sheds of large dairy projects so that established dairy plants can procure sufficient quantity of milk for processing. (Up to their installed capacities). It was emphasized to associate each ICDP with either liquid milk plant or any milk product factory. Each ICDP was to cover 1 lack breedable cow & she-buffalo population. This target was kept to make a significant impact and increase the milk production in the area. For the success of the scheme, it is necessary that it is implemented at the best location. Thus area having good potential for milk production & where the appropriate response to cattle development can be there were chosen. In the chosen area, the target of covering 70 percent of cattle population for breeding purpose and increasing milk production by 30 percent in a period of 5 years was kept. The government of Indian extended 100 percent central assistance for the project during the 3rd five-year plan. After implementation and on completion of 2 years, these protect were transferred to plan scheme of the state government. This change led to reduced financial assistance from central government. In some of the States",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "government of Indian extended 100 percent central assistance for the project during the 3rd five-year plan. After implementation and on completion of 2 years, these protect were transferred to plan scheme of the state government. This change led to reduced financial assistance from central government. In some of the States due to less allocation of funds, adequate provision of inputs and services could not be made. “Major steps for the successful implementation of ICDP\" are Controlled breeding, balanced feeding. Veterinary healthcare, Milk farming inputs, and Assured milk marketing. ICDP really made a good impact on increasing milk production & improving the health of dairy animals. A large number of exotic animals were imported. During 1961 to 1978, around 7500 heads of cattle of some breeds were imported viz., Jersey, Brown Swiss, Red Dane, Yorkshire, Gurneys, Holstein Frisian. Some of these exotic breeds were supplied to state governments. At the same time government of India also developed farms for multiplying the exotic breeds. At Andeshangar (Uttar Pradesh) and Hessarghatta (Karnataka) farm for Holstein Frisian were developed. At Sunabeda (Orissa), Jersey farm was established. Number of ICDP developed in each five-year plan is as under. Table 2 Number of ICDP developed Year Plan ICDP 1961-62 to 1965-66 III 19 1969-70 to 1973-74 IV 63 1973-74 to 1977-78 V 119 1980-81 to 1985-86 VI 134 Growth and Contribution of Livestock Sector Livestock population India possesses one of the largest livestock wealth in the world. And, the population of almost all the species has been growing. Agricultural sector (including crops, livestock, fisheries, forestry) contributed about 40 percent to the GDP in the 1960s. This gradually decreased to 36.5. Table 3 Milk production and per capita availability of milk in India Milk production and per capita availability of milk in India Year Production (Million tonnes)",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "been growing. Agricultural sector (including crops, livestock, fisheries, forestry) contributed about 40 percent to the GDP in the 1960s. This gradually decreased to 36.5. Table 3 Milk production and per capita availability of milk in India Milk production and per capita availability of milk in India Year Production (Million tonnes) Per Capita Availability (grams/day) 2009-10 116.4 273 2010-11 121.8 281 2011-12 127.9 290 2012-13 132.4 299 2013-14 137.7 307 2014-15 146.3 322 www.ijcrt.org © 2018 IJCRT | Volume 6, Issue 2 April 2018 | ISSN: 2320-2882 IJCRT1892619 International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (IJCRT) www.ijcrt.org 754 2015-16 155.5 337 2016-17 165.4 355 Source: Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, DAHD&F, GOI 2. Per capita milk availability: Table 2 presents the trends observed in the annual milk production and per capita availability of milk in India from 2009-10 to 2016-17. The milk production was recorded 116.4 million tonnes in the year 2009-10 which have risen to 165.4 million tonnes in the year 2016-17, whereas the per capita availability of milk was 273 grams in 2009-10 which has risen to 355grams in the year 2016-17. India is said to have crossed the milestone of the world average per capita availability of 295 grams per day per person, reaching 322 grams in 2014-15. From 2009-10 and 2014-15 it grew at 3.4% on CAGR basis, whereas the estimated growth rate in consumption for 2015 is 4.8%. This again indicates that the present growth in milk production is insufficient to meet the increased needs of growing population for more animal proteins including milk. Table 4. Livestock population (2012 Livestock census): Sr. No Species Number(in millions) Ranking in the world population 01 Cattle 190.9 Second 02 Buffaloes 108.7 First Total (including Mithun and Yak) 300 First 03 Sheep 65.0 Third 04 Goats 135.2 Second 05 Pigs 10.3 06",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "for more animal proteins including milk. Table 4. Livestock population (2012 Livestock census): Sr. No Species Number(in millions) Ranking in the world population 01 Cattle 190.9 Second 02 Buffaloes 108.7 First Total (including Mithun and Yak) 300 First 03 Sheep 65.0 Third 04 Goats 135.2 Second 05 Pigs 10.3 06 Others 1.7 Total livestock 512.3 Total poultry 729.2 Seventh 07 Duck Fifth 08 Chicken 09 Camel Tenth Table 5 Production of livestock in India 2015-16. Sl. No. Product Quantity Ranking in the world production 01 Milk ( million tones) 155.50 FIRST 02 Eggs (billions nos.) 82.93 THIRD 03 Meat (million tones.) 7.02 NA 04 Wool (million kgs.) 47.9 NA 05 Fish (lakh tones) 107.90 SECOND Source: Annual Report 2016-17, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Govt. of India. 3. Annual growth rate value of output from GDP: The share of the agriculture sector and livestock sector in total GDP of India has declined from 34.72% and 4.82% in 198081 to 15.18% and 3.92% in 2011-12 respectively. It contributes around 8.80 and 8.39 percent of Gross Value Added (GVA) in Manufacturing and Agriculture. Table 5 Share of Agriculture and Allied and Livestock Sector in GVA The share of Agriculture & Allied and Livestock Sector in GVA-(At Current Prices in Rs. Crore) Year GVA (Total) GVA (Agriculture & Allied) Amount % Share Amount % Share 2011-12 81,06,656 15,01,816 18.5 3,27,301 4.0 2012-13 92,02,692 16,75,107 18.2 3,68,823 4.0 2013-14 103,63,153 19,26,372 18.6 4,22,733 4.1 www.ijcrt.org © 2018 IJCRT | Volume 6, Issue 2 April 2018 | ISSN: 2320-2882 IJCRT1892619 International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (IJCRT) www.ijcrt.org 755 2014-15 114,81,794 20,68,958 18.0 5,10,020 4.4 2015-16 124,58,642 21,75,547 17.5 5,60,613 4.5 Source: National Accounts Statistics-2016, Central Statistical Organization, GoI. The share of livestock in GVA of agriculture",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "2018 IJCRT | Volume 6, Issue 2 April 2018 | ISSN: 2320-2882 IJCRT1892619 International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (IJCRT) www.ijcrt.org 755 2014-15 114,81,794 20,68,958 18.0 5,10,020 4.4 2015-16 124,58,642 21,75,547 17.5 5,60,613 4.5 Source: National Accounts Statistics-2016, Central Statistical Organization, GoI. The share of livestock in GVA of agriculture has been rising since 2011-12. Dairy sector in India has been a significant contributor to the Gross Domestic Product and its value of output has grown significantly. The dairy sector is one of the important contributors to the growth of Indian economy. The value of an output of livestock sector was 327301 Crores at current prices in the year 2011-12 which rose to 388370 in the year 2013-14. The share of Livestock sector in the GDP was 4.1 percent in the 2013-14 which rose to 4.4 percent in 2014-15. The share of livestock sector has increased to 4.5 percent in 2015-16 and seen the negligible increase of 0.1 percent. With Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth estimated to be 6.5 percent in 201718, as per estimates released by CSO. 4. Challenges faced and Opportunities by dairy industry: India is the world’s largest producer and consumer of milk. Growth in milk supply and demand has been robust, but projections indicate that production targets will be difficult to reach without stronger gains in productivity. India is the world's largest producer of dairy products by volume, accounting for about 13% of world's total milk production and also accounts for the world’s largest dairy herd. India is a country that consumes its own milk production. India is neither considered an active importer or an exporter of dairy products. Yet the country provides a share in the global market still remains at small rates of 0.3 and 0.4 percent for exports and imports respectively. This is",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "India is a country that consumes its own milk production. India is neither considered an active importer or an exporter of dairy products. Yet the country provides a share in the global market still remains at small rates of 0.3 and 0.4 percent for exports and imports respectively. This is because of people who directly consumption of liquid milk by the producer households. This also increases the demand for processed dairy products that has increased with the growth of income levels, which have left little dairy surpluses for export. Although, India with more consumers we export special products like casein for food processing or pharmaceuticals. (Mario Gabriele Miranda and Ramachandran, 2014). Over the years, India has emerged as one of the world’s biggest producers of milk, with the total milk production rising from 122 Million Metric Tons in 2010-11 to 162 Million Metric Tons in 2016-17. Despite this, the majority of the dairying in India is still highly unorganized dominated by small and marginal dairy farmers. India is the world's largest producer and consumer of dairy. The dairy industry in India was worth INR 5,000 billion in 2016. India is also globally the largest milk producing country since 1997. In India, the co-operatives and private dairies have access to only 20% of the milk produced. Approximately, 34% of the milk is sold in the unorganized market while 46% is consumed locally. This is in comparison to most of the developed nations where almost 90% of the surplus milk is passed through the organized sector. The milk processing industry of India is small compared to the huge amount of milk produced every year. Only 10% of all the milk is delivered to some 400 dairy plants. A specific Indian phenomenon is the unorganized sector of milkmen, vendors who collect the milk",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "through the organized sector. The milk processing industry of India is small compared to the huge amount of milk produced every year. Only 10% of all the milk is delivered to some 400 dairy plants. A specific Indian phenomenon is the unorganized sector of milkmen, vendors who collect the milk from local producers and sell the milk in both, urban and non-urban areas, which handles around 65-70% of the national milk production. In the organized dairy industry, the cooperative milk processors have a 60% market share. The cooperative dairies process 90% of the collected milk as liquid milk, whereas the private dairies process and sell only 20% of the milk collected as liquid milk and 80% for other dairy products with a focus on value-added products. Majority of the milk produced by the farmers are directly sold as fresh milk and due to the lack of hygienic handling of milk and the infrastructure in rural areas, the quality standards of the milk may vary with the international market standards. Even though the milk produced and sold directly into the markets may be reasonably clean, appropriate cold chain facilities should be improved in village collection centers which lead to the informal markets (Mathur, 2000). Letha Devi et al (2018) suggested key areas for comprehensive development of Indian dairying key areas of concern are competitiveness, cost of production productivity of animals, infrastructure, value addition, etc., some specific initiatives may be taken to meet challenges of enhancing production and farm income and concluded that without increasing productivity, efficiency is difficult the age of globalization. 4.1 Challenges by dairy units: 1. Quality a big concern: More than 70% of the marketable surplus goes through an informal channel where quality is a big concern. Sometimes quality is an issue in the formal channel as well.",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "that without increasing productivity, efficiency is difficult the age of globalization. 4.1 Challenges by dairy units: 1. Quality a big concern: More than 70% of the marketable surplus goes through an informal channel where quality is a big concern. Sometimes quality is an issue in the formal channel as well. Quality of milk or value-added products is a barrier to entry to the export market, especially the USA and the EU. 2. Poor governance of cooperatives: Prices decided by cooperatives are not based on fat measurement, which affects Farmer’s profitability. In addition, lower prices declared by cooperatives results in low prices of milk paid by all the players in the industry. www.ijcrt.org © 2018 IJCRT | Volume 6, Issue 2 April 2018 | ISSN: 2320-2882 IJCRT1892619 International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (IJCRT) www.ijcrt.org 756 3. Non-existent of extension facilities: Lack of adequate breeding and preventive care services to improve animal health, along with low access to credit and risk-taking ability makes farmers unable to increase their herd size. 4. Taxation on value-added products: Taxation on value-added products would cause the industry to reduce the milk prices paid to the dairy farmers. The high rate might also increase the consumer prices of dairy products substantially. 5. Due to Lack of proper veterinary extension system: There is a poor perception of the farmers towards dairy enterprise as a viable alternative to crop husbandry. 6. Middlemen eat all the profits: The unorganized fragmented market for milk and milk products involved a chain of middleman who reaps the actual benefit depriving the producers of their due share. 4.1.2 The practical dairy farming challenges in India: 1. Small dairy farms: Dairy animals are kept by small farmers and the number can vary from 1 to 5 animals per farm. Not be suitable to call",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of middleman who reaps the actual benefit depriving the producers of their due share. 4.1.2 The practical dairy farming challenges in India: 1. Small dairy farms: Dairy animals are kept by small farmers and the number can vary from 1 to 5 animals per farm. Not be suitable to call them as dairy farms. 2. Feeding of animals: No awareness about the balanced feeding of cattle, i.e. knowledge of how much of what should be fed to animals. a. Water only given in limited amount/ times. b. A supplement feeding is very minimal or absent. 3. Health issues: In animal health, there are following challenges like: Frequent disease incidence like FMD which has a negative impact on dairy production. The absence of preventive health care measures like vaccination and de-worming. 4. Management of animals: In management, there are challenges like: a. Hygienic animal shed. b. Teat washing and dip before milking. c. Dis-infestation of animal shed regularly. 5. Farm economics: Dairy farmers are not aware of proper record keeping and dairy farm economics. This has a negative impact on the income of the farmers and his spending on a dairy farm. In the last 5 years, only 20 % of the professional dairy farms have been successful. There are varieties of reasons for this low success rate. High investment costs especially the cow and buffalo prices have increased dramatically. There are huge labor shortages especially in south India and automation using machines have not been very effective. Due to high perishable nature of milk , the value addition such as processing, packaging, and conversion to long life products, such as sterilized milk (UHT), dahi, paneer, chhachh, lassi, shrikhand and so on, is more a necessary, while imposing GST and imperative to create a special class for dairy products with minimum",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "perishable nature of milk , the value addition such as processing, packaging, and conversion to long life products, such as sterilized milk (UHT), dahi, paneer, chhachh, lassi, shrikhand and so on, is more a necessary, while imposing GST and imperative to create a special class for dairy products with minimum value-addition. Tax exemption on dairy industry should not be considered as a loss to the nation, which eventually would enhance rural prosperity and increase the farmer’s income. Indian government should have a farmer-centric approach, milk is the only industry that is able to pay to the dairy farmers more than 2/3 of the price charged to the consumer. No other food processing industry in India is able to meet such high expectations of the farmers. In addition, there should be the level playing field for private players and the cooperatives. There is very low competition to cooperatives because the private sector was not allowed to participate until recently. Lastly, grants to be provided to strengthen extension services in areas of animal husbandry. Offer subsidies to encourage rural entrepreneurship in areas of milk procurement such as collection center setup and credit correspondents. IV. CONCLUSION: Dairy development in India has proven a low milk production of 17 million tonnes in 1951 to 165.4 million tonnes in 2017. Today Indian dairy industry contributes significantly to GDP and Agricultural GDP. The share of livestock in GVA of agriculture has been rising since 2011-12.With Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth estimated to be 6.5 percent in 201718, as per estimates released by CSO. India can be rated as among the best performing economies in the world on this parameter. India has become the largest producer of milk in the world and is the largest consumer of milk. This huge success in dairy development through Operation Flood",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "201718, as per estimates released by CSO. India can be rated as among the best performing economies in the world on this parameter. India has become the largest producer of milk in the world and is the largest consumer of milk. This huge success in dairy development through Operation Flood largest rural development programme in the world, Intensive cattle development programme, and key village scheme. In spite of that Indian dairy industry also evident by various challenges which are repeatedly hampering its additional development. The organized sector has limited coverage of dairy industry it needs to footstep up to increase its coverage and the benefits of dairy development should be reached to the village level milk producer farmer which are the main contributors to the dairy development of India. Although India is self-sufficient in dairy productbuts its dairy industry is facing challenges we have to overcome it through systematic approach and planning. www.ijcrt.org © 2018 IJCRT | Volume 6, Issue 2 April 2018 | ISSN: 2320-2882 IJCRT1892619 International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (IJCRT) www.ijcrt.org 757 REFERENCES [1] Annual Report.2016-17.Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Govt. of India [2] Dairy India .1997. \"Dairy India-1997\", P.R. Gupta (Ed.). Delhi: B.B. Nath Printers. [3] Deshmukh M. S 2014.Growth and Performance of dairy sector in India Voice of Research, 3 (2), pp.: 39-43. [4] https://www.imarcgroup.com › Food & Beverages › Indian Dairy Industry Database. [5] https://www.mynewsdesk.com/.../2017-india-dairy-industry-size-share-growth-analysis [6] Letha Devi G., Kataktalware M. and Nikita. L.2018. Dairying and Rural Development: Challenges and Prospectus, Indian dairyman, April 2018, 70 (4):129-131. [7] Mario Gabriele Miranda and S. Ramachandran (2014) A Study on the Dairy Industries in India, Indian Journal of Science and Technology.7 (S5): 1–2, ISSN (Print): 0974-6846 ISSN (Online): 0974-5645. [8] Mathur B. N .2000. Current Problems and",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Rural Development: Challenges and Prospectus, Indian dairyman, April 2018, 70 (4):129-131. [7] Mario Gabriele Miranda and S. Ramachandran (2014) A Study on the Dairy Industries in India, Indian Journal of Science and Technology.7 (S5): 1–2, ISSN (Print): 0974-6846 ISSN (Online): 0974-5645. [8] Mathur B. N .2000. Current Problems and Challenges Confronting the Dairy Industry in India, Asian-Aus. J. Anim. Sci. 13 Supplement July 2000 A: 447-452. [9] Maurice Landes, Jerry Cessna, Lindsay Kuberka (USDA/FAS), and Keithly.2017. India’s Dairy Sector: Structure, Performance, and Prospects, LDPM-272-01 Economic Research Service/USDA, March 6:1-47. [10] Nargunde. A. S. 2013. Role of dairy industry in rural development, International Journal of advanced research in engineering and technology, l 4(2): 8-16.ISSN 0976 6499 (Online). [11] NDDB .2018. https://www.nddb.org [12] Nizamuddin Khan and Ashish Kumar Parashari.2014. Development of Indian dairy and challenges: An overview, Journal of International Academic Research for Multidisciplinary, 2, (11): 431-437.",
    "source": "IJCRT1892619.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "How to Cite: Kolhal, M. T. (2022). Indian dairy industry: Problems and solution. International Journal of Health Sciences, 6(S2), 10880–10885. https://doi.org/10.53730/ijhs.v6nS2.7910 International Journal of Health Sciences ISSN 2550-6978 E-ISSN 2550-696X © 2022. Manuscript submitted: 27 March 2022, Manuscript revised: 09 April 2022, Accepted for publication: 18 May 2022 10880 Indian dairy industry: Problems and solution Dr. Mahesh Tanaji Kolhal Asst. Professor, Bharati Vidyapeeth’s, Dr. Patangrao Kadam Mahavidyala, Sangli Abstract---In India, the dairy industry plays a very important role in the country’s socio-economic, culture development and constitutes an important segment of the rural economy. Dairy industry provides subsistence to millions of houses in villages, ensuring supply of quality milk and milk products to people in both urban and rural areas. A farmer can earn a gross surplus of about Rs. 60,000 per year from a unit consisting of 2 milking buffaloes. Even more profits can be earned depending upon the breed of animal, managerial skills and demand of marketing. The role of agriculture in the segment of national & international trade is very much important to understand the economic development. About 70% of Indian export depends on agriculture products in includes by dairy products. The co-operative dairy is an agency which carries a production of milk and marketing milk product. This activity supports the producers who are having low income farmers. The mainly paper is divided into three parts are first parts deals with the Development of Dairy Industry in India, second part consist with problems of Indian dairy industry and last part covers solution is the concluding remarks. Keywords---annual income dairy, dairy co-operatives, India, dairy industry. Introduction Dairying is an important source of livelihood income to small or marginal farmers and agricultural laborers. India is one of the largest dairy product producers in the world. Dairy also provides employment throughout",
    "source": "IJHS-791010880-10885.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "last part covers solution is the concluding remarks. Keywords---annual income dairy, dairy co-operatives, India, dairy industry. Introduction Dairying is an important source of livelihood income to small or marginal farmers and agricultural laborers. India is one of the largest dairy product producers in the world. Dairy also provides employment throughout the year. The main beneficiaries of dairy are small or marginal farmers and landless laborers. Eradiate of farmer poverty and income inequality is one of the principal objectives of agricultural development policy in our country. Subsidiary occupations are to be removing the problem of poverty and inequality. With a view to keeping pace with the India increasing demand for milk and milk products, the industry has been growing rapidly. Indian dairy industry ranks first with its 185.2 million cattle and 97.9 million buffaloes accounting for about 51 percent of Asia’s and about 19 per cent of world’s bovine population. Milk production is likely to reach about 190 million tonnes in 2015 from current level of about 123 million tonnes. The dairy industry in country is having 13% of world total milk production and 10881 containing world’s largest dairy livestock. India is the world's largest milk producer accounts for around 20 % of global milk production, with most of it consumed domestically. Objectives of the Study Following are the main objectives of the present study. 1. To study development of dairy industry in India. 2. To study the problems and solution of Indian dairy industry. Research Methodology This research paper is based on secondary data. The data was collecting from different reports of NDDB and Government offices. Collected data is processed with the help of computer by using some quantitative techniques such as percentage, growth rate etc. Development of Dairy Industry During the post-independence period, progress made in dairy sector has",
    "source": "IJHS-791010880-10885.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "based on secondary data. The data was collecting from different reports of NDDB and Government offices. Collected data is processed with the help of computer by using some quantitative techniques such as percentage, growth rate etc. Development of Dairy Industry During the post-independence period, progress made in dairy sector has been remarkable. Milk production has increased more than four folds from a mere 17 million tons during 1950-51 to 108.9 million tons in 2008-09. This notable growth effort speaks volume about the cocoordinated efforts of large number of milk producing farmers, scientists, planners, NGO’s and industry in achieving self-sufficiency in milk production. On average, 22.5 percent of the income of rural families is contributed by milk. The below table 1 reveals the progress of dairy co-operatives in India for the reforms period. The number of societies increased from 72.74 (1995-96) to 125.25 thousand in 2005-06 and average growth rate of dairy co-operatives societies was nearly five during the period. Membership increased from 9.31million to 13.01 million during the same period, whereas the growth rate shows down and up trend. Liquid milk marketed production increased from 9.9 million liters to 16.8 million liters of which the annual average was 11 per cent in 1995-96 increased up to 21.4 per cent in 2005-06. Income out of milk production increased from Rs.65.0 to Rs127.3 million from 1995-96 to 2011-12 and Growth rate of milk production showed fluctuating trend during the same period. During this year 2004-05, number of dairy cooperatives was 121.18 thousand with 12.95 million members, out of total membership women members were 2.963 128 million. Table 1 Progress of Dairy Co-operatives in India (Value Rs. in Million) Year/Items Societies (In 000’) Membership (In Million) Liquid Milk Marketed (Million Liters/day) Annual Average Milk Production Per Capita availability (gms/day) 1995-96 72.74 9.31 9.9",
    "source": "IJHS-791010880-10885.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "with 12.95 million members, out of total membership women members were 2.963 128 million. Table 1 Progress of Dairy Co-operatives in India (Value Rs. in Million) Year/Items Societies (In 000’) Membership (In Million) Liquid Milk Marketed (Million Liters/day) Annual Average Milk Production Per Capita availability (gms/day) 1995-96 72.74 9.31 9.9 11.0 65.0 178 10882 1999-00 100.56 (3.62) 11.10 (5.71) 12.0 (1.69) 13.1 (1.55) 78.3 (3.85) 217 2000-01 104.20 (1.19) 11.47 (3.33) 13.4 (11.66) 16.5 (25.95) 80.6 (2.55) 220 2001-2002 105.44 (5.28) 11.64 (1.48) 13.4 (0.00) 17.6 (6.66) 84.4 (4.71) 225 2002-2003 111.01 (3.90) 11.81 (1.46) 13.7 (2.24) 18.0 (2.27) 86.2 (2.13) 230 2003-2004 115.34 (5.06) 12.64 (7.03) 14.9 (8.76) 17.5 (2.77) 88.1 (2.20) 231 2004-05 121.18 (5.20) 12.95 (2.45) 15.6 (4.70) 20.1 (14.85) 92.5 (3.29) 233 2005-06 125.25 13.01 16.8 21.4 97.1 241 *Indian Co-operative Movement A Profile2006, National Resource Centre, National Co-operative Union of India, 2006. P.40 Another remarkable feature of Indian dairying sector is that buffaloes contribute more than 53 per cent of the country’s total milk production. Buffaloes are known for their efficiency as converter of rough feeds into rich milk and similarly about 45% of total cow milk produced is contributed by crossbred cows.The private sector can play a essential role in reducing the cost of milk production by employing advanced techniques to enhance productivity, providing breeding facilities for cattle and by developing processing and marketing infrastructure. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh are the prominent milk producing states in the country. Problems of Dairy Industry 1. Climatic Changes: In India climate plays main role in every field when there is good monsoon, automatically agriculture field is affected there is sudden economic growth due to weather changes dairy industry is also stimulated in India. Country have monsoon generally between June",
    "source": "IJHS-791010880-10885.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "the country. Problems of Dairy Industry 1. Climatic Changes: In India climate plays main role in every field when there is good monsoon, automatically agriculture field is affected there is sudden economic growth due to weather changes dairy industry is also stimulated in India. Country have monsoon generally between June and September. It covers about 100 to 120 days in the year during which the country gets 73.7 percent of the total rainfall when there is little rainfall or a drought the number of cattle is driven off from drought distracted areas. In such situations the feed and fodder becomes short and the yield of the milk also goes down. Due to this one can say that agriculture and milk industry are connected to each other and climate plays significant role. Table – seasonal differences in the milk collection Sr. No. Particulars Year2001-02(lts) Mean (ltrs) 1 Flush season milk collection 57,66,337 1,15326.74 2 Lean season collection 48,39,186 96,783.72 3 Percentage of variations 16 -SourceSource-Dr. P. A. Koli. “Dairy Development in India” 2007. p102. 10883 2. Transportation problem: In the development of any industry transportation plays very important role all after production when supplied in time at market can get good price is the pure logic in order to balance the demand and supply of product transportation plays the important. Regularly milk is collected from villages different area is brought to the dairy industry where milk is processed and then packed for selling in market. 3. Costing of Milk Production: Generally milk is collected from one place and then brought to the dairy industry. It is perceptible that the price given to the farmer or the owner of cow and buffalo for the milk supplied is very less. However the middle men takes major share of money in dairy industry from",
    "source": "IJHS-791010880-10885.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "milk is collected from one place and then brought to the dairy industry. It is perceptible that the price given to the farmer or the owner of cow and buffalo for the milk supplied is very less. However the middle men takes major share of money in dairy industry from same milk lot of variety is prepared and just left behind milk that is toned milk is sold at heavy rates this trend of the owner of dairy unit increases the production cost the income of the dairy holder is increased but public has to face the problem of this heavy cost. 4. Formation of Various Milk Society: In villages there are more than one society those who collect the milk from farmers but due to this farmers are confuse to whom they should sell their milk . Various society prices per liter of milk are different. 5. Formation of Milk Unions: In district or villages where there are number of societies automatically there create number of milk unions. Due to personal oppositions many of them have to appearance difficulties in payment of monthly milk income. 6. Marketing of the Product: Milk or dairy units are now facing vast competition among themselves various milk brands, quality changes special effects the mentality of human beings also “tetra” packaging milk is affecting the milk units for the combative sell in market. 7. Unemployment and Poor Living Style: Indian farmers are hard worker and they put their long hours all the year in farming. They are poor and their cattle are also ill managing and ill care. The area of land with farmer is generally small and he keeps one or two milk cattle’s. He is poor and his resources are limited, this limits his creditworthiness. Due to this poor living style, milk",
    "source": "IJHS-791010880-10885.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "farming. They are poor and their cattle are also ill managing and ill care. The area of land with farmer is generally small and he keeps one or two milk cattle’s. He is poor and his resources are limited, this limits his creditworthiness. Due to this poor living style, milk units are unnatural the quality of milk and quality of milk both are reduced also to be financially solid people migrate to city hence unemployment problem is seen on big in villages. 8. Political Intervention: Another major problem that Indian dairy industry is facing political interference in day to day life due to personal opponents there is always fights, quarrels among any two units, owners or employee .This political intervention more effects dairy industry. 9. Poor Genetic Problem and Absence of New Technology: The main problem which is arising for dairy farmers is low productivity, the reasons found are as follow there is lack of knowledge of technical know to how cattle are suffering from poor genetic potential, there is insufficient health coverage being villages, also there is shortage of water and fodder which affects the milk productivity among cattle’s. Solutions Farmers should have more varieties of crossbreed cows and she buffaloes as per the existing climatic conditions of the region. It is also required to increase the area under green fodder, fallow land and barren land should be converting under 10884 cultivation of green fodder. Milk, proposed by nature only for the off spring of the specific species producing it, has been taken by man at various times and places from camels, marcs, sheep, goats, reindeer, cows the Indian water buffalo and probably other animals. As a result of long selection and improvement, the goat and the cow have been especially adopted for this service and give quantities of",
    "source": "IJHS-791010880-10885.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "it, has been taken by man at various times and places from camels, marcs, sheep, goats, reindeer, cows the Indian water buffalo and probably other animals. As a result of long selection and improvement, the goat and the cow have been especially adopted for this service and give quantities of milk which would have surprised our descendants who first domesticated the animals. Regular transportation is must so that collection of milk from various areas should reach in time without spoiling the quality of milk. Milk collection units should be nearby to the villages and towns. If the middle men take major share of money in dairy industry then fixed commotion should be given to the middle men. This variation in price creates fights among them many a time they are misguided hence more than one milk society in any village should straightway stopped. There should be one milk union in one district rule should be permitted by government. Milk producers has to think now usually seen hence the one who propagandas his brand in market will stay for long time in any good or bad conditions in market. Milk union should concentrate on quality milk product rather than quantity. In the dairy farming employees getting low salary as compared to their equivalent in other field, it is therefore suggested that there should be competitive salary structure to curve job hopping. The political intervention should be removed from dairy industry. It can be seen that there should be through use of new technology and veterinary services should be provided so that by artificial selection the breeds of domestic cattle if well fed so that the quality as well as quantity of milk is increased. All state Government and dairy union should be provided adequate facilities as require, such as artificial Insemination,",
    "source": "IJHS-791010880-10885.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "new technology and veterinary services should be provided so that by artificial selection the breeds of domestic cattle if well fed so that the quality as well as quantity of milk is increased. All state Government and dairy union should be provided adequate facilities as require, such as artificial Insemination, Veterinary dispensaries, increase the number of mobile Veterinary hospitals, especially for remote villages. Reference 1. Dr. D. C. Kamble and Mr. Santosh P. Mane (2018) “A Study of Irrigation Intensity of Different Sources in Malshiras Tahsil.” Research Journey, Research Journey, ISSN: 2348-7143 Impact Factor (SJIF) – 6.261, (CIF) 3.452(2015), (GIF)–0.676 (2013) Special Issue 144, Pp-28-36. 2. http://dairy.maharashtra.gov.in. 3. Koli P.A. (2007) “Dairy Development in India.” Challenges Before cooperative, shruiti publications , Jaipur.p.11. 4. Mane S. P, Shinde A. S., (2014), “A Study Changing Pattern of Rain Water Harvesting Management An Ancient To Modern Age In IndiaGeographical Analysis” Review of Research Vol. 3/Issue. 10, ISSN: 2249-894X. 5. Naiknaware, N. N. (2018): “Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Dairy Farming in Kolhapur District” the thesis for Ph.D. Degree in Geography submitted to Shivaji University, Kolhapur. 6. NDDB –National Dairy Development Board. 7. Santosh P mane and Somnath B. Gaikwad (2019) “Agriculture Productivity Calculate Based on MG Kendall’s Method in Malshiras Tahsil.” Research Journey, ISSN: 2348-7143 impact factor: 3.261 (SJIF),, Issue-114, Pp-145151. 10885 8. Santosh P Mane Sagar P. Mali, Cheten L. Hulsure (2013), “Application of Geoinformatics in Urban Health Care: A Case Study of Aurangabad City in Maharashtra, India” Abstract Volume, Shivaji University, Kolhapur. 9. Somnath B Gaikwad, Santosh P Mane & Dashrath K Banduke (2019) “Crop Combination Calculate on Weaver’s Method in Malshiras Tahsil.” Research Journey, ISSN: 2348-7143, Impact Factor(SJIF) 6.261, Special Issue 144 (A) Pp-145-151 10. Tyagi .k.C.and Sohal T.S.Coperative Dairying ,N.C.D.F.I.,New Delhi oct 1982. P.15 11. Wikipediaorg. 12. www.gomatasevs.ogr.",
    "source": "IJHS-791010880-10885.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Somnath B Gaikwad, Santosh P Mane & Dashrath K Banduke (2019) “Crop Combination Calculate on Weaver’s Method in Malshiras Tahsil.” Research Journey, ISSN: 2348-7143, Impact Factor(SJIF) 6.261, Special Issue 144 (A) Pp-145-151 10. Tyagi .k.C.and Sohal T.S.Coperative Dairying ,N.C.D.F.I.,New Delhi oct 1982. P.15 11. Wikipediaorg. 12. www.gomatasevs.ogr.",
    "source": "IJHS-791010880-10885.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "© July 2024| IJIRT | Volume 11 Issue 2 | ISSN: 2349-6002 IJIRT 166092 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN TECHNOLOGY 146 A Study on Problem and Prospect of dairy Industry in India Manisha Jayprakash singh, Prof Noaman Khatib DTSS College Of Commerce AbstractObjective: This paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the Indian dairy industry, focusing on its economic impact, challenges, and future prospects. It examines the sector's role in livelihoods, national economy, and global market dynamics. Methodology: A literature review methodology is employed, drawing insights from scholarly articles, industry reports, and government publications. Key sources include the International Journal of Dairy Technology, Journal of Dairy Research, Food Policy, and Journal of the Indian Dairy Association. This approach synthesizes existing research to offer a thorough examination of the industry's current status, challenges, and opportunities. Findings: The Indian dairy industry, as the world's largest milk producer, faces challenges such as low productivity, infrastructure deficiencies, and economic disparities. Despite these challenges, opportunities exist in technological advancements, market diversification, and policy support, which can propel sectoral growth and sustainability. Conclusion: Addressing challenges through enhanced infrastructure, policy reforms, and technological adoption is crucial for the Indian dairy industry's sustainable development. Future research should focus on evaluating the socio-economic impacts of reforms, assessing technological advancements, and analyzing market dynamics to foster resilient growth. KeywordsIndian dairy industry, milk production, challenges, opportunities, technological advancements, policy recommendations INTRODUCTION The Indian dairy industry holds a prominent position in the country's economy, contributing significantly to livelihoods and GDP. With a market size exceeding US$100 billion, it is one of the world's largest and fastest-growing dairy sectors (International Journal of Dairy Technology, 2019). India, as the world's largest milk producer, accounting for about 20% of global production, generated approximately 198 million metric tonnes of milk in 2020-21 (Journal of",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "With a market size exceeding US$100 billion, it is one of the world's largest and fastest-growing dairy sectors (International Journal of Dairy Technology, 2019). India, as the world's largest milk producer, accounting for about 20% of global production, generated approximately 198 million metric tonnes of milk in 2020-21 (Journal of Dairy Research, 2019). Employing around 80 million dairy farmers directly, the sector plays a crucial role in rural employment and contributes about 5% to India's national economy (Food Policy, 2021). The cooperative model, notably successful, enhances productivity and profitability for small and marginal farmers who own about 80% of the country's bovine population (International Journal of Dairy Technology, 2019). Despite its successes, the industry faces challenges such as feed shortages and maintaining milk quality and quantity, particularly during environmental crises like droughts or floods (Food Policy, 2021). However, opportunities for growth persist, especially in valueadded products like cheese, yogurt, and ice cream, which encourage innovation and diversification (Journal of the Indian Dairy Association, 2018). The industry's evolution from the domestication of zebu cattle millennia ago to the \"Operation Flood\" initiative in 1970 underscores its historical significance and ongoing potential for development (Journal of the Indian Dairy Association, 2018). Objectives This paper aims to evaluate the economic impact of the Indian dairy industry on livelihoods, analyze key challenges such as feed shortages and quality control issues, and explore future opportunities for innovation and sustainability within the sector. Scope This study comprehensively examines the Indian dairy industry's economic significance, focusing on its role in livelihoods and national economy. It analyzes challenges related to feed availability, milk quality © July 2024| IJIRT | Volume 11 Issue 2 | ISSN: 2349-6002 IJIRT 166092 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN TECHNOLOGY 147 standards, and environmental sustainability, while also exploring potential for technological advancements and diversification",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "role in livelihoods and national economy. It analyzes challenges related to feed availability, milk quality © July 2024| IJIRT | Volume 11 Issue 2 | ISSN: 2349-6002 IJIRT 166092 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN TECHNOLOGY 147 standards, and environmental sustainability, while also exploring potential for technological advancements and diversification in dairy products. Methodology This paper employs a literature review methodology, drawing insights from scholarly articles, industry reports, and government publications. Key sources include the International Journal of Dairy Technology, Journal of Dairy Research, Food Policy, and Journal of the Indian Dairy Association. This approach synthesizes existing research to provide a thorough analysis of the industry's current status, challenges, and future opportunities. Literature review: The Indian dairy industry has a deep-rooted history dating back to ancient times, where dairy farming was integral to household sustenance, particularly in regions like Kerala, where every householdmaintained cows for milk and dairy products (User, n.d.). During British rule, the establishment of a military farm aimed to ensure a steady supply of quality milk, further advancing with professional methodologies introduced by dairy farming specialist William Smith, influenced by research from England (User, n.d.). Post-independence, efforts to organize dairy societies in Kerala culminated in the formation of the state's first dairy society in Mangalapuram, marking a pivotal step towards structured dairy development (User, n.d.). The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) was established in 1965, heralding the 'Anand Pattern' cooperative model. This initiative, popularized under Operation Flood from 1970 onwards, expanded cooperatives across India and was led by Dr. Verghese Kurien, known as the \"Father of White Revolution\" (Milk Production in India, n.d.). Operation Flood's phased approach significantly boosted dairy production and cooperative infrastructure, transforming India into the world's largest milk producer within 28 years (Milk Production in India, n.d.). Today, India remains the global leader in",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "by Dr. Verghese Kurien, known as the \"Father of White Revolution\" (Milk Production in India, n.d.). Operation Flood's phased approach significantly boosted dairy production and cooperative infrastructure, transforming India into the world's largest milk producer within 28 years (Milk Production in India, n.d.). Today, India remains the global leader in milk production, contributing approximately 18.5% to global output. The industry has grown at a CAGR of 6.2%, reaching 209.96 million tonnes in 2020-21, with per capita milk availability increasing steadily (Ibef, 2022; Dairy in India, 2024). Major milk-producing states include Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Punjab among others (Ibef, 2022). India's dairy exports have risen steadily, reaching 108,711 MT valued at Rs. 2,928.79 crore (US$ 391.59 million) in 2021-22, while imports mainly consist of processed milk powder and dairy derivatives (Ibef, 2022; Dairy in India, 2024). Despite growth, challenges persist, such as milk adulteration and the need for improved product quality and packaging (Status of Dairy Industry in India and Its Future Scope – Technology of Milk and Milk Products, n.d.). Opportunities abound in value-added products like yogurt, cheese, and ice cream, with the sector poised for significant growth driven by advancements in production techniques and market demand (Status of Dairy Industry in India and Its Future Scope – Technology of Milk and Milk Products, n.d.). The private sector plays a crucial role in modernizing dairy operations through advanced breeding techniques and enhancing animal health, thus optimizing production costs and sustainability (Status of Dairy Industry in India and Its Future Scope – Technology of Milk and Milk Products, n.d.). The Indian dairy industry has been extensively studied, revealing insights into its growth trajectory, challenges, and potential opportunities. Karmakar and Banerjee (2006) highlighted significant challenges such as malpractices like adulteration and the need for improved packaging of indigenous dairy-based sweetmeats. Meanwhile, Chawla",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "– Technology of Milk and Milk Products, n.d.). The Indian dairy industry has been extensively studied, revealing insights into its growth trajectory, challenges, and potential opportunities. Karmakar and Banerjee (2006) highlighted significant challenges such as malpractices like adulteration and the need for improved packaging of indigenous dairy-based sweetmeats. Meanwhile, Chawla et al. (2009) focused on the production, consumption, and export dynamics of milk and dairy products in India, underscoring its pivotal role as the world's largest producer and consumer of milk. Government reports, including those from the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Government of India (2024), have also emphasized India's substantial contribution to global milk production, driven in part by initiatives like Operation Flood, which promoted cooperative models and modern infrastructure. Despite these advancements, gaps in the literature persist regarding the sustainability of these initiatives and the role of private companies within the sector. Sharma (2015) noted that India accounts for 17% of © July 2024| IJIRT | Volume 11 Issue 2 | ISSN: 2349-6002 IJIRT 166092 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN TECHNOLOGY 148 global milk production but highlighted ongoing challenges such as malpractices and the need for enhanced packaging standards. Miranda (2014) pointed out that while India is not a major player in global dairy trade, there is limited research on the implications of this position for the industry's growth and market dynamics. Furthermore, Moharana (2015) and Sharma (2015) underscored the significant role of private companies like Amul, Omfed, Mother Dairy, and Hatsun Agro in the industry. However, there remains a dearth of research on their specific impacts on sustainability, both environmental and social, and their contributions to overall sector growth. Addressing these gaps in research could provide valuable insights into enhancing the resilience and sustainability of the Indian dairy industry in the face of evolving global",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "However, there remains a dearth of research on their specific impacts on sustainability, both environmental and social, and their contributions to overall sector growth. Addressing these gaps in research could provide valuable insights into enhancing the resilience and sustainability of the Indian dairy industry in the face of evolving global and domestic challenges. Problems in the Indian Dairy Industry The Indian dairy industry faces multifaceted challenges across various domains, severely impacting its productivity, infrastructure, supply chain, and economic viability. Production Challenges: Low Productivity of Indian Dairy Animals: Indian cattle yield an average of 1172 kg of milk annually, significantly lower than the global average. This disparity highlights the need for improved breeding practices and animal husbandry to enhance productivity (Staff, 2022). Disease Outbreaks: Diseases such as Foot and Mouth Disease, Black Quarter infection, and Influenza regularly plague livestock, causing health setbacks and reducing overall milk production efficiency (Staff, 2022). Limited Success in Cross-Breeding: Efforts to crossbreed indigenous cattle with exotic breeds have had limited success, posing challenges in achieving desired improvements in milk yield and quality (Staff, 2022). Infrastructure and Supply Chain Issues: Unhygienic Milk Production: Many dairy cattle lack proper shelter, exposing them to harsh weather conditions, which can adversely affect milk quality. This unhygienic production environment contributes to issues like mastitis and overall milk contamination (Your Retail Coach, n.d.). Insufficient Infrastructure: Certain dairy cooperatives lack essential facilities such as adequate cooling and milk testing capabilities at village-level collection centers. This deficiency undermines efforts to maintain milk quality from farm to consumer (Vandana, 2019). Supply Chain Issues: The informal structure of the dairy sector complicates efforts to ensure consistent milk flow and quality control. This informal nature also makes the industry susceptible to adulteration practices, further compromising product integrity and consumer trust (Staff, 2022). Market and Economic Issues: Low",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "farm to consumer (Vandana, 2019). Supply Chain Issues: The informal structure of the dairy sector complicates efforts to ensure consistent milk flow and quality control. This informal nature also makes the industry susceptible to adulteration practices, further compromising product integrity and consumer trust (Staff, 2022). Market and Economic Issues: Low Returns: Dairy farmers often receive meager prices for their milk compared to the retail prices fetched in the market. This disparity results in disproportionate profit-sharing, where companies and middlemen benefit more than the actual producers (Staff, 2022). Marketing and Pricing Challenges: Poor marketing strategies and insufficient education among farmers about market dynamics and pricing strategies hinder their ability to negotiate fair prices for their produce. This lack of empowerment undermines the potential profitability of dairy farming as a livelihood (Your Retail Coach, n.d.). Low Dairy Penetration & High Distribution Costs: The penetration of dairy products remains low in many regions, while the high costs associated with milk handling and distribution inflate final retail prices. These economic barriers limit consumer access to affordable dairy products (Your Retail Coach, n.d.). Addressing these challenges requires comprehensive reforms in animal husbandry practices, infrastructure development, supply chain management, and market access strategies. By implementing targeted interventions and policy measures, the Indian dairy © July 2024| IJIRT | Volume 11 Issue 2 | ISSN: 2349-6002 IJIRT 166092 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN TECHNOLOGY 149 industry can strive towards sustainable growth and improved livelihoods for dairy farmers nationwide. Prospects in the Indian Dairy Industry Technological Advancements Technological advancements have significantly transformed the Indian dairy industry, enhancing efficiency, productivity, and product quality. Automated milking systems, Internet of Things (IoT) applications, and data analytics have revolutionized milk production by reducing labor costs and improving animal health management (Show, 2023; Ltd, 2023; Choyal, 2019). Precision Nutrition and Feeding systems",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Technological advancements have significantly transformed the Indian dairy industry, enhancing efficiency, productivity, and product quality. Automated milking systems, Internet of Things (IoT) applications, and data analytics have revolutionized milk production by reducing labor costs and improving animal health management (Show, 2023; Ltd, 2023; Choyal, 2019). Precision Nutrition and Feeding systems have emerged as crucial tools for optimizing dairy farm operations. These systems analyze data on cow health, productivity, and dietary needs to formulate personalized feeding plans. This approach not only enhances milk production but also minimizes environmental impact through optimized feed compositions and rationing (Show, 2023; Choyal, 2019). Renewable Energy Integration initiatives such as solar panels and biogas plants are increasingly being adopted on dairy farms. These technologies aim to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, thereby lowering environmental footprints while promoting sustainability in dairy operations (Show, 2023; Choyal, 2019). Innovative Waste Management practices, including anaerobic digesters that convert cow manure into biogas and organic fertilizers, play a pivotal role in environmental sustainability. These systems mitigate pollution and produce valuable resources, contributing to a cleaner dairy production cycle (Show, 2023; Choyal, 2019). Policy and Institutional Support Government Initiatives like Operation Flood and the establishment of the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) have been instrumental in fostering dairy farming and enhancing milk production nationwide (Ltd, 2023; Choyal, 2019). Dairy Cooperatives, exemplified by the success of Amul, have effectively organized small-scale dairy farmers and ensured fair pricing, thereby empowering rural communities and bolstering the dairy sector's resilience (Show, 2023; Ltd, 2023). Market Diversification efforts promoted by the government have stimulated the production of valueadded dairy products such as cheese, yogurt, butter, and ice cream. This diversification strategy enhances market competitiveness and boosts overall dairy sector growth (Show, 2023; Ltd, 2023). Market Opportunities The growing consumer awareness about the nutritional benefits of dairy products",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "efforts promoted by the government have stimulated the production of valueadded dairy products such as cheese, yogurt, butter, and ice cream. This diversification strategy enhances market competitiveness and boosts overall dairy sector growth (Show, 2023; Ltd, 2023). Market Opportunities The growing consumer awareness about the nutritional benefits of dairy products is driving increased demand across India. This rising demand underscores significant growth prospects for the dairy industry in the coming years (Show, 2023; Ltd, 2023). Export Opportunities are expanding, particularly for value-added dairy products, presenting India with substantial prospects to tap into international markets and bolster economic gains (Show, 2023; Ltd, 2023). Private Sector Participation is playing a pivotal role in driving innovation within the dairy industry. Increasing private sector investments and initiatives are expected to further propel growth and modernization across the sector (Show, 2023; Ltd, 2023). This comprehensive integration of technology, policy support, and market opportunities positions the Indian dairy industry for robust growth and sustainability in the global market landscape. Case Studies 1. Amul: The Cooperative Giant Background: Established in 1946 in Gujarat, Amul (Anand Milk Union Limited) is the largest dairy cooperative in India. It follows a three-tier cooperative model with village cooperative societies at the base, district unions at the middle level, and the Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation (GCMMF) at the apex. Success Factors: ● Farmer Ownership and Control: Milk producers are members of village cooperatives and own the entire system, ensuring fair prices for their milk. ● Robust Supply Chain: Amul has a cold chain network spanning villages to ensure milk quality and minimize spoilage. © July 2024| IJIRT | Volume 11 Issue 2 | ISSN: 2349-6002 IJIRT 166092 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN TECHNOLOGY 150 ● Focus on Product Diversification: Amul offers a wide range of dairy products, from milk and",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "cold chain network spanning villages to ensure milk quality and minimize spoilage. © July 2024| IJIRT | Volume 11 Issue 2 | ISSN: 2349-6002 IJIRT 166092 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN TECHNOLOGY 150 ● Focus on Product Diversification: Amul offers a wide range of dairy products, from milk and butter to ice cream and cheese, catering to diverse consumer needs. ● Strong Brand Building: Amul's iconic campaigns have made it a household name in India, synonymous with quality and affordability. ● Cooperative Model Benefits: Economies of scale, efficient procurement, and professional management contribute to Amul's success. Impact: Amul empowers millions of milk producers, provides consumers with quality dairy products at reasonable prices, and has significantly contributed to India's dairy revolution. Source: https://amul.com/ 2. Mother Dairy: A Private Sector Leader Background: Established in 1970 under Operation Flood, Mother Dairy is a private company owned by the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) and four state governments in Delhi NCR. It functions as a subsidiary of the NDDB, a government body promoting dairy development. Success Factors: ● Focus on Urban Markets: Mother Dairy prioritizes supplying milk and dairy products to major cities like Delhi and NCR, ensuring efficient cold chain logistics and timely delivery. ● Product Innovation: Mother Dairy offers a variety of value-added dairy products like toned milk, curd, and paneer, catering to the needs of urban consumers. ● Strong Distribution Network: Mother Dairy has a robust network of booths and outlets in urban areas, ensuring easy access to its products for consumers. ● Technology Adoption: Mother Dairy utilizes technology for efficient procurement, processing, and distribution, minimizing wastage and maximizing reach. Impact: Mother Dairy plays a crucial role in meeting the growing demand for milk and dairy products in urban India. It offers good quality products at competitive prices and contributes",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "for consumers. ● Technology Adoption: Mother Dairy utilizes technology for efficient procurement, processing, and distribution, minimizing wastage and maximizing reach. Impact: Mother Dairy plays a crucial role in meeting the growing demand for milk and dairy products in urban India. It offers good quality products at competitive prices and contributes to stabilizing milk prices in major cities. Source: https://www.motherdairy.com/\" Discussion ● Synthesis of Findings: The Indian dairy industry emerges as a critical sector with substantial contributions to both the economy and livelihoods, underscored by its status as the world's largest milk producer. However, despite significant achievements, the sector faces multifaceted challenges ranging from production limitations to market complexities. ● Production Challenges: Issues such as low productivity of dairy animals, exacerbated by disease outbreaks and limited success in crossbreeding, significantly hinder overall milk output and quality. These challenges underscore the need for enhanced animal husbandry practices, disease management strategies, and targeted breeding programs to improve productivity and ensure sustainable growth. ● Infrastructure and Supply Chain Issues: The dairy industry's infrastructure inadequacies, including unhygienic milk production environments and insufficient cooling and testing facilities at collection centers, compromise milk quality and safety. Addressing these gaps requires substantial investment in infrastructure development and technology adoption across the supply chain to maintain product integrity and meet consumer standards. ● Market and Economic Issues: Economic disparities persist within the dairy sector, where farmers often receive inadequate returns for their produce compared to final retail prices. This discrepancy, compounded by marketing challenges and high distribution costs, underscores the need for policy interventions to empower farmers, improve market access, and ensure fair pricing mechanisms. Policy Recommendations To address these challenges and capitalize on growth opportunities, policymakers should consider the following recommendations: © July 2024| IJIRT | Volume 11 Issue 2 | ISSN: 2349-6002 IJIRT 166092 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "the need for policy interventions to empower farmers, improve market access, and ensure fair pricing mechanisms. Policy Recommendations To address these challenges and capitalize on growth opportunities, policymakers should consider the following recommendations: © July 2024| IJIRT | Volume 11 Issue 2 | ISSN: 2349-6002 IJIRT 166092 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN TECHNOLOGY 151 1. Enhanced Support for Research and Development: Invest in research and development initiatives focused on improving animal genetics, disease resistance, and feed efficiency. Collaborate with agricultural universities and research institutions to promote innovation in dairy farming practices. 2. Infrastructure Development: Allocate resources for upgrading dairy infrastructure, including the establishment of modernized milk collection centers equipped with adequate cooling and testing facilities. Promote public-private partnerships to accelerate infrastructure development across rural and peri-urban areas. 3. Market Reforms and Price Stabilization: Implement policies to strengthen market linkages and ensure transparent pricing mechanisms that benefit dairy farmers. Facilitate farmer cooperatives and producer organizations to enhance bargaining power and negotiate fair prices for their milk. 4. Promotion of Value-Added Products: Encourage diversification into value-added dairy products such as cheese, yogurt, and flavored milk to meet evolving consumer preferences and increase profitability. Provide incentives for dairy processors to invest in value addition technologies and product innovation. 5. Sustainability Initiatives: Support initiatives for renewable energy integration, waste management, and sustainable agricultural practices within the dairy sector. Incentivize adoption of technologies like solar panels and biogas plants to reduce environmental footprints and enhance operational efficiency. Future Research Directions Future research should focus on: 1. Impact Assessment of Technological Adoption: Evaluate the economic and environmental impacts of advanced technologies such as automated milking systems, IoT applications, and precision nutrition in dairy farming. 2. Consumer Behavior and Market Dynamics: Analyze consumer preferences and behaviors towards dairy products, especially value-added items, to forecast demand trends",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "on: 1. Impact Assessment of Technological Adoption: Evaluate the economic and environmental impacts of advanced technologies such as automated milking systems, IoT applications, and precision nutrition in dairy farming. 2. Consumer Behavior and Market Dynamics: Analyze consumer preferences and behaviors towards dairy products, especially value-added items, to forecast demand trends and inform market strategies. 3. Socio-Economic Impacts: Investigate the socioeconomic implications of dairy industry reforms on rural livelihoods, gender dynamics, and income distribution among smallholder farmers. 4. Policy Evaluation: Assess the effectiveness of existing policies and programs in promoting dairy sector growth, enhancing farmer welfare, and ensuring sustainability. Conclusion In conclusion, while the Indian dairy industry faces significant challenges, it also presents immense opportunities for growth and innovation. Addressing issues related to productivity, infrastructure, and market dynamics through strategic policy interventions can foster a resilient and sustainable dairy sector. By leveraging technological advancements, promoting market diversification, and empowering dairy farmers, India can further strengthen its position as a global leader in milk production and dairy products. Stakeholders across the sector must collaborate to navigate these challenges effectively and capitalize on emerging opportunities for the benefit of all involved. Implications for Stakeholders For dairy farmers, these findings underscore the importance of adopting modern farming practices and engaging in cooperative models to enhance profitability and sustainability. Policymakers must prioritize sector-specific reforms to ensure equitable growth and market access, while industry stakeholders should invest in innovation and infrastructure to meet evolving consumer demands and regulatory standards. Final Thoughts Looking ahead, the future of the Indian dairy industry hinges on strategic investments in technology, infrastructure, and market development. With concerted efforts from all stakeholders and proactive policy measures, the industry can overcome its challenges, capitalize on emerging opportunities, and continue to thrive in the global dairy market landscape. © July 2024| IJIRT | Volume",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "the Indian dairy industry hinges on strategic investments in technology, infrastructure, and market development. With concerted efforts from all stakeholders and proactive policy measures, the industry can overcome its challenges, capitalize on emerging opportunities, and continue to thrive in the global dairy market landscape. © July 2024| IJIRT | Volume 11 Issue 2 | ISSN: 2349-6002 IJIRT 166092 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN TECHNOLOGY 152 REFERENCES [1] Choyal, S. (2019). Economic analysis of impact of technological advancements on Indian dairy industry. Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, 6(10), 377. Retrieved from http://www.jetir.org/JETIR1908E53 [2] Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Government of India (2024). The Milky Way: Coffee Table Book on Indian Dairy Sector. Retrieved from https://dahd.nic.in/sites/default/filess/TheMilkyW ayCoffeeTableBook.pdf [3] India's Dairy Industry: Challenges and Opportunities.\" International Journal of Dairy Technology, vol. 72, no. 3, 2019, pp. 345-354. [4] India's Dairy Sector: Trends, Challenges, and Opportunities.\" Food Policy, vol. 102, 2021, pp. 102-113. [5] IUF (2024). Indian Dairy Industry: Challenges and Opportunities. Retrieved from https://cms.iuf.org/sites/cms.iuf.org/files/Indian %20Dairy%20Industry.pdf [6] Milk Production in India. (n.d.). https://pib.gov.in/FeaturesDeatils.aspx?NoteId=1 51137 [7] Miranda, M. G. (2014). A Study on the Dairy Industries in India. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 7(is5), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2014/v7sp5.1 [8] Status of Dairy Industry in India and its future scope – Technology of Milk and Milk Products. (n.d.). https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/ftp04/chapter/status -of-dairy-industry-in-india-and-its-future-scope/ [9] The History of Dairy in India.\" Journal of the Indian Dairy Association, vol. 45, no. 2, 2018, pp. 123-132. [10] The Indian Dairy Industry: A Review.\" Journal of Dairy Research, vol. 86, no. 3, 2019, pp. 341-353. [11] User, S. (n.d.). History. https://dairydevelopment.kerala.gov.in/Eng/inde x.php/at-a-glance/history [12] Vandana, & Sinha, K. (2019). Supply chain management: A case of dairy industry in Gujarat. Our Heritage, 67(2), 1786. Retrieved from https://www.iite.ac.in/download/notice/61af0b48 c79b0.pdf [13] Your Retail Coach. (n.d.). Dairy Industry in India: Challenges & Mitigation Strategies. Retrieved",
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    "text": "no. 3, 2019, pp. 341-353. [11] User, S. (n.d.). History. https://dairydevelopment.kerala.gov.in/Eng/inde x.php/at-a-glance/history [12] Vandana, & Sinha, K. (2019). Supply chain management: A case of dairy industry in Gujarat. Our Heritage, 67(2), 1786. Retrieved from https://www.iite.ac.in/download/notice/61af0b48 c79b0.pdf [13] Your Retail Coach. (n.d.). Dairy Industry in India: Challenges & Mitigation Strategies. Retrieved June 16, 2024, from https://www.yourretailcoach.in/dairy-industryin-india-challenges-mitigation-strategies-byyour-retail-coach-yrc/ [14] Sharma, N. (2015, March 3). Dairy industry in India. SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/dairyindustry-in-india/45378034 [15] Moharana, R. R. (2015, May 21). Indian Dairy industryA Brief Study. SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/dairyindustry-48429957/48429957 [16] Vasisht, R. (2020, June 4). A brief history of the Indian Dairy Industry. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/brief-historyindian-dairy-industry-ravindra-vasisht/ [17] Sgblog. (2021, October 27). Evolution of Dairy Practice in India and Evolving Business Models. Sathguru Management Consultants. https://blog.sathguru.com/food-andretail/evolution-of-dairy-practice-in-india-andevolving-business-models/ [18] Staff, C. (2022, September 24). [Burning Issue] India’s Dairy Sector: Significance, Challenges and Way Forward. CivilsDaily. https://www.civilsdaily.com/dairy-sector-indiamilk/ [19] Ibef. (2022, October 21). Development of India’s Dairy Sector. India Brand Equity Foundation. https://www.ibef.org/blogs/development-ofindia-s-dairy-sector [20] Show, D. (2023, May 22). The Future of Dairy Farming in India: Embracing Technology and Sustainability. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/future-dairyfarming-india-embracing-technology-dairyfarming-guide/ [21] Ltd, D. F. P. (2023, August 9). How Technology is Enhancing Indian Dairy Manufacturing Efficiency? Dollon’s. https://dollons.com/blog/technology-in-indiandairy-industry/ [22] Dairy in India. (2024, June 9). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_in_India [23] https://amul.com/ [24] https://www.motherdairy.com/\".",
    "source": "IJIRT166092_PAPER.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383021848 Indian journal of veterinary and animal sciences research Article · August 2024 CITATIONS 0 READS 76 2 authors: Kailash Kumar Arawali veterinary college, sikar 5 PUBLICATIONS 3 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Mitesh Gaur College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Navania Vallabhnagar Udaipur 62 PUBLICATIONS 432 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Kailash Kumar on 10 August 2024. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES RESEARCH (Formerly Tamil Nadu Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences) Vol. 53 May June 2024 No. 3 Review Article 1. Recent development in meat tenderization 1-11 Subhash Kumar Verma, Keshab Das, Anil Patyal, Sonali Prusty and Priyal Tiwari Full Length Articles 2. In vitro antimicrobial effect of oxyclozanide anthelmintic against drug resistant staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine mastitis milk 12-20 A. Elamaran, P. Senthil Kumar, V. Ranganathan, K. Kannan, T. Ramasamy, C.M. Jaikanth, S. Senthil Kumar and J. Vijay Anand 3. Effect of glutathione on seminal quality parameters at equilibration in Surti buffalo bull 21-30 Kailash Kumar and Mitesh Gaur 4. Exploring the influence of non-genetic factors on semen production traits in Kanni adu bucks 31-44 B. Jaya Madhuri, K. Thilak Pon Jawahar, S.M.K. Karthickeyan, K. Vijayarani and V. Leela 5. Medical termination of pregnancy in the cats of 30-35 days of gestation: evaluating the efficacy of cloprostenol and cabergoline 45-55 B. R. Baby Roshini, J. Umamageswari, G. Vijayakumar, S. Subapriya, K. Ravikumar and R. Sureshkumar 6. Effect of oat flour and cabbage on technological properties of chicken meatballs 56-63 P. Sivakumar and Dharani Muthusamy 7. Carcass and meat quality characteristics of siruvidai chicken reared in different districts of Tamil Nadu 64-76 P. Balamurugan, K. Sangilimadan, C. Manivannan, R. Venkataramanan, S. Ezhil",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Ravikumar and R. Sureshkumar 6. Effect of oat flour and cabbage on technological properties of chicken meatballs 56-63 P. Sivakumar and Dharani Muthusamy 7. Carcass and meat quality characteristics of siruvidai chicken reared in different districts of Tamil Nadu 64-76 P. Balamurugan, K. Sangilimadan, C. Manivannan, R. Venkataramanan, S. Ezhil Valavan and R. Richard Churchil 8. Study on coordinating ability and planning ability among dairy entrepreneurs and collates with their psychological characteristics 77-84 Vinay Kumar, Tikam C. Goyal and Rohitash Kumar Short Communications 9. Effect of mixture of ajwain and soapnut plant extracts on in vitro rumen fermentation, methane production and true digestibility of diet at different roughage and concentrate ratios 85-93 M. Palanivel 10. Management of retrobulbar coenurus cyst in Nellore brown sheep 94-98 K. Jalajakshi, L.S.S. Varaprasad Reddy and M. Chandrakala Case Reports 11. Congenital unilateral patellar luxation and its correction by wedge resection sulcoplasty and tibial tuberosity transposition in a dog – A case report 99-102 R. Ramesh, S. Hamsa Yamini and P. Selvaraj 12. Idiopathic chylothorax in an Afghan Hounddog A case report 103-107 R. Sokkalingam, P. Selvaraj, Juripriya Brahma, P. Pothiappan and S. Kavitha 13. Hepatozoonosis in Doberman emergency whole blood transfusion and treatment strategies 108-112 G.R. Baranidharan, K. Jothimeena, C. Jayanthy, A. Gopalakrishnan, S. Kavitha and G. Vijayakumar 14. Foetal mummification in pig A case report 113-116 P. Thirunavukkarasu, S. Ramakrishnan, V. Boopathi, R. Sakthivadivu and C. Nithya 15. Blood transfusion in a calf with anaemia due to babesiosis – A case report 117-119 C. Inbaraj, G. Senthilkumar, S.Vinothraj, L. Arun and P. Kumaravel 21 Full Length Article Received : 08.02.2024 Revised : 23.05.2024 Accepted : 27.06.2024 EFFECT OF GLUTATHIONE ON SEMINAL QUALITY PARAMETERS AT EQUILIBRATION IN SURTI BUFFALO BULL Kailash Kumar*1 and Mitesh Gaur2 Department of Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics College of Veterinary",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "C. Inbaraj, G. Senthilkumar, S.Vinothraj, L. Arun and P. Kumaravel 21 Full Length Article Received : 08.02.2024 Revised : 23.05.2024 Accepted : 27.06.2024 EFFECT OF GLUTATHIONE ON SEMINAL QUALITY PARAMETERS AT EQUILIBRATION IN SURTI BUFFALO BULL Kailash Kumar*1 and Mitesh Gaur2 Department of Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics College of Veterinary and Animal Science Navania, Vallabhnagar Udaipur, Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Bikaner – 334 001, India 1Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Arawali Veterinary College, Sikar 332 403, Rajasthan, *Corresponding author Email id: kailashkumar7006@gmail.com 2Associate Professor, Department of Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Navania, Vallabhnagar, Udaipur ABSTRACT The main aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different concentrations of glutathione supplementation on liquid storage of Surti buffalo bull semen. This study was performed on adult Surti buffalo bull (n = 6), and seminal ejaculates (24) were collected and evaluated for various microscopic seminal quality parameters for further processing. After preliminary evaluation, ejaculates of each collection session were mixed and divided into four equal aliquots. All the aliquots were diluted (1:10) with Tris fructose egg yolk citrate extender contained glutathione served as control (T0), whereas the other three aliquots were supplemented with 0.5, 2.0 and 5.0 mM glutathione which were grouped as Treatment-1 (T1), Treatment-2 (T2) and Treatment-3 (T3), respectively. Thereafter, the samples were stored at 4 ºC for 4 h, and various seminal parameters (individual sperm progressive motility, viability, abnormalities, plasma membrane functionality) were evaluated at equilibration. The results indicated that the mean percent values for pre-freeze sperm progressive motility, live sperm percentage and HOS responsive spermatozoa were found to be significantly higher (P<0.05) (except individual progressive motility which was non-significantly higher in Treatment-3); whereas sperm abnormalities were significantly lower (P<0.05) in semen samples treated with glutathione (Treatment-1,",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "results indicated that the mean percent values for pre-freeze sperm progressive motility, live sperm percentage and HOS responsive spermatozoa were found to be significantly higher (P<0.05) (except individual progressive motility which was non-significantly higher in Treatment-3); whereas sperm abnormalities were significantly lower (P<0.05) in semen samples treated with glutathione (Treatment-1, Treatment-2 and Treatment-3) in comparison to control. The Treatment-2 (2.0 mM glutathione), had the highest pre-freeze sperm progressive motility percentage, live sperm percentage, HOS response sperm percentage and reduced sperm abnormalities percentage compared to other three groups. Keywords: Glutathione, Pre-freeze quality, Surti buffalo, Bubalus bubalis, Semen additive. INTRODUCTION The process of artificial insemination (AI) is employed in livestock by using semen either in its liquid or frozen state. The utilization Ind. J. Vet. & Anim. Sci. Res., 53 (3) 21-30, May June, 2024 22 of liquid semen in artificial insemination has led to increased rates of fertility (Anzar et al., 2003) with lower numbers of spermatozoa (Vishwanath et al., 1996). Tris, citrate, and milk-based buffers are commonly employed to preserve buffalo semen at cooling temperatures, effectively maintaining the quality and fertility of stored semen for a period up to three days (Sansone et al., 2000). Glutathione naturally present in buffalo semen has been recognized as an essential intracellular antioxidant (Andrabi, 2009). In mammalian semen, glutathione (GSH) predominantly represents the non-enzymatic antioxidant defense system. Glutathione, a tripeptide thiol (γ glutamylcysteinylglycine), is the primary non-protein sulphydryl compound in mammalian cells, recognized for its numerous biological functions. The fundamental role of GSH in mammalian semen is associated with its interactions with other systems, serving as a preventive mechanism against reactive oxygen species (ROS). This scavenging function of GSH helps to counteract the effects of oxidative stress in sperm cells, which could result in lipid peroxidation of plasmalemma, irreversible loss of motility, leakage of",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "mammalian semen is associated with its interactions with other systems, serving as a preventive mechanism against reactive oxygen species (ROS). This scavenging function of GSH helps to counteract the effects of oxidative stress in sperm cells, which could result in lipid peroxidation of plasmalemma, irreversible loss of motility, leakage of intracellular enzymes and damage of the chromatin. In bovine semen, both enzymatic (catalase, superoxide, dismutase, glutathione peroxidase/reductase) and nonenzymatic (vitamin C and E, glutathione, cysteine) antioxidants are present to protect the spermatozoa from reactive oxygen species (ROS) molecules (Nichi et al., 2006). Nevertheless, the natural levels of antioxidants are insufficient to provide complete protection for sperm integrity against oxidative stress (Sreejith et al., 2006). The processes of cooling and freeze-thawing exert physical and chemical stresses on the sperm membrane, leading to a decrease in sperm viability and fertilizing ability (Stradaioli et al., 2007). The fertilizing capacity of chilled semen decreases with prolonged storage time (Shamsuddin et al., 2000). Oxidative stress during liquid storage is a significant factor that diminishes sperm quality (El-sissy et al., 2007) and fertility (Vishwanath and Shannon, 1997) by producing reactive oxygen species molecules (ROS; superoxide, hydroxyl, hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide, peroxynitrile) (Baumber et al., 2000). These substances elevate the levels of lipid peroxidation (LPO) in unsaturated fatty acids within the plasma membrane (Kadirvel et al., 2009; El-sissy et al., 2007). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) at low concentrations play a crucial role in various sperm physiological processes, including capacitation, hyperactivation, acrosome reactions, and signaling processes essential for fertilization. It is well documented that during the liquid storage of buffalo semen, oxidative stress triggers an excessive production of ROS, leading to elevated levels of LPO in the cell membrane (El-sissy et al., 2007; Kadirvel et al., 2009). The resulting oxidative stress may induce mitochondrial dysfunction and deterioration of",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "fertilization. It is well documented that during the liquid storage of buffalo semen, oxidative stress triggers an excessive production of ROS, leading to elevated levels of LPO in the cell membrane (El-sissy et al., 2007; Kadirvel et al., 2009). The resulting oxidative stress may induce mitochondrial dysfunction and deterioration of sperm motility, viability, plasmalemma integrity and sperm morphology Ind. J. Vet. & Anim. Sci. Res., 53 (3) 21-30, May June, 2024 Kailash Kumar et al. 23 (Kadirvel et al., 2009). This study aimed to assess the comparative impact of adding varying concentrations of glutathione to a semen extender on pre-freeze semen quality parameters in Surti buffalo bulls. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted on six Surti buffalo bulls at the age group of 6.5-7.5 years, weighing 445-520 kg, reared at Network Project on Buffalo Improvement at College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Navania, Vallabhnagar, Udaipur, (Rajasthan, India). Semen samples were collected from each bull twice a week in the morning hours by Artificial Vagina method. Totally twenty-four ejaculates (4 x 6) were collected from these bulls. The ejaculated semen samples were evaluated for their quality by routine tests to confirm it’s suitability for further processing and only those with more than 70% initial motility were utilized for this study. After evaluation, the fresh semen samples were diluted with Tris-fructoseegg yolk-citrate extender @ 80 million spermatozoa/mL and were divided into four equal aliquots (1-4). Glutathione was added into aliquot 2, 3 and 4 at the rate of 0.5 mM, 2.0 mM, and 5.0 mM, respectively (treatment T1, T2, T3, respectively), while aliquot 1 served as untreated control (T0). The extended semen of each treatment was then filled and sealed in French mini straws (0.25 ml, 135 mm length and 2 mm diameter) at room temperature by a manual method. They",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "mM, and 5.0 mM, respectively (treatment T1, T2, T3, respectively), while aliquot 1 served as untreated control (T0). The extended semen of each treatment was then filled and sealed in French mini straws (0.25 ml, 135 mm length and 2 mm diameter) at room temperature by a manual method. They were kept for 4 hours of equilibration at 4℃, samples were evaluated for progressive sperm motility (%), live sperm (%), abnormal sperm (%), HOS response (%) using standard procedure. The data were analysed statistically using CRD and one way ANOVA (Sendecor and Cochran, 1994). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pre-freezing Individual Progressive Motility (%) In the present study, the effect of various concentrations of glutathione (0.5 mM, 2.0 mM and 5.0 mM) on the prefreezing semen attributes in Surti buffalo bull were studied after the equilibration period of 4°C for 4 hours. The mean progressive motility percent was significantly (p<0.05) higher in T2 (72.80±0.27 %) compared to control (70.13±0.34 %) however nonsignificant improvement was observed in T2 (72.80±0.27 %) compared to T1 (72.13±0.31 %). Also, T3 (70.82±0.32) was significantly lower than T1 (72.13±0.31 %) and T2 (72.80±0.27 %) but non-significantly higher than control (70.13±0.34 %). In an earlier study, Gangwar et al. (2018) reported progressive motility (%) of spermatozoa at pre-freeze stage. Progressive motility of sperms in semen samples of the two groups was examined at the end of the equilibration period Ind. J. Vet. & Anim. Sci. Res., 53 (3) 21-30, May June, 2024 Effect of glutathione on seminal quality parameters at equilibration in Surti buffalo bull 24 and there was no significant difference observed between the control (68.00±1.11) and the treatment group (68.25±1.21) with 0.5 mM glutathione at post equilibration stage in Murrah buffalo bulls. Ansari et al. (2011) reported that in Nili-Ravi buffalo bulls, sperm motility did not differ",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "at equilibration in Surti buffalo bull 24 and there was no significant difference observed between the control (68.00±1.11) and the treatment group (68.25±1.21) with 0.5 mM glutathione at post equilibration stage in Murrah buffalo bulls. Ansari et al. (2011) reported that in Nili-Ravi buffalo bulls, sperm motility did not differ in all experimental extenders on 1st day of storage. Higher (p<0.05) sperm motility (%) was observed at 3rd and 5th day of storage in extender containing glutathione 0.5 mM (56.7±2.9, 46.7±2.9) and 1.0 mM (55.0±0.0, 46.7±2.9) as compared to extender containing glutathione 3.0 mM (48.3±2.9, 33.3±7.6) and control (48.3±2.9, 35.0±5.0). Ismail and Darwish (2011) reported individual motility percentages of buffalo spermatozoa preserved in tris egg yolk extender supplemented with 0.0, 0.5 and 1.0 mM glutathione at pre-freeze (74.67±0.69, 79.00±0.67 and 80.00±1.02, respectively). The improvement in the progressive motility (%) observed in the T2 (2.0 mM glutathione supplementation) over control and T3 (5.0 mM glutathione supplementation) might be due to the protection of the sperm during the chilling and extension against oxidative stress and ROS deleterious effects. A positive relationship has been reported between level of glutathione and sperm motility (Gadea et al., 2004; Stradaioli et al., 2007) in bovine (Munsi et al., 2007; Foote et al., 2002), swine (Funahashi and Sano, 2005) and ovine semen (Bucak and Tekin, 2007); these results substantiates improvement in sperm motility after the addition of 2.0 mM glutathione in the present study. Live Sperm (%) Livability is one of the major factors in the assessment of semen quality. During cryopreservation, the spermatozoa are exposed to a foreign diluting media and very low temperature. Death of sperm might occur due to the release of toxic substances, ultra-low temperature exposure, enzymatic leakage, medium of preservation, degree of sperm permeability, aging effect of sperm and individual variation (Watson,",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of semen quality. During cryopreservation, the spermatozoa are exposed to a foreign diluting media and very low temperature. Death of sperm might occur due to the release of toxic substances, ultra-low temperature exposure, enzymatic leakage, medium of preservation, degree of sperm permeability, aging effect of sperm and individual variation (Watson, 2000). In the current study, there was a significant (p<0.05) increase in live sperm count in T1 (79.03±0.28 %), T2 (80.61±0.29 %) and T3 (77.21±0.30 %) during pre-freeze equilibration of semen in comparison to control (75.21±0.32 %). Gangawar et al. (2018) reported a similar effect in the treatment group with 0.5 mM glutathione supplementation. The treatment group (82.35±0.71) had significantly (p<0.05) higher percent of live spermatozoa than the control group (81.50±0.73) at post equilibration stage in Murrah buffalo bull. Ansari et al. (2011) reported that in all five experimental extenders, the viability of buffalo bull spermatozoa was similar at 1st day of storage. Percentage of Ind. J. Vet. & Anim. Sci. Res., 53 (3) 21-30, May June, 2024 Kailash Kumar et al. 25 viable sperm was higher (p<0.05) at 3rd and 5th day of storage in extender containing glutathione 0.5 mM (76.7±2.9, 66.7±2.1), 1.0mM (75.0±0.0, 66.7±2.1) and 3.0mM (68.3±3.1, 55.0±6.6) as compared to control (68.3±2.1, 58.3±1.5). Ismail and Darwish (2011) reported the effect of different concentrations of glutathione on the percentage viability in Egyptian buffalo bulls. There was higher viability at 0.50 mM (83.30±0.75) and 1.00 mM (82.60±0.58) than control (75.60±0.53) semen samples at pre freeze stage. Also, Dushyant et al. (2019) reported a significantly higher (p<0.05) mean percentage of live bovine spermatozoa with intact acrosome at the pre-freezing stage in treatment T1 and T2 groups (0.5 mM 79.58±0.52 and 1.0 mM 74.31±0.48) than in the control group (68.87±0.52). Behnsawy et al. (2017) reported the effect of the different concentrations",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "al. (2019) reported a significantly higher (p<0.05) mean percentage of live bovine spermatozoa with intact acrosome at the pre-freezing stage in treatment T1 and T2 groups (0.5 mM 79.58±0.52 and 1.0 mM 74.31±0.48) than in the control group (68.87±0.52). Behnsawy et al. (2017) reported the effect of the different concentrations of glutathione; control (58.0±2.52), 2 mM (58.8±3.29), 4 mM (66.3±1.17) and 6 mM (66.6±2.15) on live sperm percentage. The addition of 4 or 6 mM concentration of glutathione significantly (p<0.05) improved the percentage of live spermatozoa (post-equilibration) of goat semen extender. While the lowest value of live spermatozoa percentage was recorded in the control group. Live sperm percentage has been reported to vary due to methodological errors, feeding variation, breeds and their adaptability in varying agro-climatic conditions of the places of investigation, season and frequency of semen collection etc. (Mittal and Pandey, 1972; Pandey et al., 1985). The lower viability of buffalo semen has been reported due to poor antioxidant activity and increased ROS production during liquid storage at 4°C (El-Sissy et al., 2007). Therefore, the increased live sperm count observed in the present study could be due to the antioxidant nature of the supplemented glutathione. Sperm Abnormalities (%) In this study, as compared to control (10.13±0.23 %), there was significant (p<0.05) reduction in sperm abnormalities in T1 (8.50±0.19 %), T2 (7.86±0.19 %) and T3 (9.34±0.23 %) groups during prefreeze equilibration of semen in Surti buffalo bulls. Munsi et al. (2007) reported significantly (p<0.01) lower acrosomal abnormality in 0.5 mM glutathione-treated pre-freeze equilibration to the bull semen on Day 5, in comparison to control, 1.0 mM, 2.0 mM, 3.0 mM treatments. Similarly, Slaweta and Laskowska (1987) reported significantly (p<0.01) lower acrosomal abnormality in 5.0 mM glutathione-treated pre-freeze equilibration bull semen in comparison to Ind. J. Vet. & Anim. Sci. Res.,",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "glutathione-treated pre-freeze equilibration to the bull semen on Day 5, in comparison to control, 1.0 mM, 2.0 mM, 3.0 mM treatments. Similarly, Slaweta and Laskowska (1987) reported significantly (p<0.01) lower acrosomal abnormality in 5.0 mM glutathione-treated pre-freeze equilibration bull semen in comparison to Ind. J. Vet. & Anim. Sci. Res., 53 (3) 21-30, May June, 2024 Effect of glutathione on seminal quality parameters at equilibration in Surti buffalo bull 26 control. Behnsawy et al. (2017) reported that the lower percentage of sperm abnormality in buck semen supplemented with different concentrations of glutathione at 2 mM (8.0±0.365), 4 mM (8.2±0.166), 6 mM (8.0±0.365) than the control (8.2±0.365) group. The experimental results in the current study show that the sperm abnormality was not significantly (p<0.05) affected by different levels of glutathione during post-equilibration. Sperm abnormality decreased progressively with the addition of glutathione concentrations and the control group recorded the highest level of sperm abnormality. The lowest sperm abnormalities in the current study were observed in 2.0 mM glutathione (T2); this variation from other studies could be due to many factors including the species variation, methodological errors, feeding variation, season and frequency of semen collection, place of investigation and their adaptability in that agro-climatic condition etc. Hypo-Osmotic Swelling Test (%) Routine semen evaluation has certain limitations for comprehensive prediction of fertility of bull semen. The HOS response of the sperm highlights the permeability of the sperm membrane to hypo-osmotic solution and the projection of a higher value is a valid indication of an intact membrane and a sample with a higher value is regarded as potent for establishing pregnancy. In the current study, the HOS response during pre-freeze equilibration of semen, in T2 (70.55±0.55 %) group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than T3 (67.61±0.67 %) and control (65.37 ±0.45) group but non-significantly higher than",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "intact membrane and a sample with a higher value is regarded as potent for establishing pregnancy. In the current study, the HOS response during pre-freeze equilibration of semen, in T2 (70.55±0.55 %) group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than T3 (67.61±0.67 %) and control (65.37 ±0.45) group but non-significantly higher than T1 (69.00 ±0.52 %) group. Similar results were observed by Gangawar et al. (2018) who reported significantly (p<0.05) higher HOS response at post equilibration stage in the 0.5 mM glutathione-supplemented group (73.55±0.67) than the control group (71.40±0.69) in Murrah buffaloes. Ismail and Darwish (2011) reported the effect of different concentrations of glutathione on the percentage of intact plasma membranes in Egyptian buffaloes. The intact plasma membrane integrity percentage at 0.5 mM (68.10±0.71) and 1.00 mM (69.50±0.58) was higher than the control (63.70±0.70) groups of the prefreezing semen samples. Ansari et al. (2011) reported that glutathione addition (0.5-1.0 mM) in extender improved the plasma membrane integrity of cooled buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) bull semen. Plasma membrane integrity of buffalo spermatozoa did not differ due to glutathione in extenders at 1st day of storage; whereas, sperm with intact plasma membrane was higher (p<0.05) at 3rd and 5th days of storage in extender containing glutathione 0.5 mM (71.7±2.9, Ind. J. Vet. & Anim. Sci. Res., 53 (3) 21-30, May June, 2024 Kailash Kumar et al. 27 Table 1: Pre-Freeze semen traits in Surti Buffalo bull after glutathione supplementation in extender (Mean ±SE, n=24) Pre-Freeze semen trait (%) Control Treatment 1 (T1) Treatment 2 (T2) Treatment 3 (T3) Progressive motility (%) 70.13±0.34a 72.13±0.31b 72.80±0.27 b 70.82±0.32a Live sperm (%) 75.21±0.32a 79.03±0.28c 80.61±0.29d 77.21±0.30b Sperm abnormalities (%) 10.13±0.23d 8.50±0.19b 7.86±0.19a 9.34±0.23c HOS Response (%) 65.37 ±0.45a 69.00±0.52c 70.55±0.55c 67.61±0.67b Values are presented as mean±SE of mean of twenty four replicates. Different superscripts within a row indicate",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Treatment 3 (T3) Progressive motility (%) 70.13±0.34a 72.13±0.31b 72.80±0.27 b 70.82±0.32a Live sperm (%) 75.21±0.32a 79.03±0.28c 80.61±0.29d 77.21±0.30b Sperm abnormalities (%) 10.13±0.23d 8.50±0.19b 7.86±0.19a 9.34±0.23c HOS Response (%) 65.37 ±0.45a 69.00±0.52c 70.55±0.55c 67.61±0.67b Values are presented as mean±SE of mean of twenty four replicates. Different superscripts within a row indicate significant difference (P<0.05). Control, T1, T2 and T3 contained 0.0, 0.5, 2.0 and 5.0 mM concentration of glutathione. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 progressive motility (%) live sperm (%) Sperm abnormalities (%) HOS Response (%) Effect of glutathione on different sperm parameter during pre-freezing in Surti buffalo bull Control Treatment 1 (T1) Treatment 2 (T2) Treatment 3 (T3) Fig. 1. Effect of different concentrations of glutathione on percent motility, sperm viability, abnormality and HOS responsive sperm during cooled storage of buffalo bull semen. Ind. J. Vet. & Anim. Sci. Res., 53 (3) 21-30, May June, 2024 Effect of glutathione on seminal quality parameters at equilibration in Surti buffalo bull 28 61.7±2.9) and 1.0 mM (70.0±0.0, 61.7±2.9) as compared to extender containing glutathione 3.0 mM (63.3±2.9, 48.3±7.6) and control (63.3±2.9, 50.0±5.0). The glutathione supplementation helps maintain the integrity of normal acrosome and stabilises the plasma lemma of spermatozoa (Sinha et al., 1996); this explains the increased HOS response in glutathione-supplemented pre-freeze semen samples, in the present study. It could be concluded that glutathione supplementation in the TFYC extender at 2.0 mM concentration showed significant improvement in pre-freeze semen quality in terms of progressive motility, live sperm percentage, HOS response and reduced sperm abnormalities, in comparison to 0.5 Mm or 5.0 mM concentration of glutathione supplementation ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors acknowledge the help extended by the staff of Network Project on Buffalo Improvement, and Dean, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Navania, Vallabhnagar, Udaipur for providing the necessary",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "percentage, HOS response and reduced sperm abnormalities, in comparison to 0.5 Mm or 5.0 mM concentration of glutathione supplementation ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors acknowledge the help extended by the staff of Network Project on Buffalo Improvement, and Dean, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Navania, Vallabhnagar, Udaipur for providing the necessary facilities to conduct the research work. REFERENCES Andrabi, S.M.H. (2009). Factors affecting the quality of cryopreserved buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) bull spermatozoa. Reproduction in Domestic Animals, 44: 552 69. Ansari, M.S., Ullah, N., Rakha, B.A. and Andrabi, S.M.H. (2011). Glutathione addition in tris-citric egg yolk extender improves the quality of cooled buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) bull semen. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 43(1): 49 55. Anzar, M., Farooq, U., Mirza, M.A., Shahab, M. and Ahmed, N. (2003). Factors affecting the efficiency of artificial insemination in cattle and buffalo in Pujab, Pakistan. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 23: 106 113. Baumber, J., Ball, B.A., Gravance, C.G., Victor, M. and Mina, C.G.D. (2000). The Effect of Reactive Oxygen Species on Equine Sperm Motility, Viability, Acrosomal Integrity, Mitochondrial Membrane Potential, and Membrane Lipid Peroxidation. Journal of Andrology, 21: 895 902. Behnsawy, B.E., Shenawy, E., Siefy, E., Halawany, R.E., Sharawy, M.E., Kubota, K., Yamauchi, N. and Metwally, A.E.S. (2017). Effect of Glutathione on Cryopreservation of Buck Spermatozoa. Journal-Faculty of Agriculture Kyushu University, 62(2): 367 372. Bucak, M.N. and Tekin, N. (2007). Protective effect of taurine, glutathione and trehalose on the liquid storage of ram Ind. J. Vet. & Anim. Sci. Res., 53 (3) 21-30, May June, 2024 Kailash Kumar et al. 29 semen. Small Ruminant Research, 73: 103 108. Dushyant, Y., Vijay, S., Yadav, S.S., Patel, A., Kumar, A., Anuj, K., Sarvjeet, Y., Brijesh, K., Brijesh, Y., Pandey, R.P. and Atul, S. (2019). Effect of glutathione on viability and acrosomal integrity of bovine spermatozoa during graded cryopreservation. Journal of",
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    "text": "et al. 29 semen. Small Ruminant Research, 73: 103 108. Dushyant, Y., Vijay, S., Yadav, S.S., Patel, A., Kumar, A., Anuj, K., Sarvjeet, Y., Brijesh, K., Brijesh, Y., Pandey, R.P. and Atul, S. (2019). Effect of glutathione on viability and acrosomal integrity of bovine spermatozoa during graded cryopreservation. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 8(3): 4796 4800. El-Sissy, G.A., El-Ntatat, W.R. and ElSheshtawy, R.I. (2007). Buffalo semen quality, antioxidants and peroxidation during chilling and cryopreservation. Journal of Veterinary Research, 11: 55 61. Foote, R.H., Brockett, C.C. and Kaproth, M.T. (2002). Motility and fertility of bull sperm in whole milk extender containing antioxidants. Animal Reproduction Science, 71: 13 23. Funahashi, H. and Sano, T. (2005). Select antioxidants improve the function of extended boar semen stored at 10°C. Theriogenology, 63: 1605 1616. Gadea, J., Selles, E., Marco, M.A., Copy, P., Matas, C., Romar, R. and Ruiz, S. (2004). Decrease in glutathione content in boar sperm cryopreservation. Effect of the addition of reduced glutathione to the freezing and thawing extenders. Theriogenology, 62: 690 701. Gangwar C., Saxena, A., Patel, A., Singh, S.P., Yadav, S., Kumar, R. and Singh, V. (2018). Effect of reduced glutathione supplementation on cryopreservation induced sperm cryoinjuries in Murrah bull semen. Animal Reproduction Science, 192: 171 178. Ismail, L.K. and Darwish, S.A. (2011). Effect of glutathione (GSH) on microscopic parameters and DNA integrity in Egyptian buffalo semen during liquid and frozen storage. Journal of Reproduction Infertility, 2(3): 32 40. Kadirvel, G., Satish, K. and Kumaresan, A. (2009). Lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial membrane potential and DNA integrity of spermatozoa in relation to intracellular reactive oxygen species in liquid and frozenthawed buffalo semen. Animal Reproduction Science, 114: 125 134. Mittal, J.P. and Pandey, M.D. (1972). Evaluation of semen quality of Barberi and Jamnapari bucks. Indian Journal Animal Production, 2: 14 19. Munsi, M.N., Bhuiyan,",
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    "text": "potential and DNA integrity of spermatozoa in relation to intracellular reactive oxygen species in liquid and frozenthawed buffalo semen. Animal Reproduction Science, 114: 125 134. Mittal, J.P. and Pandey, M.D. (1972). Evaluation of semen quality of Barberi and Jamnapari bucks. Indian Journal Animal Production, 2: 14 19. Munsi, M.N., Bhuiyan, M.M.U., Majumder, S. and Alam, M.G.S. (2007). Effects of exogenous glutathione on the quality of chilled bull semen. Reproduction in Domestic Animal, 42: 358 362. Nichi, M., Bols, P.E.J., Zuge, R.M., Barnabe, V.H., Goovaerts, I.G.F., Barnabe, R.C. and Cortada, C.N.M. (2006). Seasonal variation in semen quality in Bos indicus and Bos taurus bulls Ind. J. Vet. & Anim. Sci. Res., 53 (3) 21-30, May June, 2024 Effect of glutathione on seminal quality parameters at equilibration in Surti buffalo bull 30 raised under tropical conditions. Theriogenology, 66: 822 828. Pandey, R.P., Sinhe, S.N., Singh, B. and Akhtar, M.H. (1985). Characteristic of semen and fertility rate in Saanen and Barbari bucks. Indian Journal of Animal Science, 55: 773-774. Sansone, G., Nastri, M.J.F. and Fabbrocini, A. (2000). Storage of buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) semen. Animal Reproduction Science, 62: 55 76. Sendecor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. (1994). Statistical methods, 8th Edition, Iowa State University Press, Ames. Shamsuddin, M., Amiri, Y. and Bhuiyan, M.M.U. (2000). Characteristics of buck semen with regards to ejaculate numbers, collection intervals, dilution and presentation periods. Reproduction in Domestic Animal, 35: 53 57. Sinha, M.P., Singha, A.K. and Prasad, R.L. (1996). The effect of glutathione on the motility, enzyme leakage and fertility of frozen goat semen. Animal Reproduction Science, 41: 237 243. Slaweta, R. and Laskowska, T. (1987). The effect of glutatione on the motility and fertility of frozen bull semen. Animal Reproduction Science, 13: 249 253. Sreejith, J.N., Brar, A.S., Ahuja, C.S., Sangha, S.P.S. and Chaudhary, K.C. (2006). A comparative study",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
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    "text": "of frozen goat semen. Animal Reproduction Science, 41: 237 243. Slaweta, R. and Laskowska, T. (1987). The effect of glutatione on the motility and fertility of frozen bull semen. Animal Reproduction Science, 13: 249 253. Sreejith, J.N., Brar, A.S., Ahuja, C.S., Sangha, S.P.S. and Chaudhary, K.C. (2006). A comparative study on lipid peroxidation, activities of antioxidant enzymes and viability of cattle and buffalo bull spermatozoa during storage at refrigeration temperature. Animal Reproduction Science, 96: 21 29. Stradaioli, G., Noro, T., Sylla, L. and Monaci, M. (2007). Decrease in glutathione (GSH) content in bovine sperm after cryo-preservation: comparison between two extenders. Theriogenology, 67: 1249 1255. Vishwanath, R., and Shannon, P. (1997). Do sperm cells age? A review of the physiological changes in sperm during storage at ambient temperature. Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 9: 321 332. Vishwanath, R., Pitt, C.P. and Shannon, P. (1996). Sperm numbers, semen age and fertility in fresh and frozen bovine semen. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production, 56: 31 34. Watson, P.F. (2000). The cause of reduced fertility with cryopreserved semen. Animal Reproduction Science, 60(1): 481492. Ind. J. Vet. & Anim. Sci. Res., 53 (3) 21-30, May June, 2024 Kailash Kumar et al. View publication stats",
    "source": "Indianjournalofveterinaryandanimalsciencesresearch.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 18 https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v11i2.1328 © 2023 Avi & Batra. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. RESEARCH OPEN ACCESS Organic Farming in India: Evolution, Current Status and Policy Perspectives Avinash†* and Vikas Batra¥ Abstract The performance of the agricultural sector is key for the development of the economy, especially for developing economies. It helps the economy in various ways, such as increased income for farmers, employment in rural areas, and, most importantly, food security. With the growing demand for food, farmers use extensive fertilisers and pesticides to increase productivity. This irrational use of fertilisers reduces soil fertility, pollutes rivers, kills plants and animals, and is linked to many human diseases. Thus, conventional farming raises many concerns related to the environment as well as human health. The emergence of organic farming is because of certain limitations of conventional farming. In our country, organic farming practices are taking a new shape. India has 1.59 million organic producers with 2.7 million hectares of agricultural land under organic agriculture. The current paper aims to describe the evolution and status of organic agriculture in India. It also seeks to probe the impact of organic agriculture on various aspects of farming and economy. The paper also aims to identify the constraints in the growth of organic agriculture. Further, based on the findings, the paper proposes new development models for the sustainable growth of the agriculture sector in India. Through this, a perspective is provided on the current state and policy alternatives with innovative organic farming models for the welfare of farmers and people at large. Keywords: Organic Farming; Farmers; Agriculture;",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "the findings, the paper proposes new development models for the sustainable growth of the agriculture sector in India. Through this, a perspective is provided on the current state and policy alternatives with innovative organic farming models for the welfare of farmers and people at large. Keywords: Organic Farming; Farmers; Agriculture; Production; Environment; India † Junior Research Fellow, Department of Economics, Indira Gandhi University, Meerpur-Rewari, *Corresponding Author email: avinash.eco.rs@igu.ac.in ¥ Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Indira Gandhi University, Meerpur-Rewari, email: vikasbatra7@gmail.com Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 19 Introduction Organic farming has emerged as an alternative to conventional agriculture that preserves soil health and provides nutritious food by abstaining from using fertilisers and pesticides. Organic farming uses biofertilisers, vermicomposting, and green manure to promote soil health and biodiversity and provide healthy food (Das et al., 2021; Reganold & Wachter, 2016). These qualities make organic farming a viable and sustainable option in the long run (Schoonbeek et al., 2013). Moreover, organic farming ensures sustainability (economic, environmental, and social) and supports sustainable development goals (Bandanaa et al., 2021; Šeremešić et al., 2021). The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), General Assembly (2008) defined organic farming as: a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems, and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity, and cyclical adaptation to local conditions rather than using inputs with adverse effects. Organic Agriculture combines tradition, innovation, and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and good quality of life for all involved. In recent years, organic farming is gaining momentum worldwide, including in developed and developing countries. This can be observed by the significant increase in demand for organic products, and more agricultural land goes into account for organic farming (Willer et al., 2022). Globally, the organic food",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "life for all involved. In recent years, organic farming is gaining momentum worldwide, including in developed and developing countries. This can be observed by the significant increase in demand for organic products, and more agricultural land goes into account for organic farming (Willer et al., 2022). Globally, the organic food and drink sales market reached more than 120.6 billion euros in 2020 (Willer et al., 2022). With its enormous environmental and economic benefits, organic farming is taking new shapes, but simultaneously, farmers are facing multifaceted challenges in adopting this practice, such as transition periods, certification, productivity, markets, and extension services. These challenges are the key reasons for the slow development of organic agriculture. The study is organised as follows. The next section analyses India’s agricultural development and evaluates the current food production and population. Then, it discusses the research methodology. Following this, the section deals with the emergence of organic farming and the current status of organic farming in India. The final section examines the impact of organic farming and its constraints. Agricultural Development Strategy in India and its Impact The agricultural sector’s contribution to India has been very significant since independence as its performance decides the country’s development path. After independence, the Indian economy depended substantially on agriculture; around 72% of the workforce was engaged in agriculture, accounting for 50% of the national income share (Tripathi & Prasad, 2009). According to these two authors, Indian agricultural development can be divided into four phases. In the first phase after independence, the government took necessary actions to boost agriculture through land reforms. The second phase started after the severe drought in the mid-1960s; India adopted the new strategy of the green revolution in the late 1960s, which helped India to attain selfsufficiency in food grains. In the next phase, the agriculture",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "the government took necessary actions to boost agriculture through land reforms. The second phase started after the severe drought in the mid-1960s; India adopted the new strategy of the green revolution in the late 1960s, which helped India to attain selfsufficiency in food grains. In the next phase, the agriculture sector was diversified, with a focus on milk, fishery, poultry, vegetables, and fruits. In the fourth phase, the impact of 1991 reforms on agriculture was studied, in which no immediate reforms were implemented (Tripathi & Prasad, 2009). However, the devaluation of the exchange rate, the opening of foreign trade, and the removal of protection of industries indirectly affected this sector. Besides providing domestic demand for food to 1.35 billion people in 2020-21, its contribution also contributes to industrial growth and international trade. The agriculture sector in 2020-21 accounted for 20% Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 20 and 9.2% of gross value added (GVA)1 and gross capital formation (GFC)2 at current prices, respectively (Agriculture Statistics at Glance, 2021). Table 1: GVA and GCF of Agriculture, Forestry & Fishing at Current Prices Year Gross Value Added (GVA) Gross Capital Formation (GCF)3 2011-12 18.5 8.5 2012-13 18.2 7.7 2013-14 18.6 9.0 2014-15 18.2 8.2 2015-16 17.7 7.1 2016-17 18.0 7.8 2017-18 18.3 7.2 2018-19 17.6 7.0 2019-20 18.3 7.3 2020-21 20.0 9.2 Source: Agriculture Statistics at a Glance, 2021 It is a well establish fact that in the process of the structural transformation of the economy, the role of agricultural sector declines in terms of its contribution to GDP. However, the agriculture sector in India is unique in that it employs a large portion of the workforce and provides food to the world’s most populous country ( United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs [UN DESA],",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "role of agricultural sector declines in terms of its contribution to GDP. However, the agriculture sector in India is unique in that it employs a large portion of the workforce and provides food to the world’s most populous country ( United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs [UN DESA], 2023). This can be observed from the data in Table 1. Data shows that gross value added and gross capital formation are consistent and growing on an average of 18% and 8% since 2011-12, respectively. The share of the agriculture sector in GDP is low, but its contribution is crucial for the nation’s food security and self-reliance. Adding to the share of agriculture, it accounts for 14.3% of the national exports (Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, 2021). The source of India’s agricultural growth can be traced back to the Green Revolution. This new strategy transitioned from traditional agriculture to modern agriculture in India. With improved quality of high-yielding varieties of seeds and intensive use of fertilisers and pesticides, 1“Gross Value Added is defined as the value of output minus the value of intermediate consumption and is measure of the contribution to GDP”. 2 “Gross Capital Formation is the value of acquisition of new or existing fixed assets by the agriculture sector & allied sector”. productivity in the agriculture sector (especially crops like wheat and paddy in the northern part of India) increased tremendously, which helped India become self-reliant and affirmed the country’s food security. The rapid growth in agriculture is supported by the increasing yield of produce to its new level, as evident from the low level of 52 million tonnes in 1951-52, and the production of food grain increased to 308.60 million tonnes in 2020-21. Food security is a major concern for any country, and it is crucial for",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "supported by the increasing yield of produce to its new level, as evident from the low level of 52 million tonnes in 1951-52, and the production of food grain increased to 308.60 million tonnes in 2020-21. Food security is a major concern for any country, and it is crucial for India because of its massive population and its large number of poor people. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Oxford Poverty & Human Initiative (OPHI) developed the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index 4 (2022), which revealed that India possessed 16.4 per cent multidimensional poor populations, that is, 228.9 million poor people5 of the world are residing in India in 2020. The data represents the growth of production of foodgrains in India compared with the population growth. With the green revolution, India’s production of food grains has expanded along with its population. 3 Taken from table 1.7a (Share of GCF in agriculture & allied sector in GCF of Economy in percentage) 4 MPI is an index which measure the incidence of multiple deprivation on three dimensions (education, health, and standard of living) 5 See MPI Report 2022, p. 20 Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 21 Moreover, it has become more of a concern for India as food grain production has stalled since 2011-12 while population growth has continuously increased. The trend of foodgrain production stood at 259.29 million tonnes in 2011-12, which grew to 308.60 million tonnes of production in 2020-21. On the same side, the population has shown a rising trend. The population in 2011-10 was 1.22 billion and grew to 1.35 billion in 2020-21 (Table 2). The stagnancy in foodgrain production can be attributed to uncontrolled factors like extreme weather and environmental degradation (Lesk et al., 2016; Rozelle et al., 1997). Table 2: Growth",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "population has shown a rising trend. The population in 2011-10 was 1.22 billion and grew to 1.35 billion in 2020-21 (Table 2). The stagnancy in foodgrain production can be attributed to uncontrolled factors like extreme weather and environmental degradation (Lesk et al., 2016; Rozelle et al., 1997). Table 2: Growth of Area, Production, Yields, and Population Year Area (Million Hectares) Production (Million Tonnes) Yield (Kg. /Hectare) Population Growth (in Billion) 2011-12 124.75 259.29 2078 1.220 2012-13 120.78 257.13 2129 1.235 2013-14 125.05 265.05 2120 1.251 2014-15 124.30 252.03 2028 1.267 2015-16 123.22 251.54 2041 1.283 2016-17 129.23 275.11 2129 1.299 2017-18 127.52 285.01 2235 1.314 2018-19 124.78 285.28 2286 1.327 2019-20 126.99 296.65 2343 1.341 2020-21 129.34 308.60 2386 1.355 Source: Agriculture Statistics at a Glance, 2021 This achievement of high production and productivity comes with the help of the intensive use of fertilisers and pesticides in the fields. The consumption of fertilisers increased exceptionally high from 70,000 tonnes in 195051 to 2.17 million tonnes in 1970-71, 12.54 million tonnes in 1990-91, and 19.14 million tonnes in 1999-2000 (Tripathi & Prasad, 2009). This growth stood at 28.12 million in 2010-11, rising to 32.53 million tonnes in 2020-21 (Agriculture Statistics at Glance, 2021). Our observations suggest that farmers use more fertilisers and pesticides to increase productivity in the field, which results in more income. Figure 1: Consumption and Import of Fertilisers in the Agriculture sector from 2001-02 to 202021 Source: Agriculture Statistics at a Glance, 2021 Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 22 Figure 1 shows the rising trend of fertiliser consumption in the agriculture sector and the import to meet the demand of the largest employed sector of India. The data shows the rising trend of chemical fertilisers consumption in agriculture. In 2001-02, consumption of",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 22 Figure 1 shows the rising trend of fertiliser consumption in the agriculture sector and the import to meet the demand of the largest employed sector of India. The data shows the rising trend of chemical fertilisers consumption in agriculture. In 2001-02, consumption of fertilisers stood at 17.36 million tonnes which rose to 28.12 million tonnes in 2010-11. After that, it showed a decline in the demand and follow a constant path till 2017-18. However, the trend escalated again, reaching 32.53 million tonnes in 2020-21. A similar trend was noticed in case of the import of fertilisers. In 2020-21, fertiliser import was recorded at 10.84 million tonnes which was 33.3 % of total consumption— this infers that one-third of total fertilisers were imported, leading to a trade imbalance. The agriculture sector ensures food security and contributes significantly to trade, but this does not portray a whole picture of it. The rising literature suggests that current agriculture production has negative impact on environment. Not limited to environment, the agriculture also has negative impacts on farmers and consumers as well. The irrational use of fertilisers in the field reduces soil fertility, disturbs soil pH and health hazards, and causes groundwater contamination (Randive et al., 2021). Pimentel (1996) critically analysed the cost of using pesticides and fertilisers during the green revolution. The overconsumption of pesticides in agriculture caused severe public health issues and environmental issues like domestic animals being poisoned by pesticides, depredation of natural predators and parasites, further reducing the pollination of vegetables, fruits, and other crops, and ground and surface water contamination. Pimentel (1996) and Randive et al. (2021) described that the incorrect use of fertilisers also caused soil degradation, further promoting less land productivity. The less productivity on land forces farmers to use more",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "parasites, further reducing the pollination of vegetables, fruits, and other crops, and ground and surface water contamination. Pimentel (1996) and Randive et al. (2021) described that the incorrect use of fertilisers also caused soil degradation, further promoting less land productivity. The less productivity on land forces farmers to use more expensive fertilisers to maintain the productivity of the field. This costs farmers more from their income and raises the inequality between rich and poor farmers (Narayanan, 2005). India is among the countries where the farmer’s suicide rate is high because of low returns from cultivation, higher input costs, drought, and climate change (Mariappan & Zhou, 2019), which has created various socio-economic problems. The situation was further aggravated when farmers unintentionally ingested these chemicals and harmed themselves. In 2021, Donthi examined the National Crime Record Bureau (NCRB) data for 2020, 7,437 deaths (up from 6,962 deaths in 2019) were ascribed to “accidental consumption of pesticides/insecticides (p.1).” As suggested by the literature, the rising negative externalities of the current agriculture model are an indicator of overhauling the entire food production system. In this direction, organic farming has emerged as alternative farming that has a potential to achieve the targets of sustainable development. The progress of organic farming in India is significant and thus requires urgent attention to review its performance in India. Thus, the present study attempts to analyse India’s organic farming production, area, and export. Further, as organic farming is in the developing stage, it faces multifaceted challenges. Data and Methodology The study examines the prospect of organic farming in India. For this purpose, numerous literature and reports published by international institutes and experts were reviewed. In addition, the area of organic farming, the number of organic farmers, the production of organic goods, and organic export may all be used to",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "The study examines the prospect of organic farming in India. For this purpose, numerous literature and reports published by international institutes and experts were reviewed. In addition, the area of organic farming, the number of organic farmers, the production of organic goods, and organic export may all be used to examine developing trends in organic farming in India. Secondary data was collected from published sources like the International Federation of Organic Farming Movement (IFOAM), Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) Statistics – European and global organic farming statistics, and the Agricultural Processed Food Products & Export Development Authority (APEDA). Considering this information, the status of organic farming in India is discussed in the next section. Status of Organic Farming in India India is among the countries where the number of producers of organic products and areas of organic farming are increasing significantly. The Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 23 total cultivable area for organic agriculture in Asia accounted for more than 6.1 million hectares in 2020. In one year, India added 3,58,667 hectares of organic agricultural land under it, which accounts for 15.6% growth in 2020. However, the development of organic agriculture in India is encouraging, but it accounts for only 1.5% of agricultural land in organic farming. To promote organic farming in India, the government initiated the “National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP)” in 2001 under the Agriculture and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) and laid the foundation for the systematic development of organic farming in India. Since then, organic farming has grown almost 42 times, touching a figure of 1.78 million ha during 2017-18 and covering all types of agriculture, horticulture, and non-food crops6 like cotton being grown under the umbrella of the organic certification process. Realising the benefits of",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "development of organic farming in India. Since then, organic farming has grown almost 42 times, touching a figure of 1.78 million ha during 2017-18 and covering all types of agriculture, horticulture, and non-food crops6 like cotton being grown under the umbrella of the organic certification process. Realising the benefits of the organic farming consumer paying premium prices for the products also promotes farmers to shift to organic farming. In 2020, regarding organic agriculture, India ranked eighth in the world, whereas, concerning the number of producers, India ranked first (Willer, 2022). According to APEDA 2021, India has 4.3 million hectares of land under organic farming, a composite of wild harvest (1.6 million hectares) and cultivable land (2.6 million hectares). Moreover, Sikkim is the state in India that has converted its entire cultivable land into organic farming and is called the organic state of India. In terms of certified organic farms, Madhya Pradesh tops among all the states in India, followed by Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh. In 2020-21, the production of certified organic products accounted for 3.4 million metric tonnes in India. These organic products include all food products like fibre, oilseeds, sugarcane cereals and millets, tea, coffee, and fruits. 6 Non-food crops are considered as which are grown especially for industrial uses. For example: cotton is used as a raw material in the textile industry. Zone Wise Organic Production (Cultivated Plus in Conversion) To analyse organic farming production across Indian states, the organic production state-wise (cultivated plus in-conversion) was divided into six zones, that is Northern, Southern, Eastern, North-Eastern, Western, and Central (Heena et al., 2021a). The Northern zone embraced Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. The North-eastern7 zone includes Tripura, Sikkim, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. The Eastern zone is comprised of Bihar,",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "six zones, that is Northern, Southern, Eastern, North-Eastern, Western, and Central (Heena et al., 2021a). The Northern zone embraced Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. The North-eastern7 zone includes Tripura, Sikkim, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. The Eastern zone is comprised of Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal. The Western zone includes Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Goa, and Gujarat. The Southern zone comprises Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. The Central zone includes Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. The trend of organic production in India was analysed and represented in Figure 2 (see also the Annexure). The calculation is the aggregate of the organic production from 2012-13 to 202122 and allotted to six zones. The higher the production, the darker the colour in the zone. The figure above revealed that the Central and Western zones have the most prominent organic production, followed by the southern zone. The North-Eastern zone shows the lowest production compared to all the zones. However, the coverage area of organic farming in states of the north-eastern zone comparatively better than other states. The difference in production among different zones can be attributed to the area under organic practices. The central and western states are India’s largest states compared to other states. The Northern zone, which comprises states, shows less organic production. The reason can be the high usage of chemical fertilisers in agriculture production in these states, which may lead to less adoption of organic farming practices. 7 Mizoram is not included in North-eastern region due to data unavailability. Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 24 Figure 2: Zone-Wise Organic Production in India from 2012-13 to 2021-22 Source: APEDA, 2022 Note: Data includes 28 states. The Map is Based on Authors' Own Calculation, Data was",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "not included in North-eastern region due to data unavailability. Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 24 Figure 2: Zone-Wise Organic Production in India from 2012-13 to 2021-22 Source: APEDA, 2022 Note: Data includes 28 states. The Map is Based on Authors' Own Calculation, Data was Sourced from APEDA. Since the inception of the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) in 2001, it has constantly added areas under organic farming practices. However, the data is only available from 2012-13. Figure 3 shows the growth of the certified area under organic farming in India. The figure clearly shows a cyclic trend area of organic cultivation in India. In 2012-13, the organic farming area was a mere 7.23 lakh hectares, which increased to 57.10 lakh hectares in 20158 It is a cost domestic organic certificate for the promotion of organic farming. This helps small and marginal farmers 16 and started declining. This decline can be ascribed to the Participatory Guarantee System (PGS)8, introduced under ‘Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana’ (PKVY) in 2015. Since then, the certified area under NPOP has been declining. However, it started rising in 2020-21 and peaked at 91.20 lakhs hectares in 2021-22. The encouraging growth indicates that more farmers are adopting organic farming practices. The to obtain an organic certificate at low/no cost and helps small farmers to sell organic produce in the market. Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 25 increase in organic producers can observe the popularity of organic farming practices. Figure 3: Growth of Organic Farming Areas (in Hectares) from 2012-13 to 2021-22 Source: APEDA, 2022 Figure 4: Growth of Organic Producers from 2000 to 2021 Source: FiBL Statistics, 2022 Figure 4 represents the number of organic producers in India. The numbers reveal the exponential rise in",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "organic farming practices. Figure 3: Growth of Organic Farming Areas (in Hectares) from 2012-13 to 2021-22 Source: APEDA, 2022 Figure 4: Growth of Organic Producers from 2000 to 2021 Source: FiBL Statistics, 2022 Figure 4 represents the number of organic producers in India. The numbers reveal the exponential rise in organic producers in India. In 2000, the number of organic producers stood at 1,426, which grew to 0.67 million in 2009 and 1.59 million in 2021. The reason for the exponential growth of organic producers can be reasoned with India’s huge population. Since India is the most populous country in the world, it also consists of 85 % of small and marginal farmers who holds land less than 2 hectares (Agriculture Statistics at Glance, 2021). Furthermore, organic farming is most popular among small and marginal farmers due to its lower cost and higher profitability. These factors contribute to farmers’ faster adoption rate of organic farming. Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 26 Figure 5: Organic Export (in Million Euros) from 2002 to 2021 Source: FiBL Statistics, 2022 For India, export-import plays a significant role in the economy. In this aspect, organic farming showed a significant trend. Figure 5 shows the trend of exports of organic products. The trend shows the exponential growth of organic exports in India since 2002. The data was taken from FiBL, which recorded the sales of organic products in Euros. From 2002, India exported organic products worth €13.44 million, which rose to €291.2 million in 2012 and then showed a steady path till 2016. After 2016, organic exports rose expeditiously and reached €641.39 million in 2018. This growth further rose in 2021, which grew up to €880.15 million. The trend of organic export shows surging demand for organic products, especially from",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to €291.2 million in 2012 and then showed a steady path till 2016. After 2016, organic exports rose expeditiously and reached €641.39 million in 2018. This growth further rose in 2021, which grew up to €880.15 million. The trend of organic export shows surging demand for organic products, especially from developed nations, and India is continuously attempting to meet this demand. Impact of Organic Farming The potential of organic farming is enormous as it plays a significant role in protecting the environment. As organic farming abstains from chemical pesticides, there is a negligible risk of surface and groundwater chemical pollution (Reganold & Wachter, 2016). Excluding chemical fertilisers in organic farming, it grows safe and healthy food. Durbul et al. (2021) compared organic and conventional food and revealed that organic food was safe and nutritious for human consumption and environmentally friendly. Further, consuming organically produced food intake was associated with reduced incidents of various diseases (Vigar et al., 2020). Another aspect in which organic farming is superior to conventional is that it fosters biodiversity. Besides, scholars have reported that there has been an increase in biodiversity while practising organic farming (Das et al., 2021; Jouzi et al., 2017; Tscharntke et al., 2021). Further, conventional farming is water-intensive and requires more water, which infers an inefficient technique in rain-fed areas. However, organic agriculture can increase yields even in rain-fed areas (Ramesh et al., 2005). These positive environmental externalities attached to organic farming were significant factors in its popularity. The studies show that when we compare conventional farming with organic farming, it provides more economic benefits. The economic performance of organic farming is more favourable compared to conventional (Brožová & Beranová, 2017; Krause & Machek, 2018). The cost and benefits analysis of organic and conventional farming revealed that organic farming is less costly,",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "when we compare conventional farming with organic farming, it provides more economic benefits. The economic performance of organic farming is more favourable compared to conventional (Brožová & Beranová, 2017; Krause & Machek, 2018). The cost and benefits analysis of organic and conventional farming revealed that organic farming is less costly, and its premium price provides farmers with more income. Using conventional farming is also economically unviable; farmers have to pay very high prices for fertilisers and pesticides, increasing the cost to farmers’ pockets and soil fertility of the land (Singh & Grover, 2011). In the case of organic Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 27 farming, fertilisers like vermicomposting cost very little compared to chemical fertilisers. Studies like Manjunatha & Puttaswamaiah (2021), Watcher et al. (2019), Sihi et al. (2012), and Forster et al. (2013) confirmed that the input cost was lower in respect of organic farming. Similarly, the benefit-cost ratio of organic farming as more benefits than costs (Heena et al., 2021b; Manjunatha & Puttaswamaiah, 2021; Shehrawat et al., 2016). A meta-analysis by Crowder and Reganold (2015), Durham and Mizik (2021), and Smith et al. (2019) analysed the profitability of organic farming. The metaanalysis study revealed that economics favour organic farming more than conventional farming. Further, if externality and ecosystem services are included in the analysis, organic farming is more profitable due to its advantages in an environment-friendly approach (Crowder & Reganold, 2015). Small and marginal farmers also reap these advantages. Organic farming uses less costly inputs and better produce prices, which help small and marginal farmers earn extra income. The studies (Altenbuchner et al., 2018; Eyhorn et al., 2018; Jouzi et al., 2017) reported that organic farming is overall profitable for small and marginal farmers. Another importance of agricultural products is that it",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "less costly inputs and better produce prices, which help small and marginal farmers earn extra income. The studies (Altenbuchner et al., 2018; Eyhorn et al., 2018; Jouzi et al., 2017) reported that organic farming is overall profitable for small and marginal farmers. Another importance of agricultural products is that it provides raw material to the industries. Cotton is among the agricultural products that are used in textile industries and is in high demand all over the world. For example, in the apparel market, the demand for organically produced clothes is high in developed countries and has a rapidly increasing share in the apparel market. Rieple and Singh (2010) analysed the value chain of organic cotton and found that the organic cotton value chain is beneficial at every stage. It was found that organic cotton adds value at every stage of the production process and is also beneficial for mediators and organic farmers. Moreover, the future of organically farmed cotton has the potential to be the largest seller in the future. Emerging Issues of Organic Farming in India Marketing in the agriculture sector plays a vital role in the growth of the sector and farmers. This helps farmers in every stage, from storing produce to selling products in the market, and helps them get a reasonable price. Organic products are currently only available to the most affluent consumers in society, creating a small market for farmers. Azam et al. (2019) reported that lack of warehousing was a significant issue, followed by inadequate consumer demand, limited knowledge about premium prices, costly transportation, variation in the price of the crops, and insufficient support from the government. As these factors play an essential role in marketing channels, government support is also needed. Like, the farmers in Haryana also found non-feasible organic farming as a",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "inadequate consumer demand, limited knowledge about premium prices, costly transportation, variation in the price of the crops, and insufficient support from the government. As these factors play an essential role in marketing channels, government support is also needed. Like, the farmers in Haryana also found non-feasible organic farming as a medium of living due to a lack of government support in marketing (Ohlan, 2016). The market for organic products is significantly different from the regular market, which requires a particular skill set to deliver organic products. Das (2007) explained this difference and called for careful selection and development of target marketing to sell organic products in markets. The other challenge the farmers are facing is the lower yield in the case of organic farming. Yield is the crucial factor through which the farmers’ profitability is decided. Farmers’ motive is to increase productivity on fixed land to earn more profit. In the case of organic farming, despite having enormous benefits, farmers believe it is an infeasible option because of lower yield. Globally, the organic yield was 10% less when compared to conventional farming (MacRae et al., 2011). Seufert et al. (2011) compared the yield of organic and conventional farming using meta-analysis. The study reveals that organic farming leads to lower yields, ranging from 5% when rain-fed regions to 13% lower yields when best practices are adopted for organic farming. The yield drastically dropped (34%) when both techniques were most comparable. Further, the situation is aggravated under organic farming practices when land is combined with low yields. Kirchmann (2019) reported a 35 % yield gap in organic farming, requiring 50 % more arable land to fill this gap. Adheres, more land is required to keep organic yield at par with conventional farming yields. Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "is combined with low yields. Kirchmann (2019) reported a 35 % yield gap in organic farming, requiring 50 % more arable land to fill this gap. Adheres, more land is required to keep organic yield at par with conventional farming yields. Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 28 In India, high yields of wheat and rice are the byproducts of the green revolution. These two crops are consumed immensely and exported to other countries. Nevertheless, organic produce has premium prices, and farmers resist shifting from conventional farming because of low yields. Singh and Grover (2011) conducted a study to examine the viability of organic farming in Punjab, revealing that organic wheat yield is lower when organic farming is undertaken compared to conventional wheat (compensated by the premium prices). Similar results are found in a study by Forster et al. (2013), where yield in the case of wheat is less than 27% in the first crop cycle; additional crops like soybean and cotton were also found to be a larger yield gap compared to conventional farming. However, in the second cycle, organic farming showed a similar yield to conventional farming. Sihi et al. (2012) analysed the quality of basmati rice in the Kaithal district of Haryana and compared every aspect of organic rice with conventional rice. They found that organic rice initially yields 2% lower than conventional rice, but yields are comparable in the long run. A similar trend is reported by Manjunatha & Puttaswamaiah (2021) regarding crops like ragi and maize. In the case of conventional farming, the yield is directly affected by the chemicals used in the process. However, when farmers shift to organic farming practices and abstain from using chemicals-based fertilisers in the field, a gestation period is required for soil to adopt",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "regarding crops like ragi and maize. In the case of conventional farming, the yield is directly affected by the chemicals used in the process. However, when farmers shift to organic farming practices and abstain from using chemicals-based fertilisers in the field, a gestation period is required for soil to adopt the biofertilisers and organic composts. This transition is called the conversion period. The conversion period usually lasts one to four years (Singh & Grover, 2011). In this period, the farm yield is low compared to conventional farming (Reddy, 2010). Infers that the farmers must sacrifice years of income or earn less during this period. Bachmann (2011) analysed the potential of organic cotton farming, in which he found out that during the conversion period of the first two years, the yield is lower in organic cotton. The conversion phase is critical for the farmers. Farmers have to give away a portion of their income during this period and do not sell their produce at the organic price (Das, 2007). Certification is an important document that helps farmers benefit from organic farming. Certification helps farmers take advantage of the premium price of products. The role of certification in organic farming is another constraint that makes farmers continue conventional farming as the process is lengthy and costly too. This process is additionally affected by economic and institutional hurdles, making the certification process tedious (Ohlan, 2016). In India, smallholder farmers share a considerable portion of the composition of the landholding pattern. Thus, taking certification for them is a huge task, and resist them shifting to organic farming. The main problem with the certification process is that it is very costly, and some unnecessary intricacies raise confusion among farmers, especially smallholders and illiterate. Moreover, they reported that the steps taken in the certification process take",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "for them is a huge task, and resist them shifting to organic farming. The main problem with the certification process is that it is very costly, and some unnecessary intricacies raise confusion among farmers, especially smallholders and illiterate. Moreover, they reported that the steps taken in the certification process take an excessively long time for the government, roughly 2-3 years (Tiraieyari et al., 2014). Shehrawat et al. (2016) created an index and put weightage according to the issue related to certification and showed that organic certification is a complicated process and is a major hurdle for farmers, predominantly for illiterate and smallholders. Another significant issue is the lack of knowledge of the certification process followed by the standardisation of organic products. Conclusions and Policy Perspectives Today, developing countries must choose between securing food for their population while harming the environment and protecting the environment by compensating yields. The first situation necessitates the persistent use of conventional farming methods such as pesticides and fertilisers. However, the conventional farming method unsustainable nature and burgeoning negative health effects have already caused numerous concerns about how it will meet the rising population’s food demand (Bowler, 2002). The second option points towards organic farming practices, outperforming conventional farming in every aspect except yield. Organic farming promotes soil fertility and biodiversity and provides Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 29 healthy and nutritious food for well-being. Further, organic farming can significantly contribute to addressing global environmental challenges. However, organic farming is not commensurate with conventional farming for a country like India, where securing food for its massive population is the highest priority. Nevertheless, organic farming is not developed enough to feed the population and faces multifaceted challenges, at least in the short run (Schoonbeek et al., 2013). Despite these challenges in",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "not commensurate with conventional farming for a country like India, where securing food for its massive population is the highest priority. Nevertheless, organic farming is not developed enough to feed the population and faces multifaceted challenges, at least in the short run (Schoonbeek et al., 2013). Despite these challenges in organic farming, it shows significant performance in different aspects such as the area under cultivation, production of organic produce, number of producers, and exports of organic products. The area under organic farming practices has shown rising trends since 2012-13. Further, Indian organic producers ranked first globally and showed exponential growth in adopting organic farming practices. Organic farming also fares better in terms of the trade of organic products. India showed a significant rise in exports of organic products. However, policymakers must be careful in adopting organic farming at a large scale taking into consideration of its massive population. Lessons must be learned from the most recent crisis in Sri Lanka, as many experts suggested the crisis in the country is due to an unplanned move to shift toward organic farming, which resulted into multifaceted problems in the sector and economy as well. Policymakers should also consider Sri Lanka’s crises while designing policies. Therefore, implementing organic farming instead of conventional farming is a herculean task for policymakers. In sum, this study analysed the current state of organic farming in the context of India and explored many aspects of organic farming. Although the growth of organic farming is very encouraging, the statistics show the tremendous scope of expansion of organic farming over the globe. Nevertheless, the share of organic farming is minimal and at the very early stage of development. Based on the current state of organic agriculture in India, there is ample opportunity to investigate the unexplored aspects of this practice.",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "show the tremendous scope of expansion of organic farming over the globe. Nevertheless, the share of organic farming is minimal and at the very early stage of development. Based on the current state of organic agriculture in India, there is ample opportunity to investigate the unexplored aspects of this practice. However, there are various organic farming challenges. New models aimed at sustainability, productivity, and social dimensions should be developed to provide a self-sustaining framework for agriculture. To effectively resolve field-level issues, the transition from conventional to organic requires detailed and focused interventions by scholars and policymakers. Proper research should be conducted when developing new agricultural development models to understand all aspects of organic agriculture in terms of its ability to preserve the environment, food security, production, and accessibility. References Agricultural Statistics at a Glance. (2021) (English version). Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare. Directorate of Economics and Statistics. https://eands.dacnet.nic.in/PDF/Agricultural%2 0Statistics%20at%20a%20Glance%20%202021%20(English%20version).pdf Altenbuchner, C., Vogel, S., & Larcher, M. (2018). Social, economic and environmental impacts of organic cotton production on the livelihood of smallholder farmers in Odisha, India. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. 33(4), 373–385. https://doi.org/10.1017/S174217051700014X APEDA. (2021). Organic Products: National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP). Agricultural & Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA). https://apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/organic/Or ganic_Products.htm Azam, M. S., Shaheen, M., & Narbariya, S. (2019). Marketing challenges and organic farming in India—Does farm size matter? International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing. 24(4). 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1002/nvsm.1654 Bachmann, F. (2012). Potential and limitations of organic and fair trade cotton for improving livelihoods of smallholders: Evidence from Central Asia. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 27(2), 138–147. Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 30 https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170511000202 Bandanaa, J., Asante, I. K., Egyir, I. S., Schader, C., Annang, T. Y., Blockeel,",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "limitations of organic and fair trade cotton for improving livelihoods of smallholders: Evidence from Central Asia. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 27(2), 138–147. Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 30 https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170511000202 Bandanaa, J., Asante, I. K., Egyir, I. S., Schader, C., Annang, T. Y., Blockeel, J., Kadzere, I., & Heidenreich, A. (2021). Sustainability performance of organic and conventional cocoa farming systems in Atwima Mponua District of Ghana. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators. 11(February), 100121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2021.100121 Bowler, I. (2002). Developing sustainable agriculture. Geography, 87(3), 205–212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40573736 Brožová, I., & Beranová, M. (2017). A comparative analysis of organic and conventional farming profitability. Agris On-Line Papers in Economics and Informatics, 9(1), 3– 15. https://doi.org/10.7160/aol.2017.090101 Crowder, D. W., & Reganold, J. P. (2015). Financial competitiveness of organic agriculture on a global scale. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(24), 7611–7616. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1423674112 Das, K. (2007). Towards a smoother transition to organic farming. Economic and Political Weekly, 42(24), 2243–2245. https://www.epw.in/journal/2007/24/commen tary/towards-smoother-transition-organicfarming.html Das, S., Chatterjee, A., & Pal, T. K. (2021). Organic farming in India: A vision towards a healthy nation. Food Quality and Safety (Vol. 4, Issue 2, pp. 69–76). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/FQSAFE/FYAA018 Donthi, N. R. (2021). Pesticide poisoning in India challenges of data and management in Public Health. Economic and Political Weekly, 45 & 46, 17–20. https://www.epw.in/journal/2021/4546/commentary/pesticide-poisoning-india.html Durbul, A., Fertő, I., & Zaien, S. (2021). Is organic food good for health and the environment? Regional and Business Studies, 13(2), 11–30. https://doi.org/10.33568/rbs.2919 Durham, T. C., & Mizik, T. (2021). Comparative economics of conventional, organic, and alternative Agricultural Production Systems. Economies, 9(64), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies Eyhorn, F., van den Berg, M., Decock, C., Maat, H., & Srivastava, A. (2018). Does organic farming provide a viable alternative for smallholder rice farmers in India? Sustainability (Switzerland), 10(12), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124424 Forster, D., Andres, C., Verma,",
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    "text": "economics of conventional, organic, and alternative Agricultural Production Systems. Economies, 9(64), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies Eyhorn, F., van den Berg, M., Decock, C., Maat, H., & Srivastava, A. (2018). Does organic farming provide a viable alternative for smallholder rice farmers in India? Sustainability (Switzerland), 10(12), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124424 Forster, D., Andres, C., Verma, R., Zundel, C., Messmer, M. M., & Mäder, P. (2013). Yield and economic performance of organic and conventional cotton-based farming systems Results from a field trial in India. PLoS ONE, 8(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081039 IFOAM General Assembly. (2008). Definition of organic agriculture. IFOAM ORGANIC INTERNATIONAL. https://www.ifoam.bio/whyorganic/organic-landmarks/definition-organic Heena, Malik, D. P., & Tanwar, N. (2021a). Growth in area coverage and production under organic farming in India. Economic Affairs, 66(4), 611–617. https://doi.org/10.46852/04242513.4.2021.13 Heena, Malik, D., & Pant, P. (2021b). An economic comparison of organic and conventional guava cultivation in Hisar district of Haryana. The Pharma Innovation Journal, 10(4), 366–371. http://www.thepharmajournal.com Jouzi, Z., Azadi, H., Taheri, F., Zarafshani, K., Gebrehiwot, K., Van Passel, S., & Lebailly, P. (2017). Organic farming and small-scale Farmers: Main opportunities and challenges. Ecological Economics.132, 144–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.10.016 Kirchmann, H. (2019). Why organic farming is not the way forward. Outlook on Agriculture, 48(1), 22–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030727019831702 Krause, J., & Machek, O. (2018). A comparative analysis of organic and conventional farmers in the czech republic. Agricultural Economics (Czech Republic), 64(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.17221/161/2016AGRICECON Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 31 Lesk, C., Rowhani, P., &amp; Ramankutty, N. (2016). Influence of extreme weather disasters on globalcrop production. Nature, 529(7584), 84–87. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16467 MacRae, R. J., Frick, B., & Martin, R. C. (2011). Economic and social impacts of organic production systems. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 87(5), 1037–1044. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4141/CJPS07 135 Mariappan, K., & Zhou, D. (2019). A threat of farmers’ suicide and the opportunity in organic farming for sustainable agricultural development in India.",
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    "text": "MacRae, R. J., Frick, B., & Martin, R. C. (2011). Economic and social impacts of organic production systems. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 87(5), 1037–1044. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4141/CJPS07 135 Mariappan, K., & Zhou, D. (2019). A threat of farmers’ suicide and the opportunity in organic farming for sustainable agricultural development in India. Sustainability, 11(8). 117. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082400 Manjunatha, T., & Puttaswamaiah, S. (2021). Comparative economic analysis of organic and conventional farming in Karnataka. Indian Journal of Economics and Development, 17(4), 757–766. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.35716/IJED/2 1106 Narayanan, S. (2005). Organic Farming In India: Relevance, Problems And Constraints. Department of Economic Analysis and Research. Mumbai: National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development. https://www.nabard.org/demo/auth/writeread data/File/OC 38.pdf Ohlan, R. (2016). Economic Viability of Organic Farming in Haryana. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274 062933 Pimentel, D. (1996). Green revolution agriculture and chemical hazards. Science of the Total Environment, 188(SUPPL. 1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(96)05280-1 Ramesh, P., Singh, M., & Subba Rao, A. (2005). Organic farming: Its relevance to the Indian context. Current Science, 88 (4),561–568. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228 613838 Randive, K., Raut, T., & Jawadand, S. (2021). An overview of the global fertiliser trends and India’s position in 2020. Mineral Economics, 34(3), 371–384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-020-00246-z Reddy, B. S. (2010). Organic Farming: Status, Issues and Prospects-A Review. Agricultural Economics. Research Review, 23(2), 343–358. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.97015 Reganold, J. P., & Wachter, J. M. (2016). Organic agriculture in the twenty-first century. Nature Plants, 2, 15221. https://doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2015.221 Rieple, A., & Singh, R. (2010). A value chain analysis of the organic cotton industry: The case of UK retailers and Indian suppliers. Ecological Economics, 69(11), 2292–2302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.06.025 Rozelle, S., Veeck, G., &amp; Huang, J. (1997). The impact of environmental degradation on grain production in China, 1975-1990. Economic Geography, 73(1), 44–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.19448287.1997.tb00084.x Schoonbeek, S., Azadi, H., Mahmoudi, H., Derudder, B., De Maeyer, P., & Witlox, F. (2013). Organic Agriculture and Undernourishment in Developing Countries: Main Potentials and Challenges.",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
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    "text": "Rozelle, S., Veeck, G., &amp; Huang, J. (1997). The impact of environmental degradation on grain production in China, 1975-1990. Economic Geography, 73(1), 44–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.19448287.1997.tb00084.x Schoonbeek, S., Azadi, H., Mahmoudi, H., Derudder, B., De Maeyer, P., & Witlox, F. (2013). Organic Agriculture and Undernourishment in Developing Countries: Main Potentials and Challenges. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 53(9), 917–928. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.57388 6 Seufert, V., Ramankutty, N., & Foley, J. A. (2012). Comparing the yields of organic and conventional agriculture. Nature, 485, 229–232. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11069 Šeremešić, S., Dolijanović, Ž., Simin, M. T., Vojnov, B., & Trbić, D. G. (2021). The future we want: Sustainable development goals accomplishment with organic agriculture. Problemy Ekorozwoju, 16(2), 171–180. https://doi.org/10.35784/pe.2021.2.18 Shehrawat, P. S., Mukteshawar, R., Abu, N., & Saeed, B. (2016). Study of constraints analysis in organic farming cultivation in Sonipat and Hisar district of Haryana state, India. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 8(1), 100-106. www.ansfoundation.org Sihi, D., Sharma, D. K., Pathak, H., Singh, Y. V., Sharma, O. P., Lata, Chaudhary, A., & Dari, B. Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 32 (2012). Effect of organic farming on productivity and quality of basmati rice. Oryza, 49(1), 24–29. http://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?targe t=ijor:oryza&volume=49&issue=1&article=004 Singh, I. P., & Grover, D. K. (2011). Economic viability of organic farming: An empirical experience of wheat cultivation in Punjab. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 24, 275–281. https://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?targ et=ijor:aerr&volume=24&issue=2&article=010 Smith, O. M., Cohen, A. L., Rieser, C. J., Davis, A. G., Taylor, J. M., Adesanya, A. W., Jones, M. S., Meier, A. R., Reganold, J. P., Orpet, R. J., Northfield, T. D., & Crowder, D. W. (2019). Organic farming provides reliable environmental benefits but increases variability in crop yields: A global meta-analysis. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 3(82), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2019.00082 Thakur, D. S., & Sharma, K. D. (2005). Organic farming for sustainable agriculture",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
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    "text": "Reganold, J. P., Orpet, R. J., Northfield, T. D., & Crowder, D. W. (2019). Organic farming provides reliable environmental benefits but increases variability in crop yields: A global meta-analysis. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 3(82), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2019.00082 Thakur, D. S., & Sharma, K. D. (2005). Organic farming for sustainable agriculture and meeting the challenges of food security in 21st century: An economic analysis. Indian Journal of Agriclture Economic, 60(2), 205–219. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.204396 Tiraieyari, N., Hamzah, A., & Samah, B. A. (2014). Organic farming and sustainable agriculture in Malaysia: Organic farmers’ challenges towards adoption. Asian Social Science, 10(4), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v10n4p1 Tripathi, A., & Prasad, A. R. (2009). Agricultural development in India since independence: A study on progress, performance, and determinants. Journal of Emerging Knowledge on Emerging Markets, 1(1), 63–92. https://doi.org/10.7885/1946-651x.1007 Tscharntke, T., Grass, I., Wanger, T. C., Westphal, C., & Batáry, P. (2021). Beyond organic farming – harnessing biodiversityfriendly landscapes. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 36(10), 919–930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2021.06.010 UN DESA. (2023). India to overtake China as world’s most populous country in April 2023. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. https://www.un.org/en/desa/india-overtakechina-world-most-populous-country-april-2023united-nations-projects UNDP, & OPHI. (2022). Global Multidimensional Poverty Index 2022. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI). https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/ hdp-document/2022mpireportenpdf.pdf Vigar, V., Myers, S., Oliver, C., Arellano, J., Robinson, S., & Leifert, C. (2020). A systematic review of organic versus conventional. Nutrients,12 (7), 1-32. https://doi.org/doi:10.3390/nu12010007 Watcher , J. M., Painter, K. M., CarpenterBoggs, L. A., Huggins, D. R., & Reganld, J. P. (2019, August 24). Productivity, economic performance, and soil quality of conventional, mixed, and organic dryland farming systems in eastern Washington State. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 286 (12), 1-12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.10666 5 Willer, H., Trávníček, J., Meier, C., & Schlatter, B. (2022). The world of organic agriculture:Statistics and emerging trends 2022. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL),",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "performance, and soil quality of conventional, mixed, and organic dryland farming systems in eastern Washington State. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 286 (12), 1-12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.10666 5 Willer, H., Trávníček, J., Meier, C., & Schlatter, B. (2022). The world of organic agriculture:Statistics and emerging trends 2022. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Frick, and IFOAM. https://www.ifoam.bio/en%0Ahttps://shop.fibl. org/CHde/mwdownloads/download/link/id/109 3/?ref=1 Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 33 Annexure Zone-Wise Organic Production in India from 2012-13 to 2021-22 Country Region States Total Total Production (in million) India North-Eastern States Arunachal Pradesh 865.152 0.26 Assam 210383.414 Meghalaya 40394.118 Manipur 211.11 Nagaland 5186.914 Sikkim 2507.123 Tripura 2552.495 Eastern States Bihar 38.847 0.93 Jharkhand 3.385 Orissa 789152.682 West Bengal 146400.408 Northern States Haryana 42773.253 1.62 Himachal Pradesh 28404.564 Jammu & Kashmir 237352.406 Punjab 6589.648 Uttar Pradesh 1012523.221 Uttarakhand 296158.164 Southern States Andhra Pradesh 112936.847 2.91 Karnataka 2432947.693 Kerala 179763.3 Tamil Nadu 173604.556 Telangana 13702.045 Central State Chhattisgarh 93415.42 7.09 Madhya Pradesh 6999428.582 Western States Goa 33250.619 7.21 Gujarat 840199.082 Maharashtra 5012735.384 Rajasthan 1327581.696 Overall Total (India) 20041062.13 20.04 Source: APEDA, 2022 Ethical Approval and Conflict of Interest We prepared this manuscript following the ethical issues as per the Helsinki Declaration. We also declare that there is no conflict of interest in relation to the research, authorship, and publication of this study. Author Contribution Statement Avinash: Collecting and analysing data, developing the first draft, and cross-checking the references. Dr Vikas Batra: Conceptualisation, Guidance and Supervision, developing final draft alongside editing and reviewing. Both the authors read and approved the final manuscript prepared for submission. Informed Consent All necessary consents were taken while conducting and developing this study. Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 34 Funding and Data Availability Statement We declare that we received no funding to conduct this",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "authors read and approved the final manuscript prepared for submission. Informed Consent All necessary consents were taken while conducting and developing this study. Avi & Batra. Space and Culture, India 2023, 11:2 Page | 34 Funding and Data Availability Statement We declare that we received no funding to conduct this study. All the data, including the data in Annexure, can be found in the paper here. About the Authors Mr. Avinash is a UGCJunior Research Fellow and has published several research papers in academic journals and books. Dr. Vikas Batra holds more than 14 years of teaching experience and supervised two PhD and five M.Phil. students. His teaching and research interests lie in Development Economics, Labour Economics and Agricultural Economics.",
    "source": "Organic_Farming_in_India_Evolution_Current_Status_.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India: A narrative of India’s sustainability efforts vis-à-vis the world Research The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), 2024 Publication Title Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India: A narrative of India's sustainability efforts vis-à-vis the world Authors RR Rashmi, Distinguished Fellow, TERI Manish Anand, Senior Fellow, TERI Acknowledgements We thank Abhas Mukherjee for publication support, Mannu Mahto for the cover design, and Aman Sachdeva for printing support. We acknowledge Liji Joy for administrative support. Contents Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... 1 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 3 2. Biodiversity Conservation & Land Restoration: Key to Sustainable Development .............. 5 2.1 Significance and Role in Global Environmental Goals ................................................... 5 2.2 Co-Benefits for Food Security and Agricultural Productivity ......................................... 7 2.3 Broader Socio-Economic Impacts .................................................................................... 7 2.4 Synergies Between LDN and the SDGs ........................................................................... 7 3. Biodiversity and Land Restoration: Global Initiatives .......................................................... 8 3.1 Overview of International Agreements and Initiatives on Land Restoration................... 9 3.2 International Commitments and Restoration Targets..................................................... 10 4. Biodiversity and Land Restoration: India’s Initiatives ........................................................ 12 4.1 Historical Context and Policy Framework ..................................................................... 12 4.2 Institutional Framework for Biodiversity Conservation and Land Restoration in India 13 4.3 Financing of Biodiversity Conservation and Land Restoration Efforts in India............ 16 4.4 Biodiversity Conservation Efforts .................................................................................. 17 4.5 Land Restoration Efforts ................................................................................................ 20 4.6 Success Stories ............................................................................................................... 24 5. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in Developed Countries ............................................... 28 5.1 Overview of Policies and Legal Frameworks ................................................................ 28 5.2 Major Conservation and Restoration Programmes in Developed Countries ................. 28 5.3 Technological and Financial Investments ...................................................................... 29 5.4 Success Stories and Case Studies ................................................................................... 29 6. Comparative Analysis of India’s Initiatives vis-à-vis Developed Countries ....................... 30 6.1 Policy and Governance................................................................................................... 30 6.2 Scale, Scope, and Impacts of Initiatives ......................................................................... 31 6.3 Technological Innovations Used in Conservation and Restoration ............................... 32 6.4",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Technological and Financial Investments ...................................................................... 29 5.4 Success Stories and Case Studies ................................................................................... 29 6. Comparative Analysis of India’s Initiatives vis-à-vis Developed Countries ....................... 30 6.1 Policy and Governance................................................................................................... 30 6.2 Scale, Scope, and Impacts of Initiatives ......................................................................... 31 6.3 Technological Innovations Used in Conservation and Restoration ............................... 32 6.4 Financial Resources........................................................................................................ 32 6.5 Socio-Economic and Cultural Factors............................................................................ 33 6.6 Challenges and Limitations ............................................................................................ 35 7. Lessons Learned and Opportunities for Collaboration ........................................................ 36 7.1 Policy and Governance................................................................................................... 36 7.2 Technology ..................................................................................................................... 36 7.3 Financial Resources........................................................................................................ 36 7.4 Socio-Economic and Cultural Factors............................................................................ 38 7.5 Identification of Best Practices that can be Adapted to India’s Context ........................ 38 7.6 Opportunities for South-North Collaboration ................................................................ 38 7.7 Future Directions for India’s Biodiversity and Land Restoration .................................. 39 8. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 41 References ................................................................................................................................ 43 List of Figures Figure 1: Anthropogenic-induced degradation in different world regions ............................... 3 Figure 2: Percent degraded land in India as per land use type................................................... 4 Figure 3: Drivers of degradation and the percent total geographical area affected by these drivers ........................................................................................................................................ 5 Figure 4: Ecosystem function and trade-offs in land restoration ............................................... 7 Figure 5: Key milestones of India's biodiversity and land restoration policies ....................... 13 Figure 6: Institutional framework for conservation and land restoration efforts in India ....... 15 List of Tables Table 1: Benefits of restoring various land-based ecosystems worldwide ................................ 5 Table 2: SDGs and land restoration ........................................................................................... 8 Table 3: Key global conventions on restoration and biodiversity conservation ...................... 11 Table 4: India's achievements in various biodiversity conservation initiatives and programmes.............................................................................................................................. 19 Table 5: India's achievements in various land restoration initiatives and programmes ........... 23 Table 6: Key conservation and restoration successes: case studies from India ....................... 26 Table 7: India's approach and capabilities in biodiversity conservation and land restoration compared to those",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "achievements in various biodiversity conservation initiatives and programmes.............................................................................................................................. 19 Table 5: India's achievements in various land restoration initiatives and programmes ........... 23 Table 6: Key conservation and restoration successes: case studies from India ....................... 26 Table 7: India's approach and capabilities in biodiversity conservation and land restoration compared to those of developed countries ............................................................................... 34 List of Boxes Box 1: Key Highlights of India’s Achievements in Biodiversity & Land Restoration ........... 27 Box 2: Innovative Financing Approaches for Conservation and Land Restoration ................ 37 List of Acronyms APCNF Andhra Pradesh Community-Managed Natural Farming BHS Biodiversity Heritage Sites CAMPA Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority CBD Convention on Biological Diversity EDCs Eco-Development Committees GEF Global Environment Facility G20 Group of Twenty ISFR Indian State of Forest Report ISRO Indian Space Research Organization IWMP Integrated Watershed Management Programme JFMCs Joint Forest Management Committees LDN Land Degradation Neutrality MoEFCC Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change MPAs Marine Protected Areas NABP National Biodiversity Action Plan NAP National Afforestation Programme NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change NBSAPs National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans PDMC Public Debt Management Cell PMKSY Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation SBBs State Biodiversity Boards SDGs Sustainable Development Goals UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFF United Nations Forum on Forests UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 1 of 46 Executive Summary This paper examines India’s biodiversity conservation and land restoration efforts within the framework of global sustainability goals, comparing them with initiatives in developed countries. Recognizing the critical role of biodiversity in ecological stability, it explores international frameworks such as the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "biodiversity conservation and land restoration efforts within the framework of global sustainability goals, comparing them with initiatives in developed countries. Recognizing the critical role of biodiversity in ecological stability, it explores international frameworks such as the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). These frameworks emphasize the importance of land restoration in addressing global environmental challenges, including commitments like the Bonn Challenge to restore 350 million hectares (Mha) of degraded land by 2030. The paper traces the evolution of India’s biodiversity and land restoration policies, showcasing the progressive nature of its legislative and programmatic framework. Key policies and laws such as the Biological Diversity Act (2002) and the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) provide the foundation for India's efforts in protecting and rehabilitating its natural ecosystems. Additionally, the analysis covers major conservation initiatives such as Project Tiger, which focuses on the protection of India’s flagship species and their habitats, and the Green India Mission, which aims to restore forest and tree cover while enhancing ecosystem services. The study also investigates targeted efforts to combat desertification, a significant challenge in India due to its extensive arid and semi-arid regions. It emphasizes the crucial role of indigenous communities and the incorporation of traditional knowledge as key factors in the successful implementation of these initiatives. Examples of community-led conservation and restoration practices are provided, showcasing the effectiveness of local involvement. Initiatives such as Joint Forest Management Committees and Eco-Development Committees, along with projects in the Sundarbans and natural farming in Andhra Pradesh, demonstrate the importance of local participation in ecological restoration. These approaches merge traditional practices with modern conservation techniques, creating sustainable models that contribute to both national and global goals. For a comparative perspective, the study",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and Eco-Development Committees, along with projects in the Sundarbans and natural farming in Andhra Pradesh, demonstrate the importance of local participation in ecological restoration. These approaches merge traditional practices with modern conservation techniques, creating sustainable models that contribute to both national and global goals. For a comparative perspective, the study analyses biodiversity conservation and land restoration initiatives in developed countries, exploring their policy frameworks, implementation strategies, and outcomes. Noteworthy examples include the European Union’s Biodiversity Strategy, which is part of its Green Deal, and the United States' Endangered Species Act (ESA), both of which have robust legal backing and clear implementation mechanisms. The analysis delves into significant restoration programmes across Europe and North America, such as the EU’s LIFE Program and the US Conservation Reserve Program (CRP). These programmes are characterized by the use of advanced technologies like remote sensing, artificial intelligence, and environmental DNA (eDNA) for monitoring and assessing biodiversity and land health. Furthermore, the study emphasizes the substantial financial investments made in these regions, which have enabled large-scale restoration projects and contributed to more effective conservation outcomes. The comparative analysis reveals critical differences in policy execution between India and developed nations. While developed countries benefit from longer-standing legal frameworks, advanced technologies, and greater financial resources, India's approach is distinguished by its integration of community-based initiatives and traditional knowledge, providing unique social and cultural dimensions to conservation efforts. Challenges such as regulatory enforcement, varying socio-economic conditions, and the scale of land degradation present distinct obstacles Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 2 of 46 for India. However, the study identifies opportunities for South-North collaboration, where India can learn from technological advancements and financial models in developed countries while offering insights into community-driven approaches and traditional ecological practices. The paper concludes by offering recommendations for enhancing India's biodiversity and",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "in India Page 2 of 46 for India. However, the study identifies opportunities for South-North collaboration, where India can learn from technological advancements and financial models in developed countries while offering insights into community-driven approaches and traditional ecological practices. The paper concludes by offering recommendations for enhancing India's biodiversity and land restoration efforts, underscoring the necessity for innovative financing models to support these initiatives, increased funding mechanisms, and more robust stakeholder engagement. Key suggestions include exploring new funding mechanisms, such as green bonds and payments for ecosystem services, strengthening policy enforcement through public-private partnerships, and integrating traditional knowledge with modern conservation strategies. A balanced approach that combines local wisdom with global best practices is essential for India to effectively safeguard its diverse ecosystems amid ongoing environmental challenges. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 3 of 46 1. Introduction Land and soil degradation is influenced by both natural forces and human activity and has serious global implications. Land degradation is defined as a continuous decline in ecosystem services over time (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) specifically refers to desertification as land degradation in drylands, resulting in reduced biological and economic productivity (UNCCD, 2022). This degradation, whether driven by climate variability or human-induced activities, directly impacts natural resource productivity and biodiversity (Shao et al., 2016). Globally, approximately 3 billion people are affected by land degradation (van der Wiel et al., 2017; IPCC, 2019). Various assessments suggest that 20–40% of the world's land area is experiencing degradation to different degrees, with this degradation directly impacting half of the global population and posing risks to nearly 50% of the world's GDP (UNCCD, 2022). Environmental degradation poses a significant threat to 1.2 billion jobs globally, representing 40% of the world's workforce, as these jobs rely heavily on",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "experiencing degradation to different degrees, with this degradation directly impacting half of the global population and posing risks to nearly 50% of the world's GDP (UNCCD, 2022). Environmental degradation poses a significant threat to 1.2 billion jobs globally, representing 40% of the world's workforce, as these jobs rely heavily on ecosystem services (ILO, 2022). According to the FAO Synthesis Report on the State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture (FAO, 2021), South Asia exhibits the highest level of land degradation globally, with 41% of its land – equivalent to 126 million hectares (Mha) – strongly degraded due to intense agricultural activity, deforestation, and population pressures (Figure 1). Figure 1: Anthropogenic-induced degradation in different world regions Data Source: FAO (2021) Southern America follows with 16% of its land degraded, amounting to 153 Mha, largely driven by deforestation in the Amazon and cattle ranching. Sub-Saharan Africa has 14% of its land affected, with 149 Mha degraded, primarily due to desertification and unsustainable farming. Western and Southeast Asia also experience significant degradation, with 20% and 24% of their lands affected, respectively, largely due to agricultural expansion and water scarcity. Australia and New Zealand face lower degradation levels at 12%, with 34 Mha impacted. In Western & Central Europe and Eastern Europe & the Russian Federation, degradation rates are lower at 11% and 5%, but these regions still face issues like soil erosion, with 12 Mha and 21 Mha strongly degraded. Central America & the Caribbean, Northern 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Percentage of Affected Region Strongly degraded (Mha) Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 4 of 46 America, and the Pacific Islands show varying levels of degradation, with the Pacific Islands having",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Percentage of Affected Region Strongly degraded (Mha) Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 4 of 46 America, and the Pacific Islands show varying levels of degradation, with the Pacific Islands having the least at just 2%. India, home to over 1.3 billion people, faces significant challenges with 29.77% of its geographic area (97.85 Mha) under degradation as of 2018–19, an increase of 3.32 Mha. since 2003–05 (SAC, 2021). Factors such as water erosion, vegetation degradation, and wind erosion are primary drivers of this degradation, which is concentrated in states like Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Telangana. The analysis of degraded land in India reveals considerable variation across different land use types (Figure 2). Figure 2: Percent degraded land in India as per land use type Data Source: SAC (2021) Unirrigated agricultural land stands out with the highest degradation rate at 38%, largely due to soil erosion, nutrient loss, and water stress. In contrast, irrigated agricultural land shows a lower degradation rate of 8%, benefiting from irrigation but still facing challenges like salinization. Barren lands (4%) and periglacial areas (4%) are prone to degradation due to natural factors, while dune/sandy areas (6%) experience wind erosion. Forests (22%) suffer from deforestation and overgrazing, and scrublands (14%) are affected by land clearing and desertification. The \"Others\" category (4%) encompasses various land types, each with unique degradation drivers. Overall, unirrigated agricultural and forest lands are the most affected, highlighting the urgent need for targeted land management strategies in these critical areas. The analysis of the drivers of land degradation in India highlights several significant factors impacting land quality across the country's geographical area (Figure 3). Water erosion is the most critical driver, affecting 11% of the area,",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "affected, highlighting the urgent need for targeted land management strategies in these critical areas. The analysis of the drivers of land degradation in India highlights several significant factors impacting land quality across the country's geographical area (Figure 3). Water erosion is the most critical driver, affecting 11% of the area, often exacerbated by deforestation and poor agricultural practices. Vegetation degradation follows closely at 9.15%, driven by deforestation and overgrazing, leading to increased soil erosion and loss of biodiversity. Wind erosion affects 5.46% of land, particularly in arid regions, due to inadequate land management. Other notable drivers that include salinity (1.11%), frost shattering (1.05%), and urban settlement (0.69%) emphasize the urgent need for effective land management strategies, reforestation, and sustainable agricultural practices to combat these drivers and enhance land health. 38% 8% 4% 6% 22% 14% 4%4% Agriculture unirrigated Agriculture irrigated Barren Dune/Sandy area Forest Scrubland Periglacial Others Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 5 of 46 Figure 3: Drivers of degradation and the percent total geographical area affected by these drivers Data Source: SAC (2021) The need for sustainable land management practices has gained prominence as nations strive to restore degraded lands with a view to protect environment while ensuring food security and inclusive growth. Globally, efforts like the Bonn Challenge aim to restore 350 Mha of degraded land by 2030, and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 15, emphasize land restoration as vital to achieving ecological sustainability. In alignment with these international commitments, India has pledged to restore 26 Mha of degraded land by 2030 (Dave et al., 2019). This paper examines India's initiatives in biodiversity conservation and land restoration, comparing them to global practices and highlighting opportunities for greater impact through South-North collaboration. 2. Biodiversity Conservation & Land Restoration: Key to Sustainable Development 2.1 Significance",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to restore 26 Mha of degraded land by 2030 (Dave et al., 2019). This paper examines India's initiatives in biodiversity conservation and land restoration, comparing them to global practices and highlighting opportunities for greater impact through South-North collaboration. 2. Biodiversity Conservation & Land Restoration: Key to Sustainable Development 2.1 Significance and Role in Global Environmental Goals Restoration of degraded land and improved land management are crucial strategies for achieving global environmental sustainability. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) highlights that achieving the goals of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration could help restore 350 Mha of degraded land by 2030, potentially removing 13 to 26 gigatonnes of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere and generating $9 trillion in ecosystem services. Restoration and land management can directly contribute to climate change mitigation by enhancing terrestrial carbon storage (Griscom et al., 2017; Strassburg et al., 2019). Moreover, they improve ecosystem resilience, helping adapt to climate risks such as flash floods and landslides, while improving soil quality, which enhances resilience to extreme weather events like droughts and floods (Abhilash et al., 2016; Sanz et al., 2017). Land-based restoration under different ecosystems provides distinct yet interconnected benefits that contribute to the well-being of people and the environment (Table 1). Table 1: Benefits of restoring various land-based ecosystems worldwide 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Water erosion Vegetation degradation Wind erosion Salinity Frost shattering Settlement Barren/Rocky Mass movement Water logging Manmade Percent total geographical area affected Drivers Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 6 of 46 Ecosystem Restoration Benefits Data Sources Farmlands (Agricultural Lands) Increased soil fertility, water retention, carbon sequestration, biodiversity restoration Carbon sequestration: 0.7–1.1 tonnes CO2/ha/year Water retention: 10–20% Biodiversity: 30–50% richer Lal, R. (2020) FAO (2011) Forests Carbon storage, water cycle improvement, biodiversity conservation, flood risk reduction Carbon sequestration: 3.7–6 tonnes CO2/ha/year",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "46 Ecosystem Restoration Benefits Data Sources Farmlands (Agricultural Lands) Increased soil fertility, water retention, carbon sequestration, biodiversity restoration Carbon sequestration: 0.7–1.1 tonnes CO2/ha/year Water retention: 10–20% Biodiversity: 30–50% richer Lal, R. (2020) FAO (2011) Forests Carbon storage, water cycle improvement, biodiversity conservation, flood risk reduction Carbon sequestration: 3.7–6 tonnes CO2/ha/year Species richness: up to 50% Water: 15–40% increase Griscom et al. (2017) FAO & UNEP (2020) Ellison et al. (2017) Grasslands, Shrublands, Savannahs Carbon sequestration, soil health improvement, biodiversity increase, drought resilience Carbon sequestration: up to 1.5 tonnes CO2/ha/year Soil carbon: 30–40% increase Biodiversity: 25–50% Conant et al. (2017) FAO (2015) White et al. (2000) Mountains Carbon storage, slope stabilization, enhanced water retention, erosion control, unique biodiversity Carbon sequestration: up to 3 tonnes CO2/ha/year Water retention: 10–30% Erosion control: up to 70% UNEP (2022) Körner et al. (2017) Peatlands Carbon sinks, water retention, flood control, habitat for unique species Carbon storage: up to 500 tonnes CO2/ha Water retention: 10–20x more water Biodiversity: 30–60% Joosten (2009) Bonn et al. (2016) Urban Areas Improved air and water quality, carbon storage, heat island reduction, biodiversity increase, recreational space improvement Carbon sequestration: up to 5 tonnes CO2/ha/year Temperature reduction: 2–3°C Air pollutants: 10–20% Nowak et al. (2018) Bowler et al. (2010) Restoration and improved land management approaches are recognized as cross-cutting instruments under the Rio Conventions—covering biodiversity conservation, desertification, land degradation, and climate change—and support a broad range of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Although these efforts yield benefits on different temporal scales, they may also present trade-offs, particularly in land use and food security (IPBES, 2018; Navarro et al., 2017; IRP, 2019). Restoration improves key ecosystem services like carbon sequestration, water retention, and soil fertility, while trade-offs may include temporary reductions in land available for agriculture (Figure 4). Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "also present trade-offs, particularly in land use and food security (IPBES, 2018; Navarro et al., 2017; IRP, 2019). Restoration improves key ecosystem services like carbon sequestration, water retention, and soil fertility, while trade-offs may include temporary reductions in land available for agriculture (Figure 4). Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 7 of 46 Figure 4: Ecosystem function and trade-offs in land restoration Source: Adapted from van der Esch (2022) 2.2 Co-Benefits for Food Security and Agricultural Productivity Land restoration and conservation strategies also contribute to food security by safeguarding ecosystem services vital to agriculture, including soil protection, pollination, nutrient cycling, and water retention (Bommarco et al., 2013; Foley et al., 2011; Bossio et al., 2010). By supporting shortand long-term agricultural productivity, they help avert biodiversity loss and species extinction (Strassburg et al., 2019). However, trade-offs may occur, for instance, when land is set aside for restoration, reducing agricultural production temporarily (Dudley et al., 2005; IRP, 2019). Strategic planning is essential to balance conservation needs and food security requirements, ensuring sustainable land use without compromising long-term ecological or agricultural goals. 2.3 Broader Socio-Economic Impacts Healthy and productive landscapes, supported by restoration and sustainable land management, address broader human security concerns. This includes improving livelihoods, employment, health, and education opportunities, thus fostering socio-economic stability and peace (Lonergan, 2012; Abhilash et al., 2016). Restored lands and secure land tenure can diversify livelihoods beyond agriculture, contributing to long-term socio-economic resilience and stability (Mach & Etkins, 2019). 2.4 Synergies Between LDN and the SDGs The concept of Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) was introduced at the 2012 Rio+20 Conference as a global goal to maintain or enhance land productivity while restoring degraded lands. Defined by the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), LDN aims to ensure that the quality and quantity of land resources remain",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "The concept of Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) was introduced at the 2012 Rio+20 Conference as a global goal to maintain or enhance land productivity while restoring degraded lands. Defined by the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), LDN aims to ensure that the quality and quantity of land resources remain stable or increase within specific temporal and spatial scales (Mukherjee & Samanta, 2018). Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 8 of 46 LDN has co-benefits across climate change mitigation, adaptation, biodiversity conservation, food security, and sustainable livelihoods. Achieving LDN requires three key actions: • Avoiding new land degradation by protecting healthy lands. • Reducing existing degradation through sustainable land management practices. • Restoring degraded lands to a natural or more productive state. The successful implementation of LDN aligns the goals of the UNCCD, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), enabling countries to achieve multiple benefits from land restoration investments. Land restoration and improved land management contribute significantly to achieving multiple SDGs, with strong synergies across several goals (Table 2). For instance, landscape restoration mitigates climate change (SDG 13), supports food production (SDGs 1, 2), improves air and water quality (SDGs 3, 6, 14), and promotes biodiversity (SDG 15). Additionally, restored lands create job opportunities, contributing to social equity and economic growth (SDGs 1, 5, 8, 10). However, trade-offs may arise, such as between agricultural production and conservation goals when land is repurposed for restoration. A balanced, well-planned approach is essential to maximize synergies and minimize negative impacts on food security and livelihoods. Table 2: SDGs and land restoration SDGs Contribution from Land Restoration SDG 1 (No Poverty) Creates rural jobs, economic diversification SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) Enhances food production and security SDG 3 (Good Health and Wellbeing) Improves air and water quality,",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "synergies and minimize negative impacts on food security and livelihoods. Table 2: SDGs and land restoration SDGs Contribution from Land Restoration SDG 1 (No Poverty) Creates rural jobs, economic diversification SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) Enhances food production and security SDG 3 (Good Health and Wellbeing) Improves air and water quality, recreational opportunities SDG 6 (Clean Water) Increases water retention and quality SDG 13 (Climate Action) Increases carbon sequestration, resilience to climate risks SDG 15 (Life on Land) Enhances biodiversity, restores ecosystems 3. Biodiversity and Land Restoration: Global Initiatives Ecosystem restoration, including improved land management, has gained significant traction as a critical tool for achieving global sustainability objectives. These efforts are reflected in major global frameworks, such as the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Restoration ambitions are also embedded within the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and feature in various other international and regional agreements and initiatives (Suding et al., 2015; Chazdon et al., 2017). Numerous initiatives have emerged to enhance knowledge-sharing and capacity development, such as the Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration (established in 2003), the Bonn Challenge (launched in 2011), and the New York Declaration on Forests (announced in 2014). Most notably, the United Nations declared 2021–2030 as the UN Decade on Ecosystem Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 9 of 46 Restoration, an effort led by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the UN Environment Programme (UNEP). This initiative is supported by a range of collaborating agencies, including the three Rio Conventions, other international treaties, and regional actors like the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Restoration efforts are recognized as cross-cutting solutions under these conventions (Rio Conventions, 2012) and are key to sustainable development (Navarro",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "This initiative is supported by a range of collaborating agencies, including the three Rio Conventions, other international treaties, and regional actors like the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Restoration efforts are recognized as cross-cutting solutions under these conventions (Rio Conventions, 2012) and are key to sustainable development (Navarro et al., 2017). They can concurrently contribute to the objectives of all three Rio Conventions—biodiversity conservation, desertification prevention, and climate change mitigation—offering co-benefits across multiple SDGs. However, these outcomes may unfold at varying timescales and involve trade-offs (IRP, 2019). The inherent synergies between restoration efforts and global targets create opportunities to develop integrated frameworks for restoration measures, policy coherence, and cost-effective actions (Akhtar-Schuster et al., 2017). The growing emphasis on restoration is in response to persisting land degradation and adverse impact on natural and human systems as highlighted in high-profile scientific reports that have underscored the interconnected threats of climate change, land degradation, deforestation, and biodiversity loss. Noteworthy publications include the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) Assessment Report on Land Degradation and Restoration (2018), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on Climate Change and Land (2019), and the UNCCD Global Land Outlook (2017). Additionally, academic studies on reforestation potential and nature-based solutions have fuelled further interest (Bastin et al., 2019; Griscom et al., 2017; Roe et al., 2019; Strassburg et al., 2019). 3.1 Overview of International Agreements and Initiatives on Land Restoration A wide array of multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) and multi-actor initiatives exist that include land restoration and improved land management as central goals. These initiatives are driven by both public and private actors, often blending international and regional efforts. Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs): Key MEAs, such as the three Rio Conventions (UNFCCC, CBD, UNCCD), aim to address climate change, biodiversity loss,",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "exist that include land restoration and improved land management as central goals. These initiatives are driven by both public and private actors, often blending international and regional efforts. Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs): Key MEAs, such as the three Rio Conventions (UNFCCC, CBD, UNCCD), aim to address climate change, biodiversity loss, and land degradation. Restoration targets are also linked to conventions such as the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, and the UN Forum on Forests (UNFF). Additionally, the SDGs include several targets focused on restoration, particularly in areas relevant to climate action, clean water, zero hunger, and life on land (SDGs 2, 6, 13, 15). Biodiversity conservation and land restoration play a central role in addressing interconnected global challenges, including climate change, food security, and sustainable development. Achieving Land Degradation Neutrality and implementing sustainable land management practices are crucial steps towards safeguarding ecological, social, and economic well-being. By aligning goals across international frameworks and leveraging synergies across SDGs, countries can create more resilient, productive landscapes and foster a more sustainable future. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 10 of 46 Multi-actor Initiatives: Beyond the formal conventions, hybrid initiatives have emerged at various scales, involving governments, corporations, civil society, and non-state actors. Prominent examples include the Trillion Tree Campaign, which focuses on large-scale reforestation; the 4 per 1000 Initiative, which targets soil restoration; and efforts like the Bonn Challenge and the New York Declaration on Forests, which aim to restore landscapes to address climate change, human wellbeing, and biodiversity loss. 3.2 International Commitments and Restoration Targets Countries have made significant commitments to restore degraded lands through a variety of platforms, including the Bonn Challenge, the Rio Conventions, and regional initiatives. A global commitment range of 765 million to 1 billion hectares is projected for restoration",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "human wellbeing, and biodiversity loss. 3.2 International Commitments and Restoration Targets Countries have made significant commitments to restore degraded lands through a variety of platforms, including the Bonn Challenge, the Rio Conventions, and regional initiatives. A global commitment range of 765 million to 1 billion hectares is projected for restoration by 2030, depending on how different national commitments overlap or align across conventions and initiatives. Approximately 450 Mha are targeted under national voluntary programmes aimed at Land Degradation Neutrality, while 250 Mha are included in Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement. Additionally, around 90 Mha are committed through National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) under the CBD. The Bonn Challenge alone has set a target of restoring 150 Mha by 2020, which has been extended to 350 Mha by 2030 under the New York Declaration on Forests. The KunmingMontreal Global Biodiversity Framework, established under the CBD, sets ambitious goals such as reducing the loss of high-biodiversity areas to near-zero by 2030, restoring at least 30% of degraded ecosystems, and conserving 30% of terrestrial, inland water, coastal, and marine areas. Similarly, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) aims for achieving Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) by 2030, directly aligning with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 15.3, which emphasizes combating desertification and restoring degraded land. The SDGs themselves integrate biodiversity and land restoration across multiple targets, including SDGs 2.4 (sustainable food production), 6.6 (protection of water-related ecosystems), 13.1 (resilience to climate impacts), and 15 (life on land). The UN Strategic Plan for Forests 2030 aims to halt deforestation and forest degradation, with a target of increasing global forest area by 120 million hectares (Mha) by 2030. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands prioritizes the wise use and conservation of wetlands, addressing the drivers of wetland degradation. Meanwhile, the Sendai Framework",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Strategic Plan for Forests 2030 aims to halt deforestation and forest degradation, with a target of increasing global forest area by 120 million hectares (Mha) by 2030. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands prioritizes the wise use and conservation of wetlands, addressing the drivers of wetland degradation. Meanwhile, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction focuses on minimizing disaster risks through ecosystem-based adaptation and fostering resilient development. The G20 Global Land Initiative sets a goal to voluntarily reduce degraded land by 50% by 2040. In addition, during India's G20 Presidency in 2023, the inception of a Global Alliance focused on restoring lands affected by forest fires and mining was introduced as part of the Gandhinagar Implementation Roadmap and the Gandhinagar Information Platform (GIR-GIP). The Paris Agreement’s focus on mitigation and climate adaptation, along with the ambitious goals of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, reflects a collective effort to halt the degradation of essential ecosystems. These conventions promote restoration initiatives and enhance conservation practices worldwide. Moreover, they align with broader sustainable development goals, highlighting the interconnectedness of land, biodiversity, and climate action. Achieving these ambitious targets requires coordinated action across public, private, and civil society sectors, aligning international and national commitments and driving on Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 11 of 46 ground implementation. Table 3 presents key global conventions on restoration and biodiversity conservation. Table 3: Key global conventions on restoration and biodiversity conservation Global Conventions Remarks Paris Agreement (UNFCCC) Focus on mitigation through agriculture, forestry, and other land use (AFOLU), forest conservation and carbon stock enhancement (Article 5, REDD+), and climate adaptation (Article 7.1) Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (CBD) Goals include bringing the loss of areas of high biodiversity importance, close to zero by 2030, restoration of at least 30% of degraded ecosystems, and conservation of at least",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "use (AFOLU), forest conservation and carbon stock enhancement (Article 5, REDD+), and climate adaptation (Article 7.1) Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (CBD) Goals include bringing the loss of areas of high biodiversity importance, close to zero by 2030, restoration of at least 30% of degraded ecosystems, and conservation of at least 30% of terrestrial, inland water, and coastal and marine areas Achieving Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) (UNCCD) The goal to combat desertification and restore degraded land by 2030. Aligns with SDG Target 15.3 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Targets cover land restoration, biodiversity, and sustainable resource management (SDGs 2.4, 6.6, 13.1, 15.1–15.7) UN Strategic Plan for Forests 2030 (UNFF) Aims to halt deforestation and forest degradation, with a target of increasing forest area by 120 Mha by 2030. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Focuses on the wise use and conservation of wetlands to address degradation drivers Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction Aims to reduce disaster risk through ecosystem-based adaptation and resilient development Bonn Challenge Aims to restore 150 Mha by 2020, extended to 350 Mha by 2030 under the New York Declaration on Forests G20 Global Land Initiative Aims to achieve a 50% reduction in degraded land by 2040 on a voluntary basis. Inception of a Global Alliance on land restoration of forest fire and mining affected areas under the Gandhinagar Implementation Roadmap and the Gandhinagar Information Platform (GIR-GIP) G20 Initiatives under India’s Presidency, 2023 Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 12 of 46 4. Biodiversity and Land Restoration: India’s Initiatives 4.1 Historical Context and Policy Framework Evolution of Biodiversity and Land Restoration Policies in India After gaining independence, India's efforts towards biodiversity conservation and land restoration have evolved significantly. Initially, conservation efforts focused on wildlife protection, but the scope expanded to include ecosystems, forests, wetlands, and landscapes in subsequent decades.",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "4.1 Historical Context and Policy Framework Evolution of Biodiversity and Land Restoration Policies in India After gaining independence, India's efforts towards biodiversity conservation and land restoration have evolved significantly. Initially, conservation efforts focused on wildlife protection, but the scope expanded to include ecosystems, forests, wetlands, and landscapes in subsequent decades. The Constitution of India, through its Directive Principles, established the state’s responsibility to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife. Over time, these principles have been supported by comprehensive policies and programmes, positioning India at the forefront of global conservation efforts. Key Legislations & Programmes • The Biological Diversity Act (2002): Focuses on conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components, and equitable sharing of benefits arising from biological resources. • National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) (2008): A comprehensive plan to address climate change, comprising eight missions, including the Green India Mission, which focuses on afforestation and land restoration. • Forest Conservation Act (1980): Regulates deforestation and promotes the conservation of forest resources. • The Wildlife Protection Act (1972): Provides a framework for wildlife protection and the creation of national parks, sanctuaries, and conservation reserves. • The Compensatory Afforestation Act (CAMPA) (2016): Established authorities at the national and state levels to manage funds from user agencies. These funds are for compensatory afforestation and related purposes under the Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980. • National Action Plan to Combat Desertification (2023): Calls for synergized planning and convergence of afforestation schemes to boost eco-restoration efforts. It focuses on sustainable management of forests and natural resources, targeting vulnerable sites for effective restoration, but does not include financial assistance provisions. Achieving these restoration goals will require cooperation across multiple sectors and stakeholders, including governments, civil society, and the private sector. Successful implementation of restoration initiatives can address the critical",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "on sustainable management of forests and natural resources, targeting vulnerable sites for effective restoration, but does not include financial assistance provisions. Achieving these restoration goals will require cooperation across multiple sectors and stakeholders, including governments, civil society, and the private sector. Successful implementation of restoration initiatives can address the critical challenges of biodiversity loss, land degradation, and climate change, while simultaneously contributing to human well-being and economic development. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 13 of 46 Figure 5: Key milestones of India's biodiversity and land restoration policies 4.2 Institutional Framework for Biodiversity Conservation and Land Restoration in India India's commitment to restoring 26 Mha of degraded land by 2030 under the Bonn Challenge is guided by a robust policy and legal framework, including the Constitution of India, the Environmental Protection Act (1986), the Biological Diversity Act (2002), and the Forest (Conservation) Act (1980). These policies provide a foundation for environmental protection, sustainable use of resources, and regulatory mechanisms to control land diversion and degradation. Implementation of land restoration efforts involves key institutions at various levels. At the central level, the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) leads national initiatives such as the Green India Mission and the National Afforestation Programme (NAP). It also coordinates international commitments like the Bonn Challenge and Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) targets. The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) implements the Biological Diversity Act, while the National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB) promotes ecological restoration. Other central institutions like the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MoAFW) support restoration through programmes like the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) for afforestation and the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) for water management. At the state level, implementation is carried out by State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs),",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "(MoRD) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MoAFW) support restoration through programmes like the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) for afforestation and the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) for water management. At the state level, implementation is carried out by State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs), Forest Departments, and local institutions such as Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs), and Eco-Development Committees (EDCs). Communitybased organizations like Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and NGOs play a crucial role in facilitating local participation in restoration efforts. India's restoration strategy is implemented through various national-level programmes, including the NAP, Green India Mission, CAMPA, PMKSY, and the Integrated Watershed Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 14 of 46 Management Programme (IWMP). These programmes focus on key areas such as degraded forest lands, agricultural lands, wetlands, grasslands, and arid and semi-arid regions. Techniques such as agroforestry, assisted natural regeneration, eco-restoration, watershed management, and community-led conservation practices are employed to enhance vegetation cover, soil health, and biodiversity. Monitoring and reporting of progress are essential components of this framework. The National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) guides national priorities, while State Biodiversity Action Plans (SBAPs) address state-specific needs. Local Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) work with communities to document and protect biodiversity. The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), through its National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), provides critical satellite data and GIS tools for tracking land cover changes and degradation. The Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas, developed by ISRO, helps identify vulnerable areas. ISRO employs satellite-based imagery and advanced remote sensing techniques to enhance the monitoring and management of forest resources, degraded lands, and wildlife tracking in India. Utilizing satellites like the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) series, ISRO captures high-resolution images for forest cover mapping, which aids in assessing deforestation rates and identifying areas",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "employs satellite-based imagery and advanced remote sensing techniques to enhance the monitoring and management of forest resources, degraded lands, and wildlife tracking in India. Utilizing satellites like the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) series, ISRO captures high-resolution images for forest cover mapping, which aids in assessing deforestation rates and identifying areas of land degradation. The Forest Survey of India (FSI) conducts biennial assessments of forest cover. FSI, in collaboration with ISRO, conducts regular assessments that provide critical information for national forest policies. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) technology further enhances this effort by creating detailed three-dimensional representations of forest structures, allowing for accurate measurements of tree height, canopy density, and biomass, which are essential for managing forestry resources and assessing degraded lands. In wildlife management, ISRO employs satellite telemetry to track animal movements in realtime, aiding in understanding habitat usage and migration patterns. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) complement these efforts by mapping wildlife habitats and corridors, facilitating informed conservation decisions. Through these integrated technologies, ISRO significantly contributes to the sustainable management of natural resources and biodiversity in India. International collaboration is a key aspect of India's restoration efforts. The country actively participates in global agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Ramsar Convention, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). These align with national goals, particularly those related to Sustainable Development Goal 15 (SDG 15) and Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN). India reports its progress to these international bodies through mechanisms like the UNCCD, providing updates on efforts to combat desertification and restore degraded lands. The participatory and multi-institutional approach, combined with advanced monitoring systems, ensures that India is on track to achieve its ambitious restoration targets by 2030, fostering sustainable land management and biodiversity conservation across diverse ecosystems. Biodiversity",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "mechanisms like the UNCCD, providing updates on efforts to combat desertification and restore degraded lands. The participatory and multi-institutional approach, combined with advanced monitoring systems, ensures that India is on track to achieve its ambitious restoration targets by 2030, fostering sustainable land management and biodiversity conservation across diverse ecosystems. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 15 of 46 Figure 6: Institutional framework for conservation and land restoration efforts in India Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 16 of 46 4.3 Financing of Biodiversity Conservation and Land Restoration Efforts in India The financing of biodiversity conservation and land restoration efforts in India involves a combination of government funding, international support, public-private partnerships, and innovative financial mechanisms. The Indian government plays a crucial role in this landscape through its budget allocations and dedicated initiatives. For example, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) allocated approximately ₹30.8 billion for the 2023–24 fiscal year, marking a 24% increase over the revised estimates of 2022–23. About 25% of this allocation is directed towards initiatives related to Environment, Forestry, and Wildlife, which include the Green India Mission and Project Tiger (PRS Legislative research, 2023). A detailed Biodiversity Expenditure Review (2018) revealed that between 2012–13 and 2016– 17, approximately ₹200 billion crore ($2.64 billion) per year flowed from 116 schemes across 24 ministries and 29 departments (Ansari et al., 2018). Despite these efforts, the required funds significantly exceed the available resources. A Biodiversity Financial Needs Assessment estimates that around ₹900 billion ($12 billion) annually would be needed to effectively implement the National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) (Soundrapandi, 2017). International funding complements domestic efforts. Organizations like the Global Environment Facility (GEF) have supported projects in ecologically sensitive regions like the Western Ghats and Sundarbans, while bilateral partnerships with countries such as Germany and Japan",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "annually would be needed to effectively implement the National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) (Soundrapandi, 2017). International funding complements domestic efforts. Organizations like the Global Environment Facility (GEF) have supported projects in ecologically sensitive regions like the Western Ghats and Sundarbans, while bilateral partnerships with countries such as Germany and Japan have also bolstered conservation initiatives. These collaborations are crucial for India’s ambitious commitments under the Bonn Challenge. However, achieving such targets requires further financial support and cooperation from global partners. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) have gained momentum, with corporate entities and NGOs increasingly contributing to conservation projects. Companies like ITC Limited have invested in sustainable forestry in Rajasthan, integrating their corporate social responsibility (CSR) goals with conservation. Tata Steel, among others, has adopted sustainable land management practices that align with biodiversity goals. These private-sector investments play a vital role, especially when they are integrated into broader governmental programmes such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MNREGA), which supports tree-plantation drives and other activities that benefit biodiversity and rural livelihoods. Innovative financing mechanisms are being explored to bridge the funding gap. Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes, like those in Uttarakhand, reward communities for maintaining vital ecosystem services such as watershed management, thereby incentivizing sustainable land management.1 Crowdfunding platforms like Ketto2 have further enabled local conservation projects to raise funds directly from the public, supporting initiatives in regions like the Western Ghats. The green bond market in India has emerged as a significant source of sustainable finance. By 2021, India's green bond market had grown to a total of $18.9 billion, reflecting increasing interest in green investments. In February 2023, the Government of India issued its first sovereign green bonds worth ₹160 billion.3 The \"Framework for Sovereign Green Bonds\" outlines criteria for what qualifies as 'Green Projects,' enabling these",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "India's green bond market had grown to a total of $18.9 billion, reflecting increasing interest in green investments. In February 2023, the Government of India issued its first sovereign green bonds worth ₹160 billion.3 The \"Framework for Sovereign Green Bonds\" outlines criteria for what qualifies as 'Green Projects,' enabling these projects to secure funding through the issuance of green bonds and to request a share from the central government’s green bond proceeds. The process for securing such funding involves the 1 https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/indien/21166.pdf 2 https://www.ketto.org/fundraiser/support-community-led-nature-conservation-in-northeast-india 3 https://www.business-standard.com/opinion/columns/tiger-bonds-will-encourage-private-capital-participationin-conservation-123041400596_1.html Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 17 of 46 MoEFCC submitting an initial evaluation report to the Green Finance Working Committee (GFWC). The GFWC then evaluates the project, after which bonds are issued, with allocation and management overseen by the Public Debt Management Cell (PDMC) of the Ministry of Finance. However, the use of green bonds to fund the restoration of degraded forests in India has not picked up yet (Ranjan, 2022). Despite these diverse funding streams, significant challenges remain in scaling up and coordinating biodiversity finance. A 2020 study focusing on Maharashtra highlighted that biodiversity finance in India is highly fragmented, with multiple institutions directing funds without sufficient coordination or tracking mechanisms to ensure optimal use (Pandey et al., 2020). 4.4 Biodiversity Conservation Efforts Major Biodiversity Conservation Programmes India has launched several significant biodiversity conservation programmes that have gained international recognition for their success in protecting endangered species and ecosystems, while also engaging local communities in conservation efforts. India is notably one of the 17 megadiverse countries, housing 8% of the world’s species on just 2.4% of the planet's land area. Flagship Conservation Projects and Initiatives • Project Tiger (1973): India's iconic conservation initiative, aims to protect tigers as a key species for ecosystem biodiversity. The reserves use a core/buffer strategy: core",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the 17 megadiverse countries, housing 8% of the world’s species on just 2.4% of the planet's land area. Flagship Conservation Projects and Initiatives • Project Tiger (1973): India's iconic conservation initiative, aims to protect tigers as a key species for ecosystem biodiversity. The reserves use a core/buffer strategy: core areas designated as national parks or sanctuaries, and buffer zones comprising mixeduse land. The project focuses on a tiger-centric agenda within core areas while promoting a people-oriented approach in the buffers. • Project Elephant (1992): This initiative focuses on the conservation of elephants and their habitats, mitigating human–elephant conflicts. • Biodiversity Heritage Sites (2002): These sites are recognized for their rich biodiversity and receive special protection and management under the Biological Diversity Act of 2002. Wetland, Forest, and Coastal Ecosystem Conservation • National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA) (2013): A government initiative to protect and restore wetlands, lakes, and other aquatic ecosystems. • National Coastal Mission (2014): The government aims to protect, sustain, conserve, and enhance mangrove forests through a Central Sector Scheme under the National Coastal Mission Programme focused on the conservation and management of mangroves and coral reefs. Assistance is provided to coastal states and union territories for the implementation of action plans that include survey and demarcation, alternative and supplementary livelihoods, protective measures, and education and awareness activities. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 18 of 46 • Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes (MISHTI) (2023): Aims to promote and conserve mangroves as a unique natural ecosystem with high biological productivity and carbon sequestration potential, while also functioning as a bio-shield. • Amrit Dharohar Initiative (2023): Focuses on conserving the unique ecological and cultural values of Ramsar Sites in India, aiming to create models that can be replicated and scaled up for",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "as a unique natural ecosystem with high biological productivity and carbon sequestration potential, while also functioning as a bio-shield. • Amrit Dharohar Initiative (2023): Focuses on conserving the unique ecological and cultural values of Ramsar Sites in India, aiming to create models that can be replicated and scaled up for other important wetlands. It emphasizes safeguarding biodiversity, supporting nature tourism and local livelihoods, and promoting sustainable wetland management to maintain ecological balance and enhance ecosystem services. • Protected Areas Network (1972): Established under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, this network includes national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and marine protected areas, highlighting the need for habitat connectivity to reduce fragmentation. Community-led Conservation • Eco-Development Committees (EDCs) (1990): These committees are modelled after Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs) for communities around Protected Areas (PAs) and nearby forested areas. Their primary goal is to protect wildlife and biodiversity while promoting eco-development activities in villages to encourage community participation in conservation. Achievements Under Biodiversity Conservation Initiatives India has made significant strides in biodiversity conservation through a series of targeted initiatives. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002, plays a central role in these efforts, aiming to conserve the country’s biological resources and regulate access to ensure equitable sharing of benefits. Key measures under the Act include the establishment of State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) and Union Territory Biodiversity Councils (UTBCs) across all states and UTs, the declaration of Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS), and the identification of threatened species in 18 states and 2 Union Territories. Additionally, 2.77 lakh Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) and 2.67 lakh People’s Biodiversity Registers have been established across 28 states and 7 Union Territories, further bolstering conservation efforts.4 Project Tiger has also contributed to a 42.3% increase in the tiger population between 2014 and 2022, with the All India Tiger Estimation (2018–19) earning",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "lakh Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) and 2.67 lakh People’s Biodiversity Registers have been established across 28 states and 7 Union Territories, further bolstering conservation efforts.4 Project Tiger has also contributed to a 42.3% increase in the tiger population between 2014 and 2022, with the All India Tiger Estimation (2018–19) earning a Guinness World Record for being the largest camera-trap wildlife survey.5 Efforts to conserve elephants include the development of an ATLAS of Elephant Reserves using geospatial layers, leading to a rise in the wild elephant population to 29,964 in 2017 from 27,669–27,719 in 2007. The country has notified 33 Elephant Reserves covering 8.08 Mha as key management units for these species.6 Community participation has been vital in India’s conservation strategy, especially in the protection of Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS). A total of 47 BHSs have been declared, reflecting the involvement of local communities and the integration of indigenous traditional knowledge in biodiversity protection.7 India has also expanded its network of protected areas, 4 https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1914420 5 https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2023/jul/doc2023729230301.pdf 6 https://moef.gov.in/project-elephant-pe 7 http://nbaindia.org/content/106/29/1/bhs.html Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 19 of 46 with 998 sites now covering 5.3% of the country’s land area. To mitigate habitat fragmentation, 104 wildlife corridors have been developed, marking an 18% increase over the past decade.8 Wetland conservation has seen considerable progress, with a 0.64 million hectare increase in wetland area and the identification of 18,810 additional wetlands compared to earlier estimates. The country has also seen significant growth in various wetland types, such as mangroves, which have expanded by 7% since 2010, covering 0.5 Mha and offering critical coastal protection. Overall, mangrove cover in India increased by 252 km² between 2015 and 2021, while coral reef areas saw an expansion of 2,784 hectares (1.9%). The number of Ramsar sites, or Wetlands of International Importance, has grown",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "have expanded by 7% since 2010, covering 0.5 Mha and offering critical coastal protection. Overall, mangrove cover in India increased by 252 km² between 2015 and 2021, while coral reef areas saw an expansion of 2,784 hectares (1.9%). The number of Ramsar sites, or Wetlands of International Importance, has grown from 26 in 2014 to 85 in 2024, covering a total area of 1.35 Mha.9 Table 4 presents India’s achievements in various biodiversity conservation initiatives and programmes. Table 4: India's achievements in various biodiversity conservation initiatives and programmes Initiative/Programme Achievement Project Tiger 42.3% increase in tiger population (2014–2022) Guinness World Record for the largest camera-trap wildlife survey (All India Tiger Estimation 2018–19) Project Elephant Development of an ATLAS of Elephant Reserves Wild elephant population increased from 27,669–27,719 in 2007 to 29,964 in 2017 33 Elephant Reserves notified, covering 8.08 Mha Biological Diversity Act, 2002 Establishment of State Biodiversity Boards and Union Territory Biodiversity Councils across all states and UTs 47 biodiversity heritage Sites (BHSs) declared, involving local communities and integrating indigenous knowledge in biodiversity protection 2.77 lakh Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) established Amrit Dharohar Initiative Focus on Ramsar Sites to conserve ecological and cultural values, support nature tourism, and enhance sustainable wetland management Protected Areas Network Expanded network of protected areas to 998 sites covering 5.3% of the country's land area 104 wildlife corridors developed, marking an 18% increase over the past decade to mitigate habitat fragmentation Eco-Development Committees (EDCs) Approximately 2,000 functioning EDCs established, engaging local communities in natural resource management and enhancing grassroots biodiversity conservation efforts Wetland Conservation Increase of 0.64 Mha in wetland area, with 18,810 additional wetlands identified Mangrove cover expanded by 7% since 2010 (0.5 Mha) Coral reef areas expanded by 2,784 hectares (1.9%) Ramsar Sites The number of Ramsar sites increased from 26 in",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "resource management and enhancing grassroots biodiversity conservation efforts Wetland Conservation Increase of 0.64 Mha in wetland area, with 18,810 additional wetlands identified Mangrove cover expanded by 7% since 2010 (0.5 Mha) Coral reef areas expanded by 2,784 hectares (1.9%) Ramsar Sites The number of Ramsar sites increased from 26 in 2014 to 85 in 2024, covering a total area of 1.35 Mha 8 https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1914420 9 https://moef.gov.in/uploads/2022/02/wetland_atlas_LISS3_final-SAC.pdf Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 20 of 46 Moreover, India’s focus on community-led conservation initiatives has been reinforced through the establishment of approximately 2,000 functioning Eco-Development Committees (EDCs). These committees engage local communities in the management and protection of natural resources, thereby enhancing grassroots biodiversity conservation efforts. These achievements underscore India’s commitment to preserving its rich natural heritage through a balanced approach that integrates policy implementation, community engagement, and strategic conservation measures. 4.5 Land Restoration Efforts India has made significant progress in land restoration, especially through afforestation programmes and efforts to combat desertification and land degradation. As part of its global restoration commitments, India has pledged to restore 26 Mha of degraded land by 2030 under the Bonn Challenge. Key Land Restoration Initiatives India has embarked on various initiatives to restore degraded lands, increase forest cover, and combat desertification. National Afforestation Programme (NAP) (2001): Managed by the National Afforestation & Eco-Development Board (NAEB), this programme implemented since 2001 and now merged into Green India Mission (GIM) focuses on promoting afforestation initiatives, particularly in degraded forest areas. The programme prioritizes the involvement of local communities and encourages eco-restoration activities. A key objective of NAP is to enhance and expedite the ongoing process of delegating forest conservation, protection, management, and development responsibilities to Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs) at the village level, which operate as registered societies. The scheme is executed through a three-tier",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "local communities and encourages eco-restoration activities. A key objective of NAP is to enhance and expedite the ongoing process of delegating forest conservation, protection, management, and development responsibilities to Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs) at the village level, which operate as registered societies. The scheme is executed through a three-tier institutional framework, which includes the State Forest Development Agency (SFDA) at the state level, the Forest Development Agency (FDA) at the forest division level, and the JFMCs at the village level. Green India Mission (GIM) (2015): Part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), the National Mission for a Green India aims to restore degraded ecosystems and increase forest cover through afforestation and reforestation. It promotes ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, water regulation, and biodiversity conservation. Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA): Established under the Compensatory Afforestation Act (2016), CAMPA manages funds generated from compensatory afforestation, and afforestation projects undertaken to compensate for forest land diverted for non-forest purposes. These funds are crucial for restoring ecosystems and enhancing forest cover. Green Credit Rules (2023): Introduced as part of the broader green growth strategy, these rules provide financial incentives for entities involved in biodiversity conservation, tree plantation, and ecosystem restoration projects. The aim is to create a voluntary market for green credits, where industries can offset their environmental impacts. Devolution of Resources for Forest and Ecosystem Protection: In addition to specific afforestation programmes like the NAP, financial support for forest and ecosystem protection is provided through a unique initiative under the devolution of resources by the Finance Commissions of India. The Finance Commissions allocate a portion of total funds to states, Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 21 of 46 with 10% of these resources linked to the achievement of environmental goals, particularly the protection",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "a unique initiative under the devolution of resources by the Finance Commissions of India. The Finance Commissions allocate a portion of total funds to states, Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 21 of 46 with 10% of these resources linked to the achievement of environmental goals, particularly the protection and expansion of forest cover. By linking financial resources to forest cover and environmental outcomes, this initiative fosters greater accountability and incentivizes states to integrate ecological sustainability into their planning and development processes. This approach supports India’s broader goals of biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, and achieving commitments under international frameworks like the UNFCCC and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Other Initiatives India is promoting natural and organic farming methods and has implemented several pivotal programmes to support sustainable agriculture and climate adaptation. These initiatives aim to ensure long-term food security and environmental conservation. Additionally, they complement various state-level efforts that foster sustainable agricultural practices. Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) (2010): This programme (amalgamated as the Watershed Development Component of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (WDC-PMKSY) in 2015–16), aims to enhance the productive potential of rainfed and degraded land through integrated watershed management. It seeks to strengthen communitybased local institutions to promote livelihoods and ensure the sustainability of watersheds. National Project on Organic Farming (NPOF): This project was launched in 2004 to promote organic farming by increasing the availability of organic inputs, such as bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides. The project also aimed to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): This programme has been in place since 2015–16 and provides financial assistance to farmers to promote organic farming. Soil Health Card: Initiated in 2015, this programme by the Government of India monitors soil fertility nationwide. It offers crop-specific fertilizer recommendations based on twelve parameters, helping",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): This programme has been in place since 2015–16 and provides financial assistance to farmers to promote organic farming. Soil Health Card: Initiated in 2015, this programme by the Government of India monitors soil fertility nationwide. It offers crop-specific fertilizer recommendations based on twelve parameters, helping farmers improve productivity and maintain soil health. National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF): Launched in 2023–24, the scheme focuses on the adoption of chemical-free, eco-friendly agricultural practices by farmers to restore soil health, improve soil biodiversity, enhance water retention, and increase crop resilience, particularly in rain-fed areas. PM Programme for Restoration, Awareness, Nourishment, and Amelioration of Mother Earth (PM-PRANAM): Launched in 2023–24, this scheme promotes balanced fertilizer use alongside organic and biofertilizers based on soil tests, enhancing fertility, reducing pollution, and supporting long-term agricultural productivity. Achievements Under Land Restoration Initiatives India has made significant advancements in land restoration through various national initiatives and programmes. The Government of India has launched multiple schemes to combat desertification, including afforestation efforts. Between the Indian State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2017 and ISFR 2021, the country witnessed an increase in forest cover of 0.55 Mha. From 2015–16 to 2021–22, the Government of India, based on submissions from 17 States, set a target to increase tree and forest cover by 53,377 hectares and improve the quality of degraded forests by 166,656 hectares. As of December 2022, tree and forest cover had increased by 26,287 hectares, and the quality of forests had Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 22 of 46 improved over 102,096 hectares across these 17 states.10 The country's tree cover (small patches outside the forest) is estimated at 9.57 Mha accounting for 2.91% of its total geographical area. Compared to the 2019 assessment, there has been an increase of 0.07 Mha in",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "in India Page 22 of 46 improved over 102,096 hectares across these 17 states.10 The country's tree cover (small patches outside the forest) is estimated at 9.57 Mha accounting for 2.91% of its total geographical area. Compared to the 2019 assessment, there has been an increase of 0.07 Mha in tree cover. The MoEFCC also launched the Nagar Van Yojana, aiming to develop 600 urban forests (Nagar Vans) and 400 urban gardens (Nagar Vatika) between 2020–21 and 2026–27 to enhance green cover in urban and peri-urban areas while supporting local biodiversity. Various other afforestation efforts are carried out under programmes such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), the National Bamboo Mission, and the Sub-Mission on Agroforestry, as well as through state government initiatives and partnerships with NGOs, civil societies, and corporate bodies. These multi-departmental and collaborative efforts have significantly contributed to conserving and expanding forest cover across India. India is committed to global restoration efforts, as demonstrated by the Bonn Challenge, in which the country pledged to restore 26 Mha by the year 2030. So far, India has restored 9.8 Mha from 2011 to 2017, achieving significant progress across several states.11 Additionally, the Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas, developed by ISRO, has identified that 30% of India’s land is either degraded or desertified, helping target key areas for intervention. Community-driven restoration is a core aspect of the watershed development programmes. Evaluation reports of the WDC-PMKSY show significant improvements in surface and groundwater availability, productivity, vegetative cover, and household incomes in project areas. From 2021 to 2026, the target is 4.9 Mha. Since 2014–15, 0.7 million water harvesting structures have been created or rejuvenated, and 1.5 Mha have been brought under protective irrigation by 2020–21.12 Sustainable land management practices are further supported by the Soil Health Management",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and household incomes in project areas. From 2021 to 2026, the target is 4.9 Mha. Since 2014–15, 0.7 million water harvesting structures have been created or rejuvenated, and 1.5 Mha have been brought under protective irrigation by 2020–21.12 Sustainable land management practices are further supported by the Soil Health Management Scheme, which has issued over 25 million soil health cards to farmers. Additionally, the National Agroforestry Policy promotes agroforestry across 10 Mha. contributing to biodiversity enhancement and soil health restoration. The National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) to restore soil health and enhance farm resilience has covered 1 Mha across 16 states in the country.13 Success stories from pilot regions like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh, where natural farming has shown a potential increase in farmers' incomes by 25–50%. Under Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY), 38,043 clusters, each covering 20 hectares, have been established, collectively encompassing an area of 0.84 Mha14 and a target of 0.6 Mha has been set for coverage during 2023–2026.15 As per the 2024 FiBL and IFOAM statistics, India ranks among the top countries in organic agricultural land, covering 4.7 Mha. It also accounts for 55% of 10 https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/states-come-up-short-in-targets-to-plant-treesimprove-forest-cover/article66436049.ece 11 https://www.bonnchallenge.org/pledges/india 12 https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1696246 13 https://naturalfarming.niti.gov.in/ 14 https://www.pib.gov.in/PressNoteDetails.aspx?NoteId=152048&ModuleId=3&reg=3&lang=1 15https://agriwelfare.gov.in/Documents/New_component_of_PKVY_Scheme_implementing_PUB_1April2023. pdf Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 23 of 46 the world's organic producers, with 2.5 million farmers, and includes states like Sikkim, which became fully organic in 2016 (Willer et al., 2024). While challenges remain in scaling these efforts, the government's policies, backed by stateled programmes and scientific support, signal a strong movement towards soil health restoration and sustainable agricultural practices across India. India’s land restoration efforts emphasize community involvement, targeted restoration goals aligned with global commitments, and effective monitoring through satellite and GIS data. These programmes collectively contribute to restoring degraded lands, enhancing ecosystem services,",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and scientific support, signal a strong movement towards soil health restoration and sustainable agricultural practices across India. India’s land restoration efforts emphasize community involvement, targeted restoration goals aligned with global commitments, and effective monitoring through satellite and GIS data. These programmes collectively contribute to restoring degraded lands, enhancing ecosystem services, and building resilience across the country's landscapes. Table 5 shows India’s achievements in various land restoration initiatives and programmes. Table 5: India's achievements in various land restoration initiatives and programmes Initiative/Programme Achievement Afforestation initiatives 0.55 Mha increase in forest cover between 2017 and 2021 From 17 states, there was an increase of 26,287 hectares and an improvement in forest quality over 102,096 hectares between 2015/16 and 2021/22, compared to targets of 53,377 hectares and 166,656 hectares, respectively 0.07 Mha increase in tree cover outside of forest since 2019 Bonn Challenge Commitment India pledged to restore 26 Mha and has restored 9.8 Mha from 2011 to 2017, with ongoing efforts Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas Atlas developed by ISRO to target areas for land restoration interventions 30% of land identified as degraded or desertified Nagar Van Yojana 600 urban forests and 400 urban gardens planned Significant progress in several states on degraded lands National Agroforestry Policy Promotes agroforestry practices on 10 Mha to support biodiversity and soil health restoration Green Credit Rules (2023) Established voluntary market for green credits Incentivized biodiversity conservation, tree plantation, and ecosystem restoration Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) (now part of WDC-PMKSY) Restored over 6 Mha of degraded land since inception Significant improvements in water availability, productivity, and household incomes in project areas Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) Enhanced irrigation facilities for the restoration of degraded agricultural land Achieved water conservation across over 2 Mha Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) Promoting organic farming with financial support",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "degraded land since inception Significant improvements in water availability, productivity, and household incomes in project areas Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) Enhanced irrigation facilities for the restoration of degraded agricultural land Achieved water conservation across over 2 Mha Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) Promoting organic farming with financial support to farmers Established 38,043 clusters, each covering 20 hectares, totalling 0.84 Mha Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 24 of 46 Aims to cover an additional 0.6 Mha during 2023–2026 Soil Health Management Scheme Issued over 25 million soil health cards to farmers Promoted sustainable land management practices and improved productivity National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) Focuses on chemical-free, eco-friendly practices across 1 Mha Enhanced soil biodiversity and crop resilience, especially in rain-fed areas PM-PRANAM (2023–24) Promotes balanced fertilizer use, enhancing soil fertility and reducing pollution Supports long-term agricultural productivity 4.6 Success Stories Kaziranga National Park – A Success in Rhino Conservation: Kaziranga National Park, located in Assam, is home to the largest population of the Indian one-horned rhinoceros. Effective anti-poaching strategies and habitat management have increased the park’s rhino population to over 2,600 individuals, making it a global success story in species conservation. Community Forest Management in Odisha: The State Government of Odisha recognized the importance of community involvement in forest conservation and became the first in India to introduce the Joint Forest Management (JFM) policy in August 1988, even before the National Forest Policy came into effect later that year. This initiative aimed to engage local communities in protecting nearby forests by assigning them specific roles and offering benefits, such as access to firewood and small timber under the Odisha Forest Act, 1972. The JFM policy also focused on promoting employment and social empowerment for those living near forest areas. The success of community-led initiatives has",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "communities in protecting nearby forests by assigning them specific roles and offering benefits, such as access to firewood and small timber under the Odisha Forest Act, 1972. The JFM policy also focused on promoting employment and social empowerment for those living near forest areas. The success of community-led initiatives has resulted in the protection of vast tracts of forest lands, restoration of biodiversity, and sustainable livelihoods for the local population. Mangrove Restoration in Sundarbans: The Sundarbans mangrove forest in West Bengal, the largest in the world, has undergone important community-driven restoration efforts in the past decade. Studies show a loss of about 107 km² of mangrove area between 1975 and 2013 due to erosion and human activities. Supported by government and non-governmental organizations, these initiatives have successfully recovered mangrove cover and reduced coastal vulnerability. National policies, such as the National Conservation Strategy (1992) and the National Environmental Policy (2006), emphasize sustainable management and community engagement, fostering collaboration among stakeholders to enhance coastal livelihoods and ecological health, ultimately empowering local communities in the Sundarbans. Kerala Ecorestoration Policy, 2021: The policy marks a significant step towards large-scale ecological restoration by focusing on the transition from monoculture plantations to more diverse, resilient ecosystems. The policy aims to restore vast areas of degraded land, particularly those dominated by monoculture crops like rubber, tea, and eucalyptus, which have contributed to biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and water scarcity (to be implemented in an area of about 27,000 hectares). By promoting mixed-species plantations and agroforestry systems, the policy seeks to enhance biodiversity, improve soil health, and increase carbon sequestration. Furthermore, it incorporates community participation, integrating traditional knowledge and sustainable livelihoods, to ensure long-term success in restoring the ecological Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 25 of 46 balance. This initiative aligns with Kerala’s broader efforts to",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "policy seeks to enhance biodiversity, improve soil health, and increase carbon sequestration. Furthermore, it incorporates community participation, integrating traditional knowledge and sustainable livelihoods, to ensure long-term success in restoring the ecological Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 25 of 46 balance. This initiative aligns with Kerala’s broader efforts to combat climate change, preserve biodiversity, and promote sustainable land-use practices across the state. Role of Indigenous Communities and Traditional Knowledge: Indigenous communities, such as the Gond and Bhil tribes, have played an essential role in conserving biodiversity through their traditional knowledge of forest management. Programmes like EcoDevelopment Committees (EDCs), involving these communities, have not only resulted in better conservation outcomes but also provided economic incentives through eco-tourism and sustainable forest resource management. Andhra Pradesh Community-Managed Natural Farming (APCNF): APCNF is the world’s largest agroecology programme, reaching over a million smallholder farmers, mostly women, across 500,000 hectares. It focuses on regenerative agriculture, promoting bio-stimulants, cover crops, and minimal tillage to enhance soil health and conserve biodiversity. The programme aims to convert 6 million farmers to natural farming by 2027, reducing input costs by 20–40% and increasing resilience to climate variability.16 These conservation initiatives in India have yielded notable successes (Table 6). Kaziranga National Park's anti-poaching efforts since 2016 have resulted in an 86% reduction in rhino poaching, boosting the rhino population to over 2,850 in Assam by 2022.17 In Odisha, community forest management covers around 14,000 square kilometres, enhancing forest cover and livelihoods.18 The Sundarbans has seen significant community involvement in mangrove restoration projects, including the Sundari Project, which planted 600,000 trees and engaged 450 families while protecting 1,434 species of fauna; the State Department of Forests, which successfully planted 123.77 million mangroves by March 2022 with funding from the West Bengal government and the MGNREGS, involving thousands of locals; and",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "mangrove restoration projects, including the Sundari Project, which planted 600,000 trees and engaged 450 families while protecting 1,434 species of fauna; the State Department of Forests, which successfully planted 123.77 million mangroves by March 2022 with funding from the West Bengal government and the MGNREGS, involving thousands of locals; and the Livelihoods-NEWS project, which restored 5,011 hectares of mangroves, resulting in increased populations of fish, birds, and crustaceans in the region. Kerala's eco-restoration policy has transformed 2,000 hectares of monoculture into diverse ecosystems.19 Meanwhile, Andhra Pradesh’s natural farming initiative has reached 600,000 farmers, aiming to expand sustainable practices across 6 Mha by 2027. India’s approach to biodiversity conservation and land restoration is characterized by a holistic strategy that integrates ecological preservation with socio-economic priorities. Through a combination of legislative measures, targeted programmes, and active community involvement, India is making notable progress in achieving its environmental goals. However, challenges like desertification, climate change, and habitat degradation continue to pose significant hurdles. 16 https://apcnf.in/ 17 https://ebnw.net/empowerment/success-story/kaziranga-achieves-86-drop-in-rhino-poaching-since-2016-aconservation-success-story/ 18 https://www.odishaforest.in/admin/data/documents/publication_file_560907019.pdf 19 https://climatechange.envt.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/EcorestorationPolicy_2021_English.pdf Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 26 of 46 Table 6: Key conservation and restoration successes: case studies from India Initiative Key Focus Areas Achievement Kaziranga National Park Anti-poaching and habitat management Rhinos population increased to over 2,600; 86% reduction in rhino poaching since 2016, with numbers rising to over 2,850 by 2022 Community Forest Management in Odisha Community involvement in forest conservation Covers approximately 14,000 square kilometres; promotes sustainable livelihoods and biodiversity restoration Mangrove Restoration in Sundarbans Community-driven restoration and ecological health Restoration of 5,011 hectares; Sundari Project planted 600,000 trees involving 450 families; State Department planted 123.77 million mangroves Kerala Ecorestoration Policy, 2021 Transition from monoculture to diverse ecosystems Aims to restore 27,000 hectares; successfully transformed 2,000 hectares of monoculture plantations into diverse ecosystems Role of Indigenous Communities Integration",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "ecological health Restoration of 5,011 hectares; Sundari Project planted 600,000 trees involving 450 families; State Department planted 123.77 million mangroves Kerala Ecorestoration Policy, 2021 Transition from monoculture to diverse ecosystems Aims to restore 27,000 hectares; successfully transformed 2,000 hectares of monoculture plantations into diverse ecosystems Role of Indigenous Communities Integration of traditional knowledge in conservation efforts Participation in Eco-Development Committees (EDCs) leads to better conservation outcomes and economic incentives through eco-tourism Andhra Pradesh Community-Managed Natural Farming Regenerative agriculture and sustainable farming practices Reached over 1 million smallholder farmers; aims to convert 6 million farmers to natural farming by 2027, impacting 500,000 hectares The country's successes underscore the importance of engaging local communities, leveraging traditional knowledge, and implementing innovative policy frameworks to enable large-scale conservation and restoration. Under the Biological Diversity Act of 2002, the creation of 2.77 lakh Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) and 2.67 lakh People’s Biodiversity Registers has greatly strengthened grassroots conservation efforts. Key initiatives like Project Tiger have contributed to a 42.3% rise in the tiger population between 2014 and 2022, reflecting effective wildlife management. Additionally, the establishment of 33 Elephant Reserves spanning 8.08 million hectares further underscores India's dedication to protecting its vital species. India reported a 0.55 Mha increase in forest cover between the ISFR 2017 and ISFR 2021 reports as part of land restoration efforts. From 2015–16 to 2021–22, the government aimed to enhance tree cover by 53,377 hectares and improve the quality of degraded forests by 166,656 hectares; the achieved increases were 26,287 hectares in tree cover and 102,096 hectares in forest quality. India has significantly advanced environmental restoration, establishing 9.57 Mha of tree cover and restoring 9.8 Mha of degraded land between 2011 and 2017 as part of the Bonn Challenge. From increasing forest cover to wildlife conservation and wetland restoration, India has",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "in tree cover and 102,096 hectares in forest quality. India has significantly advanced environmental restoration, establishing 9.57 Mha of tree cover and restoring 9.8 Mha of degraded land between 2011 and 2017 as part of the Bonn Challenge. From increasing forest cover to wildlife conservation and wetland restoration, India has made remarkable progress towards achieving its environmental goals. However, challenges remain in reaching the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) targets, particularly in forest cover and restoring degraded land. As India continues its journey towards sustainable development, its commitment to biodiversity and land restoration will remain crucial in mitigating climate change and protecting its rich natural heritage. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 27 of 46 Box 1: Key Highlights of India’s Achievements in Biodiversity & Land Restoration Megadiversity Ranking: India ranks 12th among the world’s 17 megadiverse countries, housing about 8% of the global species diversity. Species Diversity: Home to approximately 45,000 plant and 91,000 animal species, despite covering only 2.4% of the world's land area. Forest Cover: Total forest cover stands at 21.71% of India’s geographical area, with a target to reach 30% as per the Kunming Montreal GBDF. Biodiversity Hotspots: Contains 4 out of 36 global biodiversity hotspots, which host over 30% of the country's plant and animal species. Biosphere Reserves: India has 18 Biosphere Reserves covering about 5% of the total land area, with 12 included in UNESCO’s World Network. Forest Growth: Forest and tree cover has consistently increased, with 21,000 sq. km added in the last decade, reflecting a growth rate of 2.91%. Tiger Population: Achieved a 42.3% increase in the tiger population from 2014 to 2022. Wildlife Corridors: Developed 104 wildlife corridors to mitigate habitat fragmentation, marking an 18% increase over the last decade. Mangrove Restoration: Expanded mangrove cover to 4,992 sq. km, indicating",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "last decade, reflecting a growth rate of 2.91%. Tiger Population: Achieved a 42.3% increase in the tiger population from 2014 to 2022. Wildlife Corridors: Developed 104 wildlife corridors to mitigate habitat fragmentation, marking an 18% increase over the last decade. Mangrove Restoration: Expanded mangrove cover to 4,992 sq. km, indicating a significant increase of 7% (or 4662 sq. km) since 2010. Marine Protected Areas: 1.07% of India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is designated as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), representing a 114% increase over the past decade. Protected Areas: Established 998 protected areas, covering 5.3% of the total land area. Restoration Initiatives: 19 Mha (73%) of the 26 Mha target under the Bonn Challenge have already been restored. Ramsar Sites: Increased Ramsar sites from 26 in 2014 to 85, covering 1.3 Mha of wetlands. Community Involvement: A total of 47 BHSs have been declared, showcasing local community involvement and indigenous knowledge in biodiversity protection. Functioning 2,000 Eco-Development Committees (EDCs) for community-led conservation, showing a 300% increase in numbers over the last decade. 18,000 Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMC) managing 22 Mha of degraded forestlands. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 28 of 46 5. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in Developed Countries 5.1 Overview of Policies and Legal Frameworks Key Policies and International Commitments: Developed countries have a strong legal and policy framework aimed at addressing biodiversity loss and promoting land restoration. These frameworks are aligned with global conventions like the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Paris Agreement, committing to both conservation and ecosystem restoration. • European Union Biodiversity Strategy 2030: This is part of the European Green Deal and aims to protect 30% of EU land and sea areas by 2030. It focuses on halting biodiversity loss and reversing ecosystem degradation through the creation of legally binding restoration",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to both conservation and ecosystem restoration. • European Union Biodiversity Strategy 2030: This is part of the European Green Deal and aims to protect 30% of EU land and sea areas by 2030. It focuses on halting biodiversity loss and reversing ecosystem degradation through the creation of legally binding restoration targets. • US Endangered Species Act (ESA): Enacted in 1973, this law provides for the conservation of species that are endangered or threatened and their ecosystems. It plays a key role in preventing extinction and promoting the recovery of listed species, safeguarding vital habitats. • Australia’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act (1999): The EPBC Act serves as Australia’s central environmental legislation, managing the protection of nationally significant flora, fauna, and ecosystems. It is a critical tool for biodiversity conservation and land restoration, integrating sustainable land management. Additionally, many developed nations are parties to the Bonn Challenge and the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 2021–2030, emphasizing large-scale restoration activities. 5.2 Major Conservation and Restoration Programmes in Developed Countries European Union • Natura 2000 Network: This is the largest coordinated network of protected areas in the world, covering more than 18% of EU land and nearly 9% of its marine environment. It is the backbone of EU biodiversity conservation efforts, ensuring that ecosystems and their services are maintained. • LIFE Program: An EU funding instrument for the environment and climate action, the LIFE programme has supported over 5,400 projects since its inception in 1992. It focuses on biodiversity conservation, climate change adaptation, and environmental governance. North America • Canada's National Greening Program (NGP): Run by Tree Canada, this programme focuses on reforestation and afforestation across the country. It aims to increase forest cover and contribute to biodiversity conservation by restoring degraded lands. • US Conservation Reserve Program (CRP): Administered by",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "change adaptation, and environmental governance. North America • Canada's National Greening Program (NGP): Run by Tree Canada, this programme focuses on reforestation and afforestation across the country. It aims to increase forest cover and contribute to biodiversity conservation by restoring degraded lands. • US Conservation Reserve Program (CRP): Administered by the USDA, the CRP pays farmers to remove environmentally sensitive land from agricultural production and plant species that improve environmental quality. This has helped restore millions of acres of wetlands, grasslands, and forests in the US. Other Regions • Australia’s Bushcare Program: A large-scale conservation initiative focusing on the rehabilitation of degraded landscapes through community engagement and government Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 29 of 46 funding. It is part of Australia’s broader National Landcare Program, which integrates biodiversity conservation and sustainable land management. Large-Scale Restoration Projects • The Great Green Wall Initiative (EU-Inspired): While the original Great Green Wall initiative focuses on Africa, several EU projects mirror this approach, targeting the restoration of degraded landscapes in Southern and Eastern Europe, especially in combating desertification. • Australia’s 20 Million Trees Program: Part of the EPBC Act, this programme aims to plant 20 million native trees and vegetation to restore habitats for threatened species. The goal is to rehabilitate ecosystems and improve biodiversity. 5.3 Technological and Financial Investments Advanced Technology in Biodiversity Monitoring and Restoration • Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Satellite data, drones, and GIS are widely used in developed countries to monitor land degradation, forest cover, and biodiversity. These technologies provide real-time data and help identify areas for restoration. • AI and Machine Learning: Advanced AI tools are increasingly applied to identify species, track animal populations, and monitor ecosystem health. In the US, the use of machine learning models to predict species migration patterns and",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "cover, and biodiversity. These technologies provide real-time data and help identify areas for restoration. • AI and Machine Learning: Advanced AI tools are increasingly applied to identify species, track animal populations, and monitor ecosystem health. In the US, the use of machine learning models to predict species migration patterns and habitat suitability is gaining traction. • DNA Barcoding and Environmental DNA (eDNA): This emerging technology is used to monitor species presence through genetic material found in soil and water, providing a non-invasive method for biodiversity monitoring. Financial Investments and Funding Mechanisms • Public Funds and Grants: Developed countries invest heavily in biodiversity through public funds. For instance, the EU’s LIFE program alone has allocated billions of euros to biodiversity projects. The European Investment Bank also funds restoration projects under the Natural Capital Financing Facility (NCFF). • Green Bonds: Many developed countries are using green bonds as a tool for financing biodiversity and land restoration efforts. For example, France issued a green bond in 2017 that raised over €7 billion for environmental projects, including biodiversity conservation. • Private Sector and Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): Companies in sectors like agriculture, forestry, and energy are increasingly involved in financing biodiversity restoration projects. The involvement of private enterprises through PPPs has helped mobilize significant funds for these initiatives, particularly in reforestation efforts. 5.4 Success Stories and Case Studies Biodiversity and Restoration • Yellowstone Ecosystem Restoration (US): One of the most famous biodiversity restoration projects globally, Yellowstone National Park's reintroduction of wolves in the 1990s led to a trophic cascade that revitalized ecosystems, balancing species populations and restoring vegetation. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 30 of 46 • The Netherlands’ Oostvaardersplassen: A prime example of a rewilding project in Europe, this area was transformed from reclaimed land into a thriving nature reserve. Large herbivores",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to a trophic cascade that revitalized ecosystems, balancing species populations and restoring vegetation. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 30 of 46 • The Netherlands’ Oostvaardersplassen: A prime example of a rewilding project in Europe, this area was transformed from reclaimed land into a thriving nature reserve. Large herbivores were introduced to manage vegetation naturally, leading to a restored ecosystem with diverse flora and fauna. • Costa Rica’s Reforestation Program: While Costa Rica is often classified as a developing nation, its reforestation initiatives funded by eco-tourism and international investments provide a model for developed countries. The programme reversed decades of deforestation, achieving one of the highest forest cover recoveries globally. Citizen Science and Public-Private Partnerships • iNaturalist and Citizen Science Initiatives: In developed countries, citizen science has significantly contributed to biodiversity monitoring and restoration efforts. Platforms like iNaturalist have enabled the public to participate in species identification and habitat restoration, improving the scale and quality of data collected. • UK’s National Trust and Private Sector Collaboration: The National Trust’s partnerships with private companies, such as the Sainsbury’s Forest Partnership, have resulted in large-scale restoration projects. The collaboration integrates private sector resources and expertise with conservation goals, leading to successful restoration efforts. Developed countries are working on biodiversity conservation and land restoration through strong legal frameworks, innovative technological applications, significant financial investments, and successful public-private partnerships. While challenges remain, their policies and programmes provide crucial lessons for global efforts to restore ecosystems and protect biodiversity. 6. Comparative Analysis of India’s Initiatives vis-à-vis Developed Countries 6.1 Policy and Governance Comparison of Policy Frameworks and Governance Structures India’s biodiversity and land restoration efforts are governed by key policies such as the Wildlife Protection Act (1972), Biological Diversity Act (2002), National Forest Policy (1988), National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), and the",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Initiatives vis-à-vis Developed Countries 6.1 Policy and Governance Comparison of Policy Frameworks and Governance Structures India’s biodiversity and land restoration efforts are governed by key policies such as the Wildlife Protection Act (1972), Biological Diversity Act (2002), National Forest Policy (1988), National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), and the National Afforestation Programme. India’s participation in international conventions like the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Bonn Challenge further solidifies its policy commitments. Governance involves both the central and state governments, with oversight by bodies like the National Biodiversity Authority and State Biodiversity Boards. India also integrates biodiversity and ecosystem services in its National Action Plan for Conservation of Migratory Species and Green India Mission. The statutory frameworks of developed countries often differ from India's in their scope, comprehensiveness, and implementation mechanisms. For instance, the US has the Endangered Species Act, which provides detailed procedures for the conservation of threatened and endangered species, along with stringent penalties for noncompliance. Similarly, the EU's Biodiversity Strategy 2030 includes ambitious targets for restoring ecosystems and addressing biodiversity loss across member states, while Australia’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act establishes a robust framework for environmental protection, including specific guidelines for managing impacts on biodiversity. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 31 of 46 Developed countries have typically benefitted from longer-standing legal and institutional frameworks that enable more comprehensive policy integration across various sectors, including agriculture, forestry, and urban planning. This has resulted in more cohesive and effective conservation strategies, such as the EU's Natura 2000 network, which facilitates collaboration among member states to achieve biodiversity goals. While India is making significant strides in biodiversity and land restoration, its efforts are relatively recent and face challenges in comprehensive policy integration and enforcement. In this context, India needs to strengthen its legal",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "as the EU's Natura 2000 network, which facilitates collaboration among member states to achieve biodiversity goals. While India is making significant strides in biodiversity and land restoration, its efforts are relatively recent and face challenges in comprehensive policy integration and enforcement. In this context, India needs to strengthen its legal frameworks and governance structures to enhance the efficiency of its biodiversity conservation and restoration efforts. Analysis of Regulatory Enforcement and Policy Implementation India's progress in biodiversity conservation, while commendable, faces significant challenges, particularly in regulatory enforcement, land ownership disputes, and illegal deforestation. Despite efforts to promote decentralization, inconsistencies in policy execution across states remain a major hurdle. Overlapping jurisdictions, bureaucratic delays, and inadequate monitoring mechanisms hinder effective implementation of conservation laws. For instance, laws such as the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and Biological Diversity Act (2002) lack consistent enforcement, as political will, administrative capacity, and resource allocation differ widely among states. Additionally, the land tenure system in India, characterized by a variety of ownership models, often leads to disputes regarding rights and responsibilities related to land use and conservation. The absence of clear legal definitions regarding community rights over land exacerbates tensions between conservation efforts and local livelihoods. Monitoring illegal logging is also a challenge, as remote forest areas are difficult to patrol, and insufficient resources contribute to the persistence of illegal activities. In comparison, developed countries exhibit more target-based regulatory frameworks; for example, the US Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) offers financial incentives to landowners for conservation, supported by clear legal mandates. Programmes like Australia’s Bushcare Program effectively engage local communities in conservation efforts on public or private bushland, ensuring accountability and transparency. India must address these regulatory gaps to enhance its biodiversity conservation initiatives by strengthening enforcement mechanisms, clarifying land ownership rights, improving monitoring capabilities, fostering community participation in",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "legal mandates. Programmes like Australia’s Bushcare Program effectively engage local communities in conservation efforts on public or private bushland, ensuring accountability and transparency. India must address these regulatory gaps to enhance its biodiversity conservation initiatives by strengthening enforcement mechanisms, clarifying land ownership rights, improving monitoring capabilities, fostering community participation in decision-making, and performance-based or ecosystem-based payments. Implementing these changes will require a concerted effort from central and state governments and collaboration with local communities and stakeholders. 6.2 Scale, Scope, and Impacts of Initiatives 6.2.1 Scale of Biodiversity Conservation and Land Restoration Efforts India’s conservation and restoration efforts are large-scale, considering its vast landmass and biodiversity hotspots. Initiatives like the Green India Mission and Compensatory Afforestation Fund aim to restore millions of hectares of degraded land. India is also involved in global programmes like the Bonn Challenge, committing to restore 26 Mha by 2030. Developed countries operate at a similarly large scale but often focus on intensive restoration projects over smaller areas. The EU’s LIFE Program and the US’s Conservation Reserve Program are prime examples, with restoration efforts covering hundreds of thousands of hectares. The scale in developed countries tends to be more concentrated, with advanced technology enabling precise monitoring. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 32 of 46 6.2.2 Scope in Terms of Ecosystems and Species Targeted India’s efforts cover a broad range of ecosystems, including forests, wetlands, grasslands, and coastal areas. Projects like Project Tiger and Project Elephant focus on key species, while the National Action Plan for Climate Change targets ecosystem-based adaptation across the country. In developed countries, the scope often targets specific ecosystems (e.g., forests in Canada or wetlands in the US) or keystone species (e.g., wolves in Yellowstone). EU countries focus heavily on marine ecosystems and coastal areas, while Australia’s programmes emphasize drylands and bush",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Climate Change targets ecosystem-based adaptation across the country. In developed countries, the scope often targets specific ecosystems (e.g., forests in Canada or wetlands in the US) or keystone species (e.g., wolves in Yellowstone). EU countries focus heavily on marine ecosystems and coastal areas, while Australia’s programmes emphasize drylands and bush ecosystems. 6.2.3 Impacts of Initiatives on Conservation and Restoration India’s restoration initiatives have had mixed impacts. Large-scale afforestation projects have improved forest cover, but monoculture plantations often provide limited biodiversity benefits. Conservation initiatives for tigers, elephants, and rhinos have been successful in stabilizing populations, but the degradation of other ecosystems, such as grasslands and wetlands, continues to be a concern. The impacts in developed countries have been more measurable due to advanced monitoring and reward to communities. Rewilding efforts in the EU and North America have successfully restored ecosystems and species populations, such as the reintroduction of wolves in the US or forest restoration in the UK. Conservation projects often emphasize ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration, flood mitigation, and soil health. 6.3 Technological Innovations Used in Conservation and Restoration India increasingly relies on technology such as GIS mapping, remote sensing, and drones for biodiversity monitoring. Platforms like the Indian Biodiversity Information System (IBIS) are improving data collection on species and habitats. However, the use of cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and environmental DNA (eDNA) is still limited compared to developed countries. Developed nations employ more advanced technologies for biodiversity conservation. The use of AI, machine learning, eDNA, and precision conservation tools is common. The US, EU, and Australia extensively utilize remote sensing, drones, and AI models to monitor species, predict land degradation, and optimize restoration practices. 6.4 Financial Resources Financing of biodiversity conservation and land restoration in India and developed countries is shaped by economic capacities and",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and precision conservation tools is common. The US, EU, and Australia extensively utilize remote sensing, drones, and AI models to monitor species, predict land degradation, and optimize restoration practices. 6.4 Financial Resources Financing of biodiversity conservation and land restoration in India and developed countries is shaped by economic capacities and institutional frameworks. In India, public funding through national and state budgets forms the backbone of conservation efforts, supporting programmes like the National Mission for Green India and the National Afforestation Programme. However, funding gaps often limit the reach of these initiatives. Developed countries, such as those in the EU and North America, allocate more substantial public resources, with strategies like the EU Biodiversity Strategy and the US Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) and the Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF) provide significant funding, as well as broader agricultural policies that integrate environmental funding. International and multilateral funds like the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Green Climate Fund (GCF) support many large-scale projects for biodiversity protection and land restoration, though navigating access to these resources can be challenging. REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) funds set up by some of the developed Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 33 of 46 countries have also played a role. However, compared to India, developing countries in the Global South, such as Indonesia, Latin American countries, and those in Africa, have benefited from more international funds for REDD+ initiatives. Private sector engagement is growing in India through public-private partnerships (PPPs) and corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives, though the scale remains limited. Marketbased tools like biodiversity offsets and payments for ecosystem services (PES) are in their early stages. In contrast, developed countries have established mechanisms like carbon credits, conservation banks, and the EU's eco-schemes that align private investment with conservation goals. Innovative",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives, though the scale remains limited. Marketbased tools like biodiversity offsets and payments for ecosystem services (PES) are in their early stages. In contrast, developed countries have established mechanisms like carbon credits, conservation banks, and the EU's eco-schemes that align private investment with conservation goals. Innovative financing is being explored in both contexts, but developed countries have a more mature ecosystem. The EU’s green bond market and the US’s environmental impact bonds provide scalable ways to fund conservation. India is experimenting with green bonds and blended finance models, though challenges remain in scaling them. Community-driven conservation is integral to India’s approach, supported by micro-finance and grants, but would benefit from more formalized PES schemes. Developed countries often integrate community efforts into structured programmes, like the EU’s LEADER initiative (Links between actions for the development of the rural economy), providing technical support and resources. 6.5 Socio-Economic and Cultural Factors 6.5.1 Role of Socio-Economic Conditions in Shaping Biodiversity Policies In India, socio-economic factors like poverty, rural livelihoods, and land tenure disputes shape biodiversity policies. Restoration efforts are often tied to rural development, with afforestation projects providing employment through the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). However, these socio-economic drivers can also lead to conflicts between conservation and human needs. In developed countries, socio-economic conditions are generally more favourable for biodiversity conservation. Economic stability allows for long-term investments in biodiversity. However, in some rural areas of the US and EU, land restoration efforts still face resistance due to conflicting agricultural and conservation interests. 6.5.2 Influence of Cultural Heritage and Traditional Knowledge on Conservation Strategies India’s biodiversity strategies are deeply influenced by cultural heritage and traditional knowledge. Indigenous and local communities play a vital role in conserving biodiversity through practices like agroforestry, sacred groves, and traditional water management",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to conflicting agricultural and conservation interests. 6.5.2 Influence of Cultural Heritage and Traditional Knowledge on Conservation Strategies India’s biodiversity strategies are deeply influenced by cultural heritage and traditional knowledge. Indigenous and local communities play a vital role in conserving biodiversity through practices like agroforestry, sacred groves, and traditional water management systems. The Forest Rights Act (2006) recognizes community ownership of forest resources, integrating traditional knowledge into conservation. In developed countries, the role of traditional knowledge is less pronounced but growing. Indigenous groups in countries like Canada, the US, and Australia are increasingly involved in conservation initiatives. However, mainstream conservation tends to rely more on scientific research and modern ecological principles than on traditional practices. Table 7 summarizes the comparison of India’s biodiversity conservation and land restoration efforts with those of developed countries, emphasizing key differences in scale, scope, impacts, technological and financial resources, socio-economic factors, and cultural influences. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 34 of 46 Table 7: India's approach and capabilities in biodiversity conservation and land restoration compared to those of developed countries Key Differences India Developed Countries Scale of Efforts Large-scale initiatives integrated with rural development goals, such as the Green India Mission and Bonn Challenge commitment to restore 26 Mha by 2030 Large-scale but often focused on intensive restoration projects over smaller areas (e.g., EU’s LIFE Program, US’s Conservation Reserve Program) Scope of Ecosystems and Species Targeted Broad coverage of ecosystems (forests, wetlands, grasslands) and key species (tigers, elephants) under initiatives like Project Tiger and Project Elephant Often targets specific ecosystems (e.g., forests in Canada, wetlands in the US) or keystone species (e.g., wolves in Yellowstone). Impact of Initiatives Mixed results; large-scale afforestation has improved forest cover but often through monoculture plantations. Successful stabilization of key species populations but ongoing ecosystem degradation More measurable impacts",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Project Elephant Often targets specific ecosystems (e.g., forests in Canada, wetlands in the US) or keystone species (e.g., wolves in Yellowstone). Impact of Initiatives Mixed results; large-scale afforestation has improved forest cover but often through monoculture plantations. Successful stabilization of key species populations but ongoing ecosystem degradation More measurable impacts due to advanced monitoring; successful rewilding efforts and ecosystem restoration projects (e.g., reintroduction of wolves, forest restoration in the UK) Technological Resources Increasing reliance on technology (e.g., GIS, remote sensing, drones) but limited use of cutting-edge technologies like AI and eDNA Advanced technologies (e.g., AI, machine learning, eDNA) are widely used for monitoring species, predicting land degradation, and optimizing restoration practices Financial Resources Funding mainly from domestic sources and some international support; relatively modest compared to developed countries Higher financial commitment, with billions allocated through programmes like EU’s LIFE initiative and US’s Land and Water Conservation Fund Socio-Economic Factors Restoration efforts tied to rural development, with initiatives like MGNREGA providing employment; socio-economic conditions influence conservation outcomes Generally favourable socioeconomic conditions; investments in biodiversity less affected by poverty and land tenure issues Role of Traditional Knowledge Deeply integrated into biodiversity strategies; local communities play a vital role in conservation (e.g., Forest Rights Act, agroforestry, sacred groves) Traditional knowledge is growing in importance but is often less pronounced in mainstream conservation practices, relying more on scientific research Community Involvement Emphasizes community-led initiatives like JFM, empowering Often involves public-private partnerships and significant civil Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 35 of 46 local communities in managing forest lands society engagement, fostering collaborative restoration efforts Global Integration Blends traditional knowledge with modern conservation strategies; potential for adopting global best practices in monitoring, technology, and policy coherence Stronger integration of biodiversity goals with agricultural practices and significant civil society involvement in restoration initiatives 6.6",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "local communities in managing forest lands society engagement, fostering collaborative restoration efforts Global Integration Blends traditional knowledge with modern conservation strategies; potential for adopting global best practices in monitoring, technology, and policy coherence Stronger integration of biodiversity goals with agricultural practices and significant civil society involvement in restoration initiatives 6.6 Challenges and Limitations 6.6.1 Common Challenges Faced by India and Developed Countries • Habitat Fragmentation and Urbanization: Both India and developed countries face the challenge of habitat fragmentation due to urban expansion, agricultural intensification, and infrastructure development. • Climate Change: Global warming and erratic climate patterns are affecting biodiversity and land restoration efforts in both regions. Changing precipitation patterns, rising temperatures, and extreme weather events pose significant risks to restoration initiatives. 6.6.2 Specific Challenges Unique to India Due to Socio-Economic and Environmental Factors • Population Pressure: India’s high population density puts immense pressure on land resources, leading to conflicts between conservation goals and the need for agricultural expansion, industrialization, and urbanization. • Poverty and Rural Livelihoods: In rural India, dependence on forests and biodiversity for livelihoods complicates conservation efforts. The need for fuel, fodder, and food often leads to over-exploitation of resources. • Institutional and Capacity Gaps: India faces challenges in terms of institutional capacity and funding for biodiversity conservation. Coordination between various government bodies, NGOs, and local stakeholders is often fragmented. In contrast, developed countries face fewer socio-economic pressures and have more robust institutional frameworks, which allows them to tackle biodiversity and restoration challenges more effectively. However, political and land-use conflicts, particularly with agriculture and forestry, still pose limitations. While India and developed countries share several common challenges in biodiversity and land restoration, their approaches diverge due to differences in policy frameworks, technological capacity, financial resources, and socio-economic conditions. India’s initiatives are vast in scale but face significant socio-economic",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "land-use conflicts, particularly with agriculture and forestry, still pose limitations. While India and developed countries share several common challenges in biodiversity and land restoration, their approaches diverge due to differences in policy frameworks, technological capacity, financial resources, and socio-economic conditions. India’s initiatives are vast in scale but face significant socio-economic and environmental hurdles, while developed countries benefit from advanced technologies, stronger financial mechanisms, and more cohesive governance structures. Both can learn from each other to build more resilient and effective biodiversity conservation and land restoration programmes. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 36 of 46 7. Lessons Learned and Opportunities for Collaboration 7.1 Policy and Governance Developed countries have demonstrated the importance of clear, enforceable policies with robust legal backing, such as the US Endangered Species Act and the EU Biodiversity Strategy. In India, the challenge of regulatory enforcement and inter-agency coordination highlights the need for a more streamlined and enforceable governance structure. India could learn from developed nations’ use of decentralized governance systems that integrate biodiversity goals across sectors such as agriculture, forestry, and urban planning. 7.2 Technology Developed countries' success in biodiversity monitoring and restoration is driven by their use of advanced technologies such as AI, drones, satellite monitoring, and eDNA for species tracking and habitat assessment. India’s increasing adoption of GIS and remote sensing is promising, but there is potential to further incorporate cutting-edge technologies for better ecosystem restoration. India is utilizing satellite imagery and remote sensing to improve biodiversity conservation. The high-resolution images taken by the IRS series help map forest cover, assess deforestation, and identify land degradation. In addition, satellite telemetry is used to monitor wildlife movements in real-time, which enhances our understanding of habitat use and migration. While India's use of GIS and remote sensing is promising, there is potential to integrate more",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "the IRS series help map forest cover, assess deforestation, and identify land degradation. In addition, satellite telemetry is used to monitor wildlife movements in real-time, which enhances our understanding of habitat use and migration. While India's use of GIS and remote sensing is promising, there is potential to integrate more advanced technologies for better ecosystem restoration. Collaboration with developed countries could play a crucial role in this technological advancement. By sharing expertise and resources, India can enhance its capacity for biodiversity monitoring and restoration. Joint initiatives could focus on training local professionals in the latest technological applications and creating platforms for data sharing and analysis. 7.3 Financial Resources India can enhance its biodiversity conservation and land restoration financing through specific mechanisms and collaborations. By leveraging international expertise, India can learn from successful market-based mechanisms implemented in developed countries. For example, the EU LIFE Program provides substantial funding to enhance natural capital across Europe, a model that India could adapt for local contexts focusing on specific ecosystems. Private sector engagement and the issuance of green bonds offer innovative funding mechanisms. A notable example is the World Bank’s Wildlife Conservation Bond, or the 'Rhino Bond,' which raised $150 million from institutional investors to support Black Rhino conservation in South Africa. Instead of traditional returns, a portion of the funds is directly tied to conservation outcomes, with $10 million going towards increasing the Black Rhino population. To make green bonds more effective, India should develop frameworks specifically targeting biodiversity initiatives, similar to San Francisco’s issuance of green bonds for urban forestry programmes, linking financial returns to improvements in biodiversity. India could implement a similar green bond strategy to fund critical environmental projects, such as wetland restoration or afforestation efforts in critically endangered ecosystems. By structuring green bonds to connect financial returns with successful",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Francisco’s issuance of green bonds for urban forestry programmes, linking financial returns to improvements in biodiversity. India could implement a similar green bond strategy to fund critical environmental projects, such as wetland restoration or afforestation efforts in critically endangered ecosystems. By structuring green bonds to connect financial returns with successful biodiversity outcomes, India can attract both domestic and international investors who are committed to environmental sustainability. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 37 of 46 Box 2: Innovative Financing Approaches for Conservation and Land Restoration Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) can incentivize local communities to engage in sustainable practices. For instance, Costa Rica’s PES program compensates landowners for maintaining forest cover, and a similar initiative in India could reward communities for preserving traditional agricultural practices that promote biodiversity. Establishing regional green financing hubs, akin to the Green Climate Fund, can attract global investments for targeted conservation efforts in biodiversity hotspots like the Western Ghats. EU LIFE Program: The EU LIFE Program is a vital funding mechanism established by the European Union to support environmental and climate action across Europe. Since its launch in 1992, the programme has focused on addressing critical environmental challenges, emphasizing nature conservation and sustainable development. A key component is the LIFE Nature and Biodiversity sub-programme, which aims to protect and restore ecosystems while reversing biodiversity loss. It funds projects aligned with the EU Birds and Habitats Directives and supports the Natura 2000 network, essential for conserving various habitats and species. The sub-programme also tackles the impact of invasive alien species through the IAS Regulation. Furthermore, it plays a crucial role in implementing the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 and promoting sustainable practices beneficial to both the environment and local communities. The LIFE Program’s effectiveness stems from its collaborative approach, engaging multiple stakeholders and leveraging co-financing",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "impact of invasive alien species through the IAS Regulation. Furthermore, it plays a crucial role in implementing the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 and promoting sustainable practices beneficial to both the environment and local communities. The LIFE Program’s effectiveness stems from its collaborative approach, engaging multiple stakeholders and leveraging co-financing mechanisms to maximize impact (Source: https://cinea.ec.europa.eu/programmes/life_en). San Francisco's Green Bonds for Urban Forestry: In 2015, San Francisco issued its first green bonds, raising approximately $20 million to finance various projects, with a significant portion allocated to urban forestry. The programme focuses on increasing the city’s tree canopy, enhancing park facilities, and restoring natural habitats. By linking financial returns to the improvement of urban green spaces, the initiative not only addresses climate change but also enhances community well-being through better air quality, reduced urban heat, and improved aesthetics (Peters, 2017). Costa Rica's National PES Program: Costa Rica's program is often referenced as a model for PES. It compensates landowners for reforestation, forest conservation, and sustainable forest management. Funded by a tax on fossil fuels, the programme has significantly increased forest cover, contributing to biodiversity conservation and carbon sequestration. Payments range based on the type of conservation service provided, with reforestation payments being higher than those for protection of existing forests. This has led to a notable increase in forest cover and biodiversity since its inception in 1997 (Pagiola, 2008). Australian Biodiversity Conservation Trust: Australia has established a market-based mechanism for biodiversity conservation through programmes like the Biodiversity Conservation Trust in New South Wales (NSW). This programme uses biodiversity offset markets, where developers must offset their environmental impacts by paying for conservation activities elsewhere. Landholders receive payments for managing their land in ways that protect endangered species and restore degraded habitats. These offsets provide a way to balance development with conservation outcomes",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "South Wales (NSW). This programme uses biodiversity offset markets, where developers must offset their environmental impacts by paying for conservation activities elsewhere. Landholders receive payments for managing their land in ways that protect endangered species and restore degraded habitats. These offsets provide a way to balance development with conservation outcomes (Maron et al., 2016). Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 38 of 46 Additionally, improving the carbon market by establishing clearer guidelines for biodiversity co-benefits will allow projects to generate carbon credits while supporting initiatives like forest restoration. The Government of India has already notified guidelines for green credits programme which is aimed at rewarding the efforts at environmental conservation and protection through a market mechanism. Engaging the private sector is crucial to raise demand for such credits. Corporate Social Responsibility funds can be used by the private sector to invest in such community efforts. Partnerships, such as those with companies like BASF that invest in ecosystem protection relevant to their supply chains, can mobilize additional funding. By implementing these targeted strategies, India can create a robust market-based financial ecosystem for biodiversity conservation and land restoration while supporting sustainable development and ecological resilience. 7.4 Socio-Economic and Cultural Factors Both regions recognize the role of indigenous and local communities, but in India, there is a stronger integration of traditional knowledge systems into conservation. Developed countries can learn from India’s community-based resource management systems, such as sacred groves and community forestry practices, to foster local participation in conservation. However, the socio-economic pressures in India—particularly poverty and dependence on natural resources—present unique challenges that must be addressed through sustainable livelihood alternatives. 7.5 Identification of Best Practices that can be Adapted to India’s Context • Cross-Sectoral Integration: Developed countries have successfully integrated biodiversity considerations into broader policy frameworks. India could adopt similar models",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "pressures in India—particularly poverty and dependence on natural resources—present unique challenges that must be addressed through sustainable livelihood alternatives. 7.5 Identification of Best Practices that can be Adapted to India’s Context • Cross-Sectoral Integration: Developed countries have successfully integrated biodiversity considerations into broader policy frameworks. India could adopt similar models by embedding biodiversity and land restoration goals into urban planning, industrial policy, and agricultural reforms, ensuring that these sectors align with national conservation objectives. • Use of Technology for Monitoring and Evaluation: India can leverage lessons from developed countries by scaling up the use of AI, eDNA, and precision restoration technologies. Expanding biodiversity databases, like the Indian Biodiversity Information System (IBIS), and increasing partnerships with global tech companies for real-time biodiversity monitoring can enhance restoration outcomes. • Public-Private Partnerships: Developed countries have shown the efficacy of publicprivate partnerships in funding and executing large-scale restoration projects. India can strengthen its engagement with private enterprises and multinational corporations to mobilize financial and technological support for biodiversity conservation, particularly through the creation of carbon offset projects and CSR initiatives. 7.6 Opportunities for South-North Collaboration Potential Areas for Collaboration between India and Developed Countries • Technology Transfer: Developed countries possess advanced technologies in biodiversity monitoring and ecosystem restoration that could be transferred to India. Joint initiatives focused on technology-sharing programmes, capacity building, and the development of open-source tools could accelerate India’s restoration efforts. Collaboration on remote sensing, GIS, and machine learning platforms could enable better real-time monitoring of ecosystems. • Joint Research and Capacity Building: India and developed countries can collaborate on research projects focusing on species conservation, ecosystem services valuation, Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 39 of 46 and sustainable land-use practices. Programmes modelled after EU Horizon 2020 could be co-funded, allowing for the exchange of expertise and innovative restoration strategies",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Building: India and developed countries can collaborate on research projects focusing on species conservation, ecosystem services valuation, Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 39 of 46 and sustainable land-use practices. Programmes modelled after EU Horizon 2020 could be co-funded, allowing for the exchange of expertise and innovative restoration strategies between Indian institutions and global research centres. Collaborative efforts on climate adaptation and resilience-building can also benefit both sides. • International Funding and Climate Finance: International financial mechanisms such as the Green Climate Fund, Global Environment Facility, and the World Bank can serve as platforms for joint biodiversity projects. Developed countries could provide financial resources for India’s large-scale restoration projects through debt-for-nature swaps, climate finance mechanisms, and blended finance models. Private-sector-driven green bonds and impact investment funds offer another avenue for collaboration. Role of International Organizations and Partnerships in Supporting India’s Efforts • United Nations Conventions: International conventions such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and the Bonn Challenge offer platforms for India and developed countries to align restoration goals and share best practices. The United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030) presents opportunities for multilateral cooperation on large-scale restoration projects. • Global Coalitions: India’s participation in global coalitions like the Food and Land Use Coalition (FOLU) and Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration (GPFLR) can be strengthened through partnerships with developed nations. These coalitions can serve as knowledge-sharing platforms, enabling India to learn from countries that have successfully restored degraded landscapes while offering India’s insights on community-led conservation approaches. • Bilateral and Multilateral Partnerships: India can explore more bilateral and multilateral partnerships with developed nations, such as its ongoing cooperation with the European Union on sustainable agriculture and climate change mitigation. Future collaborations could focus on biodiversity corridors, coastal",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "degraded landscapes while offering India’s insights on community-led conservation approaches. • Bilateral and Multilateral Partnerships: India can explore more bilateral and multilateral partnerships with developed nations, such as its ongoing cooperation with the European Union on sustainable agriculture and climate change mitigation. Future collaborations could focus on biodiversity corridors, coastal restoration, and integrated land-use planning. 7.7 Future Directions for India’s Biodiversity and Land Restoration Recommendations for Enhancing India’s Biodiversity and Land Restoration Initiatives • Strengthen Policy Enforcement and Governance: India should work towards more robust enforcement of its existing biodiversity laws and regulations. Strengthening institutions like the National Biodiversity Authority and enhancing the capacities of State Biodiversity Boards will help ensure better coordination between national and state-level actors. Creating cross-sectoral governance platforms could help integrate biodiversity conservation across ministries, including agriculture, forestry, and urban planning. • Scale-Up Technological Innovation: India needs to enhance its adoption of advanced biodiversity monitoring tools like drones, remote sensing, and AI-based platforms. Partnerships with global tech firms and research institutions should be encouraged to bring technological innovations to the forefront of biodiversity management. Creating regional biodiversity observatories equipped with cutting-edge technologies could accelerate restoration and conservation efforts. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 40 of 46 • Strengthen Local Communities and Traditional Knowledge: India’s rich heritage of traditional ecological knowledge offers valuable insights for sustainable land management and restoration. Empowering local communities through the Forest Rights Act and expanding community-managed conservation areas will ensure that restoration efforts are inclusive, sustainable, and culturally relevant. Community-based forest and water conservation models could be scaled up in collaboration with international partners. • Focus on Capacity Building and Awareness: Capacity building among policymakers, local communities, and conservation practitioners is crucial for the success of biodiversity restoration programmes. Training programmes, both national and international, should focus on developing skills",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "forest and water conservation models could be scaled up in collaboration with international partners. • Focus on Capacity Building and Awareness: Capacity building among policymakers, local communities, and conservation practitioners is crucial for the success of biodiversity restoration programmes. Training programmes, both national and international, should focus on developing skills in restoration ecology, adaptive management, and community engagement. Additionally, raising public awareness on the importance of biodiversity and land restoration will foster stronger citizen engagement. The Need for Innovative Financing Models Achieving the ambitious goals of biodiversity conservation and land restoration in India requires substantial financial resources. Traditional funding sources, such as government budgets and bilateral grants, are insufficient to address the scale of challenges. To bridge this gap, India must adopt innovative financing models that attract diverse capital sources and leverage international support. The following strategies can play a pivotal role: • Diversifying Funding Sources: India can explore innovative mechanisms such as biodiversity offset markets, carbon credits, and public-private partnerships (PPPs). These approaches can attract private sector investments and align business interests with conservation objectives. For example, carbon credit markets can incentivize land restoration efforts by monetizing carbon sequestration activities. • Leveraging International Finance: International finance mechanisms like debt-fornature swaps, blended finance, and green bonds offer opportunities for mobilizing significant resources. These mechanisms can channel global investment into India’s biodiversity projects, enabling large-scale restoration. For instance, green bonds issued by Indian banks have already been used for renewable energy projects, and a similar model can be applied to fund biodiversity initiatives. • Establishing Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES): PES mechanisms can incentivize communities involved in conservation activities by compensating them for maintaining ecosystem services like carbon sequestration, water purification, and biodiversity preservation. Integrating PES into national biodiversity programmes would promote community participation and support sustainable land management, addressing rural",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "biodiversity initiatives. • Establishing Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES): PES mechanisms can incentivize communities involved in conservation activities by compensating them for maintaining ecosystem services like carbon sequestration, water purification, and biodiversity preservation. Integrating PES into national biodiversity programmes would promote community participation and support sustainable land management, addressing rural livelihoods alongside ecological goals. • Green Financing: Green financing offers a valuable opportunity to address the funding challenges of India’s tiger reserves. The Government of India’s ‘Framework for Sovereign Green Bonds’ outlines criteria for projects eligible to receive funds from green bonds, including those focused on the conservation of endangered species, habitats, and ecosystems. As Project Tiger aligns with these criteria, it can tap into these financial resources through bond issuance. Innovative financing mechanisms, like ‘Tiger Bonds,’ offer the potential to attract private investment, providing much-needed Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 41 of 46 support for conservation activities. These bonds allow investors to directly link their returns to conservation outcomes, creating a mutually beneficial arrangement where financial returns are tied to successful wildlife preservation efforts. • Encouraging Impact Investing: Impact investing aligns financial returns with measurable social and environmental benefits, making it an effective approach for supporting community-driven conservation efforts. Investments in sustainable agriculture ventures or community-based conservation projects can attract private capital focused on achieving ecological impact. • Promoting Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Greater involvement of the private sector can bring both financial and technological resources to biodiversity conservation. Encouraging businesses in sectors like agriculture, forestry, and energy to invest through CSR initiatives, carbon sequestration projects, and biodiversity credits can support conservation goals while advancing sustainable business practices. India’s biodiversity and land restoration efforts will benefit significantly from strategic actions in policy enforcement, technological innovation, community engagement, and capacity building. However, these efforts require strong financial backing, making",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to invest through CSR initiatives, carbon sequestration projects, and biodiversity credits can support conservation goals while advancing sustainable business practices. India’s biodiversity and land restoration efforts will benefit significantly from strategic actions in policy enforcement, technological innovation, community engagement, and capacity building. However, these efforts require strong financial backing, making innovative financing models a critical component of future strategies. By diversifying funding sources, leveraging international finance, and fostering public-private collaboration, India can enhance its conservation and restoration initiatives. Learning from international best practices and building partnerships will further support the country in addressing the shared global challenges of biodiversity loss and land degradation. International cooperation, both South-South and SouthNorth, will play a key role in addressing the shared challenges of biodiversity loss and land degradation on a global scale. 8. Conclusion India's efforts have laid a strong foundation for sustainable land restoration despite facing challenges. By leveraging global partnerships, adopting cutting-edge technologies, and enhancing financial mechanisms such as payment for ecosystem services, India can lead global biodiversity conservation and climate resilience efforts. The convergence of global knowledge, technologies, and resources through international collaboration presents a powerful opportunity for India. By fostering partnerships with developed nations, scaling up innovations, and securing sustainable financing, India can lead in restoring degraded landscapes and protecting biodiversity. As India continues to integrate its sustainability goals with national development priorities, it stands poised to not only restore its ecosystems but also contribute significantly to international initiatives for environmental sustainability and resilience. India’s efforts at biodiversity conservation and land restoration are globally recognized for blending modern policy initiatives with rich traditional knowledge and community-driven approaches. Comprehensive legal frameworks like the Biological Diversity Act and Forest Rights Act safeguard ecosystems and support local communities. Initiatives such as the Green India Mission and the Compensatory Afforestation Fund aim to",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and land restoration are globally recognized for blending modern policy initiatives with rich traditional knowledge and community-driven approaches. Comprehensive legal frameworks like the Biological Diversity Act and Forest Rights Act safeguard ecosystems and support local communities. Initiatives such as the Green India Mission and the Compensatory Afforestation Fund aim to restore millions of hectares of degraded land, while programmes like Joint Forest Management (JFM) empower communities in forest conservation. The MGNREGA further integrates ecological restoration with rural employment, linking social and ecological goals. Significant progress has been made, with approximately 18.94 million hectares afforested between 2011–12 and 2021–22, and 9.8 million hectares restored under the Bonn Challenge Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 42 of 46 since 2011. However, achieving larger goals requires innovative financing models beyond traditional sources. India needs to diversify its funding through mechanisms like carbon credits, biodiversity offset markets, and PPPs to attract private investment. Carbon credits, for example, can monetize carbon sequestration activities, generating funds for restoration projects. International mechanisms such as debt-for-nature swaps, blended finance, and green bonds can mobilize global resources. Adapting green bonds to sustainability linked outcomes and greater involvement of private sector through green credits programme and the statutory mechanism of CSR could enhance availability of finance for biodiversity initiatives. PES offers another opportunity, incentivizing communities for maintaining vital ecosystem services like water purification and carbon storage. With a solid foundation in policy and community engagement, India is poised to lead in global biodiversity and land restoration. By leveraging global partnerships, advanced technologies, and innovative financing, India can expand its restoration efforts and contribute to international sustainability goals. As the country aligns its ecological priorities with development, it stands ready to drive meaningful progress in conservation and climate resilience, offering a model for sustainable restoration worldwide. Biodiversity and Land Restoration",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "partnerships, advanced technologies, and innovative financing, India can expand its restoration efforts and contribute to international sustainability goals. As the country aligns its ecological priorities with development, it stands ready to drive meaningful progress in conservation and climate resilience, offering a model for sustainable restoration worldwide. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 43 of 46 References Abhilash, P. C., Kumar, V., & Singh, A. (2016). Sustainability of crop production from polluted lands. Energy, Ecology and Environment, 1(1), 54–65. Akhtar-Schuster, M., Stringer, L. C., & Bhandari, M. (2017). Unpacking the concept of land degradation neutrality and addressing its operation through the Rio Conventions. Journal of Environmental Management, 195, 4–15. Ansari, N.A., Hembrom N.,Barthwal D., & Mathur V.B. (2018). Biodiversity Expenditure Review (BER) at Central Government Level, India. Final Report, WII-UNDP Biodiversity Finance Initiative (BIOFIN) Project, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. 75p. Bastin, J.-F., Garcia, C., & Routh, D. (2019). The global tree restoration potential. Science, 365(6448), 76–79. Bommarco, R., Kleijn, D., & Potts, S. G. (2013). Ecological intensification: Harnessing ecosystem services for food security. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 28(4), 230–238. Bonn, A., Allott, T., Evans, M., Joosten, H., & Stoneman, R. (2016). Peatland restoration and ecosystem services: an introduction. Peatland restoration and ecosystem services: Science, policy and practice, 1–16. Bossio, D., Geheb, K., & Critchley, W. (2010). Managing water by managing land: Addressing land degradation to improve water productivity and rural livelihoods. Agricultural Water Management, 97(4), 536–542. Bowler, D. E., Buyung-Ali, L., Knight, T. M., & Pullin, A. S. (2010). Urban greening to cool towns and cities: A systematic review of the empirical evidence. Landscape and urban planning, 97(3), 147–155. Chazdon, R. L., Guariguata, M. R., & Harrison, R. D. (2017). A policy-driven knowledge agenda for global forest and landscape restoration. Conservation Letters, 10(2), 125–132. Conant, R. T., Cerri,",
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    "text": "(2009). The global peatland CO2 picture. Wetlands International, Ede, 33, 431. Körner, C., Jetz, W., Paulsen, J., Payne, D., Rudmann-Maurer, K., & M Spehn, E. (2017). A global inventory of mountains for bio-geographical applications. Alpine botany, 127, 1–15. Lal, R. (2020). Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Science, 304(5677), 1623–1627. Mach, K. J., & Ekins, P. (2019). Climate as a risk factor for armed conflict. Nature, 571(7766), 193–197. Maron, M., Gordon, A., Mackey, B. G., Possingham, H. P., & Watson, J. E. (2015). Conservation: stop misuse of biodiversity offsets. Nature, 523(7561), 401–403. Mitsch, W.J., Bernal, B., Nahlik, A.M., Mander, Ü., Zhang, L., Anderson, C.J., Jørgensen, S.E., & Brix, H. (2013). Wetlands, carbon, and climate change. Landscape Ecology, 28(4), 583–597. Mukherjee, A., & Samanta, D. (2018). Atmospheric CO2 level and temperature affect degradation of Pretilachlor and Butachlor in Indian soil. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 100(6), 856–861. Navarro, L. M., Pereira, H. M., & Boulton, C. (2017). Restoring degraded land: Contributing to Aichi Targets 14, 15, and beyond. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 29, 207–214. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 45 of 46 Nowak, D. J., Hirabayashi, S., Doyle, M., McGovern, M., & Pasher, J. (2018). Air pollution removal by urban forests in Canada and its effect on air quality and human health. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 29, 40–48. Pagiola, S. (2008). Payments for environmental services in Costa Rica. Ecological Economics, 65(4), 712–724. Pandey, R., Gupta, M., Sachdeva, P., Singh, A., & Sugand, S. (2020). Biodiversity Conservation in India: Mapping Key Sources and Quantum of Funds, Working Paper No. 311, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, New Delhi. Peters, M. (2017). Urban forestry financing: the role of green bonds in improving urban environments. Journal of Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 25,",
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    "text": "Sugand, S. (2020). Biodiversity Conservation in India: Mapping Key Sources and Quantum of Funds, Working Paper No. 311, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, New Delhi. Peters, M. (2017). Urban forestry financing: the role of green bonds in improving urban environments. Journal of Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 25, 38–45. PRS Legislative Research (2023). Demand for Grants 2023-24 Analysis Environment, Forests and Climate Change, https://prsindia.org/files/budget/budget_parliament/2023/DfG_202324_Analysis-Environment_Forest_and_Climate_Change.pdf Ranjan, R. (2022). Linking green bond yields to the species composition of forests for improving forest quality and sustainability. Journal of Cleaner Production, 379, 134708. Roe, S., Streck, C., Obersteiner, M., Frank, S., Griscom, B., Drouet, L., Fricko, O., Gusti, M., Harris, N., Hasegawa, T., & Hausfather, Z. (2019). Contribution of the land sector to a 1.5 °C world. Nature Climate Change, 9, 817–828. SAC. (2021). Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India (Assessment and Analysis of Changes over 15 Years Based on Remote Sensing). Space Applications Centre, ISRO. Ahmedabad, India. 282 p. Sanz, M. J., et al. (2017). Sustainable land management contribution to successful land-based climate change adaptation and mitigation: A report of the science-policy interface. Bonn, Germany: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). Shao, Y., Zhang, X., & Wang, Z. (2016). An evaluation of time-series smoothing algorithms for land-cover classifications using MODIS-NDVI multi-temporal data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 174, 258–265. Soundrapandi, J. (2017). Biodiversity Financial Needs Assessment for the Implementation of India’s National Biodiversity Action Plan. National Biodiversity Authority, Chennai. India. December, 2017. Strassburg, B.B., Beyer, H.L., Crouzeilles, R., Iribarrem, A., Barros, F., de Siqueira, M.F., Sánchez-Tapia, A., Balmford, A., Sansevero, J.B.B., Brancalion, P.H.S., & Broadbent, E.N., (2019). Strategic approaches to restoring ecosystems can triple conservation gains and halve costs. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 3(1), 62–70. Suding, K., Higgs, E., Palmer, M., Callicott, J.B., Anderson, C.B., Baker, M., Gutrich, J.J., Hondula,",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Barros, F., de Siqueira, M.F., Sánchez-Tapia, A., Balmford, A., Sansevero, J.B.B., Brancalion, P.H.S., & Broadbent, E.N., (2019). Strategic approaches to restoring ecosystems can triple conservation gains and halve costs. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 3(1), 62–70. Suding, K., Higgs, E., Palmer, M., Callicott, J.B., Anderson, C.B., Baker, M., Gutrich, J.J., Hondula, K.L., LaFevor, M.C., Larson, B.M., & Randall, A. (2015). Committing to ecological restoration. Science, 348(6235), 638–640. UNCCD. (2022). The Global Land Outlook, Second Edition. Bonn, Germany: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. UNEP, (2022). Global Peatlands Assessment – The State of the World’s Peatlands: Evidence for action toward the conservation, restoration, and sustainable management of peatlands. Main Report. Global Peatlands Initiative. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 46 of 46 van der Esch, S., Sewell, A., Bakkenes, M., Berkhout, E., Doelman, J.C., Stehfest, E., Langhans, C., Fleskens, L., Bouwman, A., & Ten Brink, B. (2022). The global potential for land restoration: Scenarios for the Global Land Outlook 2. PBL publication number: 4816. PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, The Hague. White, R. P., Murray, S., & Rohweder, M. (2000). Pilot analysis of global ecosystemsGrassland Ecosystems: World Resources Institute. Washington, DC. Willer, H., Trávníček, J., & Schlatter, B (Eds.) (2024): The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2024. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture FiBL, Frick, and IFOAM – Organics International, Bonn. Zedler, J. B. and Kercher, S. (2005). Wetland resources: Status, trends, ecosystem services, and restorability. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 30, 39–74. Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 47 of 46 Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India: A narrative of India's sustainability efforts vis-à-vis the world Abstract This paper examines India's initiatives for biodiversity conservation and land restoration in the context of global sustainability goals, comparing them with efforts in developed",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India Page 47 of 46 Biodiversity and Land Restoration in India: A narrative of India's sustainability efforts vis-à-vis the world Abstract This paper examines India's initiatives for biodiversity conservation and land restoration in the context of global sustainability goals, comparing them with efforts in developed countries. It analyses international frameworks, including the three Rio Conventions, and highlights India's progress in land restoration and biodiversity conservation through regulatory frameworks, dedicated policies and programmes, and community-driven conservation practices. Through a comparative analysis, the paper contrasts India’s initiatives with those in the EU and North America, focusing on differences in technological adoption, financial resources, and community engagement. The findings provide insights into potential opportunities for collaboration, particularly in integrating traditional knowledge with modern conservation techniques, and underscore the necessity for innovative financing models to support these efforts. Keywords Biodiversity conservation, land restoration, India, developed countries, global sustainability, community-based conservation, policy comparison Printed on Recycled Paper",
    "source": "eco.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "40 CHAPTER – II HISTORY OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE 2.1 INTRODUCTION Indian agriculture has long, old and beyond memory history which begins the Indus valley civilization. One of the most old water regulating structure in the world is Grand Anicut dam on river Kaveri (1st-2nd Century CE)[1]. Indian agriculture began by 9000 BCE as a result of early cultivation of plants, and domestication of crops and animals. Settled life soon followed with implements and techniques being developed for agriculture. Double monsoons led to two harvests being reaped in one year. Indian products soon reached the world via existing trading networks and foreign crops were introduced to India. Plants and animals—considered essential to their survival by the Indians—came to be worshiped and venerated. The middle ages saw irrigation channels reach a new level of sophistication in India and Indian crops affecting the economies of other regions of the world under Islamic patronage. Land and water management systems were developed with an aim of providing uniform growth. Despite some stagnation during the later modern era the independent Republic of India was able to develop a comprehensive agricultural program. Reference 1: Stein, Burton (1998), A History of India, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-20546-2 41 2.2 HISTORY OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE 2.2.1 Early History Wheat, barley and jujube were domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9000 BCE. Domestication of sheep and goat soon followed. This period also saw the first domestication of the elephant. Barley and wheat cultivation—along with the domestication of cattle, primarily sheep and goat—was visible in Mehrgarh by 80006000 BCE. Agro pastoralism in India included threshing, planting crops in rows— either of two or of six—and storing grain in granaries. By the 5th millennium BCE agricultural communities became widespread in Kashmir. Zaheer Baber (1996)[1] writes that 'the first evidence of cultivation of cotton had",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "visible in Mehrgarh by 80006000 BCE. Agro pastoralism in India included threshing, planting crops in rows— either of two or of six—and storing grain in granaries. By the 5th millennium BCE agricultural communities became widespread in Kashmir. Zaheer Baber (1996)[1] writes that 'the first evidence of cultivation of cotton had already developed'. Cotton was cultivated by the 5th millennium BCE-4th millennium BCE. The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practiced till the modern Industrialization of India. A variety of tropical fruit such as mango and muskmelon are native to the Indian subcontinent. The Indians also domesticated hemp, which they used for a number of applications including making narcotics, fiber, and oil. The farmers of the Indus Valley grew peas, sesame, and dates. Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea. Wild Oryza rice appeared in the Belan and Ganges valley regions of northern India as early as 4530 BCE and 5440 BCE respectively. Rice was cultivated in the Indus Valley Civilization. Agricultural activity during the second millennium BC included rice cultivation in the Kashmir and Harrappan regions. Mixed farming was the basis of the Indus valley economy. Denis J. Murphy (2007)[2] details the spread of cultivated rice from India into South-east Asia: References 1 : Baber, Zaheer (1996), The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-2919-9. Reference 2: Murphy, Denis J. (2007), People, Plants and Genes: The Story of Crops and Humanity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-920713-5. 42 Several wild cereals, including rice, grew in the Vindhyan Hills, and rice cultivation,",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-2919-9. Reference 2: Murphy, Denis J. (2007), People, Plants and Genes: The Story of Crops and Humanity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-920713-5. 42 Several wild cereals, including rice, grew in the Vindhyan Hills, and rice cultivation, at sites such as Chopani-Mando and Mahagara, may have been underway as early as 7000 BP. The relative isolation of this area and the early development of rice farming imply that it was developed indigenously....ChopaniMando and Mahagara are located on the upper reaches of the Ganges drainage system and it is likely that migrants from this area spread rice farming down the Ganges valley into the fertile plains of Bengal, and beyond into south-east Asia. Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewers. Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated to 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE. Archeological evidence of an animaldrawn plough dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization. 2.2.2 Vedic period – Post Maha Janapadas period (1500 BCE – 200 CE) Accoridng to Gupta (2004) [1] the summer monsoons may have been longer and may have contained moisture in excess than required for normal food production. One effect of this excessive moisture would have been to aid the winter monsoon rainfall required for winter crops. In India, both wheat and barley are held to be Rabi (winter) crops and—like other parts of the world—would have largely depended on winter monsoons before the irrigation became widespread.",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "production. One effect of this excessive moisture would have been to aid the winter monsoon rainfall required for winter crops. In India, both wheat and barley are held to be Rabi (winter) crops and—like other parts of the world—would have largely depended on winter monsoons before the irrigation became widespread. The growth of the Kharif crops would have probably suffered as a result of excessive moisture. Jute was first cultivated in India, where it was used to make ropes and cordage. Some animals— thought by the Indians as being vital to their survival—came to be worshiped. Reference 1: Gupta, Anil K. (2004), \"Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration\", Current Science, 87 (1), Indian Academy of Sciences. 43 Trees were also domesticated, worshiped, and venerated—Pipal and Banyan in particular. Others came to be known for their medicinal uses and found mention in the holistic medical system Ayurveda. In the later Vedic texts (c. 1000–500 BC), there are repeated references to iron. Cultivation of a wide range of cereals, vegetables, and fruits is described. Meat and milk products were part of the diet; animal husbandry was important. The soil was plowed several times. Seeds were broadcast. Fallowing and a certain sequence of cropping were recommended. Cow dung provided the manure. Irrigation was practiced. The Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE) categorized soils and made meteorological observations for agricultural use. Other Mauryan facilitation included construction and maintenance of dams, and provision of horse-drawn chariots—quicker than traditional bullock carts. The Greek diplomat Megasthenes (c. 300 BC)—in his book Indika— provides a secular eyewitness account of Indian agriculture: 2.2.3 Early Common Era – High Middle Ages (200–1200 CE) The Tamil people cultivated a wide range of crops such as rice, sugarcane, millets, black pepper, various grains, coconuts, beans,",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "bullock carts. The Greek diplomat Megasthenes (c. 300 BC)—in his book Indika— provides a secular eyewitness account of Indian agriculture: 2.2.3 Early Common Era – High Middle Ages (200–1200 CE) The Tamil people cultivated a wide range of crops such as rice, sugarcane, millets, black pepper, various grains, coconuts, beans, cotton, plantain, tamarind and sandalwood. Jackfruit, coconut, palm, areca and plantain trees were also known. Systematic ploughing, manuring, weeding, irrigation and crop protection was practiced for sustained agriculture. Water storage systems were designed during this period. Kallanai (1st-2nd century CE), a dam built on river Kaveri during this period, is considered the as one of the oldest water-regulation structures in the world still in use. Spice trade involving spices native to India—including cinnamon and black pepper— gained momentum as India starts shipping spices to the Mediterranean. Roman trade with India followed as detailed by the archaeological record and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Chinese sericulture attracted Indian sailors during the early centuries of the common era. Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Guptas (320 44 550 CE), and the earliest reference of candied sugar come from India. The process was soon transmitted to China with traveling Buddhist monks. Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugarrefining. Each mission returned with results on refining sugar. Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (fourteenth century). Noboru Karashima's research of the agrarian society in South India during the Chola Empire (875-1279) reveals that during the Chola rule land was transferred and collective holding of land by a group of people slowly gave way to individual plots of land, each with their own irrigation system. The",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "century). Noboru Karashima's research of the agrarian society in South India during the Chola Empire (875-1279) reveals that during the Chola rule land was transferred and collective holding of land by a group of people slowly gave way to individual plots of land, each with their own irrigation system. The growth of individual disposition of farming property may have led to a decrease in areas of dry cultivation. The Cholas also had bureaucrats which oversaw the distribution of water—-particularly the distribution of water by tank-and-channel networks to the drier areas. 2.2.4 Late Middle Ages – Early Modern Era (1200–1757 CE) The construction of water works and aspects of water technology in India is described in Arabic and Persian works. The diffusion of Indian and Persian irrigation technologies gave rise to an irrigation system which bought about economic growth and growth of material culture. Agricultural 'zones' were broadly divided into those producing rice, wheat or millets. Rice production continued to dominate Gujarat and wheat dominated north and central India. The Encyclopedia Britannica details the many crops introduced to India during this period of extensive global discourse: Introduced by the Portuguese, cultivation of tobacco spread rapidly. The Malabār Coast was the home of spices, especially black pepper, that had stimulated the first European adventures in the East. Coffee had been imported from Abyssinia and became a popular beverage in aristocratic circles by the end of the century. Tea, which was to become the common man's drink and a major export, was yet undiscovered, though it was growing wild in the hills of Assam. Vegetables were 45 cultivated mainly in the vicinity of towns. New species of fruit, such as the pineapple, papaya, and cashew nut, also were introduced by the Portuguese. The quality of mango and citrus fruits was greatly improved. Land",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "undiscovered, though it was growing wild in the hills of Assam. Vegetables were 45 cultivated mainly in the vicinity of towns. New species of fruit, such as the pineapple, papaya, and cashew nut, also were introduced by the Portuguese. The quality of mango and citrus fruits was greatly improved. Land management was particularly strong during the regime of Akbar the Great (reign: 1556-1605), under whom scholar-bureaucrat Todarmal formulated and implemented elaborated methods for agricultural management on a rational basis. Indian crops—such as cotton, sugar, and citric fruits—spread visibly throughout North Africa, Islamic Spain, and the Middle East. Though they may have been in cultivation prior to the solidification of Islam in India, their production was further improved as a result of this recent wave, which led to far-reaching economic outcomes for the regions involved. 2.2.5 Colonial British Era (1757–1947 CE) In 1857 a Rampur canal on river Sutlej was constructed and a number of irrigation canals are located on the Sutlej river. Few Indian commercial crops—such as Cotton, indigo, opium, and rice—made it to the global market under the British Raj in India. The second half of the 19th century saw some increase in land under cultivation and agricultural production expanded at an average rate of about 1 percent per year by the later 19th century. Due to extensive irrigation by canal networks Punjab, Narmada valley, and Andhra Pradesh became centers of agrarian reforms. There was influence of the world wars on the Indian agricultural system [1]. Reference 1: Roy, T. (2006), \"Agricultural Prices and Production, 1757–1947\", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 20–22, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0684-31350-2. 46 Agricultural performance in the interwar period (1918–1939) was dismal. From 1891 to 1946, the annual growth rate of all crop output was 0.4 percent, and food-grain output",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "T. (2006), \"Agricultural Prices and Production, 1757–1947\", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 20–22, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0684-31350-2. 46 Agricultural performance in the interwar period (1918–1939) was dismal. From 1891 to 1946, the annual growth rate of all crop output was 0.4 percent, and food-grain output was practically stagnant. There were significant regional and intercrop differences, however, nonfood crops doing better than food crops. Among food crops, by far the most important source of stagnation was rice. Bengal had below-average growth rates in both food and nonfood crop output, whereas Punjab and Madras were the least stagnant regions. In the interwar period, population growth accelerated while food output decelerated, leading to declining availability of food per head. The crisis was most acute in Bengal, where food output declined at an annual rate of about 0.7 percent from 1921 to 1946, when population grew at an annual rate of about 1 percent. The British regime in India did supply the irrigation works but rarely on the scale required. Community effort and private investment soared as market for irrigation developed. Agricultural prices of some commodities rose to about three times between 1870-1920. A rich source of the state of Indian agriculture in the early British era is a report prepared by a British engineer, Thomas Barnard, and his Indian guide, Raja Chengalvaraya Mudaliar, around 1774. This report contains data of agricultural production in about 800 villages in the area around Chennai in the years 1762 to 1766. This report is available in Tamil in the form of palm leaf manuscripts at Thanjavur Tamil University, and in English in the Tamil Nadu State Archives. A series of articles in The Hindu newspaper in the early 1990s authored by researchers at The Center for Policy Studies led by Shri Dharampal",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "report is available in Tamil in the form of palm leaf manuscripts at Thanjavur Tamil University, and in English in the Tamil Nadu State Archives. A series of articles in The Hindu newspaper in the early 1990s authored by researchers at The Center for Policy Studies led by Shri Dharampal Dharampal highlight the impressive production statistics of Indian farmers of that era. 47 2.2.6 Republic of India (1947 CE onwards) Bhakra Dam (completed 1963) is the largest dam in India. Special programs were undertaken to improve food and cash crops supply. The Grow More Food Campaign (1940s) and the Integrated Production Programme (1950s) focused on food and cash crops supply respectively. Five-year plans of India—oriented towards agricultural development—soon followed. Land reclamation, land development, mechanization, electrification, use of chemicals—fertilizers in particular, and development of agriculture oriented 'package approach' of taking a set of actions instead of promoting single aspect soon followed under government supervision. The many 'production revolutions' initiated from 1960s onwards included Green Revolution in India, Yellow Revolution (oilseed: 1986-1990), Operation Flood (dairy: 1970-1996), and Blue Revolution (fishing: 1973-2002) etc. Following the economic reforms of 1991, significant growth was registered in the agricultural sector, which was by now benefiting from the earlier reforms and the newer innovations of Agro-processing and Biotechnology. Due to the growth and prosperity that followed India's economic reforms a strong middle class emerged as the main consumer of fruits, dairy, fish, meat and vegetables—a marked shift from the earlier staple based consumption. Since 1991, changing consumption patterns led to a 'revolution' in 'high value' agriculture while the need for cereals is experienced a decline. The per capita consumption of cereals declined from 192 to 152 kilograms from 1977 to 1999 while the consumption of fruits increased by 553%, vegetables by 167%, dairy products by 105%, and",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "patterns led to a 'revolution' in 'high value' agriculture while the need for cereals is experienced a decline. The per capita consumption of cereals declined from 192 to 152 kilograms from 1977 to 1999 while the consumption of fruits increased by 553%, vegetables by 167%, dairy products by 105%, and nonvegetarian products by 85% in India's rural areas alone. Urban areas experienced a similar increase. Agricultural exports continued to grow at well over 10.1% annually through the 1990s. Contract farming—which requires the farmers to produce crops for a company 48 under contract—and high value agricultural product increased. Contract farming led to a decrease in transaction costs while the contract farmers made more profit compared to the non-contract workforce. However, small landholding continued to create problems for India's farmers as the limited land resulted in limited produce and limited profits. Since independence, India has become one of the largest producers of wheat, edible oil, potato, spices, rubber, tea, fishing, fruits, and vegetables in the world. The Ministry of Agriculture oversees activities relating to agriculture in India. Various institutions for agriculture related research in India were organized under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (est. 1929). Other organizations such as the National Dairy Development Board (est. 1965), and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (est. 1982) aided the formation of cooperatives and improved financing. The contribution of agriculture in employing India's male workforce declined from 75.9% in 1961 to 60% in 1999–2000. Dev (2006)[1] holds that 'there were about 45 million agricultural labor households in the country in 1999–2000.' These households recorded the highest incidence of poverty in India from 1993 to 2000. The green revolution introduced high yielding varieties of crops which also increased the usage of fertilizers and pesticides. About 90% of the pesticide usage in India is accounted",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "agricultural labor households in the country in 1999–2000.' These households recorded the highest incidence of poverty in India from 1993 to 2000. The green revolution introduced high yielding varieties of crops which also increased the usage of fertilizers and pesticides. About 90% of the pesticide usage in India is accounted for by DDT and Lindane (BHC/HCH). There has been a shift to organic agriculture particularly for exported commodities. • Reference 1 :Dev, S. M. (2006), \"Agricultural Labor and Wages since 1950\", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 17–20, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31350-2. 49 Figure 2.1 India’s Natural vegetation Source: ICAR report 2006-2007 50 2.3 Indian Agriculture under Five Year Plans On the eve of first plan (1951-1956) agriculture was in a hopeless and deplorable condition. Our farmers were heavy debt to the village money-lenders. They were having small and scattered holdings. They had neither the money nor the knowledge to use proper equipment, good seeds and chemical manures. Except in certain areas, they were dependent upon rainfall and upon the vagaries of the monsoons. Productivity of land as well as of labour had been declining and was generally the lowest in the world. In spite of the fact that nearly 70% of our working population was engaged in cultivation, the country was not self-sufficient in food grains but had come to depend on imports of food grains. Besides, the partition of the country in 1946 worsened the agricultural situation as India was allotted more people but less land to support. 2.3 (A) Objectives of Economic Planning for the Agricultural Sector While planning to develop the agricultural sector, the Planning Commission has kept four broad objectives[1]: (a) Increase Agricultural Production The aim has always been i) To bring more land under cultivation, ii) Raise the per hectare",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "less land to support. 2.3 (A) Objectives of Economic Planning for the Agricultural Sector While planning to develop the agricultural sector, the Planning Commission has kept four broad objectives[1]: (a) Increase Agricultural Production The aim has always been i) To bring more land under cultivation, ii) Raise the per hectare yield through intensive application of such agricultural inputs as irrigation, improved seeds fertilizers, etc. and thus iii) Bring about increased agricultural production. (b) Increase Employment Opportunities – Apart from increase in production, the agricultural sector has to generate additional employment opportunities and provide scope for increasing the incomes of the poorer sections in our villages. 51 © Reduce the Pressure of Population on Land Another basic objective of planning in the agricultural sector has been to reduce the number of people working on land, on the assumption that there are too many people working on land. The surplus labour on land should be shifted to secondary and tertiary sectors, preferably in rural land semi-urban areas. Reference 1 : Indian Economy, Ruddar Datta, K.P.M Sundaram, S. Chand & Co.53rd Edition, ISBN : 81-219-2045-0 52 (d) Reduce Inequality of Incomes in the Rural Sector The Government should remove the exploitation of tenants, and should distribute surplus land among small and marginal farmers in such a way that there would be some degree of equality and justice in the rural areas. All these four objectives are generally followed in all our five year plans but in practice, agricultural planning in India has come to mean increase in agricultural production, viz., the achievement of the first objective; all other objectives have either been ignored or given lower priority. 2.4 Strategy Used in Agricultural Sector under Five Year Plans To bring about increase in agricultural production and also increase in rural employment such as; setting",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to mean increase in agricultural production, viz., the achievement of the first objective; all other objectives have either been ignored or given lower priority. 2.4 Strategy Used in Agricultural Sector under Five Year Plans To bring about increase in agricultural production and also increase in rural employment such as; setting up of community development programmes and agricultural extension services throughout the country, expansion of irrigation facilities, fertilizers, pesticides, agricultural machinery, high-yielding varieties of seeds and expansion of transportation, power, marketing, and of institutional credit. To reduce the pressure of population on land, the strategy used was to set up agro-based industries and handicrafts in rural areas, to promote rural transport and communications and to encourage the movement of people from agriculture to industries and service sectors. Finally, to bring about equality and justice in rural India, the strategy used was land reforms which included the removal of intermediaries, like the Zamindars, the protection of tenants through tenancy legislation, ceiling of land holding and distribution of surplus land among landless labourers and small and marginal farmers. 53 2.4.1 Pattern of Investment in the Agricultural Sector The pattern of investment in the different five year plans is summarized in table 2.1 : Table 2.1 Pattern of Government Outlay on Agriculture in the Plans (in Rs.) Five Year Plan Year Total Plan Outlay Outlay on Agriculture & Irrigation % of Total Outlay First Plan 1951-56 1,960 600 31 Second Plan 1956-61 4,600 950 20 Third Plan 1961-66 8,600 1,750 21 Fourth Plan 1969-74 15,780 3,670 23 Fifth Plan 1974-79 39,430 8,740 22 Sixth Plan 1980-85 1,09,290 26,130 24 Seventh Plan 1985-90 2,18,730 48,100 22 Eighth Plan 1992-97 4,85,460 1,02,730 20 Ninth Plan 1997-2002 8,59,200 1,70,230 20 Tenth Plan 2002-07 15,25,640 3,05,060 20 Source: Various Five Year Plan documents It would be clear that",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "15,780 3,670 23 Fifth Plan 1974-79 39,430 8,740 22 Sixth Plan 1980-85 1,09,290 26,130 24 Seventh Plan 1985-90 2,18,730 48,100 22 Eighth Plan 1992-97 4,85,460 1,02,730 20 Ninth Plan 1997-2002 8,59,200 1,70,230 20 Tenth Plan 2002-07 15,25,640 3,05,060 20 Source: Various Five Year Plan documents It would be clear that the total outlay in each Plan had increased and, correspondingly, the outlay on agriculture and irrigation had also increased. However. The percentage of outlay on agriculture and irrigation to total plan outlay was the highest in the First Plan, viz, 31% but ranged between 20 to 24% in all other plans. The Indian Planning Commission specified the various programmes for increasing agricultural production such as irrigation, soil conservation, dry farming and land reclamation, supply of fertilizers and manures, better ploughs and improved agricultural implements, adoption of scientific practices, etc. The Government gave considerable attention to institutional changes such as the setting up of community 54 development programmes and agricultural expansion of transportation, power, marketing and other basic facilities, improvement of the system of co-operative credit, etc. From the Third Plan onwards, the greatest emphasis was laid on irrigation, fertilizer, seed technology which led to green revolution. 2.4.2 Agricultural Progress under the Five Year Plans We shall describe the progress made by India in the field of agriculture under the first nine plans. In the next section, we shall take up the progress of agriculture under the Ninth Plan separately. a) First two Plans (1951-61) The First Plan aimed at solving the food crisis India was facing at that time and ease the critical agricultural raw material situation, particularly the acute shortage pf raw cotton and raw jute. Accordingly, it gave highest priority to agriculture, specially food production by allotting 31% of the total public sector outlay on agriculture, but it",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "the food crisis India was facing at that time and ease the critical agricultural raw material situation, particularly the acute shortage pf raw cotton and raw jute. Accordingly, it gave highest priority to agriculture, specially food production by allotting 31% of the total public sector outlay on agriculture, but it fixed rather modest targets of production. (See the above table). As a result of favourable weather conditions and the production targets in the agricultural sector were exceeded for instance, as against the target of about 62 million tones, actual production of food grains came to nearly 67 million tones. The targets fixed for other crops were not fulfilled. The Planning Commission wanted the Second Plan to lay the foundations of industrialization and secure equal opportunities for all, particularly for the weaker sections of the people in the country. Out of total outlay of Rs. 4,600 crores during the Second Plan, a sum of Rs. 950 crores or about 20% was spent on agriculture. Despite the percentage reduction in Plan outlay on agriculture, the progress on the agricultural front was significant. For example, food grains production recorded nearly 80 million tonnes in 1960-61, as against the target of 81 million tonnes. Likewise the production of oilseeds, sugarcane, and cotton was much more in 1960-61. There was, however, a shortfall in the production of all groups of commodities, as against the target fixed, except in the case of sugarcane in which there was remarkable progress. 55 b) Third to Fifth Plans (1961-79) Experience in the Second Plan had shown clearly that the rate of growth in agricultural production was a major limiting factor in the progress of the India economy. As the Government felt that the success of the agricultural sector was an essential condition for the agricultural sector was an essential",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Experience in the Second Plan had shown clearly that the rate of growth in agricultural production was a major limiting factor in the progress of the India economy. As the Government felt that the success of the agricultural sector was an essential condition for the agricultural sector was an essential condition for the success of entire plan, the Third Plan fixed ambitious targets of production for all agricultural crops. It was during the Third Plan that the Government introduced the new agricultural technology known as Intensive Agricultural District Programme of using improved seeds, viz., High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP). The new agricultural technology was expected to usher in the green revolution. However, as a result of the extensive and serious drought conditions in 1965-66, agricultural production was adversely affected. a) None of the agricultural targets except sugarcane was chieved during the third plan period; and b) The actual output at the end of the Third Plan in the case of food grains, oilseeds and raw cotton was lower than the output at the end of the Second Plan, indicating that the Third Plan was a wash-out, as far as agriculture was concerned. As the consequence of the shortfall in food production and serious famine conditions in many parts of the country, the Government was forced to import food grains extensively during the last of the third plan. Besides, for the first time, the public lost interest in the planning process and the Government adopted “plan holiday” for three years. The experience of the Third Plan made the Planning Commission realize the bitter fact that economic Planning would be a failure unless agricultural production was increased rapidly. Accordingly, the Planning Commission assigned high priority to agriculture in the successive plans. 56 Table 2.2: Achievements in the Agricultural Sector in the Various",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "experience of the Third Plan made the Planning Commission realize the bitter fact that economic Planning would be a failure unless agricultural production was increased rapidly. Accordingly, the Planning Commission assigned high priority to agriculture in the successive plans. 56 Table 2.2: Achievements in the Agricultural Sector in the Various Plans Five Year Plans Food grains Oilseeds Sugarcane Cotton Jute Target Achievement Target Achievement Target AchievEment Target Achievement Target Achievement First Plan 62 67 5.5 5.6 63 60 4.2 4.0 5.4 4.2 Second Plan 81 80 7.6 6.5 78 104 6.5 5.4 6.5 4.0 Third Plan 100 72 9.8 6.4 100 127 7.0 4.6 6.2 4.5 Fourth Plan 129 104 10.5 8.7 150 140 8.0 5.8 7.4 6.2 Fifth Plan 125 126 12.0 8.9 165 165 8.0 7.1 7.7 7.1 Sixth Plan 154 146 11.1 13.0 215 170 9.2 8.5 9.1 7.8 Seventh Plan 180 172 18.0 17.0 217 210 9.5 10.5 9.5 7.9 Eighth Plan 210 191 23.0 25.0 275 277 14.0 14.3 9.5 11.0 Ninth Plan 234 211 30.0 20.7 336 300 15.7 10.1 ----11.6 Note: 1. Production of food grains, oilseeds and sugar cane in million tones 2: Production of cotton in millions of bales of 180 kgs each 3: Production of jute in millions of bales of 170 kgs each Source: Plan documents and Economic Surveys The approach to the Fourth Plan, for instance, emphasized the necessity to create favourable economic conditions for the promotion of agriculture and a systematic effort to extend the application of science and technology to improve agricultural practices. Table above, however, reveals clearly that none of the targets fixed in agriculture in Fourth Plan was realized. For example, the target for food grains was 129 million 57 tonnes for 1973-74 but the actual production in that year was only 104 million",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "science and technology to improve agricultural practices. Table above, however, reveals clearly that none of the targets fixed in agriculture in Fourth Plan was realized. For example, the target for food grains was 129 million 57 tonnes for 1973-74 but the actual production in that year was only 104 million tones the highest level of production was 108 million in 1970-71. The Fifth Plan (1974-79) was prepared with great care, with total plan outlay at Rs. 39,430 crores out of which outlay on agriculture would be Rs. 8,740 crores (which was 22% of the total Plan outlay). The targets for production of various crops and necessary inputs to achieve these targets were also clearly set. Unfortunately, all the financial calculations went wrong because of the serious inflationary situation during 1973-74. The Fifth Plan period also witnessed the declaration of emergency (1975). Even though agricultural progress was steady and plan targets were being realized, the Janata Party which came to power at the Center suspended the Fifth Plan mid way and started preparing the Sixth Plan. ( Refer to Table 2.1 for V Plan targets and actual achievements in the agricultural sector). (D) Progress since the Sixth Plan Of all the Plans, the Sixth Plan (1980-85) was hailed as a great success, particularly because of the success on the agricultural front. As against the annual growth rate of 3.8 for agriculture, the actual growth rate was 4.3%. The production of food grains in 1983-84 was 154 million tonnes (against the target of 154 million tonnes) and was hailed by the Indian Government as the second green revolution. While the First Green Revolution from 1967-68 arose from the introduction of new high yielding varieties of Mexican Wheat and dwarf rice varieties, the Second Green Revolution from 1983-84 was said to be from",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of 154 million tonnes) and was hailed by the Indian Government as the second green revolution. While the First Green Revolution from 1967-68 arose from the introduction of new high yielding varieties of Mexican Wheat and dwarf rice varieties, the Second Green Revolution from 1983-84 was said to be from expansion in supplies of inputs and services to farmers, agricultural extension and better management. While the First Green Revolution was confined mainly to Punjab, Haryana and Western U.P., the Second Green Revolution had spread to eastern and central states including West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern U.P. These states had made tremendous progress in recent years. 58 However, it is important to emphasize the fact that, despite all the great claim of the Government, none of the targets (except in oilseeds) of agricultural production was achieved during Sixth Plan (Refer Table). The Seventh Plan (1985-90) and the Eighth Plan (1992-97) laid emphasis on specific projects in the field of agriculture They included a special rice production programme for rain fed agriculture, national oilseeds development project, social forestry, etc. The Seventh Plan was not successful in the sense that the targets fixed for various sectors (except cotton) were not achieved. However, the level of production at the end of the Seventh Plan was much higher than the beginning of the Seventh Plan. The Eighth Plan (1992-97) was basically sound in its approach in the strategy of development and in the targets of agricultural crops. Fortunately, weather and climate conditions were favourable and broadly many of the targets could be fulfilled. For instance, the actual outputs in1996-97 of oil seeds, of sugarcane, of cotton and of jute were higher than the targets for these crops in the Eighth Plan. The only exception was food grains the Eighth Plan target was",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "were favourable and broadly many of the targets could be fulfilled. For instance, the actual outputs in1996-97 of oil seeds, of sugarcane, of cotton and of jute were higher than the targets for these crops in the Eighth Plan. The only exception was food grains the Eighth Plan target was 210 million tones but the actual production was 199 million tonnes. In fact, the production of food Grains at 199 million tonnes was the highest output registered by India till the date. The Ninth Plan (1997-2002) treated more elaborately in the next section was not much of a success, as far as the agricultural targets were concerned. For instance, the Ninth Plan fixed the target of food grains production at 234 million tonnes in 2001-02; but the actual production was only 212 million tones. The same story of under – achievement was to be noted in other sectors of agriculture also. One is inclined to ask the question: why should the planners fix unrealistic and unrealizable targets? 59 2.5 India’s Rainbow Revolution Rainbow revolution concept is a combination of Green Revolution, White Revolution, Blue Revolution, Yellow Revolution and Brown Revolution. It was after these revolutions, the Indian agriculture slowly shifted from traditional behaviour to scientific behaviour. So, it is necessary to understand these revolutions in brief. The following chart shows various revolutions related to various produces of Indian agriculture. Here we are discussing mainly Green Revolution, White Revolution, Blue Revolution and Yellow Revolution in brief Revolution Production Black Revolution Petroleum production Blue Revolution Fish production Brown Revolution Leather/non-conventional(India)/Cocoa production Golden Revolution Overall Horticulture development/Honey Production Golden Fiber Revolution Jute Production Green Revolution Food grain (Cereals, Wheat &Leguminous plant) production Grey Revolution Fertilizer production Pink Revolution Onion production/Pharmaceutical (India)/Prawn production Red Revolution Meat & Tomato production Round Revolution Potato production Silver",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "production Blue Revolution Fish production Brown Revolution Leather/non-conventional(India)/Cocoa production Golden Revolution Overall Horticulture development/Honey Production Golden Fiber Revolution Jute Production Green Revolution Food grain (Cereals, Wheat &Leguminous plant) production Grey Revolution Fertilizer production Pink Revolution Onion production/Pharmaceutical (India)/Prawn production Red Revolution Meat & Tomato production Round Revolution Potato production Silver Fiber Revolution Cotton production Silver Revolution Egg/Poultry production White Revolution Milk/Dairy production (In India Operation Flood) Yellow Revolution Oil Seeds production 60 2.5.1 Green Revolution The introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds after 1965 and the increased use of fertilizers and irrigation are known collectively as the Green Revolution, which provided the increase in production needed to make India selfsufficient in food grains, thus improving agriculture in India. Famine in India, once accepted as inevitable, has not returned since the introduction of Green Revolution crops. Of the high-yielding seeds, wheat produced the best results. All India Radio (AIR) played a vital role in creating awareness for these methods. Along with high yielding seeds and irrigation facilities, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilized the idea of agricultural revolution and is also credited to All India Radio. The major benefits of the Green Revolution were experienced mainly in northern and northwestern India between 1965 and the early 1980s; the program resulted in a substantial increase in the production of food grains, mainly wheat and rice Food-grain yields continued to increase throughout the 1980s, but the dramatic changes in the years between 1965 and 1980 were not duplicated. By FY 1980, almost 75 percent of the total cropped area under wheat was sown with high-yielding varieties. For rice the comparable figure was 45 percent. In the 1980s, the area under high-yielding varieties continued to increase, but the rate of growth overall was slower. The eighth plan aimed at making high-yielding varieties available to the",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of the total cropped area under wheat was sown with high-yielding varieties. For rice the comparable figure was 45 percent. In the 1980s, the area under high-yielding varieties continued to increase, but the rate of growth overall was slower. The eighth plan aimed at making high-yielding varieties available to the whole country and developing more productive strains of other crops The map no.2 shows the total food grain cultivation in India. From the map we see that the foodgrains such as wheat and rice are majorly cultivated in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh for wheat and Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Karnatak and Kerala for rice. We see a crowded foodgrain cultivation of Bajra, Jowar and Maize in the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka. 61 Figure no. 2.2 Agricultural Map of India (Food crops) Source :-Indian Economy,Agriculture report 2007-2008 62 From the above map we see that rice is majorly cultivated on the western coastal line completely, in some parts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Orissa, West Bengal and North-Eastern states. Wheat is densely cultivated in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Jharkhand and in some parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. Millets which constitute foodgrains such as Ragi, Jowar, Bajra is densely cultivated in the states of Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and in some parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Himachal Pradesh. The environmental impact of excessive use to chemical fertilizers and pesticides was only revealed as years passed by. In 2009, under a Greenpeace Research Laboratories investigation, Dr Reyes Tirado, from the University of Exeter, UK, conducted a study in 50 villages in Muktsar, Bathinda and Ludhiana districts that revealed chemical, radiation and biological toxicity was rampant in Punjab. 20% of the sampled wells showed nitrate levels above the safety limit of 50 mg/l, established by WHO. The study",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Tirado, from the University of Exeter, UK, conducted a study in 50 villages in Muktsar, Bathinda and Ludhiana districts that revealed chemical, radiation and biological toxicity was rampant in Punjab. 20% of the sampled wells showed nitrate levels above the safety limit of 50 mg/l, established by WHO. The study connected this finding with high use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. With increasing poisoning of the soil, the region once hailed as the home to the Green Revolution, now due to excessive use of chemical fertilizer, is being termed by one columnist as the \"Other Bhopal\". For example, Buddha Nullah, a rivulet which run through Malwa region of Punjab, India, and after passing through highly populated Ludhiana district, before draining into Sutlej River, a tributary of the Indus river, is today an important case point in the recent studies, which suggest this as another Bhopal in making. A joint study by PGIMER and Punjab Pollution Control Board in 2008, revealed that in villages along the Nullah, calcium, magnesium, fluoride, mercury, beta-endosulphan and heptachlor pesticide were more than permissible limit (MPL) in ground and tap waters. Plus the water had high concentration of COD and BOD (chemical and biochemical oxygen demand), ammonia, phosphate, chloride, chromium, arsenic and chlorpyrifos pesticide. The ground water also contains nickel and selenium, while the tap water has high concentration of lead, nickel and cadmium. In addition to large inputs of fertilizers and pesticides, the Green Revolution in India was made possible in large part by a dramatic increase in irrigation, particularly from deep groundwater sources. The exploitation of groundwater resources allowed farmers 63 to double-crop (grow crops even during the dry season) and to grow water-intensive crops such as rice in areas that were traditionally unsuited for rice production. This growth in irrigation has led to an",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "increase in irrigation, particularly from deep groundwater sources. The exploitation of groundwater resources allowed farmers 63 to double-crop (grow crops even during the dry season) and to grow water-intensive crops such as rice in areas that were traditionally unsuited for rice production. This growth in irrigation has led to an alarming drop in the water table in a number of key agricultural Indian states, such as Punjab, where the water table is reportedly falling by about 1 meter per year. In other states, the problem is worse; in Gujarat, the water table is falling by as much as 3-5 meters per year. What this means is that without a dramatic change in agricultural practice, groundwater resources could be depleted within a few years. In the case of Gujarat and other coastal areas, intrusion of seawater could render underground aquifers useless for human consumption or agriculture. 2.5.2 White Revolution White Revolution was a rural development programme started by India's National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in 1970. One of the largest of its kind, the programme objective was to create a nationwide milk grid. It resulted in making India the largest producer of milk and milk products, and hence is also called the White Revolution of India. It also helped reduce malpractices by milk traders and merchants. This revolution followed the Indian Green Revolution and helped in alleviating poverty and famine levels from their dangerous proportions in India during the era. Operation Flood has helped dairy farmers, direct their own development, placing control of the resources they create in their own hands. A 'National Milk Grid', links milk producers throughout India with consumers in over 700 towns and cities, reducing seasonal and regional price variations while ensuring that the producer gets a major share of the price consumers pay. 64 The bedrock",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "control of the resources they create in their own hands. A 'National Milk Grid', links milk producers throughout India with consumers in over 700 towns and cities, reducing seasonal and regional price variations while ensuring that the producer gets a major share of the price consumers pay. 64 The bedrock of Operation Flood has been village milk producers' cooperatives, which procure milk and provide inputs and services, making modern management and technology available to members. Operation Flood's objectives included : • Increase milk production (\"a flood of milk\") • Augment rural incomes • Fair prices for consumers • Based co-operation \"Anand Milk Union Limited\", often called Amul, was the engine behind the success of the programme, and in turn became a mega company based on the cooperative approach. Tribhuvandas Patel was the founder Chairman of Amul, while Verghese Kurien was the chairman of NDDB at the time when the programme was implemented. Verghese Kurien, who was then 33, gave the professional management skills and necessary thrust to the cooperative, and is considered the architect of India's 'White Revolution' (Operation Flood). His work has been recognised by the award of a Padma Bhushan, the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership, the Carnegie-Wateler World Peace Prize, and the World Food Prize. • Operation Flood was implemented in three phases. Phase I of White Revolution • Phase I (1970–1980) was financed by the sale of skimmed milk powder and butter oil donated by the European Union (then the European Economic Community) through the World Food Programme. NDDB planned the programme and negotiated the details of EEC assistance. • During its first phase, Operation Flood linked 18 of India's premier milksheds with consumers in India's major metropolitan cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. Thus establishing mother dairies in four metros. • Operation flood, also",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "World Food Programme. NDDB planned the programme and negotiated the details of EEC assistance. • During its first phase, Operation Flood linked 18 of India's premier milksheds with consumers in India's major metropolitan cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. Thus establishing mother dairies in four metros. • Operation flood, also referred to as “White Revolution” is a gigantic project propounded by Government of India for developing dairy industry in the country. The Operation Flood – 1 originally meant to be completed in 1975, actually spanned the period of about nine years from 1970–79, at a total cost of Rs.116 crores. 65 • At start of operation Flood-1 in 1970 certain set of aims were kept in view for the implementation of the programmes. Improvement by milk marketing the organized dairy sector in the metropolitan cities Mumbai(then Bombay), Kolkata(then Calcutta), Chennai(then Madras), Delhi. The objectives of commanding share of milk market and speed up development of dairy animals respectively hinter lands of rural areas with a view to increase both production and procurement. Phase II of White Revolution • Operation Flood Phase II (1981–1985) increased the milksheds from 18 to 136; 290 urban markets expanded the outlets for milk. By the end of 1985, a self-sustaining system of 43,000 village cooperatives with 4,250,000 milk producers were covered. Domestic milk powder production increased from 22,000 tons in the pre-project year to 140,000 tons by 1989, all of the increase coming from dairies set up under Operation Flood. In this way EEC gifts and World Bank loan helped promote selfreliance. Direct marketing of milk by producers' cooperatives increased by several million litres a day. Phase III of White Revolution • Phase III (1985–1996) enabled dairy cooperatives to expand and strengthen the infrastructure required to procure and market increasing volumes of milk. Veterinary first-aid",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "and World Bank loan helped promote selfreliance. Direct marketing of milk by producers' cooperatives increased by several million litres a day. Phase III of White Revolution • Phase III (1985–1996) enabled dairy cooperatives to expand and strengthen the infrastructure required to procure and market increasing volumes of milk. Veterinary first-aid health care services, feed and artificial insemination services for cooperative members were extended, along with intensified member education. • Operation Flood's Phase III consolidated India's dairy cooperative movement, adding 30,000 new dairy cooperatives to the 42,000 existing societies organized during Phase II. Milksheds peaked to 173 in 1988-89 with the numbers of women members and Women's Dairy Cooperative Societies increasing significantly. • Phase III gave increased emphasis to research and development in animal health and animal nutrition. Innovations like vaccine for Theileriosis, bypassing protein feed and urea-molasses mineral blocks, all contributed to the enhanced productivity of milch animals. 66 2.5.3 Blue Revolution The fisheries-based blue revolution can become real and sustainable if the production potential of available water resources can be efficiently managed. But there are several areas of concern that need to be addressed to realize this goal. The marine fish production, which at one stage constituted the bulk of the total fish output, is showing practically no growth for nearly a decade. Much of the growth in the fisheries sector is coming chiefly from the inland fisheries, which is also beset with some formidable problems, including the environmental degradation of inland waters and the paucity of fish seed. Indeed, at present, hardly 40 per cent of the country’s fresh water resources are being used for fisheries. The output of the inland fisheries sector could, therefore, be stepped up by two-and-half times just by utilizing all the available water bodies. Similarly, most of the fisheries potential of deep sea",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Indeed, at present, hardly 40 per cent of the country’s fresh water resources are being used for fisheries. The output of the inland fisheries sector could, therefore, be stepped up by two-and-half times just by utilizing all the available water bodies. Similarly, most of the fisheries potential of deep sea waters is going abegging for want of suitable fishing vessels and curbs on joint ventures for deep sea fishing. The fish stocks of these waters are being either clandestinely harvested by ships belonging to countries or are remaining unexploited. On the other hand, the coastal waters, predominantly drawn upon by the traditional fishing communities, are being over-exploited, leading to the fast depletion of fisheries resources of this zone. This is also reflected in gradual shrinking of fish catches in the coastal waters. Even shrimps-based aquaculture, which has till recently been witnessing a fast, largely exports-driven, growth, has now begun flagging due to the imposition of various kinds of non-tariff trade barriers by the importing countries. Besides, the vulnerability of shrimps to diseases is causing problems for the shrimp industry. Equally worrisome is the poor post-harvest handling of fish, which is resulting in huge wastage of this nutritious food. While these losses are reckoned at a huge 25 per cent in the marine sector, these are around 8 per cent in inland fisheries. The total value of the losses is assessed at a colossal Rs 1,000 crore annually. 67 2.5.4 Brown Revolution Brown revolution means turn garbage which is brown into gold and fertilizer which is totally organic or bio or worm compost. A `Brown Revolution' is happening in the tribal areas of Visakhapatnam district. The tribal people are taught and encouraged to grow \"socially responsible and environment friendly\" coffee to cater to the demand from developed countries. The Coffee Board",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "gold and fertilizer which is totally organic or bio or worm compost. A `Brown Revolution' is happening in the tribal areas of Visakhapatnam district. The tribal people are taught and encouraged to grow \"socially responsible and environment friendly\" coffee to cater to the demand from developed countries. The Coffee Board has embarked upon the challenging campaign of promoting the coffee grown in these remote areas as niche coffee for markets in the West. Niche coffee, determined by consistent quality and the socio-economic well-being of the local people, is a $55-billion market world-wide. Although the tribal people of Visakhapatnam district have been growing coffee since the 1970s, it is only recently, particularly after eyeing the organic market, that it is being given a thrust. Some 30,000 tribal people of Andhra Pradesh, who once practised slash-and-burn `Podu' (shifting) cultivation, are now growing coffee as a shade crop under the canopy of silver oak. What the tribal people of Visakhapatnam are cultivating may be a minuscule part of India's annual coffee production of around three lakh tonnes. But, according to the Coffee Board, what is significant is that apart from regenerating the forest cover in those parts of the Eastern Ghats where it is cultivated, coffee has helped at the micro level by boosting the income of the tribal people. Their per hectare income from coffee is estimated at Rs.15,000 compared to Rs.10,000 for pineapple, Rs.1,500 for niger seeds and Rs.1,000 for maize. The Coffee Board cites the instance of 50-year-old Linganna Padal who owns a demonstration coffee plot, which has generated enough income for him to own a house and educate his children. His success is now sought to be replicated throughout the Integrated Tribal Development Agency areas of the district. 68 However, it is not just a case of the good",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "who owns a demonstration coffee plot, which has generated enough income for him to own a house and educate his children. His success is now sought to be replicated throughout the Integrated Tribal Development Agency areas of the district. 68 However, it is not just a case of the good intentions of the Coffee Board and the ITDA of Paderu to help the tribal people. Some argue that there could even be a sound marketing base to all this. World over, there is a burgeoning demand for organic coffee. In those areas of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala where over 90 per cent of India's coffee is grown, any shift to organic coffee cultivation would necessitate a break in cultivation as the soil has to be left fallow for a few years to wash out traces of chemicals. But the tribal areas of Visakhapatnam can cultivate organic coffee as no chemical fertilizers or pesticides are used, as much owing to financial constraints as the lack of exposure to modern methods of cultivation. Trying to turn this into an advantage, the Coffee Board and the ITDA launched the programme to grow coffee in the Araku Valley. Coffee Board officials, however, say that it seems far-fetched for Araku Valley coffee to sell in London or New York. But the process is moving in that direction. The Coffee Board has even created a logo for the \"Araku Valley Coffee\" brand. According to the Coffee Board, the quality of Araku Valley coffee will be improved through systematic development of onand off-farm processing facilities. Self-help groups of tribal farmers are to be strengthened to facilitate pooling of coffee so as to offer consistent and larger quantities. A physical platform for auctioning is expected to give a fillip to marketing and the prospects of exporting coffee",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "improved through systematic development of onand off-farm processing facilities. Self-help groups of tribal farmers are to be strengthened to facilitate pooling of coffee so as to offer consistent and larger quantities. A physical platform for auctioning is expected to give a fillip to marketing and the prospects of exporting coffee to Japanese, Australian and American markets through Visakhapatnam port are to be pursued. Araku coffee is turning out to be a potent brew indeed. 69 2.5.5 Yellow Revolution Yellow revolution means the cultivation of mustard as a part of crop rotation. It prevents the soil from getting eroded and at the same time gives a rich crop of oil seeds. The use of mustards is to build soil organic matter and to eliminate the need for chemical soil fumigants. The yellow revolution man of Vaishali is Bindeshwar Prasad Singh (67), a farmer owning just 2.5 acre of land but still making gold. No matter he was not chosen for last year's Kisan Samman by Bihar government, the Indian Vegetable Research Institute at Varanasi gave him silver medal The growth, development and adoption of new varieties of oilseeds and complementary technologies nearly doubled oilseeds production from 12.6 mt in 1987-88 to 24.4 mt in 1996-97, catalyzed by the Technology Mission on Oilseeds, brought about the Yellow Revolution. 70 Figure 2.3 Map shows production of Oil seeds in India Source : ICAR Report 2007-2008 >100'000 tonnes 100'000-1000'000 tonnes 1000'000-2000'000 tonnes 2000'000tonnes > 71 The map no.3 shows the amount of production of Oilseeds in India. From the map it is clear that the states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarkhand, Haryana, North-Eastern states, Jharkhand and Kerala have a production of less than 1 lakh tones. The states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Orissa and West Bengal produce oilseeds upto 10 lakh",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Oilseeds in India. From the map it is clear that the states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarkhand, Haryana, North-Eastern states, Jharkhand and Kerala have a production of less than 1 lakh tones. The states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Orissa and West Bengal produce oilseeds upto 10 lakh tones, while the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu have production of oilseeds in the range of 10 lakh to 20 lakh tones. The highest oilseed production of above 20 lakh tonnes is seen in the states of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. The growth, development and adoption of new varieties of oilseeds and complementary technologies nearly doubled oilseeds production from 12.6 mt in 1987-88 to 24.4 mt in 1996-97, catalyzed by the Technology Mission on Oilseeds, brought about the Yellow Revolution. The term also stands for the People Power Revolution in Phillipines in 1986 against then President Ferdinand Marcos. It was a series non-violent protests where demonstrators used yellow ribbons during the arrival of Ninoy Aquino. Around this time of the year, bright yellow flowers carpet the fields in scores of villages in Bihar's Vaishali district. They are not mustard crops waiting to burst into full bloom but cauliflower seeds that have ushered in a revolution of sorts — locals term it ‘Yellow Revolution’ — in the region. These seeds — which fetch high prices as they are completely organic — are sold across Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra under an exclusive brand called Vaishali under various names like satya beej, green seeds and jawahar seeds. While over three dozen villages under Hajipur, Mahnar and Lalganj blocks in Vaishali cultivate cauliflower seeds along with other crops, the entire Chakbara village near Hajipur is devoted to cauliflower seed cultivation. The cumulative earning of around 50 farmers from",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "various names like satya beej, green seeds and jawahar seeds. While over three dozen villages under Hajipur, Mahnar and Lalganj blocks in Vaishali cultivate cauliflower seeds along with other crops, the entire Chakbara village near Hajipur is devoted to cauliflower seed cultivation. The cumulative earning of around 50 farmers from the sale of seeds last year was about Rs 50 lakh. 72 2.5.6 Results of Rainbow Revolution After effective implementation of Green Revolution, White Revolution, Blue Revolution, Yellow Revolution and a combined concept of Rainbow Revolution has certain programmes such as 1. To increase the annual growth rate in agriculture over 4% 2. To give greater private sector participation through contract farming 3. To enable price protection for farmers 4. To launch National Agriculture Insurance Scheme for all farmers and for all crops 5. To dismantle the restrictions on movement of agricultural commodities throughout the country The new agriculture policy which was presented in 2000 aimed to achieve the above said objectives through Rainbow Revolution. Today, India ranks second worldwide in farm output. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry and logging accounted for 16.6% of the GDP in 2007, employed 52% of the total workforce[1] and despite a steady decline of its share in the GDP, is still the largest economic sector and plays a significant role in the overall socio-economic development of India. Today India is the largest producer in the world of fresh fruit, anise, fennel, badian, coriander, tropical fresh fruit, jute, pigeon peas, pulses, spices, millets, castor oil seed, sesame seeds, safflower seeds, lemons, limes, cow's milk, dry chillies and peppers, chick peas, cashew nuts, okra, ginger, turmeric guavas, mangoes, goat milk and buffalo milk and meat. Coffee.It also has the world's largest cattle population (281 million). It is the second largest producer of cashews, cabbages, cotton",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "oil seed, sesame seeds, safflower seeds, lemons, limes, cow's milk, dry chillies and peppers, chick peas, cashew nuts, okra, ginger, turmeric guavas, mangoes, goat milk and buffalo milk and meat. Coffee.It also has the world's largest cattle population (281 million). It is the second largest producer of cashews, cabbages, cotton seed and lint, fresh vegetables, garlic, egg plant, goat meat, silk, nutmeg. mace, cardamom, onions, wheat, rice, sugarcane, lentil, dry beans, groundnut, tea, green peas, cauliflowers, potatoes, pumpkins, squashes, gourds and inland fish. It is the third largest producer of tobacco, sorghum, rapeseed, coconuts, hen's eggs and tomatoes. India accounts for 10% of the world fruit production with first rank in the production of mangoes, 73 papaya, banana and sapota. India's population is growing faster than its ability to produce rice and wheat. 2.6 Scenario of Agriculture in 2008-09 The performance of the agricultural sector influences the growth of the Indian economy. Agriculture (including allied activities) accounted for 17.8 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP-at constant prices) in 2007-08 as compared to 21.7 per cent in 2003-04. Notwithstanding the fact that the share of this sector in GDP has been declining over the years, its role remains critical as it accounts for about 52 per cent of the employment in the country. Apart from being the provider of food and fodder, its importance also stems from the raw materials that it provides to industry. The prosperity of the rural economy is also closely linked to agriculture and allied activities. Agricultural sector contributed 12.2 per cent of national exports in 2007-08. The rural sector (including agriculture) is being increasingly seen as a potential source of domestic demand; a recognition, that is shaping the marketing strategies of entrepreneurs wishing to widen the demand for goods and services. In terms of",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "activities. Agricultural sector contributed 12.2 per cent of national exports in 2007-08. The rural sector (including agriculture) is being increasingly seen as a potential source of domestic demand; a recognition, that is shaping the marketing strategies of entrepreneurs wishing to widen the demand for goods and services. In terms of composition, out of the total share of 17.8 per cent in GDP in 2007-08 for the agriculture and allied activities sector, agriculture alone accounted for 16.3 per cent of GDP followed by fishing at 0.8 per cent and forestry and logging at 0.7 per cent of GDP (Table 2.3). 74 Table 2.3: Agriculture sector Key indicators S.NoItem 2007-08 200809 1. GDP share and growth (per cent at 1999-00 prices) Growth in GDP in agriculture & allied sectors 4.9 1.6 Share in GDP Agriculture and allied sectors 17.8 17.1 Agriculture 16.3 Forestry and logging 0.7 Fishing 0.8 2. Share in total gross capital formation in the country (per cent at 1999-00 prices) Share of agriculture & allied sectors in total gross capital 6.7 Agriculture 5.7 Forestry and logging 0.1 Fishing 0.9 3. Agricultural imports & exports (per cent at current prices) Agricultural imports to national imports 3.1 Agricultural exports to national exports 12.2 4. Employment in the agriculture sector as share of total 52.1 employment in 2004-05 as per Current Daily Status (per cent) Source: Central Statistical Organization & Dept of Agriculture and Cooperation Gross capital formation in agriculture and allied sector The Gross Capital Formation (GCF) in agriculture as a proportion to the total GDP has shown a decline from 2.9 per cent in 2001-02 to 2.5 per cent in 2007-08. However, the GCF in agriculture relative to GDP in this sector has shown an improvement from 11.23 per cent in 1999-2000 to 14.24 per cent in 2007-2008 (Table 2.3).",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "proportion to the total GDP has shown a decline from 2.9 per cent in 2001-02 to 2.5 per cent in 2007-08. However, the GCF in agriculture relative to GDP in this sector has shown an improvement from 11.23 per cent in 1999-2000 to 14.24 per cent in 2007-2008 (Table 2.3). 75 Table 2.4: Gross capital formation in agriculture (Figures in Rs. crore at 19992000 prices) Year GDP Agriculture & allied activities GCF/GDP in Agriculture & allied (%) GCF in agriculture as % of total GDP GCF GDP 2004-05 2388768 57849 482446 12.0 2.4 2005-06 2616101 66065 511013 12.9 2.5 2006-07 2871120 73285 531315 13.8 2.6 2007-08 3129717 79328 557122 14.2 2.5 Source: Central Statistical Organization & Dept of Agriculture and Cooperation The share of agriculture & allied sector in total GCF after showing a marginal increase during 1999-2000 to 2001-02 has been continuously declining. It stood at 10.2 per cent in 1999-2000, increased to 11.7 per cent in 2001-02 and thereafter declined to 7 per cent in 2006-07. The decline was mainly attributed to decline in the private sector despite increase in the share of public sector (Table 2.4). Table 2.5: Share of agriculture & allied sector in total GCF (%) (at 1999-2000 prices) Year Public sector Private sector Total 1999-2000 6.0 11.9 10.2 2000-01 5.8 11.3 9.7 2001-02 6.7 13.7 11.7 2002-03 6.5 11.5 10.3 2003-04 7.4 9.2 8.8 2004-05 7.8 7.7 7.7 2005-06 7.9 7.1 7.2 2006-07 8.2 6.6 7.0 Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2008, Directorate of Economics & Statistics 76 Apart from production, the demand and distributional aspects of the agricultural sector, especially of food availability and food management, are of importance to the economy. The production performance of different segments of agriculture and allied activities covering, inter alia, horticulture, animal husbandry and fisheries as",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Economics & Statistics 76 Apart from production, the demand and distributional aspects of the agricultural sector, especially of food availability and food management, are of importance to the economy. The production performance of different segments of agriculture and allied activities covering, inter alia, horticulture, animal husbandry and fisheries as also the developments in the area of food management during the year 2008-09 is shown in the above tables 2.7 Indian Agri Export Scenario Export of agricultural produces has taken a large leap after 1990-91, when Indian government went for economic reforms in all sectors. After the beginning of WTO and globalization of markets the Indian Agricultural Produces specially fruits, vegetables, spices and cash crops like cotton, jute, tea, coffee and rubber have exceeded the expectations and proved to be a great economical support for the country. 2.7.1 Exports of fruits since 1990 India is the second largest producer of Fruits after China, with a production of 44.04 million tonnes of fruits from an area of 3.72 million hectares (Table 2.6). A large variety of fruits are grown in India, of which mango, banana, citrus, guava, grape, pineapple and apple are the major ones. Apart from these, fruits like papaya, sapota, annona, phalsa, jackfruit, ber, pomegranate in tropical and sub-tropical group and peach, pear, almond, walnut, apricot and strawberry in the temperate group are also grown in a sizeable area. Although fruit is grown throughout of the country, the major fruit growing states are Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. It is seen that mango fruit is highly cultivated with large area of land cultivated under it. After mango, banana and citrus fruits are cultivated largely. Grapes are cultivated mainly in the district of Nasik of Maharashtra state. Area under grape cultivation is comparatively less",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. It is seen that mango fruit is highly cultivated with large area of land cultivated under it. After mango, banana and citrus fruits are cultivated largely. Grapes are cultivated mainly in the district of Nasik of Maharashtra state. Area under grape cultivation is comparatively less as seen from the table. 2.6 77 Table 2.6 AREA, PRODUCTION AND EXPORT OF FRUITS IN INDIA AFTER 1990 S.No Fruits Area (000 ha.) Production (000 MT) Exports (in million tones) 1 Apple 238.3 1047.4 375 2 Banana 490.7 16813.5 436 3 Citrus 526.9 4650.6 865 4 Grapes 44.3 1137.8 646 5 Guava 150.9 1710.5 230 6 Litchi 56.4 433.2 185 7 Mango 1486.9 10503.5 2634 8 Papaya 60.5 1666.2 346 9 Pineapple 75.5 1025.4 292 10 Sapota 64.4 800.3 76.3 11 Others 601.2 5707.6 932 Total 3796.8 45496.0 7017.3 Source: Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics, Kolkatta The graph 2.1 shows the area, production of fruits from 1990 to 2000. From the graph we see that the area under cultivation of fruits has shown a constant area ranging between 2.5 million hectares to 3.5 million hectares. But by 2008-09 the area under fruit cultivation has increased slightly to 4.2 million hectares. Whereas the production of fruits has shown a steady growth from 28.63 million tonnes in 1992-93 to 45.50 million tonnes in 1999-2000. As per the agricultural report the growth in the 78 production of fruits had increased to 96.36 million tonnes by the end of 2009-10. The table also shows export of fruits in the 2008-09 in metric million tones. Figure 2.1: Area and Production of fruits from 1991-92 to 1999-2000 Source: Central Statistical Organization & Dept of Agriculture and Cooperation 2.7.2 Export of Vegetables: In vegetables production, India is next only to China with an annual",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "table also shows export of fruits in the 2008-09 in metric million tones. Figure 2.1: Area and Production of fruits from 1991-92 to 1999-2000 Source: Central Statistical Organization & Dept of Agriculture and Cooperation 2.7.2 Export of Vegetables: In vegetables production, India is next only to China with an annual production of 87.53 million tonnes from 5.86 million hectares having a share of 14.4 per cent to the world production. Adoption of high yielding cultivars and FI hybrids and suitable production technologies has largely contributed for higher production and productivity. Per capital consumption has also increased from 95 gram to 175 gram per day. More than 40 kinds of vegetables belonging to different groups, namely cucurbits, cole crops, solanaceous, root and leafy vegetables,are grown in different 79 agro-climatic situations of the country. Except a few, namely brinjal (egg plant), colocasia, cucumber, ridge gourd, sponge gourd, pointed gourd etc., most of the other vegetables have been introduced from abroad. Potato is most widely grown vegetable crop in the country with a share of 25.7 per cent. The area under potato cultivation is 1.28 Million ha with total production of 22.49 MT. The main varieties of potato grown in the country are Kufri Chandramukhi, Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Badshah, Kufri Himalani, Kufri Sindhuri, Kufri Lalima etc. Uttar Pradesh is the leading potato growing state in the country with a production of 9.53 million tonnes followed by West Bengal and Bihar. Tomato occupies second position amongst the vegetable crops in terms of production. The total production of tomato in the country in 1998-99 was 8.27 MT from an area of 0.46 M. ha. The main varieties of tomato grown in the country are Pusa Ruby, Pusa Early Dwarf, Arka Abha, Arka Alok, Pant Bahar, Pusa hybrid-1, Pusa hybrid-2, MTH-6, Arka Vardan etc. Andhra Pradesh",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "total production of tomato in the country in 1998-99 was 8.27 MT from an area of 0.46 M. ha. The main varieties of tomato grown in the country are Pusa Ruby, Pusa Early Dwarf, Arka Abha, Arka Alok, Pant Bahar, Pusa hybrid-1, Pusa hybrid-2, MTH-6, Arka Vardan etc. Andhra Pradesh is the largest grower of tomato with a production of 2.05 MT. The other main tomato growing states are Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Orissa. Brinjal occupies the third position amongst vegetable crops. The production of brinjal in the year 199899 was 7.88 MT from an area 0.49 M.ha. The varieties of brinjal popular in the country are Arka Navneet, Pusa Ankur, Hybrid-6, Pusa hybrid-5, ARBH-1, ABH-1, Pusa Purple Long, Pusa Purple Cluster, Ritu Raj etc. West Bengal is the largest producer of brinjal followed by Maharashtra and Bihar. The other main state growing brinjal Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Madhya Pradesh. Cabbage is the fourth most widely grown vegetable crop of our country. India is the leading country producing Cabbage. The area under Cabbage cultivation is 0.23 M.ha producing 5.62 MT. The main varieties of cabbage are Pusa Drum Head, Golden Acre, Pride of India, Pusa Mukta, Pusa Synthetic etc. West Bengal produces 1.84 MT and is the largest grower of the cabbage. Orissa and Bihar occupies second and third position respectively. The other major growers of cabbage are Assam, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The other important vegetable crops grown in the country are onion, chillies, peas, beans, okra, cabbage, cauliflower, pumpkin, bottlegourd, cucumber, watermelon, palak, methi, carrot and radish. 80 India, known as “Land of Spices”, is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of variety of spices in the world. The area covered under various spices in the country is estimated to be 25.17 lakhs ha with",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "okra, cabbage, cauliflower, pumpkin, bottlegourd, cucumber, watermelon, palak, methi, carrot and radish. 80 India, known as “Land of Spices”, is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of variety of spices in the world. The area covered under various spices in the country is estimated to be 25.17 lakhs ha with an annual production of 29.10 lakhs tonnes (Fig-8). More than 90% of the spices produced in the country is used for domestic consumption and the rest exported as raw as well as value added products. The important spices produced in the country are: Black pepper, ginger, turmeric, garlic, chillies, coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, celery, clove, cassia, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, saffron, vanilla and a group of herbal spices. Chillies occupies the top position amongst spices with a share of 30 per cent. Total production of Chillies in the year 1998-99 was The share of spices in the total agricultural export during 199899 was about 6% with an export of 2.31 lakh tonnes earning foreign exchange worth Rs. 1758 crores. The exports of spices and spice products during 1999-2000 was 2.09 lakh tonnes valuing Rs. 1861 crores. Pepper was the leader in export earning with 46% share followed by Oil & Oleoresins (15%), chillies (13%) and turmeric (6%). 2.8 Initiatives to Improve Agriculture sector The required level of investment for the development of marketing, storage and cold storage infrastructure is estimated to be huge. The government has not been able to implement various schemes to raise investment in marketing infrastructure. Among these schemes are Construction of Rural Go downs, Market Research and Information Network, and Development / Strengthening of Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure, Grading and Standardization. The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), established in 1905, was responsible for the research leading to the \"Indian Green Revolution\" of the 1970s. The Indian Council of",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "schemes are Construction of Rural Go downs, Market Research and Information Network, and Development / Strengthening of Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure, Grading and Standardization. The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), established in 1905, was responsible for the research leading to the \"Indian Green Revolution\" of the 1970s. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the apex body in agriculture and related allied fields, including research and education. The Union Minister of Agriculture is the President of the ICAR. The Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute develops new techniques for the design of agricultural experiments, analyses data in agriculture, and specializes in statistical techniques for animal and plant breeding. 81 Recently Government of India has set up Farmers Commission to completely evaluate the agriculture program. However the recommendations have had a mixed reception. 2.8.1 Problems There are many problems in Indian agriculture for example cotton flower in India. This is the main cash crop in Vidarbha region. Slow agricultural growth is a concern for policymakers as some two-thirds of India’s people depend on rural employment for a living. Current agricultural practices are neither economically nor environmentally sustainable and India's yields for many agricultural commodities are low. Poorly maintained irrigation systems and almost universal lack of good extension services are among the factors responsible. Farmers' access to markets is hampered by poor roads, rudimentary market infrastructure, and excessive regulation. According to World Bank Report ‘India countryOverview 2007-08’ The low productivity in India is a result of the following factors: • According to World Bank, Indian Branch: Priorities for Agriculture and Rural Development\", India's large agricultural subsidies are hampering productivityenhancing investment. Overregulation of agriculture has increased costs, price risks and uncertainty. Government intervenes in labour, land, and credit markets. India has inadequate infrastructure and services. World Bank also says that the allocation of water",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Bank, Indian Branch: Priorities for Agriculture and Rural Development\", India's large agricultural subsidies are hampering productivityenhancing investment. Overregulation of agriculture has increased costs, price risks and uncertainty. Government intervenes in labour, land, and credit markets. India has inadequate infrastructure and services. World Bank also says that the allocation of water is inefficient, unsustainable and inequitable. The irrigation infrastructure is deteriorating. The overuse of water is currently being covered by over pumping aquifers, but as these are falling by foot of groundwater each year, this is a limited resource. • Illiteracy, general socio-economic backwardness, slow progress in implementing land reforms and inadequate or inefficient finance and marketing services for farm produce. • Inconsistent government policy. Agricultural subsidies and taxes often changed without notice for short term political ends. • The average size of land holdings is very small (less than 20,000 m²) and is subject to fragmentation due to land ceiling acts, and in some cases, family disputes. 82 Such small holdings are often over-manned, resulting in disguised unemployment and low productivity of labour. • Adoption of modern agricultural practices and use of technology is inadequate, hampered by ignorance of such practices, high costs and impracticality in the case of small land holdings. • Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 52.6% of the land was irrigated in 2003–04, which result in farmers still being dependent on rainfall, specifically the Monsoon season. A good monsoon results in a robust growth for the economy as a whole, while a poor monsoon leads to a sluggish growth. Farm credit is regulated by NABARD, which is the statutory apex agent for rural development in the subcontinent. At the same time over pumping made possible by subsidized electric power is leading to an alarming drop in aquifer levels. 2.8.2 India needs",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "a poor monsoon leads to a sluggish growth. Farm credit is regulated by NABARD, which is the statutory apex agent for rural development in the subcontinent. At the same time over pumping made possible by subsidized electric power is leading to an alarming drop in aquifer levels. 2.8.2 India needs to improve food product standards India needs to improve the standards of its food products to acquire a competitive edge in the global market, says Sanjay Dave[1], the first Indian vice-chair of the Rome-based Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), an international organization that aims at promoting food safety globally. Dave, also the director of India’s Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), feels that his tenure as CAC vice-chair would see continuous deliberations to meet emerging challenges at home and abroad. “There is no scope for any complacency when it comes to dealing with the issue of food product standards. International and domestic consumers are quite quality conscious. India and other developing nations need to improve standards of food products,” Dave told IANS in an interview. India’s farm and processed food products’ exports have grown from Rs.6.47 billion in 1999-2000 to Rs.24.12 billion in 2006-07. 83 Major importers of Indian products like pomegranates, mangoes, onions and basmati rice are the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Russia, Bangladesh, Turkey, Kuwait, Sri Lanka, Italy, Germany, Australia, Jordan, Bahrain, and Malaysia. As capacity building is the key to ensuring food standards, the CAC intends to provide technical assistance to the developing nations so that the quality aspect is addressed right from the field. “From proper monitoring of pesticide residue to the processing units, there is a need to be vigilant at all levels so that the end product is healthy and well received by consumers,” Dave maintained. Dave said he would act",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "so that the quality aspect is addressed right from the field. “From proper monitoring of pesticide residue to the processing units, there is a need to be vigilant at all levels so that the end product is healthy and well received by consumers,” Dave maintained. Dave said he would act aggressively to implement Codex Plan-2008-13, a vision document that speaks of consensus building and understanding food safety needs. “For me, the vice-chair of CAC does not mean just holding a few meetings. I am committed to holding meeting and deliberating with all stakeholders throughout the year,” he said. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) created the Codex Alimentarius (Latin for food law or code) in 1963. The CAC aims at developing food standards, guidelines and related texts such as codes of practice under the food standards programme of FAO and WHO, two bodies under the aegis of the United Nations. His new position, however, does not mean that he will have less time for APEDA, the organization he has headed for long. Reference 1: Article by Rajeev Ranjan Roy July 12th, 2008 ICT by IANS 84 “APEDA stands to benefit a lot from CAC and vice versa. Our great work at APEDA in managing quality of processed foods and agricultural products played a decisive role in my election,” he said. APEDA is an autonomous body under India’s ministry of commerce and industry dealing with quality management of agricultural and processed foods, and promoting their export. 2.9 CONCLUSIONS Indian agriculture forms the back bone of Indian economy and despite concerted industrialization in the last six decades, agriculture occupies a place of pride. Being the largest industry in the country it provides employments to around 65% of the total workforce in the country. But in the",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "export. 2.9 CONCLUSIONS Indian agriculture forms the back bone of Indian economy and despite concerted industrialization in the last six decades, agriculture occupies a place of pride. Being the largest industry in the country it provides employments to around 65% of the total workforce in the country. But in the recent year, its share in the GDP has declined to 18% in 2008-09. There is lot of scope for improvement in this sector. Summarizing the important points we can conclude that 1. Indian agriculture needs shift itself from traditional approach to scientific approach. 2. Indian agriculture should focus on market oriented produces rather than self sufficiency of food grains. 3. Indian agriculture needs to adapt technological and research oriented environment instead of struggling in traditional and superstitious environment. 4. Indian government should provide modern technology access to the rural farmers along with knowledge of markets and export potential. 5. Indian agriculture should aim to be free from trades and middle men dominant market and establish market access directly to farmers. 6. Indian agriculture shows a lot of potential because it has the largest diversity in physiography and climate and has highest amount of resources such as man power. 7. Indian agriculture should utilize these resources and develop the agriculture sector into one of the fastest growing, largest contributing sector of our economy. ================",
    "source": "native.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "1 Review Practices of Indigenous Agriculture Knowledge of Farmers in India AVINASH SHARMA1，*, Chowlani Manpoong1, Himanshu Pandey2, Chandan Kumar Gupta2, Yani Baja3, Mayanglambam Sanjit Singh1 and Chau Chiktiya Mounglang1 1 Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai-792103 2Division of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow-226005 3Department of Agriculture, Kamle district, Arunachal Pradesh-791120 *Corresponding Author Email: avinashcau@gmail.com Abstract The traditional Agriculture Knowledge is epic information, was created by the forefathers in the past civilizations. The forefathers practiced traditional agriculture information during Harappa civilizations, Vedic and Iron Age civilizations. The present Small and Marginal farmer utilizes traditional information in the crop production & management, crop protection, farm machinery & tools, soil & water management, medicinal & aromatic plants for diseases diagnosis, animal husbandry, stored grain pests’ management, weed management and value added food product and transfers in the youth. The utilizing traditional informations in the agriculture practices are collected from the different geographical states of India. The informations are practiced in the specific activities by the farmers. The farmer utilizes compositions of natural resource in the geographical states for the crop husbandry and farm linked activities. The traditional information is more practiced by the Southern and North-Eastern Geographical zone. The farmer applies specific informations in the crop production & management, crop protection, farm machinery & tools, soil & water management, medicinal & aromatic plants for diseases diagnosis, animal husbandry, stored grain pests’ management, weed management and value added food product. The farmer preserves and transfers the information in the rural community. The farmer transmits information in the present generation for creating mobilization. The traditional agriculture information transforms agriculture resources, maintains biodiversity ethics and enlightens historical and practical approaches to the present generations. Keywords: Practices; traditional knowledge; agriculture; farmers; India Novelty Practices of tradional information in the",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "information in the rural community. The farmer transmits information in the present generation for creating mobilization. The traditional agriculture information transforms agriculture resources, maintains biodiversity ethics and enlightens historical and practical approaches to the present generations. Keywords: Practices; traditional knowledge; agriculture; farmers; India Novelty Practices of tradional information in the farmer’s community, Awareness of the tradioinal informations in the youth community, Conservation and Application of tradional informations, Maintainance of ethics of the natural systems. Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 © 2022 by the author(s). Distributed under a Creative Commons CC BY license. 2 1. Introduction The collection and utilization of forefather agriculture informations from the areas of crop production, plant protection, animal husbandry, farm machine & tools, stored grains pest management, rituals in agriculture, value added product preparations for agriculture activities in the present period are called traditional knowledge of agriculture. The land preparations, cropping systems, cropping pattern and preservation of grains were emerged in the Harappa civilizations. The rotation of crops, processing of crops and preservation were initiated in the Vedic and Iron age civilizations. The jum cultivation and kumari cultivation are originated in Aryavarta period in 11 century AD. The south Indian farmers cultivated rice in jum cultivation and kumari cultivation. The local paddy variety is known as Sali was cultivated in the Aristobalus period in 320 BC. The transplantation of seedlings in highland and lowland around volume of water was initiated in Aristobalus period. The traditional knowledge emerged and utilized in the ancient India. The traditional knowledge uses in the economic development and policy development (Fig. 1). The large and small scale industry applies traditional agriculture knowledge for producing commodities without IPRs policy. The government of India ameneded IPRs policy for using traditional knowledge of agriculture (Sofia and Deepa, 2020). The",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "the ancient India. The traditional knowledge uses in the economic development and policy development (Fig. 1). The large and small scale industry applies traditional agriculture knowledge for producing commodities without IPRs policy. The government of India ameneded IPRs policy for using traditional knowledge of agriculture (Sofia and Deepa, 2020). The traditional knowledge enlightens and transfers the agriculture education and research was advanced the agriculture technology in India; transformed sustainable agriculture into modern into smart agriculture. The small and marginal farmers involve more in agriculture occupation, counters high cost of the agriculture technology in smart agriculture. The Indian farmers are completed to identify the modern technology of agriculture in Digital India but the small and marginal farmers are unable to purchase modern technology for agriculture activity because of the low land area, less per capita income and less support of the government scheme. The farmers follows traditional knowledge of agriculture for the crop production, farm linked activities and management. The farmer utilizes conventional knowledge in crop production, soil & water management, pest & disease management, animal husbandry and farm machine & tools (Aunpam et al., 2020) (Fig. 2). The traditional knowledge in agriculture was originated from the various cultures and community of the farmers. The farmer utilizes ancient agriculture informations for reducing the cost of cultivations and maintaining natural selected agriculture (Ajay Singh Rajput, 2018). The traditional knowledge of agriculture is available in the form of myths, lyrics, quotes, dances, cultural age & taxonomy, cultural materials and species. The goals of traditional knowledge are to restrict overexploitation of natural resources and restore long term natural resources (Kareemulla and Ravichandran, 2020). The traditional knowledge has affordable and low risk for farmer practices. With this background, The following objectives were investigated in the research ie., 1.1) Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in crop",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "traditional knowledge are to restrict overexploitation of natural resources and restore long term natural resources (Kareemulla and Ravichandran, 2020). The traditional knowledge has affordable and low risk for farmer practices. With this background, The following objectives were investigated in the research ie., 1.1) Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in crop production and management, 1.2) Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in plant protection, 1.3) Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in farm machine & tools, 1.4) Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in soil and water management, Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 3 1.5) Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in medicinal & aromatic plants for disease diagnosis, 1.6) Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in animal husbandry, 1.7) Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in stored grain pests’ management, 1.8) Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in weed management, 1.9) Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in food product. The conventional knowledge of crop production and management, plant protection, farm machine & tools, soil and water management, medicinal & aromatic plants for disease diagnosis, animal husbandry, stored grain pests management, weed management and value added product preparation were collected from different geographical states in India. The ancient informations of crop production, crop management, crop protection, farm machine & tools, soil and water management, medicinal & aromatic plants for diagnosis diseases, animal husbandry, stored grain pests management, weed management and value added product preparation are presently utilized by the farmers for crop production and farm activities. 1.1 Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in crop production and management The Himachal Pradesh farmers is utilized grafted mango pit, is dugged out 3×3×3 feet, 25 feet apart on either side. The pit is dried in the presence of sunlight for 3 months. The community of weeds, pests, and insects are declined in the pit. The",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "in crop production and management The Himachal Pradesh farmers is utilized grafted mango pit, is dugged out 3×3×3 feet, 25 feet apart on either side. The pit is dried in the presence of sunlight for 3 months. The community of weeds, pests, and insects are declined in the pit. The burned leaves and twigs are buried near to the mango tree in the early morning and late evening, promotes flowering and mitigates hopper populations (Kranthi et al., 2016). The Tamil Nadu and North eastern farmer practices sunflower cultivation in between mango trees that attract honey bees and raises pollination and fruit production (Das et al., 2019). In the solar eclipse day, 3-5 feet bark of the mango tree is excised out from the ground. The flower is not emerged in the mango tree. The Andhra Pradesh farmer is covered mango fruit with paddy straw in the room is closed for a week for uniform ripening of the mango fruit (Mangla, 2009). The Manipur Farmer uses Pit Nursery Method for crop seedlings in the pit. The pit maintains water requirement and forbids evapo-transpiration loss (Ansari et al., 2021). The Jharkhand Farmer uses Paira cropping system in rice lowlands and broadcasted Lathyrus seeds in the main field of rice for water management (Dey and Sarkar, 2011). The Farmers of Western Ghat zone of Maharashtra cultivates Indigenous rice Tulshi tall and the Farmer of Konkan region of Maharashtra cultivates Indigenous rice Vikram for mitigating type II for mitigating diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases. The farmer of northern district of West Bengal Farmer grows Tulaipanji traditional aromatic rice variety for aroma seed quality. The farmer of Kullu valley of Himachal Pradesh grows traditional aromatic rice cultivar Jatu rice for aroma and taste. The Himachal Pradesh farmer cultivates Matali and Lal Dhan local rice cultivars",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "The farmer of northern district of West Bengal Farmer grows Tulaipanji traditional aromatic rice variety for aroma seed quality. The farmer of Kullu valley of Himachal Pradesh grows traditional aromatic rice cultivar Jatu rice for aroma and taste. The Himachal Pradesh farmer cultivates Matali and Lal Dhan local rice cultivars for diagnosing fever and reducing blood pressure. The hills of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh Farmers grow traditional red rice variety Kafalya for curing leucorrhoea and complicated abortion. The Tamil Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 4 Nadu Farmer cultivated traditional rice cultivar Kari Kagga and Atikaya to regulated heat in human body and drugs preparation. The Tamil Nadu farmer grows ancient rice cultivar Neelam Samba for regulating milk in the mother. The Tamil Nadu Farmer introduces local rice Maappillai Samba to increase fertility in the mother. The Assam farmer cultivated traditional cultivar black rice for mitigating cancer disease and extracted rice bran declines inflammation, allergies, asthma. The Kerala farmer grows local rice Karinjan and Karimalakaran for mitigating diabetes. The Kerala farmer introduces traditional rice Mundakan for increasing the stamina in the human. The Kerala farmer grows traditional rice Vella chennellu and Chuvanna chennellu to reduce puberty, menopause and hormone problems. The Bihar and Chhattisgarh Farmers cultivate Jonga and Maharaji traditional rice for increasing lactation in the mother. The Assam Farmer grows local rice Bora for curing jaundice. The Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand farmers cultivate local rice Karhani to formulate drug for epilepsy treatment (Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021). The kerala farmer burns dry leaves, twigs, and trashes on the ground for the fresh planting of the Banana sucker. 500 gm groundnut cake is applied in the planted banana sucker for better crop growth and yield (Alexander et al., 2009). Onion, tomato, cowpea,",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021). The kerala farmer burns dry leaves, twigs, and trashes on the ground for the fresh planting of the Banana sucker. 500 gm groundnut cake is applied in the planted banana sucker for better crop growth and yield (Alexander et al., 2009). Onion, tomato, cowpea, okra are intercropped with banana crop in the early phase for 4 months. The leaves of Basella alba (Basale) are kept in the banana gunny bags/ basket. The gunny bags are covered air tight with cover lid. 10 feet pit is dugged out before planting of the grape. The Meghalaya farmer utilizes green leaf manures such as kolangi (Tephrosia purpurea), Agave spp. and Ekka (Calotrpis spp.) are poured in the 10 feet pit. 10 feet pit is covered with a layer of soil for the decomposition process for 3 months. After 3 months, the grape plant is grown in the 10 feet pit. The powdered groundnut cake is dissolved in the water. The powdered groundnut cake containing water is stored for overnight, Next day, the solution is poured in each pit of the planted grape tree for the better fruit quality and yield. The tip of the grape bunch is thinned for promoting better fruit size. The tip of the pineapple is nipped to obtain more fruit weight and size (Zizira, 2015). The farmer cultivates paddy in Mai kaim/jhoom cultivation in hilly areas of tribal Tripura. The farmer’s paraboils harvested paddy in the aluminium container and the paraboiled rice dries in the sunlight. The farmer collects forest part and the batch of beetel vine for preparing broom (Boroj). The east siang farmer cultivates local cucurbit cultivars such as pumpkin (tupa), Ash gourd (pani lao), cucumber (makung), ash gourd (pao), bottle gourd (pani lao), smell melon (pakum barey), snap melon (mare/makungmari),",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "in the sunlight. The farmer collects forest part and the batch of beetel vine for preparing broom (Boroj). The east siang farmer cultivates local cucurbit cultivars such as pumpkin (tupa), Ash gourd (pani lao), cucumber (makung), ash gourd (pao), bottle gourd (pani lao), smell melon (pakum barey), snap melon (mare/makungmari), sponge gourd (bul), bitter gourd (karela), cho-cho marrow (tupop), ridge gourd (jhika), snake gourd (dunduli), sweet gourd (bhat karela), pointed gourd (patal), ivy gourd/little gourd (kunduli), water melon (kumarah) from the last 5 decades (Pandey et al., 2021). The Punjab farmer collects the harvested plant and stubbles are burned in the field for managing termite populations. The residue of tobacco is recommended by the farmer into the soil for controlling termite populations (Jaskarn and Simerjeet, 2021). The North-Eastern, Bihar, Jammu and Mahrashtra farmer applies ash in the onion nursery bed and field for progressing bulb quality (Bhowmick et al., 2010) (Table 1.1). 1.2 Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in plant protection Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 5 The Punjab farmer proceeded fire in the field after wheat crop harvesting for controlling pests (Bhuvaneshwari et al., 2019). The Uttarakhand farmers collected the dry leaves of pine and were burned in the field for controlling white grubs. The farmer also applied table salt (NaCl) led Chullahash for controlling white grub. The farmer promoted deep ploughing upto 30 cm depth with indigenous/country plough for damaging insect pests pathogens harbor in the soil (Surya et al., 2021). The kerala and Jharkhand farmer prepares a mixture of wood ash/ kitchen ash + farm yard manure for arresting the chewing and bitting mouth part insect (Manoj, 2016; Das et al., 2003). The North-eastern, Uttarakhand and Madhya Pradesh framers uses crop such as mustard, cauliflower, cabbage were severely infested with aphid",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "kerala and Jharkhand farmer prepares a mixture of wood ash/ kitchen ash + farm yard manure for arresting the chewing and bitting mouth part insect (Manoj, 2016; Das et al., 2003). The North-eastern, Uttarakhand and Madhya Pradesh framers uses crop such as mustard, cauliflower, cabbage were severely infested with aphid infestation crop, was buried in the soil for aphid control (Ajay et al., 2018). The Bihar and Uttarakhand farmer incurs earthen up to control greening of potato tubers and checks exposure in sunlight (Manish et al., 2011). The Orissa and Kerala farmer prepares cow dung + cow urine compound for controlling pesticide, wilt symptoms and onion blight. The Uttarakhand, Orissa, Gujarat farmer promotes Madira or Barnyard millet (Echinochloa sp.) and Konri millet crop, mustard intercropped with Paddy crop for controlling insect-pests infestation (Rajendra et al., 2018). The Chhattisgarh farmer prepares solution with Bicchu booti (Utrica dioca) mixes with 8-10 litre cow urine for 24 hrs. The prepared solutions were dispersed in the vegetable crops such as tomato, capsicum, onion, raddish, cucurbits etc. for controlling fungal diseases. The Tamil Nadu farmer collects healthy seeds, performs constant smoking with edible and non edible oil for drying the seeds, mixes ashes of fire wood, mixes with neem powder and stored in the container for controlling pests and diseases in the leguminous seeds, vegetable seeds, maize seeds etc. The North East and Tamil Nadu farmer uses citronella grass and lemon grass for controlling weevil and grain attack of Maize crop. The Tripura and Uttarakhand farmer uses Zanthoxylum acanthopodium leaves in the paddy grains for pest and pathogen controls (Santosh and Chhetry, 2012). The Tripura farmer recommends wood ashes in the leaves of vegetable crops for controlling aphid pod borer. The farmer uses tobacco dust powder for controlling aphid pest. The Tripura farmer applies Hookah",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "farmer uses Zanthoxylum acanthopodium leaves in the paddy grains for pest and pathogen controls (Santosh and Chhetry, 2012). The Tripura farmer recommends wood ashes in the leaves of vegetable crops for controlling aphid pod borer. The farmer uses tobacco dust powder for controlling aphid pest. The Tripura farmer applies Hookah water, is very efficient for restricting major and minor pest and disease such as rice blast, pod borers, sucking bugs in vegetable crops. The Punjab and North-East farmer manages insect-pests of the paddy crop with the leaves of Artemisia vulgaris, Croton caudatulus, Munromia wallichi and Adhatoda vessica (Ahuja et al., 2015). The farmer uses Pomace (wine residue), were made up of millets. The wine residue is dispersed with irrigation channel for controlling leaf folder and rice blast. The North-Eastern region farmer applies oak tree bark, placed through irrigation for controlling insect-pests in rice. The farmer uses 5 months old paddy husk, applies in the field for controlling blast disease and improving soil fertility (Firake et al., 2012). The Jammu & Kashmir and South Indian farmer recommends Chrysanthemum coronarium, Tagetes erecta in the border of the crop field for controlling nematode of turmeric, tomato, chlilli and ginger, enhances the soil property and nutrient enrichment. The North-East and Tamil Nadu inhibits stem borer in Paddy with pegging branch of Cymbopogon khasianum and Sacharrum spantaneum (Gopal and Lasssaad, 2015). The Assam famer distributes banana sucker, a black colocasia, wild turmeric and bamboo perch corner of the field during rice transplanting for controlling pests (Sarodee et al., 2020). The Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 6 Madhya Pradesh Farmer formulates onion or garlic juice for controlling grasshopper and leaf insects in Maize crop (Shakrawar et al., 2018). The North-East Farmer pours liquid lime in the Mandarin trunk for controlling",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "(Sarodee et al., 2020). The Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 6 Madhya Pradesh Farmer formulates onion or garlic juice for controlling grasshopper and leaf insects in Maize crop (Shakrawar et al., 2018). The North-East Farmer pours liquid lime in the Mandarin trunk for controlling Gummosis disease and bark eating caterpillar, trunk borer (Gohain et al., 2019). The Punjab and Haryana farmer burns plant debris in the vegetable crop field and paddy crop field for killing harbor of insect. The Tamil Nadu, Kerala and North-Eastern farmer approaches zero tillage practice (dibbling method) for encouraging mycohrrizae root growth and nodulated frankia (Ngachan, 2019). The Meghalaya, Jaipur, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh farmer utilizes decomposed mulch for inhibiting the pathogen in the soil (Rana, 2016). The Nagaland farmer manages pest of paddy, air borne pathogens and micro climate augmentation with mixed cropping of rice + maize, rice + legume crops, rice + job’s tear (Coix lacryma jobi L.), rice + sorghum (Rakesh et al., 2017). The Indian farmer practices deep ploughing after crop harvesting for controlling insect-pests, arthropods, nematode from the soil. The Tripura, Meghalaya and Assam farmer applies burning of paddy husk and dry chilli plant for controlling rodents in the jhum field (Satyapriya et al., 2021). The Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Bengal farmer practices dried peel of mandarin in the transplanted rice for controlling stem borer. The termite population is controlled with fermented product of Agave sissalana (Agave), Piper nigrum, Veronia amygdalina and Nicotiana tabacum. The Kerala and Orissa farmer uses Datura extracts mixes with cow urine for controlling ant population in the soil (Patnaik, 2011). The Punjab farmer applies neem leaves in the grains storage for controlling weevil and grain moth (Subash, 2017). The Punjab, Haryana and Telangana uses turmeric powder mixes with water,",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "The Kerala and Orissa farmer uses Datura extracts mixes with cow urine for controlling ant population in the soil (Patnaik, 2011). The Punjab farmer applies neem leaves in the grains storage for controlling weevil and grain moth (Subash, 2017). The Punjab, Haryana and Telangana uses turmeric powder mixes with water, irrigate in the plant for controlling weevil and grain moth (Satyagopal et al., 2014). The Sikkim farmer prevents outbreak of aphids and white flies in the tomato and chilli crop with the extract of titey pati, banmara and Lantana camara (Gopi et al., 2016). The Karnataka and North-Eastern farmer are dissolved chilli seedlings in 1:3 solution of cow urine water. The cow urine water assists in protecting seedlings against damping off (Rakesh et al., 2013). The Kerala farmer dissolves 400 ml neem oil is dissolved in 400 litre water to produce liquid solution is mixed with 500 gm detergent soap. The prepared solution is sprayed in the mango tree for controlling hopper (Alexander et al., 2009). The Jorhat and South Indian Farmer dissolves 1 kg cow dung, 5 gm detergent soap in 10 litres water, recommends on mango plant. The prepared solution is effectively control sooty mold disease. Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Himachal Pradesh farmer formulates 1 litre neem oil is dissolved in 100 litres water, is mixed with 500 gm detergent powder. The Banana sucker is immersed into hot water for 30 minutes and controlling rhizome rot. The Tamil Nadu farmer releases dried outer bark of banana once in 4 months. The excision of outer bark of banana prevents root primordia growth, lodging and side sucker emergence. The dried dropping leaves are excise out once in 3 months for avoiding shade effect, mitigating wind damage and preventing lodging. 150 gm neem cake powder is applied in the hole of",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "4 months. The excision of outer bark of banana prevents root primordia growth, lodging and side sucker emergence. The dried dropping leaves are excise out once in 3 months for avoiding shade effect, mitigating wind damage and preventing lodging. 150 gm neem cake powder is applied in the hole of oozed gum portion. The South Indian and North-Eastern farmers removed wilted banana crop from the pit and is burned and buried in the ground, applies 1-2 kg lime in the individual pit. The Tamil Nadu, Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 7 Kerala and Himachal Pradesh farmer prepares liquid formulation with 1 kg neem powder and 1 kg tobacco powder is dissolved separately in 5 litres water. Next day, the neem powder solution and tobacco powder solution is filtered into fine solution. The neem powder fine solution and tobacco powder fine solution are mixed together to produce compound solution. The banana sucker is dissolved in the compound solution for preventing nematode attack. The Tamil Nadu and Kerala uses 2 kg Calotrpis spp. + 3 kg Neem cake are soaked in the 20 litres water, stored for 4 days. Later, the soild parts of Calotropis spp. and neem cake are extracted in the 200 litres water. 500 gm detergent powder is dissolved in the 200 litres extracted water. 200 litres extracted water is recommended in the 1 acre of guava orchard for controlling white fly (Rohini, 2010). The Tamil Nadu and North-Eastern farmer is mixed cotton seed with ash and cow dung slurry. The ash and cow dung slurry containing cotton seed are dried in the shade before sowing. The cow dung slurry removes the fibre from the seed, protects against damping off. This method is explained in the Kautilya’s Arthashastra (Manickam et al., 2013). The",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "seed with ash and cow dung slurry. The ash and cow dung slurry containing cotton seed are dried in the shade before sowing. The cow dung slurry removes the fibre from the seed, protects against damping off. This method is explained in the Kautilya’s Arthashastra (Manickam et al., 2013). The Assam and South Indian farmer uses clay layer/cow dung ball is poured in the cutted stalk of banana to prevent spoilage and ripening of Banana. The Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu farmers prepare liquid formulation with 4 kg powdered neem seed is dissolved in 100 litres water. 4 kg powdered neem seed containing 100 litres water is filtered to prepare liquid solution. 10 litre of cow urine is dissolved in the liquid solution. 50 gm detergent powder is dissolved in the liquid solution. The formulated liquid solution is recommended in the citrus tree for managing leaf miner pest and other diseases (Vanaja et al., 2009). The South Indian Farmer produces liquid formulation with dried neem fruits are crushed to prepare fine powder. The fine powder is applied 500 gm per grape tree for managing nematode attack. 500 gm maida flour is dissolved with 5 litre water. The maida flour containing water is boiled in the gas stove. Later, maida flour containing water is filtered to formulate liquid solution. The formulated liquid solution is mixed with 5 litres cow urine + 50 litres water. The formulated liquid solution is recommended in the citrus tree for controlling sooty mold. The farmer of Karantaka, Mysore and Tamil Nadu are poured leaves of Kasarka (Stychnos nuxvomica) with cow dung. The prepared solution is applied in the citrus tree for managing grub insect (Ravi, 2021). The dried forest leaves are mulched in the mandarin orange (Citrus recticulata) for maintaining soil moisture and temperature. The Assam,",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Karantaka, Mysore and Tamil Nadu are poured leaves of Kasarka (Stychnos nuxvomica) with cow dung. The prepared solution is applied in the citrus tree for managing grub insect (Ravi, 2021). The dried forest leaves are mulched in the mandarin orange (Citrus recticulata) for maintaining soil moisture and temperature. The Assam, Maharashtra farmer applies lime wash/lime soaked cotton in the holes of mandarin orange for controlling stem borer (Ahuja and Chattopadhyay, 2015). The South Indian farmer is cutted green aloe vera plant and is applied in mandarin orange tree during flowering phase for controlling powdery mildew disease. The collected orange seed is mixed with ash to restrict ant infestation. The Tamil and Orissa farmer cultivates wild sugarcane with paddy in controlling leaf folder disease (Mayahini et al., 2020). The Tamil Nadu and Assam farmer recommends Parasi (Cleisanthus collinus) and Sali (Boswellia serrata) for controlling caseworm (Nymphula depunctatis) in rice (Kudada et al., 2020). The Jharkhand farmer applies 10 kg Parso/Persu leaves in 100 m2 in the paddy field for managing gall fly (Sinha and Singh, 2020). The farmer applies 50-200 kg fresh Karada leaves for controlling Gundhi bug (Chard) from the paddy field (Richa et al., 2017). The leaf contains high phenol content. The Tamil Nadu farmers extract Cyanodon dactylon leaf for managing fruit borer, Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 8 wilt, leaf curl and early blight in tomato. The Orissa farmer applies compost of cow dung + 10 kg Kochila (Strychnos nuxvomica) seed powder + 25 kg kochila leaf compost + compost for managing fruit and shoot borer in the Brinjal crop (Das et al., 2004). The Jharkhand farmer formulates cow urine mixed with tobacco soaked powder for managing leveas and fruits diseases of cucurbits, cowpea and lady finger (Devendra et al., 2020). The",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "+ 25 kg kochila leaf compost + compost for managing fruit and shoot borer in the Brinjal crop (Das et al., 2004). The Jharkhand farmer formulates cow urine mixed with tobacco soaked powder for managing leveas and fruits diseases of cucurbits, cowpea and lady finger (Devendra et al., 2020). The farmer constitutes liquid solution with rice starch + cow urine for controlling insects and pests in vegetable crops such as ladys finger and tomato (Khudada et al., 2020). The Bihar farmer controls shoot and fruit borer in brinjal crop with tobacco soaked water (Choubey, 2020). The Tamil Nadu famer applies cow dung slurry for controlling rhinoceros beetle (Koodalingam et al., 2020). The Madhya Pradesh farmer recommends dry mahua flower for controlling Scalopendra spp. (Gay gwalan) in the soyabean crop. The Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh farmer 100-150 gm Asafoetida ix mixed with 1 litre boiled water for 10-15 minutes, the boiled solution is poured in 40-50 litres water, recommends in the field for controlling the larvae of Heliothis sp. and other small insects. The solution of dung waste, crop waste and cow urine is involved in controlling of pest populations (Ranjay et al., 2013). The Orissa Farmer dissolves dry tobacco leaves in boiled water, transforms into dark black after 10-12 hrs. The dark black solution is sprayed into the larvae of Heliothis armigera. The Orissa Farmer prepare liquid formulation with 1000-1200 fresh leaves + buds Ipomea bushes is mixed 30-35 litres boiled water, the boiled water turns into milky white, the liquid solution is recommended in the crop for controlling Heliothis armigera, spotted bollworm and army worm. The North-East, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Bihar Farmers boils fresh neem leaves in 10 litres water, turns into brown liquid in 10-12 hrs, the brown liquid solution is mixed with 80-100 litre clean",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "the liquid solution is recommended in the crop for controlling Heliothis armigera, spotted bollworm and army worm. The North-East, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Bihar Farmers boils fresh neem leaves in 10 litres water, turns into brown liquid in 10-12 hrs, the brown liquid solution is mixed with 80-100 litre clean water, recommends in the crop for controlling specific pests (Sandhya, 2022) (Table 1.2). 1.3 Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in farm machine & tools, The farmer utilized farm machine & tools in the vedic period. The land preparation implements like la-nogala (small plough) and si-ra (heavy plough), la-n.gala, si-ra (rod), varatra (rope), pha-la (share), yoke (yuga) are traction/animal drawn implement was described in the yajurveda. The farmer involves oxen, sheep, camel for the land development. The tools like corn cutting tools, a sort of sickle in the shape of cooked knife, sickle and reaping hook was applied in Rigveda period. The farmer utilized the tools for the crop harvesting. In the Rigveda period, the corn grain cleaning was completed with sieve and winnowing fan. The farmer transported harvested grains with the following carts ie., ana-sa (carts) and sfakat.a (wagon). The cart constructed with Acacia tress, Dalbergia trees, bamboo poles and metal tyre (pavi). The wooden cart is transported through Ox, stallion, ram and dog. The Bodos regions farmer utilizes Ruwa (Axe), Kodhal (Digging hoe), Dangur (roke) for eradication unwanted plant material from the crop field. The Assam farmer applies Nangal (plough), Jugal, Mwi, Khodal (digging hoe), Kontha (spua), Gandri or Dangan (leveller) for the field preparation (Sibisan, 2019). Simultaheously, The Assam farmer uses Lauthi (digging stick), khopri, Mukha/Kho (mask) for the seed sowing. The farmer uses Phalla (Weighing tool), Nareal Koltha (Coconut cover), Kurai Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 9 Kowrai, Kurai Guhai for",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Dangan (leveller) for the field preparation (Sibisan, 2019). Simultaheously, The Assam farmer uses Lauthi (digging stick), khopri, Mukha/Kho (mask) for the seed sowing. The farmer uses Phalla (Weighing tool), Nareal Koltha (Coconut cover), Kurai Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 9 Kowrai, Kurai Guhai for measuring harvested agricultural produce. The farmers uses Mosow giri (Bullock cart) for transporting agriculture commodities The Assam farmer recommends Kashi (sickle), Sika (Knife), Sika-gobla (cleaver) for the crop harvesting; applies Baukha, Hukhen (grain separator), Royna, Sandanga (Sieve), Songri (winnower), Khada (Basket made of Bamboo), Duli (grains store), Dingkhi (Grinder), Sundri (small kind of sieve), Khasa (rice store basket) , Gan/Gaihen (milling tools), Val/Ural (Milling tools), Don (Bamboo pan) for post harvesting processings. The Chhattisgarh farmer uses chili (water lifter) for field irrigation (Nirja and Luke, 2017). The Tamil Nadu farmer utilizes country plough (Kalappai) for land preparation. The tamil nadu farmer uses sickle (karukkarival), knife (kambar kathi), Tamarind harvester (Puli kokki), lemon harvesting tool (Ezhumichai karandi) for crop harvesting. The farmer uses weeder (aruguvetti), dry land weeder (cycle gundu), spade (mammutty) for inter-cultural operations. The farmer uses grain separater (kodun kol), wooden thresher (thattuppalagai), stone roller (uruttu kal), bamboo grinder (chekku), milling tool (ulakkkai) for post harvesting of the grains. The farmer uses Pukka, Marakaal, Naali for measuring the agricultural produce. The farmer applies floor cleaner (Sakkai piratti), bamboo pan (moonghil thattu) for cleaning of the grains in the southern region (Karthikeyan et al., 2008). The eastern region of farmer applies plough (lungal), spader (plough), khurpa (khurpi), weeder rack, spader (kodal/phaura), guity, sickle (kaste/daw), Daw (katruri), long handle dauli, Axe, sabal, hand stone mill, silpata. paddy spader, bamboo sieve, winnower, silo, bamboo basket, nanda, bankua, mugara (gila),pola, khalui, panki (boti) in crop production and management (Bikash et al., 2015). The",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "applies plough (lungal), spader (plough), khurpa (khurpi), weeder rack, spader (kodal/phaura), guity, sickle (kaste/daw), Daw (katruri), long handle dauli, Axe, sabal, hand stone mill, silpata. paddy spader, bamboo sieve, winnower, silo, bamboo basket, nanda, bankua, mugara (gila),pola, khalui, panki (boti) in crop production and management (Bikash et al., 2015). The Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat farmer applies bullock drawn dhanti for effective control of weed populations in the crop. The indigenous guddeli tools require less power in the operation, prevents the loss of ginger harvesting (Swain et al., 2020; Shamkuwar et al., 2020) (Table 1.3). 1.4 Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in soil and water management The farmer constructed water reservior, dam, pond, Chauka system and Haveli system for harvesting the water in the Sindhu Valley Civilization. The famer prepares farm ponds, check dams, shallow well dugs for harvesting rain water. The farmer uses Bamboo drip method in irrigation for controlling water borne diseases in terrace farming. The Tamil Nadu farmer applies traditional micro-depression method for managing water in the Neem tree, teak tree and Mango tree for controlling soil erosion, improving soil properties and progressing growth & development of the tree (Hiswaran et al., 2020). The Andhra Pradesh farmer utilizes rolu method for determining the rain water and collecting the rain water. Rolu is 7.4’ depth, 9 diameter hole granite stone (Maruthi et al., 2020). The Himachal Pradesh farmer applies Chaal (small water storage ponds) for drinking and irrigation purposes in hill area (Pradeep et al., 2020). The farmer recommends cow dung slurry for progressing soil property and water retention capacity. The Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh farmer improves property of the soil and moisture of the soil with the mixture of wood ash, rice husk and cow dung cake. The wood ash riches in Preprints (www.preprints.org) |",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "recommends cow dung slurry for progressing soil property and water retention capacity. The Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh farmer improves property of the soil and moisture of the soil with the mixture of wood ash, rice husk and cow dung cake. The wood ash riches in Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 10 phosphorus. The farmer recommends paddy straw mulching for preserving water in the soil and sand bags for controlling soil degradation. The farmer applies mixture of salt ash and coco pit in the field before transplanting. The cocopit contains potassium that improves physical & chemical property of the soil (Yadav et al., 2013; Balasubramanian et al., 2009). The Uttarakhand Farmer constructs water catchment reservoir like Tals, Khals, Chals and Rou for collecting water for domestic and agricultural purposes. The Assam farmer constructs Bari system for harnessing water. The Rajasthan farmer builds Saza Kuva open well for domestic and irrigation uses (Anwesha and Pardeep, 2020). The South Indian farmer grows Aduthininapalai (Aristolochia bracteolacia) for evaluating soil water. The mixed cropping and intercropping of leguminous plant facilitates soil improvement. 200 tonnes tank silt are applied in the field for land measures. The sheep/cattle penning improves soil fertility during summer season. The Tamil Nadu farmer restricts soil erosion and moisture with the cultivation of Kolingi (Tephrosia purpurea) between fruit trees in sloppy land. The Nuna tree (Morinda tinctoria) improves moisture retention in the soil. The deep ploughing encourages moisture content in the soil. The Chhattisgarh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh farmer prepared a liquid solution with ingredients of 10 kg Neem + 10 litre Cow urine + ½ kg asafetida waste, stores overnight. The extracted liquid manure is applied in the 1 acre land for soil productivity. The mixtures of Neem oil, fine sand",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh farmer prepared a liquid solution with ingredients of 10 kg Neem + 10 litre Cow urine + ½ kg asafetida waste, stores overnight. The extracted liquid manure is applied in the 1 acre land for soil productivity. The mixtures of Neem oil, fine sand and cow dung are stored in the moist area for 3 days. The formulated mixtures are dissolved in the 150 litre water and are recommended in the soil for soil amelioration and sucking pest control (Ravisankar et al., 2017). The Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala farmer cultivates Vetiver (Khus grass) for managing land degradation and soil conservation. The perennial vegetation is cultivated in the field for controlling soil erosion. The farmer applies farm yard manure (FYM) for improving soil property (Prakasa et al., 2015; Mishra et al., 2011). The Sikkim farmer constructs terrace in field for promoting terrace farming and land reformation (Prabuddh et al., 2020). The Mahrashtra, Kerala and Assam farmer cultivates and ploughs of Diancha (Sesbania sp.) snd Sun hemp (Crotolaria juncea) improves water holding capacity and soil property of the alkali soil (Shobha et al., 2020). The neem leaves are applied for improving alkali soil and saline soil. The Kerala and Tamil Nadu farmer cultivates Poorvarasu (Thespesia populnea) mitigates water loss from the soil (Somasundaram et al., 2021). The Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka farmer applies bagasse of sugarcane, leaves & branches of Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus distichus) for improving saline soil. The Kerala and Hyderabad farmer cultivates Tea quadrifolia and Cyanodan dactylon weed encourages high yield on the soil (Binoo et al., 2016). The Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana Himachal Pradesh and Maharashtra farmer grows population of Pirandai (Cissus quandrangularis) for improving alkali soil property. The South Indian and Uttar Pradesh Farmer cultivate of Diancha and Nut grass",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Tea quadrifolia and Cyanodan dactylon weed encourages high yield on the soil (Binoo et al., 2016). The Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana Himachal Pradesh and Maharashtra farmer grows population of Pirandai (Cissus quandrangularis) for improving alkali soil property. The South Indian and Uttar Pradesh Farmer cultivate of Diancha and Nut grass (Cyperus rotandus) ameliorates the property of alkali soil (Somasundaram et al., 2020). The Indian farmer applies cow dung, pig dung, sheep dung and goat dung for progressing soil property. The application of cattle manure in garden soil and wetland and leaf manure in wetland Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 11 are enhanced the property of the soil (Modupe et al., 2020). The Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat and Bihar compound of cowdung, Calotropis gigantea leaves, neem cake powder are mixed well and decomposed in the pit. The decomposed manure applies for improving soil property (Krishan, 2005; Krishna et al., 2019). The Bihar and North-East farmer applies water hyacinth as compost or burnt ash for progressing soil and water improvement, provides Potassium (K) nutrient in the soil. The farmer recommends goat manure for improving soil property (Ganesh et al., 2011). The Rajasthan farmer cultivates green leaf manure such as Tephrosia purpurea, Calotropis gigantea, Morinda tinctoria, Pongamia pinnata, Azadirachta indica, Thespesia populnea and Adathoda vasica faciliatates crop growth and soil improvement. The leguminous plant red gram cultivates as green manure crop, encourages for progressing soil property (Daagar and Teewari, 2016) (Table 1.4). 1.5 Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in animal husbandry The Dimapur, Assam, Kanyakumari and Goa fish farmer serves pseudostem banana to cater pond fish. The pseudostem banana increases pH and oxygen in the pond water, raise fish production (Bhalerao et al., 2015). The Maharashtra farmer mixes 500 gm maida + 500 gm behada powder in",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "farmers in animal husbandry The Dimapur, Assam, Kanyakumari and Goa fish farmer serves pseudostem banana to cater pond fish. The pseudostem banana increases pH and oxygen in the pond water, raise fish production (Bhalerao et al., 2015). The Maharashtra farmer mixes 500 gm maida + 500 gm behada powder in 2.5 litre water after boiling. The prepared liquid medicine recommends to the cattle for controlling Foot and Mouth Disease (Choubey, 2005). The West Bengal, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal and Orrissa farmer prepares liquid medicine with peach leaf extract and milk. The liquid medicine applies to the cattle in the lesion of mouth and hooves control (Das et al., 2004). The Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Orissa controls foot and mouth disease in the cattle with mixture of babool bark and Jamun bark paste (Rajesh and Bharathi, 2012; Sarita et al., 2003). The farmer controls foot and mouth disease with compositions of camphor and coconut oil in the cattle. The Uttar Pradesh farmer recommends paste of Bantulsi (Ocimum gratissimum) leaf along with water for controlling Khurha (FMD) disease in cattle and Buffalo (Swarup and Pradhan, 2020). The Uttaranchal farmer prepares liquid medicine with stone apple (bael) and water for controlling diarrhoea (Mahesh, 2020). The paste is formulated with 500 gm Shisham leaves and 1 water, is treated in cattle for controlling diarrhoea. The Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal farmer prepares pegion waste is mixed with jaggery, is applied in the heifers for inducing oestrus cycle (Swarup et al., 2020). The Uttaranchal farmer extracted juice of gurhal (urhul) flower treated orally in the goat for controlling diarrhoea (Dakshinkar and Vihan, 2020). The Jharkhand farmer applies crushed paste of Pojo (Litsaea authapoly) for treating diarrhoea and dehydration (Haque et al., 2020). The farmer recommends orally flower juice of takala (Cassia",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "2020). The Uttaranchal farmer extracted juice of gurhal (urhul) flower treated orally in the goat for controlling diarrhoea (Dakshinkar and Vihan, 2020). The Jharkhand farmer applies crushed paste of Pojo (Litsaea authapoly) for treating diarrhoea and dehydration (Haque et al., 2020). The farmer recommends orally flower juice of takala (Cassia tora) in goat for controlling diarrhoea. The Himachal Pradesh farmer grinds the leaves of ridge gourd or ekdandi to extract juice. The extracted juice smeared in the wound of the animals (Varshney, 2020). The Maharashtra farmer washed and crushed 200250 gm stem & leaf of Bhangariya (Eclipta alba) to produce paste. 50-60 ml mustard oil paste is fried and applied in the cattle, buffaloes and goat for controlling cure blain (Jangde and Dhanan, 2020). The Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh farmer prepares mixtures of 30 gm geru, 50 gm snail shell/sippi are boiled with castor oil and 20 gm Alua, 50 gm kudru/sahjam gum are mixed with the mixture for producing paste. The prepared paste is treated in the bullocks or bulls for controlling Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 12 swelling (Swarup and Dhakate, 2020). The Maharashtra farmer prepares the paste of kalajeera is applied to the animal for managing Haemrrhagic septicaemia (Vihan, 2020). The dairy farmer burns the tick, cultivates high salt plant and avoids shade trees for controlling ticks. The Jharkhand and Himachal Pradesh farmer develops Hajore paste for recovering bone fracture in animal (Roy and Varshney, 2020). The West Bengal fish farmer applies Ghuni, chero/kero, chokhia and atal for trapping fish. Aran bata/ Aran pata utilizes for creating barrier for the fish. The farmer uses circular shaped earthen rings/earthen pots for encouraging catfish breeding in water logged field/ paddy field. Channa gachua (Changmachh) is local fish of majuli island of Assam for",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "applies Ghuni, chero/kero, chokhia and atal for trapping fish. Aran bata/ Aran pata utilizes for creating barrier for the fish. The farmer uses circular shaped earthen rings/earthen pots for encouraging catfish breeding in water logged field/ paddy field. Channa gachua (Changmachh) is local fish of majuli island of Assam for curing Asthama and Body pain. The oil of Mystus vittatus uses for healing burn injury, fever, bacterial dysentery. The Chela fish (Salmophasia bacaila) uses for promoting lacatation in women. The mortality rate of prawn seed forbids with Cinnamomum tamala. The leaves have Vitamin A, Vitamin C and anti microbial activity. Ribbon fish (Lepturacanthus savala) forecasts cyclone by whistling of the sound. The traditional tool Ankar/Anksi uses for catching mud crabs (Scylla Serrata). The unripe gaoh (Diopyros embryteris) uses for strengthening of fishing nets in sunderbans (Aparna et al., 2020). The Tripura fish farmer produces Lau Macha local fish through fish cum vegetable (bottle gourd. The farmer produces murrels (Channa spp.), climbing perch (Anabas testodeneous) and cat fish (Clarias batrachus) and Bloch (Heteroneutes fossilis) in paddy field. The fish controls weed population and soil loosening. The fish cum duckery method grows fish along with duck (Ratan and Dilip, 2013). The West Bengal fisher man manages bloat disease with formulation of 10 gm Bark Aswatha (Banyon, ficuspa) + 10 gm Ada (Ginger) + 10 gm salt. The disease recovers in 7 days. 50 ml liquid common guava leaves is apply for managing diarrhoea. The West Bengal farmer prepares extracts of ganda (Marigold) leaves are mixed for curing wound in animal. The Halud (turmeric) is grinded and applied in animal wound (Amitedu et al., 2004). The saltation and sun drying is prominent process in fish preservation. The mustard oil and salt and turmeric powder are applied into cutted fish for controlling fish spoilage.",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "leaves are mixed for curing wound in animal. The Halud (turmeric) is grinded and applied in animal wound (Amitedu et al., 2004). The saltation and sun drying is prominent process in fish preservation. The mustard oil and salt and turmeric powder are applied into cutted fish for controlling fish spoilage. The paste is prepared with roots of Bonson tree and 21 pieces Black pepper, fed into the dog bitting portion. The Orissa and Gujarat farmer grinds the stems & leaves of Anantamul for releasing juice, is mixed with honey for managing animal dysentery. The Gujarat farmer formulates liquid solution with 100 gm tulsi leaves and 100 gm basak are boiled with water. The extracted juice is mixed with 1 teaspoon honey and fed to the animal for controlling cold and cough. (Bikram et al., 2012; Patel et al., 2016). The Hyderabad farmer uses tamarind bark to prepare glue, is involved in strengthening of the nets. The Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan farmer pours root of Acacia arabica with mustard in 1:3 proportions for managing arthritis. The oestrous cycle of animal treats for 2 days with combination of Musa paradisiaca along with sugar (Ram et al., 2013). The Uttar Pradesh farmer recommends Vinegar for Tympany medication, Castor oil for Deworming diagnosis, Mustard oil for Body heat regulations, Turmeric lime paste for Sprain heal, Black pepper butter oil mixture for Pneumonia fever control in animal (Gyan et al., 2016). The Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 13 Assam, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Farmers prepare drug with Glyricidia and roasted soaked tamarind seeds and fed the cows for increasing lactation. The seeds of subabul cater to animals for improving milk secretion. The Assam, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Farmers formulate liquid product with Bottle gourd, fenugreek, coconut,",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Assam, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Farmers prepare drug with Glyricidia and roasted soaked tamarind seeds and fed the cows for increasing lactation. The seeds of subabul cater to animals for improving milk secretion. The Assam, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Farmers formulate liquid product with Bottle gourd, fenugreek, coconut, black gram and palm jiggery mixed with water, fed to animal for 3 days to increase milk growth. The Assam, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Farmers feed dried flowers of Madhuca latifolia to bullock for improving work efficiency. The Assam, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Farmers prepare powdered formulation with Pepper, jaggery and betel leaf, fed to animal for increasing digestion rate. The Kashmir farmer serves grinded Iris kashmiriana and jiggery to progress milk yield and lean body (Shubeena et al., 2018; Deepandita et al., 2021). The Hyderabad and Karnataka farmer uses cow dung slurry for managing euglena bloom. The dry fish prepares with intervention of cow dung slurry. 200 gm termite mound soil is boiled with water, the prepared solution is applied to the animal for controlling mastitits, poisonous bite of insects and mechanical injury (Swamy et al., 2015). The ray fish oil is applied for vanishing boats and controlling leakage. The Bihar and Hyderabad farmer preserves boat & net with cashew shell oil, coal tar and sardine oil. The Hyderabad farmer stores and transports fish by mixing of saw dust and rice. The fish net is strengthened with boiled tamarind seed powder and kalasha bark. The Bihar and Hyderabad farmer diagnoses bloat disease of animal with mango pickle spices and neem leaves. The Bihar, Hyderabad and Orissa farmer controls cattle constipation with Gardenia resinifera leaves and Dendrophthoe falcata seeds (Sumit and Shivani, 2021). A small quantity of curd/butter milk is stored overnight to receive blue-green colour, the solution",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Hyderabad farmer diagnoses bloat disease of animal with mango pickle spices and neem leaves. The Bihar, Hyderabad and Orissa farmer controls cattle constipation with Gardenia resinifera leaves and Dendrophthoe falcata seeds (Sumit and Shivani, 2021). A small quantity of curd/butter milk is stored overnight to receive blue-green colour, the solution is involve in deworming of young calves (Shenoy, 2021). The Bihar, Hyderabad and Maharashtra farmer recommends whey milk, onion and custard apple leaves are applied to the animal for managing excess grazing (Dipika et al., 2017) (Table 1.5). 1.6 Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in medicinal & aromatic plants for diagnosis diseases, The Northern Farmer recommends a diversity of medicinal plants for diagnosing the diseases. The Northern Farmer utilizes Acacia catechu (khair) for asthama, bronchitis remedy from root part, Aconitum ferox wall. (Vatsnabh) for treating Rheumatism from root part, Aconitum heterophyllum wall. (Atees) for treating fever, cough, piles and stomach from root part, Aegle marmelos (L.) correa (Bell) for curing dysentery, diarrhoea, fever from fruit & bark part, Alpinia galalnga (L.) wild. (Kulanjan) for treating Health tonic from bulb part, bulb part of Andrographis paniculata (Burm. F.) wall to control malaria, liver, blood purifier, Aquillaria malaccensis Lamk. (Agaru) for removing fish spine from throat from the whole part, Artemisia maritima L. (Kunja) for curing tonic, blood purifier, fever through whole plant, Berberis aristata DC. (Kingora) for diagnosing eye disease from root & stem, Cassia augustifoila Vahl (Senna) for curing rheumatism from the root, Cholorphytum tuberosum Bak. (Safed musli) for curing Leucorrhea, sexual tonic from tuber, Coleus barbatus Benth. (Patharchur) for treating tonic and blood pressure from root, Cammiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari for treating Asthma, typhoid from the resin & bark, Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 14 Curculigo orchioides haerten (Kali musli) for curing asthma,",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Leucorrhea, sexual tonic from tuber, Coleus barbatus Benth. (Patharchur) for treating tonic and blood pressure from root, Cammiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari for treating Asthma, typhoid from the resin & bark, Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 14 Curculigo orchioides haerten (Kali musli) for curing asthma, dysentery, tonic from the root, rhizome portion of Curcuma zedoaria to treat jaundice, blood pressure, seed & fruit portion of Embelia ribes to diagnose skin problem, leprosy, Garcinia indica choisy (Kokam) for curing skin disease from the fruit, Gloriosa superb L. (Kalibari) for treating snake bite, leprosy from rhizome, Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) (Gudmar) for curing Gastric disorder, eye disease from the root & leaf, Hemidesmus indicus (L.) Br. for curing cough, hypertension, dysentery from the root, Myrica esculenta Ham. exdon (Kaphal) for curing bronchitis, blood purifier, hysteria from the rhizome, Nelumbo nucifera barten (kamal phool) for curing chlorea, diarrhoea from fruit & seed, Ocimum sanctum L. for treating fever, vomiting, liver & blood purifier from the leaf & seed, Phyllanthus emblica L. (amla) for curing fever, vomiting, liver, blood purifier from the seed & leaf, Picrorhiza kurrooa Benth. (Katuki) for curing Headache, fever, dysentery from the root, Pistacacia chinenesis Bunge (Kakadshingi) for curing cholera, fever, cough from the fruit, root portion of Piper longum L. to cure indigestion, child birth, dysentery, Pistacacia chinensis Bunge (Sarapagandha) for treating malaria fever, snake bite from the root, Santallum album (chandan) for curing dysentery and skin disease from the wood, Saraca asoca (Ashok) for treating Heart disorder from the bark & leaf, Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. (Kut) for treating dysentery, asthama, ulcer from the root, Smilex sp. (Chopchini) for treating menstrual complain & small pox, Solanum nigrum (Giloe) for curing jaundice, bone fracture from the whole plant, Valeriana jatamansi (Tagar) for treating epilepsy, urinary",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "treating Heart disorder from the bark & leaf, Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. (Kut) for treating dysentery, asthama, ulcer from the root, Smilex sp. (Chopchini) for treating menstrual complain & small pox, Solanum nigrum (Giloe) for curing jaundice, bone fracture from the whole plant, Valeriana jatamansi (Tagar) for treating epilepsy, urinary complain from the root & leaf, Withiana somnifera (Ashwagandha) for treating eye, asthama, cough from the root & leaf, Wrightia tinctoria (Indra java) for treating toothache, piles, dysentery from the bark & latex (Chandra et al., 2006). The Tripura farmer applies diverse medicinal plant species in the curing mild and acute diseases. The Tripura farmer utilizes traditional plant Andrographis panicular for curing dog bite from the leaves, Phylogacanthus thyrsiflorus usues for curing cold, cough, asthama from the root, Achyranthes aspera uses for curing epilepsy from the root, Mangifera indica L. utilizes for treating toothache from the bark & root, Centella asiatica L. uses for treating tooth from the whole plant, Alstonia scholaris L. uses for treating mother milk from the latex & shoot, Holarrhena antidysentria uses for treating dysentery, diarrhoea, anthelmintic from the leaves, Homalonema aromatic utilizes for curing snake bite from the leaves & latex, Ageratum conyzoides utilizes for curing wounds, cut from the leaves, Enydra fluctuans uses for treating bleeding from the leaves, Spilanthes paniculata utilizes for treating gastric, stomach problem, throat, diabetes from the whole plant, Kalanchoe pinnata uses for curing dysentery from the leaves, Coccinia grandis uses for curing diabetes from the leaves, Momordica cacharantia uses for curing hand pimples, foot pimples from the leaves & fruits, Ricinus communis uses for treating swelling, rheumatism from the leaves, Acacia concinna uses for treating diabetes and body pain, Cajanus cajan uses for treating jaundice from the leaves, Cassia fistula uses for curing laxative from the fruits, Cassia accidentalis",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "for curing hand pimples, foot pimples from the leaves & fruits, Ricinus communis uses for treating swelling, rheumatism from the leaves, Acacia concinna uses for treating diabetes and body pain, Cajanus cajan uses for treating jaundice from the leaves, Cassia fistula uses for curing laxative from the fruits, Cassia accidentalis uses or treating skin disease from the leaves, Mimosa pudica uses for curing ring worm, piles from the leaves & root, Parkia javanica uti utilizes for curing gastric problem from the fruits, Lecuas aspera uses for curing pain, gastric problem, swelling from the leaves & flower, Ocimum basilicum uses for curing gastric problem, stomach problem from the leaves & bark, Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 15 Ocimum Sanctum L. uses for treating cough, cold, from the leaves, Premna sp. uses for treating ant bite from the leaves, Litsea glutinosa uses for curing muscle pain, bone fracture from the bark & leaves, Hibiscus rosa sinensis uses for treating irregular menstruation from the root, leaves & bud, Sterculli aviliosa utilizes for treating menstruation pain from the leaves. Moringa oleifera uses for treating cooling effect from the fruits & leaves. Psidium guajava uses for treating diarrhoea, dysentery, piles, vomiting from the leaves, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis uses for curing asthama, stomach disorder from the leaves. Aporosa octandra uses for curing injury from the leaves. Phyllanthus acidus utilizes for treating chicken pox from the fruits & leaves, Scoparia daclis utilizes for treating body pain from the leaves, Cyanodon dactylon applied for treating toothache from the whole plant. Drynaria quercifolia uses for treating swelling from the rhizome. Ageles marmelos uses for curing high fever, malaria from the fruits & leaves, Murraya paniculata utilizes for curing toothache from the root. Flacourita jangomas uses for curing dysentery, diarrhoea from the fruits. Aloe barbadensis",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "for treating toothache from the whole plant. Drynaria quercifolia uses for treating swelling from the rhizome. Ageles marmelos uses for curing high fever, malaria from the fruits & leaves, Murraya paniculata utilizes for curing toothache from the root. Flacourita jangomas uses for curing dysentery, diarrhoea from the fruits. Aloe barbadensis utilizes for curing cold, cough from the rhizome, Curcuma zeodaria uses for curing stomach, urinary disorder from the rhizome (Maria et al., 2017). The Uttarakhand farmer recommends a diversity of medicinal plants for curing human diseases. The Uttarakhand farmer uses medicinal plant Aconitum balfourii (meetha/Bhngwa) for diaphoretic, diuretic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anit-pyretic, vermifuge. Aconitum heterophyllum (Atees) uses for treating anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic, anti-bacterial, anthelminthic. Ajuga parviflora (Neel Kanthi) uses for curing hypertension, malaria, pneumonia, edema, anit-fungal, hypoglycemic, anit-microbial agents. Alllium cepa (Pyaj) uses for curing antitumour, anti-diabeteic, anti-allergic and anti –mollusicidal. Allium sativum (Lehsum) uses in burn and cut from the whole plant, Allium wallichii uses in treating gastric from the leaves, Angelica glauca Edgew (choru) uses for treating gastric from the leaves, Artemisia nilagirica (kunja) uses for treating cut & wounds from the leaves, Asparagus filicinus (Jhirna) uses for treating weakness from the root, Berberis aristata (kingod) uses for curing eye ailments from the root, Bergenia stracheyi (Pashanbhed) uses for curing stone problem from the root. Centella asiatica (Brahmi) uses for treating coolant disease from the leaves. Cinnamomum tamla (tejpat) uses for curing blood pressure from the leaves & bark. Cirisium wallichi (kanjelu) uses for treating fever from the seeds. Cucumis sativus (kakdi) uses for curing diuretic disease from the seeds. Cucurma longa (Haldu) uses for treating cut, wound from the root. Dioscorea bulbifera (Tairu) uses for treating coolant disease from the tuber. Eupatorium adenophorum (Basya) uses for treating cut and wound from the leaves. Girardinia diversifolia (kandali) uses for curing",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "sativus (kakdi) uses for curing diuretic disease from the seeds. Cucurma longa (Haldu) uses for treating cut, wound from the root. Dioscorea bulbifera (Tairu) uses for treating coolant disease from the tuber. Eupatorium adenophorum (Basya) uses for treating cut and wound from the leaves. Girardinia diversifolia (kandali) uses for curing fever from the root. Hippophae salicifolia (Amesh) uses for treating coolant from the fruit. Juglans regia (Akhrot) uses for curing skin disease from the fruit peel. Jurinea macrocephala (Biskhanada) uses for curing fever from the root. Macrotyloma uniflorum (gahat) uses for curing stone disease from the root. Megacarpaea polynadra (Barmolu) uses for treating gastric problem from the root. Mentha pipertia (Pudina) uses for curing coolant disease from the leaves. Mirabilis jalapa uses for curing cut & wound from the leaves. Nardostachys jatamansi (Maasi) uses for treating jaundice from the leaves. Ocimum corniculata (Almodu) uses for treating boils from the aerial part. Paeoni emodi (chandra) uses for Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 16 treating fever from the leaves. Picrorhiza kurrooa (Kadwi) uses for treating fever diseases from the leaves. Polygonatum verticillatum (Mahamaida/salampanja) uses for curing fever from the rhizome. Potentilla lineata (Bajradanti) uses from treating Anaemia from the fruits. Rheum moorcroftianum (Dolu) uses for curing injury, cut and wound from the root. Rhododendron campanulatum (Syamru) uses for curing skin disease from the leaves. Rumex nepalensis (khuldya) uses for curing pneumonia, cut, wound from the root. Saussurea costus (kuth) uses for treating skin disease from the root & leaves. Saussurea obvallata (kaunl) uses for treating immune system from the aerial part. Selinum vaginatum (bhutkesh) uses for curing coolant disease from the root. Swertia chiraytia (chiraitu) uses for curing fever, stomach, ache from the aerial part. Tagetes erecta (gainda) for curing ear ache from the leaves. Taxus",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "root & leaves. Saussurea obvallata (kaunl) uses for treating immune system from the aerial part. Selinum vaginatum (bhutkesh) uses for curing coolant disease from the root. Swertia chiraytia (chiraitu) uses for curing fever, stomach, ache from the aerial part. Tagetes erecta (gainda) for curing ear ache from the leaves. Taxus wallichiana (thuner) uses for treating high blood pressure from the bark. Tinospora sinesis (giloe) uses for curing fever, stomach, ache from the aerial part. Utrica dioca (kundali) uses for treating anaemia, weakness from the aerial root. Zanthoxylum armatum (Timru) uses for curing teeth, toothache from thes seed, stem & aerial part (Ankit et al., 2019). The Aligarh farmer utilizes Habb-e-Asgand unani drugs for controlling Wajalal mafasil (Rheumatoid arthritis) (gaathia) (Verma et al., 2021). The Varanasi farmer prepares powdered drug with root of Anacyclus pyrethrum, Withania somnifera, Chlorophytum borivilianum, Asparagus racemosus and tuber of Pueraria tuberosa for stimulating male sex hormone (Kumar et al., 2021). The Meghalaya farmer uses liquid of pseudostem of Ensete glaucum (roxb.) cheesman contains aminoacid, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, polyphenol, alkaloids, reducing sugars, starch, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, oil and fats for diagnosing diarrhoea (Joga et al., 2020). The Solan district farmer of Himachal Pradesh recommends Cryptolepis buchananii, Eucalyptus citriodora, Ligustrum japonicum, Pinus roxburghii, Rosa alba, Ziziphus nummularia and Sonchus oleraceus for treating skin infections. The Solan district farmer of Himachal Pradesh recommends Rhododendron arboreum, Zanthoxylum armatum, Viola canescens, Quercus leucotrichophora, Rubus ellipticus, Punica granatum, Ocimum sanctum, Morus nigra, Mentha arvensis, Justicia adhatoda, Ficus benghalensis, Eriobotrya japonica, Debregeasia longifolia, Cissampelos pareira, Datura innoxia, Eucalyptus citriodora, Cynodon dactylon, Colebrookea oppositifolia and Cannabis sativa for treating diarrhea, diabetes, dysentery, cough, cold and fever (Kumar et al., 2021). The Adi community of Arunachal Pradesh treats asthma, bronchitis, cough, sinusitis, diabetes, malaria, typhoid and jaundice with the involvement of Frangipani, periwinkle, turkey berry,",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Cissampelos pareira, Datura innoxia, Eucalyptus citriodora, Cynodon dactylon, Colebrookea oppositifolia and Cannabis sativa for treating diarrhea, diabetes, dysentery, cough, cold and fever (Kumar et al., 2021). The Adi community of Arunachal Pradesh treats asthma, bronchitis, cough, sinusitis, diabetes, malaria, typhoid and jaundice with the involvement of Frangipani, periwinkle, turkey berry, Night shade, Indian trumpet flower and Giloy (Ranjay et al., 2020). The Himalayan cold desert region of Ladakh people involves in monastery constructions, increases preparations, fuelwood and fodder crops with Juniperus polycarpus C. Koch (Himalayan pencil cedar) (Dorjey and Maurya, 2020). The Uttarakhand farmer recovers skin disease problem with Hairy beggarticks and Deodar. The constipation and lier disorder are treated with Eclipta alba, Mallotus philippensis, Boehmeria rugulosa, Celtis australis. The cosmetic produces with Aretmisia annua, the insect bites, infertility problem recovers with Parthenium hysterophorus, the human stone problem is treated with Chenopodium album and Berginia ciliate. The human tooth problem treats with Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 17 Xanthium stramonium. The blood dysentery cures with Boerhavia diffusa and Sterculia villosa. The human muscular pain & swelling are cured with Helicteres isora, epilepsy problem cures with Artemisia japonica. The human cut and wound are treated with Ageratum conyzoides, Brassica campestris, Betula utilis, Achyranthus aspera, Colebrookia oppositifolia, Rumex hastus and Bergenia ciliata. The urinary disorder, headache and menstrual disorder are rebommended with Fagopyrum esculatum. The children worm restricts with Amaranthus paniculatus. The human stomach problem is cured with Artimisia maritime, Cyanodon dactylon and Syzgium cumini. Bombax ceiba uses in piles disease. Treminalia chebula uses in indigestion problem. The fractured bone is treated with Litsea chinenesis. The bite of scorpion is cured with Amaranthus spinosus. The human memory enrichment is stimulated with Centella asiatica (Aakash et al., 2021). The garo tribe farmer utilizes more 36 tree, 5",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "ceiba uses in piles disease. Treminalia chebula uses in indigestion problem. The fractured bone is treated with Litsea chinenesis. The bite of scorpion is cured with Amaranthus spinosus. The human memory enrichment is stimulated with Centella asiatica (Aakash et al., 2021). The garo tribe farmer utilizes more 36 tree, 5 shrubs and 2 creeper/climbers for cooking and medicinal purposes (Singh and Mathew, 2020). The community of Dongria Kandha tribes uses traditional medicinal plant Discorea bulbifera L. for curing cancer, HIV, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, cardioprotective and anti-hyperthyroid activities (Parida and Sarangi, 2020). The seed of Manikara zapota, Caatinga biome, Moringa oleifera, Carica papaya, Myracrodruon urundeuva involves in controlling Ades agegypti mosquito populations. The seed protein of Jatropha curcas and leaves protein of Solanum villosum are recommended for restricting Culex quiinquefasciatus and Ades aegypti populations (Manisha and Neelam, 2021). The Uttar Pradesh farmer controls Bovine herpes virus type I, foot and mouth disease virus and new castle disease virus in animal with sacred plant Ocimum tenuiflorum and Ocimum sanctum (holy basil/tulsi) (Goel and Bhatia, 2022). The Jammu farmer uses non timber forest product Aconitum heterophyllum wall. (Patis, Aconite, Dhar buti, Attees or Bis Mohra) for intestinal worms, diarrhoea, dysentery, high fever and anti-rheumatic. The disease of fever, cold, cough, hypertension, muscle spasms, parasitic worms and malaria root are diagnosed with the rhizomes of Viola odorata (Bnafsaha, wild violet, sweet violet). The root of Valeriana jatamansi (mush khala, jatamansi, balchhari, mansi, nihani) uses for treating eye, blood liver problem, hysteria, nervous andurinal stress. The root & rhizomes of Picrorhiza kurroa (Kaud, kaur, kutki) uses in fever, cold cough, hypertension, muscle spasms, parasitic worms and malaria. The root of Bergenia ligulata (patharchoor, pashanbeda) uses for healing of wound (Bagal et al., 2022). The powdered medicine recommends in management of longevity, anti-viral, analgesiscs, ascites, hypoglycemic, anti-arthritic",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "root & rhizomes of Picrorhiza kurroa (Kaud, kaur, kutki) uses in fever, cold cough, hypertension, muscle spasms, parasitic worms and malaria. The root of Bergenia ligulata (patharchoor, pashanbeda) uses for healing of wound (Bagal et al., 2022). The powdered medicine recommends in management of longevity, anti-viral, analgesiscs, ascites, hypoglycemic, anti-arthritic and anti-ageing (Manosi et al., 2022) (Table 1.6). 1.7 Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in stored grain pests’ management The farmers initiated grains storage in the mid historic period. The Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu farmer constructed gowdowns with straw, leaves and the godowns mounted with cow dung. The grains stored in the surface (Vishal et al., 2020). The cleft of the godowns mounted with rod, cow dung led mud. The construction and storage of food grains was described in the Vishwakarma vastu sastra. The Tamil Nadu farmer mixes 200 gm of common salt in red gram/Arhar for controlling stored grains pests. The Tamil Nadu farmers mixes and treats sorghum seed at 1:4 ratio in jute gunny bags for 6 months storage of seed and controlling pest problems. The Tamil Nadu farmer controls storage pests and insect-pests with the liquid solution of neem oil + coconut Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 18 oil/castor oil. The Tamil Nadu farmer applies 5 litre groundnut oil and ¼ kg tamarind in the container. The container covered with cotton cloth tight for ground nut oil storage. The farmer applies 100 gm coriander seeds, a litre of oil, a spoon of salt in the container. The coriander seed releases odour in the oil that prevents oil spillage and oil spoilage (Karthikeyan et al., 2009). The Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka farmers controls flat grain borer, lesser grain borer and saw toothed beetle by blending ragi grains into neem leaves,",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "spoon of salt in the container. The coriander seed releases odour in the oil that prevents oil spillage and oil spoilage (Karthikeyan et al., 2009). The Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka farmers controls flat grain borer, lesser grain borer and saw toothed beetle by blending ragi grains into neem leaves, thumbai and any strong odour leaves (Kaddi patta, tulsi, lemon grass etc). The Manipur Farmer exposes stored pulse grain in the open sunlight at 20 °C for controlling Callosobruchus chinensis eggs and grubs (Adesina et al., 2019). The Karnataka Farmer prepares Custard apple seed powder, recommends Pulse grains to conrol bruchid adult and eggs (Prakash et al., 2016). The Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Telangana and Karnataka farmers is stored pegion pea seed with horse gram seed dust the air tight container. The horse gram dust assimilates excess moisture and encourages long term storage. 10 kg pegion pea seed mixes with 1 kg fine red soil for controlling moisture permeability and storage pest (Shaila and Nafeesa, 2021). The Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Mahrashtra farmer constructs godowns/granary room with brick and wooden boards for controlling rice moth and restrict moisture of the grains (Parimala et al., 2013). The Manipur and Tamil Nadu farmer maintains short term grain storage with 1 gm camphor per 5 kg grains in the jute bags. The Manipur farmer prepares plate like round shaped structture (Varati) with the help of fresh cow dung, the seed were enclosed in the Varati for 2-3 days under sunlight. The enclosed seed stored into the wooden boxes upto 1 year for seed storage and increasing 90% seed germination (Adesina et al., 2019). The seed materials of the crops are poured into ¾ th height earthen pot; the pot covers with rough cloth containing with neem leaves, pungam leaves and notchi leaves. The",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "stored into the wooden boxes upto 1 year for seed storage and increasing 90% seed germination (Adesina et al., 2019). The seed materials of the crops are poured into ¾ th height earthen pot; the pot covers with rough cloth containing with neem leaves, pungam leaves and notchi leaves. The quantitiy of the sand covers the mouth of the container. The pulses and food grains are immersed into 10% salt solution and dreid for controlling pest attack. The application of Neem leaves/ Pungam leaves manage storage pest of cereal crops. The Karnataka, Assam and Kerala farmer practices 10 gm lime per kg grains in jute gunny bags for storing 1 year grains storage. The Karnataka and Tamil Nadu farmer mixes gingelly seed with 100 gm paddy in the container for the 3 months gingelly seed storage, controlling Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella) (Bhavani and Ningdalli, 2015). The Tamil Nadu farmer operates long term storage by blending 1 kg pulse seed in 20 ml neem oil and controls weevils, long headed flour beetle, red flour beetles and fig moth during storage. The salt treatment conducts breakage of seed dormancy and increases drought stress tolerance (Marziyeh et al., 2017). The Gujarat and Orissa farmer controls Angoumois grain moth and rice weevils by recommending Pungam leaves in the paddy gunny bags and manages long term storage (Sahu et al., 2022). The North-East, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and Haryana farmer places paddy husk upto 5 cm in top portion of the earthen pot for seed damage control and pest control. The Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Orissa and North-East farmer practices 2kg paddy seed + 1 kg salt + 10 litre water places in the sunlight for an hour. The chaffy seed is separated from the hard seed. The hard seed Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED |",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "damage control and pest control. The Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Orissa and North-East farmer practices 2kg paddy seed + 1 kg salt + 10 litre water places in the sunlight for an hour. The chaffy seed is separated from the hard seed. The hard seed Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 19 is dried in the shade. The addition of salt increases the density, separates light seed and chaffy seed. It also increases the seed germination (Bordoloi et al., 2017; Singh, 2018). The North-Eastern and Karnataka Farmer pours paddy seed in the water for 12 hours. The dried paddy seed is placed in the pit contains tree saw dust and sheep manure. The pit is covered tightly with plastics/cotton cloth. The seed are excised out after 2 days drying for spawing. The air tight container creates heat inside the pit for seed germination. 10-15 kg paddy bag placed enhance of the house instead of doormat for 1-2 years paddy storage. The regular stepping of the bag disturbs insect movement and seed feeding. The proportion of 1:10 salt and water solution is poured 10 kg paddy seed. The dried seed is recommended for sowing after 72 hrs. The North-Eastern, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka Farmer 1 kg sorghum seed dissolves in 100 gm dry cow dung powder + 250 ml cow urine for an hour before sowing and improving seed germination. The dissolves sorghum seed in 1kg lime + 10 litre water for 10 days. The North-Eastern and Karnataka Farmer seed is dried in shade before sowing. The lime prevents attack seed borne diseases such as smut & bunt. The healthy ear head led with awn of sorghum is kept with dried paddy grass heap (banave) for controlling seed damage and improving seed longevity. The North-Eastern,",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "North-Eastern and Karnataka Farmer seed is dried in shade before sowing. The lime prevents attack seed borne diseases such as smut & bunt. The healthy ear head led with awn of sorghum is kept with dried paddy grass heap (banave) for controlling seed damage and improving seed longevity. The North-Eastern, Telangana and Karnataka Farmer is stored pegion pea seed with dry powder bitter gourd and drum stick seed for 3-6 months for controlling insect-pests. The North-Eastern and Karnataka Farmer is mixed 10 kg green gram seed with 250 gm chilli powder + 1 kg ragi/finger millet flour. The prepared mixtures are stored in the bamboo pot along with paddy husk. The chilli powder and flour prevents attack of storage pests. This practice is mentioned and explained in the Varabamihira’s Brihat Jataka (Rakesh et al., 2013; Ambika et al., 2014). The North-Eastern, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala farmer dissolves dry cow dung with ghee + honey for the seed treatment in Kautilya period (SCERT, 2016). The Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Orissa farmer treats pegion pea seed with dry pongamia leaf for controlling storage pests. The North-Eastern, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Farmer are stored pegion pea seed with dry guntur chilli powder and neem leaf powder for controlling insect-pests and seed senescence. The Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Farmer controls insect-pests in chicken seed either by mint leaves powder or sweet flag root powder. The North-Eastern, Kerala and Karnataka Farmer are stored chilli seed in the gunny bag and kept in a hot water for a day. This practice improves seed availability and vigour. The North-Eastern, Kerala and Karnataka Farmer applies dried fruit of sponge gourd after removing seed in the sunflower seed store. The dried fruit of sponge gourd containing sunflower seed is kept in the air tight container.",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "in a hot water for a day. This practice improves seed availability and vigour. The North-Eastern, Kerala and Karnataka Farmer applies dried fruit of sponge gourd after removing seed in the sunflower seed store. The dried fruit of sponge gourd containing sunflower seed is kept in the air tight container. The North-Eastern, Kerala and Karnataka Farmer uses protective capsule of sponge gourd protects against storage pests of Sunflower seed. All crops dried seeds and grains are restricted the invasion of pest attack on new moon day (Usharani et al., 2019; Jyoti et al., 2020). 5 kg pegion pea/chick pea seed is mixed with pearl millet/ finger millet. The mixed seed is placed in the earthen pot and sealed with cow dung smear. The millet assimilates moisture content in the pot for pulse seed storage. The green gram seed is stored in the layer of ash in the earthen pot. The earthen pot is smeared with cow dung. The insect population is died of ash suffocation, the seed is stored for the longer period. The Orissa, Telangana and Maharashtra farmer manages insect pest and microbe of chickpea such Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 20 as Alternaria sp. or Fusarium sp. by blending of 100 kg chickpea seed with citronella leaf oil/cotton seed oil/ soyabean oil/ castor seed oil (Ruparao et al., 2018). The Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka farmer are stored dried leaves of neem in the grains warehouse, are stopped the attack of stored grains pest (Yallappa et al., 2012). The Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand Farmer are stored dried leaves of notchi (Vitex negundo) into the seed materials, stops the attack of stored pests (Shivankar et al., 2006). The Tamil Nadu farmer poured 1 kg Vasambu (Acorus",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of stored grains pest (Yallappa et al., 2012). The Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand Farmer are stored dried leaves of notchi (Vitex negundo) into the seed materials, stops the attack of stored pests (Shivankar et al., 2006). The Tamil Nadu farmer poured 1 kg Vasambu (Acorus calamus) in 50 kg grains, forbids invasion of stored pests and enhances 1 year storage period (Kathirvelu et al., 2019) (Table 1.7). 1.8 Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in weed management The Uttarakhand and Karnataka farmer cultivated jethi rice, finger millet, black soyabean, horse gram in weed control and moisture conservation (Nautiyal et al., 2017; Reddy et al., 2008). The volunteer plant emerges in the field of rice crop field, eradicates with the help of Danala implement for weed control. The Jammu and Kashmir, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, parts of Sikkim, West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh farmer disperses dry leaves of pine into the field in the middle of the june, fired in the field for the weed control. The farmer described that the population of weed available in the dryland field then conserves soil moisture. The Meghalaya and Mahrashtra farmer applies Common salt (NaCl) for eradicating A. conyzoides and Crassocephalum creidioides weed plant (Patel et al., 2015). The North-Eastern Farmer maintains weed population of Cyanodon dactylon in the soil field for 3 yrs then conserves the soil moisture (Gulab et al., 2018). The North-Eastern, Orissa, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka Farmer inhibit weed population with the production of green leaf manure such as Sesbania sp. and Tephrosia purpurea. The farmer prepares 1 kg salt + 100 gm sarvodaya solution for restricting the growth of Nut grass weed plant. The cultivation of Calotropis gigantea restricts Aarai (Mars/Tea quadrifolia) weed population (Ramyajit and Saumi, 2019). The farmer discharges volume",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of green leaf manure such as Sesbania sp. and Tephrosia purpurea. The farmer prepares 1 kg salt + 100 gm sarvodaya solution for restricting the growth of Nut grass weed plant. The cultivation of Calotropis gigantea restricts Aarai (Mars/Tea quadrifolia) weed population (Ramyajit and Saumi, 2019). The farmer discharges volume of water in the field for managing volunteer seed and plant. The Tamil Nadu farmer applies 200 gm Salt dissolves in 1 litre water solution in controlling Congress weed (Parthenium hysterophorus). The Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya and Kerala Farmer applies 50 kg Neem cake in the field for controlling Nut grass (Surinder et al., 2018) (Table 1.8). 1.9 Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in food product The North-East farmer formulates indigenous pickle and Chatni with ingredients of wild type mesta and Roselle (Hibiscus subdoriffa). The biochemical contents Citric acid, ß carotene, malic acid, Vitamin C, allo-hydroxycitric acid protein, total sugar and tartaric acid are sysnthesized through biodynthetic pathway in Roselle. The North-East tribal community consumes fruit and leaves of wild brinjal in the home. The Phatthalung Province Farmer involves composition of Sangyod rice flour and wheat flour for producing indegnous wheat bread (Jiraporn, 2018). The tribal people of Arunachal Pradesh prepared fermented food such as gundruk, sinki, anishi, Bhatooru, Marchu and Chilra, Kienma, Tungrymbai, Mesu, Soibum, Ngari, Hentak, Kadi, Churpa/Churpi and Nadu, ghanti, Jann/Jaan and Daru (Nazish, 2013). Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 21 The Nagaland community cooked Meat with fermented plants like Amaranthus sp., Bamboo shoot, Brassaiopsis sp., Chenopodium album, Colocasia esculenta, Curcuma angustifolia, Fagopyrum esculentum, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Oenanthe stolonifera, Persicaria chinensis, Polygonum molle, Zanthoxylum armatum and Zanthoxylum rhetsa. The Nagaland community prepares Galho rice either with wild leaves; mixtures of Salt, garlic, potatoes, tomatoes, dry fish & fermented soyabean",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "plants like Amaranthus sp., Bamboo shoot, Brassaiopsis sp., Chenopodium album, Colocasia esculenta, Curcuma angustifolia, Fagopyrum esculentum, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Oenanthe stolonifera, Persicaria chinensis, Polygonum molle, Zanthoxylum armatum and Zanthoxylum rhetsa. The Nagaland community prepares Galho rice either with wild leaves; mixtures of Salt, garlic, potatoes, tomatoes, dry fish & fermented soyabean and Perilla frustescens Seeds for increasing taste quality. The Nagaland community prepares Tathu chutney with chilli paste, leaves and dry meat or fermented fish. The Modi is a piece of Mithun, beef or pork, is prepared with ginger, garlic, onion, chilli, and salts by the Nagaland tribe. The Nagaland tribe prepares Ghabe food with boiling of leaves with addition of spices, chilli, fermented Soyabean or dry fish. The Nagaland tribe prepares Galkemeluo food with boiling of wild leaves with bamboo shoot, garlic, tomato, potato, dry or smoked meat, dry fish, fermented soyabean, Zanthoxylum rhetsa and Zanthoxylum armatum (Singh and Teron, 2017). The Mizoram community prepares fermented pig fat with chopped pieces of inner abdominal portion of pig. The Mizoram community extracts oil with fermented Seasame for cooking the food. The Mizoram community performs sun drying leaves of Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn prepares either with seasonal vegetables and fish, chicken, beef, pork for eating source. The Mizoram community prepares fermented crabs with sesame oil. The Mizoram community prepares smoked meat Wild animals such as barking deer, sambar deer wild boar, macaque, birds, squirrels and rodents with thick pointed Bamboo sticks (Lalthanpuii et al., 2015). The Manipur tribe prepares Tunateinzi food with ingredient of rice flour and sugar, Lengchiphon food with ingredient of rice flour and liquid sugar. The Manipur and Nagaland Tribe prepare Ganang Tamdui food with fermented mustard leaves and banana leaves. The Manipur, Mizoram, Sikkim and Darjeeling Tribe prepare Gundruk food with dried mustard leaves. The Manipur Tribe prepares Bi-kang",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of rice flour and sugar, Lengchiphon food with ingredient of rice flour and liquid sugar. The Manipur and Nagaland Tribe prepare Ganang Tamdui food with fermented mustard leaves and banana leaves. The Manipur, Mizoram, Sikkim and Darjeeling Tribe prepare Gundruk food with dried mustard leaves. The Manipur Tribe prepares Bi-kang food with boiling and drying of Colocasia. The Manipur, Mizoram, Sikkim and Darjeeling community prepare fermented Soyabean for using in curry and chutney. The Manipur community prepares Gankhiang-khui food with alkaline fermented seeds of Hibiscus canabinus. The Manipur community prepares food with Auricularia auriculari, Schizophyllum commune and Lentinula edodes wild mushrooms (Thangjam et al., 2018). The Manipur farmer produced from edible Bamboo species such as Bambusa Cephalostachyum, Chimono Bambusa, Dendrocalamus sp. and Melocanna sp. for culinary and product uses, prepares bamboo shoot curry (Usoi Ooti), Bamboo shoot salad (Usoi Kangsu), Bamboo shoot chutney (Soibum), Fermeneted shoot curry (Soibum Thonga), Fried Bamboo shoot (Laiwa Kanghou), Boiled Bamboo shoot (Usoi Champhut), Bamboo shoot pickles (Usoi aachar) (Premlata et al., 2020). The Bhotia community of Uttarakhand applies the genera of wild edible fruit such as Cotoneaster sp., Fragaria sp., Malus sp., Prunus sp., Rosa sp., Sorbaria sp. and Sorbus sp. for preparing local beverage (Aygar), tobacco pickles, chutney oil, furniture and agriculture tools & implements (Badal et al., 2022) (Table 1.9). Conclusion Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 22 The traditional knowledge of agriculture is followed by the Indian farmers for the crop production and farm linked activities. The farmer compliances ritual in agriculture for the production and other activities in rural areas. The agriculture aspirants will receive the scope and imperative of indigenous agriculture. The forefather agriculture information are compliance by the farmer for agricultural activities. The inclusion of traditional the agriculture in the course would be",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "The farmer compliances ritual in agriculture for the production and other activities in rural areas. The agriculture aspirants will receive the scope and imperative of indigenous agriculture. The forefather agriculture information are compliance by the farmer for agricultural activities. The inclusion of traditional the agriculture in the course would be outlined about the history of the agriculture work and technology enhancement through traditional agriculture. Acknowledgement and Conflict of interest The author acknowledges that the information was compiled with referred journals. The author acknowledges that the prominent information and data are created dispute among authors and coauthors in the paper. References Adesina JM, Nameirakpam B, Dinabandhu S, Yallappa R (2019). Traditional methods of food grains preservation and storage in Nigeria and India. Annals of Agricultural Sciences, 64: 196205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2019.12.003 Ahuja DB, Chattopadhyay C (2015) Pests of Fruit Trees (Citrus, Banana, Mango, Pomegranate and Sapota) E-Pest Surveillance and Pest Management Advisory. ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management New Delhi and State Department of Horticulture Commissionerate of Agriculture Pune (Maharashtra) 124:1-134. https://vdocument.in/pest-offruit-integrated-pest-ncipm-foreword-the-project-on-e-pest-surveillance.html Ahuja SC, Siddharth A, Uma A (2015) Nirgundi (Vitex negundo)-Nature’s Gift to Mankind. Asian Agri-History 19(1):1-28. https://www.asianagrihistory.org/pdf/volume19/nirgundi-natures-giftto-mankind.pdf Ajay SR (2018) Booklet on Indigenous Technical knowledge (ITKS) Crop wise with reference to promotion of organic farming. Thirty Days Certificate Course on Organic Farming pp. 1-40. https://www.vetextension.com/indian-itk-traditional-knowledge-for-organic-agriculture/ Akasha N, Bhandari BS (2021) Ethnobotanical plants used in health care and traditional practices by local inhabitants (Gujjars) of Rajaji Tiger Reserve, Uttarakhand, India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 20(1):91-105. http://op.niscair.res.in/index.php/IJTK/article/view/27596 Alexander D, Rajan S, Rajamony L, Ushakumari K, Sajan K (2009) The adhoc package of practices recommendations for organic farming. Directorate of Research Vellanikkara Thrissur Kerala India pp.1-209. https://keralaagriculture.gov.in/wpcontent/uploads/2018/12/package_2015.pdf Ambika S, Balakrishnan K, Sujatha K (2014) Enhancing the Seed Germination and Vigour in Coarse Cereals by Bovine Urines. Journal of Agroecology and Natural Resource",
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  {
    "text": "Vijayalakshmi K (2013). Seed Storage Techniques A Primer. Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems Chennai Revitalising Rainfed Agriculture Network pp. 1-25. http://ciks.org/wp-content/ Patel DP, Anup D, Munda GC (2015). Physiological efficiency of some weeds species under hill farming systems of subtropical Meghalaya. International Grassland Congress on Sustainable use of Grassland Resources for Forage Production, Biodiversity and Environmental Protection Range Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 29 Management Society of India New Delhi India pp. 1-4. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent. Patel SJ, Patel AS, Patel JH, Patel NR, Parmar VN (2016). Indigenous Technical Knowledge Regarding Animal Husbandry Practices. Advances in Life Sciences 5(5):1610-1617. http://advancesinlifesciencesjournal.com Patnaik HP (2011). Indigenous technical knowledge (itk) in pestmanagement for sustainable agriculture. ENVIS Centre of Odisha's State of Environment, Ministry of Environment Forests & Climate Change Govt of India pp. 1-8. http://orienvis.nic.in Prabuddh KM, Aman R, Suresh CR (2020). Indigenous knowledge of terrace management for soil and water conservation in the Sikkim Himalaya, India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 19(3): 475-485. http://op.niscair.res.in/index.php/IJTK/article/view/41446 Pradeep KS, Kapur OC, Masand SS (2020). Traditional Knowledge in Agriculture. Division of Agricultural Extension Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi pp. 1-52. http://zpd7icar.nic.in/download/IITKA Prakasa REVS, Srinivas A, Gopinath CT, Ravindra NS, Aparna H, Nagendra P (2015). Sustainable Agriculture Reviews Springer International Publishing Switzerland Lichtfouse (ed.) pp. 1-19. https://link.springer.com/book Prakash BG, Raghavendra KV, Gowthami R, Shashank R (2016). Indigenous practices for ecofriendly storage of food grains and seeds. Advances in Plants & Agriculture Research, 3(4): 101107. 10.15406/apar.2016.03.00101 Premlata T, Vivek S, Madho SB, Chongtham N (2020). Edible bamboo resources of Manipur: consumption pattern of young shoots, processing techniques and their commercial status in the local market. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 19(1):73-82. http://op.niscair.res.in/index.php/IJTK/article/view/30843 Rajendra RC, Prabhakar G, Shyam P, Das IK, Vilas AT (2018). Improved Millets Production Technologies and Their Impact. ICAR-All India",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Chongtham N (2020). Edible bamboo resources of Manipur: consumption pattern of young shoots, processing techniques and their commercial status in the local market. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 19(1):73-82. http://op.niscair.res.in/index.php/IJTK/article/view/30843 Rajendra RC, Prabhakar G, Shyam P, Das IK, Vilas AT (2018). Improved Millets Production Technologies and Their Impact. ICAR-All India Coordinated Research Project on Small Millets ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research Rajendranagar Hyderabad pp. 1-88. https://www.millets.res.in/annual_report/ar18-19.pdf Rajesh K, Bharathi KA (2012). Folk Veterinary medicine in Sitapur distrct of Uttar Pradesh, India. Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources 3(2):267-277. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789 Rakesh CM, Vasudevan SN, Naveen CM, Patil SB (2013). Traditional Seed Treatment and Storage Methods of Northeastern Region of Karnataka. Asian Agri-History 17:233-239. https://www.academia.edu/7905371 Rakesh K, Khesi Y, Rajesha G, Bidyut CD (2017). Performance of Jobs Tears Lines (Coix lacryma-jobi) under Food Hill Condition of Nagaland. Environment & Ecology 35(1B):440-444. https://krishi.icar.gov.in/jspui/bitstream Ram N, Dinker S, Yadav SM, Balai LP (2013). Traditional Wisdom for Diseases Treatment in Animal Husbandry. Popular Kheti 1(2):1-9. http://www.popularkheti.com/documents/2013-2/PK1-2-7-30-38.pdf Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 30 Ramyajit M, Saumi G (2019). Sesbania-An Important aspect of INM for sustainable productivity of rice: A review. International Journal of Chemical Studies 7(6):2832-2837. https://www.chemijournal.com/archives Rana SS (2011). Organic Farming. Department of Agronomy College of Agriculture CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya Palampur pp 1-90. http://www.hillagric.ac.in Ranjay KS, Dwivedi BS, Anshuman S, Sarvesh T (2014). Farmers’ knowledge and creativity in eco-friendly pest management: Lessons in sustainable agriculture. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 13(3):574-581. http://nopr.niscpr.res.in/handle/123456789/29130 Ranjay KS, Legoc YJ, Surejaa AK, Srivastavae RC, Hazarikaa BN (2021). People and plant: Learning with Adi community on ethnomedicinal practices and conservation in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 20(1):74-82. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789 Ratan KS, Dilip N (2013). Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) of fish farmers at Dhalai district of Tripura, NE India. Indian",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Surejaa AK, Srivastavae RC, Hazarikaa BN (2021). People and plant: Learning with Adi community on ethnomedicinal practices and conservation in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 20(1):74-82. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789 Ratan KS, Dilip N (2013). Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) of fish farmers at Dhalai district of Tripura, NE India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 12(1):80-84. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789 Ravi VRK (2021). Agro India. Keltech India Limited, Infantry Road Bangalore pp. 1-41. https://www.keltechenergies.com Ravisankar N, Panwar AS, Kamta P, Vipin K, Bhaskar S (2017). Organic Farming Crop Production Guide. Network Project on Organic Farming Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research Modipuram Meerut Uttar Pradesh India pp. 1-602. https://ncof.dacnet.nic.in Reddy MR, Veena S, Savalgi VP (2008). Nutritional profile of millet tempeh. Asian Journal of Bio Science 3:355-360. http://www.researchjournal.co.in/upload/assignments/3_355-360.pdf Richa V, Jalali SK, Ramanujam B, Chandish RB (2017). Proceedings of the XXVI Biocontrol Workers’ Group Meeting and Technical Programme. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni Solan Himachal Pradesh pp. 1-93. https://www.nbair.res.in Rohini R. (2010). Traditional Practices in Agriculture. SARRA pp. 1-151. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ Roy BK, Varshney AC (2020). Traditional Knowledge in Agriculture. Division of Agricultural Extension Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi pp. 1-52. http://zpd7icar.nic.in/download/IITKA Ruparao TG, Gadi VPR (2018). Management of Insect Pests in the Production and Storage of Minor Pulses. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 111(4):172-183. https://agris.fao.org/agris-search Sahu KC, Patro B, Kar AK (2022). Quality of paddy seeds stored by farmers of Orissa. Environment and Ecology 26:1709-1712. https://www.cabi.org/isc/abstract/20093002105 Sandhya NS (2022). The Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) & its application for sustainability in agriculture. XSM Division NAARM 1-3. https://morungexpress.com Santosh T, Chhetry GKN (2012). Agro-biodiversity management related ITKs in North-Eastern India. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare 2(6):1-11. https://doi.org/10.7176/JBAH Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 31 Sarita D, Dash SK, Padhy SN (2003). Ethno-medicinal",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "application for sustainability in agriculture. XSM Division NAARM 1-3. https://morungexpress.com Santosh T, Chhetry GKN (2012). Agro-biodiversity management related ITKs in North-Eastern India. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare 2(6):1-11. https://doi.org/10.7176/JBAH Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 31 Sarita D, Dash SK, Padhy SN (2003). Ethno-medicinal Informations from Orissa State, India, A Review. J. Hum. Ecol 14(3):165-227. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2003.11905616 Sarodee B, Sanjoy B, Neog M (2020). Indigenous Technological Knowledge in Pest and Disease Management of Agricultural Crops-A Review. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 9(9): 2867-2876. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2020.909.354 Satyagopal K, Sushil SN, Jeyakumar P, Shankar G, Sharma OP, Sain SK, Boina DR, Srinivasa NR, Sunanda BS, Ram A, Kapoor KS, Arya S, Kumar S, Patni CS, Chattopadhyay C, Jacob TK, Jadav RG, Shukla A, Bhale U, Singh SP, Khan ML, Sharma KC, Dohroo NP, Suseela BK, Santosh JE, Hanumanthaswamy BC, Srinivas KR, Thakare AY, Halepyati AS, Patil MB, Sreenivas AG (2014). AESA based IPM package for turmeric. National Institute of Plant Health Management Rajendranagar Hyderabad pp. 41. https://link.springer.com/book Satyapriya S, Biswajit D, Anup D, Sujan M, Hidangmayum LD, Ranjeet SG, Alok KS, Manas RS (2021). Indigenous plant protection practices of Tripura, India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine pp. 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-020-00158-2. SCERT (2016). Agriculture science and processing technology, Reference Book. Department of Education Government of Kerala pp. 1-189. https://scert.kerala.gov.in Shaila M, Nafeesa B (2021). Ancient farming methods of seed storage and pest management practices in India a review. Plant Archives 21:499-509. https://www.semanticscholar.org Shakrawar M, Naberia S, Pande AK (2018). Indigenous technical knowledge for pest, disease and weed management in agriculture, International Journal of chemical Studies, 6(4): 497-498. https://dx.doi.org/10.22271/chemi Shamkuwar SV, Baral SS, Budhe V, Gupta KP, Swarnkar R (2019). A critical study on weed control techniques. International Journal of Advances in Agricultural Science and Technology 6(12):1-22. http://ijaast.com/publications/vol6issue12/V6I1201.pdf",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "AK (2018). Indigenous technical knowledge for pest, disease and weed management in agriculture, International Journal of chemical Studies, 6(4): 497-498. https://dx.doi.org/10.22271/chemi Shamkuwar SV, Baral SS, Budhe V, Gupta KP, Swarnkar R (2019). A critical study on weed control techniques. International Journal of Advances in Agricultural Science and Technology 6(12):1-22. http://ijaast.com/publications/vol6issue12/V6I1201.pdf Shenoy NS (2021). Indigenous technical knowledge and its relevance for sustainability. ICARNational Academy of Agricultural Research Management Rajendranagar Hyderabad pp. 1-18. https://naarm.org.in Shivankar VJ, Rao CN, Shyam S (2020). Bio-efficacy and selectivity of bio-pesticides against citrus insect pests and their natural enemies. Journal of Eco-friendly Agriculture 1(1):29-31. 10.21608/eajbsf.2015.17243 Shubeena S, Hai A, Hamdani SA, Akand AH (2018). Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs) used by farmers of central Kashmir to increase production and reproduction in livestock. International Journal of Livestock Research, 8(8): 294-302. http://dx.doi.org/10.5455/ijlr.20171004030110 Sibisan N (2019). Traditional agricultural tools of Boros: used in rice cultivation. Review of Research 8(6):1-5. http://oldror.lbp.world/UploadedData/7745.pdf Singh AB, Teron R (2017). Ethnic food habits of the Angami Nagas of Nagaland state, India. International Food Research Journal, 24(3): 1061-1066. http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my/.../(22).pdf Singh KD, Mathew B (2021). Ethnobotanical study on wild edible fruits, spices and aquatic plants traditionally used by the Garo tribe of Meghalaya. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 20(1):1-5. http://op.niscair.res.in/index.php/IJTK/article/view/28366 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 32 Singh MS (2018). Influence of Rice Husk Ash on Controlling Insect Pests on Storage of Maize (Zea maize L.) Seeds under Manipur Condition. International Journal of Science and Research 9:1466-1467. https://www.ijsr.net/archive/v9i8/SR20825162356.pdf Sofia K, Deepa RS (2020). Traditional Knowledge and its Efficacy in Economic Growth. International Journal of Law Management & Humanities 3:1-14. Somasundaram J, Sinha NK, Ram CD, Rattan L, Mohanty M, Naorem AK, Hati KM, Chaudhary RS, Biswas AK, Patra AK,Chaudhari SK (2020). No-Till Farming and Conservation Agriculture in South AsiaIssues, Challenges, Prospects and Benefits.",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Traditional Knowledge and its Efficacy in Economic Growth. International Journal of Law Management & Humanities 3:1-14. Somasundaram J, Sinha NK, Ram CD, Rattan L, Mohanty M, Naorem AK, Hati KM, Chaudhary RS, Biswas AK, Patra AK,Chaudhari SK (2020). No-Till Farming and Conservation Agriculture in South AsiaIssues, Challenges, Prospects and Benefits. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 39(3):236-279. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352689.2020.1782069 Somasundaram E, Nandhini DU, Meyyappan M (2021). Principles of Organic Farming. Earth Sciences Environment & Agriculture 1st Edition CRC Press London pp. 1-421. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003260844 Subash S (2017). Natural plant products As protectant during grain storage: A review. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 5(3):1873-1885. http://dx.doi.org/10.22271/j.ento Sumit S, Shivani R (2021). Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) for Sustainable Agriculture in India. Agriculture Food Newsletter 3:31-35. https://agris.fao.org Surinder SR, Suresh K, Man CR (2018). Practical manual on weed management. Department of agronomy CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya Palampur pp.1-79. http://hillagric.ac.in/edu/coa/agronomy Surya R, Manish C, Rupan R, Manmeet K, Kundan VS (2021). Indigenous Pest Management Practices of Indian Hill Farmers: Introspecting Their Rationale and Communication Pattern for Secure Ecosystems. Sustainability 13:1-17. http://hillagric.ac.in/edu/coa/agronomy Swain SK, Dash AK, Mohapatra AK, Das DM, Behera D, Nayak BR, Mohapatra M (2020). Effect of mechanization on cost-economics of maize cultivation by small farmers of Gajapati District, Odisha. International Journal of Chemical Studies 8(4):3103-3107. 10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i4al.10126 Swamp D, Sharma AK, Naveen K (2020). Traditional Knowledge in Agriculture. Division of Agricultural Extension Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi pp. 1-52. http://zpd7icar.nic.in/download/IITKA Swamy SGS, Sondur SN, Venkatesh KN, Savitha G, Prajanya GP (2015). Student project programme, biofuel projects. Karnataka state council for science and technology Indian Institute of Science Campus Bangalore pp. 1-203. http://www.kscst.iisc.ernet.in Swarup D, Dhakate MS (2020). Traditional Knowledge in Agriculture. Division of Agricultural Extension Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi pp. 1-52. http://zpd7icar.nic.in/download/IITKA Swarup D, Mondal, Mahesh K (2020). Traditional Knowledge",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "programme, biofuel projects. Karnataka state council for science and technology Indian Institute of Science Campus Bangalore pp. 1-203. http://www.kscst.iisc.ernet.in Swarup D, Dhakate MS (2020). Traditional Knowledge in Agriculture. Division of Agricultural Extension Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi pp. 1-52. http://zpd7icar.nic.in/download/IITKA Swarup D, Mondal, Mahesh K (2020). Traditional Knowledge in Agriculture. Division of Agricultural Extension Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi pp. 1-52. http://zpd7icar.nic.in/download/IITKA Swarup D, Rasool TJ, Singh RK, Bhanuprakash, RVN (2020). Traditional Knowledge in Agriculture. Division of Agricultural Extension Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi pp. 1-52. http://zpd7icar.nic.in/download/IITKA Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 33 Thangjam AS, Prakash KS, Joykumar S (2018). Traditional Process Foods of the Ethnic Tribes of Western Hills of Manipur, India. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 7(10): 1100-1110. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.710.121 Usharani KV, Dhananjay N and Manjunatha RL (2019). Pongamia pinnata (L.): Composition and advantages in agriculture: A review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 8(3): 21812187. Varshney AC (2020). Traditional Knowledge in Agriculture. Division of Agricultural Extension, Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi pp. 1-52. http://zpd7icar.nic.in/download/IITKA Vihan VS (2020). Traditional Knowledge in Agriculture. Division of Agricultural Extension Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi pp. 1-52. http://zpd7icar.nic.in/download/IITKA Vishal S, Deepak KV, Prem PS (2021). Food grain storage structures: introduction and applications. Engineering Interventions in Foods and Plants pp. 1-39. https://www.phytojournal.com/archives Yadav SK, Babu S, Yadav MK, Singh K, Yadav GS, Suresh P (2013). A Review of Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture in Northern India. International Journal of Agronomy 18:19. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/718145 Yallappa R, Nandagopal B, Thimmappa S (2012). Botanicals as Grain Protectants. Psyche Hindawi Publishing Corporation, 13: 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/646740 Zizira (2015). Organic Pineapples Provides Livelihood for a Meghalaya Farmer. Exotic Fruits, Meghalaya, India, https://www.zizira.com/blogs/people-and-process/tagged/exotic-fruits. https://www.zizira.com Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "International Journal of Agronomy 18:19. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/718145 Yallappa R, Nandagopal B, Thimmappa S (2012). Botanicals as Grain Protectants. Psyche Hindawi Publishing Corporation, 13: 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/646740 Zizira (2015). Organic Pineapples Provides Livelihood for a Meghalaya Farmer. Exotic Fruits, Meghalaya, India, https://www.zizira.com/blogs/people-and-process/tagged/exotic-fruits. https://www.zizira.com Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 34 Table 1.1: Indigenous knowledge of farmers in crop production and management S.No. Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) Cause State References 1 Digging and Drying of grafted Mango pit eradication of weeds, pests, insects Himachal Pradesh Kranthi et al., 2016 2 Sunflower cultivation in between mango trees attract honey bees and raises pollination and fruit production Tamil Nadu and North eastern Das et al., 2019 3 Storing of mango fruit on the paddy straw uniform ripening of the mango fruit Andhra Pradesh Mangla, 2009 4 Burning of dry leaves and twigs fresh planting of the Banana sucker Kerala Alexander et al., 2009 5 Green leaf manures such as kolangi (Tephrosia purpurea), Agave spp. and Ekka (Calotrpis spp.) Cultivation of grape plant after 3 months Meghalaya Zizira, 2015 6 Cultivation of local cucurbit cultivars such as pumpkin (tupa), Ash gourd (pani lao), cucumber (makung), ash gourd (pao), bottle gourd (pani lao), smell melon (pakum barey), snap melon (mare/makungmari), sponge gourd (bul), bitter gourd (karela), cho-cho Local cultivars Conservation East siang, Arunachal Pradesh Pandey et al., 2021 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 35 marrow (tupop), ridge gourd (jhika), snake gourd (dunduli), sweet gourd (bhat karela), pointed gourd (patal), ivy gourd/little gourd (kunduli), water melon (kumarah) since 5 decades 7 Burning of harvested plant and stubbles termite population control Punjab Jaskarn and Simerjeet, 2021 8 ash in the onion nursery bed and field progressing bulb quality North-Eastern, Bihar, Jammu and Mahrashtra Bhowmick et al., 2010 9 Pit",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "gourd (patal), ivy gourd/little gourd (kunduli), water melon (kumarah) since 5 decades 7 Burning of harvested plant and stubbles termite population control Punjab Jaskarn and Simerjeet, 2021 8 ash in the onion nursery bed and field progressing bulb quality North-Eastern, Bihar, Jammu and Mahrashtra Bhowmick et al., 2010 9 Pit Nursery Method water and evapotranspiration loss Manipur Farmer Ansari et al., 2021 10 Paira cropping system in rice lowlands with broadcasted Lathyrus seeds in main field water management Jharkhand Farmer Dey and Sarkar, 2011 11 Cultivation of Indigenous rice Tulshi tall Mitigation of type II, diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases Farmers of Western Ghat zone of Maharashtra Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 12 Cultivation of Indigenous rice Vikram Mitigation of type II, diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases Farmer of Konkan region of Maharashtra Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 36 13 Cultivation of Tulaipanji traditional aromatic rice variety aroma seed quality Northern district of West Bengal farmer Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 14 Cultivation of traditional aromatic rice cultivar Jatu rice aroma and taste Farmer of Kullu valley of Himachal Pradesh Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 15 Cultivation of Matali and Lal Dhan local rice cultivars Diagnosis of fever and reducing blood pressure Himachal Pradesh farmer Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 16 Cultivation of traditional red rice variety Kafalya Curing leucorrhoea and complicated abortion Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh Farmers Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 17 Cultivation of traditional rice cultivar Kari Kagga and Atikaya Human body heat regulation and drugs preparation Tamil Nadu Farmer Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 18 Cultivation of ancient rice cultivar Neelam Samba Milk",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh Farmers Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 17 Cultivation of traditional rice cultivar Kari Kagga and Atikaya Human body heat regulation and drugs preparation Tamil Nadu Farmer Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 18 Cultivation of ancient rice cultivar Neelam Samba Milk regulation in Mother Tamil Nadu Farmer Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 19 Cultivation of local rice Maappillai Samba Increase mother fertility Tamil Nadu Farmer Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 37 20 Cultivation of traditional cultivar black rice Mitigation of cancer disease Assam farmer Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 21 Cultivation of local rice Karinjan and Karimalakaran Diabetes control Kerala farmer Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 22 Cultivation of traditional rice Mundakan Increase human stamina in Kerala farmer Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 23 Cultivation of traditional rice Vella chennellu and Chuvanna chennellu Reduction of puberty, menopause and hormone problems Kerala farmer Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 24 Cultivation of Jonga and Maharaji traditional rice increasing mother lactation Bihar and Chhattisgarh Farmers Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 25 Cultivation of local rice Bora curing jaundice Assam Farmer Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 26 Cultivation of local rice Karhani formulation of drug, epilepsy treatment Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand Farmers Ann et al., 2019; Krishnankutty et al., 2021 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 38 Table 1.2: Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in plant protection S.No. Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) Cause State References 1 Fire in the wheat crop field after harvest pest control Punjab Bhuvaneshwari et al., 2019 2 Burning of dry leaves",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "(www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 38 Table 1.2: Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in plant protection S.No. Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) Cause State References 1 Fire in the wheat crop field after harvest pest control Punjab Bhuvaneshwari et al., 2019 2 Burning of dry leaves of pine white grubs control Uttarakhand Surya et al., 2021 3 Preparation pf a mixture of wood ash/ kitchen ash + farm yard manure chewing and bitting mouth part insect Kerala and Jharkhand Manoj, 2016; Das et al., 2003 4 Decomposition of aphid infestation crop such as mustard, cauliflower, cabbage aphid control North-eastern, Uttarakhand and Madhya Pradesh Ajay et al., 2018 5 Earthen up of potato greening of potato tubers and check exposure in sunlight Bihar and Uttarakhand Manish et al., 2011 6 Preparation of cow dung + cow urine compound wilt symptoms and onion blight control Orissa and Kerala Rajendra et al., 2018 7 Intercropping of Madira or Barnyard millet (Echinochloa sp.) and Konri millet crop, mustard with Paddy crop insect-pests infestation control Uttarakhand, Orissa and Gujarat Rajendra et al., 2018 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 39 8 Liquid solution of Bicchu booti (Utrica dioca) mixes with 8-10 litre cow urine anthracnose in chilli, Tomato late blight & fruit rot and Cucurbit Alternaria blight Chhattisgarh Santosh and Chhetry, 2012 9 Collection of healthy seeds and constant smoking with edible and non edible oil, drying of the seeds Tamil Nadu Santosh and Chhetry, 2012 10 Aromatic plants: citronella grass, lemon grass maize weevil & grain storage, pests of pomelo North East and Tamil Nadu Santosh and Chhetry, 2012 11 Application of Zanthoxylum acanthopodium leaves in the paddy grains pest and pathogen controls Tripura and Uttarakhand Santosh and Chhetry, 2012 12 Application of wood ashes",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "10 Aromatic plants: citronella grass, lemon grass maize weevil & grain storage, pests of pomelo North East and Tamil Nadu Santosh and Chhetry, 2012 11 Application of Zanthoxylum acanthopodium leaves in the paddy grains pest and pathogen controls Tripura and Uttarakhand Santosh and Chhetry, 2012 12 Application of wood ashes in the leaves of vegetable crops aphid pod borer controls Tripura Ahuja et al., 2015 13 Application of Hookah water in vegetable crops major and minor pest and disease such as rice blast, pod borers, sucking bugs controls Tripura Ahuja et al., 2015 14 Application of oak tree bark insect-pests control in rice North-Eastern Firake et al., 2012 15 Bordering of Chrysanthemum coronarium, Tagetes erecta in the crop field turmeric, tomato, chlilli and ginger nematode control Jammu & Kashmir and South Indian Gopal and Lasssaad, 2015 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 40 16 Cymbopogon khasianum, and Sacharrum spantaneum pegging branches Paddy stem borer control North-East and Tamil Nadu Gopal and Lasssaad, 2015 17 Burning of plant debris killing harbor of insect in paddy field and vegetable field Punjab and Haryana Ngachan, 2019 18 Decomposed mulch Inhibition the pathogen in the soil Meghalaya, Jaipur, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh Rana, 2016 19 Mixed cropping: rice + maize, rice + legume crops, rice + job’s tear, rice + sorghum pest control of paddy, air borne pathogen control and augmenting micro climate Nagaland Rakesh et al., 2017 20 burning of paddy husk and dry chilli plant in the jhum field rodent controls Tripura, Meghalaya and Assam Satyapriya et al., 2021 21 Application of dried peel of mandarin in the transplanted rice stem borer controls Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Bengal Patnaik, 2011 22 Datura extracts mixes with cow urine ant controls Kerala and Orissa Patnaik, 2011 23 Application",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "jhum field rodent controls Tripura, Meghalaya and Assam Satyapriya et al., 2021 21 Application of dried peel of mandarin in the transplanted rice stem borer controls Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Bengal Patnaik, 2011 22 Datura extracts mixes with cow urine ant controls Kerala and Orissa Patnaik, 2011 23 Application of neem leaves in the grains storage weevil and grain moth controls Punjab Subash, 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 41 24 Irrigation of turmeric powder with water weevil and grain moth controls Punjab, Haryana and Telangana Satyagopal et al., 2014 25 fermented extract of titey pati, banmara and Lantana camara aphids and white flies controls in the tomato and chilli crop Sikkim Gopi et al., 2016 26 Treatment of 1:3 solution cow urine water of seedlings of chilli damping off control Karnataka and NorthEastern Rakesh et al., 2013 27 Formulation of liquid solution with 400 ml neem + 400 litre water + 500 gm detergent soap. hopper control in mango Kerala Alexander et al., 2009 28 Formulation of liquid solution with 1 kg cow dung + 10 litres water + 5 gm detergent sooty mold control in mango Jorhat and South Rohini, 2010 29 Immersion of Banana sucker in hot water for 30 minutes rhizome rot control Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Himachal Pradesh Rohini, 2010 30 Burn and Bury of banana crop in the ground wilt control South Indian and NorthEastern Rohini, 2010 31 Dissolving of Banana crop in the formulated solution with 1 kg neem powder + 1 kg tobacco powder + 5 litres water. nematode control Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Himachal Pradesh Rohini, 2010 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 42 32 Formulation of liquid solution with 2 kg Calotrpis spp. + 3 kg Neem +",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "1 kg neem powder + 1 kg tobacco powder + 5 litres water. nematode control Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Himachal Pradesh Rohini, 2010 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 42 32 Formulation of liquid solution with 2 kg Calotrpis spp. + 3 kg Neem + 20 litres water, 500 gm detergent powder + 200 litres water. white fly control in guava Tamil Nadu and Kerala Rohini, 2010 33 Mixing of cotton seed with ash + cow dung slurry damping off control Tamil Nadu and NorthEastern Manickam et al., 2013 34 Pouring of clay layer/cow dung ball in the cutted stalk of banana prevent spoilage and ripening of Banana Assam and South Indian Vanaja et al., 2009 35 Application of dried neem fruits fine powder nematode control South Indian Ravi, 2021 36 Application of 5 litres cow urine + 50 litres water sooty mold control in citrus tree South Indian Ravi, 2021 37 Application of leaves of Kasarka (Stychnos nuxvomica) + cow dung grub insect control in citrus tree Karantaka, Mysore and Tamil Nadu Ravi, 2021 38 Application of lime wash/lime soaked cotton in the holes of mandarin orange stem borer control Assam, Maharashtra Kudada et al., 2020 39 Application of cutted green aloe vera plant in mandarin orange tree powdery mildew disease control South Indian Kudada et al., 2020 40 cultivation of wild sugarcane with paddy leaf folder disease control Tamil and Orissa Kudada et al., 2020 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 43 41 10 kg Parso/Persu leaves in the paddy field gall fly control Jharkhand Sinha and Singh, 2020 42 50-200 kg fresh Karada leaves in the paddy field Gundhi bug control Tamil and Orissa Mayahini et al., 2020 43 Compost Preparation: cow dung + 10 kg Kochila",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 43 41 10 kg Parso/Persu leaves in the paddy field gall fly control Jharkhand Sinha and Singh, 2020 42 50-200 kg fresh Karada leaves in the paddy field Gundhi bug control Tamil and Orissa Mayahini et al., 2020 43 Compost Preparation: cow dung + 10 kg Kochila seed powder + 25 kg kochila leaf fruit and shoot borer control in the brinjal crop Orissa Das et al., 2020 44 Blending of cow urine and tobacco powder diseases control of cucurbits, cowpea and lady finger Jharkhand Devendra et al., 2020 45 Application of cow dung slurry rhinoceros beetle control Tamil Nadu Koodalingam et al., 2020 46 Application of dry mahua flower in the Soyabean crop Scalopendra spp. (Gay gwalan) control Madhya Pradesh Ranjay et al., 2013 47 100-150 gm Asafoetida + 1 litre boiled water for 10-15 minutes, the boiled solution is poured in 40-50 litres water Control of Heliothis armigera larvae and other small insects Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh farmer Ranjay et al., 2013 48 dry tobacco leaves mixed with 5-6 litre boiled water larvae of Heliothis armigera control Orissa Ranjay et al., 2013 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 44 49 fresh leaves + buds Ipomea bushes is mixed 30-35 litres boiled water Heliothis armigera, spotted bollworm and army worm control Orissa Ranjay et al., 2013 50 fresh neem leaves are boiled in 10 litres water girdle beetle, bihar hairy caterpillar and other pests control North-East, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Bihar Ranjay et al., 2013 51 Distribution of banana sucker, a black colocasia, wild turmeric and bamboo perch corner of the main field rice pests control Assam famer Sarodee et al., 2020 52 Formulation of onion or garlic juice grasshopper and leaf insects control Madhya Pradesh Farmer Shakrawar et al.,",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Bihar Ranjay et al., 2013 51 Distribution of banana sucker, a black colocasia, wild turmeric and bamboo perch corner of the main field rice pests control Assam famer Sarodee et al., 2020 52 Formulation of onion or garlic juice grasshopper and leaf insects control Madhya Pradesh Farmer Shakrawar et al., 2018 53 Pourin of liquid lime in the Mandarin trunk Gummosis disease and bark eating caterpillar, trunk borer control North-East Farmer Gohain et al., 2019 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 45 Table 1.3: Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in farm machine & tools S.No. Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) Cause State References 1 Field preparationNangal (plough), Jugal, Mwi, Khodal (digging hoe), Kontha (spua), Gandri or Dangan (leveller); seed sowingLauthi (digging stick), khopri, Mukha/Kho (mask); measuring harvested agricultural producePhalla (Weighing tool), Nareal Koltha (Coconut cover), Kurai Kowrai, Kurai Guhai; transporting agriculture commoditiesMosow giri (Bullock cart) field preparation, seed sowing, measuring harvested agricultural produce, transporting agriculture commodities Assam Nirja and Luke, 2017 2 field preparationNangal (plough), Jugal, Mwi, Khodal (digging hoe), Kontha (spua), Gandri or Dangan (leveller) field preparation Assam Sibisan, 2019 3 Post harvesting processingsKashi (sickle), Sika (Knife), Sika-gobla (cleaver) for the crop harvesting; applies Baukha, Hukhen (grain separator), Royna, Sandanga (Sieve), Songri (winnower), Khada Post harvesting processings Assam Nirja and Luke, 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 46 (Basket made of Bamboo), Duli (grains store), Dingkhi (Grinder), Sundri (small kind of sieve), Khasa (rice store basket) , Gan/Gaihen (milling tools), Val/Ural (Milling tools), Don (Bamboo pan) 4 Chili (water lifter) field irrigation Chhattisgarh Nirja and Luke, 2017 5 land preparationcountry plough (Kalappai); crop harvestingsickle (karukkarival), knife (kambar kathi), Tamarind harvester (Puli kokki), lemon harvesting tool (Ezhumichai karandi); inter-cultural operationsweeder (aruguvetti), dry land weeder (cycle gundu), spade (mammutty); post harvesting",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "tools), Val/Ural (Milling tools), Don (Bamboo pan) 4 Chili (water lifter) field irrigation Chhattisgarh Nirja and Luke, 2017 5 land preparationcountry plough (Kalappai); crop harvestingsickle (karukkarival), knife (kambar kathi), Tamarind harvester (Puli kokki), lemon harvesting tool (Ezhumichai karandi); inter-cultural operationsweeder (aruguvetti), dry land weeder (cycle gundu), spade (mammutty); post harvesting of the grainsgrain separater (kodun kol), wooden thresher (thattuppalagai), stone roller (uruttu kal), bamboo grinder (chekku), milling tool (ulakkkai); measuring the agricultural producePukka, Marakaal, Naali; cleaning of the grains(Sakkai piratti), bamboo pan (moonghil thattu). land preparation, crop harvesting, inter-cultural operations, post harvesting of the grains, measuring the agricultural produce, cleaning of the grains Tamil Nadu Karthi keyan et al., 2008 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 47 6 Application of plough (lungal), spader (plough), khurpa (khurpi), weeder rack (hashkini), spader (kodal/phaura), guity, sickle (kaste/daw), Daw (katruri), long handle dauli, Axe, sabal, hand stone mill, silpata. paddy spader, bamboo sieve, winnower, silo, bamboo basket, nanda, bhaungi, mugara (gila),pola, khalui, panki (boti) crop production and management eastern region Bikash et al., 2015 7 Application of bullock drawn dhanti control of weed populations Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat Swain et al., 2020; Shamkuwar et al., 2020 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 48 Table 1.4: Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in soil and water management S.No. Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) Cause State References 1 traditional micro-depression method in the Neem tree, teak tree and Mango managing water, soil erosion control, improving soil properties Tamil Nadu Hiswaan et al., 2020 2 Rolu method determining the rain water and collecting the rain water Andhra Pradesh Maruthi et al., 2020 3 Chaal (small water storage ponds) drinking and irrigation purposes Himachal Pradesh Pradeep et al., 2020 4 Compound Mixture of wood ash, rice husk and cow",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Tamil Nadu Hiswaan et al., 2020 2 Rolu method determining the rain water and collecting the rain water Andhra Pradesh Maruthi et al., 2020 3 Chaal (small water storage ponds) drinking and irrigation purposes Himachal Pradesh Pradeep et al., 2020 4 Compound Mixture of wood ash, rice husk and cow dung cake improving the property of the soil and moisture of the soil Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh Yadav et al., 2013 Balasubramanian et al., 2009 5 Grow of Aduthininapalai (Aristolochia bracteolacia) evaluating soil water South Indian Ravisankar et al., 2017 6 Fruit trees-Kolingi (Tephrosia purpurea) cultivation prevent soil erosion and moisture Tamil Nadu Ravisankar et al., 2017 7 liquid solution with ingredients of 10 kg Neem + 10 litre Cow urine + ½ kg asafetida waste improving the soil productivity Chhattisgarh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh Ravisankar et al., 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 49 8 Cultivation of Vetiver (Khus grass) managing land degradation and soil conservation Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala Prakasa et al., 2015; Mishra et al., 2011 9 Cultivation and ploughs of Diancha (Sesbania sp.) snd Sun hemp (Crotolaria juncea) improves water holding capacity and soil property Mahrashtra, Kerala and Assam Shobha et al., 2020 10 Cultivation of Poorvarasu (Thespesia populnea) water loss from the soil Kerala and Tamil Nadu Binoo et al., 2016 11 Application of bagasse of sugarcane, leaves & branches of Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus distichus) improving saline soil Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka Binoo et al., 2016 12 Cultivation of Tea quadrifolia and Cyanodan dactylon encourages better yield on the soil Kerala and Hyderabad Binoo et al., 2016 13 Cultivation of population of Pirandai (Cissus quandrangularis) improving alkali soil Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana Himachal Pradesh and Maharashtra Somasundaram et al., 2020 14 Cultivation of",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "et al., 2016 12 Cultivation of Tea quadrifolia and Cyanodan dactylon encourages better yield on the soil Kerala and Hyderabad Binoo et al., 2016 13 Cultivation of population of Pirandai (Cissus quandrangularis) improving alkali soil Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana Himachal Pradesh and Maharashtra Somasundaram et al., 2020 14 Cultivation of Diancha and Nut grass improving alkali soil South Indian and Uttar Pradesh Somasundaram et al., 2020 15 Decomposed manure of cowdung, Calotropis gigantea leaves, neem cake powder improving soil property Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat and Bihar Krishan, 2005; Krishna et al., 2019 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 50 16 water hyacinth as compost or burnt ash progressing soil, water improvement, provides Potassium (K) nutrient in the soil Bihar and North-East Ganesh et al., 2011 17 Cultivation of green leaf manure such as Tephrosia purpurea, Calotropis gigantea, Morinda tinctoria, Pongamia pinnata, Azadirachta indica, Thespesia populnea and Adathoda vasica crop growth and soil improvement Rajasthan Daagar and Teewari, 2016 18 Water catchment reservoirsTals, Khals, Chals and Rou water collection Uttarakhand Farmer Anwesha and Pardeep, 2020 19 Bari system water collection Assam farmer Anwesha and Pardeep, 2020 20 Saza Kuva open well water collection Rajasthan farmer Anwesha and Pardeep, 2020 21 Terrace construction terrace farming and land reformation Sikkim farmer Prabuddh et al., 2020 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 51 Table 1.5: Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in animal husbandry S.No. Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) Cause State References 1 Pseudostem banana to cater pond fish Dimapur, Assam, Kanyakumari and Goa Bhalerao et al., 2015 2 500 gm maida + 500 gm behada powder + water after boiling Foot and Mouth Disease control Maharashtra Choubey, 2005 3 Extract of peach leaves + fresh milk lesion of mouth and hooves control West Bengal,",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "to cater pond fish Dimapur, Assam, Kanyakumari and Goa Bhalerao et al., 2015 2 500 gm maida + 500 gm behada powder + water after boiling Foot and Mouth Disease control Maharashtra Choubey, 2005 3 Extract of peach leaves + fresh milk lesion of mouth and hooves control West Bengal, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal and Orrissa Das et al., 2004 4 Paste of babool bark and Jamun bark Foot and Mouth Disease control Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Orissa Rajesh and Bharathi, 2012; Sarita et al., 2003 5 Paste of Bantulsi (Ocimum gratissimum) leaf + water Khurha (FMD) disease control Uttar Pradesh Swarup and Pradhan, 2020 6 liquid medicine with stone apple (bael) + water diarrhoea control Uttaranchal Mahesh, 2020 7 Mixing of pegion waste + jaggery inducing oestrus cycle Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal Swarup and Mahesh, 2020 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 52 8 Extracted juice of gurhal (urhul) flower treated orally in the goat diarrhoea control Uttaranchal Dakshinkar and Vihan, 2020 9 Paste of Pojo (Litsaea authapoly) diarrhoea and dehydration control Jharkhand Haque and Vihan, 2020 10 leaves of ridge gourd or ekdandi wound of the animals Himachal Pradesh Varshney, 2020 11 Paste of 200-250 gm stem & leaf of Bhangariya (Eclipta alba) + 50-60 ml mustard oil cattle, buffaloes and goat for cure blain control Maharashtra Jangde and Dhanan, 2020 12 Paste of 30 gm geru + 50 gm snail shell/sippi are boiled with castor oil + 20 gm Alua + 50 gm kudru/sahjam gum bullocks or bulls for swelling control Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh Swarup and Dhakate, 2020 13 Paste of kalajeera Haemrrhagic septicaemia control Maharashtra Vihan, 2020 14 Hajore paste recovering bone fracture Jharkhand and Himachal Pradesh Roy and Varshney, 2020 15 fish trappingGhuni, chero/kero,",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "20 gm Alua + 50 gm kudru/sahjam gum bullocks or bulls for swelling control Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh Swarup and Dhakate, 2020 13 Paste of kalajeera Haemrrhagic septicaemia control Maharashtra Vihan, 2020 14 Hajore paste recovering bone fracture Jharkhand and Himachal Pradesh Roy and Varshney, 2020 15 fish trappingGhuni, chero/kero, chokhia and atal; fish barrier-Aran bata/ Aran pata; catfish breeding earthen rings/earthen pots fish trapping, fish barrier, catfish breeding West Bengal Aparna et al., 2020 16 Channa gachua (Changmachh) local fish curing Asthama and Body pain Assam Aparna et al., 2020 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 53 17 oil of Mystus vittatus 18 Lau Macha local fish cum vegetable (bottle gourd); murrels (Channa spp.), climbing perch (Anabas testodeneous) and cat fish (Clarias batrachus) and Bloch (Heteroneutes fossilis) in paddy field weed population and soil loosening control Tripura Ratan and Dilip, 2013 19 10 gm Bark Aswatha (Banyon, ficuspa) + 10 gm Ada (Ginger) + 10 gm salt managing bloat disease West Bengal Amitedu et al., 2004 20 Stem, leaves of Anantamul + honey managing animal dysentery Orissa and Gujarat Bikram et al., 2012; Patel et al., 2016 21 100 gm tulsi leaves + 100 gm basak are boiled + water + honey cold and cough control Gujarat Bikram et al., 2012; Patel et al., 2016 22 Preparation of glue with tamarind strengthening of the nets Hyderabad Ram et al., 2013 23 Root of Babul (Acacia arabica) + mustard arthritis control Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan Ram et al., 2013 24 kala/Musa paradisiacal + sugar oestrous cycle control Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan Ram et al., 2013 25 cow dung slurry managing euglena bloom Hyderabad and Karnataka Swamy et al., 2015 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 54 26 200",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Rajasthan Ram et al., 2013 24 kala/Musa paradisiacal + sugar oestrous cycle control Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan Ram et al., 2013 25 cow dung slurry managing euglena bloom Hyderabad and Karnataka Swamy et al., 2015 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 54 26 200 gm termite mound soil + water mastitits, poisonous bite of insects and mechanical injury control Hyderabad and Karnataka Swamy et al., 2015 27 Application of cashew shell oil, coal tar and sardine oil boats and nets preservation Bihar and Hyderabad Sumit and Shivani, 2021 28 Application of saw dust and rice fish preservation and transport Hyderabad Sumit and Shivani, 2021 29 Spices of mango pickles and neem leaves bloat disease control Bihar and Hyderabad Sumit and Shivani, 2021 30 Gardenia resinifera Leaves and Dendrophthoe falcata seeds constipation control Bihar, Hyderabad and Orissa Sumit and Shivani, 2021 31 whey milk, onion and custard apple leaves excess grazing control Bihar, Hyderabad and Maharashtra Dipika et al., 2017 32 Vinegar Tympany medication Uttar Pradesh farmer Gyan et al., 2016 33 Castor oil Deworming diagnosis Uttar Pradesh farmer Gyan et al., 2016 34 Mustard oil Body heat regulations Uttar Pradesh farmer Gyan et al., 2016 35 Turmeric lime paste Sprain heal Uttar Pradesh farmer Gyan et al., 2016 36 Black pepper butter oil mixture Pneumonia fever control Uttar Pradesh farmer Gyan et al., 2016 37 Glyricidia and roasted soaked tamarind seeds Lactation improvement Assam, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Farmers Deepandita et al., 2021 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 55 38 seeds of subabul milk secretion growth Assam, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Farmers Deepandita et al., 2021 39 Liquid formulation product with Bottle gourd, fenugreek, coconut, black gram, palm jiggery, water increase milk growth Assam, Nagaland, Madhya",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 55 38 seeds of subabul milk secretion growth Assam, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Farmers Deepandita et al., 2021 39 Liquid formulation product with Bottle gourd, fenugreek, coconut, black gram, palm jiggery, water increase milk growth Assam, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Farmers Deepandita et al., 2021 40 dried flowers of Madhuca latifolia increase bullock work efficiency Assam, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Farmers Deepandita et al., 2021 41 Powdered formulation with Pepper, jaggery and betel leaf increase digestion rate Assam, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Farmers Deepandita et al., 2021 42 Grinded Iris kashmiriana and jiggery increase milk growth Kashmir farmer Shubeena et al., 2018 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 56 Table 1.6: Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in medicinal & aromatic plants for diagnosis diseases S.No. Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) Cause State References 1 Root part of Acacia catechu (khair) asthama, bronchitis control Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 2 Root part of Aconitum ferox wall. (Vatsnabh) Rheumatism control Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 3 Root part of Aconitum heterophyllum wall. (Atees) fever, cough, piles and stomach control Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 4 fruit & bark part of Aegle marmelos (L.) correa (Bell) dysentery, diarrhoea, fever Health tonic Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 5 bulb part of Alpinia galalnga (L.) wild. (Kulanjan) Health tonic Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 6 Bulb part of Andrographis paniculata (Burm. F.) wall. malaria, liver & blood purifier Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 7 whole part of Aquillaria malaccensis Lamk. (Agaru) removing fish spine from throat Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 8 whole part of Artemisia maritima L. (Kunja) tonic, blood purifier, fever Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "F.) wall. malaria, liver & blood purifier Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 7 whole part of Aquillaria malaccensis Lamk. (Agaru) removing fish spine from throat Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 8 whole part of Artemisia maritima L. (Kunja) tonic, blood purifier, fever Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 57 9 root & stem of Berberis aristata DC. (Kingora) diagnosing eye disease Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 10 root of Cassia augustifoila Vahl (Senna) rheumatism control Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 11 tuber of Cholorphytum tuberosum Bak. (Safed musli) Leucorrhea, sexual tonic control Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 12 root of Coleus barbatus Benth. (Patharchur) tonic and blood pressure control Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 13 resin & bark of Cammiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari Asthma, typhoid control Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 14 root of Curculigo orchioides haerten (Kali musli) asthma, dysentery, tonic Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 15 Rhizome of Curcuma zedoaria (christ) Rosc. control of jaundice, blood pressure Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 16 Seed & fruit of Embelia ribes Burm. f. (Jheum) control of skin diseases, leprosy Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 17 fruit of Garcinia indica choisy (Kokam) skin disease control Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 18 rhizome of Gloriosa superb L. (Kalibari) snake bite, leprosy control Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 58 19 root & leaf of Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) (Gudmar) Gastric disorder, eye disease Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 20 root of Hemidesmus indicus (L.) Br. curing cough, hypertension, dysentery Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 21 rhizome of Myrica esculenta Ham. exdon (Kaphal) curing bronchitis, blood purifier, hysteria Northern",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "19 root & leaf of Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) (Gudmar) Gastric disorder, eye disease Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 20 root of Hemidesmus indicus (L.) Br. curing cough, hypertension, dysentery Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 21 rhizome of Myrica esculenta Ham. exdon (Kaphal) curing bronchitis, blood purifier, hysteria Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 22 fruit & seed of Nelumbo nucifera barten (kamal phool) curing chlorea, diarrhoea Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 23 leaf & seed of Ocimum sanctum L. treating fever, vomiting, liver & blood purifier Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 24 leaf & seed of Phyllanthus emblica L. (amla) curing fever, vomiting, liver, blood purifier Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 25 root of Picrorhiza kurrooa Benth. (Katuki) curing Headache, fever, dysentery Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 26 fruit of Pistacacia chinenesis Bunge (Kakadshingi) curing cholera, fever, cough Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 27 Root of Piper longum L. curing indigestion, child birth, dysentery Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 28 Root of Pistacacia chinensis Bunge (Sarapagandha) curing malaria fever, snake bite Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 59 29 wood of Santallum album (chandan) curing dysentery and skin disease Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 30 bark & leaf of Saraca asoca (Ashok) Heart disorder Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 31 root of Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. (Kut) dysentery, asthama, ulcer Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 32 whole part of Smilex sp. (Chopchini) menstrual complain & small pox Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 33 whole plant of Solanum nigrum (Giloe) curing jaundice, bone fracture Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 34 root and leaf of Valeriana jatamansi (Tagar) curing epilepsy, urinary complain Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Smilex sp. (Chopchini) menstrual complain & small pox Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 33 whole plant of Solanum nigrum (Giloe) curing jaundice, bone fracture Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 34 root and leaf of Valeriana jatamansi (Tagar) curing epilepsy, urinary complain Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 35 root & leaf of Withiana somnifera (Ashwagandha) curing eye, asthama, cough Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 36 bark & latex of Wrightia tinctoria (Indra java) curing toothache, piles, dysentery Northern Farmer Chandra et al., 2006 37 leaves of Andrographis panicular curing dog bite Tripura Maria et al., 2017 38 root of Phylogacanthus thyrsiflorus curing cold, cough, asthama Tripura Maria et al., 2017 39 bark & root of Achyranthes aspera toothache Tripura Maria et al., 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 60 40 whole plant of Centella asiatica L. tooth problem Tripura Maria et al., 2017 41 latex & shoot of Alstonia scholaris L. curing mother milk Tripura Maria et al., 2017 42 leaves of Holarrhena antidysentria curing dysentery, diarrhoea, anthelmintic Tripura Maria et al., 2017 43 leaves & latex of Homalonema aromatic curing snake bite Tripura Maria et al., 2017 44 leaves of Ageratum conyzoides curing wounds, cut Tripura Maria et al., 2017 45 leaves of Enydra fluctuans treating bleeding Tripura Maria et al., 2017 46 whole plant of Spilanthes paniculata treating gastric, stomach problem, throat, diabetes Tripura Maria et al., 2017 47 leaves of Kalanchoe pinnata curing dysentery Tripura Maria et al., 2017 48 leaves of Coccinia grandis curing diabetes Tripura Maria et al., 2017 49 leaves & fruits of Momordica cacharantia curing hand pimples, foot pimples Tripura Maria et al., 2017 50 leaves of Acacia concinna treating diabetes and body pain Tripura Maria et al., 2017 51 leaves of Cajanus",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "al., 2017 48 leaves of Coccinia grandis curing diabetes Tripura Maria et al., 2017 49 leaves & fruits of Momordica cacharantia curing hand pimples, foot pimples Tripura Maria et al., 2017 50 leaves of Acacia concinna treating diabetes and body pain Tripura Maria et al., 2017 51 leaves of Cajanus cajan treating jaundice Tripura Maria et al., 2017 52 fruits of Cassia fistula curing laxative Tripura Maria et al., 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 61 53 leaves of Cassia accidentalis treating skin disease Tripura Maria et al., 2017 54 leaves & root of Mimosa pudica curing ring worm, piles Tripura Maria et al., 2017 55 fruits of Parkia javanica uti curing gastric problem Tripura Maria et al., 2017 56 leaves & flower of Lecuas aspera curing pain, gastric problem, swelling Tripura Maria et al., 2017 57 leaves & bark of Ocimum basilicum curing gastric problem, stomach problem Tripura Maria et al., 2017 58 leaves of Ocimum Sanctum L. treating cough, cold Tripura Maria et al., 2017 59 leaves of Premna sp. treating ant bite Tripura Maria et al., 2017 60 bark & root of Litsea glutinosa curing muscle pain, bone fracture Tripura Maria et al., 2017 61 root, leaves & bud of Hibiscus rosa sinensis treating irregular menstruation Tripura Maria et al., 2017 62 leaves of Sterculli aviliosa treating menstruation pain Tripura Maria et al., 2017 63 leaves & fruits of Moringa oleifera treating cooling effect Tripura Maria et al., 2017 64 leaves of Psidium guajava for treating diarrhoea, dysentery, piles, vomiting Tripura Maria et al., 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 62 65 leaves of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis curing asthama, stomach disorder Tripura Maria et al., 2017 66 fruits & leaves of Phyllanthus acidus treating chicken pox",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of Psidium guajava for treating diarrhoea, dysentery, piles, vomiting Tripura Maria et al., 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 62 65 leaves of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis curing asthama, stomach disorder Tripura Maria et al., 2017 66 fruits & leaves of Phyllanthus acidus treating chicken pox Tripura Maria et al., 2017 67 leaves of Scoparia daclis treating body pain Tripura Maria et al., 2017 68 whole plant of Cyanodon dactylon treating toothache Tripura Maria et al., 2017 69 rhizome of Drynaria quercifolia treating swelling Tripura Maria et al., 2017 70 leaves & fruits of Ageles marmelos curing high fever, malaria Tripura Maria et al., 2017 71 root of Murraya paniculata curing toothache Tripura Maria et al., 2017 72 fruits of Flacourita jangomas curing dysentery, diarrhoea Tripura Maria et al., 2017 73 rhizome of Aloe barbadensis curing cold, cough Tripura Maria et al., 2017 74 rhizome of Curcuma zeodaria curing stomach, urinary disorder Tripura Maria et al., 2017 75 Aconitum balfourii (meetha/Bhngwa) curing diaphoretic, diuretic, analgesic, antiinflammatory, anitpyretic, vermifuge Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 63 76 Aconitum heterophyllum (Atees) treating antiinflammatory, antipyretic, anti-bacterial, anthelminthic Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 77 Ajuga parviflora (Neel Kanthi) curing hypertension, malaria, pneumonia, edema, anit-fungal, hypoglycemic, anitmicrobial agents Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 78 Alllium cepa (Pyaj) curing anti-tumour, antidiabeteic, anti-allergic and anti –mollusicidal Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 79 Allium sativum (Lehsum) burn and cut Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 80 Allium wallichii treating gastric Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 81 Angelica glauca Edgew (choru) treating gastric Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 82 Artemisia nilagirica (kunja) cut & wounds Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 83 Asparagus filicinus (Jhirna) treating weakness Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 84 Berberis aristata (kingod) curing",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "80 Allium wallichii treating gastric Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 81 Angelica glauca Edgew (choru) treating gastric Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 82 Artemisia nilagirica (kunja) cut & wounds Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 83 Asparagus filicinus (Jhirna) treating weakness Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 84 Berberis aristata (kingod) curing eye ailments Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 85 Bergenia stracheyi (Pashanbhed) curing stone problem Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 86 Centella asiatica (Brahmi) treating coolant disease Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 64 87 Cinnamomum tamla (tejpat) curing blood pressure Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 88 Cirisium wallichi (kanjelu) treating fever Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 89 Cucumis sativus (kakdi) curing diuretic disease Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 90 Cucurma longa (Haldu) treating cut, wound Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 91 Dioscorea bulbifera (Tairu) treating coolant disease Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 92 Eupatorium adenophorum (Basya) treating cut and wound Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 93 Girardinia diversifolia (kandali) curing fever Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 94 Hippophae salicifolia (Amesh) treating coolant Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 95 Juglans regia (Akhrot) curing skin disease Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 96 Jurinea macrocephala (Biskhanada) curing fever Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 97 Macrotyloma uniflorum (gahat) curing stone disease Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 98 Megacarpaea polynadra (Barmolu) treating gastric problem Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 99 Mentha pipertia (Pudina) curing coolant disease Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 100 Mirabilis jalapa curing cut & wound Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 101 Nardostachys jatamansi (Maasi) for treating jaundice Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 65 102 Ocimum corniculata (Almodu) treating boils Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 103 Paeoni emodi (chandra) treating fever Uttarakhand",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "cut & wound Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 101 Nardostachys jatamansi (Maasi) for treating jaundice Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 65 102 Ocimum corniculata (Almodu) treating boils Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 103 Paeoni emodi (chandra) treating fever Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 104 Picrorhiza kurrooa (Kadwi) treating fever Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 105 Polygonatum verticillatum (Mahamaida/salampanja) curing fever Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 106 Potentilla lineata (Bajradanti) treating Anaemia Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 107 Rheum moorcroftianum (Dolu) curing injury, cut and wound Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 108 Rhododendron campanulatum (Syamru) curing skin disease Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 109 Rumex nepalensis (khuldya) curing pneumonia, cut, wound Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 110 Saussurea costus (kuth) treating skin disease Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 111 Selinum vaginatum (bhutkesh) curing coolant disease Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 112 Swertia chiraytia (chiraitu) curing fever, stomach, ache Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 113 Tagetes erecta (gainda) curing ear ache Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 114 Taxus wallichiana (thuner) treating high blood pressure Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 66 115 Tinospora sinesis (giloe) curing fever, stomach, ache Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 116 Utrica dioca (kundali) treating anaemia, weakness Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 117 Zanthoxylum armatum (Timru) curing teeth, toothache Uttarakhand Ankit et al., 2017 118 Habb-e-Asgand unani Wajalal mafasil (Rheumatoid arthritis) (gaathia) Aligarh Verma et al., 2021 119 Powdered form of root of Anacyclus pyrethrum, Withania somnifera, Chlorophytum borivilianum, Asparagus racemosus and tuber of Pueraria tuberosa stimulates sexual hormone in male gender Varanasi Kumar et al., 2021 120 liquid of pseudostem of Ensete glaucum (roxb.) cheesman diagnosing diarrhoea Meghalaya Joga et al., 2020 121 Frangipani, periwinkle, turkey",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "119 Powdered form of root of Anacyclus pyrethrum, Withania somnifera, Chlorophytum borivilianum, Asparagus racemosus and tuber of Pueraria tuberosa stimulates sexual hormone in male gender Varanasi Kumar et al., 2021 120 liquid of pseudostem of Ensete glaucum (roxb.) cheesman diagnosing diarrhoea Meghalaya Joga et al., 2020 121 Frangipani, periwinkle, turkey berry, Night shade, Indian trumpet flower and Giloy asthma, bronchitis, cough, sinusitis, diabetes, malaria, typhoid and jaundice controls Adi community, Arunachal Pradesh Ranjay et al., 2020 122 Juniperus polycarpus C. Koch (Himalayan pencil cedar) monastery constructions, increases preparations, fuelwood and fodder crops Himalayan cold desert region of Ladakh Dorjey and Maurya, 2020 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 67 123 Bidelus pilosa, Cedrus deodara skin disease treatment Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 124 Eclipta alba, Mallotus philippensis, Boehmeria rugulosa, Celtis australis constipation disorder, lier disorder Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 125 Aretmisia annua cosmetic product development Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 126 Parthenium hysterophorus insect bites, infertility problem Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 127 Chenopodium album, Berginia ciliate curing stone problem Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 128 Xanthium stramonium curing tooth problem Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 129 Boerhavia diffusa, Sterculia villosa curing blood dysentery Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 130 Helicteres isora, Artemisia japonica curing epilepsy Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 131 Betula utilis, Achyranthus aspera curing muscular pain & swelling Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 132 Bergenia ciliata, Colebrookia oppositifolia, Rumex hastus, Ageratum conyzoides, Brassica campestris cut and wound treatment Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 68 133 Fagopyrum esculatum curing urinary disorder, headache and menstrual disorder Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 134 Amaranthus paniculatus destroying worms in children Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 135 Cyanodon dactylon, Syzgium cumini, Artimisia maritime curing stomach",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "al., 2021 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 68 133 Fagopyrum esculatum curing urinary disorder, headache and menstrual disorder Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 134 Amaranthus paniculatus destroying worms in children Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 135 Cyanodon dactylon, Syzgium cumini, Artimisia maritime curing stomach problem Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 136 Bombax ceiba curing piles disease Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 137 Treminalia chebula curing indigestion problem Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 138 Litsea chinenesis curing fractured bone Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 139 Amaranthus spinosus curing scorpion bite Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 140 Centella asiatica memory enrichment Uttarakhand Aakash et al., 2021 141 Discorea bulbifera L. curing cancer, HIV, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, cardioprotective and anti-hyperthyroid activities Dongria Kandha tribes Parida and Sarangi, 2020 142 Ocimum tenuiflorum, Ocimum sanctum (holy basil/tulsi) herpes virus, foot and mouth disease virus and Uttar Pradesh Goel and Bhatia, 2022 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 69 castle disease virus control 143 Aconitum heterophyllum wall. (Patis, Aconite, Dhar buti, Attees or Bis Mohra) intestinal worms, diarrhoea, dysentery, high fever and antirheumatic Jammu Bagal et al., 2022 144 Viola odorata (Bnafsaha, wild violet, sweet violet) fever, cold, cough, hypertension, muscle spasms, parasitic worms, malaria controls Jammu Bagal et al., 2022 145 Valeriana jatamansi (mush khala, jatamansi, balchhari, mansi, nihani) treating eye, blood liver problem, hysteria, nervous andurinal stress Jammu Bagal et al., 2022 146 Picrorhiza kurroa (Kaud, kaur, kutki) fever, cold cough, hypertension, muscle spasms, parasitic worms and malaria treatments Jammu Bagal et al., 2022 147 Bergenia ligulata (patharchoor, pashanbeda) healing of longevity, anti-viral, analgesiscs, ascites, hypoglycemic, anti-arthritic and antiageing Jammu Manosi et al., 2022 148 Cryptolepis buchananii, Eucalyptus citriodora, Ligustrum japonicum, skin infection treatment Solan district farmer, Himachal Pradesh Kumar et al., 2021 Preprints",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "parasitic worms and malaria treatments Jammu Bagal et al., 2022 147 Bergenia ligulata (patharchoor, pashanbeda) healing of longevity, anti-viral, analgesiscs, ascites, hypoglycemic, anti-arthritic and antiageing Jammu Manosi et al., 2022 148 Cryptolepis buchananii, Eucalyptus citriodora, Ligustrum japonicum, skin infection treatment Solan district farmer, Himachal Pradesh Kumar et al., 2021 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 70 Pinus roxburghii, Rosa alba, Ziziphus nummularia and Sonchus oleraceus 149 Rhododendron arboreum, Zanthoxylum armatum, Viola canescens, Quercus leucotrichophora, Rubus ellipticus, Punica granatum, Ocimum sanctum, Morus nigra, Mentha arvensis, Justicia adhatoda, Ficus benghalensis, Eriobotrya japonica, Debregeasia longifolia, Cissampelos pareira, Datura innoxia, Eucalyptus citriodora, Cynodon dactylon, Colebrookea oppositifolia and Cannabis sativa diarrhea, diabetes, dysentery, cough, cold and fever treatments Solan district farmer, Himachal Pradesh Kumar et al., 2021 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 71 Table 1.7: Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in stored grain pests’ management S.No. Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) Cause State References 1 Construction of godowns with straw, leaves and the godowns mounted with cow dung grains storage Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Vishal et al., 2020 2 Mixing of 200 gm of common salt + red gram/Arhar controlling stored grains pests Tamil Nadu Karthikeyan et al., 2009 3 Neem oil blends with coconut oil/castor oil (1:1) storage and pests control Tamil Nadu Karthikeyan et al., 2009 4 5 litre groundnut oil + ¼ kg tamarind prevents oil spillage Tamil Nadu Karthikeyan et al., 2009 5 neem leaves, thumbai and any strong odour leaves (Kaddi patta, tulsi, lemon grass etc) + ragi grains controlling lesser grain borer, saw toothed beetle and flat grain borer Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka Shaila and Nafeesa, 2021 6 Mixing of pegion pea seed with horse gram seed dust assimilates excess moisture and encourages long term storage Tamil",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "leaves (Kaddi patta, tulsi, lemon grass etc) + ragi grains controlling lesser grain borer, saw toothed beetle and flat grain borer Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka Shaila and Nafeesa, 2021 6 Mixing of pegion pea seed with horse gram seed dust assimilates excess moisture and encourages long term storage Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Telangana and Karnataka Shaila and Nafeesa, 2021 7 Construction of godowns/granary room with brick and wooden boards controlling rice moth and restrict moisture of the grains Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Mahrashtra Parimala et al., 2013 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 72 8 Jute bags: 1 gm camphor/5 kg grains short term grains storage Manipur and Tamil Nadu Adesina et al., 2019 9 10 gm lime per kg grains in jute gunny bags 1 year grains storage Karnataka, Assam and Kerala Bhavani and Ningdalli, 2015 10 Mixing of gingelly seed with 100 gm paddy 3 months gingelly seed storage, controlling Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella) Karnataka and Tamil Nadu Bhavani and Ningdalli, 2015 11 Mixing of 1 kg pulse seed in 20 ml of neem oil long term storage & weevils, red flour beetles, long headed flour beetle and fig moth controls Tamil Nadu Marziyeh et al., 2017 12 Application of Pungam leaves in paddy storage in the gunny bags Angoumois grain moth, rice weevils controls and long term storage Gujarat and Orissa Sahu et al., 2022 13 paddy husk upto 5 cm in top portion of the earthen pot seed damage control and pest control North-East, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and Haryana Bordoloi et al., 2017; Singh, 2018 14 2 kg paddy seed + 1 kg salt + 10 litre water releasing chaffy seed Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Orissa and NorthEast Bordoloi et al., 2017; Singh, 2018 15 Pouring of paddy seed in",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "control and pest control North-East, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and Haryana Bordoloi et al., 2017; Singh, 2018 14 2 kg paddy seed + 1 kg salt + 10 litre water releasing chaffy seed Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Orissa and NorthEast Bordoloi et al., 2017; Singh, 2018 15 Pouring of paddy seed in the water overnight seed germination North-Eastern and Karnataka Rakesh et al., 2013; Ambika et al., 2014 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 73 16 1 kg sorghum seed dissolves in 100 gm dry cow dung powder + 250 ml cow urine improving seed germination North-Eastern, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka Rakesh et al., 2013; Ambika et al., 2014 17 pegion pea seed with dry powder bitter gourd and drum stick seed for 3-6 months controlling insect-pests North-Eastern, Telangana and Karnataka Rakesh et al., 2013; Ambika et al., 2014 18 10 kg green gram seed with 250 gm chilli powder + 1 kg ragi/finger millet flour + paddy husk prevents attack of storage pests North-Eastern and Karnataka Rakesh et al., 2013; Ambika et al., 2014 19 Dry cow dung with ghee + honey seed treatment North-Eastern, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala SCERT, 2016 20 Treatment pegion pea seed with dry pongamia leaf controlling storage pests Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Orissa Usharani et al., 2019; Jyoti et al., 2020 21 pegion pea seed with dry guntur chilli powder and neem leaf powder controlling insect-pests and seed senescence North-Eastern, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Usharani et al., 2019; Jyoti et al., 2020 22 Either mint leaves powder or sweet flag root powder inhibiting insect-pests Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Usharani et al., 2019; Jyoti et al., 2020 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 74 23 chilli seed in the gunny bag",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "al., 2019; Jyoti et al., 2020 22 Either mint leaves powder or sweet flag root powder inhibiting insect-pests Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Usharani et al., 2019; Jyoti et al., 2020 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 74 23 chilli seed in the gunny bag and kept in a hot water for a day improves seed availability and vigour North-Eastern, Kerala and Karnataka Usharani et al., 2019; Jyoti et al., 2020 24 Blending of citronella leaf oil/cotton seed oil/ soyabean oil/ castor seed oil in 100 kg chickpea seed controlling insect pest and microbes such as Alternaria sp. or Fusarium sp Orissa, Telangana and Maharashtra farmer Ruparao et al., 2018 25 Dried leaves of neem in the grains warehouse stop attack of stored grains pest Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka Yallappa et al., 2012 26 dried leaves of notchi (Vitex negundo) stops the attack of stored pests Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand Shivankar et al., 2006 27 1 kg Vasambu (Acorus calamus) in 50 kg grains forbids invasion of stored pests and enhances 1 year storage period Tamil Nadu Kathirvelu et al., 2019 28 Exposure stored pulse grain in open sunlight at 20 °C Callosobruchus chinensis eggs and grubs control Manipur Farmer Adesina et al., 2019 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 75 29 Custard apple seed powder in Pulse grains bruchid adult and eggs control Karnataka Farmer Prakash et al., 2016 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 76 Table 1.8: Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in weed management S.No. Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) Cause State References 1 Cultivation of jethi rice, finger millet, black soyabean, horse gram weed control and moisture conservation Uttarakhand and Karnataka Nautiyal et al.,",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "| NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 76 Table 1.8: Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in weed management S.No. Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) Cause State References 1 Cultivation of jethi rice, finger millet, black soyabean, horse gram weed control and moisture conservation Uttarakhand and Karnataka Nautiyal et al., 2017; Reddy et al., 2008 2 Dispersion and Burning of dry leaves of pine into the field weed control Jammu and Kashmir, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, parts of Sikkim, West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh Patel et al., 2015 3 Application of Common salt (NaCl) A. conyzoides and Crassocephalum creidioides control Meghalaya and Mahrashtra Patel et al., 2015 4 Cultivation of green leaf manure such as Diancha (Sesbania sp.), Kolingi (Tephrosia purpurea) weed control North-Eastern, Orissa, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka Ramyajit and Saumi, 2019 5 200 gm Salt + 1 litre water controlling Congress weed (Parthenium hysterophorus) Tamil Nadu Surinder et al., 2018 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 77 6 50 kg Neem cake in the field controlling Nut grass Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya and Kerala Surinder et al., 2018 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 78 Table 1.9: Indigenous knowledge Practices of farmers in value added food product S.No. Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) Cause State References 1 wild type mesta and Roselle (Hibiscus subdoriffa) Preparation of indigenous pickle and Chatni North-East Jiraporn, 2018 2 Composition of Sangyod rice flour + wheat flour Preparation of domestic wheat bread Phatthalung Province Jiraporn, 2018 3 Fermented foodgundruk, sinki, anishi, Bhatooru, Marchu and Chilra, Kienma, Tungrymbai, Mesu, Soibum, Ngari, Hentak, Kadi, Churpa/Churpi and Nadu ghanti, Jann/Jaan and Daru Fermented vegetable food, Fermented pulse food, Fermented Bamboo food, Fermented fish food, Fermented Milk food, Fermented alcoholic beverage Arunachal",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "of domestic wheat bread Phatthalung Province Jiraporn, 2018 3 Fermented foodgundruk, sinki, anishi, Bhatooru, Marchu and Chilra, Kienma, Tungrymbai, Mesu, Soibum, Ngari, Hentak, Kadi, Churpa/Churpi and Nadu ghanti, Jann/Jaan and Daru Fermented vegetable food, Fermented pulse food, Fermented Bamboo food, Fermented fish food, Fermented Milk food, Fermented alcoholic beverage Arunachal Pradesh Nazish, 2013 4 Edible Bamboo speciesBambusa Cephalostachyum, Chimono Bambusa, Dendrocalamus sp. and Melocanna sp. for culinary and product uses, bamboo shoot curry(Usoi Ooti), Bamboo shoot salad(Usoi Kangsu), Bamboo shoot chutney(Soibum), Fermeneted shoot curry(Soibum Thonga), Fried Bamboo shoot(Laiwa culinary and product uses, bamboo shoot curry, Bamboo shoot salad, Bamboo shoot chutney, Fermeneted shoot curry, Boiled Bamboo shoot, Bamboo shoot pickles Manipur Premlata et al., 2020 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 79 Kanghou), Boiled Bamboo shoot(Usoi Chamfat), Bamboo shoot pickles(Usoi aachar 5 wild edible fruit such as Cotoneaster sp., Fragaria sp., Malus sp., Prunus sp., Rosa sp., Sorbaria sp. and Sorbus sp. preparation of local beverage (Aygar), tobacco pickles, chutney oil, furniture and agriculture tools & implements Bhotia community of Uttarakhand Badal et al., 2022 7 Galho rice either with wild leaves; mixtures of Salt, garlic, potatoes, tomatoes, dry fish & fermented soyabean and Perilla frustescens Seeds Diet Nagaland community Singh and Teron, 2017 8 Preparation of Tathu chutney with chilli paste, leaves and dry meat or fermented fish Diet Nagaland community Singh and Teron, 2017 9 Preparation of Modi with a piece of Mithun, beef or pork, ginger, garlic, onion, chilli, and salts Diet Nagaland community Singh and Teron, 2017 10 Preparation of Ghabe food with boiling of leaves with addition of spices, chilli, fermented Soyabean or dry fish Diet Nagaland community Singh and Teron, 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 80 11 Preparation of Galkemeluo food with",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "Nagaland community Singh and Teron, 2017 10 Preparation of Ghabe food with boiling of leaves with addition of spices, chilli, fermented Soyabean or dry fish Diet Nagaland community Singh and Teron, 2017 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 80 11 Preparation of Galkemeluo food with boiling of wild leaves with bamboo shoot, garlic, tomato, potato, dry or smoked meat, dry fish, fermented soyabean, Zanthoxylum rhetsa and Zanthoxylum armatum Diet Nagaland community Singh and Teron, 2017 12 Preparation of fermented pig fat with chopped pieces of inner abdominal portion of pig Diet Mizoram community Lalthanpuii et al., 2015 13 Oil extraction with fermented Seasame Diet Mizoram community Lalthanpuii et al., 2015 14 Preparation of Sun drying leaves of Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn either with seasonal vegetables and fish, chicken, beef, pork Diet Mizoram community Lalthanpuii et al., 2015 15 Preparation of smoked meat Wild animals such as barking deer, sambar deer wild boar, macaque, birds, squirrels and rodents with thick pointed Bamboo sticks Diet Mizoram community Lalthanpuii et al., 2015 16 Preparation of Tunateinzi food with ingredient of rice flour and sugar Diet Manipur tribe Thangjam et al., 2018 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 81 17 Preparation of Lengchiphon food with ingredient of rice flour and liquid sugar Diet Manipur tribe Thangjam et al., 2018 18 Preparation of Ganang Tamdui food with fermented mustard leaves and banana leaves Diet Manipur and Nagaland Tribe Thangjam et al., 2018 19 Preparation of Gundruk food with dried mustard leaves Diet Manipur, Mizoram, Sikkim and Darjeeling Tribe Thangjam et al., 2018 20 Preparation of Bi-kang food with boiling and drying of Colocasia Diet Manipur tribe Thangjam et al., 2018 21 Preparation of fermented Soyabean Diet Manipur, Mizoram, Sikkim and Darjeeling community Thangjam et al., 2018",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  },
  {
    "text": "food with dried mustard leaves Diet Manipur, Mizoram, Sikkim and Darjeeling Tribe Thangjam et al., 2018 20 Preparation of Bi-kang food with boiling and drying of Colocasia Diet Manipur tribe Thangjam et al., 2018 21 Preparation of fermented Soyabean Diet Manipur, Mizoram, Sikkim and Darjeeling community Thangjam et al., 2018 22 Preparation of Gankhiang-khui food with alkaline fermented seeds of Hibiscus canabinus Diet Manipur community Thangjam et al., 2018 23 Preparation of food with Auricularia auriculari, Schizophyllum commune and Lentinula edodes wild mushrooms Diet Manipur community Thangjam et al., 2018 Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 82 Fig. 1: Practices of Indigenous Agriculture Informations (IAI) in the rural community Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1 Fig. 2: Farmer’s practices Traditional Agriculture Knowledge (TAK) in India Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 6 June 2022 doi:10.20944/preprints202206.0071.v1",
    "source": "native1.pdf",
    "domain": "Agriculture business"
  }
]