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= = = Early Persian war and Syria = = =
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Odaenathus assembled the Palmyrene army and Syrian peasants then marched north to meet the Persian emperor , who was back from Cilicia . The Palmyrene monarch fell upon the retreating Shapur at a place between Samosata and Zeugma west of the Euphrates in late summer 260 . Odaenathus defeated the Persians , expelling Shapur from the province of Syria . However , the Sassanians kept the regions east of the Euphrates .
| abf603b0e143e1fb2524bacd72cfecc4 | 14,722 |
In the beginning of 261 , Fulvius Macrianus headed to Europe accompanied by Macrianus Minor leaving Quietus and Balista in Emesa . Odaenathus ' whereabouts during this episode are not clear ; he could have distributed the army in garrisons along the frontier or might have brought it back to his capital . The Palmyrene monarch seems to have waited until the situation clear , declaring loyalty neither to Fulvius Macrianus nor to Gallienus . In the spring of 261 , Fulvius Macrianus arrived in the Balkans but was defeated and killed along with Macrianus Minor ; Odaenathus then marched on Emesa where Quietus and Balista were staying . The Emesans killed Quietus as Odaenathus approached the city , while Balista was captured and executed by the king in autumn 261 .
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= = = = Ruler of the East = = = =
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The elimination of the usurpers left Odaenathus as the most powerful leader in the Roman east ; he was granted many titles by the emperor but those honors are debated among scholars :
| 3fff2972763b89882bd4d99c01ae2a43 | 14,727 |
Dux Romanorum ( commander of the Romans ) : was probably given to Odaenathus to recognize his position as the commander in chief of the forces in the east against the Persians ; it was inherited by Odaenathus ' son and successor Vaballathus .
| 508c69d36fae3c48d16aa89ff039177f | 14,728 |
Corrector totius orientis ( commander of the entire East ) : it is generally accepted by modern scholars that he bore this title . The corrector had an overall command of the Roman armies and authority over the Roman provincial governors in the designated region . There are no known attestations of the title during Odaenathus ' lifetime . Evidences for the king bearing the title are two inscriptions in Palmyrene dialect ; one posthumous dedication describing him as MTQNNʿ of the East ( derived from the Aramaic root TQN , meaning to set in order ) , and the other describing his heir Vaballathus with the same title albeit using the word PNRTTʿ instead of MTQNNʿ .
| 7763c06eb1ad9165d849115e71a16f5f | 14,729 |
However , the sort of authority accorded by this position is widely discussed . The problem arise from the word MTQNNʿ ; its exact meaning is debated . The word is translated to Latin as corrector but restitutor is another possible translation ; the latter title was an honorary one meant to praise the bearer for driving enemies out of Roman territories . However , the inscription of Vaballathus is clearer as the word PNRTTʿ is not a Palmyrene word but a direct Palmyrene translation of the Greek term Epanorthotes which is usually an equivalent to corrector .
| 6ac726f6e69f0d117806b42ce932d658 | 14,730 |
According to David Potter , Vaballathus inherited his father 's exact titles . Hartmann points that there have been cases where a Greek word was translated directly to Palmyrene and a Palmyrene equivalent was also used to mean the same thing . The dedication to Odaenathus would be the using of a Palmyrene equivalent , while the inscription of Vaballathus would be the direct translation . Despite all the arguments , it cannot be certain without doubt that Odaenathus was a corrector .
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Imperator totius orientis ( emperor of the entire East ) : only the Augustan History claims that Odaenathus was conferred with this title , and also goes so far as to claim that he was made an Augustus ( co @-@ emperor ) following his defeat of the Persians . Both claims are dismissed by scholars . Odaenathus seems to have been acclaimed as Imperator by his troops which is a salutation reserved for the Roman emperor ; this acclamation might explain the erroneous reports of the Augustan History .
| 0af77961ffa4f2a20a5578ce2097155d | 14,732 |
Regardless of the titles , Odaenathus controlled the Roman East with the approval of Gallienus who could do little but to formalize Odaenathus self achieved status and settle for his formal loyalty . Palmyra itself , although officially still part of the Roman empire , became a de facto allied state to Rome instead of a provincial city . Outside of Palmyra , Odaenathus ' authority extended from the Pontic coast in the north to Palestine in the south . This area included the Roman provinces of Syria , Phoenice , Palaestina , Arabia , Anatolia 's eastern regions and later ( following the campaign of 262 ) Osroene and Mesopotamia .
| 930635164b7a7efccaf9ca5f0edb2cc1 | 14,733 |
= = = = First Persian campaign 262 = = = =
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Perhaps driven by the will to take revenge for the destruction of Palmyrene trade centers and discourage Shapur from initiating future attacks , Odaenathus launched an invasion against the Persians . In the spring of 262 , the king marched north into the occupied Roman province of Mesopotamia , driving out the Persian garrisons and freeing Edessa and Carrhae . The first onslaught was aimed at Nisibis , which Odaenathus regained but sacked since the inhabitants were sympathetic toward the Persian occupation . The Palmyrene monarch destroyed the Jewish city of Nehardea , 45 km west of the Persian capital Ctesiphon , as he deemed the Jews of Mesopotamia loyal to Shapur . By late 262 or early 263 , Odaenathus stood at the walls of the Persian capital .
| 8e92b5a8886170976cbe60cf309f62dd | 14,737 |
The exact route taken by Odaenathus from Palmyra to Ctesiphon remains uncertain ; it is probably similar to the route emperor Julian took in 363 during his campaign against Persia . Using this route , Odaenathus would have crossed the Euphrates at Zeugma then moved east to Edessa followed by Carrhae then Nisibis ; here , he would have descended south along the Khabur River to the Euphrates valley and marched alongside the river 's left bank to Nehardea . After taking the city , he penetrated the Sassanian province of Asōristān and marched along the royal canal Naarmalcha towards the Tigris where the Persian capital stood .
| 239060da38f42b4f1e0b196cde946c32 | 14,738 |
Once at Ctesiphon , Odaenathus immediately began the siege of the well @-@ fortified winter residence of the Persian kings ; severe damage was inflicted upon the surrounding areas due to the battles with Persian troops . The city held its ground and the logistical problems of fighting in enemy 's land probably prompted the Palmyrenes to lift the siege . Odaenathus headed north along the Euphrates carrying with him numerous prisoners and booty . The invasion resulted in the full restoration of the Roman lands ( Osroene and Mesopotamia provinces ) occupied by Shapur since the beginning of his invasions in 252 . However , Dura @-@ Europus and other Palmyrene posts south of Circesium , such as Anah , were not rebuilt . Odaenathus sent the captives to Rome and by the end of 263 , Gallienus added Persicus Maximus ( " The great victor in Persia " ) to his titles and held a triumph .
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= = = King of Kings = = =
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In 263 , after his return , Odaenathus assumed the title King of Kings of the East ( Mlk Mlk ) , and headed to Antioch , the traditional capital of Syria , where he crowned his son Hairan I as co @-@ King of Kings . The title was a symbol of legitimacy in the East , starting with the Assyrians then the Achaemenids who used it to symbolize their supremacy over all other rulers and was adopted by the Parthian monarchs following their defeat of the Seleucids to legitimize their conquests . The first Sassanian monarch Ardashir I adopted the title following his victory over the Parthians . Odaenathus ' son was crowned with a diadem and a tiara ; the choice of the location was probably meant to express that the Palmyrene monarchs were now the successors of the Seleucid and Iranian rulers who controlled Syria and Mesopotamia in the past .
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= = = = Relation with Rome = = = =
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In the Roman empire 's hierarchical system , a vassal king usage of the King of Kings title did not indicate that he is a peer of the emperor or that the vassalage ties were cut . The title was probably a challenge not to the Roman emperor but to Shapur I ; Odaenathus was declaring that he , not the Persian monarch , was the legitimate King of Kings in the East . A tessera depicting Hairan I shows him wearing a crown shaped like that of the Parthian monarchs , so it must have been Odaenathus ' crown ; this combination of title and imagery indicate that Odaenathus considered himself the rival of the Sassanians and the protector of the region against them .
| 4914f0e1250b2a8411689733cbfcbbca | 14,747 |
Odaenathus ' intents are questioned by some historians such as Drinkwater who attribute the attempted negotiations with Shapur to Odaenathus ' quest for power . However , in contrast to the norm of his period when powerful generals proclaimed themselves emperors , Odaenathus chose not to usurp Gallienus ' throne , and minted no coins bearing his own image . The king had total control over his kingdom of Palmyra and effective control over the Roman East where his military authority was absolute . Odaenathus respected Gallienus ' privilege to appoint provincial governors , but dealt swiftly with opposition ; the Anonymus post Dionem mention the story of Kyrinus ( Quirinus ) , a Roman official , who showed dissatisfaction with Odaenathus ' authority over the Persian frontier and was immediately executed by the king .
| 3d0eecd5e6ceac25cd7fddc0e0a3b69d | 14,748 |
In general , Odaenathus ' actions were connected to his and Palmyra 's interests only ; his support of Gallienus and his Roman titles did not hide the Palmyrene base of his power and the local origin of his armies , as with his decision not to wait for the emperor to help in 260 . Odaenathus ' status seems to have been , as Watson put it , " something between powerful subject , independent vassal king and rival emperor " .
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= = = = Administration = = = =
| dbb392e291e44ba51760185c8f556801 | 14,751 |
Outside his kingdom , Odaenathus had an overall administrative and military authority over the provincial governors of the Roman eastern provinces . Inside Palmyra , no Roman provincial official had any authority ; the king filled the government with Palmyrene staffs . In parallelism to the Iranian practice of making the government appear as a family enterprise , Odaenathus bestowed his own gentilicium ( Septimius ) upon his leading generals and officials such as Zabdas , Zabbai and Worod .
| 42f8ba01f3b066eef0666432c3100e82 | 14,753 |
The Palmyrene constitutional institutions continued to function normally during Odaenathus ' reign ; he maintained the council and most civic establishments , permitting the election of magistrates until 264 . When Odaenathus was on campaign , the kingdom was administered by a viceroy , Septimius Worod .
| 4d0dca8fa18ebfc3c2c7e4b65a9a2da4 | 14,754 |
= = = = Second Persian campaign 266 = = = =
| 358f2abff7479cc4234c2daa2d243a24 | 14,756 |
Sources are silent regarding the events following the first Persian campaign but the silence in itself is an indication of the peace that prevailed and that the Persians stopped being a threat to the Roman East . The evidence for the second campaign is meager ; Zosimus is the only one to mention it specifically . A passage in the Sibylline Oracles is interpreted by Hartmann as an indication of the second invasion . The campaign took place in 266 or 267 and was aimed directly at Ctesiphon ; Odaenathus reached the walls of the Persian capital but had to cancel the siege and march north to face the influx of Germanic riders attacking Anatolia .
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= = = = Anatolian campaign = = = =
| dd7e930889550881bb5ef9a4ec6ec457 | 14,760 |
The Romans used the designation " Scythian " to denote many tribes regardless of ethnic origin and sometimes the term would be interchangeable with Goths ; the tribes attacking Anatolia were probably the Heruli who built ships to cross the Black Sea in 267 and ravaged the coasts of Bithynia @-@ Pontus besieging Heraclea Pontica . According to Syncellus , Odaenathus arrived at Anatolia with Hairan I and headed to Heraclea but the riders were already gone . They loaded the spoils onto their ships but many perished in a sea battle probably conducted by Odaenathus ; another possibility is that they were shipwrecked .
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= = Assassination = =
| 0e2f8dbdb3de19d06c2105890b452321 | 14,764 |
Odaenathus was assassinated along with Hairan I in late 267 ; the date is debated and some scholars propose 266 or 268 , but Vaballathus dated his first year of reign between August 267 and August 268 , making late 267 the most probable date . The assassination took place either in Anatolia , or in Syria while the king was returning to Palmyra ; there is no consensus on the manner , perpetrator or the motive behind the act .
| bc8a9cd581fca985f8b7cf917031ee49 | 14,766 |
According to Syncellus , Odaenathus was assassinated near Heraclea Pontica trying to quell a tribal incursion into Pontus ; he gives the name of the assassin as another Odaenathus who may or may not have been a relative of the king . The assassin was killed by the king 's bodyguard . Hartmann support the theory that Odaenathus was killed in Pontus .
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Zosimus simply mention that Odaenathus was killed by conspirators near Emesa at a friend 's birthday party without naming the killer . Zonaras attributes the crime to a nephew of Odaenathus but does not give a name .
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The Augustan History claims that a cousin of the king named Maeonius killed him , while the Anonymus post Dionem names the assassin as another Odaenathus .
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= = = Burial = = =
| ccf7e78d5ddd651a37aeb2c717d48ee5 | 14,771 |
The stone block found in the Temple of Bel bearing Odaenathus ' sepulchral inscription was brought from the tomb built by him ; this shrine 's location is unknown . At the western end of the Great Colonnade at Palmyra , a shrine designated the " Funerary Temple no . 86 " ( also known as the House Tomb ) is located . Inside its chamber , steps lead down to a vault crypt which is now lost . This mausoleum might have belonged to the royal family , being the only tomb inside the city 's walls .
| 5cdfcc642ad11a0a97d1d0e197aef2b3 | 14,773 |
= = = Assassination theories = = =
| 84a14cc8e1c4d3f59bf1663248103f6f | 14,775 |
Roman conspiracy : John Antiochenus accuse Gallienus of the assassination . An interesting passage in the work of the Anonymus post Dionem speaks of a certain " Rufinus " who orchestrated the assassination on his own initiative then explained his act to the emperor who condoned the crime . This story talks about Rufinus ordering the murder of an older Odaenathus out of fear that he would rebel , and has the younger Odaenathus complaining to the emperor . Since the older Odaenathus ( Odaenathus I ) was proved to be a fictional character , the story was neglected by most scholars . However , according to Theodor Mommsen , younger Odaenathus is an oblique reference to Vaballathus ; Rufinus should be identified with Cocceius Rufinus , the Roman governor of Arabia between 261 / 262 . The evidence for a Roman conspiracy is very weak and can not be confirmed .
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Family feud : According to Zonaras , Odaenathus ' nephew misbehaved during a lion hunt ; he made the first attack and killed the animal to the dismay of the king . Odaenathus warned the nephew who ignored the warning and repeated the act twice causing the king to deprive him of his horse which is a great insult in the East . The nephew threatened Odaenathus and was put in chains as a result ; Hairan I asked his father to forgive his cousin and his request was granted but as the king was drinking , the nephew approached him with a sword and killed him along with Hairan I. The bodyguard immediately executed the nephew .
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Zenobia : the wife of Odaenathus was accused by the Augustan History of having formerly conspired with Maeonius , as Hairan I was her stepson and she could not accept that he was the heir to her husband instead of her own children . However , there is no suggestion in the Augustan History that Zenobia was involved in the event that saw her husband 's murder ; the act is attributed to Maeonius ' degeneracy and jealousy . Those accounts by the Augustan History can be dismissed as fiction . The hints in modern scholarship that Zenobia had a hand in the assassination out of her desire to rule the empire and dismay with her husband 's pro @-@ Roman policy can be dismissed as there was no reversal of that policy during the first years following Odaenathus ' death .
| 8c619e5b555e769b1e99f952a4b84bda | 14,779 |
Persian agents or Palmyrene traitors : the possibility of a Persian involvement exists but the outcome of the assassination would not have served Shapur without establishing a pro @-@ Persian monarch on the Palmyrene throne . Another possibility would be Palmyrenes dissatisfied with Odaenathus ' reign and the changes of their city 's governmental system .
| 5a68dfe9b639fafd7b8976f9cb4f4ae3 | 14,780 |
= = Family and succession = =
| 6c5e3f6b87ae6c047f8d13b7d1ff88cc | 14,782 |
Odaenathus was married twice ; nothing is known about his first wife 's name or fate . Zenobia was the king 's second wife whom he married in the late 250s when she was 17 or 18 years old .
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The number of children Odaenathus had with his first wife is unknown and only one is attested :
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Hairan I : the name appears on a 251 inscription from Palmyra describing him as Ras implying that he was already an adult by then . In the Augustan History , Odaenathus ' eldest son is named Herod ; the inscription at Palmyra dating to 263 celebrating Hairan 's coronation mentions him with the name Herodianus . It is possible that Hairan of the 251 inscription is not the same as Herodianus of the 263 , but this is contested by Hartmann who conclude that the reason for the difference in the spelling is due to the language used in the inscription ( Herodianus being the Greek version ) , meaning that Odaenathus ' eldest son and co @-@ king is Hairan Herodianus .
| 95b5c4c0d2fdd25a9b3371c13f06ffc0 | 14,786 |
The children of Odaenathus and Zenobia are :
| 1fc58dbfd2e7f61d9e469bef6eedaffa | 14,787 |
Vaballathus : he is attested on several coins , inscriptions , and in the ancient literature .
| 39715008ee1bd1395ff56c93ee8b7009 | 14,788 |
Harian II : his image appear on a seal impression along with his older brother Vaballathus as the sons of Zenobia ; his identity is much debated . Potter suggest that he is the same as Herodianus who was crowned in 263 and that Hairan I mentioned in 251 died before the birth of Hairan II .
| d696f73623431caf14be2a6f49e9b2ef | 14,789 |
Herennianus and Timolaus : the two were mentioned in the Augustan History and are not attested in any other source ; Herennianus might be a conflation of Hairan and Herodianus while Timolaus is most probably a fabrication , although Dietmar Kienast suggest that he might be Vaballathus .
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Possible descendants of Odaenathus living in later centuries are reported ; " Lucia Septimia Patabiniana Balbilla Tyria Nepotilla Odaenathiana " is known through a dedication dating to the late third or early fourth century inscribed on a tombstone erected by a wet nurse to her " sweetest and most loving mistress " . The tombstone was found in Rome at the San Callisto in Trastevere . Another possible relative is " Eusebius " who is mentioned by Libanius in 391 as a son of an " Odaenathus " who was in turn a descendant from the king ; the father of Eusebius is mentioned as fighting against the Persians ( most probably in the ranks of emperor Julian ) . In 393 , Libanius mentioned that Eusebius promised him a speech written by Longinus for the king . In the fifth century , the philosopher " Syrian Odaenathus " lived in Athens and was a student of Plutarch of Athens ; he might have been a distant descendant of the king .
| 9d624435ed24afcc0cfeee6b8a16a29d | 14,791 |
The Augustan History claims that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a brief period before being killed by the soldiers . However , no inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius ' reign and he was probably killed immediately after assassinating the king . Odaenathus was succeeded by his son , the ten @-@ year @-@ old Vaballathus under the regency of Zenobia . Hairan II probably died soon after his father , as only Vaballathus succeeded to the throne .
| 4799a9518dd9056c825c99f17488ef69 | 14,792 |
= = Legacy = =
| b4fa22c13235a44f06adb277883cbe5d | 14,794 |
Odaenathus was the founder of the Palmyrene royal dynasty ; he left Palmyra the premier power in the East , and his actions laid the foundation of Palmyrene strength which culminated in the establishment of the Palmyrene Empire in 270 . Many writers wrote about deeds of Odaenathus ; Nicostratus of Trebizond probably accompanied the king on his campaigns and wrote a history of that period starting from Philip the Arab and ending shortly before the king 's death . According to Potter , Nicostratus ' account was meant to glorify Odaenathus and demonstrate his superiority over Roman emperors .
| 6bea2a9829c11573da35c9e68387a146 | 14,796 |
The memory of Odaenathus was highly esteemed in the Roman empire ; the Augustan History , written in the fourth century , places Odaenathus among the Thirty Tyrants ( probably because he assumed the title of king ) . However , it speaks highly of his role in the Persian war and credit him with saving the empire : " Had not Odaenathus , prince of the Palmyrenes , seized the imperial power after the capture of Valerian when the strength of the Roman state was exhausted , all would have been lost in the East " .
| 8bb6ef171508e2f004d9d1a4ae86bbc9 | 14,797 |
The king was praised by Libanius , and was the subject of a prophecy in the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle : " Then shall come one who was sent by the sun [ i.e. Odaenathus ] , a mighty and fearful lion , breathing much flame . Then he with much shameless daring will destroy ... the greatest beast — venomous , fearful and emitting a great deal of hisses [ i.e. Shapur ] " .
| 555904a8194e6718383af40dfc5d7c1e | 14,798 |
Odaenathus is viewed negatively in Rabbinic sources ; his sack of Nehardea mortified the Jews , and he was cursed by the Babylonian Jews and the Jews of Palestine .
| 1b0635c819e186f37cf5b12ed591e303 | 14,799 |
= Banksia violacea =
| e4ab69b72c3059e8df0d3ce0438e4c40 | 14,802 |
Banksia violacea , commonly known as violet banksia , is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia ( family Proteaceae ) . It generally grows as a small shrub to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) high with fine narrow leaves , and is best known for its unusually coloured dark purple @-@ violet inflorescences . The colour of the inflorescences , short leaves , and flattened follicles which are sticky when young , help identify this species from others in the field . It is found in low shrubland in southern regions of Western Australia from Esperance in the east to Narrogin in the west , growing exclusively in sandy soils .
| 8af1d6d8ddf1c57afe10c1a8bd85c188 | 14,804 |
First described in 1927 by the West Australian botanist Charles Gardner , the species was at one stage considered a variety of B. sphaerocarpa . Although there are no recognised subspecies or varieties , both lignotuberous and nonlignotuberous forms exist for Banksia violacea . Wasps , ants and flies have been recorded visiting flower spikes . Banksia violacea is classified as Not Threatened under the Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia . Regarded as of little value to floriculture , it is rarely cultivated .
| eafb21c5db6710f55f576e9d284857f3 | 14,805 |
= = Description = =
| 7096d9cc91723f919ab4f5acdab6bccb | 14,807 |
Banksia violacea grows as a shrub up to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) tall , with narrow leaves 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) long and about 0 @.@ 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 06 in ) wide . New growth occurs in summer , and flowering ranges from November to April with a peak in February , but can be irregular in timing . Flowers arise from typical Banksia " flower spikes " , and the inflorescences are made up of hundreds of pairs of flowers densely packed in a spiral around a woody axis . Roughly spherical with a diameter of 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) , the flower spikes arise from lateral stems lie partly within the foliage . Unusually for Banksia species , the inflorescences are often violet in colour , ranging anywhere from a dark violet @-@ black through various combinations of violet and greenish @-@ yellow in less pigmented blooms . Each flower consists of a tubular perianth made up of four fused tepals , and one long wiry style . The styles are hooked rather than straight , and are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts , but break free at anthesis . The old flowers gradually fade to brown . The fruiting structure or follicle is a stout woody " cone " , with a hairy appearance caused by the persistence of old withered flower parts . These follicles are crowded around the globular spike ( called an infructescence at this point ) and are oval to rhomboid , although the crowding makes some irregularly shaped . They measure 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 in ) long , 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) high and 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 9 in ) wide . They are quite flattened and lack a ridge along the valve line . When young , the follicles are greenish in colour and slightly sticky , and covered in fine white hairs , fading to tan or grey with age . They open with fire , releasing a winged wedge @-@ shaped ( cuneate ) seed 2 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 in ) long . The mottled dark grey seed body is falcate ( crescent @-@ shaped ) and measures 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 in ) long and 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 25 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) wide , with a flattened dark brown wing 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) wide . The woody separator has the same dimensions as the seed .
| 608077c8be8b0ead84a6234b6bcdef07 | 14,809 |
The bright green cotyledon leaves of the seedlings are oblong to linear in shape and measure 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) long by 0 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) wide . The greenish red hypocotyl is hairy , as are the stems of young plants . The hairy seedling leaves are crowded and oppositely arranged . They measure 0 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) in length and have recurved margins . Young plants often begin branching within their first year of life .
| dc659c911457bd760c3c648d10d733cb | 14,810 |
= = Taxonomy = =
| ecc91bdacd3691ba81b1bebd7a833abe | 14,812 |
The type specimen of Banksia violacea was collected by the West Australian botanist Charles Gardner on 14 December 1926 in the vicinity of Lake Grace . The following year , he published a description of the species in Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Western Australia . He placed it in section Oncostylis of Bentham 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia , giving it the specific epithet violacea in reference to the violet flowers . Thus the full name of the species , with author citation , is Banksia violacea C.A.Gardner. The species has been considered a variety of B. sphaerocarpa ( Fox Banksia ) ; this view was published by William Blackall in his 1954 How to know Western Australian wildflowers . He considered B. violacea to be a variety of B. sphaerocarpa with violet flowers . This description was an invalid publication , however , and a nomen nudum . In 1981 Alex George declared Banksia sphaerocarpa var. violacea Blackall a nomenclatural synonym of B. violacea .
| dd1e7d516e05b4cc79d15a922698e631 | 14,814 |
In George 's 1981 arrangement , B. violacea was placed in subgenus Banksia because its inflorescence is a typical Banksia " flower spike " ; section Oncostylis because of its hooked styles ; and series Abietinae because its inflorescence is roughly spherical . It was placed in taxonomic sequence between B. incana ( Hoary Banksia ) and B. meisneri ( Meissner 's Banksia ) .
| 6c059bb44626db13565b9a8c4a732b87 | 14,815 |
In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published the results of a cladistic analysis of morphological characters of Banksia . They retained George 's subgenera and many of his series , but discarded his sections . B. ser . Abietinae was found to be very nearly monophyletic and so it was retained . It further resolved into four subclades , so Thiele and Ladiges split it into four subseries . B. violacea appeared in the last of these :
| 01510a0fc84def372802af3484a442b1 | 14,816 |
This clade became the basis of B. subseries Longistyles , which Thiele defined as containing those taxa with very long and slender styles , smoothly convex perianth limbs without a costal ridge , and thickened margins . In accordance with their cladogram , their arrangement placed B. violacea first in taxonomic sequence , followed by B. laricina ( Rose @-@ fruited Banksia ) . However , Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement was not accepted by George , who , questioning the emphasis on cladistics , rejected most of their changes in his 1999 arrangement , restored B. series Abietinae to his broader 1981 definition , and abandoned all of Thiele and Ladiges ' subseries . George commented that the species has no close relatives , being " loosely allied " to B. sphaerocarpa ( Fox Banksia ) and B. telmatiaea ( Swamp Fox Banksia ) . Despite this , the sequence of the series was altered so that B. violacea fell between B. scabrella ( Burma Road Banksia ) and B. incana , and its placement in George 's arrangement may be summarised as follows :
| 34ad2c6205fe0dccb4929d1905a205a1 | 14,817 |
Banksia
| a460924b31af40411da7185920a706d1 | 14,818 |
B. subg . Banksia
| 9eb4d83df4f06533606284e240e1a836 | 14,819 |
B. sect . Banksia ( 9 series , 50 species , 9 subspecies , 3 varieties )
| 5e1353ad53c40ac41c3b858ba6f3ad1e | 14,820 |
B. sect . Coccinea ( 1 species )
| 73ff72cfc7c65d171aa9f0d8fe6575f2 | 14,821 |
B. sect . Oncostylis
| 5709bad503e44fd05e67500ce589402c | 14,822 |
B. ser . Spicigerae ( 7 species , 2 subspecies , 4 varieties )
| a11f57ef7f9167ec1cdf10c973167b2f | 14,823 |
B. ser . Tricuspidae ( 1 species )
| edcc4ec0fa8a40b11f3a4723bf99c436 | 14,824 |
B. ser . Dryandroideae ( 1 species )
| 8111a8a2cdc79bdd297286d59c100fb9 | 14,825 |
B. ser . Abietinae
| 6757e366e3038c52e4bb5f7b77c387ae | 14,826 |
B. sphaerocarpa ( 3 varieties )
| 00f20cd314a3461e3634d2160b98ece1 | 14,827 |
B. micrantha
| 668fd1e63de8d5ea1437c0c14d6cd4b8 | 14,828 |
B. grossa
| 25d1d0c9a516f7a78923ee8889465569 | 14,829 |
B. telmatiaea
| 642093e3e7f57f7adb563706fb2d4dd9 | 14,830 |
B. leptophylla ( 2 varieties )
| 6ef02f1a405c6115b250ef662c1f1eef | 14,831 |
B. lanata
| 85af5cd1c1eeafc08e73afe5aaab9738 | 14,832 |
B. scabrella
| c30e35122dfbe066ad0a054f22299c76 | 14,833 |
B. violacea
| ec0f3b97ca179c2a909734fc5bd056ff | 14,834 |
B. incana
| e87b346a31784db8f4b51f41a1dd9043 | 14,835 |
B. laricina
| 37181af2a6bb23601852d92dbd1bb48e | 14,836 |
B. pulchella
| 1635bcf9e1fff9c3592dc4d5825a78fd | 14,837 |
B. meisneri ( 2 subspecies )
| caee5dd8ac4ce043ae5726b6fe24a19e | 14,838 |
B. nutans ( 2 varieties )
| 4c995072d7ba7d784ca46e8cd2777f62 | 14,839 |
B. subg . Isostylis ( 3 species )
| 71b1a76ffd448a58d43a12787601122b | 14,840 |
Since 1998 , an American botanist , Austin Mast , has been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae . His analyses suggest a phylogeny that is very greatly different from George 's arrangement , and somewhat different from Thiele and Ladiges ' . With respect to B. violacea , Mast 's results agree with its placement near B. laricina and B. incana , placing it in a clade with these two species and B. sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla ( treated at species rank as B. dolichostyla ) . However , Thiele 's B. subseries Longistyles appears to be polyphyletic , as do both definitions of B. ser . Abietinae — that is , none form a natural grouping .
| 90e543060c5a62de06c38eea11e4fa0d | 14,841 |
Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement of Banksia by merging Dryandra into it , and publishing B. subgenus Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. violacea is placed in B. subgenus Spathulatae .
| af4a7d6f0f6aa3e1fe3fe957e508408d | 14,842 |
= = Distribution and habitat = =
| 9601e56467fdbcc8942e966c406b558c | 14,844 |
B. violacea occurs in southern regions of Western Australia , from Woodanilling to Esperance and as far north as Hyden . This distribution includes areas of the Avon Wheatbelt , Esperance Plains and Mallee biogeographic regions . It favours white sandy soils , often overlying laterite , clay or quartzite . It usually grows among heath and shrublands , associated with mallee eucalypts and Banksia sphaerocarpa var. caesia . Banksia violacea is classified as Not Threatened under the 1950 Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia .
| 8f3ef6238b59a88ab9b03d32df2fde1d | 14,846 |
= = Ecology = =
| 29127b9867a90fc3cc8539652bba90cc | 14,848 |
Like most other Proteaceae , Banksia violacea has proteoid roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These enhance solubilisation of nutrients , thus allowing their uptake in low @-@ nutrient soils such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient soils of Australia . B. violacea is highly susceptible to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback .
| 381ef3c31f4a3cd77ab46253d4e107c0 | 14,850 |
Banksia violacea is one of a small number of Banksia species that has both lignotuberous and non @-@ lignotuberous populations . In both cases , plants are adapted to release their aerial seed bank following a bushfire , ensuring seedlings are established on clear and relatively fertile ground ; however the possession of a lignotuber makes plants much less reliant on fire regime for population maintenance and regeneration , as maternal plants are not killed by bushfire , but resprout from below ground level . Lignotuberous plants generally occur among the north @-@ eastern populations , in the vicinity of Woodanilling . An investigation into the biogeography of these plants failed to find any vegetative , climatic or other environmental factors associated with the possession of a lignotuber .
| 6cdf9dbdf7b0e1d66b7e159c24a26c95 | 14,851 |
Banksia flowerheads in general play host to a variety of birds , mammals and insects . However , only wasps , ants and flies were recorded visiting flower spikes during observations for The Banksia Atlas in the mid @-@ 1980s .
| 830d158027793d2c9e135897f6b83101 | 14,852 |
= = Cultivation = =
| 3a4239981d8fa07525db605c5a9ccb8e | 14,854 |
Banksia violacea is rarely cultivated . It is a slow @-@ growing plant that tends to become untidy with age , and generally does not flower until four to five years after sprouting from seed . Flowers are an unusual colour , but occur within the bush where they grow within and are usually obscured by foliage . It tolerates light pruning not below the green foliage , except for the variant with a lignotuber , which may be pruned heavily . George recommends a sunny position in light , sandy soil . Professor Margaret Bernard Sedgley of the Waite Institute suggests the species is of no value to floriculture , as the inflorescences are too small and obscured by the foliage , although she does add that the purple colour may be a worthwhile character to select for in plant breeding . Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 19 to 50 days to germinate .
| 12bb1675ddd20baf94aded0447e502c8 | 14,856 |
= Rob Howard =
| bb6e0596f3c877c257d237c933b439b8 | 14,859 |
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