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U.S. to press Nigeria on foreign exchange rate flexibility 29 March 2016 Comments (0) Africa, Business, Latest Updates from Reuters Like By AfricaMe-Team WASHINGTON (Reuters) – The United States said on Monday it would press Nigeria in talks this week to adopt a more flexible foreign exchange rate to boost growth and investment in Africa’s largest economy. U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Africa, Linda Thomas-Greenfield, told an audience at the U.S. Institute of Peace that Nigeria should ensure that the value of the naira currency versus the U.S. dollar was “more realistic.” “While most people complain about the possibility of there being a devaluation, people are already operating on a devalued currency, and the only people who are not, are people who are doing it officially,” Thomas-Greenfield said. “Our recommendation is, and we will have discussions about it … that they should look at the exchange rate and try to make the exchange rate more realistic to what the value of the naira is to the dollar,” she added. She spoke before talks in Washington to be launched by Secretary of State John Kerry on Wednesday and which will focus on Nigeria’s economy, security and development. Nigeria faces its worst economic crisis in decades as the falling price of oil has slashed revenues, prompting the central bank to peg the currency and introduce curbs to protect foreign exchange reserves, which have fallen to an 11-year low. Some members of Nigeria’s central bank monetary policy committee have said the naira should be devalued. Thomas-Greenfield said the parallel currency market in Nigeria was “alive and well,” warning that a rigid exchange rate, capital controls and import bans could undermine President Muhammadu Buhari’s efforts to expand economic growth and fight corruption. Buhari has rejected the idea of devaluing the naira. “Capital controls that limit access to foreign exchange rewards insiders and undermines the stated goals of Nigeria to increase domestic production because both Nigerian and expat investors alike tell us many businesses are unable to obtain the capital to purchase badly needed intermediate goods,” she said. The naira trades some 40 percent below the official rate on the black market versus the dollar. The central bank last year pegged the exchange rate to curb speculative demand for the dollar and conserve foreign exchange reserves after it restricted access to hard currency for imports of certain items, frustrating businesses. The International Monetary Fund called on Nigeria to lift the curbs and let the naira reflect market forces more closely, as the restrictions have significantly affected the private sector. (Reporting by Lesley Wroughton; Editing by Tom Brown and Peter Cooney) nigerian naira, united states Africa, Business, Latest Updates from Reuters U.S. to press Nigeria on foreign exchange rate flexibility Mali militia says it obtains U.S. military vehicle... Nigerian exchange bureau head urges rate unification Nigeria to sell 140 bln naira bonds on... Twitter FeedFollow @Africa-me tweets Danièle Sassou Nguesso : Breaking Down Gender Barriers 20 January 20209:53 am John Dodelande, curator of contemporary art, launches a reference database for Chinese Contemporary Art 16 January 202010:45 am Anbessa: Best Foot Forward for This Ethiopian Shoemaker 06 January 20204:35 pm Transmashholding’s African Adventure 23 December 20196:04 pm We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. If you continue we assume that you consent to receive all our cookies.
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Shaping the Change President Univ.-Prof. Dr. -Ing. Holger Magel, 2003-2006 Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Holger Magel Date of birth 3 May 1944 Status Married - wife Ansi Emeritus of Excellence Technische Universität München has published an article about Holger Magel and his achievements. Read the article Univ.Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. Holger Magel, born in Neuburg/Donau in 1944. After doing A-levels in 1963 studies of Geodesy at the Munich Technische Hochschule up to 1968. After first experiences with a sworn engineer's office in Graz completion of the Bavarian Traineeship, and leadership of Land Consolidation measures in Upper and Lower Bavaria. From 1975 to 1978 position of a curator of the newly established Chair of Rural Development and Land Consolidation at the Munich Technische Universität. In 1977 obtaining the degree of a Doktor-Ingenieur about rural planning. Acting with the Bavarian State Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Forestry in the Rural Development Department since 1978, in charge of building up the Bavarian Village Renewal Programme as well as establishing a new Method of Landscape and Regionalplanning within Rural Development. Since 1 Febr. 1995 Head of the Rural Development Department and Director General of the Bavarian Administration of Rural Development. Since 1986 lectures for geodesists, civil engineers and geographers at the Munich Bundeswehr University (up to 1990) and the Munich Technische Universität. In 1993 appointment as an honorary professor for Rural Development at the Munich Technische Universität. President of the Bavarian Academy "Ländlicher Raum" (Rural Areas) since 1994. Advisor of the European Commission for Rural Development in Eastern Germany in 1992/93; chairman of the German Bund-Länder Team for Village Renewal from 1984 - 1995; member of the board of the European Association for Rural Development and Village Renewal. Chair of the working group land readjustment and land economics of the German Geodetic Commission since 2004 Acting as an expert in Eastern- and South Europe as well as in Asia and South America. More than 250 expert publications and books on land consolidation, Village renewal ,landscape planning , rural development and civil society. Many lectures at home and abroad. Member of several scientific institutions and NGO. Vice-President (since 1999 ) and then President of the International Federation of Surveyors, 2002-2006. Since 1 Jan. 1998 Full Professor and Director of Institute. Changing FIG – Model for a Changing World. Farewell speech at the Handover Ceremony on 2 December 2006 in Münster, Germany. Speech in English Speech in German FIG Vision, Mission and Activities - Promoting Sustainable Development. Luncheon Address at the Hong Kong Institute of Surveyors (HKIS), 2 November 2006. Handouts of the powerpoint presentation FIG President’s Welcome Address to the 50th Anniversary Celebration of WTSUM. Wuhan, China P. R., 28 October 2006. President Holger Magel: From Surveying to Geomatics and Land Management. About Future Perspectives of a Changing Discipline and Profession. Presentation at the 14th International Conference on Geoinformatics (Geoinformatics 2006) – The 21st Century’s Geoinformatics. Wuhan, China P.R., October 28-29, 2006. Shaping the Change 2002-2006 – The German Period of FIG. FIG President’s Address at the Opening Ceremony of the XXIII FIG Congress in Munich on 10 October 2006. Shaping the Change - Congress Summary. Closing Address by FIG President at the Closing Ceremony of the XXIII FIG Congress in Munich on 13 October 2006. slides of the presentation Geographic Information for Sustainable Development – Global Trends and Perspectives. Keynote Speech at the 5th Map Asia, 30 August 2006 in Bangkok. About FIG’s and Surveyors Contributions to building a better world. Keynote presentation at the International Geodetic Students Meeting, Cracow, Poland 30 June 2006. Closing Remarks at the Habitat Professionals Forum's Networking Event "Public Engagement: The Inclusive Approach" by Chair of the Habitat Professionals Forum, Univ.-Prof. Holger Magel, FIG President, at the 3rd World Urban Forum, Vancouver, Canada 22 June 2006. Opening Remarks at the Habitat Professionals Forum's Networking Event "Public Engagement: The Inclusive Approach" by Chair of the Habitat Professionals Forum, Univ.-Prof. Holger Magel, FIG President, at the 3rd World Urban Forum, Vancouver, Canada 22 June 2006. Statement at the GLTN Round Table on Gendering Land Tools by FIG President Professor Dr.-Ing. Holger Magel, at the 3rd World Urban Forum, Vancouver, Canada 21 June 2006. FIG Statement at the Global Land Tools Network (GLTN) - Networking Event at the 3rd World Urban Forum, Vancouver, Canada 20 June 2006. From secure tenure towards urban and rural land management - about FIG’s role serving the needs of politics and societies. Presentation at the UNECE WPLA Workshop on Institutional Framework for Securing Real Property Rights in Tbilisi, Georgia 11 May 2006 Zur Zukunft der Geodäsie aus globaler Perspektive. Grußwortadresse zum 9. Österreichischen Geodätentag 2006 am 03. Mai 2006 in Krems Surveyors Contributions to Science and Society. Welcome address at GEOFORUM 2006, Lviv/Javoriv; Ukraine, 6 April 2006 Closing remarks at the 5th FIG Regional Conference in Accra, Ghana. 10th March 2006. Opening Address at the 5th FIG Regional Conference in Accra, Ghana. 8 March 2006. Slides of the powerpoint presentation About Surveyors’ Commitment, Role and Education for Society and Sustainable Development. Keynote Address at the Opening Ceremony of the 8th SEASC 2005 on 22 November 2005 in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam Closing Remarks. Closing Ceremony of the 8th SEASC 2005 in Brunei Darussalam, 25 November 2005 Building Modern Land Administration Systems in Developed Economies – Aspects and Experiences from Germany. Presentation at the Expert Group Meeting “Incorporating Sustainable Objectives into ICT, Enabled Land Administration Systems”, Melbourne, Australia, 9–11 November 2005 Handouts of powerpoint presentation About the Identity, Sociopolitical Role and Technical Tasks of Surveyors on the National and International Stage. Keynote Speech at the 43rd National Conference of Consiglio Nazionale Geometri - New horizons of the profession: Guarantees for the society in evolution, Palermo, Italy 17-22 October 2005 Opening Speech at the 43rd National Conference of Consiglio Nazionale Geometri, Palermo, Italy 18 October 2005 The resources of rural areas. A plea for sustainable land management and an active civil society. Abstract of Presentation at the 5th European Congress on Village Renewal, St. Pölten, Austria, 21 September 2005 About the need of centres of capacity building in urban and rural development. Presentation of President Holger Magel, Chair of the Steering Committee of the Habitat Professionals Forum at the Habitat Professionals Forum Session at the XXII Congress of UIA in Istanbul, Turkey, 5 July 2005. Surveyors should look after their identity. Address by President Holger Magel at the 60th anniversary celebrations of the Polish Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography (GUGIK), Warsaw, Poland, 23 June 2005. Article of the presentation and visit in the Przeglad Geodezyjny, Rok LXXVII, 2005 Nr. 9 (in Polish) Conference Summary. Closing Speech by FIG President, Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Holger Magel at the FIG Working Week and the 8th GSDI Conference Cairo, Egypt, 21 April 2005 From Pharaohs to Geoinformatics – Shaping the Change. Opening Speech by FIG President, Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Holger Magel at the FIG Working Week and the 8th GSDI Conference Cairo, Egypt, 17 April 2005 Vermessung urbi et orbi – Gedanken über glokale Geodäten. Festansprache von FIG Präsident Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Holger Magel zum 50. Geburtstag von FIG-Vizepräsident Dr.-Ing. Andreas Drees. Münster/Westfalen, Germany, 19 March 2005 Surveyors and Politics – the Need for Dialogue. FIG Monthly Article, January 2005 based on the purely orally given lecture at the RICS as the “Christmas Lecture” of the Geomatics Faculty, December 2, 2004. Memorandum of Understanding between the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs (OOSA) and FIG. Speech by Prof. Holger Magel, President of FIG at the signing ceremony in Vienna, December 13, 2004 New Challenges to Education in Geodesy and Geoinformation. Presentation held at the Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering of the University of Ljubljana, October 1, 2004. Surveying the Future – Contributions to Economic, Environmental and Social Development in Urban and Rural Areas, Opening keynote address at the 3rd FIG Regional Conference for Asia and the Pacific, Jakarta October 4, 2004 Surveying the Future – Contributions to Economic, Environmental and Social Development, Closing address, recommendations and the Jakarta Statement at the 3rd FIG Regional Conference for Asia and the Pacific, Jakarta October 6, 2004 FIG Meets the Arab World of Surveyors. Opening Keynote Address at the 2nd International Scientific Conference in Beirut, Lebanon, 21 September 2004. Closing Speech and Conclusions of the FIG Working Week 2004. Closing address at the FIG working Week 2004 in Athens, Greece 27 May 2004. Slides as .pdf-file Breathing the Olympic Spirit - The Mission of FIG in the 21st Century. Opening speech at the FIG Working Week 2004 in Athens, Greece, 23 May 2004. Greeting to the Ingenieurvermessung 2004 - 14th International Conference on Engineering Surveying. 15-19 March, Zürich, Switzerland Land Policy and Land Administration - A Challenge for Surveyors. Visions and Experiences in Germany. Keynote presentation at the Annual Surveying Congress of the Danish Association of Chartered Surveyors, DdL, 31 January 2004 Welcome Address at the Annual Surveying Congress of the Danish Association of Chartered Surveyors, DdL, 30 January 2004 The FIG Agenda - Some Remarks and Insights. Welcome Address at the Annual Surveying Congress of the Danish Association of Chartered Surveyors, DdL, 31 January 2004 Handouts of slides as .pdf-file Urban-Rural-Interrelationship for Sustainable Development. FIG President Professor Dr-Ing. Holger Magel. Keynote speech at the Opening Ceremony of the 2nd FIG Regional Conference in Marrakech, Morocco, 2nd December 2003 Conclusions and FIG-Responses of the 2nd FIG Regional Conference “Urban-Rural Interrelationship for Sustainable Environment”. Prof. Holger Magel, FIG President’s Closing Speech, Marrakech, 2-5 December 2003 Spatial Information Management for Sustainable Development. Public Lecture. Surveyors Week 2003, October 26-31, 2003,Kingston, Jamaica. (Day of lecture: October 30, 2003) Shaping the Change: Visions on surveying and surveyors in the new century. Lecture at the University of Technology. Surveyors Week 2003, October 26-31, 2003,Kingston, Jamaica. (Day of lecture: October 29, 2003 An Obligation to Say What We Think. Interview at the GIM International, August 2003 Bridging the Gap: About Integrating Survey and GIS. Opening Speech at the ESRI “Survey and GIS Summit - Bridging the Gap 2003”, San Diego, CA, USA, 6 July, 2003 FIG Article of the Month - August 2003 About Surveyor's Contribution to a Free and Vital Society and Economy, Opening Speech at UN/ECE Committee on Human Settlements WPLA Workshop, Athens, Greece, May 29, 2003 About the Future of Cities, Speech ob behalf of the Habitat Professionals Forum and FIG at a Parallel event during the 19th Session of the UN-HABITAT Governing Council, Nairobi, Kenya, May 9, 2003 Opening Speech at the FIG Working Week and 125th Anniversary in Paris, April 13, 2003 Land Policy and Land Management in Germany, Public lecture at The University of Melbourne, 6 February, 2003 Address at the FIG Handover during the Intergeo 2002 in Frankfurt 16 October 2002 - in German Ressource Architektur - Perspektivenund Positionen aus der Sicht der International Federation of Surveyors (FIG). Contribution to the Closing Plenary "Perspectives and Visions" of the XXI International Congress of UIA, organised by the International Union of Architects, Berlin, Germany, 26 July 2002 Sustainable Land Development and Land Management in Urban and Rural Areas - About Surveyors' Contribution to Building a Better World. Keynote Presentation at the International Conference on Spatial Information Management for Sustainable Development, Nairobi, Kenya 2-5 October 2001, organised by FIG, ISK and UNCHS(Habitat) Welcome Address at the International Conference on Spatial Information Management for Sustainable Development, Nairobi, Kenya, 2 October 2001, organised by FIG, ISK and UNCHS(Habitat) Closing Address and Conclusions at the International Conference on Spatial Information Management for Sustainable Development, Nairobi, Kenya, 4 October 2001, organised by FIG, ISK and UNCHS(Habitat) Grußwort zur 200-Jahr Feier der Bayerischen Vermessungsverwaltung. 20 June 2001, Munich, Germany Acrobat file (pdf-file) (16 KB) Access to Land and Security of Tenure as a Condition for Sustainable Human Development. Keynote introduction at the Discussion of the Global Campaign for Secure Tenure organized by the Habitat Professionals Forum. The United Nations Special Session for an overall review and appraisal of the implementation of the Habitat Agenda, New York, USA, 6 June 2001. Overheads (pdf-file) (17 KB) Conference résumé and presentation of the Potsdam Declaration rural 21“. (Veröffentlichung in: Tagungsband/Conference Volume rural 21. Hrsg.: Bundesministerium für Verbraucherschutz, Ernährung und Landwirtschaft, Bonn, 2001, S. 63 – 77.) Acrobat file (.pdf-file), English Surveying and Politics - A Relationship of Mutual Benefit. Keynote address at the Plenary Session "Visions on Surveying" at the International Conference "New Technology for a New Century", FIG Working Week, 6-11 May 2001, Seoul, Republic of Korea Acrobat file (pdf-file) (7KB) Columns of President Holger Magel December 2006: Geospatial Information Technology a Means to More Democracy. Interview with Prof. Holger Magel, FIG President December 2005: Committed to Africa? Interview - September 2005: Quo Vadis European Surveying, Geodesy and Geomatics? Interview with Prof. Holger Magel, President of FIG September 2005: Academics and Practitioners Bridging the Gap June 2005: From Pharaohs to Where? Viewpoint - April/May 2005: New Challenges to Education in Geodesy and Geoinformation. Master of Science Program in Land Management and Land Tenure at TU Munich. Material provided by Prof. Holger Magel and edited by Joc Triglav. March 2005: Where Were You When...? December 2004: Why Are Surveyors so Thinly Represented in the Planning Processes? September 2004: Strengthening the Voice of Surveying and Geospatial Information Societies June 2004: Survey and GIS - There Is Still a Need of Bridging the Gap March 2004: Politics is Such a Bad Thing - We Don't Like to Get Involved in It GIM International October 2006: GIM Interviews FIG President Holger Magel: Well-Grounded Specialised Generalists October 2005: Insider's View: Bridging the GAP: Survey and Planning May 2004: Together Stronger and More Influential Other columns and Interviews The role of education in surveyors' commitment to society and sustainable development. Article on CES April 2006 (Civil Engineering Surveyors, UK). Adapted from President Magel's keynoteaddress at the opening of the 8th SEASC in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam The Role of Surveying is Critical. Interview on GIS Development, January 2006. “The role of surveying is paramount and critical”. Interview on GIS Development, January 2006, web version: http://www.gisdevelopment.net/interview/previous/ev077.htm For a Sustainable Future. Interview in Geospatial Today, November-December 2005 President Magel can be contacted either through the FIG permanent office in Copenhagen or his private address. International Federation of Surveyors E-mail: FIG@fig.net Fax +45 3886 0252 Univ. Prof. Dr.-Ing. Holger Magel FIG President Director of Institute of Geodesy, GIS and Land Management Center of Land Management and Land Tenure Arcisstrasse 21 Tel. + 49 89 289 22535 Fax + 49 89 289 23933 Email: magel@landentwicklung-muenchen.de 12 March 2003 - updated 28 December 2006
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40 Year Itch 40 Year Itch : Three We Missed [Purchase] This is the end of the month round-up of albums I didn't get to for one reason or another. Radio has such a short memory. When Dave Edmunds released "I Hear You Knockin" in 1971, there wasn't anything else like it getting played. The music of Chuck Berry, Fats Domino and Smiley Lewis couldn't be heard anymore. For his debut album, Rockpile, Edmunds recorded the music of his idols, a few originals and some surprising covers: Neil Young's "Dance Dance Dance", Ron Davies's "It Ain't Easy" (which would also show up on David Bowie's Ziggy Stardust a month later) and "Down, Down, Down" from The Move's Trevor Burton. Everything great thing Dave Edmunds has ever done can be heard in these three glorious minutes. No sophomore slump for Los Angeles slacker boogie artists Little Feat. The critically acclaimed Sailin' Shoes features a second version of Lowell George's classic "Willin'" which I don't think I'll ever get tired of listening to. I managed to grow up without hearing a lot of Little Feat. Even when I bought Dixie Chicken I didn't listen to it much. In college I had The Neville Brothers and Radiators delivering the same kind of dazed funk --the air on campus smelling like ripe magnolias and sweet weed. In New Orleans "Sailin' Shoes" meant the Robert Palmer cover version recorded with The Meters. It's still taking some time for me to get into this one. Where am I going wrong? 1972 was a great year for Italian progressive rock. We got the first two albums from Premiata Forneria Marconi (the name means Award-Winning Macaroni Bakery) and the first two albums from Banco Del Mutuo Soccorso ("Tour the Mutual Aid"?) as well as Le Orme 's Uomo di Pezza.. Founded by brothers Vittorio and Gianni Nocenzi, Banco specialized in complex, symphonic prog rock a la Emerson Lake and Palmer or Gentle Giant. Frankly, it's not the kind of stuff I listen to for pleasure. The follow-up Darwin!, released later in the year, is said to be their masterpiece. Labels: Dave Edmunds, Gentle Giant, Little Feat 40 Year Itch: A Rockin Night on the Telly On May 30, 1972, you could flip on Granada and see Argent perform their Top 5 hit "Hold Your Head Up" then flip over to The Old Grey Whistle Test to see Dutch prog rockers Focus yodel their way through "Hocus Pocus". In fact fans were so wild about "Hocus Pocus", Sire Records released the single in October and watched in astonishment as the song hit #20 in the UK and #9 in the US. 40 Year Itch: Two Guys Named Bobby I don't know anything about women. But I have a good excuse. I've only been married ten years. I only have one daughter. I've only had one mother, three stepmothers, one sister, two half sisters and a step sister. But I know good advice when I hear it. And no song offers better advice about women than Bobby Womack's "Woman's Gotta Have It". Like half of Bobby's songs it begins with a moment on the pulpit: Fellas I wonder would you mind if I talked to ya for a minute. You know, sometimes we have the tendency, or should I say we forget, what a woman needs every now and then. That is if you wanna keep your thing together. And then we learn the rules of keeping your woman happy 1. Keep a smile on her face 2. Say the things that make her feel better every day 3. Mind your p's and q's. 4. Make her know she's needed 5. When you kiss her, make her feel it 6. Make her feel secure so she know she's not walking on shaky ground 7. Don't take her for granted even if she's got a smile on her face. "Woman's Gotta Have It" is the stand out track from Understanding, released May 29, 1972. But not the only noteworthy song. "Harry Hippie", a B side to Womack's cover of "Sweet Caroline", became a top ten R and B hit. Sadly, Bobby had a free spirited brother named Harry who was killed by a jealous girlfriend years after the song was released. "I Can Understand It' is a groovy six minute jam. Our deep cut is "Got To Get You Back" co-written by Jerry Lynn Williams who also wrote Delbert McClinton's hit "Givin It Up For Your Love" and Eric Clapton's "Promises". Good stuff all around Womack, recently declared cancer free by doctor, has a new Damon Albarn produced album coming out June 12, The Bravest Man in The Universe. Bobby Weir also released his first solo album , Ace, in May of 1972. But to call this a solo album might be stretching the definition. Every member of the Dead except Pigpen and Micky Hart played on Ace and almost every song became a staple of the Dead's live repertoire. Especially "Playing In The Band" and "One More Saturday Night". Our deep cut is "Cassidy", named after the daughter of a crew member and family friend and featuring allusions to Beat associate Neal Cassady. The phrase "Catch-colt" refers to colt born to a mare who accidentally bred with the wrong stallion. Must have made for some awkward birthday parties for "Uncle Bob". Labels: 1972 40 Year Itch: Southern Child In May of 1972 Little Richard wrapped the last of his string of poorly selling albums for Reprise Records by knocking out ten tracks for the album Southern Child. Despite shooting an album cover with Little Richard milking a cow, Southern Child wasn't released until, get this, January 2005 ( 32 years later on a Rhino Records anthology). You won't find a piano on any track. And you won't hear any squealing. This is Richard Wayne Penniman rediscovering his roots, perhaps inspired by Taj Mahal, with some of the best session musicians around ( Earl Palmer on drums, Lee Allen on sax and "Sneaky" Pete Kleinow on pedal steel). The track "If You Pick Her Too Hard (She Comes Out of Tune") has hit legend status in the blogosphere thanks to Moistworks among others. Labels: 1972, Little Richard 40 Year Itch : Messin With Jim A former truck driver, and a man who knew how to hammer nails into wood, Jim Croce was a common man with an uncommon ability to write instant classics. His ABC Records debut You Don't Mess Around With Jim, released in May of 1972, sounds like a greatest hits album with the Top 10 title track, the masterful Top 20 hit "Operator", "Photographs And Memories" and "Time in A Bottle" which would hit #1 19 months later--its lyrics (There never seems to be enough time/ To do the things you want to do/ Once you find them) suffused with meaning following Croce's fatal plane crash in September of 1973. Croce's death propelled this album past the million sales mark to the top of the album charts. "New York's Not My Home" tells about the period in the late 60's when Jim and wife Ingrid tried to make it as a duo. Though all the streets are crowded There's something strange about it Lived there 'bout a year and I never once felt at home I though I'd make the big time I learned a lot of lessons awful quick Ingrid is still alive, maintaining a website in honor of her husband and running a San Diego eatery, Croce's Restaurant and Jazz Bar. "My work has been to keep Jim's music and his memory out there," she told The San Diego Downtown News. "That's in appropriate places. I'm not interested in selling something I don't believe in. I don't want to see wine or perfume out there for "Time in a Bottle." I don't want something out there that's not quality." 40 Year Itch : The Who Record "Relay" Forget what you've heard about Al Gore inventing the internet. Listen to the lyrics Pete Townshend wrote for "Relay" , recorded on May 26, 1972 at Olympic Studios, and you might think he's commenting on social media circa 2012. In fact, Pete introduced the song at the Glastonbury Festival in 2007 in this way : When you look up on the stage and see all these old fuckers up here talking about the Internet, well in 1971 I wrote a song which we’re about to play which is about the Internet… From tree to tree, From you to me, Travelling twice as fast as on any freeway. Ev'ry single dream Is wrapped up in the scheme, They all get carried on the relay. "Pass it on." Someone disapproves Of what you say or do, I was asked to see what I could learn you; Don't believe your eyes, They're seeing only lies, What is done in the first place don't concern you. "Relay" was released in the winter of 1972, reaching #21 in the UK and #39 in the US. It was one of three great singles ( the others are "Let's See Action" and "Join Together") from the aborted Lifehouse project that helped string fans along between Who's Next and Quadrophenia. Had The Who released the Lifehouse rock opera, "Relay" would have come near the end of the album between "Slip Kid" ( from The Who By Numbers) and "Who Are You". The single's B side is "Waspman" written by Keith Moon. 40 Year Itch: Teen Idol Bares All David Cassidy posed naked ( for photographer Annie Leibovitz) and revealed his drug use in the May 11th, 1972 issue of Rolling Stone. "The Business of David Cassidy" --which at that point included a Top Ten version of "Cherish" and a hit TV show called "The Partridge Family "-- would never be the same. It pissed off everybody that was really profiting from the business of David Cassidy. I had fan letters that came to me--and there were hundreds of thousands of them, literally-- in defense of me by fans of mine, that said, "Oh David, I know that you couldn't possibly have done this because I know that you would never have posed nude for photographs", And the fact was, I had, willingly done so, had thought about it. I scratched my head and thought, you know, this David Cassidy business has really gotten outta hand. ~ David Cassidy 40 Year Itch: Carpenters Down Under The Carpenters play Festival Hall in Melbourne on May 24, 1972. At the time "Hurting Each Other" , from the upcoming album A Song For You, was #20 on the Australian charts. It would move up to #9 the following week and remain in the Top 10 until August 5. The song peaked at #2 on the US Billboard charts. The Carpenters, brother and sister Richard and Karen, were both millionaires and both still lived at home with their parents. 00:02 - Help [lesser sound quality] 02:37 - Love Is Surrender [lesser sound quality] 04:30 - *Richard explains harmonies 07:30 - Ticket To Ride 11:40 - For All We Know 14:06 - Close To You 17:37 - Cinderella Rockefella 19:35 - Superstar 23:16 - *Band Introduction 26:47 - Medley --------- Any Day Now --------- Baby It's You --------- Make It Easy On Yourself --------- There's Always Something There To Remind Me --------- Walk On By --------- Do You Know The Way To San Jose? 39:04 - Hurting Each Other 42:28 - We've Only Just Begun at 2:00 AM 1 comment: Labels: 1972, The Carpenters 40 Year Itch : Bedroom Secrets Kris Kristofferson met Rita Coolidge in November 1970 at an LA airport. Both were catching the same plane to Tennessee. When Rita got off in Memphis, Kris followed her. The pair would get married in 1973 and record several albums as a duet before their divorce eight years later. Here, from May 23, 1972 episode of The Old Grey Whistle Test is an abbreviated version of Kristofferson's classic "Help Me Make It Through The Night". The two lovers share shy and intimate glances. One of television's steamiest moments ever! Labels: 1972, Kris Kristofferson, Rita Coolidge 40 Year Itch: The Guess Who Is God On May 22, 1972 The Guess Who recorded their sold out concert at Seattle's Paramount Theatre. Steve Wilson, then 16, was one of the thousands of people who paid $3.75 a ticket to see the band. He drove up from the other side of Tacoma and got to The Paramount early enough to get decent seats. So you fought for a seat and then during the show most of the people ended up standing on the seats and breaking them. I was actually pretty scared because people around me were smoking pot and I was pretty young at the time. I remember singing along once I finally calmed down, but to tell you the truth I wasn't the biggest Guess Who fan. It was the fact that I got to go to a show. That was the thing! Fans heard "These Eyes", "Undun" and "Share The Land" but the only major hit that made it to the original live album was a 17 minute version of the band's Number 1 hit "American Woman". This is the song legendary rock critic Lester Bangs celebrated in a review that led him to declare "The Guess Who is God": I saw the Guess Who do this version of “American Woman” live a year ago, and I have never been more offended by a concert. Just as he does on the record, Burton Cummings indulged himself in a long, extremely cranky rumination on Yankee Yin, in a sort of fallen-out Beat poetic style: American bitch American cunt American slut American lesbian American schoolgirl American beaver etc., etc., etc. Wouldn’t you be offended by this Canuck creep coming down here taking all our money while running down our women? Sure you would! Until you realized, as I did, eventually, that that kind of stuff is exactly what makes the Guess Who great. They have absolutely no taste at all, they don’t even mind embarrassing everybody in the audience, they’re real punks without even working too hard at it. Like a lot of people there, Steve was surprised The Guess Who put out a live album of the concert. But of course he bought it and ,even today, he can point to a shadow on the back cover and say that's him. The new CD adds six bonus tracks and is gloriously remastered. Burton Cummings has an amazing voice and the band is incredibly tight. Great stuff! Steve Wilson is right .............here + Labels: 1972, Guess Who 40 Year Itch: Inside a Rolling Stones Rehearsal The Rolling Stones gather in a closed movie house in Montreux, Switzerland on May 21st to rehearse for the upcoming "Cocaine and Tequila Sunrise" North American tour. With a baby on the way, Keith and Anita decided to clean up their act . Going "cold turkey" in the US, England or France was not an option so they went to a clinic in Vevey, Switzerland, four miles from Montreux. It is fucking awful. ..the whole body just sort of turns itself inside out and rejects itself for three days...your skin crawls, your guts churning, you can't stop your limbs from jerking and moving about, and you're throwing up and shitting at the same time. --Keith Richards on going cold turkey in his book LIFE It was while getting clean that Keith says he wrote "Angie". Labels: 1972, Rolling Stones 40 Year Itch : Shoo Bee Doo Wah Great 1972 single from Shocking Blue, the Dutch band that brought us "Venus". The band put out three albums in 1972. A bit later this year we'll check out Shocking Blue Live In Japan. Labels: 1972, Shocking Blue 40 Year Itch : The State of Teenage Blues For tax reasons, his accountants suggested Elton John--like The Rolling Stones-- record his albums outside the UK. That's how Honky Chateau, released May 19, 1972, got recorded at the Chateau d'Hierouville, a 17th Century chateau in the french countryside . Guitarist Davey Jonstone joined Dee Murray and Nigel Olsson in Elton's band. They would meet for meals and then walk a few yards through a courtyard to Strawberry Studios, a 16 track recording studio. Lyricist Bernie Taupin says songs could be written in 20 minutes, rehearsed in an hour and recorded that afternoon: It was literally like a music factory. I'd be upstairs in my bedroom, writing at top speed. I'd give each set of lyrics straight to Elton at the piano. In just three weeks the album was finished. It would hit #1 in July and stay there for five weeks thanks in part to a hit single Elton thought was too slow. It's opening line came to Taupin as he was driving alone in Lincolnshire: "She packed my bags last night preflight. zero hour is 9 am". I remember jumping out of the car and running into my parents house shouting "Please dont anyone talk to me until I've written this down." "Rocket Man" peaked at # 6 in the US and # 12 in the UK. Among other well known cuts: the #8 US hit "Honky Cat" and "Mona Lisas and Mad Hatters" which Elton dedicated to emergency works and New York City during The Concert For New York City. Our "deep cuts" selection is "I Think I'm Going to Kill Myself", probably the most upbeat song ever written about teenage suicide. Former Bonzo Dog drummer "Legs" Larry Smith performs the tap dancing on the track. Honky Chateau has a great feel and it is little wonder Elton John returned to the Chateau d' Hierouville to record Don't Shoot Me I'm Only The Piano Player and Goodbye Yellow Brick Road. He's not the only one who liked the vibe here. T.Rex recorded The Slider, David Bowie recorded Low and The Bee Gees recorded "How Deep Is Your Love" and "Staying Alive" here. 40 Year Itch : Clouds In My Coffee 40 years ago this month Carly Simon met producer Richard Perry at his Laurel Canyon house and played him a new song called "Ballad of a Vain Man". As Sheila Weller writes in Girls Like Us , the song had been written in four parts. Carly sketched out a melody with the chorus "Bless You Ben". Then on an airplane her musician seatmate pointed to his cup and said "Doesn't that look like clouds in my coffee?" Then, thinking back on some of the men in her life she wrote her most famous lyric "You're so vain; I betcha think this song is about you". It all came together when a man she knew walked into a party ( "like he was walking onto a yacht"). Weller suggests the way Warren Beatty and Jack Nicholson shared girls led to the line "You gave away the things you loved; And one of them was me". When Carly sat down to play "Ballad of a Vain Man" on that May day, Perry grabbed his bongos and started pounding out a thunderous beat. The first time he heard the song Perry says he knew it would be a hit. Released on December 2, 1972, with backing vocals from Mick Jagger, "You're So Vain" topped the charts for three weeks in January. Frankly, I've read so much about who might be the subject of the song, I've stopped caring. Labels: 1972, Carly Simon 40 Year Itch : A Bra To Fit A Car When In The Land Of The Grey And Pink failed to sell in big numbers, Caravan co-founder David Sinclair left the band to join Robert Wyatt in Matching Mole. So the kings of the Canterbury Scene brought jazz keyboardist Steve Miller aboard and made a very pleasant album full of bouncy pop and long Traffic-like jams. For those who might have missed the sex-capades of "Golf Girl", Caravan offers up "Waterloo Lily" herself: Waterloo Lily's got enough to turn us all on/ Got a bra to fit a car/ A port upon her back you warm your feet on Waterloo Lily didn't sell all that well either but David Sinclair returned to the band for their what is often considered their best album, 1973's For Girls Who Grow Plump In The Night. Labels: 1972, Caravan, Waterloo Lily 40 Year Itch: A Mess Of Help On May 16. 1972...two days after the release of Carl And The Passions, The Beach Boys (minus Brian Wilson and Bruce Johnson; plus Daryl Dragon, Ricky Fataar and Blondie Chaplin) play their new single "You Need A Mess Of Help To Stand Alone" on the BBC2's Old Whistle Test. What was Brian up to? The answer is here . at 2:00 AM 3 comments: Labels: 1972, Beach Boys 40 Year Itch : A Heep Of Gothic Metal For those who want their heavy metal infused with wizards living in mountain homes, rainbow demons riding on horses of fire, a million silver stars, acoustic guitars and heavy handed organs, this is the album for you. Plus you get "Easy Livin'", Uriah Heep's only Top 40 hit in the US , a Roger Dean album cover ( with hidden images of male and female genitalia)... and wisdom: "Today is Only Yesterday's Tomorrow". I'm not sure what to do with that wisdom exactly. Maybe tack it up on the fridge and see if it sinks in. There are far more painful listens in the early 70's heavy metal sphere. Demons and Wizards offers short, sharp shocks of metal along with a 12 minute epic called "Paradise/The Spell" at the end. Had I mixed more with a different crowd, who's to say this wouldn't be a magic carpet ride back to a youth spent smoking pot in a room filled with black light posters. Rolling Stone critic Mike Saunders was impressed with Demons and Wizards. These guys are good. The first side of Demons and Wizards is simply odds-on the finest high energy workout of the year, tying nose and nose with the Blue Oyster Cult...They may have started out as a thoroughly dispensable neo-Cream and Blooze outfit, but at this point Uriah Heep are shaping up into one hell of a first-rate modern rock band. Labels: 1972, Uriah Heep 40 Year Itch : The Greatest Guitarist Goes Live "How does it feel to be the greatest guitarist in the world? I don't know, go ask Rory Gallagher." —Jimi Hendrix quote from 1969 Rolling Stone magazine Legend has it this is the album that inspired future U2 members Adam Clayton and The Edge to learn guitar and play in a band. Live in Europe, compiled from live performance recorded throughout Europe during February and March 1972, captures the immense talent and showmanship of the Irish blues guitarist who knocked Eric Clapton from 1972's Melody Maker's poll as Best Guitarist. Gallagher plays the hell out of the beat up Fender Stratocaster you see on the cover. But he also plays harmonica, acoustic guitar and mandolin. All before an adoring audience completely swept up in the show. The album barely crept onto the Billboard charts stateside but hit Top Ten in the UK. Gallagher sold more than 30 million albums worldwide before his untimely death at the age of 47. By the way, in Rolling Stone's Top 100 Guitarists issue, Gallagher was not even mentioned once. Labels: 1972, Rory Gallagher Dave Marsh's Top Ten Albums of 1972 Creem/ Rolling Stone critic Dave Marsh's list of the best albums of 1972: 1. Rolling Stones Exile On Main St 2. "Wonder, Stevie" Talking Book 3. "Mayfield, Curtis" Super Fly (Soundtrack) 4. "Morrison, Van" Saint Dominic's Preview 5. "Green, Al" I'm Still In Love With You 6. "Mitchell, Joni" For The Roses 7. "O'Jays, The" Back Stabbers 8. Al Green Let's Stay Together 9. Stevie Wonder Music Of My Mind 10. Paul Simon Paul Simon 11. "Stewart, Rod" Never A Dull Moment 12. Aretha Franklin Young Gifted And Black 13. "Hendrix, Jimi" Hendrix In The West 14. Allman Brothers Eat A Peach 15. "Temptations, The" All Directions 16. "Nash, Johnny" I Can See Clearly Now 17. "Gaye, Marvin" Trouble Man (Soundtrack) 18. Steely Dan Can't Buy A Thrill 19. "Persuasions, The" Street Corner Symphony 20. "Band, The" Rock Of Ages 21. "Geils, J. Band, The" Live Full House 22. War The World Is A Ghetto 23. Todd Rundgren Something/Anything 24. "Kinks, The" Everybody's In Show-Biz 25. "Franklin, Aretha" Amazing Grace 26. "Jackson, Michael" Ben 27. "Simon, Carly" No Secrets 28. "Bowie, David" The Rise And Fall Of Ziggy Stardust And The Spiders From Mars 29. "King, B. B." L. A. Midnight 30. Creedence Clearwater Revival Mardi Gras 31. "Jackson, Michael" Got To Be There 32. "Stylistics, The" Round 2: The Stylistics 33. "Chi-Lites, The" A Lonely Man 34. Mott The Hoople All The Young Dudes 35. Deep Purple Machine Head 36. "Nitty Gritty Dirt Band, The" Will The Circle Be Unbroken 37. "Staple Singers, The" Beatitude: Respect Yourself 38. The Kinks Kinks Kronikles 39. "Lennon/Ono/Plastic Ono Band With Elephant's Memory" Some Time In New York City 40. Elton John Honky Chateau 40 Year Itch : Basement Tapes All rock records should be made in dank basements of old Nazi strongholds on the Cote d'Azur, with reliable heroin connections in Marseille and Gram Parsons hovering in the paneled hallways. That way they might sound half as good as Exile On Main St. -Barney Hoskyns, The Observer, 2004 Recorded in the cold and humid basement of tax exile Keith Richards's villa in the South of France, Exile On Main Street is often hailed as the greatest rock album of all time. How it ever got recorded with all the drugs, the booze, the never-ending house party, with anywhere between twenty and thirty visitors making noises upstairs, is a tribute, to of all people, Keef himself. Sure he was strung out and sleeping the day away, but at the oddest hours, Keith was a self described task master churning out song after song: "Rocks Off", "Happy", "Ventilator Blues", "Tumbling Dice", "All Down The Line" --that's five string tuning to the max. I was starting to really fix my trademark; I wrote all that stuff within a few days. Suddenly, with the five-string, songs were just dripping off my fingers". Keith might have a line or two in mind to go with these riffs but it was up to Mick to come up with the lyrics. As Keith wrote in his autobiography: "Most of what I had to do was to come up with riffs and ideas that would turn Mick on. To write songs he could handle. They had to be good records but translatable to being played on stage. I was the butcher cutting the meat" To this day Mick has referred to Exile as "a bit overrated"...with , again in his opinion, none of the great songs that made Sticky Fingers and Let It Bleed such classics. But Mick wasn't always around for Exile. He would occasionally disappear with his new very pregnant bride Bianca . Keith was living the album-- producing two songs a day on a heroin habit which he said helped him shut out all of the daily stuff and concentrate on the music. "Happy" wasn't even recorded with the Stones but with producer Jimmy Miller on drums, Bobby Keys on baritone and Keith doing everything else. Even when that legendary summer at Villa Nellcote ended, the Stones still spent four or five months in LA mixing and over dubbing, recording two new cuts ( "Torn And Frayed and "Loving Cup"), adding percussion in some places, backing vocals in others. Richards and Jagger were both at the monumental recording of Aretha Franklin's Amazing Grace album at LA's New Temple Missionary Baptist Church, and were inspired to add gospel inflections to songs like "Let It Loose" and "Shine A Light". Released on May 12, 1972, the album got mixed reviews. Naturally some critics compared it unfavorably to The Beatles double album. Lenny Kaye, writing for Rolling Stone, said "here are songs that are better, there are songs that are worse, and others you'll probably lift the needle for when the time is due." To listen to Exile in its entirety --even the remastered 2010 deluxe version--is to immerse yourself in a thick stew of roots oriented rock n roll at its most ragged. For the most part, the songs don't sound over practiced ( though sounds can be deceiving-- "Tumbling Dice" was played more than 100 times before they captured that languid intensity we hear today). The bloom of inspiration shines on just about every cut. Still, I'll try to follow Lenny Kaye's lead and, at the risk of losing some of that claustrophobic basement funk, condense Exile into one epic ten song LP: 1 Rocks Off 2 Rip This Joint 3 Tumbling Dice 4 Sweet Virginia 5 Loving Cup 7 Let It Loose 8 All Down The Line 9 Shine A Light 10 Soul Survivor Labels: 1972, Exile On Main St, Rolling Stones 40 Year Itch : The Metric System As The Meters, guitarist Leo Nocentelli, keyboardist Art Neville, bassist George Porter Jr and drummer Ziggy Modeliste backed just about every artist who found his way to New Orleans and producer Allen Toussaint : Dr. John, LaBelle, Robert Palmer even Paul McCartney. When the label for whom they made three instrumental records, Josie Records, went backrupt The Meters signed with Reprise and released their first album on May 11, 1972. Cabbage Alley brought percussionist Cyril Neville on board and the album combines the New Orleans funk ingrained in The Meters' DNA as well as some Caribbean island flavor (especially on "Soul Island"). "Do The Dirt" ( pronounced "Doit" in that Jersey-like New Orleans accent) offers a better glimpse of what the Meters would be doing down the road: earthy funk that would hit its peak on 1974's Rejuvination ( a rare 5-star album according to The Rolling Stone Record Guide). But if Josie failed The Meters by going bankrupt, Reprise wouldn't be doing The Meters much of a solid either. All of the Reprise records quickly went out of print. When I ran into George Porter in the mid-90's, he said his only copy of Rejuvination was on a squeaky cassette tape. Since 2000, Sundazed Records has earned the worship and hard earned money of music fans by releasing The Meters catalog. I would suggest buying Rejuvination first, one of the instrumental albums second ( maybe Meters over Look A Py Py), and Fire On The Bayou before you get Cabbage Alley. Labels: 1972, The Meters 40 Year Itch : Dadgummit-ah! Bill Withers followed up the folk soul of his debut Just As I Am by taking over the production reins and enlisting members of the Watts 103rd Rhythm Band to raise the funk. And the funk do cometh especially on raunchy cuts like the #2 pop hit "Use Me" and "Who Is He ( And What Is He To You)?". Makes you wonder if some Foxy Brown kind of lady entered his life right about the time "Ain't No Sunshine" hit Number One. You know, the kind who is too much woman for one. But not enough for two. Using him until she used him up. No matter how funky things get, Withers plays it cool . We've all probably heard "Lean On Me" too many times by now. But next time, listen to the song in the context of all the gospel soul that was hitting the charts in 1972: Aretha Franklin's Young Gifted And Black and Amazing Grace, The Staple Sisters's "I'll Take You There", Jesus Christ Superstar. The Rolling Stones's "Let It Loose" and "Shine A Light"? Could the compassionate singer be JC himself? Labels: 1972, Bill Withers 40 Year Itch : The Doors Carry On On May 8, 1972, ten months after Jim Morrison's death, The remaining Doors played on BBC2's Old Grey Whistle Test. Naturally, it wasn't the same thing. While the band could always find a great riff, there's something kind of pathetic about watching Robbie Kreiger sing a song as sophmoric as "I'm Horny, I'm Stoned". The song comes from the 1971 album Other Voices. Recordings for Other Voices began while Jim Morrison was on vacation in France with the expectations that the Lizard King would not die in a Parisian bathtub. Robbie and Ray Manzarek recorded the vocal tracks and the album peaked at #31 in the charts. In the Spring of 1972, The Doors got back together to record another album. Full Circle appears to be an effort by the band to forge a new musical direction which may explain the album's single "The Mosquito". Inspired by a traditional Mexican tune, Robbie wrote what may be the best know post-Morrison Doors song, It peaked at #85 in the singles chart. Full Circle , released in August of 1972, was aptly named. It was the last Doors album. Labels: 1972, The Doors 40 Year Itch : Two From The Q Al Anderson has already joined NRBQ when he recorded this delightful album to fulfill a five year contract with Vanguard Records. Some of the NRBQ boys helped out on the album including Tom Staley on drums, Terry Adams on piano and his brother Donn Adams on trombone. Most of the songs are happy foot-tappin' ditties that will remind you of the Q ("Be My Woman Tonight", We'll Make Love", "Don't Hold The Line"). In the few that don't really work for me , Al's just trying too hard ("Ain't No Woman Finer Lookin'","I Haven't Got The Strength To Carry On"). Apparent effortlessness was always part of NRBQ's charm. In 1972, NRBQ released Scraps, their first album with guitarist Al Anderson. In fact Al had only been in the band for two weeks when they recorded the album and he contributed no songs. ( Possibly due to his Vanguard contract). Among the highlights are Terry's "Howard Johnson's Got His Ho-Jo Working", the Adams/ Joey Spampinato tune "Magnet", and Joey's "Only You" with its toy piano solo. This is the last album featuring vocalist Frank Gadler. There are still legions of NRBQ fans who believe this is the band's high point but I'm stinking with Yankee Stadium. Labels: 1972, Al Anderson, NRBQ 40 Year Itch: Brian Wilson's Beach Girls Gem Having withdrawn from The Beach Boys following 1971's Surf's Up , Brian Wilson instead devoted "some" of his time to the girl group sounds of his wife Marilyn and sister in law Diane Rovell, both former members of The Honeys. In May of 1972, as Spring ("American Spring" outside the US), they released a record that absolutely vanished There are only two used copies of the CD for sale at Amazon and both are prices at just under $130. Brian with his wife and 2/3's of Wilson Phillips This is a collector's item because it gives us some insight into Brian's frame of mind during his missing years. Marilyn said at the time "The idea was to record all the songs that we ever loved. Brian helped out in all departments--he sang, arranged most of the backgrounds, wrote some of the songs and picked the material. He was very emotional throughout and would cry at the sessions because he liked a song so much he couldn't believe it." <p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="http://www.youtube.com/embed/-V_Hh0oE2lI" width="420"></p></p></p></p></p></p></p> Among the songs Brian picked were Carole King's "Now That Everything's Been Said", Tommy Roe's "Everybody", Delaney and Bonnie's "Superstar", The Shirelles's "Mama Said" and three songs from the Wilson Brothers. Two came from Dennis Wilson. "Fallin In Love" ( recorded as "Lady" on Pacific Ocean Blue) and "Forever" from The Beach Boys album Sunflower. Also from Sunflower came "This Whole World" with an extra bridge ("Starlight/Star Bright"). That's the song The Mojo Collection-The Greatest Albums Of All Time calls the highlight of this mostly unheard album..."as fine as anything Brian Wilson ever produced" Listening to the album I was struck by how commercial it must have seemed to at least a few United Artists record execs. After all didn't Carole King just re-record a whole bunch of girl group songs for Tapestry? History proved them wrong but this is still an absolute delight of an album. Labels: 1972, Brian Wilson, Spring 40 Year Itch : The American Badfinger Has any band announced itself with as much aplomb as The Raspberries in those first ten seconds of their debut album? Wally Bryson lays down some fat stabbing chords, Eric Carmen answers with four syllables "Ma Ma Yeah. Wooh!" and the radio speakers rattle with the million-selling teen sex anthem "Go All The Way". Those who bought the album got a scratch and sniff sticker that presumably smelled like a raspberry and an album full of power pop promise. Wally sings lead on "Come Around And See Me" which , to my ears at least, sounds like a long lost Wings tune. There's also a second single "Don't Want To Say Goodbye" that features Eric quavering a la George Harrison. That was actually a problem within the band. As Wally put it many years later "What had always been happening was that Eric would want our songs to sound like The Beach Boys, The Who or The Beatles. He'd say 'Play a Who drum roll there, or play a Townshend guitar riff here'. I wanted us to be The Raspberries." The Raspberries would record four sensational albums in the 70's : their debut, Fresh, Side 3 and Starting Over. When the last one sold poorly, the band broke up and the American Badfinger went down in history as the fathers of Power Pop Labels: 1972, Raspberries 40 Year Itch : Feminist Boogie Joy of Cooking is overdue for that kind of reappraisal that plucks great artists from the past and makes them the new big thing. And not just because two women led this band of confident purveyors of in-the-groove-boogie or that some of the lyrics offered feminist takes on love lost and gained. Joy of Cooking simply rocked. In a 1971 article entitled "Female Rock" Time Magazine wrote: "The one outfit so far that can compete with top-level male band quality is Joy of Cooking, and it is only partly female. The group is owned and led by two 32-year-old women. Terry Garthwaite, a tough rock singer, plays electric guitar and sings with a scratchy authority that can suggest Janis Joplin. Her partner, Toni Brown, a pretty Bennington graduate, sings, stomps around the stage, plays electric piano and organ, and writes songs about what it is like to be a woman ("Time goes, and the baby keeps growin', and I can't help knowin', baby I love you"). The girls —backed by three males, Fritz Kasten, 27, drums, Ron Wilson, 37, congas, and Jeff Neighbor, 28, bass—produce a reasonably rich mixture of blues, wailing gospel and riffs of pure country, folk and hard rock, all curiously overlaid with Latin conga rhythms." Formed in Berkeley during the hippie era, Joy Of Cooking had to wait four years before recording their major label debut. They spent a lot of that time playing house parties, finding the grooves of their songs and making them last for the people enjoying the show. We only got three initial Joy Of Cooking albums. Castles , released in May of 1972, was the last. It earned an A- from critic Robert Christgau who wrote "the music has grown crisper and fuller while continuing to flow as swimmingly as you'd hope." Toni and Terry each had kids in the 70's. Both moved on. Toni is a full time artist. Terry has been exploring the healing power of music. In 2006, the two put together a Joy of Cooking compliation made of unreleased tunes and a live concert. Labels: 1972, Joy of Cooking 40 Year Itch: Job Number 79682 Forty years ago today, Bruce Springsteen made his first "formal" studio audition at CBS Studios in New York City. John Hammond produced the twelve song demo session which became known in the studio logs as job number 79682. Half the songs Springsteen played would appear on his debut album Greetings From Asbury Park the following year. Among them, "Growin' Up", seen below performed live in 1972 at The Gaslight, the same club in which he performed for a half dozen CBS record execs. ( One of whom dismissed Bruce as another Dylan clone) The songs Springsteen played in his audition were MARY QUEEN OF ARKASAS ( two takes), SAINT IN THE CITY, JAZZ MUSICIAN (two takes), IF I WAS A PRIEST, ARABIAN NIGHTS, GROWIN' UP, DOES THIS BUS STOP AT 82ND STREET?, TWO HEARTS IN TRUE WALTZ TIME, STREET QUEEN, ANGELS, SOUTHERN SUN and COWBOY OF THE SEA. The Mary, Saint, Bus and Growin' Up demos all appear on the 1998 box set Tracks. Hammond, who also discovered Bob Dylan and Stevie Ray Vaughan, said “I couldn’t believe it. I reacted with a force I’ve felt maybe three times in my life. I knew at once that he would last a generation.” Hammond took the tapes to his boss, Clive Davis, who found Springsteen's act "amusing". They offered Bruce a $25k advance to record his debut album, fully expecting to get a singer-songwriter effort because that was the only thing selling in 1972. Instead Bruce went back to Jersey and gathered together the boys in his band. And the rest is history... Labels: 1972, Bruce Springsteen 40 Year Itch: The Sunset Cowboy Dies On Stage It was May 2nd, 1972 at The Top Rank Ballroom in Swansea .1200 fans were lined up outside the club waiting to get in. Stone The Crows guitarist Les Harvey ( far left in above photo) was playing during a sound check when, with wet, sweaty hands apparently, he touched a microphone that wasn't grounded. Harvey was electrocuted--thrown into the air by the shock --and killed instantly. He died at that most infamous of rock star ages: 27. ( The same age Brian Jones, Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, Jim Morrison. Kurt Cobain and Amy Winehouse passed away). At the time, Stone the Crows was a band on the rise, in the midst of recording what would be their top selling album Ontinuous Performance. Harvey and the band backed "Britain's answer to Janis Joplin" and Harvey's girlfriend, Maggie Bell, who would win the 1972 NME Pop Poll for Best Female Singer. (That's Maggie who goes toe to toe with Rod Stewart on "Every Picture Tells A Story"). After some time off the band finished recording Ontinuous Performance adding a new song , "Sunset Cowboy" written for Les. Ex Thunderclap Newman guitarist Jimmy McCullouch took Harvey's place until the band broke up the following year and he joined Wings. Labels: 1972, Les Harvey, Maggie Bell, Stone the Crows 40 Year Itch: The Snark Sails Away That Randy Newman didn't sell anywhere nearly as many albums as his more famous contemporary singer-songwriters is an indication of only one thing: Americans don't get satire, irony or sarcasm. We prefer to have a point jabbed into our chests. Randy Newman nonchalantly drawling out strip tease requests in "You Can Leave Your Hat On" (" Baby take off your dress/ Yes, yes, yes") only works for us when Joe Cocker is squeezing the meaning out of every line while Kim Basinger strips for Mickey Rourke in 9 1/2 Weeks. But dig it. Randy Newman invented "Snark". When Newman uses the politician's throwaway applause line "It's great to be an American", it's coming from a slave trader trying to get Africans on a boat setting sail for Charleston in "Sail Away". There is something for everybody on this album. Play "Simon Smith and The Amazing Dancing Bear" for the kids and "Dayton, Ohio-1903" for the grandparents ( and iced tea fans). C'mon! He calls Cleveland the "city of light, city of magic" in a song about the Cuyahoga River catching fire. Have you been to Cleveland? Anyway, the version of another classic Sail Away cut, "Political Science", you'll hear is from a 1974 live show in Sausalito,CA . Randy was out pushing the follow up Good Ole Boys at the time. Another magnificent album that would be as misinterpreted and forgotten as Newman's anti-prejudice anthem "Short People" would be in 1977. Newman still records the occasional pop album but we've mostly lost him to the movie soundtrack business. He's been nominated for twenty Academy Awards, winning twice. Labels: 1972, Randy Newman It was 40 Years Ago Today... The best songs of 1980 Bauhaus unleashes a Goth classic Bauhaus : Dark Entries [Purchase] On January 16, 1980 Bauhaus released their second single, the thundering "Dark Entries&... The Rude Boy band with a Gift The Akrylykz : Smart Boy [Purchase] On January 17, 1980, the Hull-based ska band The Akrylykz released "Spyderman" b... The Wee Boy behind Aztec Camera Aztec Camera : Real Tears [Listen] In January of 1980 the newly formed Glasgow band Aztec Camera had three songs featured on... "What I Like About You" launches The Romantics The Romantics : What I Like About You [Purchase] On January 4, 1980 The Romantics released their self-titled debut album on Ne... The Durutti Column produces 1980's most evocative album The Durutti Column : Sketch For Summer [Purchase] In January of 1980 Factory Records released 3600 copies of The Return of th... Remembering Neil Peart Of Rush The surly blogger in 1980 Follow me at @1001Songs Be the next Liker!!! Click here to like 1001 Songs on Facebook Honored to be a Contributor to Star Maker Machine Click on image to visit Dig We Must Bagging Area A few good times in my life Malaria! For The Sake Of The Song War Is Over 27 Leggies David Olney RIP Like Punk Never Happened - Brian McCloskey's Smash Hits archive On the Right Side of 2019 The Dark Stuff Boxes in the Attic New York Times review of Close Encounters, 1995 1001Songs Seattle/Tacoma/Olympia, Washington, United States 1001Songs scratches your 40 year itch with a look back at songs and musical moments from 40 years ago.
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Home / Artist / Sirens & Sailors Doug Court - Drums Todd Golder - Guitar/Vocals Kyle Bihrle - Vocals Jimm Lindsley - Guitar Steve Goupil - Bass Sirens & Sailors Hometown: Rochester, NY Genre: Metal / Hardcore Metalcore is out of control. Taking a cue from technically-minded metal acts like Meshuggah and Cynic, metalcore bands are cramming 939 guitar riffs into single songs these days. But how many of them can actually craft something memorable – and dare we say – timeless? Thankfully, Rochester quintet Sirens and Sailors put as much time into the actual craft of songwriting as they do on their labyrinthine arrangements. Skeletons, Sirens and Sailors’ sophomore album and debut for Artery Recordings/Razor & Tie, finds the band masterfully striking a balance between ferocity and hook-laden melodicism throughout its 12 tracks. Recorded and mixed by Carson Slovak (August Burns Red) and Grant McFarland (Affiance), Skeletons is the result of years of hard work and DIY touring. It’s no surprise since Sirens and Sailors call the blue collar city of Rochester, N.Y., home. “Once we had material we were proud of, we didn’t wait till we got a booking agent to go out on the road,” says singer Kyle Bihrle, who helped form the band in 2005. “I actually booked the first tour we ever went on and it was a disaster since we had gigs locked in all the way to Texas, but then nothing on the way back to New York. But the funny thing is that it was all worth it.” With more touring, plus two EPs and a full-length called Still Breathing under their belts, Sirens and Sailors – who besides Bihrle features Doug Court [drums], Todd Golder [guitar, vocals], Jimm Lindsley [guitar] and Steve Goupil [bass] – knew it was time to start a new chapter in their career. “Mike Milford from Artery started talking with us around the time we self-released our Still Breathing album. Once the band had about half of the new album written, we let Mike know that we were looking for a label and that our ultimate goal was to be on Artery. He was onboard and we made the deal happen,” reveals Bihrle who is also thrilled that Sirens and Sailors can now say that they are part of the family of artists at the labels. “No one understands this kind of music better than Artery. The fact that they go through Razor & Tie makes it even cooler since they have such a diverse roster of artists.” As undeniably heavy a statement as Skeletons is, the album is still a diverse affair, featuring dynamic peaks and valleys from end to end. “We wanted Skeletons to be a diverse record and reflect many of the different types of metal and other genres of music we all love in the band. But listening to the album now, it all feels cohesive and I’m really proud of that,” says the singer. Besides its diversified influences and technical feats, Skeletons proves that Sirens and Sailors know their way around the kinds of arena-ready melodic hooks that are both timeless and instantly satisfying. “Before we have final titles for our songs, we give them jokey working titles. ‘Not That Easy’ – one of the songs that ended up on the album – was originally called ‘Pop-Punk Song’ when we were working on it since it was so catchy and upbeat. I think when people listen to ‘Not That Easy’ on the album, they’ll understand why we originally had the pop-punk thing in our heads,” laughs Bihrle. Sirens and Sailors also take a moment on Skeletons to pay tribute to their east coast, blue collar roots. “We’re extremely proud to be from Rochester and to be able to represent our city the way we do,” Bihrle says while discussing “Born & Raised (Flower City),” a relentlessly propulsive track on the album dedicated to their beloved city. Another standout moment on Skeletons that stays true to the band’s working class upbringing is “Exorcist,” a song featuring a particularly savage vocal from Bihrle. “I wrote that one during a time when I was working a job and struggling to find the money to be able to stay in the band and make it all work. I think that’s why my vocals sound so angry on that track.” Bihrle’s show stopping vocal performances are matched in intensity by Golder and Lindsley’s dizzying guitar work, which blends spidery fret work and shred-crazed solos with the fluidity of jazz fusion. All in all, Skeletons transcends the metalcore label Sirens and Sailors have been tagged with in the past. “The album is a journey. If you listen to it from start to finish, you’ll see how it’s not just about one song or a single concept. We wanted the listener to sit with the record and take it all in as one complete thought. We weren’t worried about whatever people expected from us or a genre. I think we pulled it off.” 2013-2014 © Artery Recordings. All Rights Reserved. About Us | Demo Policy | Website by PHILLM
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A new characterization of $L_2(q)$ by the largest element orders Document Type: Research Paper Q.H. Jiang 1 ‎C.G. Shao 1 W.J. Shi 2 ‎Q.L. Zhang 3 1 School of Mathematical Sciences‎, ‎University of Jinan‎, ‎250022‎, ‎Shandong‎, ‎China. 2 Department of Mathematics‎, ‎Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences‎, ‎402106‎, ‎Chongqing‎, ‎China. 3 School of Science‎, ‎NanTong University‎, ‎226019‎, ‎Jiangsu‎, ‎China. ‎We characterize the finite simple groups $L_2(q)$ by the group orders and the largest‎ ‎element orders‎, ‎where $q$ is a prime or $q=2^a$‎, ‎with $2^a+1$ or $2^a-1$ a prime‎. ‎Finite groups‎ ‎group orders‎ ‎largest element orders‎ ‎characterization 20-XX Group theory and generalizations R. Brauer and W.F. Reynolds, On a problem of E. Artin, Ann. of Math. (2), 68 (1958) 713--720. G.Y. Chen, On structure of Frobenius groups and 2-Frobenius groups (in Chinese), J. Southwest China Norm. Univ. (Nat. Sci.), 20 (1995), no. 5, 185--187. J.H. Conway, R.T. Curtis, S.P. Norton, R.A. Parker and R.A. Wilson, Atlas of Finite Groups, Oxford Univ. Press, London, 1985. M.R. Darafsheh, N.S. Karamzadeh and A.R. Moghaddamfar, Relation between Frobenius and 2-Frobenius groups with order components of nite groups, J. Appl. Math. Computing 21 (2006), no. 1-2, 437--450. The GAP Group, GAP -- Groups, Algorithms, and Programming, Version 4.4.12, 2008. L.G. He and G.Y. Chen, A new characterization of L2(q) where q = pn < 125, Ital. J. Pure Appl. Math. 28 (2011) 127--136. L.G. He and G.Y. Chen, A new characterization of simple K3-groups, Comm. Algebra 40 (2012), no. 10, 3903--3911. B. Huppert, Endliche Gruppen I, Grundlehren. Math. Wiss. 134, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1967. N.Yu. Makarenko, E.I. Khukhro and P. Shumyatsky, Fixed points of frobenius groups of automorphisms, Dokl. Math. 83 (2011), no. 2, 152--154, . A.V. Vasil′ev, M.A. Grechkoseeva and V.D. Mazurov, Characterization of finite simple groups by spectrum and order, Algebra Logic 48 (2009), no. 6, 385--409. J.S. William, Prime graph components of finite simple groups, J. Algebra, 69 (1981), no. 1, 487--573. Q.L. Zhang and W.J. Shi, A new characterization of simple K3-groups and some L2(p), Algebra Colloq. 20 (2013), no. 3, 361--368. September and October 2017 Revise Date: 08 May 2016 Jiang, Q., Shao, &., Shi, W., Zhang, &. (2017). A new characterization of $L_2(q)$ by the largest element orders. Bulletin of the Iranian Mathematical Society, 43(5), 1143-1151. Q.H. Jiang; ‎C.G. Shao; W.J. Shi; ‎Q.L. Zhang. "A new characterization of $L_2(q)$ by the largest element orders". Bulletin of the Iranian Mathematical Society, 43, 5, 2017, 1143-1151. Jiang, Q., Shao, &., Shi, W., Zhang, &. (2017). 'A new characterization of $L_2(q)$ by the largest element orders', Bulletin of the Iranian Mathematical Society, 43(5), pp. 1143-1151. Jiang, Q., Shao, &., Shi, W., Zhang, &. A new characterization of $L_2(q)$ by the largest element orders. Bulletin of the Iranian Mathematical Society, 2017; 43(5): 1143-1151.
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Bronx officials and residents unite against plans to bring medical facility to vacant lot Friday, November 15, 2019 6:36 PM EST Bronx officials and Riverdale residents have recently united together against rumored plans to bring a high-rise medical facility to a vacant lot on Riverdale. This is not the first time officials and residents have expressed negative feelings toward the idea of a renovation project. Montefiore Health System and development company Simone Healthcare stopped worked on a proposal to bring a 14-story building to the vacant lot near the intersection with West 238th in 2015. Sources told News 12 that Community Board 8's land-use committee was contacted by Simone Healthcare this week to express a continued interest in still developing the site as a multiservice health care facility. The details of the plan are still in the early stages. Montefiore Health System officials deny any involvement in these renewed plans. A spokesperson for the developers says Simone Healthcare has recently communicated with representatives of the Riverdale community to discuss planning for their property at 3745 Riverdale Ave. They also say it will be an ongoing process with the community as planning and ideas continue to develop. Residents and lawmakers say they have yet to hear directly from anyone involved in the decision about their concerns over the proposed building and the traffic it could potentially bring to what some residents say is already a congested roadway.
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Best African Drumming Albums Watchdog slammed for sending 400 employees to African drumming workshop. With the recent release of his fourth studio album, African Giant, the Nigerian singer born Damini Ogulu has delivered a swaggering, electric, and passion-fueled statement that lives up to the towering persona being put forth at its outset. Feel free to jam along with the videos and when you want a higher quality beat, you can sign up and get full access to all of my downloadable beats. The Best African Music Of 2008 This has been a strong year for African music, with two big trends emerging: the continuing integration of African music into the U. Take Liquicity with you wherever you go with the official playlists. Latest South African Music Download. Mad drum intro by Scott Travis - petrucci75hammet. GTG DPC 3, SoFtDrum Synth, atlas, Wollo Beat, Freqatic. There are 50 albums for 2015. The film begins by taking viewers back to Oakland, CA in 1992. Get Free, Instant Help � Call. 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The African Giant Tour began in April 2019 and he has so far made stops in Canada, U. Featuring album reviews, ratings, charts, year end lists and more. TOOLTABS is a collection of fan created guitar, drum and bass tabs for learning to play (some of) their songs. edu/content/ News about the College of The Arts at the University of South Florida. Browse the top steel drum albums to find new music and discover artists. drums, hardware, and accessories. Search the world's information, including webpages, images, videos and more. The Best Drum and Bass Albums of 2018. It's time to look at our recommendations for African drums. It was invented by Meat Beat Manifesto with Radio Babylon. Music Radar approached Simon to ask him about his choices for the best drumming albums. Representing eight countries in the American continents, Harold Courlander has compiled an anthology of drum music from three continents and explores its various uses as well as. I recommend his classes and drum circles. 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Representing eight countries in the American continents, Harold Courlander has compiled an anthology of drum music from three continents and explores its various uses as well as. Tell your story or make a statement by stepping out in traditional African clothing. This month we have an interview with Monette Marina-Keita, wife of legendary Mamady Keita. Download and listen to new, exclusive, electronic dance music and house tracks. Ali Barter fans are in luck with triple j picking up the Melbourne artist's second album, Hello, I'm Doing My Best, as this week's Feature Album ahead of its release on Friday. South Africa is one of the best holiday destinations in Africa, offering a highly diversified safari for your entertainment. Stream ad-free or purchase CD's and MP3s now on Amazon. Live albums are usually bad albums. Lo-fi Drum Kit by ItsLucid. The African Groove Experience or African Lounge Experience albums are absolute must-haves for summer or winter if you enjoy relaxed, jazzy and stylish sounds. Want a low down on The Best Liquid Drum and Bass Albums in the past 5 years or so - then check this post out! Get mashed up bra! ShaolinTiger - Kung-Fu Geekery Craft Beer, Travel, Children & Much More. They’re the main element that drive a song forward. In order to provide a historical context for this recording, the liner notes that accompanied its original release have been reprinted in full below. Term 3: July 25th to Sept 26th Term 4: Oct 17th to Dec 12th. In search of the best djembe music out there ? Here's a list of our favorite African drumming albums from some of the most famous djembe players of all time. The 15 Best Drum & Bass Tracks of September 2019. Famous African American Poems by Famous Black Poets. In the name of Nordic collaboration the Swedish wizard Jens Bogren has been doing the mixing and mastering and made HEART LIKE A GRAVE to the best sounding Insomnium album ever. The Eagles have the first and third best-selling albums of all time, with the band's "Hotel California" following "Thriller. Facts about African Drumming 2: shapes. Top 50! (Great Magazine with a Superb Idea!). Led Zeppelin, Led Zeppelin II: You could listen to any of the Led Zep albums. Virtual drums, Free drum kits and drum loops. Free DOWNLOAD Afro House Latest Songs,Albums & Mix (2019) | Afro House Latest Songs,Albums & Mix (2019) download Afro House Download. A metronome is just fine if your mind is fresh and you practice a specific part while fully concentrated, but if you are tired after work and just want to have fun, drum tracks are a great way to go. If your drum has to be from Africa, and you want the least expensive best sounding drum you can get for the least amount of money, Shorty is a great choices and offers a wide variety of drums from all over west Africa as well as drum making supplies, too. One of the best progressive rock, or rock of any kind, albums of the decade. Welcome to True African Art, where Truth comes first. The African Groove Experience or African Lounge Experience albums are absolute must-haves for summer or winter if you enjoy relaxed, jazzy and stylish sounds. A collaborative effort with Ken E Henson, the record appeared, rather mischievously, under the Freedom's Children banner. This month we have an interview with Monette Marina-Keita, wife of legendary Mamady Keita. Its geographic origin, and that of associated instruments like dunduns, is the area known as the Mali Empire which existed from c. You can make it into small, medium or big size. African Mask Design - Stylized Mouths. storytelling, dancing and drumming! All artists have full DBS check. Download new full Sa Hip Hop Albums, Trap Music, EP, Mixtapes and Zip Files for free on Sa-HipHop. Representing eight countries in the American continents, Harold Courlander has compiled an anthology of drum music from three continents and explores its various uses as well as. The album is being produced by WOLF’s Simon Johansson at SolnaSound Production and will be mixed by Fredrik Nordström of Studio Fredman. Lauryn Hill's The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill can easily make it on a list of not only the best R&B albums of all time but best any type of album of all time. Facts about African Drumming 2: shapes. DOWNLOAD LATEST 2019 AMAPIANO ALBUMS, Mp3 SONGS & MIX FOR FREE On Hiphopza FAKAZA South African house music is constantly reinventing itself. If you can get into harsher music there's a ton of great drumming - Circle Takes the Square, Converge, Gospel, Off Minor. Get the latest 2019 South African Hip-Hop, House, Amapiano, Afro-House, Gqom album zip and mp3. Custom Drum Tracks Download World-Class Drum Beats Full-length Drum Beats (3-5 minutes long) played by Los Angeles world-class drummers, complete with multiple sections, fills and dynamic changes. Our full selection of Deer hide hand drums. The first workshop happened here, sparking our engagement ever since, and a number of excellent teachers have passed through the area boosting our skills periodically: notably Fatala and Alpha Yaya Diallo. African instruments have also been modified and sometimes further developed in the New World; examples are the Central African friction drum and the lamellaphone (in the Cuban marimbula). It's completely free , have fun and don't forget: If you like the piece of music you have just learned playing , treat the artist with respect, and go buy the original. 43 posts latest by gone_3gaxi_669d a year ago Best Jazz Hip Hop? Follow. View credits, reviews, tracks and shop for the 1954 Vinyl release of African Drums on Discogs. With so many choices, it can be difficult to select the one. You may recognize some of these albums from our guide to 30 albums every man should listen to, but this feature will focus exclusively on jazz music. Remember Me. Re: What are the best African albums of all time? Post by Nassim » Thu May 14, 2015 10:24 am Probably not eligible, it's not really a critics list, more of a "one pick per person", which explains why Talking Timbuktu is in there twice. Hip Hop Free Kit includes 100 drum one shot samples designed for hip hop music producers using professional studio tools for best sound quality. The foundation's interest in contemporary African art grew rather spontaneously. Drums made out of maple will produce a more even sound, and a warmer tone, but won't project as much as birch. Off the best Christmas album of all time, A Christmas Gift For You From Phil Spector, the New York girl group logs this ebullient holiday party jam that will get even Grinch to twist it out on the. Get tickets, schedule information, and watch your favorite corps live in competition. It was lauded by critics, won the 1987 Grammy Award for Album of the Year, and is frequently cited as one of the best albums of all time. Enter Site. With its goatskin top yet unique Kente Cloth design, you can expect to have the best of both worlds: traditional sound and look with modern standards of durability. The group landed three consecutive Top 10 debuts on the Billboard Top 200 with Killswitch Engage [2009], Disarm The Descent [2013], and their career high best bow at #6 with Incarnate [2016]. A huge archive of traditional, folk & old music - song-books with lyrics & chords, tune-books, sheet-music, scores, old songs, midi backing tracks, tabs, music lessons & theory, learn to play guides for various instruments, chord diagrams, scales and other music educational & academic reference materials. These materials are all free to use in your classrooms or homes. Free Download. for its 18th iteration, which takes place June 21 through 29. Haitian Band Performs, Teaches Dance and African Drumming Students by Olivia Drake • October 14, 2019 Haiti's "Roots" band RAM came to campus for a one-day artists' residency and led drumming and dance workshops for Wesleyan students. ) These albums feature a diverse set of jazz greats who pioneered a range of styles, from bossa nova to hard bop. If you don’t want to spend money on other complex packs than this kit is the perfect starting. This site is a comprehensive online directory of Contemporary Art Galleries and Artists where you can browse and buy Fine Art online. Zanda Zakuza & Dr Duda)” “fakaza Mp3” 320kbps flexyjams cdq Fakaza download datafilehost torrent download Song Below. African songs has become populous and enjoyable both in Africa and all over the world. Available on mp3 and wav at the world's largest store for DJs. 1 on iTunes in 110 countries. Free DOWNLOAD Afro House Latest Songs,Albums & Mix (2019) | Afro House Latest Songs,Albums & Mix (2019) download Afro House Download. We're counting down all 21 of Yes' studio albums. If you can get into harsher music there's a ton of great drumming - Circle Takes the Square, Converge, Gospel, Off Minor. Traditional African dance and drumming was being adapted to the western stage with huge success. Ode To Joy is an album about seeking hope and meaning in a world that seems to be decaying beyond repair, so it’s fitting that Wilco saved some of the best musical flourishes on for the songs. It turns out it is a bit different when it comes to African drumming! The person who led the drumming session started by sharing an African saying with us: ‘If you can walk, you can dance. It will feature in many ceremonies and festivities in Ghana, Senegal, Nigeria, Togo, Benin and other regions. Latest South African Music Download. There are plenty of bongo drums available in the market. Off the best Christmas album of all time, A Christmas Gift For You From Phil Spector, the New York girl group logs this ebullient holiday party jam that will get even Grinch to twist it out on the. The Eagles have the first and third best-selling albums of all time, with the band's "Hotel California" following "Thriller. Top 5 albums to listen to for jazz drumming? I've been playing about 18 years, most comfortable with rock but with a good feel and attraction to latin and anything remotely Louisiana in origin. I love her drumming style, and she is a pioneer and inspiration for women in rock, and deserves to be on this list, despite what many male drummers say about "women" and "drums. On his album Graceland, the American folk musician Paul Simon employs African bands, rhythms and melodies as a musical backdrop for his own lyrics; especially Ladysmith Black Mambazo. African Tribe - African Tribal Music, an album by African Tribal Drums on Spotify We and our partners use cookies to personalize your experience, to show you ads based on your interests, and for measurement and analytics purposes. Sheet Music Download is a site dedicated to all amateur music performers around the world, giving them the opportunity to download the sheet music for free for trial purposes. The 1st Caribbean Entertainment website to take YOU Global. They are either made with a solid wood shell and animal skin heads or synthetic shells with synthetic heads. The Best Drum and Bass Albums of 2018. There are thousands of free drums backing tracks to find on YouTube, but having a nice sorted list of them would come in handy I guess. Some of the most common instruments used in African music are drums, woodwinds, bass, and guitar. Peter Edward "Ginger" Baker (19 August 1939 – 6 October 2019) was an English drummer and a co-founder of the rock band Cream. Live albums are usually bad albums. Top 100 song lyrics and top artists, always up to with the latest releases and accurate lyrics. Primus will support Slayer on the final leg of Slayer's farewell world tour, alongside Ministry and Philip H. This may be because this unrehearsed recording session from 1959 marks a great turning point in jazz history as well as showcasing the top form of some legendary musicians. Each mixed drum track has been cut down to about seven 2-4 bar loops and provided in the different drum components - full mix, full kit, kick and snare. MUSIC > MERCH > TICKETS > AF GANG. His work in the 1960s and 1970s earned him the reputation of "rock's first superstar drummer," for a style that melded jazz and African rhythms and pioneered both jazz fusion and world music. Check out African Drums by African Drums Music on Amazon Music. The African music is full of cultural effects. For more than 130 years, our award-winning company has been providing "That Great Gretsch Sound" to drummers around the globe. Welcome to Pearl World Wide Pearl Drum - The Best Reason to Play Drums. Music reviews, ratings, news and more. Scott Travis is the best metal drummer painkiller is his best performance and all the other songs on the painkiller album are great as well painkiller should be first not honor thy farther that song sucks. Ditto for live albums. Each track has an accompanying license which describes whether it may be remixed, used in commercial productions, etc. Get Your Love & Music Concert Tickets for Pretoria 15 Feb and Durban 16 Feb by this Saturday 9 Feb and be automatically entered in to a Draw to win a 5 CD Hamper with Swazi Dlamini Gospel Meets Jazz, Tshepo Mngoma People and Places, Bongi & Collin Makadunyiswe, Tswi Pure Jesus Poetry, and Love Worship Experience CD's. Stream ad-free or purchase CD's and MP3s now on Amazon. Here is a list of the top ten rappers in Africa. The 40 best albums of 2018. Live albums are usually bad albums. A person who has interest in different cultures will surely like the African music. McBrain's drumming has been a vital element of Iron Maiden's sound since 1983's Piece Of Mind album, writing the drum parts for the band's songs. And more! Here is a printer-friendly version of the document: West African Drumming Supplementary Resources for Elementary Classrooms Teachers. "Looking at these 10 albums and drummers, their combined styles sum up my style and who I am in a nutshell," he says. You can enjoy a lower note on the bigger drum. Bolokada Conde One Of The Malinke's Famous African Drummers. It includes 10 hats, 12 kicks, 19 snares! ItsLucid Lo-fi Drum Kit: Download. African Tribe - African Tribal Music, an album by African Tribal Drums on Spotify We and our partners use cookies to personalize your experience, to show you ads based on your interests, and for measurement and analytics purposes. African drums hold a special place in the history of Africa.
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Joseph Bedier, The Romance of Tristan and Iseult Opening Passage: I'll give the full opening passage, despite its length, since it is the key background story. I'll take it from Belloc's original version, rather than the version supplemented by Paul Rosenfield, which is slightly longer. My lords, if you would hear a high tale of love and of death, here is that of Tristan and Queen Iseult; how to their full joy, but to their sorrow also, they loved each other, and how at last they died of that love together upon one day; she by him and he by her. Long ago, when Mark was King over Cornwall, Rivalen, King of Lyonesse, heard that Mark’s enemies waged war on him; so he crossed the sea to bring him aid; and so faithfully did he serve him with counsel and sword that Mark gave him his sister Blanchefleur, whom King Rivalen loved most marvellously. He wedded her in Tintagel Minster, but hardly was she wed when the news came to him that his old enemy Duke Morgan had fallen on Lyonesse and was wasting town and field. Then Rivalen manned his ships in haste, and took Blanchefleur with him to his far land; but she was with child. He landed below his castle of Kanoël and gave the Queen in ward to his Marshal Rohalt, and after that set off to wage his war. Blanchefleur waited for him continually, but he did not come home, till she learnt upon a day that Duke Morgan had killed him in foul ambush. She did not weep: she made no cry or lamentation, but her limbs failed her and grew weak, and her soul was filled with a strong desire to be rid of the flesh, and though Rohalt tried to soothe her she would not hear. Three days she awaited re-union with her lord, and on the fourth she brought forth a son; and taking him in her arms she said: “Little son, I have longed a while to see you, and now I see you the fairest thing ever a woman bore. In sadness came I hither, in sadness did I bring forth, and in sadness has your first feast day gone. And as by sadness you came into the world, your name shall be called Tristan; that is the child of sadness.” Summary: The tale of Tristan and Iseult is perhaps famous enough that there is no need to re-tell it; but it is worth a moment to re-trace its lineaments nonetheless. Tristan, nephew of King Mark of Cornwall, comes to serve his uncle. Hardly has he arrived when he takes up the challenge to fight the greatest champion of Ireland for his uncle's honor and to win the right of Cornwall to be free of tribute; he kills the champion but is wounded with a poisoned sword. (Poison is a theme throughout the story.) Tristan begs his uncle a last favor, which is simply to go out to sea, perhaps to find some land where he can be healed, and it is granted; he is too weak to use sail or oar, so he is simply laid in the boat with his harp and set adrift. Eventually he is discovered, on the verge of death, by fishermen, who bring them to their lady, a generous woman of extraordinary ability in herbs and the like, which she had learned from her mother. The lady's name was Iseult the Fair, or Iseult of the Golden Hair, and she was a princess in Ireland. Not realizing it, she healed the wounds of her country's greatest enemy, the wounds inflicted by her country's greatest champion. He returns home for a while, and, because Mark, having no son, treats Tristan as if he were a son, some of Mark's other barons are jealous. They attempt to get him to marry, but as it happens their attempt leads to Tristan setting sail to retrieve for Mark Iseult the Fair. He does this by slaying a dragon, thus both managing to remain alive once the Irish know who he is, and get Mark a queen, and establish peace between Ireland and Cornwall. His handling of it, however, already shows a devious streak. All this is merely preparatory. Iseult's mother gives Iseult's lady-in-waiting a special philtre. This potion is to be placed in the cups of Mark and Iseult on their wedding night; and its result will be to make them love each other wholly for their whole lives. Due to mischance, Tristan and Iseult happen to drink of it, and thus the second phase of the tale begins. They are both seized with an obsessive love. Up to this point, Tristan has done everything for honor and his king and uncle. These never cease to be important to him; but now he feels bound to Iseult in his every thought and desire. It is the beginning of the destruction of everything Tristan is; and it is also the beginning of the destruction of Iseult, as well. The philtre, of course, is not a mere appurtenance; it is utterly essential to the course of the tale. What seizes Tristan and Iseult is in itself not their fault, and it is not in itself resistible. This is the primary reason the two lovers can be reasonable objects of sympathy through the rest of the tale; the madness that has seized them will end up degrading them in ways neither could have imagined, but precisely because it is a kind of madness it shields their honor from their shame. In some versions of the tale it is made clear that at some point their actions are motivated less by the madness of the philtre than by their complacency in the deed, so that necessity transforms into an excuse for sin, as it often does; but Bedier carefully leaves it more ambiguous, so that by default compulsion remains the most obvious explanation until the end -- but it is notable that Tristan and Iseult both refuse penance. The tale continues from there with many twists and turns. There is much trickery and both Tristan and Iseult expend considerable ingenuity in deceiving Mark and others without actually lying. They are not exactly in a state conducive to prudence, however, and they eventually are caught and have to go on the run. This problem is resolved, but they end up in a forced separation, painful to them both. For this is a significant feature of their love: they literally love so much it hurts, "Anguish without end". And yet -- when each is offered a chance to ease the hurt, each gives it up because they each refuse to be comforted if the other suffers. The third phase of the story sees them both increasingly irrational due to their separation. They both become paranoid that the other might be falling out of love. Tristan, for reasons that are obscure -- but all their reasons become increasingly obscure -- and to a woman who, rather ominously, is named Iseult as well, Iseult of the White Hands. One of the important aspects of the story is the sheer burden Tristan and Iseult place on the two originally innocent people in the arrangement, Mark and Iseult of the White Hands; Iseult the Fair and Tristan marry them already betraying them. And yet, because Mark truly loves Iseult the Fair and Iseult of the White Hands truly loves Tristan, they both exhibit the same symptoms, the same irrationalities, and they both do terrible things. The only thing that makes them less sympathetic is that they were not poisoned by the philtre. Tristan eventually is wounded by a poisoned spear, and symmetry asserts itself. Tristan sends for Iseult the Fair; but he fears that she no longer loves him, so he arranges a sign. If the ship returns with white sail, Iseult comes; if the ship returns with black sail, she does not. Unfortunately, Iseult of the White Hands overhears the arrangement and its reason, and when the ship appears on the horizon with white sails, she reports that its sails are black. Tristan dies of grief even as Iseult the Fair comes to shore; and she dies of grief beside him. The philtre as a poison was long in acting and there was never any guarantee of when it would achieve its mark; but it was an effective one, and more effective than the poisons that were designed to kill. They at least had a cure. In passing, talking about some of Mark's barons, who were almost obsessively out to foil the two lovers, the narrator describes how they, too, will die, and says, "Thus God who hates all excess will avenge the lovers on their enemies" (p. 97). It is a remarkable thing to say in a story in which no one acts with moderation. But it is consistently true that the only excesses in the story that do not automatically call forth their own punishments are those committed early on by Tristan and Iseult, operating under the influence of the philtre. And the implacable enmity with which the narrator regards the barons is not entirely misplaced. They are the ones who started it all. Tristan destroyed the Irish champion because the barons would not; their jealous intrigue leads to Tristan's return to Ireland; and when he returns they aggravate every situation. They don't genuinely care about the honor of Mark, as Tristan and Iseult both do even while disgracing it; they are doing it to maintain their power and influence in the kingdom, and to get rid of Tristan, who seems likely to be Mark's heir and yet is too talented to kill directly. It's a twist that I think can easily be lost in the rest of the story: Tristan and Iseult do what is dishonorable but nonetheless struggle to do what is honorable, whereas the barons do what is superficially honorable out of dishonorable motives. And thus we see another aspect of it: despite the wild excesses of Tristan and Iseult -- they are trying to be moderate. We see this reflected in the fact that, to the end, they are both comforters of the poor and suffering around them. It's just that under the circumstances there is no way they can succeed very well. The barons, on the other hand, never try to moderate themselves; they only stay their hand out of fear or calculation. Perhaps the most interesting thing about the story is how it reflects the paradox of love. Love raised to passionate excess is folly, shame, death. Yet something in love seems only to attain perfection when it is love so great one may die of it. The tale itself provides no solution, only the paradox. Well, perhaps it does suggest a solution, in Ogrin the Hermit's insistence on penance; but of that route the story can tell us nothing. Favorite Passage: One day when the wind had fallen and the sails hung slack Tristan dropped anchor by an Island and the hundred knights of Cornwall and the sailors, weary of the sea, landed all. Iseult alone remained aboard and a little serving maid, when Tristan came near the Queen to calm her sorrow. The sun was hot above them and they were athirst and, as they called, the little maid looked about for drink for them and found that pitcher which the mother of Iseult had given into Brangien’s keeping. And when she came on it, the child cried, “I have found you wine!” Now she had found not wine — but Passion and Joy most sharp, and Anguish without end, and Death. The Queen drank deep of that draught and gave it to Tristan and he drank also long and emptied it all. Brangien came in upon them; she saw them gazing at each other in silence as though ravished and apart; she saw before them the pitcher standing there; she snatched it up and cast it into the shuddering sea and cried aloud: “Cursed be the day I was born and cursed the day that first I trod this deck. Iseult, my friend, and Tristan, you, you have drunk death together.” Recommendation: The tale in general is one of those that every educated person should have read in some form, and Bédier's is easily the most accessible and coherent of the versions. Highly recommended. Posted by Brandon at 11:18 PM 2 comments: Links to this post Potentiality and Actuality In what I am now there lies something that I am now not actually, but will become actually at some time in the future. And what I now am actually, I already was previously, but not actually. My present being contains the possibility for future actual being and supposes a possibility in my earlier being. My present being is at once actual and potential being; and insofar as it is actual, it is the actualization of a potency that already exited earlier. As modes of being, actuality and potentiality are contained in the sheer fact of being [schlichte Seinstatsche] and from it they are to be inferred. St. Edith Stein, Potency and Act, Redmond, tr. ICS Publications [Washington, DC: 2009] p. 12. I have very little serious German. I take it that 'schlichte Seinstatsche' literally means something like 'definitive apprehension of being'? [ADDED LATER: Arsen notes that it's a typo (mine, rather than Redmond's) -- it should actually be 'Seinstatsache', which means pretty straightforwardly 'fact of being'.] Posted by Brandon at 5:39 AM 4 comments: Links to this post Too Fierce for Bodies of Mortals Libera Me by Ernest Dowson Goddess the laughter-loving, Aphrodite, befriend! Long have I served thine altars, serve me now at the end, Let me have peace of thee, truce of thee, golden one, send. Heart of my heart have I offered thee, pain of my pain, Yielding my life for the love of thee into thy chain; Lady and goddess be merciful, loose me again. All things I had that were fairest, my dearest and best, Fed the fierce flames on thine altar: ah, surely, my breast Shrined thee alone among goddesses, spurning the rest. Blossom of youth thou hast plucked of me, flower of my days; Stinted I nought in thine honouring, walked in thy ways, Song of my soul pouring out to thee, all in thy praise. Fierce was the flame while it lasted, and strong was thy wine, Meet for immortals that die not, for throats such as thine, Too fierce for bodies of mortals, too potent for mine. Blossom and bloom hast thou taken, now render to me Ashes of life that remain to me, few though they be, Truce of the love of thee, Cyprian, let me go free. Goddess the laughter-loving, Aphrodite, restore Life to the limbs of me, liberty, hold me no more Having the first-fruits and flower of me, cast me the core. Aristotle and Absolute Space and Time In Aristotle's physics, is there an absolute space and time (or absolute motion and rest)? I've come across a number of places in which people assume that it does. Obviously, to some extent it depends on what you mean by absolute space and time. Suppose we use Newton's definition of absolute space and absolute time from the Principia: I. Absolute, true, and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature, flows equably without relation to anything external, and by another name is called duration: relative, apparent, and common time, is some sensible and external (whether accurate or unequable) measure of duration by the means of motion, which is commonly used instead of true time; such as an hour, a day, a month, a year. II. Absolute space, in its own nature, without relation to anything external, remains always similar and immovable. Relative space is some movable dimension or measure of the absolute spaces; which our senses determine by its position to bodies; and which is commonly taken for immovable space; such is the dimension of a subterraneous, an aerial, or celestial space, determined by its position in respect of the earth. By these definitions Aristotle's physics has no absolute space and no absolute time -- indeed, in Aristotle's physics absolute space and absolute time are simply impossible. 'When' for Aristotle is by definition relative to motion; 'where' is by definition relative to body. This is why we get the kinds of discussions in physics that we find in the medieval scholastics; whenever they talk about time, they are always talking about clocks, and whenever they talk about space they are always talking about containers (in a broad sense of the term). Aristotle's physics has no absolute time or absolute space in Newton's sense; time is always relative to some clock and space is always relative to some container. Indeed, given some of the way Newton phrases things, I actually wonder if Newton might be deliberately anti-Aristotelian here. Newton posits absolute space and absolute time because his physics crucially requires us to break away from the purely sensible -- Newtonian physics can explain a great many things, but it does so by abstraction from the sensible. Taking time itself, or space itself, to be a measure, as Aristotelian physics effectively does, from his perspective means that physical theories never talk about realities, but only about measurements. At least, this seems to be one of the ways his scholium on the subject can be read. There is a sense, though, in which the Aristotelians admitted something that we could think of as absolute space and time. For while time is relative to clocks or changes and place to containers, the old Aristotelian universe had something capable of operating as a general clock or container: the primum mobile, which as that which has the first and most general change can serve as both a universal clock and a universal container. Time is necessarily relative to a change that can act as (in some sense) a clock -- but there happens to be a change that can be a clock for any other change. Place is necessarily relative to a body that can act as (in some sense) a container -- but there happens to be a body that can be a container for every other body. If by 'There is an absolute time' we meant 'There is a universal clock', and by 'There is an absolute space' we meant 'There is a universal container', the Aristotelians typically did hold that there was an absolute space and time. But this does need to be distinguished from Newton's sense; these things are relative, not absolute, space and time for Newton. (The fact that Newton thinks of relative space and time as tied to the senses does complicate this conclusion somewhat, it should be said; the way in which the primum mobile works as a 'clock' or a 'container' in Aristotelian physics doesn't so obviously tie it to the senses. There are also some variations among Aristotelians, and there was some puzzlement arising from the fact that if place is relative to a container, the primum mobile is not in any place, which sounds a bit odd.) A Brief Guide to Reading Kant Today we started Kantianism in my ethics course. Very difficult to teach students properly. Here's the one-page reading guide I gave them. 1. Don’t panic. If you have difficulty understanding him on your first reading, you’re in the position practically everyone is. The flip side of this is that if you think you’ve understood him on your first reading, you should stop lying to yourself. 2. Kant likes to approach the same ideas from multiple angles. If you don’t understand something, read on, and he will likely cover the same ground in a different way later on. 3. The key concept for understanding Kant is a priori, which in the Kantian context means ‘prior to, and thus independent of, experience’. All of Kant’s philosophy consists of arguing that much of the order with which we experience the world does not come from the world but from our minds; he thus is trying to identify the features of our mind that make it possible for us to interpret the world in the way we do. This includes our experience of the world in a moral way. 4. If you’re having difficulty with a passage, you might consider reading it out loud. Many of Kant’s stylistic peculiarities are linked to the fact that he tends to write as if he were lecturing. Hearing the lecture rather than trying just to look at it on the page can often make a difference. When heard rather than simply read, one often finds that the style is more accessible than it might at first appear. 5. Much of the key to understanding Kant lies in the vocabulary; he’s using a technical and quasi-technical vocabulary that would have been very familiar to educated people in his day, even if it has since become less common. Don’t just skip words you don’t know! Sometimes they are the key to the whole argument. 6. Kant is a systematizer. It’s never enough merely to understand particular arguments; you also need to understand how they fit into the overall structure of thought he is trying to build. 7. There is some excellent Kant scholarship out there. Onora O’Neill, David Velleman, and others have often studied particular passages in close detail and also have written useful summaries of basic ideas. Don’t be afraid to draw on the secondary scholarship – it’s foolhardy to study someone like Kant entirely on your own, no matter how clever you are. If you come across a difficult passage, you can practically guarantee that someone else has looked at it in close detail, so look around to see what other people are saying. When you’re reading Kant, it is time to take some initiative. 8. There are reasons Kant is so influential, and there are reasons why reading groups sprang up to read Kant when his work first came out. If you aren’t seeing them, you need to look harder for the unique and distinctive features of his ideas. He will often take an idea, even a very mundane idea, and raise it to an entirely new level. Posted by Brandon at 2:00 PM 3 comments: Links to this post The End of the World Was Long Ago Before the gods that made the gods Had seen their sunrise pass, The White Horse of the White Horse Vale Was cut out of the grass. Had drunk at dawn their fill, Was hoary on the hill. Age beyond age on British land, Aeons on aeons gone, Was peace and war in western hills, And the White Horse looked on. For the White Horse knew England When there was none to know; He saw the first oar break or bend, He saw heaven fall and the world end, O God, how long ago. For the end of the world was long ago, And all we dwell to-day As children of some second birth, Like a strange people left on earth After a judgment day. When the ends of the world waxed free, When Rome was sunk in a waste of slaves, And the sun drowned in the sea. For some reason I've been thinking recently of G. K. Chesterton's best poem, The Ballad of the White Horse, which is a serious candidate for the best narrative poem of the twentieth century. The above, which opens Book I, is about the collapse of the western half of the Roman Empire, the end of the world long ago, as the barbarians began to march. In the midst of the chaos, the hero of the story, Alfred, becomes King of Wessex in a time of Danish invasion, when it seems that Wessex might not survive. He attempts to stave it off, but then there comes an invasion he cannot hold off. He has a vision of the Virgin Mary and asks her what the fate of his people will be. And she tells him that while the pagans may mark their times and triumphs, the fate of those who drink the blood of God is to go singing to their deaths, to have joy when there is no cause for it, and to have faith when there is no hope. In Book II Alfred begins to gather his army, and when they ask why they should come, he tells them the truth: "I am that oft-defeated King Whose failure fills the land, Who fled before the Danes of old, Who chaffered with the Danes with gold, Who now upon the Wessex wold Hardly has feet to stand. "But out of the mouth of the Mother of God I have seen the truth like fire, This—that the sky grows darker yet And the sea rises higher." And they come, to fight and die. In Book III, Alfred is surveying the territory when he is captured by a band of Danes, who, not recognizing him and seeing that he has a harp, drag him back to the army, vast like the sea, to play for the chieftains. Other bards play, singing songs of ancient defeat and the dark fate of the world, and then Alfred sings his defiant song in response: "What sign have we save blood and smoke? Here is my answer then. "That on you is fallen the shadow, And not upon the Name; That though we scatter and though we fly, And you hang over us like the sky, You are more tired of victory, Than we are tired of shame. "That though you hunt the Christian man Like a hare on the hill-side, The hare has still more heart to run Than you have heart to ride. "That though all lances split on you, All swords be heaved in vain, We have more lust again to lose Than you to win again. Book IV, after he has escaped, gives the famous story of Alfred and the cakes, and the army of Alfred goes to war. Book V sees preparations for the Battle of Ethandune, which we see in Book VI as the chiefs of Alfred's army fall in battle, one by one; and in Book VII Alfred leads the last desperate charge: Wild stared the Danes at the double ways Where they loitered, all at large, As that dark line for the last time Doubled the knee to charge— And caught their weapons clumsily, And marvelled how and why— In such degree, by rule and rod, The people of the peace of God Went roaring down to die. But Alfred sees the Virgin again, and the tide of battle turns. Guthrum the pagan king dies; and Book VII ends lauding him for his greatness and burying him. With Book VIII, we find Alfred prophesying of things to come: heathen will again come to conquer, with new ways: "By all men bond to Nothing, Being slaves without a lord, By one blind idiot world obeyed, Too blind to be abhorred; "By terror and the cruel tales Of curse in bone and kin, By weird and weakness winning, Accursed from the beginning, By detail of the sinning, And denial of the sin; "By thought a crawling ruin, By life a leaping mire, By a broken heart in the breast of the world, And the end of the world's desire; "By God and man dishonoured, By death and life made vain, Know ye the old barbarian, The barbarian come again— But how such barbarians are to be defeated, Alfred does not know; but he rides off to finish his task. Antony on Epistemic Peers I've had a significant upsurge of hits for this old post on epistemic peers and equal weight arguments. I think the reason is probably due to this interview on atheism with Louise Antony in "The Stone", in which the topic comes up: G.G.: No, they may both be rational. But suppose you and your theist friend are equally adept at reasoning, equally informed about relevant evidence, equally honest and fair-minded — suppose, that is, you are what philosophers call epistemic peers: equally reliable as knowers. Then shouldn’t each of you recognize that you’re no more likely to be right than your peer is, and so both retreat to an agnostic position? L.A.: Yes, this is an interesting puzzle in the abstract: How could two epistemic peers — two equally rational, equally well-informed thinkers — fail to converge on the same opinions? But it is not a problem in the real world. In the real world, there are no epistemic peers — no matter how similar our experiences and our psychological capacities, no two of us are exactly alike, and any difference in either of these respects can be rationally relevant to what we believe. G.G.: So is your point that we always have reason to think that people who disagree are not epistemic peers? L.A.: It’s worse than that. The whole notion of epistemic peers belongs only to the abstract study of knowledge, and has no role to play in real life. Take the notion of “equal cognitive powers”: speaking in terms of real human minds, we have no idea how to seriously compare the cognitive powers of two people. Very much agreed with Antony on this; I discussed something in the broad vicinity of Antony's argument in another post on epistemic peers. In any case, it's nice to see a top-notch epistemologist pointing it out. ADDED LATER Helen De Cruz has an interesting counterargument on the point. It seems to me that the argument conflates epistemic peerage with another kind of peerage, which I call intellectual peerage in the post at the link in the last paragraph above. But this is a purely practical assessment. And contrary to her suggestion, I see no way in which it can salvage Gutting's argument; why would one think that disagreement of informed people or even experts should lead to agnosticism, given that the differences will in principle allow you to assess which one is right, or more likely to be right? All we seem to get is that each person should continue to develop their views, taking into account the arguments and reasons of the other, not retreat to agnosticism. Renewal of Lost Innocence Extreme Unction Upon the eyes, the lips, the feet, On all the passages of sense, The atoning oil is spread with sweet Renewal of lost innocence. The feet, that lately ran so fast To meet desire, are soothly sealed; The eyes, that were so often cast On vanity, are touched and healed. From troublous sights and sounds set free; In such a twilight hour of breath, Shall one retrace his life, or see, Through shadows, the true face of death? Vials of mercy! Sacring oils! I know not where nor when I come, Nor through what wanderings and toils, To crave of you Viaticum. Yet, when the walls of flesh grow weak, In such an hour, it well may be, Through mist and darkness, light will break, And each anointed sense will see. If the standard of excellent poetry is to say something about a subject in the best way to say it, I think this poem comes close to doing so; the one thing it is lacking is the recognition that extreme unction expresses by sign the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead and bodily life in the world to come. It comes very close to this in the last stanza, but doesn't quite express the theology of redundantia or overflow -- i.e., that the grace and glory of the beatified soul will overflow the body. (I've been meaning to write a post on the subject for ages; perhaps this will motivate me to get around to it sooner.) We get almost there -- maybe, maybe, maybe we get there in the last line -- but if so, it's left a bit obscure. At the same time, extreme unction is not exactly the easiest sacrament to express in words. I know very little about Dowson. Indeed, before some recent reading I'm not sure if I had ever even heard of him before. Apparently he's usually considered one of the Decadents and was a friend of Oscar Wilde. Debrabander on "Stand Your Ground" Firmin Debrabander has a truly bad post at "The Stone" on so-called "Stand Your Ground" laws. I am just baffled at his argument. He gives us a characterization of the particular features of "Stand Your Ground" in which he is interested: Florida’s Stand your Ground statute says that a person may use force, “including deadly force if [he] reasonably believes it is necessary to do so to prevent death or great bodily harm to himself …” It is a logical extension of the increasingly expansive gun legislation in many parts of the country. Ohio recently approved its own version of the law, and others are poised to join in. Still, controversies surrounding the law continue to pile up. OK, so Debrabander himself tells us that the law is that you are protected from penalty if you kill someone when you "reasonably believe" that if you don't you yourself will be killed or maimed. And he gives us his overall opinion of "Stand Your Ground", which is that it encourages the wrong kind of society. That is fine, as well. Where the whole post goes obviously haywire is when he goes beyond merely giving his personal opinion and tries to build a relevant philosophical argument on the subject. The philosophical argument is based on Locke's concept of the 'state of nature'. Locke gives us a whole discussion of the state of nature, so we have a pretty good idea of what it is supposed to be. But what does it have to do with "Stand Your Ground" laws? According to Debrabander: Proponents and defenders of Stand Your Ground effectively wish to return us to a State of Nature and its attendant “Inconveniences” — and dangers. LaPierre urges individuals to presume the worst about supposed assailants — damn the consequences. Err, no; this is obvious hyperbole, and at a fatal point in the argument. In Locke's state of nature there is no civil society at all; there would be no SYG laws in the state of nature because the only law in the state of nature is natural law. Further, in the state of nature, each human being is executive enforcer of every single law, and thus may punish someone for any actual crime under natural law; but SYG laws -- as Debrabander well knows, having actually quoted a typical one -- are restricted in scope. They do not say that you can use deadly force in the face of any crime. In addition, the distinguishing feature of civil society as opposed to the state of nature is, as Debrabander says, that civil society is based on the principle that men should not act as magistrates in their own cases. But obviously this does not imply that men can do nothing unless authorized by the magistrate; it means that there should be common magistrates determining such cases as prevent abuses involving violence and partiality to one's cause. And SYG laws don't do away with the common magistrate or judge; they depend on them, because it will be such magistrates who determine that yes, the person in question is protected under the law. Locke recognizes one kind of state of nature in our age of civil societies: the state of nature existing between sovereigns. But SYG is based on there being a higher magistrate to which one may appeal and before which one may be held accountable. We see the problems with Debrabander's hyperbole in one of the arguments he makes: Without recourse to a Common Judge, violent reprisals spawn violent reprisals in turn, which are each seemingly just, and a cycle of violence — a state of war — is born. Civil society, and its institution of a Common Judge who takes over executing the law of nature, relieves us of the “Inconveniences of the State of Nature,” Locke argues — which can be dire indeed. This is what leads directly into his claim that proponents of the SYG laws are advocating the state of nature. But SYG has nothing at all to do with reprisal; Debrabander explicitly noted that they were concerned with self-defense, which is not reprisal. So not only does SYG not establish, or even get one anywhere near, a state of nature, depending as it does on common judges, but the state of nature is not a state of war at all, and civil society does not make the state of war impossible. In fact, if we go back to the scenario envisaged in Florida's SYG law, which Debrabander had quoted, it is clear that it's a law protecting the right to defend yourself, even if it means killing, if someone else initiates a state of war against you. That's how would one characterize it in Lockean terms. And what is more, it is clear that Locke would think this thoroughly reasonable: ... the law, which was made for my preservation, where it cannot interpose to secure my life from present force, which if lost is capable of no reparation, permits me my own defence and the right of war, a liberty to kill the aggressor, because the aggressor allows not time to appeal to our common judge, nor the decision of the law, for remedy in a case where the mischief may be irreparable. Indeed, Locke thinks that this means that you could kill someone deliberately trying to steal your coat (his own example). But contrary to Debrabander this has nothing to do with the state of nature; it has everything to do with the fact that the other person has initiated a state of war against you, whether you are in a state of nature or in a political society. (He is quite clear that the state of war is initiated by anyone who violates the natural rights of another, regardless of the kind of society in which they live.) Now, in fact Locke does think that in civil society we give up our executive powers to the commonwealth government. But the government has this power in order to sustain the natural law, in which individual preservation ranks high. Thus the people in civil society, according to Locke's view, have the right to demand that the government pass whatever laws are required to protect the people against aggressors. While Locke obviously doesn't consider the matter in detail, it's clear enough that Locke's conception of how the commonwealth relates to natural law directly implies that the legislature has no right to demand that people let other people kill or maim them: so either it guarantees that this will not happen, or it recognizes under law the ways in which people can defend themselves. This does not return matters to a state of nature, because it is under law. It does not establish a state of war; it protects people against whom someone else has established a state of war. None of this, of course, has much to do with whether SYG laws are any good; nor does it imply that you couldn't have a general argument on Lockean principles against them. Rather, it's that Debrabander's attempt to turn Locke 'round against it collapses under its own exaggeration. In reality, the real question of SYG is this: How far can the state go in recognizing your right to defend yourself against someone threatening your life and body? That's pretty much it; no need for talk about states of nature. (It's worth noting that David French, to whose argument Debrabander is responding, never appeals to Locke on the state of nature; he quotes Locke on the state of war, and on the natural law, both of which would be stronger points to press. Why Debrabander takes this turn into talking about the state of nature is beyond me.) Notable Notes and Linkable Links * Between visitors and misplacing the book for several days, the fortnightly book was delayed, so I decided just to extend it an extra week; we'll be getting Tristan and Iseult on Saturday. * The backstory on the Ukraine can be found in Timothy Snyder's "Fascism, Russia, and Ukraine" (ht) * Angela Roothaan discusses the recent movie about Hannah Arendt. * Charlie Huenemann on Leibniz's foray into the field of mine engineering. * Sayeh Meisami on the great Persian philosopher, Mulla Sadra. * A recent fatwa apparently claims that going to Mars is not acceptable under Islamic law. It's worth pointing out, perhaps, that while fatwas are authoritative, they are not definitive; their authority is that of a legal opinion, and you can have conflicting fatwas from different authorities. Most Muslims online, at least, seem to find this one more amusing than anything. * The McGrews have in recent months been talking about undesigned coincidences in evidential assessment of texts: Tim McGrew at "Christian Apologetics Alliance" Lydia McGrew at "What's Wrong with the World" What We're Reading: Horae Paulinae * In comments recently, Lucian of Samosata's Double Indictment came up recently, since it's a Menippean satire about Menippean satire. As I mentioned there, Menippean satire is a philosophical genre (Menippus was a Cynic philosopher, and historically the genre has been used as a way of handling matters suitable neither to more traditional dialogues nor to treatises). If you want the basic idea of how Menippean satire works, this is the best source. * George Demacopoulos discusss, from an Orthodox perspective, what caused the sacramental rupture between East and West. * Enbrethiliel at "Shredded Cheddar" has been doing a book club on Michael Crichton's State of Fear. I haven't read the book, but I thought the following comment she made on a passage in it, about the blunders of environmentalists, interesting: You could have knocked me over with a dodo feather when I got to that passage and realised that you could substitute "environmentalists" with "Traditionalists," make other context-appropriate changes, and have basically the same moral. For despite what some butt-hurt bloggers will tell you, the real problem of the Traditionalist Catholic movement is not a supposed "lack of charity," but a lack of understanding of what it takes to preserve an environment. (Hint: it's not with capes, cigars and Chesterton.) * The Norwegians have investigated Anders Behring Breivik's claims he is being tortured in prison by not being allowed to upgrade his Playstation and being forced to use non-weaponizable pens and by having to use a desk chair instead of having a nice armchair. Unsurprisingly, they have concluded that he is not being tortured. * Canada's National Post had an interesting article on a Catholic priest in the Central African Republic protecting fleeing Muslim refugees from being slaughtered by Christian militia: He and his friends laugh when asked if they ever thought they would live at a church. However, they recognize the gravity of the situation that now faces them. “If it weren’t for the church and the peacekeepers, we’d all be dead,” says Mahmoud Laminou, who has been here for two weeks. Posted by Brandon at 8:49 AM 1 comment: Links to this post The Assailant Position The opponents of Christianity always choose their own position; and the position they choose is always that of the assailant. They bring forward objections; but never attempt to defend themselves against the objections to which they are exposed. The cause of this it is easy to perceive. Objections—not only plausible, but real, valid, and sometimes unanswerable objections—may be brought against what is nevertheless true, and capable of being fully established by a preponderance of probability;—by showing that there are more and weightier objections on the opposite side. If, therefore, any one can induce you to attend to the objections on one side only, wholly overlooking the (perhaps weightier) opposite ones, he may easily gain an apparent triumph. A barrister would have an easy task if he were allowed to bring forward all that could be said against the party he was opposed to, and to pass over in silence all that could be urged on the other side, as not worth answering. Richard Whately, in the Introduction to his annotated edition of William Paley's Evidences of Christianity. Whately, of course, is an important figure in the history of logic, being one of the central movers in the logical renaissance of the nineteenth century. One of his more famous works (which he goes on shortly after this passage to allude to) is the hilarious Historic Doubts Relative to Napoleon Buonaparte, in which he 'proves' on Humean principles that Napoleon didn't exist and was probably made up in order to sell newspapers. The work was published in 1819 and Napoleon, of course, was still alive (he died in 1821), having only been defeated at Waterloo, after an immense war effort, four years before. I Would Not Change for Thine Song to Celia by Ben Jonson Drink to me only with thine eyes, And I will pledge with mine; Or leave a kiss but in the cup, And I’ll not look for wine. The thirst that from the soul doth rise Doth ask a drink divine; But might I of Jove’s nectar sup, I would not change for thine. I sent thee late a rosy wreath, Not so much honouring thee As giving it a hope, that there It could not withered be. But thou thereon didst only breathe, And sent’st it back to me; Since when it grows, and smells, I swear, Not of itself, but thee. Dashed Off V Exchanges and markets, like everything else, must be set in order. rhetoric as the logic governing the social use of knowledge, belief, and suspicion Kant is curiously quiet about teleological judgment of human design -- scattered mentions, but he seem to have no clear way of recognizing design in things we know to be designed by others like us. -- Consider how oddly sect. 77 reads when we are considering human products. -- Also note the antinomy; the proposition would include products of human art. The human body clearly exhibits technique as well as the mechanism of nature. Forgiveness of sins is not merely something the Church receives from God; it is a mission of the Church (Jn 20:22-23) as Spirit-filled. Catechesis is in part a teaching of the forgiveness of sins. taste as partly precedent-governed All inquiry is a pursuit of the beautiful in some form or another. the implicit civilization of forensic investigation The kinds of inquiry one pursues demonstrate one's character; the pursuits of inquiry come from deep inside us. If we are genuinely interested in truth conditions, we should use a typed logic. Note Kant's ironic diagnosis of Spinozism as an outgrowth of teleological judgment! One of the key skills of a good democratic citizen is to know what preferences not to politicize. sacramentalia & liturgical purposiveness of things, given purpose We feel ourselves analogous to other things. presential self-knowledge as allowing self-knowledge by remotion (cp Malebranche) Note that Kant seems to give more weight to analogy than probable opinion (it is causal parity). Proofs tend to conviction not because of the proofs but because of the end and tendency of the intellect. Steiner is in effect what Kant was trying to avoid. We see something of this in Kant on Swedenborg; Dreams is a tracing of rationalized vision and visionary reason to show them the same. To posit an end is to posit many means. pleasure as the minimum of (discernible) good with respect to a faculty Kant's account of happiness is inconsistent with attributing happiness to God. A soldier must make sense of his orders or he is a liability he has the duty not to be; and the same is true with a commander giving orders that make sense, in themselves and in context. Battles and wars are won and lost on the basis of understanding or failures of understanding. We can await grace while doing much; waiting for grace does not mean doing nothing. Integrity in inclinations is the result of prudence. Life-giving is the work of love. natural law as prefiguration of total good & thus the Beatific Vision Kant's account of Christ's use of Mosaic law borders on Marcionite. As a teaching faith, Christian faith must be both scholarly and open to all, even the simple, for we are all in the school of the Holy Spirit as students, and yet we are all also teachers in the same school, each specializing in his own way and teaching according to his own method, according to talent, vocation, and gifts. For it is really the Holy Spirit who teaches; but He calls us all to be instruments of His teaching, each one in his or her own way. Some saints, like visionaries, teach us by encouragement or warning; others, like the just, by example to imitate; others, like extraordinary mortifiers or great ascetics, by showing us that human nature is not so limited as we think, and thus that we cannot easily appeal to such limits as excuses in our own tasks, which are usually far from the limits they show; others, like doctors, by words of doctrine; others, like virgins and martyrs, by being themselves signs and in a special way human sacramentals; and many by some mix of these. Kant's view of anthropomorphism is almost backward; theoretical anthropomorphism is more dangerous than the practical. Not all grace is invisible and secret. Without good life-conduct, none can be pleasing to God, but from this it does not follow that, when it is had, nothing over and above it can be pleasing to God. The yoke of law is not a pseudo-service, whatever its limitations. Kant's account of conscience is rigorist (unsurprisingly -- no room for prudence). rites as schemata for duties Kant is so worried about the problem of us being well-pleasing to God that he neglects the problem of us finding God well-pleasing. The sacraments, being signs of the Word, point to something from which even reason itself comes. Kant mostly assumes that the means of grace are our means rather than God's. We serve God by receiving His grace. Contingent truths of history prove necessary truths of reason by establishing possibilities. The natural law leads directly to God, serving as a pledge of divine reason; God reveals Himself through it. To want to be worthy of happiness is certainly to want to be happy; for who can be worthy of happiness who does not want those worthy of happiness to be happy? (Kant gets this, although he sometimes does not explain it clearly; many of those who have studied Kant don't.) the Ideals as providing genetic explanations of real experience The possible is not opposed to the real. teleological judgment in historical work Human language develops primarily between humans, but also between man and environment (including other animals). If philosophy is the love a reasonable being has for the ends of human reason, the question of the Beatific Vision is of crucial philosophical significance. The constitution of something *as appearances* depends on the cognitive powers. discursive reason as the faculty of as-if the interest of wisdom as above the speculative and practical interests of reason beauty, sublimity, and design as forms of order in experience There are many different kinds of pleasure, not all qualitatively the same. trying things out as a philosophical activity occasions of rational reluctance vs occasions of deliberate evasion some kinds of beauty can be known only by inference. Through the sacraments God consigns His truth to perpetual remembrance. Those who are moved by the Holy Spirit are taught through the sacraments, which as instruments of the Holy Spirit carry their own evidence with them, so that participating in them we find ourselves sealed with the divine image, and our faith is not merely one of inference or opinion, but union with that in which we have faith. the wrath of God: holiness as swift and overwhelming (furious in the sense that storm is furious) inclusively disjunctive transcendentals vs exclusively disjunctive transcendentals the sense of novelty as being in some (all?) cases a sense of apparent causation Artistic movements represent possible world situations as ideals. the preternatural in Shakespeare as expressing objectively the secret subjective Appearances must themselves at some level be treated as things in themselves. Polytheistic gods are shadowy without rituals, stories, and art to mark them out. Even then they can blur into each other. Humor is at its highest when it makes "what is substantial emerge out of contingency" (Hegel). Nothing disenchants the world except by sapping our ability to tell stories about it. the sense of the magical -- liminality, perhaps, rather than sublimity Luther's faith, like the Calvinist Scripture, is an indirect way of talking about the Holy Spirit. the sublime, the beautiful, and the magical as the numinous-suggestive Phil 3:8-14 receiving the righteousness of God depends not merely on faith but on the power of His resurrection & sharing in His passion the conditions for rational suspicion that there is more than experience thus far shows music as the natural analogue of signs and wonders the power of the keys as the effluence of Christ's kingship Our relation to Christ and our relation to the Church must be two facets of one relation. divine causality as posited by the experience of absolute dependence As rational we both are one or individual and yet already belong to a whole greater than ourselves. Faith is a Godward attitude participating in a confidelity, which confidelity is itself the work of the Spirit of God. the prophet as the artist of religious proclamation; the artist as the prophet of aesthetic proclamation The Eucharist is the homiletic sacrament because it expresses in fact what the homilist is to express in words; it is the truth of which the homily or sermon is the caption or poetic description. The homilist intimates verbally what the Eucharist accomplishes internally. 'Quality of teaching' is too general a label to be of much practical use to anyone. Autobiography is argument. Every metric presupposes a mereology. Grothendieck's heuristic: never try to prove anything that is not already almost obvious Civilization is rooted in the power of exchanging good for good. adultery as looting The future is a usurious lender. The key issue in distributive justice is prioritization of needs. To philosophize is to recognize the consolation of lucidity, and to theologize is to recognize the freedom in faith. One who judges for himself will find that this often requires being answerable to another. It is not enough to recognize that there is a good; one must bear witness to the good. Sacraments are not only signs; they are questions. One can imagine an account of obligation modeled on Hume's account of necessary connection. hell as definitive self-exclusion from God. Cast widely, sort strictly. The blossom does not refute the bud, but explicates it. scholarly history of philosophy as philosophical culture It is in actual knowing that philosophy best expresses the love of wisdom. dreams as symbols of grace divine wisdom as the final end of philosophy (cf Plato on Eros) Association of ideas presupposes affinity of ideas. Christ is judge as Truth. Christian justice as foreshadow of heaven liturgy as the social breath of the Church the public works of the liturgical commonwealth To veil is to teach, as it is easier to understand what a thing does when one hides or suppresses it for a while; suppresses, in the case of things that can be removed, and hides, in the case of things more essential. Human learning proceeds by a pattern of veiling and unveiling. We have to be careful about treating disputes as being merely about words; disputes are often categorized as such when they are in fact disputes about the relevance of entire fields of thought. the importance of the rhetoric of trivial truths: reminding people of what they know, in contexts in which their knowledge is relevant philosophy as possessing a massively intricate and constantly moving teleology, like a living thing All inquiry is an unfolding of oneself. cognition as truth in us, whether clearly or confusedly quantification as discrete mereology cut scenes in philosophical argument Enthymeme as the substance of advice. To advise well, one must reason logically, cultivate good character, and understand human passions. The greatest art is that which is truly priceless, in that its proper exchange, the only kind of exchange doing true justice to it, is generous gift rather than sale. In the Ascension we discover that the body itself is capable of a being-with-God, as we learn in the Transfiguration that the body itself is capable of proclamation of the Kingdom of Heaven. the Ascension as teaching the destination of the body the Ascension as the beginning of a sacramental dispensation Now and Here are not immediate results of sense, certainly not of external sense; they become recognizable through the experience of sensus communis. human being as a medium The interpretation of experience in terms of substance and accident presupposes the interpretation of it in terms of being, one, true, good, and so forth. Divine relevation cannot merely be to us; divine revelation is such that it can be in us. permanent deacons as clerisy marriage as sacramental sign of salvation as covenant (and thus as mutual fidelity) Ordination is distinct from the clerical state as tree is distinct from fruitful tree. What is contained in the Word of God is written or handed down in Tradition. Tradition actualizes Scripture. Since Scripture and Tradition work as a unity in the Church, partim/partim cannot be regarded as egregious in effect even if (as I think) wrong. Profit on goods derives from the service of making them available to buy. Tradition as evangelism precisely insofar as its agent is the Holy Spirit the intrinsic link between liturgy and catechesis -- all catechesis is at least indirectly liturgical & all liturgy is in some way catechetical liturgy as exchange of gifts Torah prefigures Christ as Church. philosophy as interpretation so as to make clear (cf Socratic pursuit of definitions) body vibration as liminal hearing Wolff : Stoicism :: Kant : Skepticism :: Hegel : Unhappy Consciousness After every Palm Sunday in the Church's history there comes a Spy Wednesday. indelible character as (1) positive disposition to grace (2) seal of divine protection (3) vocation to worship and service By faith assenting to the word of God, we participate in the sacraments. Brassington on Euthanasia and Children Iain Brassington has a rather odd set of arguments on Belgium's recent changes to its euthanasia laws to allow child euthanasia: The argument here doesn’t require making any claims about the permissibility of euthanasia in general. Rather, I’m inclined to take as my starting-point something much more syllogistic: that if euthanasia is going to be allowed, we should be prepared to allow it for children. The reason for this is pretty straightforwardly an anti-ageism appeal. To have a law that prevents someone from accessing assisted dying of whatever sort on Monday, but allows it on the following day because it happens to be the birthday that tips him over the line that marks the allowed from the forbidden, seems to me to be indefensibly arbitrary. If someone can make the decision on the Tuesday, the chance that he was incapable the day before is small. The same applies to his incapacity on the Monday: quite why it should vanish magically on the stroke of midnight is a bit of a mystery. I doubt one can set aside claims about permissibility so generally; it is utterly implausible to claim that one's reasons for thinking euthanasia permissible would have no ramifications for who can take that option, or the conditions under which they can take them. To take just the blatantly obvious example, one could very well hold that the permissibility transaction of this magnitude depends directly or indirectly on full powers of autonomous contract; there is no society that recognizes such powers in children, for a rather long list of reasons. And this is unsurprising; the reasons that establish something as permissible are what usually establish the conditions under which it is permissible. Thus Brassington's argument starts in the wrong place, and what is more, it can be seen that most of Brassington's argument depends crucially on doing so, because it requires the apparent symmetries created by simply proposing the permissibility of euthanasia as a hypothesis without any further grounds, so that this indefinite permissibility -- permissible under we know not what conditions -- gets treated as if it were general permissibility -- permissible under any conditions. Even if we set this aside, the anti-ageism appeal is also problematic. As anyone can see from the argument Brassington gives, the direct implication Brassington's appeal is that there should be no age-based boundaries for anything. It's worth noting that this means that on Brassington's account the Belgian law is not legitimate. The law requires things in the case of children that it does not in the case of adults, simply because they are children. Brassington recognizes this, but seems not to grasp its implications: That is, children still have to jump through administrative hoops that adults don’t. That may be defensible; it may even be morally required. Given the possibility that younger people are not as sophisticated as older, we perhaps would want to advert to someone who knows them well for reassurance that the request is authentic. The general point, though, is that the law has been reformed so that it applies in more like the same way to adults and children. In many ways, that strikes me as a good thing. But how could the anti-ageist appeal work here if it were even possible for it to be "morally required" for children to jump through administrative hoops that adults don't? How can "the possibility that younger people are not as sophisticated as older" even be functioning as a moral reason in the context of Brassington's argument? If it can be morally required for children to jump through administrative hoops that adults don't, it may well be the case that the administrative hoops that are required may well make it more practical to assume that people under a certain age cannot in general manage it on their own -- to go through administrative hoops presupposes and requires some designated competence for doing so, and nothing prevents one from judging that children will not usually be able to have such competence or, if they do, cannot be guaranteed to have it with sufficient ease to be taken into account under law. Likewise, sophistication is not a minor issue in matters of consent; if we are already allowing people to treat children differently based on sophistication when it comes to being able to take requests as "authentic", it becomes a question why we should not also consider the position that they simply may not be, in the main, sophisticated enough to make determining the authenticity of the request feasible. In addition, we have to take into account the fact that anti-racism, anti-sexism, and in this case anti-ageism get their primary moral bite from being compensatory: they are intended to recognize inequalities leading to some populations being significantly more vulnerable than others. They also have the problem of being easily co-opted for any number of things that only sound like they might have to do with this kind of compensatory use. The real test of whether they are being used reasonably is whether they are being used explicitly and definitely in light of such vulnerabilities. But the kinds of things that Brassington's anti-ageist appeal would eliminate are precisely the things societies put into place in order to protect children as a vulnerable population. The reason we don't recognize children as having full competence in matters of contract is not that they can't make contracts but that others can easily take advantage of them. Children as inexperienced dependents can be pressured into doing things, or accepting things, that it would be much more difficult to pressure most adults into doing or accepting. (It is perhaps worth noting that Brassington's anti-ageist argument here is exactly parallel to certain common arguments against affirmative action as racist. And Brassington needs to address the same issue that people making those arguments need to address: how does one otherwise handle the vulnerabilities of the populations in question?) A further problem with Brassington's argument is the conflation of legal and moral permissibility. The former depends in some ways on the latter, but they are in other ways rather different, and even the link between the two is not always straightforward. The fact that we pick a birthday as a cut-off point is purely a matter of positive law. It is not concerned with the question of actual competence or ability, because law is not about whether people are actually competent in some moral sense but about whether and in what practically feasible ways society as a whole can officially recognize that competence. In the case of children, for instance, the reason for age cut-offs is not because anyone thinks that suddenly everyone after age X is mature enough to drink, or drive, or what have you, nor that no one prior to this age is mature enough to do so; it's because these are thresholds that have been deemed to meet certain basic criteria, like: (1) by that point we as a society have good reason to think that maturity has been reached by enough people that the law need not worry about the maturity issue as a general matter; (2) the cut-off is relatively easy to determine by anyone who needs to determine it (as assessments of actual maturity rarely are); (3) it allows enough time for parents and guardians to prepare people for the responsibilities, dangers, and risks involved in whatever kinds of decisions are in view. Depending on the situation, there might be others. In other words, these age thresholds are never determined solely on the basis of moral permissibility. As legal thresholds they are deliberate creations through law of new distinctions between the permissible and impermissible, and they are based on a large number of factors. This makes quite clear another point at which Brassington's argument makes an illicit leap. Legal age thresholds are arbitrary in the sense that no considerations will establish exactly when the change-over point should be. For any age threshold, you could just as easily set it a month before or after whenever you do set it, for instance. But it does not follow from this that they are arbitrary in the sense that they have no underlying reasons. No age threshold is set on the assumption that a birthday magically changes someone; they are set on the basis of deliberation about a lot of practical assessments of the typical vulnerabilities of the population, of what's practically feasible for social recognition and for enforcement, and what will be least likely to mire society in nasty complications and consequences if anything goes wrong. And, indeed, this is a problem with Brassington's argument in general. He says that the most important thing is capacity. But the capacity in question cannot be a mere ability to make decisions; by the very nature of the situation, it has be a capacity that it makes sense for society to recognize through law, given all the concerns society might have on the subject. That is, what matters is not whether the children in question are capable of making decisions but whether it is a good idea to extend a general recognition of such capability as a legal capability, given the ends of society, the vulnerabilities of children, and the practical limitations every society has to face. None of these are given any serious recognition by Brassington's argument, despite the fact that they are all involved in these questions. Posted by Brandon at 11:24 AM 4 comments: Links to this post
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HUTCH MEN BATTLE RED DEVILS ON WEDNESDAY Allen County Community College Hutchinson Community College 39 47 86 Allen County Community College 42 45 87 Pts: J.J. Rhymes - 30 Reb: Kai Mitchell - 10 Ast: J.J. Rhymes - 7 Pts: Tyler Williams - 23 Ast: Perry Carroll - 8 J.J. Rhymes and the Blue Dragons head to Allen at 5 p.m. on Wednesday for another important Jayhawk Conference showdown. (Joel Powers/Blue Dragon Sports Information) BLUE DRAGON MEN'S BASKETBALL No. 14 Hutchinson (23-4, 19-4) at Allen (7-20, 5-18) When: Wednesday, February 21, 2018 Where: Allen CC Gym Game Time: 5 p.m. Live Radio: KHUT-FM (102.9); KWBW-AM/FM (1450/98.5), 4:50 p.m. Videostream: Blue Dragon Sports Network, 4:50 p.m. Twitter: @bluedragonsport Hutchinson CC Sports Information The Hutchinson Community College men's basketball team goes for a seventh-straight victory on Wednesday when the No. 14-ranked Blue Dragons head to play the Allen Red Devils in Iola. The Blue Dragons and Red Devils will play at 5 p.m. on Wednesday at the Allen Gym. The game was moved up three hours because of impending wintery weather that's supposed to start Wednesday evening. The game will be broadcast live on Blue Dragon flagship station KHUT-FM (102.9) and sister stations KWBW-AM/FM (1450/98.5) with Glen Grunwald (play-by-play) and Daren Dunn (analysis) calling the action at 4:50 p.m. The game will be videostreamed on the Blue Dragon Sports Network at 4:50 p.m. Hutchinson's six-game winning streak has put the Blue Dragons right back in the thick of the Jayhawk Conference title chase. The Blue Dragons, Barton and Coffeyville are all tied for first place with 19-4 record. Last Wednesday's 85-72 win over Barton gives the Dragons the head-to-head tiebreaker with the Cougars. Hutchinson and Coffeyville have split games this season. Barton has a win over Coffeyville this season. Those two teams play again on Saturday in Great Bend. On Wednesday, Coffeyville plays host to Butler and Barton is at Pratt. Hutchinson closes out with Independence at home on Saturday and at Dodge City on Monday. The Dragons have had a tremendous 1-2 scoring punch during the six-game winning streak. Sophomores Devonte Bandoo and J.J. Rhymes have averaged 19.3 and 18.0 points per game, respectively, during the winning streak. Bandoo is hitting 51.5 percent overall and 52.2 percent from 3-point range. Freshman James Rojas is third in scoring during the streak at 13.5 points. Hutchinson will be going for the season sweep over Allen on Wednesday after a 103-75 victory over the Red Devils on January 6 at the Sports Arena. The Blue Dragons shot 52.6 percent overall and got a combined 56 points from Rhymes (31 points) and Bandoo (25 points). Bandoo hit five 3-pointers in that game. The Dragons limited Allen to 32.5 percent shooting, but Red Devil Tevin Townsend had 20 points on 4 of 7 3-point shooting. Jan 18, Final - 2OT 91 Hutchinson Community College 94 at Pratt Community College Jan 15, Final 72 at Garden City Community College 79 Northwest Kansas Technical College 84 at Cowley County Community College Video | Preview | Box Score | Recap | Audio 67 Kansas City Kansas Community College
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Early Tools Early Trades Master Blacksmith Bladesmithing Young Smiths Lock Smithing DVD's & CD's Polish and Pencils Info About Judy's Memorial Sort By Position Title Price Author Set Descending Direction Art of Blacksmithing, The Bealer, Alex W. The Art of Blacksmithing This unique book covers every aspect of this fascinating art, the fundamental craft on which the civilization of the Iron Age was built. It is perfect for craftsmen who want to set up a blacksmith shop, and for lovers of history and craft alike. It describes and illustrates the equipment and the techniques developed in more that six thousand years of working iron by hand. It reflects respect for the specialized skills of the smith and the excitement of the village smithy, which so recently disappeared from the Western world. Format: Hardcover. Dimensions: 5 1/2" x 8 1/2" Pages: 438 Illustrations: over 500 Art of Welding, The Galvery, William Over William Galvery's long professional career as an educator and hands-on-welder he offers us his acclaimed welding insight and everyday tips and tricks.This unique and original book provides complete, in-depth coverage of the equiptment and techniques used in the most popular welding processes: Oxyacetylele, stick welding, MIG welding and TIG welding. Each chapter contains the pros and cons of each process and information on equiptment, setup, materials, safety, and welding techniques. It provides sound footing for the novice welder. Format: Soft Cover Dimentions: 8 1/2" x 11" Pages: 256 Illustrations: 225 Blacksmith's Cookbook, The: Recipes in Iron Whitaker, Francis NEW reprint with index! This book is the result of ten years of workshops, demonstrations and master classes. The idea of the title for 'The Blacksmith's Cookbook' was to give credit to blacksmith's wives, especially my own. There is a similarity between forges and kitchens, basic equiptment, basic tools and the often exquisite results. A large part of my success is due to the devoted help of my wife, and I am sure this applies to many other smiths. F.W. Format: Softcover - spiral bound. Dimentions: 6" x 9 1/2" Pages: 153 Illustrations: 144 Blacksmith’s Craft, The The Blacksmith's Craft: An Introduction to Smithing for Apprentices and Craftsmen was published because there was no text book, at that time, on blacksmithing which could meet the needs of craftsmen and apprentices. The lack of such a book was a handicap to the teaching of this subject. It is also of great value to many other craftsmen and apprentices whose work depends on a sound knowledge of the behavior of iron and steel. The skill of the smith is faithfully recorded in sequences of still photographs and brief descriptions. Some of the methods shown and described are not the only ones possible. As experience is gained, the smith can develop his own variations of a technique. With its clear photographs and accurate descriptions, The Blacksmith's Craft is a valuable resource for all blacksmiths. Format: Hardcover Dimensions: 5 1/2” x 8 3/4” Pages:104 Illustrations: 248 Complete Metalsmith, The McCreight, Tim This book represents years of intensive research and experimentation. Information from hundreds of sources has been collected, distilled, and illustrated. It is intended to be both a text and as tool, a blend of instruction and reference. Like other tools, its value increases as you bring to it your own perceptions and skills. It is designed to make the information easily accessible, and built to stand up to years of benchside use. Format: Hard cover Dimentions: 8 1/2" x 9 1/2" Pages: 301 Illustrations: 500 Forging Solutions IV, Joinery DVD Har-lev, Amit Joining metal to metal...for function or for decoration. Amit Har-lev takes you step by step in Joinery Techniques , through a wide range of creative as well as functional joinery techniques that can be applied to your next project. Making and working with rivets... Wrapping techniques... Joining flat bars... Working with wedges....and much more! Total Run Time: 1 hr. 20 min. with quick and easy menu access to all lessons. How to Forge Weld on a Blacksmith’s Anvil Heath, Robert M. Forge welding is an old technique of joining two pieces of metal with heat. This booklet is written to honestly try to convey certain principles of a craft technique that are difficult to convey in writing. The reader can find enough information to enable, even a beginner, to make a forge weld. Go for it! Format: Soft cover, Dimentations: 8" x 11", Pages: 52, Illustrations: 140 Metalworking, Doing it Better Lipton, Tom Metalworking, Doing it better is an extraordinary guide which will help you develop new metalworking skills and improve those you already have - while saving you valuable time! Tom Lipton, who wrote "Metalworking Sink or Swim" shares with you hundreds of unique and creative techniques, well illustrated with full color pictures. They are carefuly coordinated with the tips to enhance your learning - and your enjoyment too. Format: Soft cover Dimentions: 8 1/2" x 11" Pages: 344 Illustrations: !,000 © 2018 Blue Moon Press, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
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Procedimentos Reparadores Juvenile Diabetes 29 de setembro de 2015julianosoutoHealth Library Influenza, commonly known as “the flu”, is an infectious disease caused by the influenza virus. Symptoms can be mild to severe. The most common symptoms include: a high fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pains, headache, coughing, and feeling tired. These symptoms typically begin two days after exposure to the virus and most last less than a week. The cough, however, may last for more than two weeks. In children there may be nausea and vomiting but these are not common in adults. Nausea and vomiting occur more commonly in the unrelated infection gastroenteritis, which is sometimes inaccurately referred to as “stomach flu” or “24-hour flu”. Complications of influenza may include viral pneumonia, secondary bacterial pneumonia, sinus infections, and worsening of previous health problems such as asthma or heart failure. Usually, the virus is spread through the air from coughs or sneezes.This is believed to occur mostly over relatively short distances. It can also be spread by touching surfaces contaminated by the virus and then touching the mouth or eyes. A person may be infectious to others both before and during the time they are sick. The infection may be confirmed by testing the throat, sputum, or nose for the virus. Influenza spreads around the world in a yearly outbreak, resulting in about three to five million cases of severe illness and about 250,000 to 500,000 deaths. In the Northern and Southern parts of the world outbreaks occur mainly in winter while in areas around the equator outbreaks may occur at any time of the year. Death occurs mostly in the young, the old and those with other health problems. Larger outbreaks known as pandemics are less frequent. In the 20th century three influenza pandemics occurred: Spanish influenza in 1918, Asian influenza in 1958, and Hong Kong influenza in 1968, each resulting in more than a million deaths. The World Health Organization declared an outbreak of a new type of influenza A/H1N1 to be a pandemic in June of 2009. Influenza may also affect other animals, including pigs, horses and birds. Frequent hand washing reduces the risk of infection because the virus is inactivated by soap. Wearing a surgical mask is also useful. Yearly vaccinations against influenza is recommended by the World Health Organization in those at high risk. The vaccine is usually effective against three or four types of influenza. It is usually well tolerated. A vaccine made for one year may be not be useful in the following year, since the virus evolves rapidly. Antiviral drugs such as the neuraminidase inhibitors oseltamivir among others have been used to treat influenza. Their benefits in those who are otherwise healthy do not appear to be greater than their risks. No benefit has been found in those with other health problems. O QUE VOCÊ PRECISA SABER SOBRE NINFOPLASTIA? QUAL A REGIÃO DO SEU CORPO QUE MAIS TE INCOMODA? QUANDO A LIPOESCULTURA É INDICADA? RINOPLASTIA: RECUPERE SUA CONFIANÇA VOCÊ PRECISA DE PLÁSTICA NAS PÁLPEBRAS? ALIMENTOS PARA O PÓS-CIRURGICO cirurgia associada Programa Saúde e Você Prótese de Mama Rejuvenescimento Maculino contato@drjulianosouto.com.br Rua Itapeva 240 conj 1509/1510, Bela Vista São Paulo-SP Dr Juliano Souto Ferreira Dr. Juliano Souto Ferrerira ©2017 todos os direitos reservados Desenvolvido por &
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OR/18/054 Known subsidence in Glasgow and InSAR data Bateson, L, and Novellino, A. 2018. Glasgow Geothermal Energy Research Field Site - Ground motion survey report. British Geological Survey Internal Report, OR/18/054. Due to a substantial industrial past, including underground mining, the Glasgow area is an obvious suspect for subsidence. In 2001 BGS and the British Space Agency commissioned an InSAR study for Glasgow and Newcastle using ERS data to reveal ground motion for the 1990’s. At the time InSAR was an immature Earth observation technique and this was one of the first studies of its type in the UK. Glasgow and Newcastle were chosen due to their coal mining history and the knowledge of BGS engineering geologists of subsidence problems in these areas. The results of the study indicated that Glasgow was largely stable from the InSAR point of view in the 1990’s (as does this current study). The Newcastle data obtained at the same time revealed interesting patters of motion associated with active coal mining amongst other processes (Gee et al, 2017[1]). Subsequent InSAR studies on UK coalfield areas (Sowter et al, 2013[2]; Bateson et al, 2015[3]) have shown distinctive patterns of ground motion related to coal mining, and it has been possible to identify areas of active and abandoned mining activity via their ground motion signature. These motions cover a relatively large spatial area and usually relate to changes in the groundwater level, which are caused by the different phases of mining. During active mining the ground water level is depressed by pumping to allow for underground working, this causes a lowering of the ground surface. Once the mining has finished and the pumps are switched off, ground water levels recover and uplift is observed. Such patterns are observed in South Wales, Northumberland, South Yorkshire, Stoke on Trent and North Derbyshire. However, there is no evidence in any of the InSAR results of these characteristic ground motions in the Glasgow area. This is likely because mining under many areas of Glasgow is significantly older than the satellite data (for example in the vicinity of the GGERFS site, recorded mining ended in 1934) and therefore water levels have recovered prior to the 1990’s. A web search for ‘Glasgow Subsidence’ returns several stories in the local press of subsidence events in Glasgow in the recent past. So, the question remains as to why we do not see these reported areas of subsidence within the InSAR data? The following reasons may account for this: Default display: The default way to view an InSAR data set is as coloured points on a map. The points are colour coded by the linear average velocity; this means motions which occur over a short time period can be masked out when the average for the longer processed time period is used to display the point. Small spatial scale of subsidence: The majority of subsidence events reported in Glasgow are associated with phenomena occurring over a short spatial scale. InSAR points are acquired via opportunistic measurements of persistent radar targets; it is not possible to choose which points will be measured. Therefore, an InSAR point is often too far from the event in question. Fast rates of subsidence: InSAR techniques are only able to resolve ground motions of less than half a wavelength between processed radar images. In the case of C-band radar (as used here) this is 2.3 cm (5.6 cm radar wavelength) and the revisit times are every 6 days for Sentinel 1 and 31 days for ERS and ENVISAT. Therefore if an area is moving faster than 2.3 cm between the image acquisitions then these areas are effectively moving too fast to be accurately represented. With these limitations in mind we tested some of the subsidence events found in the media. 15th June 2018: Subsidence on High Street/Bell Street Junction https://www.glasgowlive.co.uk/news/glasgow-news/glasgows-high-street-down-one-14789230 Figure 24 TRE ALTAMIRA SqueeSAR™ Vertical InSAR data for High Street/Bell Street junction. Contains © TRE ALTAMIRA 2018 data. Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2018, license number 100021290 EUL. In Figure 24 the average velocity of the point nearest the junction shows that the area is stable (points appear green), time series plot also shows that the area is stable; there are no sudden changes within the time series. Note the report of subsidence is June 2018 and the time series only extend to November 2017. In this case the time series does not extend across the date of the subsidence, however the authors have access to demonstration InSAR data from a different processing company which does extend to June 2018 and we do not see significant motion in this area at the time in question. Figure 25 Time series for an InSAR measurement point from a demonstration dataset that BGS have access to for the area in question in Figure 24, note the linear motion and lack of significant variations in June 2018. 594 London Road, Glasgow http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/mobile/uk-scotland-glasgow-west-16547142 In 2012 extensive cracks appeared in the facade and internal structures of a London Road block (north of GGERFS) that was deemed unsafe and then demolished (www.eveningtimes.co.uk/news/13241269.Road_closed_after_sewer_collapses/). Unfortunately this ground motion occurred during a period when there was no operational European Space Agency radar satellite, therefore we are not able to provide InSAR analysis using this free data source. Figure 26 TRE ALTAMIRA SqueeSAR™ vertical InSAR data for London road, note time series step in March 2016. Contains © TRE ALTAMIRA 2018 data. Aerial photography © UKP/Getmapping Licence No. UKP2006/01. Although this report was from 2012 (when we do not have suitable satellite imagery coverage) the time series for 2015–2017 shows an interesting 10 mm step in the motion history in March 2016. It is possible that this motion relates to remedial work carried out on the property in the years following the damage. The two cases above represent motions that are challenging for medium resolution C-band InSAR to address; they both concern rapid motions over a small spatial scale and in each case the InSAR data does not cover the event itself. The first example highlights that it is not possible to guarantee a measurement point over the area of interest and the nearest point may not pick up such a localised motion. Data from higher resolution X-Band radar satellites, such as TerraSAR-X or COSMO-SkyMed, offer a better chance to detect such changes but at a financial cost. The second example highlights a data gap within the freely available ESA datasets; with the launch of Sentinel-1A in 2014 and Sentinel-1B in 2016 and the European Space Agency’s plan for a 12-year operational lifespan of systematic data acquisition the chance of such gaps is reduced. Later data over this site does show some motion which may relate to the original reported motions. ↑ GEE, D, BATESON, L, SOWTER, A, GREBBY, S, NOVELLINO, A, CIGNA, F, MARSH, S, BANTON, C, and WYATT, L. 2017. Ground Motion in Areas of Abandoned Mining: Application of the Intermittent SBAS (ISBAS) to the Northumberland and Durham Coalfield, UK. Geosciences, 7, 85. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7030085 ↑ SOWTER, A, BATESON, L, STRANGE, P, AMBROSE, K, and SYAFIUDI, N M F. 2013. DInSAR estimation of land motion using intermittent coherence with application to the South Derbyshire and Leicestershire coalfields, Remote Sens. Lett., 4(10), 979–987. ↑ BATESON, L, CIGNA, F, BOON, D, and SOWTER, A. 2015. The application of the Intermittent SBAS (ISBAS) InSAR method to the South Wales Coalfield, UK. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 34, pp.249–257. Retrieved from ‘http://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php?title=OR/18/054_Known_subsidence_in_Glasgow_and_InSAR_data&oldid=43888’ OR/18/054 Glasgow Geothermal Energy Research Field Site - Ground motion survey report
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Song For A Star Lyrics - Bryan Adams Song For A Star Bryan Adams LYRICS & MIDI Easy-song-writing.com also provides software that can be used to write your own lyrics and music. Something similar to Song For A Star from Bryan Adams. Song For A Star Midi Files Song For A Star on CD Song For A Star MP3 Download Song For A Star Sheet Music Other Lyrics from Bryan Adams How to write lyrics like: Song For A Star Words and music by Adams and Gaudin This is a song for a star If you really are a star Here is a song for you all Take a lesson before you fall We're caught in the middle of everything It's like trying to figure out which bell to ring You think you'd made the start of it But this is just the start of it now Steppin? in time with your pace Tho? we've never yet met face to face This is a song for yourself In the hopes that we don't do it wrong Lookin? and turnin? out songs to sing It could've been the start of it You can be a star if you can climb Just make sure you are in the nick of time This is a song for a star (song for a star) This to whoever you are :: The best Song For A Star midi files here! Bryan Adams - Song For A Star Lyrics and Midi files are provided by Easy-song-writing.com. Song For A Star and other lyrics - Bryan Adams
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E C C O Magazine eCCO Collection - others wrote, we quote Press - Media Public Relations Professional Papers Code of Ethics - Public Relations Code of Ethics Press, Media, Journalism Code of Ethics - Marketing, Advertising Home Toolbox Code of Ethics Press, Media, Journalism Code of Ethics - National Press Photographers Association Code of Ethics - National Press Photographers Association Note: Photojournalists try to avoid manipulating photographs using Photoshop software because the integrity of a professionally produced photo gives news photography its credibility. But many people think it's easy to spot a photograph that's been manipulated. Well, here's your chance to test your ability to spot false news photographs courtesy of Life, the greatest photojournalism magazine ever produced. The National Press Photographers Association, a professional society that promotes the highest standards in visual journalism, acknowledges concern for every person's need both to be fully informed about public events and to be recognized as part of the world in which we live. Visual journalists operate as trustees of the public. Our primary role is to report visually on the significant events and varied viewpoints in our common world. Our primary goal is the faithful and comprehensive depiction of the subject at hand. As visual journalists, we have the responsibility to document society and to preserve its history through images. Photographic and video images can reveal great truths, expose wrongdoing and neglect, inspire hope and understanding and connect people around the globe through the language of visual understanding. Photographs can also cause great harm if they are callously intrusive or are manipulated. This code is intended to promote the highest quality in all forms of visual journalism and to strengthen public confidence in the profession. It is also meant to serve as an educational tool both for those who practice and for those who appreciate photojournalism. To that end, The National Press Photographers Association sets forth the following. Visual journalists and those who manage visual news productions are accountable for upholding the following standards in their daily work: 1. Be accurate and comprehensive in the representation of subjects. 2. Resist being manipulated by staged photo opportunities. 3. Be complete and provide context when photographing or recording subjects. Avoid stereotyping individuals and groups. Recognize and work to avoid presenting one's own biases in the work. 4. Treat all subjects with respect and dignity. Give special consideration to vulnerable subjects and compassion to victims of crime or tragedy. Intrude on private moments of grief only when the public has an overriding and justifiable need to see. 5. While photographing subjects do not intentionally contribute to, alter, or seek to alter or influence events. 6. Editing should maintain the integrity of the photographic images' content and context. Do not manipulate images or add or alter sound in any way that can mislead viewers or misrepresent subjects. 7. Do not pay sources or subjects or reward them materially for information or participation. 8. Do not accept gifts, favors, or compensation from those who might seek to influence coverage. 9. Do not intentionally sabotage the efforts of other journalists. Ideally, visual journalists should: 1. Strive to ensure that the public's business is conducted in public. Defend the rights of access for all journalists. 2. Think proactively, as a student of psychology, sociology, politics and art to develop a unique vision and presentation. Work with a voracious appetite for current events and contemporary visual media. 3. Strive for total and unrestricted access to subjects, recommend alternatives to shallow or rushed opportunities, seek a diversity of viewpoints, and work to show unpopular or unnoticed points of view. 4. Avoid political, civic and business involvements or other employment that compromise or give the appearance of compromising one's own journalistic independence. 5. Strive to be unobtrusive and humble in dealing with subjects. 6. Respect the integrity of the photographic moment. 7. Strive by example and influence to maintain the spirit and high standards expressed in this code. When confronted with situations in which the proper action is not clear, seek the counsel of those who exhibit the highest standards of the profession. Visual journalists should continuously study their craft and the ethics that guide it. Source: National Press Photographers Association
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Simultaneous gene transfer of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2 and BMP-7 by in vivo electroporation induces rapid bone formation and BMP-4 expression fulltext.pdf 1.77 MB Kawai, Mariko Bessho, Kazuhisa Maruyama, Hiroki Miyazaki, Jun-ichi Yamamoto, Toshio Background: Transcutaneous in vivo electroporation is expected to be an effective gene-transfer method for promoting bone regeneration using the BMP-2 plasmid vector. To promote enhanced osteoinduction using this method, we simultaneously transferred cDNAs for BMP-2 and BMP-7, as inserts in the non-viral vector pCAGGS. Methods: First, an in vitro study was carried out to confirm the expression of BMP-2 and BMP-7 following the double-gene transfer. Next, the individual BMP-2 and BMP-7 plasmids or both together were injected into rat calf muscles, and transcutaneous electroporation was applied 8 times at 100 V, 50 msec. Results: In the culture system, the simultaneous transfer of the BMP-2 and BMP-7 genes led to a much higher ALP activity in C2C12 cells than did the transfer of either gene alone. In vivo, ten days after the treatment, soft X-ray analysis showed that muscles that received both pCAGGS-BMP-2 and pCAGGS-BMP-7 had better-defined opacities than those receiving a single gene. Histological examination showed advanced ossification in calf muscles that received the double-gene transfer. BMP-4 mRNA was also expressed, and RT-PCR showed that its level increased for 3 days in a timedependent manner in the double-gene transfer group. Immunohistochemistry confirmed that BMP- 4-expressing cells resided in the matrix between muscle fibers. Conclusion: The simultaneous transfer of BMP-2 and BMP-7 genes using in vivo electroporation induces more rapid bone formation than the transfer of either gene alone, and the increased expression of endogenous BMP-4 suggests that the rapid ossification is related to the induction of BMP-4. Digital Object Identifer:10.1186/1471-2474-7-62 Published with permission from the copyright holder. This is the institute's copy, as published in BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 3 August 2006, 7:62. Publisher URL:http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2474-7-62 © 2006 Kawai et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders Kawai et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. 10.1186/1471-2474-7-62 Submission Path internal_medicine/4
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Charlotte Laws Journalist and Author – Official Website for Articles Animals and Environment California Chicken Runs for Vice President My Adventure Presenting Animal Rights Philosophy to the FBI Are You the Terrorist Next Door? Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner? The Controversial Peter Singer From Democracy to Omniocracy Another Doomsday, Another Dollar: Shifting Science toward Peace and Ecology I Committed a Crime. The Government Calls It Terrorism A Fence is No Offense Bob Blumenfeld: Mr. Bobblehead of Home-Sharing Clowns, Casinos and Men Full of Cash Caught in a Community College Stereotype The Bad Seed of Circumstance? Religion vs. the Sprinkler Police Tabs Parselle: Captured by the Nazis and a Witness to The Great Escape Genetics, Judaism, and Finding My Birth Family Bill Cosby and Drugging: My 34-year-old Secret Emergency Delivery for G. Clooney: My Life as an A-List Party Crasher Going Undercover to be Donald Trump’s Apprentice Q and A with Charlotte Laws about her Romance with Tom Jones and her Memoir Fundraiser Mania How to Fake Your Way into a Celebrity Party It’s My Party and I’ll Crash if I Want To Me and Owen Wilson: The Gatecrasher and the Wedding Crasher Much Ado About Mansionization? Rent Control Rehab for the Well-Heeled Seat Filling for the Stars: Sitting Pretty or Slave Labor? Miss Hooker Beauty Pageant: Naked Facts about Women and Equality Natalie Portman’s $600 Carton of Eggs: The Black Swan and the Chicken The Diet of Distraction My Wacky Attempt to Reunite with Tom Jones Oprah, Me and Reality TV A Short Story about My Very Big Crush On A Very Dead Guy The Three-Step Persistence Plan Hiding from Michael Jackson Happiness, History and Colin Quinn Confessions of an Adopted Child Polls and the Power of Self-Manipulation Donald Trump, Culture and the Big Bad Wolf of a Kiss Michael Jackson and Medical Paternalism Real Thoughts on Fake Lives Hold the MSG: It’s Not Risk-Free Removing Intelligence from America Desperately Seeking DNA Confessions of a Closet Trump Supporter Don’t Be Fooled: Presidential Candidates Need Racist Votes Stephen Colbert Smokes Out Political Ickiness Gnomes, Smiley Faces and the L.A. Gay Debate Why Donald Trump is a Feminist Donald Trump: The Bull in a China Shop Party Crashing for Political Access: Schwarzenegger and My Pantsuit Trump was right about Charlottesville but NOT for the reason he thinks I Voted for Trump – Now I Support Tulsi Gabbard Gentlemen Prefer Blogs My Dangerous War Against the Most Hated Man on the Internet Cyber Rape and Suicide Face-Time with Mr. Nasty, a Revenge Porn Kingpin “Fake” evokes a number of images: reality TV, brush on tans, social snobs, email solicitations from Nigerian “princes,” and Jim Carrey’s surroundings on The Truman Show. In the 2011 movie Albert Nobbs, actress Glenn Close plays a pretend guy, living a pretend existence. She resides in a tiny room with few possessions and a lot of misery. Her life belongs to her employer, although she stashes hope under the floorboards in the form of cash for a someday business. I’ve felt like Albert Nobbs myself; perhaps everyone has. At age 23, I applied to be a no-day-off nanny at a Beverly Hills estate; but when handed the job, I bolted. I suddenly realized I’d be living someone else’s life, dressing someone else’s kids, and endlessly focusing on someone else’s activities. I figured I’d rather be the main course on a table of hardship rather than a side dish at a smorgasbord of plenty. Then there were those moments of celebrity suffocation. As an accomplished party-crasher in my younger years, I hobnobbed with the rich and famous at award shows, on movie sets, at VIP parties, and backstage at concerts. With most stars, I could breathe just fine; but there were a few who sucked all air from the room. Dr. Drew Pinsky would call them “narcissists”—a term he uses in his 2009 book, The Mirror Effect to describe those who engage in unhealthy self-absorption and who strive to attain godlike status. He says the noteworthy rank higher on the narcissism scale than the unknown. As for the underlings and employees of egocentrics, I felt sorry for them and sensed a deflated demeanor and emptiness in their eyes. I figured they’d lost themselves years prior. Narcissists permit only one balloon at the party: their own. Apart from those who take jobs unaware of the “soul devouring” consequences, I wondered about those who intentionally live someone else’s life and headed to the 2012 Celebrity Impersonator Convention and Awards in Las Vegas . I wanted to know how “Sean Connery” and “Johnny Cash” felt about being Sean Connery and Johnny Cash. Could they retain a sense of self while playing 007 or a boy named Sue? The answer seemed to be yes, with some exceptions. “Dolly Parton” told me she was living her own life; but added that in another sense she was living nine lives. “I’m like a cat. I can portray Dolly, Elvira, Charo, Mae West, and five other vamps. It’s all about the wig.” “Michael Jackson,” “Angelina Jolie,” and “Bono” said their essences were intact, and a hippie wearing round sunglasses concurred, “I am living my own life. I just want to make the world better.” “But you’re playing Ozzy Osbourne,” I said. “Even the real Ozzy Osbourne doesn’t want to make the world better.” “Bette Midler” said she didn’t feel absorbed in the role of The Divine Miss M., but added, “Of course, some people are delusional.” “Whitney Houston” agreed. She told me about an “Elvis,” who when off-duty, wore sequined pantsuits and curled his lip like “the King.” He’d break into Kentucky Rain during a downpour and into Blue Suede Shoes when sliding on his Hush Puppies. “He was living in a time warp,” she said. “It was pathetic.” There were three Elvises at the Convention; and according to a clearly unreliable internet source, there are an estimated 85,000 Elvis imitators in the world. This source says that by the year 2019, Elvises will make up one third of the world’s population. Oh, well, I suppose it’s better to have three billion Jailhouse Rockers than continents full of starving kids. A look-alike booking agent told me about a “Natalie Wood” who suffered from severe depression and who predicted she’d one day drown. And she mentioned a former “Marilyn Monroe” named Kay Kent, who got surgery to look like her idol and who once said, “It’s almost as though by taking on her appearance I’ve inherited her troubles.” In 1989, this woman committed a copy-cat suicide, dying exactly as the real Marilyn did. The booking agent also revealed that impersonators who are in high demand are more likely to lose their own identity. “They can get caught up in the character, and not know how to snap out of it.” Due to the economic downturn, few are in high demand these days. There’s less money, but more sanity. Regular nine-to-five jobs keep many impersonators grounded. “Bret Michaels” told me that he worked as a truck driver, and “Dr. Phil” was a manager at Home Depot, advising the lovelorn on power tools. “Barack Obama” earned his living as a materials scientist, and “Tim McGraw” handled loss prevention at K-Mart. Unfortunately, I was unable to locate “Alice Cooper” for an interview; “Britney Spears” told me he was backstage having a sex change operation. And award nominees “Tom Cruise” and “Will Smith” never showed. They were probably on a mission impossible or saving a planet from aliens. The Convention taught me that you can impersonate someone else while “living your own life” or you can impersonate yourself while “living someone else’s life.” And it is mostly a matter of perception; it is a subjective and relative enterprise. What is tolerable to one person may be intolerable to another. Although I cringed at the thought of becoming a full-time nanny, others fulfill their dreams in this very field. Although I darted from narcissists, others were surely energized by super-sized personas. Shakespeare said “all the world’s a stage,” and it is possible Albert Nobbs agreed. Although I deemed her life “miserable,” perhaps she saw it as her own. Perhaps she was disguised as herself, hoping that today’s real Albert could eventually escape and become tomorrow’s real Albert, a freer version of herself. I left Las Vegas, realizing that it is important to have real thoughts and avoid a fake life. Whatever that may mean to you. Published in Huffington Post on March 13, 2012 and Westside Today on March 15, 2012 Copyright © 2020 Charlotte Laws. Powered by WordPress. Theme: Accelerate by ThemeGrill.
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Explore the Festival Full Calendar › Browse Artists › Ancient Paths › Modern Voices › Save 15% or More on Buy a Three-Concert Package and Save Coming Full Circle The Chinese Angle 11/10 Shanghai Symphony Orchestra Angel Lam's Family Affair 11/9 New Juilliard Ensemble @ Alice Tully Hall 11/8 The Han Tang Yuefu Music and Dance Ensemble @... Iris dévoilée unveiled Iris dévoilée veiled Ancient Dance, Modern Anthem 11/7 Atlanta Symphony Orchestra 11/6 The Evolving Cultural Identity of Chinese Ame... Scarfing up Culture A Question of Identity 11/5 Traditional Chinese Music in the 21st Century... Putting Herself in the Picture 11/4 Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra "Guanxi" is not a province Chinese or American? Listening to Angel Lam 11/4 - 8 The Han Tang Yuefu Music and Dance Ensemb... Redefining Tradition Tan Dun: Visual Music A New Era in Shanghai Catching Up with Long Yu 10/30 Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra 11/2 China Art(s) Today @ Asia Society 11/2 Neighborhood Concert: Haochen Zhang @ Flushin... Postcard from Guangzhou: Pearl River Piano Factory... Ken Smith currently divides his time between New York (where he writes for Gramophone magazine) and Hong Kong (where he serves as the Asian–performing arts critic for the Financial Times). He is Co–Music Director of the recordings Dong Folk Songs and Miao Music for China's MediaFusion Group, and he won an ASCAP–Deems Taylor Award in 2008 for his liner notes to Gil Shaham's recording of The Butterfly Lovers Concerto for Violin. Ken is also the author of Fate! Luck! Chance!, published in 2008 by Chronicle Books. Ancient Paths, Modern Voices Blog Looking at the liner notes to Angel Lam's Empty Mountain, Spirit Rain on the Silk Road Ensemble's new collection Off the Map, you soon get the sense that there's much more to her piece than the music. There is, in fact, an elaborate backstory—a short poetic piece of fiction that at times seems as if it wants to waft off the page and into the actual performance. In Awakening from a Disappearing Garden, the composer's written words do just that. When Lam's new piece comes to Carnegie Hall this Saturday night with Yo-Yo Ma and the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra, Lam herself will be narrating on stage. "I took a taxi," her piece begins. "It wouldn't take long to reach this luxurious mansion, where I have been invited for a party. A calendar on the dashboard showed in bright, red letters, May 10th, 1953." The second movement opens on September 9, 2007: "I was not in hurry, but the taxi driver was." Two different women, two different generations, two different taxi rides are reconciled in Lam's story. "Every piece I write has a story behind it," says the composer. Having the confidence to put herself in the middle of it, though, has been a gradual progression. Lam wrote her first narration in a piece titled Symphonic Journal: Ambush from 10 Directions for the Hong Kong Sinfonietta in 2005. Two years later, she was encouraged to record her own narration for Midnight Run, a theater-dance piece directed by Martha Clarke, who later integrated into the performance a video of Lam reading the poem. Posted by Ken Smith Posted Thursday, November 05, 2009 Labels: Ken Smith © 2001-2009 Carnegie Hall Corporation
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NEW - National Library of Israel Shabbat Resource Pack Authors: National Library of Israel One of the main values of the Jewish people is the day of rest - Shabbat.Throughout the generations and around the world, we have kept and marked this special day in many different ways: religious traditions, family time, culture and resting from the busy week.The National Library of Israel’s latest Shabbat resource pack includes a door sign written by a Nobel Laureate, an election poster protesting the lack of public transport on Shabbat, and a picture of an 18th century German Jewish woman lighting the Shabbat candles, giving a glimpse of the different aspects of Shabbat. Building Jewish Identity Through Engaging Video: A Developer's Perspective Authors: Lefton Sarah BimBam (formerly G-dcast) is a Jewish media studio. Our creative team has worked on over 300 short videos and apps, and we have big league experience from Apple, Pixar, the New York Times, etc. Usually, people find us through our work—they don’t ask us too many creative questions beyond, “Can I do a part in a video?” That’s because they or their kids already love the programs, and it’s easy to see our track record. Our Judaism 101 and early childhood education videos have clear and easily shared metrics—high viewership numbers, great audience retention curves and accurate aim at the demographics we’re targeting. What we do get asked routinely is, “Since this is media, how can you know that you’re really having an impact? What proof do you have that video can build Jewish identity or literacy?” The Lost Light - A New and Free Innovative Educational Film for the Three Weeks Authors: Torah Live . How do we teach kids to put interpersonal relationships first? How can we take advantage of the Three Weeks to improve our own relationships? The first step in better relationships is to avoid lashon hara and to build people up instead of tearing them down. A groundbreaking Torah Live educational film, The Lost Light, is the perfect way to emphasize the importance of proper speech. The full-length film demonstrates how words can make an impact, and teaches how to avoid hearing or speaking lashon hara. Toldot Yisrael - Documenting Israel's 1948 Generation Called by former Israeli Ambassador to the US, Michael Oren, “a project of paramount importance for Israel and its supporters worldwide,” Toldot Yisrael is a Jerusalem based nonprofit dedicated to recording and sharing the firsthand testimonies of the men and women who helped found the State of Israel. Since 2007, Toldot Yisrael has been interviewing the members of Israel’s 1948 generation in order to capture and preserve the epic story of Israel's founding before it is too late. So far, we have interviewed more than 850 of Israel's founders and recorded over 3,000 hours of powerful and unique footage. Toldot Yisrael’s aim is to conduct hundreds more – while it is still possible. Online Gemara Academy Authors: Gemara Academy Gemara Academy is an online program that is meant to be used by teachers and/or students for teaching and learning gemara. Gemara Academy utilizes technology to visually engage students with flowcharts, animations, and quizzes that transform the classroom. Instead of competing for a student’s attention, Gemara Academy takes advantage of technology to bring the gemara text to life. Eight Digital Tools for Students to Create Original Purim Shpiel Videos Authors: Kirschner Yonah Today it’s common for synagogues, Jewish schools, and other institutions to each put on their own Purim shpiel, and though these are always enjoyable to watch, there’s usually a limited number of people who get to actively participate. This year, ensure that every one of your students gets to be a part of this fun tradition as a producer, not only an audience member, by giving them the digital tools to create their own original Purim shpiel videos! In addition to having fun, they’ll be learning important media creation skills that are vital to succeeding in today’s world. Read below to find the tool that’s right for your classroom. Shaboom! Online Animated Series for Kids Launches Five New Episodes Authors: BimBam Shaboom! – the innovative animated web series from BimBam (formerly G-dcast) – is back with five all-new episodes, including one for the High Holidays about “Saying I’m Sorry (Slicha).” With contributors from Sesame Workshop, Amazon Studios, Electronic Arts et al, Disney, and Pixar. Shaboom! combines the best elements of children’s television with wisdom from the Jewish tradition to teach everyday values to children through magic, comedy and silly songs. The fall episodes for season 1 premiere online September 7. The theme of the first episode is Taking Care of Nature (Bal Tashchit, in Hebrew). Filming the Lost Light in Efrat “She’s a creep!” Well, everyone recognizes that as lashon hara. But many people don’t realize that an off-hand remark or look made by one of our best of friends can be lashon hara too. That’s why Torah Live chose real-life friend situations, to teach viewers the laws of Shmiras HaLoshon (guarding one’s tongue) for Chapter Two of The Lost Light. To do this, we created our own girls’ school, dubbed “Torah Live High School” by production manager Sharon Katz. The scenes were actually filmed in an elementary school in the town of Efrat. They illustrate how easily we can fall into the trap of speaking lashon hara, even when that’s not the intention. A ‘Little Einsteins,’ For Little Mensches Authors: Clark Amy Sara The nonprofit G-dcast, which makes videos and apps for those looking to learn more about Judaism is about to release “Shaboom!” a 10-part online series of short cartoons for young children that teach Jewish values. The series premieres April 6, 2016. A few weeks before the debut of the first video, G-dcast rebranded itself with a new website and name, “BimBam,” a reference to the popular children’s Shabbat song. The name change and release of “Shaboom!” represents a major shift for the award-winning nonprofit, both in terms of the audience it is trying to reach and the vehicle through which it is trying to reach them. BimBam’s change in focus reflects a shift that has been happening increasingly over the past decade throughout the Jewish educational world. 'The Final Journey: How Judaism Dignifies the Passage' High School Curriculum Authors: Yeshiva High School - Boca Raton . 'The Final Journey: How Judaism Dignifies the Passage' is a curriculum that explores Jewish death rituals. Developed and tested at the YHS, Boca Raton, it is designed to teach Jewish high school students in all streams of Judaism about the elegant path along which the Jewish deceased are taken in their final journey prior to burial. The content of the 8-session course centers about the role of the Chevra Kadisha, the Jewish Burial Society. As advocates for the deceased, they wash, purify and dress the body, thereby illuminating the humanity and ultimate dignity of the tahara ritual.
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Newark / Public Safety Police: Two Aggressive Dogs Charge Newark Police Officers, Passersby, One Shot On May 11, 2018, Newark Police received at least two different reports of two dogs running loose in the area of the Hudson State Service Center at 501 Ogletown Road, according to Lt. Andrew Rubin. Rubin said arriving officers found two dogs, a Pitbull and a German Shepard, in the area. Neither dog had a collar or tags and appeared to the officers to have been possibly abandoned. The dogs were aggressive towards the officers by sprinting towards the officers, baring their teeth, growling and foaming at the mouth. There were civilians in the area, including people walking and riding bicycles on the sidewalk on Ogletown Rd and others patronizing local businesses. The dogs began to chase these passersby and the officers were able to divert the dogs’ attention back towards the officers in an effort to protect the public. The dogs would then again charge at the officers. The dogs continued to be aggressive towards people leaving the Hudson Center, said Rubin. Newark Police called for animal control officers from the State of Delaware Office of Animal Welfare. Three officers from the Office of Animal Welfare and more than a dozen Newark police officers attempted to corral and capture the dogs for nearly 90 minutes, using dog treats, catchpoles and other less than lethal methods to capture the dogs. The officers were not successful in capturing the dogs and the dogs continued to be aggressive and charge at officers and passersby. Due to the existence of a busy highway (SR 273), open businesses on Ogletown Rd, foot traffic in the area and residential neighborhoods nearby, a decision was made in conjunction with officers from the Office of Animal Welfare to use lethal force to capture these aggressive, apparently abandoned, dogs. Because the dogs were not contained in a specific area and would run from officers, Newark Police officers were forced to strike both dogs with their vehicles. One of the dogs, a German Shepard, ran away after being struck and was not captured. This dog was last seen on Marrows Road. The second dog, a Pitbull, ran away after being struck and was then shot and killed by Newark Police. Radio traffic of the incident, monitored by First State Update, indicated that the officers felt that the dogs were a danger to themselves and the public. This incident occurred as thousands of University of Delaware students were flooding main street, after attending a celebration on the Green. It’s unclear if that information played a part in the authorities decisions. TaggedLifepolice DelDOT Happening Now: Gas Station Near Christiana Hospital On Fire AHH&L Update: Newark House Fire Displaces Nine Residents, Two Dogs On Saturday Pedestrian Seriously Injured After Being Struck In Newark Previous Article Authorities Update Pedestrian Struck On Kirkwood Highway Next Article Troopers Looking For This Man In Connection With Bridgeville Shooting Death
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[saturday, july 06, 2013] Wednesday's Cable Ratings: "Franklin & Bash" Tops Modest Night of Originals Plus: numbers for Oxygen's "I'm Having Their Baby," Bravo's "Chef Roble & Co." and Showtime's "60 Minutes Sports." Jay Leno and Jimmy Fallon Rule the Second Quarter vs. ABC and CBS Slot Rivals, Winning All Key Measures and Stretching Their Leads vs. Prior Quarters NBC spins the late-night numbers for the second quarter of 2013. ABC's "Jimmy Kimmel Live" Earns Most-Watched-Ever 2nd Quarter with 13th Straight Quarter of Year-to-Year Growth ABC spins the late-night numbers for the second quarter of 2013. "Macy's 4th of July Fireworks Spectacular" Delivers Its Largest Audience in 13 Years from 9-10 p.m. ET NBC spins the numbers for Thursday, July 4. Thursday's Broadcast Ratings: NBC, "Macy's 4th of July" Trump Repeats The Peacock's two-hour telecast is the only original last night. Wednesday's Broadcast Ratings: CBS, "Big Brother" Best Mostly Repeat Competition The Eye is the night's top draw in both total viewers and adults 18-49. Encore Telecast of "America's Got Talent" Finishes #2 in Its Slot in 18-49 and #1 in Total Viewers NBC spins the numbers for Wednesday, July 3. Tuesday's Cable Ratings: "Being Mary Jane" Tops Demos, "Rizzoli & Isles" Leads Viewers Plus: numbers for GSN's "Minute to Win It," ESPN's "Nine for IX" and TLC's "Family S.O.S. with Jo Frost." "America's Got Talent" Is the #1 telecast of the Night in Every Key Category NBC spins the numbers for Tuesday, July 2. Tuesday's Broadcast Ratings: "America's Got Talent" Continues Its Reign FOX and CBS are left with second, third in adults 18-49 last night. Monday's Cable Ratings: "Major Crimes," "Love & Hip Hop" Again Top Viewers, Demos Plus: numbers for HBO's "Gideon's Army," TLC's "Four Houses" and TBS's "Deon Cole's Black Box." Original Series Deliver Growth in the Second Quarter for The Hub Network The Hub spins the numbers for the second quarter of 2013. Anchors Away! Bravo Media's "Below Deck" Series Premiere Delivers 1.1 Million Total Viewers Bravo spins the numbers for Monday, July 1. ABC Family's "The Fosters" Sets Series Highs for 2nd Straight Week; "Switched at Birth" Rises to Season Highs in Key Demos ABC Family spins the numbers for Monday, July 1. Sunday's Cable Ratings: "BET Awards 2013" Dominate the Competition Plus: numbers for G4's "American Ninja Warrior," NBC Sports Network's "NHL Draft" and Discovery's "Skywire: Nik Talks the Walk." Discovery Channel's "Fast N' Loud" and "Street Outlaws" Are #1 and #2 on July 1st Discovery spins the numbers for Monday, July 1. Saturday's Cable Ratings: "Anna Nicole," "Sam & Cat" Snag Top Spots Plus: numbers for Hallmark's "Banner 4th of July," OWN's "Golden Sisters" and Syfy's "Sinbad." Friday's Cable Ratings: Disney Originals, "WWE Smackdown" Top Charts Plus: numbers for VH1's "Stevie TV"; Starz's "Magic City"; and TNT's "72 Hours." NBC Sports Network Posts Most-Watched Primetime Quarter Ever NBC Sports Network spins the numbers for the second quarter of 2013. Animal Planet Delivers Its Best Quarter Ever Animal Planet spins the numbers for the second quarter of 2013. Disney Channel Is TV's #1 Network for 9th Consecutive Quarter in Kids 6-11 and 17th in Tweens 9-14; Disney Junior Channel Is TV's #1 Preschool Network Disney Channel spins the numbers for the second quarter of 2013. CMT Closes Out 2nd Quarter with Double-Digit Gains Across Prime and Total Day CMT spins the numbers for the second quarter of 2013. "48 Hours: The Hunt for Mr. Wright" Encore Was Saturday's #1 Program in Viewers and Households CBS spins the numbers for Saturday, June 29. Lifetime Locks in Double Digit Year-Over-Year Growth for Second Quarter 2013 Lifetime spins the numbers for the second quarter of 2013. TNT Wins the Title as Basic Cable's #1 Network in Primetime Among Key Adult Demos for Q2 2013 Turner spins the numbers for the second quarter of 2013. OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network Delivers Best Quarter in Network History OWN spins the numbers for the second quarter of 2013. "Under The Dome" Is the Week's #1 Program in Viewers, Adults 18-49 and Adults 25-54 CBS spins the numbers for the week of June 24-30. The Final Week of June Marked Week-Over-Week Growth for FOX FOX spins the numbers for the week of June 24-30. 11.52 Million Viewers Return to the Dome CBS spins the numbers for Monday, July 1. NBC Finishes #1 in 18-49 Among ABC, CBS, NBC & FOX for the Primetime Week of June 24-30 NBC spins the numbers for the week of June 24-30. "The Bachelorette" Surges to New Season Highs in Viewers and Adults 18-49 ABC spins the numbers for the week of June 24-30. "American Ninja Warrior" Is #1 for Its Second Hour in 18-49 as Well as All Key Adult-Male Demos NBC spins the numbers for Monday, July 1. ABC's "Mistresses" Is Up and Delivers Strong Year-to-Year Improvement ABC spins the numbers for Monday, July 1. Monday's Broadcast Ratings: "Under the Dome" Keeps CBS in Front The Eye's breakout hit falls 12.50% from last week's debut among adults 18-49. BET Awards 13 Is the #1 Award Show on Cable Among Adults 18-49, Drawing 7.6 Million Total Viewers BET spins the numbers for Sunday, June 30. Lifetime's "Anna Nicole" Seduces 3.3 Million Total Viewers Lifetime spins the numbers for Saturday, June 29. "Ray Donovan" Delivers Showtime's Highest-Rated Original Series Premiere Ever with 3.04 Million Viewers Showtime spins the numbers for Sunday, June 30. HGTV Viewers Flip for New Series "Flip or Flop" HGTV spins the numbers for Tuesday, June 25. "Crossing Lines" Ties for #1 in Men 18-49 and Men 18-34 in Its Time Period NBC spins the numbers for Sunday, June 30. Sunday's Broadcast Ratings: CBS, "Big Brother" Top Tight Demo Race The Eye is also the most-watched network last night on the four major networks. "SNL" Posts the Top Rating of the Night in the Local People Meters NBC spins the numbers for Saturday, June 29. Saturday's Broadcast Ratings: FOX Tops Viewers, Shares Demos with CBS The network's Saturday baseball coverage leads the charge in both categories. NBC Is #1 on Friday Night in Adults 18-49, Adults 25-54 and Total Viewers, Taking All Six Half-Hours NBC spins the numbers for Friday, June 28. Friday's Broadcast Ratings: "Dateline" Pulls NBC Back in Front The Peacock leads the night in adults 18-49 for the first time since May 31. Thursday's Cable Ratings: "Pawn Stars" Top Charts for History Plus: numbers for HBO's "The Out List," AMC's "Showville" and FX's "Wilfred." Top-Scoring "Office" Encore in 18-49 Since May 30 and in Total Viewers Since June 6 NBC spins the numbers for Thursday, June 27. Thursday's Broadcast Ratings: FOX Pulls in Front with "Hell's Kitchen" The reality mainstay is the only series last night up from its previous installment. NBA Draft on ESPN Tied For Highest-Rated Since 2003 - Up 13 Percent From 2012 Draft ESPN spins the numbers for Thursday, June 27. Wednesday's Cable Ratings: "Royal Pains," "Necessary Roughness" Keep Top Spots Plus: numbers for Discovery's "King of the Grill," MTV's "ChallengeMania: the Road to Rivals II" and TLC's "My Big Fat Gypsy Wedding: Best Dressed Brides." Jay Leno and Jimmy Fallon Jump 14% vs. the Same Week Last Year in Viewers 18-49 and Deliver Slot Wins for the Late-Night Week of June 17-21 NBC spins the late-night numbers for the week of June 17-21. [july 2013]
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Home Auburn The Loveliest Village Photograph Collection 1892: Auburn's football team 1892: Auburn's football team Title 1892: Auburn's football team Description This image is a photograph used in the book Auburn, a Pictorial History of the Loveliest Village by Mickey Logue and Jack Simms, 1st edition, 1981, depicting the history of the city and the University. From page 53: Shouts of "Rah, rah, ree, Alabama AMC" may have inspired Auburn to a muddy 10-0 victory over the University of Georgia in the Deep South's first major intercollegiate football game, played February 20, 1892, before a crowd estimated at 2,000 in Atlanta's Piedmont Park. Auburn refused to be intimidated by Georgia's touted blocking or by the splendid Tally Ho--the horse-and-buggy equivalent of a Rolls Royce--decked out in Georgia's colors. ... The Auburn team for the Georgia game included a few young instructors as well as students. The team lived it up in Atlanta, staying at the fashionable Kimball House. After all expenses were paid, including the hotel bill, Auburn netted $29.20 on the game. From 2nd. edition, 1996, page 57: Members of the squad, left to right, front row: Clifford Le Roy Hare, Professor Charles H. Barnwell, Dorsey, Richard Billup Going, Lupton. Second row: Robert Mailard Stevens, H.H. Smith, Henry T. Debardeleben, Professor Anthony Foster McKissick, Culver, Alexander Dowling McLennan. Third row: Walter Evan Richards, Arnold Whitfield Herren, Seaborn Jesse Buckalwe, Francis Marshall Boykin, George William Dantzler, Union Anderson Culbreath, George Y. McRae, Eugene Hamilton Graves, Raleigh Williams Greene, David Edwin Wilson, Charles Henry Smith. Back row: Professor George F. Atkinson, Bob "Sponsor" Frazier (mascot), [Dr. George] Petrie. Photo source: Auburn University Archives. Date ca. 1892 Place Auburn – Lee County – Alabama LC Subject Headings Auburn (Ala.) Auburn University -- Students Auburn University -- Football College students -- Alabama Football players -- Alabama Football -- Alabama Education, Higher -- Alabama Auburn University -- History Male college students -- Alabama Universities and colleges -- Alabama EOA Categories Education -- Higher Education Sports & Recreation -- Football History -- 1875-1929: The New South Era Original Medium black and white photograph, 3004 x 2419 pixels File Name ed2p57431.tif Citation Logue, Mickey and Simms, Jack. Auburn, A Pictorial History of the Loveliest Village. 1st edition. 1981.; --, 2nd edition, 1996. Repository Auburn University Libraries. Special Collections and Archives. Rights This image is the property of the Auburn University Libraries and is intended for non-commercial use. Users of the image are asked to acknowledge the Auburn University Libraries. For information about obtaining high-resolution copies of this and other images in this collection, please contact the Auburn University Libraries Special Collections & Archives Department at achives@auburn.edu or (334) 844-1732. Submitted by Coates, Midge
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mais, roger. (22) mais, roger (1) roger mais (1) love stories ; man-woman relationships (5) love stories ; boxers (2) abused women love stories (1) boxing ; love stories (1) city and urban life (1) crime ; justice (1) family life ; marriage ; adultery (1) immigration ; values ; nationalism (1) All fields: Love What the Jamaican thinks about love and marriage Love ; Sex ; marriage; Man-woman relationships The author puts forwards his ideas about what Jamaicans really think about love and marriage and in the process he shows the dichotomy of belief and conduct between rural and urban Jamaicans. Mother in Law menance Mothers-in-law ; Love stories Laurie is tense at meeting her future mother-in-law whom she believes does not like her. Furthermore, she cannot shake the feeling of rivalry between them both and her not been able to measure up to the older more sophisticated woman. However,... Miracle on a sidewalk Beggars; Integrity A poor beggar desperate for food begs on the sidewalk before a church where the shadow of Christ cast a shadow on him. Like an answer to his prayer for food, someone dropped an envelope with a pound note near him. Considering it a miracle, he takes... Let us walk among our wild oats Love stories ; Man-woman relationships Dennis finds himself reliving scenes and events from his past life including his relationships with women - Eileen with whom he had a special bond, and her sister Ann, whom he fell in love with but never married. The mix of memories about the two... Just a little love, a little kiss She did everything, including trying to befriend his sister, to attract the attention of the bachelor schoolmaster next door, but to no seeming avail. Desperate to let him know how she felt, she finally decided to sing some love songs for him at... Obeah ; Witchcraft ; Loneliness Old Mother Beck, the village obeah woman, is feared by all and loved by none. The villagers resort to her to regain their lost love, to cast spells on their rivals, and to compel others to do their will. She survives on what they pay her and so she... Three people in search of the moon Love ; Man-woman relationships Gwena finds herself at the centre of a strange love triangle with all three of them wanting the moon and none seemed destined to have it. Both men want Gwena as a woman, but she wants Peter only as master of her body, while she wants mastery over... Lilian and Henry are madly in love but likely to ruin their relationship due to the folly of youth. It takes wise old Uncle Silas, drawing on his own experiences, to open their eyes to some of the realities of life and set them firmly on the right... Two cats and a canary Christine imagined herself living in a dream world with the stranger who regularly visited the flower shop where she worked. Eventually, she discovers that the man in her dreams was nothing like the real man whom she later comes to know and love. All right, is enough; maybe Love story set in World War 11. That man of mine Abused women; Love stories Innocent Pansy, fresh from the country, comes to the city and lodges at the YWCA as a good girl should. There she acquires domestic skills that get her a live-in job in lower St. Andrew. Everything is going fine until one evening she meets a... Love me with laughter Mr. Standish , senior accountant at Chisleworth and Smithers is a 32 year-old bachelor ignorant of the ways of women. To him falls the somewhat perplexing task of orienting Miss Marsh, the new stenographer to the job and ensuring that she acts... Anything can Happen Love stories ; City and town life The bar serves as a meeting place for various people: a discontented wife who does not want to stay home with her child; a disgruntled lover, kept from his beloved by her brother; three dangerous looking men who later feature in a rape; and a... City and urban life; Interpersonal relations A variety of scenes from city life: a vagrant arrested for loitering sentenced in court the next day; three mischievous boys playing on the beach; a man courting a somewhat reluctant nursemaid; an attempted blackmail that goes awry; a pregnant... Love; Man-woman relationship He decided that the wonderful almost mystical bonding between them as lovers had to be broken, and to him fell the unpleasant task. He felt that he had given his all to the affair while to her it was not serious but something she could set aside... Ed is coming home Marriage; Man-woman relationship Joie keeps her husband fully informed about their neighbour who has a husband in New York and is left in Jamaica to cope with two small children. Joie feels sorry for her, but Sam less so as he notices the regular visits to their neighbour of a man... End of a dream Red dirt don't wash Adrian, a simple country yokel, falls deeply in love with Miranda, a refined, city-bred lady’s maid. He feels woefully inadequate, but nevertheless, he tries to win her heart and this leads him to even buy a pair of shoes for his usually bare... Nightingale be her song While travelling aboard a ship, Bill fell hopelessly in love with Yvonne even though she was already in a relationship with the Spanish dancer. Bill tried in every way to win her affection, especially when he discovered that the Spaniard had a drug... Second goodbyes are unlucky Bruce found it very hard to say goodbye to Anna as he prepared to leave for a new life in the city. So many words, so many thoughts unspoken as he scanned Anna’s face for signs that his intense love for her was returned, but she seemed indifferent...
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Cory Morgan ranting and raving Political and Personal Alberta Alliance to UCP. The evolution of a conservative movement. ImagineCalgary, Naheed Nenshi’s blueprint for Calgary’s future. Imagine Calgary document dissection part 1 ImagineCalgary document dissection part 2 Idealistic Naivete Can Kill. Posted on April 30, 2008 by Cory Morgan Ideals are a good thing. Getting out and pursuing your ideals and goals is also always a good thing. Being blinded by your ideals to the point of experiencing a complete loss of common sense and endangering yourself however is not such a good thing. A recent event brought these self-destructive people to mind for me. I will list three prime and suicidal idealists who have died of naivete. PIPPA BACCA Recently a performance artist named Giuseppina Pasqualino di Marineo (known as Pippa Bacca) decided that in order to demonstrate that all people are good at heart and somehow promote world peace, she would hitchhike throughout the Middle-East while wearing a wedding dress. Ms. Bacca’s ill advised trip lasted from March 20, 2008 until March 31 when she disappeared in Turkey. Bacca’s raped body was discovered and identified shortly afterwards. The unfortunate Pippa lasted less than two weeks on her journey and in giving her life she actually achieved the opposite of her goals. Bacca’s death illustrated that indeed not all people are sweethearts and the Middle-East simply is not a terribly peaceful place. Hardly a point that somebody needed to die to prove. TIMOTHY TREADWELL Timothy Treadwell (AKA The Grizzly Man) made a name for himself with his documentaries where he would approach and play with wild grizzly bears in Alaska. Despite numerous warnings from park officials, Treadwell would insist upon sneaking into areas in order to get his footage. Park records indicate that Treadwell’s violations included: Guiding tourists without a license, camping in the same area longer than the Parks Service’s seven-day limit, improper food storage, wildlife harassment, and conflicts with visitors and their guides. Treadwell’s goal was to demonstrate that grizzly bears were simply gentle giants who loved human company. Grizzly bears were not dangerous in Treadwell’s world, they simply were misunderstood. Many environmentalists applauded this man’s work and considered him a great pioneer in building human/grizzly relationships. The law of averages finally caught up to the “grizzly man” in early October 2003. The partially eaten remains of Timothy Treadwell and Amie Huguenard (his girlfriend) were discovered near his campsite. Treadwell had set up a campsite next to a salmon stream in fall when grizzlies are fattening up for winter. While Treadwell clearly did not realize it, the grizzlies realized that Treadwell and his girlfriend are indeed made up predominantly of protein and they were promptly consumed. When park rangers came to the campsite, a grizzly was present and protecting it’s kill. The rangers shot it. Shortly afterwards rangers were forced to shoot another young bear as it charged them. Despite the assertions of Treadwell, bears are rather aggressive when there is meat about. Treadwell’s idiocy not only led to his own death and his girlfriend’s death, but to that of two of the bears he claimed to love. Rachel was a nice young idealist living in the American Northwest. Like many young people, Rachel felt there was wrong being done on the planet and that she must do something to remedy these wrongs. Unfortunately Rachel was recruited by the “International Solidarity Movement”. Rachel was filled in on the atrocities of the Zionists in Israel and promptly took off to halt these evils in the Gaza Strip. On March 16, 2003, Rachel was run over and killed by an armoured D9 bulldozer while trying to block the machine with her body. It would appear that bulldozers are much faster in Israel than they are here. I work with them constantly and have never had difficulty in stepping out of the way. The outcry was immediate and some elements of the anti-Israel community have shamelessly tried to capitalize on Rachel’s death. Corrie’s death has been called murder (despite multiple investigations indicating that the driver could not have possibly even seen her much less chased her down) and a play has even been travelling North America telling the Rachel Corrie story. A nice looking and idealistic girl makes the best sort of martyr for these kinds of things. While the left has canonized Rachel Corrie, others who have looked more deeply into the issue have christened her St. Pancake. To begin with, the “International Solidarity Movement” is anything but a peace group. Increasingly it has been indicated that this group thrives on finding foolish Western kids and dropping them into war zones in hopes of drawing attention to their cause. One of their reps says it well: George Rishmawi of the ISM told the San Francisco Chroniclethat “When Palestinians get shot by Israeli soldiers, no one is interested anymore. But if some of these foreign volunteers get shot or even killed, then the international media will sit up and take notice.” This George Rishmawi is an activist with the Palestinian Communist Party by the way. The death list for this “International Solidarity Movement” also includes Tom Hurndall. Shot in the face while volunteering for ISM was Brian Avery. Australian ISM volunteer Kate Edwards sustained severe internal injuries while out there for the cause. The ISM is doing well generating these Western martyrs. The ISM is hard at it trying to recruit more young western martyrs here. They give travel tips and assure you that they will put you right in the war zone. You have to pay for it yourself of course as most of funds that head that way seem to have been set aside for explosives and such. Lets look through Rachel’s activities upon arrival. First Rachel got herself into the imaginary mode that she herself was indeed a Palestinian woman being oppressed by Israel. Next, Rachel decided to help young school children by teaching them how to burn American flags. Look at the love and passion in the face of this young western “peace” activist. Now the importance of good flag burning technique can never be understated. Had the poor young fellow pictured below been able to take advantage of Rachel Corrie’s tutelage, he may have been able to avoid his nearly premature trip to 72 virgins. After Rachel’s teaching duties were completed, she was ready to be moved to the front lines. While ISM activists deny it, the constant barrage of missiles into residential areas of Israel sort of indicate that Palestinians are getting them from somewhere. A common method of this is to dig tunnels into neighboring countries in order to smuggle ordnance in. Israel uses bulldozers to close these tunnels. Rachel sadly thought that it would be wise to stand in front of one of these slow-moving machines with very limitted visibility in order to stop it. Rachel was crushed shortly after her shortsighted effort. There are a great many pictures of this incident out there. This is due to the ISM moving rather too quickly in cooking their spin on this new martyr. Shortly after Corrie’s death, the ISM placed photographs on a website which it claimed showed the events leading up to Corrie’s death. AP, Reuters, and many Internet discussion pages reported that the photographs showed two (perhaps three) different bulldozers and inconsistent pictures of the sun’s movement across the skies. The ISM then changed the site to show a more consistent group of photographs. The death of Rachel Corrie and the others listed above were truly tragic. Any premature loss of life is a sad thing. All three deaths could easily have been prevented however by just a dash of common sense. If you know a young person who wants to make their splash in activist circles, it may be advised to tell them to put on a mask, attend a protest and smash the windows out of a Gap store as so many others do. It may lead to an arrest and some tear-gas pain, but it will beat the hell out of being eaten by grizzlies, being raped and killed or being squashed by a bulldozer. They will live long enough to realize how important self-preservation is. Posted in Uncategorized | Tagged Grizzly, idiots, Israel, Pippa Bacca, Rachel Corrie, Saint Pancake, Timothy Treadwell, Turkey | Leave a reply Just stick to delivering mail. The Canadian postal workers used to gleefully hold the Canadian public hostage with their chronic strikes that would cripple the nation. They often would strike (or threaten to) shortly before Christmas when people wanted to send their gifts and such. We were dependent on mail and strikes were often settled quickly and in favor of the workers in order to end the damage being done. It has now been over 10 years since the last general strike by Canada Post workers. This must be a new record since the postal service was unionized and there is no indication that we will see a strike any time soon. The reason for this is that when the postal workers last went on strike in 1997 the world had changed on them. Email, private couriers and fax machines had made the nation far less dependent on the postal service. Instead of driving the nation into fear and discomfort as they usually had done when going on strike, what the postal union garnered in the 1997 strike was rage and loathing. The public was annoyed by their strike, but with modern technology the outcome of the strike was not the expected shutdown of business and finance as past strikes had been. With this sudden and complete loss of public support, the Liberal government pounced and drafted back to work legislation. What was great with this is that the postal workers were now forced to settle for an offer that was even less than the last one from Canada Post that they had rejected. The humbled postal workers grumbled back to work fresh with the knowledge that the public was no longer nearly as reliant on their unskilled and over-compensated efforts as they used to be. The postal union has not dared to strike since. While strikes are off the table for the union as the postal service is now so easily replacable and the public really does not feel that glorified flyer delivery people deserve any further raises, this has not stopped the union from trying to exert force and power upon Canadians. While unions are supposedly there for the representation of workers, they are increasingly poking into the world of global politics. The latest stunt has been for the president of their union to call for a boycott of goods from Israel and to threaten to block mail to and from Israel! The threat came from a letter sent in response to a Jonathan Kay article in the National Post. The response from CUPW president Denis Lemelin is below: Re: Jonathan Kay asks: Now that CUPW is boycotting Israel, will Canada Post deliver mail to the Israeli embassy? April 28. If Jonathan Kay admits “I’m no labour expert”, why does he direct questions about the internal workings of CUPW to everyone except the union itself? If he had bothered to ask us, we would have supplied a pretty simple answer: Unlike the Israeli government’s treatment of Palestinian mail, CUPW has no plans to block mail to and from Israel as of yet. Our concern is that the policies of the Government of Israel are unjust and violate international law; therefore we will be encouraging our members to boycott Israeli made products. We are taking this position because over 170 Palestinian political parties, unions and other organizations have called for a global campaign similar to the one applied to South Africa in their apartheid era. These measures will continue until the Israeli government recognizes the right of Palestinian people to self-determination, puts an end to military assaults, hydrocide and other acts of violence that take the lives of innocent people, and until Israel fully complies with international law, including a raft of UN resolutions. It’s time to push for a fair and just settlement so that both Palestinians and Israelis can live in peace. Denis Lemelin National President, CUPW As of yet????!!! Who the hell do you think you are??? It is not the place for postal workers or their union to decide which nations they will or will not deliver mail to or from. It never will be their place. To Canadian postal workers I say this; Your skills are on par with that of children who deliver flyers after school and on weekends for minimum wage. You can and will be easily replaced if you push things too far. If ever you take it upon yourselves to start selectively delivering our mail based on political stands of your union, you can rest assured that privatization of your employer will be very soon to follow. You lost the last time you listened to your union leadership and went on strike, you will lose again if you follow the path that your current president is following. You have it pretty good right now. I stongly suggest that you either take your union leadership to task on this one or replace them. You are government employees and are obligated to deliver that mail. Stick to your mandate. Posted in Unions | 5 Replies Freedom of speech. This being my maiden posting on my new blog, I can’t think of a more appropriate subject right now than that of freedom of speech. The internet has brought about a new platform for the exchange of thoughts and ideas. This easy and inexpensive means of communication has empowered millions around the world. The evolution, growth and potential of the internet is astounding. Any person can speak their mind and have it potentially published to millions. People can research and find in minutes what used to take days in a library. The internet is an incredible tool and has brought the power of the individual to a new height. Due to all of the above of course, those who feel that discourse and expression need to be controlled are terrified by the developments of the last decade. One of the most effective means of maintaining a dictatorship has been to stifle expression and communication between individuals. If people have limitted access to information, they can be easily led. If people have limitted communication among each other, they can be easily oppressed. In the late 80s, I had the good fortune to be able to tour parts of Soviet Russia and some of Eastern Europe. Security was very tight at borders. Unlike most border crossings where one would expect to be searched for things such as drugs or weapons, what I was searched for in communist Russia was books and cassettes. The largest threat that the communists saw to their evil regime was the introduction of outside thought and news to their populace. The availability of government produced literature was amazing. Books and leaflets were everywhere and were exceedingly cheap and often free. Outside literature was of course nowhere to be seen. Even prior to the internet, communication throughout the world was improving in leaps and bounds. Despite the best efforts of the communists in Russia, news from the outside world leaked in and eventually the populace learned what misery they actually were enduring. Gorbachev and the concept of glasnost came about in hopes of easing the inevitable transition as it was clear that the regime could not be sustained. His efforts were too little too late and the communist regime finally collapsed upon itself from pressure within. Decades of cold war were fought to try and fight communism in Russia. In the end, it was not bullets that brought that horrible regime to an end, it was information and communication among citizens that brought communist Russia down. The power of free speech and communication can never be understated. This power threatens those who would stifle freedoms and oppress individuals and must always be vigilantly protected. Free speech is not a left/right issue. Free speech is essential for people on all sides of the political spectrum (aside from totalitarians). Even an individual as loathsome as Noam Chomsky recognizes the importance of this as he said here: “If you believe in freedom of speech, you believe in freedom of speech for views you don’t like. Goebbels was in favor of freedom of speech for views he liked. So was Stalin. If you’re in favor of freedom of speech, that means you’re in favor of freedom of speech precisely for views you despise.” Despite how clear it is that free speech and expression are essential in a free society, free speech is always under attack by people for a variety of reasons. Currently in Canada, we are seeing quite a story unfold as the entire blogosphere is under attack by some individuals who are abusing the Canadian Human Rights Commission and our legal system. The prime individual who has been leading this assault on the exchange of ideas on the internet is a man named Richard Warman. Some years ago, Warman learned that the Human Rights Commissions in Canada could be used to make a living. Warman began with the easy pickings on the internet. By appearing as the plaintiff in most section 13 hearings, Warman could not only shut up those who were posting ideas who he felt should not be expressed on the internet, Warman could also gain personal compensation for his hurt feelings while he was at it. Despite the rather staggering evidence easily available, Warman somehow takes offense when it is pointed out that he is a professional litigant and a censor. Well Warman, the shoe fits so get over it. It was a nice little racket for Warman for awhile. By initially targetting self-proclaimed nazis and white supremacists, it was easy to win cases as few people will stand up to defend people like that. The problem that Warman soon encountered however was that despite his assertations and those of people such as Warren Kinsella, there really are not that many nazis or white supremacists in existence. The gravy train was drying up fast. Rather than seek a real job, Warman and people such as his pal from the HRC Dean Steacy decided to create online identities such as “Jadewarr” and “Lucy” and began to troll discussion forums in hopes of provoking actionable speech. Entrapment is another term for what appears to have happened. It appears that somebody in the human rights office stole the wireless internet signal of an innocent woman in order to make these offensive postings online. That sort of indicates that these people were quite aware that what they were doing is dead wrong but clearly they felt that violating the rights of others is well justified in their hunt for imaginary nazis and such. The reason that much of these happenings are coming to light is that these anti-speech people have finally bitten off more than they could chew. In targetting fringe discussion forums and such, Warman and his ilk have been able to slide under the radar until recently. When respected individuals in the media became targets of the Human Rights Commissions however, things quickly fell apart. Ezra Levant masterfully exposed the goings on in the Star Chamber when he videotaped and broadcast his interrogation on the internet. Macleans magazine (a Canadian institution) became a target of the human rights commissions as well. What this did was finally shine a light on what has been going on in Canada in the last decade with these commissions. Like most vermin, Warman despises having light shone upon him. The kangaroo courts of the Human Rights Commissions have been exposed and one of his better means of income is being threatened. In a response of desperation, Warman has turned to the civil courts in hopes of stifling discussion of his doings. It is hard to keep track of the list of lawsuits he has initiated. From what I can gather so far, those Warman has targetted so far are: Ezra Levant Conservative discussion forum owned by Connie and Mark Fornier; freedominion Blog smalldeadanimals run by Kate McMillan Blog five feet of fury run by Kathy Shaidle Columnist Jonathan Kay and the National Post itself and perhaps others, the list appears to grow daily. Despite this, Warman takes offense to being called a serial litigant. In a new twist to this, it looks like has-been Warren Kinsella has jumped on the bandwagon. The posting on a discussion site that Kinsella took offense to in his statement of claim is below: From planting hateful screeds on the internet to photographing bathrooms stalls at knee-height, there is no place where stawart Nazi hunters like Richard Warman and Warren Kinsella fear to tread. How can anyone reasonably complain about the fact that people like these are using our tax dollars to sell off our most essential freedoms when there are Nazis hiding behind every Canadian maple tree? Yet the only Nazi-like behaviour I have ever witnessed in Canada has come from people like Richard Warman and Warren Kinsella. To the best of my knowledge, I have never met an actual Nazi. Although there are many Canadians who adhere to the Soviet version of socialism, I have yet to encounter a single one who has tried to convince me of the merits of National Socialism. So where are all these Nazis? According to Warren Kinsella’s intrepid knee-height photography in public men’s room toilet stalls, there is at least one of them on the loose. The camera never lies, right? Kinsella did post pictures of bathroom scrawlings on his blog and Warman has been involved in posting on questionable sites. I am not a lawyer, but I really do not see what is actionable here. If it gets far enough, I am pretty confident that a judge will ask the same question. The logic behind this spate of lawsuits is likely a SLAPP attempt (Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation). Essentially by attacking the blogosphere and free media with this barrage of legal action, Warman and Kinsella are hoping to intimidate and mire individuals in legal costs in hopes of stifling the speech that they have determined must not be uttered. Legal defense is expensive and time consuming. The victims of these suits are likely going to suffer under years of stress, lost time and expenses in the many thousands even if they are found to be innocent in all this. It is frightening to see the efforts that some people will go to in order to stop the free exchange of ideas on the internet. Sure, plenty of things said are offensive and idiotic. The price to be paid by stifling speech in order to stop some of these offensive comments is way to high however. Canada has criminal laws to cover true hate speech as well as libel. The anti-speech folks know that their case would never withstand the scrutiny of a criminal court thus they have resorted to using human rights commissions and civil courts in hopes of stifling discussion. The precidents that could be set in the coming months are terrifying. I encourage everybody to discuss and keep this issue alive. The vicitims in these suits need help too. All of them have the means to donate to their legal defenses on their sites. You do not need to agree with or even like what they have to say, but it must be understood how important that it is for these people (and ourselves) to have the right to express ourselves. The links to those targetted by the anti-speech crowd are below: Smalldeadanimals Freedominion Jonathan Kay at the National Post Fivefeetoffury Their fight is all of ours. Posted in Free Speech | 2 Replies When will the nightmare end for the Maurice family? Absurd demands made by “hereditary” chiefs need to be dismissed rather than indulged. When are unions going to address their diversity issue? Taxi drivers are now a race! Nobody moves, nobody gets hurt. Bill on When will the nightmare end for the Maurice family? Darlene on When will the nightmare end for the Maurice family? Vanessa Grant on When will the nightmare end for the Maurice family? Sue on She wuz askin fer it. Gil McGowan on union violence against women Rory J. Koopmans on What the hell happened to Charles Adler? 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Failed Coup Kurdish Issue Russian Crisis Claim: Reuters reporter taken into custody in Turkey Claim: Erdogan wants to get rid of Syrian refugees Claim: Ceasefire with PKK breaks down after Suruc attack Read so far Al Jazeera reports ceasefire with Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) breaks down after Suruc attack PKK fired civilian buses on 11 July 2015 On 21 December 2015, Al Jazeera reported that the ceasefire between Turkish forces and the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK)1 breaks down following the DAESH suicide bomb attack on Kurdish youth activists in the town of Suruc. "Turkey has been involved in a fast-escalating conflict with the PKK since a ceasefire broke down in July following an ISIL suicide bomb attack on Kurdish youth activists in the town of Suruc, bordering the Syrian town of Kobane," read the news story. However, it was the PKK which announced the annulment of the ceasefire before the Suruc attack. The Suruc attack, a DAESH suicide bombing against young Kurdish activists working to deliver aid to the besieged Syrian border town of Kobani, took place on 20 July 2015, in Sanliurfa, Turkey. The bombing killed 33 people and injured 104.2 The annulment of the ceasefire was announced by the the Kurdistan Communities Union (KCK), the PKK's umbrella group, on 11 July 2015. Shortly after that, the PKK raided a civilian bus, killed one person and wounded two on 12 July 2015.3 The militant organization also set on fire three trailer trucks.4 Furthermore, on 15 July 2015, Bese Hozat, the co-chair of the KCK Executive Council, wrote on PKK’s media Ozgur Gundem that the time has come for a "revolutionary public war"5 against Turkish forces. 1. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/12/turkish-forces-pkk-engage-intense-... 2. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-33593615 3. http://www.aljazeera.com.tr/haber/pkklilar-sivil-minibusu-taradi-1-olu 4. http://www.sabah.com.tr/gundem/2015/07/11/agrida-teroristler-yol-kesip-a... 5. http://www.ozgur-gundem.com/yazi/133642/yeni-surec-devrimci-halk-savasi-... Suruc Attack Is Turkey’s President Erdogan anti-Semite? Is freedom of assembly suspended in Turkey under state of emergency? Claim: Turkey wants to change region’s demographic in Peace Spring Operation Does the dispute between Halkbank and Sehir University mean political punishment for Ahmet Davutoglu? Nov 22, 2019 - 16:50 Oct 13, 2019 - 03:19 Factual mistakes in an article by the Independent on recent political events and Turkey’s 2017 constitutional referendum Sep 4, 2019 - 17:23 Is Turkey sending back Syrian refugees? Fact-checking Turkey monitors the factual accuracy of various news and explanations about Turkey. It follows international and national media and aims to provide accurate information through publicly available sources. 1982 Coup Adil Oksuz Afrin Operation Ahmet Sait Yayla Akdamar Al Monitor Alcohol Sale Alevi Workshop Alevis Alex MacDonald Amberin Zaman Andrew Finkel Andrew Gardner A project of Bosphorus Center for Global Affairs. Copyright © 2015 Fact Checking Turkey. All rights reserved.
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Pair O’ Dice Games Game Reviews, House Rules, Strategy, Game Design, and more! Role Playing Games-RPGs « Previous Role Playing Games-RPGs December 19th, 2010 Adopting the Eclipse Phase Mesh to Combat Internet Censorship The Internet enables communication for millions of people worldwide in a way that levels the playing field. By giving access and a voice to everyone online a certain measure of equality is simultaneously granted. But such free communication is hardly ubiquitous, and is already subject to restriction in many areas. Maybe what we need is a fully decentralized network as in Eclipse Phase’s mesh. January 9th, 2010 Combat Strategies in Rolemaster for Low Level Characters Rolemaster is a fantasy role playing game with a detailed combat system. Here I’ll provide some tips players of low level characters can use to stay alive, and kick some butt. September 27th, 2009 Wageslavery – an Underappreciated Theme in Shadowrun Shadowrun’s futuristic technology includes skillwares, chips with software which grant users access to knowledge and skills they do not innately possess. Convenient for shadowrunners, yes. For the general populace? Downright dramatic; think about areas like manufacturing, and it becomes apparent that skillwares pose new pressures on the global workforce. Here’s how I think new levels of civil unrest and social upheaval can create an excellent backdrop for a meaningful Shadowrun campaign. September 9th, 2009 RPGs: Do You Take Notes? I tend to prefer being a gamemaster versus a player in a role playing game. Thus I read a lot of role playing books. This weekend I finally started a new activity while reading that I’ve been thinking about for a while: I’m taking notes. By josh August 24th, 2009 Eclipse Phase – Available Now First let me say, I do plan to get back to writing here soon but work has been beyond insane lately and I simply have not had the time to game enough (at least for my taste) much less write about gaming. However, I did want to say that for those interested in the game, Eclipse Phase can now be purchased in PDF format! June 1st, 2009 D&DI Exlusive Content Today Wizards announced some new stuff coming soon to D&D Insider. In addition to the (already mentioned) Players Handbook 3 content that will be pre-released on D&D Insider, the insider will have an exclusive race and an exclusive class that, according to Bill Slavicsek, will never appear in any book. May 21st, 2009 The State of My Gaming Life: 2009 Just over a year ago I wrote a post that I called The State of My Gaming Life. It was basically a rundown of all the gaming I was doing at the time. Honestly it was pretty self indulgent and rather pointless but kind of fun to write and neat to look back upon. My goal is to continue this annual posting so that I (and others if they so desire) can look back and see what has changed and so that those who wish to understand a bit more about me as I write about other topics have this information available to them. April 6th, 2009 D&D – Hybrid Characters Playtest Wizards has posted a playtest article for what they call Hybrid Characters, if you’re an Insider member you can check it out. March 27th, 2009 Dungeons and Dragons: Paragon Path Rules Issue One of my players was a bit unhappy with his characters plot (or rather lack there of) and decided he wanted to bring in a new character. As he was one of the two leaders in our six-player party he decided to stick with a leader character but bring in a Shaman as they are good at group healer while the other leader, a Cleric, could hand the single target big heals. In our first game with this character things seemed to go fairly well but an issue came up with one of his paragon path powers (say that three times fast!). March 18th, 2009 Hands on With the Player’s Handbook 2 I was planning on picking up a copy of the Player’s Handbook 2 at our local game store yesterday but when I stopped in I didn’t see any copies. It’s possible they weren’t out yet or I missed them but after getting back to my house and having two of my players bring copies, a third mentioned they had one on order, and a fourth said they would probably pick up a copy at some point, I decided that spending the money for a copy of my own just felt like throwing money away. February 18th, 2009 On the Brink of Paragon: Some Thoughts on D&D 4th Edition Last night my group reached level 11 in our Dungeons and Dragons campaign. We have been playing this same game since early last June, giving us over eight months of play time so far. If the next two tiers go at a comparable speed we will reach the end of the whole campaign (should we see it to its conclusion) at right about the two-year mark. Overall I have enjoyed the new D&D quite a bit and I just thought it would be interesting to comment on a few of my observations as we have just reached a major milestone in the game. February 2nd, 2009 A Lazy Way to Link You to Cool Stuff So, whenever I find something game-related that I think is really cool I like to write a post about it and link to it. I did this with Obsidian Portal, Brettspielwelt and others. Today while I was popping around I found another blog that does this as a weekly thing and has it far better organized than my rather erratic posts. February 2nd, 2009 Totems, Totems, Totems! – Wizards Previews the Shaman The first three levels of the Shaman are up for Insider members over at Wizards site and I have to say it looks pretty interesting and gives us four options for the Leader slot once the PH2 comes out (Cleric, Warlord, Bard and Shaman). January 26th, 2009 Sorcerer Preview – A New Twist on the Old Favorite Wizards has put up their preview of the first three levels of sorcerer and it seems pretty neat. January 18th, 2009 Savoring Level One Say for a moment that you are starting a brand-new role playing campaign. I’ve known some GMs to begin players at mid-level so they don’t have to toil around as a first-level character. Yet I think doing so misses the sweetest part of many role-playing games: starting your characters inexperienced and watching them grow. January 14th, 2009 A Pointless Post About the Pointlessness of XP I had been noticing for a while that experience points in D&D 4th Edition were almost more trouble than they were worth and I thought I would do a post about it. Unfortunately, I was beaten to the punch last week by Chris Youngs who wrote about XP in his Editorial. Still, I wanted to say a couple words about it even if I am treading over a well-worn path. January 5th, 2009 The Warden and Other Cool New Stuff for Insider Members I have so many cool things I want to write about but this past weekend ended up being a bit crazier than I had planned. I hope to get back to writing more, including writing reviews for no less than six games that I have either played recently or have recently realized I never got around to reviewing. For today I just wanted to send you over to Wizards where you can check out the newest preview from the Players Handbook 2, the Warden. December 31st, 2008 A Few Things I’m Looking Forward to in 2009 There are several more games I need to review and I also would like to write a bit more about reviewing and perhaps change the way I write reviews but it occurred to me that there are a number of game related things I am quite excited about at the moment and this being the last day of the year a post about these items might be a good idea. December 15th, 2008 D&D Controllers: Wizards and Druids and Invokers Oh My! Recently the preview for the Druid went up and I commented briefly on that, and today we now have the preview for the Invoker. December 1st, 2008 D&D: Druid Preview I know a lot of people were really excited to see what they did with the Barbarian while others were pretty thrilled when they released the Bard but personally I think the Druid could be the most exciting of the bunch. November 12th, 2008 Eclipse Phase – On the Horizon I was checking out some Shadowrun stuff recently when I noticed a mention of Catalyst’s new upcoming SF/Horror game Eclipse Phase. October 10th, 2008 My Reaction to Immediate Reactions in D&D 4.0 One of the things our group missed when we first started playing Dungeons and Dragons 4th Edition was that players could only perform one Immediate Action per round. The rule that defines this is not all that hard to locate, being found plainly under the explanation of what an Immediate Action is it states, “You can take only one immediate action per round”. Mostly, we just overlooked it. October 6th, 2008 Thoughts on Stealth and Perception in Dungeons and Dragons 4th Edition I have always had a bit of a problem with perception in role playing games. One issue is the fact that, with so many players (five or six for most games I have run), one player will inevitably roll high and thus find whatever it is they are looking for, even if they have a low score in perception. The RAW for D&D 4th Edition tries to avoid some of this by using Passive Perception Checks. October 6th, 2008 Barbarian Preview Up For those fans of the Barbarian class in D&D the preview is up at the official site. Because it is a preview article you do not get all the options and some of what is listed might change before the official release in 2009 (as part of the Player’s Handbook 2), however we do get to see some of what we’re in for. October 2nd, 2008 Cthulutech – Wacky New Offering from Catalyst Heading over to the Shadowrun site to try and figure out why my pulped tree version of the Runner’s Companion wasn’t in yet I discovered Catalyst’s newest product with an apparent street date of October 14th: Cthulhutech. September 28th, 2008 Running Into Trouble We had our first actual Shadowrun game yesterday and boy was it a bumpy ride… September 17th, 2008 Partying with the New Party We had our first session last night after our near party wipe. Things went quite well and the players were able to see the usefulness of having two defenders as they were surrounded by a group of orcs. September 9th, 2008 D&D: Wipe Out So, we had our first character death in Dungeons and Dragons today. Actually, we had our first, second, and third character deaths and a fourth character who was so disgusted with the whole ordeal that he went off into the unknown. September 9th, 2008 A Great, if Silly, Idea for a Shadowrun Most days I glance over the top news stories on Yahoo and today was no different. I try to keep myself informed on a variety of topics but I admit that I only read the articles that look as though they will be interesting or humorous. September 8th, 2008 A Shadowrun Idea for the Spatially Impaired I’ve mentioned before that I have trouble with locations in my role playing games. I’ve never been good at picturing things three dimensionally and when it comes to buildings I have trouble picturing room layouts (both where the rooms should be within the structure and what should be where in the rooms). August 25th, 2008 Review of Shadowrun: Runner’s Companion As I have mentioned several times I am a huge fan of Shadowrun. I love almost everything about the game from its living world with new and interesting events happening all the time to its concise and well thought out rules. Shadowrun, for me, offers the perfect mix of action and role playing and really opens itself up to all kinds of gamers. Recently I purchased the Runner’s Companion combo pack which gets you the pdf version of the book and the hard bound version when they release it. Most likely I would have waited for the hard bound version if my next game were not starting soon but as it is starting soon I wanted the new options available for my players. I also figured that it gave me the opportunity to write a brief review of the book in a somewhat timely fashion. August 24th, 2008 Of Shadowrun and Shooting People in the Face I’m really not a fan of RPG.net these days. They seem to always come down very harshly on the games that I like best and often their “reviews” are little more than sarcastic rants. Still, I do pop over their from time to time and check out what is being said. August 20th, 2008 Shadowrun – Right Around the Corner I finally got my hands on Unwired for Shadowrun 4.0. It looks pretty good even if it seems to contain a bit more fluff and a little less crunch than Arsenal, Augmentation and Street Magic. August 18th, 2008 Skill Challenges – Comparisons, Game Incorporation, and House Rules I’ve spoken at some length already about my feelings toward skill challenges and in general those feelings have been rather positive. This article is meant as a wrap-up of all of the previous discussions and to be sort of my “final word” on the subject. In all likelihood I will mention them again but probably not at this length. I hope that this post will not end up being tragically rambling but then that is my writing style and I am trying to touch on several related topics so I’ll do my best but don’t count on it. August 7th, 2008 D&D 4E – New Tricks Wizards started showing previews of their up coming book Adventurer’s Vault today. The book is described as having “Hundreds of new weapons, tools, and magic items for your D&D character” which sounds pretty nice from a DM’s perspective. The most interesting thing for me was the preview of the wondrous item, Bag of Tricks. July 28th, 2008 Dungeons and Dragons 4th Edition – Solo Monster – Necro Infused Orc After my first attempt at making a solo monster I was left frustrated and disappointed but after starting a post on the official forums and reading what others had to say about solos I decided not to give up. Instead I refocused and began working on a couple new ideas for solo monsters. Below you will find the stats for the first of these solos. July 25th, 2008 Heroscape, Shadowrun and Other Things That Make My Time Disappear I’ve been working on a number of different projects lately and they have taken up the time I would normally be using for ranting about some random D&D thing… er… I mean “writing for the blog”. July 16th, 2008 New 4th Edition Errata (Dungeons and Dragons) Wizards posted new errata for the 4th edition core books today. Most interestingly are the changes that have been made to skill challenges. July 16th, 2008 Feeling So Low About Solos I have a lot of annoying habits and tendencies. Among these is the habit of criticizing everything. It is seems to be in my nature to be critical at all times. I have never personally considered this a bad thing, I actually think many people are not as critical as they should be and find their lack of criticism disturbing, but I can see why in some situations it could be considered bothersome. One thing that has bothered several of my friends over the years is my critical interpretation of nearly every movie I see. This has lead people to joke (or perhaps not “joke”) that I hate all movies. The truth is more that I find fault with most movies. For example I loved Batman Begins but I think Christian Bale’s “Batman Voice” was awful and I have no problem making fun of it. I simply feel that I can like or even love something and still notice and criticize its flaws. Most people know that I like the new Dungeons and Dragons quite a bit but I don’t feel that this prevents me from seeing things in it which I consider to be flaws. One flaw I see in the game at this point is the concept of Solo Monsters. July 13th, 2008 The Challenge of Skill Challenges Since the release of Dungeons and Dragons 4th Edition there has been a lot of talk about Skill Challenges. A lot of players find the idea to be quite intriguing, allowing more dramatic rules for situations that were once resolved by a single roll of a single die, but others have pointed out that the math for the Skill Challenges seems a bit broken and in some ways, they are unfortunately correct. July 11th, 2008 Dungeons and Dragons 4th Edition – Classes, Roles and Professions One of the biggest complaints I see these days in regards to D&D 4th Edition is the limitations put on a character because of Class and Role. While some people seem to understand what the creators were trying to do, others either don’t get the idea or deliberately avoid understanding it. Because this is a bit of a hot topic and one that interests me I thought I would spend a moment talking about how I perceive it and how I feel it should be perceived. July 9th, 2008 Into the Shadows My gaming group made their final decision about our Saturday morning RPG last night. We had already come to a unanimous decision that Scion had major issues, and while there was some divergence as to what to do about it most fell closer to the “abandon it and don’t look back” side than the “muscle on, the idea is so cool!” side. July 8th, 2008 Funny Anecdote From D&D I’ve told this story a couple times over the past week and thought maybe I should just write it up for the blog as other gamers may find it amusing. Last Tuesday we finished our first 4th Edition Dungeon with the players confronting the Gribb Witchdoctor Rikshock and his minions. Upon entering his rather nasty looking quarters they discovered that both he and his minions were in fact on the other side of a ten foot wide crevice in the floor. Across the crevice was a thin wooden plank. The only thing on their side of the room was a desk. July 1st, 2008 Elite Gribb Statistics Here are two Elite Gribb I made up for my player’s first D&D 4th adventure. I was trying to figure out how to template them before posting but computers and I really don’t get along. These guys are based on my Gribb statistics. June 30th, 2008 Super Hero Universe Idea – A Super Blast From The Past I got a call yesterday from a friend of mine I don’t see too often, about a fumble table I had used in my last D&D game. Basically I had written up a random table to roll on whenever a player fumbled because I felt the whole “lose the rest of your attacks” or “hit yourself” or whatever we had previously been using was kind of boring and uninspired. I guess this friend (he had played the flashlight wielding paladin I have mentioned a couple times) is in a new game and had mentioned my table to his new DM. I was rather flattered and told him I would seek out the table and post it on the blog. Instead I ended up with this Super Hero Universe idea. But I’ll get to that in a moment. June 17th, 2008 Scion Snag and Shadowmoor Silliness This week will likely be a very busy one, which means that I will probably not get to write the posts that are floating around in my head at the moment. Still, I wanted to take a couple seconds to comment on a few of the things that happened over the weekend in my Scion campaign and some Shadowmoor online. June 13th, 2008 Dungeons and Dragons 4th Edition – Monster Statistics – Gribbs I love the collection of monster in new 4th Edition Monster Manual and I love the array of powers that the designers have given them. I know some people are lamenting the loss of certain creatures (centaurs, rust monsters, metallic dragons, etc.) but never having had an attachment to the D&D world of old I guess I’m just as happy with these things as without them. There are several reasons for choosing the creatures they did, not least among them that they wanted to keep a few hold-outs for the Monster Manual 2. While some people will insist that this is a greedy move by the company I guess I personally would rather see a book have some “normal” monsters and some bizarre monsters rather than have the basic Monster Manual be all the boring stuff and then have the later MMs be full of ever more crazy creatures. One problem I have with the Monster Manual is that there are very few options for introductory adventures. At about level five onward you have the option of sending lots of lower level creatures at a party (or perhaps “pumped up” versions of lower level creatures) but of course there are no lower level creatures for a starting party. It seems your basic options are either Kobolds or Goblins. I wanted to have another option so I created Gribbs. June 11th, 2008 Role Playing and Dungeons and Dragons 4th Edition Just how much role playing is in the new edition of Dungeons and Dragons? Just how much role playing was in the older editions? Is D&D a roll playing game? How much does a system of rules force players to play a game a certain way? How much impact does genre have on role playing? I felt I should warn people that this is a rather long post. I get some flack about the length of my posts but I still have not learned the art of brevity. Since I have no soul and very little wit, this really comes as no suprise. Since the release of 4th Edition (and actually even before its release) many people have become irate about the lack of role playing in it. Many felt that the changes were taking away options and making the game less realistic or more board-game-like. Not everyone agrees with this statement, and after reading through most of the core books I don’t agree either. In this post I would like to examine the evidence and explain why I feel there is greater potential for role playing in 4th Edition Dungeons and Dragons than in 3.0 or 3.5. I will also touch upon other aspects of role playing such as genre impact and rules impact. These ideas are far more general but they are no less important to the whole. June 9th, 2008 Dungeons and Dragons 4th Edition – A Wickedly Short Review Many people beat me to the punch of reviewing D&D 4.0. In truth if you were looking for reviews and opinions of the new edition you could easily have found them long before the game was officially released (you could even have found some here!). In fact you could have found the whole game before it was released since a pirated copy showed up online and Buy.com released some hundred copies a week early. So, I really don’t feel another normal review of the game, one that goes over the changes and then either says “D&D 4.0 scores big for its simplicity and fun” or “D&D 4.0 is now a completely different game, Wizards has destroyed the game we all know and love!” is in order. Instead what I would like to do is talk about one of the things I was doing this weekend instead of writing a review, namely going to see the musical Wicked. June 5th, 2008 Paranoia XP – Mission Blender Online The Paranoia Mission Blender is so freaking cool that this online version of it deserves its own post! 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Colors of Confinement March 17, 2015 @vossbrink Note: This originally posted on NJWV. Bill Manbo’s Colors of Confinement is very different than anything I cover in my Born Free and Equal post. Where even Miyatake as an insider was taking photos as documentation of the camp itself, Manbo is just photographing his life. There’s no expected audience besides his own family and no goals beyond remembering. The photos are a lot of fun. It’s a beautiful area and Manbo’s a technically competent photographer who’s able to work in low light with slow film* as well as frame things beyond just bulls-eying his subjects. Color is especially welcome. Given how popular colorizing old photos is it’s always nice to be reminded that color images do exist from the 1940s. Something about seeing things in color moves internment into the “color” era rather than the “black and white” era and even while I know better, I have to admit that there is something more accessible about these. *Lots of sunrises and sunsets which, while obvious subjects, are not the easiest thing to shoot with ASA8 or ASA10 speed film. What sets the book apart though are the essays. They’re all great but the most-interesting point is Jasmine Alinder’s assertion that the family snapshot is a human right. She reaches this point by describing why cameras were eventually allowed into the camps but the general point stands on its own. Despite the tendency of photography rights to get caught up in documentary evidence and whistleblowing, it’s vernacular photography which allows us to construct our sense of self. This is much of the appeal of looking through old photo albums in general. There is a universality to images of kids playing and growing up; local celebrations and events; group photos just because everyone’s together. We see ourselves and recognize elements of our own lives in these photos. They aren’t art or journalism but while every family has very similar images, these are the first things to be saved in a disaster. Manbo’s photos are a perfect example of this. He shows life and the good things going on just like most people’s photos do. There’s lots of fun and joy and the kind of memories everyone wants to have. The only difference here is that the setting is an internment camp. The photos don’t deny or hide the setting. It is what it is—heck, there’s even some palpable anger present in some of the frames. But they humanize the inhabitants by showing how they live and how normal life is—despite the obvious abnormal nature of the situation—by presenting them in the same kinds of photos that we all have in our family albums. The standard documentary approach typically involves casting the subjects as tragic figures. This is conventionally powerful and absolutely necessary, but the more I see it the more I find myself questioning our tendency to treat it as the most important point of view. It’s not exactly a trope, but it comes really close to that in how the subjects of the photos are only important in how their otherness can move the viewers emotionally. Again, this isn’t to say that Dorothea Lange’s photos of internees are bad and that we shouldn’t see the suffering. But it’s important to be aware of the kinds of photos which are missing from most documentary photography. If you don’t see the photos of people living, kids growing up, normal everyday life, you’re not seeing the things that make them human like the rest of us. And that’s a bit of a problem. Are the camps awful? At one level, absolutely.* At another. Not really. It’s clear looking at these photos why so many of the sansei kids who grew up in these camps don’t remember them as being bad. There was so much for them to do since the goal was to keep the kids busy.** Skating, sledding, sports, scouting, bands, etc. Kids had free reign in a safe environment and got to grow up in school and social environments where they weren’t minorities. *Nor were they ever as great as Adams portrays them. Compared to Lange, Adams’s heroic photos are the other side of the coin in how they have very specific aims about how they want their white audience to react to what the non-white people depicted in the photos have gone through. **And turn them into Americans. Treating the camps as uniformly and undeniably awful does a disservice to the diversity of the experiences of the internees.* It’s weird to say you enjoyed the camps if you feel you’re supposed to have hated it and it robs you of your own agency and memory to have a forced narrative like that. Manbo’s photos directly challenge the standard narrative by showing all the fun parts of the camps in a non-PR way. There’s also a lot to be said for the cultural developments in the camps as the internees formed distinct Japanese-American traditions like Obon which are still celebrated today. This isn’t just cultural pluralism which celebrates Japanese things alongside American ones, it’s the development of new American traditions. *Lon Kurashige’s essay in the book thoroughly covers this territory. Where the WRA and the Ansel Adams photos emphasize “American” activities like scouting and baseball, Manbo shows other cultural aspects which didn’t fit that narrative but are as important and recognizable to Japanese Americans today. While I like the photos which demonstrate the traditionally American activities, the incompleteness of the picture frustrates me. Each time I go to Obon I see kids participating who are a fourth, or less, Japanese. But this is their culture and it’s a highlight of summer. It’s great to see photos of the beginning of new American traditions rather than getting only the prescriptive framing about what kinds of things are, or aren’t, American. A selection of these photos came to Princeton for display in one of the dorm galleries. It’s nice to see big prints on the walls but I think I prefer these in book form. They’re more something I’d like to flip through and take in as an album rather than browsing through in a gallery. This might be an “art or not” distinction but it’s also related to how Manbo’s photos work better as a group rather than individual images. One thing about the big prints that did catch my eye is that they’re printed with the black edge of the slide holder visible but cut off (much like the images on this webpage are). The book puts these images on black backgrounds so the presentation looks more like what a slideshow would look like. I also caught much of the round table discussion about these photos. Not enough to provide a summary but I really liked Joshua Chambers-Letson’s talk about race as performance both from a double consciousness point of view and with the idea that Americana itself is a performance. This made a lot of sense in the context of al the internment photos since the tensions between being American and being foreign and being “loyal” and resisting what was being done to you course through everything here. There’s also always the sense of oversight in the internment photos. Whether it’s oversight by the WRA censors or the camp management or the watchtowers looming in the background—or just out of frame of the images themselves. It’s not much a stretch to consider the oversight in photography now as we construct our own panopticons and continue to deal with racial issues in current society. Bill Manbofamily photographyfeaturedJapanese InternmentnjwvPrincetonracerepresentationvernacular photographyWyoming Born Free and Equal Gallery March 9, 2015 @vossbrink 1 Comment Ansel Adams. Manzanar Relocation Center, California. Farm, farm workers, Mt. Williamson in background. Richard Kobayashi, farmer with cabbages. Nurse Aiko Hamaguchi. Harry Hanawa, mechanic. Corporal Jimmie Shohara. Pictures and mementoes on phonograph top: Yonemitsu home. I’ve had a copy of Born Free and Equal* on my shelf for a while. I’ve flipped through it a few times but never really looked that closely, or read the essays, in it until recently. It took receiving a copy of Colors of Confinement** for Christmas to give me the push to actually look at Adams’s work and realize how distinct—in both weird and great ways—it is. *I have this version of it which is very clear about not being associated with anything officially Ansel Adams branded. Given how the photos are in the public domain there’s probably some interest in comparing different printings too. It’s also interesting to see how the Library of Congress has digitized the collection by scanning both Adams’s prints and his negatives and presenting both versions as high-resolution downloads. **Yes I’ll have a post on this coming eventually to. Adams’s work was not part of the WRA and so isn’t government propaganda. At the same time, with its heroic headshots and optimistic assimilated future it feels incredibly propagandalike. There’s nothing here about hardship or injustice. None of the camp watchtowers or fences are pictured.* Everyone is identified as American. And all the activities depicted—baseball, scouting, marching band, home decor, toys, clothing, etc.—are “American.” The rare “unamerican” things—tofu preparation and buddhist rituals—are part of larger lists rather than highlighted images in their own right. *While the texts says that Adams was not allowed to shoot the fences or watch towers, his photographs are not about confinement at all. The portraits in particular are indeed heroic: full sun, tightly cropped, no context besides occupation. While we know that the subjects suffered hardships, they’re unbowed, optimistic, and looking forward to bigger and better things. The other photos are similar in tone and emphasize the working settlement and community which they have built in a tough landscape. The text accompanying the images expands on these themes by emphasizing loyalty, their post-internment relocation plans, and how they’ll become productive Americans. I fully understand why this point of view was needed at the time. And why it got Adams into a bit of trouble when he exhibited these photographs in 1944. Still, the assimilationist view bugs me. Both in how it defines what it means to be an American and by extension, what it implies is non-American. While these photos aren’t about confinement, they are about a loss of culture.* To present as American, most of the Japaneseness has been scrubbed out of the photos. *Which, given how big a deal Obon and other Nikkei Matsuri are still today, is distinctly not what happened. At the same time, I can’t hate on these photos. Despite my issues with them, a large part of me is overjoyed to see Asian-Americans presented as simply, American. What makes these photos distinctly great is that it’s sadly jarring to see this view even today. Many people still do not expect “regular Americans” to be Asian. We need to see this representation more often. Looking through the photos with today’s eyes and I also see some weirdness going on. Despite not being about confinement at all, because Adams published them at a larger scale under his name, they sort of became the most-likely collection of internment images for people to have seen. Internment is correctly remembered as one of the United States’ major mistakes in civil rights yet the images associated with it are these heroic ones which gloss over most of the abuses. I found myself wanting to look at some of the more critical photos as well. Thankfully, the book has essays which point in the correct direction. Archie Miyatake’s essay about his father, Toyo, is especially informative. Toyo Miyatake became the official Manzanar camp photographer after smuggling in a lens and ground glass. At first he photographed on the sly with his home-made camera* and smuggled film and chemicals but eventually gained the acceptance of the camp director and photographed officially. *This camera has become a symbol in its own right of the internment and internees willingness to fight the system. I went looking for more of Miyatake’s photos of the camp. There are precious few of them online* but I was able to find copies of Two Views of Manzanar—a catalog from a 1978 show of Miyatake’s and Adams’s Manzanar photographs— and Elusive Truth: Four Photographers at Manzanar—a 2002 book** which features Miyatake, Adams, Clem Albers, and Dorothea Lange and frames the internment as something we need to remember in a post-September 11 world.*** There’s also a good, but long, series of posts by Nancy Matsumoto which covers all this ground and then some. *Which is why there are none in this post. **I can’t recommend it since some of the photos are printed horribly. Thankfully JARDA exists instead so I can find higher resolution versions of what’s in the book. ***There’s no need to discuss Adams’s photos again but it is worth noting that the subjects are identified by name instead of occupation in these two books. Miyatake’s photos are interesting. Lots of posed documentary shots since that’s what he was supposed to be doing in the camp. But also a lot of images that Adams didn’t, or couldn’t show. The watchtowers. Posing by the barbed wire fences. Kids lined up at the toy loan center. It’s very clear how this is strange confined world which is not acceptable. There’s also a lot of the flip side to what Adams’s photos show. Where Adams photographed members of the 442nd as American heroes, Miyatake photographed their departure and their funerals and the way this impacted the community left behind—especially the Issei who Adams didn’t depict and who can’t be described as Americans because they weren’t allowed to become citizens. The photos aren’t all negative though. Miyatake’s aims were more about capturing and remembering what happened rather than publishing and achieving social change. He wanted to be in Manzanar for the duration and have images which showed the entirety of the camp to future generations. There are photos of graduations and Christmases and other events showing how life went on and people had fun and things weren’t horrible even though nothing depicted should be considered normal. Ever. Clem Albers. Lone Pine, California. 4/1/42 A young evacuee of Japanese ancestry arrives here by train prior to being transferred by bus to Manzanar, now a War Relocation Authority center. Clem Albers. Lone Pine, California. 4/1/42. Evacuees of Japanese ancestry arrive here by train and await buses for Manzanar, now a War Relocation Authority center. Clem Albers. Manzanar, California. 4/2/42. Evacuees clearing brush to enlarge this War Relocation Authority center which will house 10,000 evacuees of Japanese ancestry for the duration. Evacuees of Japanese descent carry their personal effects preparatory to setting up housekeeping at this War Relocation Authority center. Dorothea Lange. Manzanar, California. 7/2/42. A chef of Japanese ancestry at this War Relocation Authority center. Evacuees find opportunities to follow their callings. Dorothea Lange. Manzanar, California. 6/30/42. View of barrack homes at this War Relocation Authority center, showing outside entrances. Enjoying an afternoon stroll at this War Relocation Authority center for evacuees of Japanese ancestry. Grandfather and grandson of Japanese ancestry at this War Relocation Authority center. Sort of ironically, it’s the official WRA photographs which end up hammering the social justice angle of the camps. Clem Albers and Dorothea Lange have different axes to grind—Albers is skeptical of the government and Lange is all about social change—but together their photos capture a much different Manzanar. Instead of the self-sufficient settlement that Adams shows, the WRA photos show the camp at its worst—needing to be cleared and built by the same people who were to be confined there. Albers in particular is very smart about trying to show confinement while following the guidelines of not showing actual confinement. He frames subjects behind glass or in tight rooms or somehow otherwise confined. And if he can’t do that he includes a caucasian authority figure who, while not being depicted negatively, implies that there is more going on in the image. Why does the military police need to be involved with getting children or the elderly off of a train? Lange meanwhile sees the internees as tragic figures who are being horribly wronged by their government. Her photos emphasize the existing context of what has been done to the internees. If you include her work of the evacuation before the camps were set up,* this point of view becomes even stronger. They’ve lost so much and are now working extremely hard in an inhospitable place to eek out their living. There’s no future in mind, only our complicity in what’s been done to them already. *Most famously her I Am An American photo. Lange and Albers’s photos look more like what I’d expect images of the internment to look like. Harsh, brutal, unjust images of an unjust event. Looking at them solidified my takeaway from Adams’s work about how weirdly great it is. Despite its assimilationist tones, there is something wonderful about presenting an oppressed group not only as humans but as peers who have persevered despite the oppression. All too often we only see the oppression and suffering which, while important to witness, risks making someone else’s pain into a spectacle. Ansel AdamsCaliforniaclassClem AlbersDocumentary PhotographyDorothea LangefeaturedJapanese InternmentnjwvportraitureracerepresentationToyo Miyatake Gallery March 2, 2015 @vossbrink These photos by Eric Gunderson just caught my eye on Tumblr. He has a set of color photos as well but I like the black and white ones better. There’s definitely something baltzy about these but there’s also a lot more physical depth in the images where I get a better sense of the space being depicted. AustraliaEric Gunderson
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Air Sterling - Man City winger set to sign lucrative deal with Jordan brand Robert Bailey - STAR Writer Manchester City’s Raheem Sterling celebrates after scoring his side’s fifth goal during the English Premier League match between West Ham United and Manchester City at London Stadium in London last Saturday. Jamaican football star Raheem Sterling is considering an offer to become the first footballer to sign a personal endorsement deal with Air Jordan football boots. According to reports in England, the boot deal could be one of the most lucrative in the history of the sport. It is reported that the deal on offer could be as much as PS100 million to sign Sterling, who was last season's Football Writers' Footballer of the Year, depending on the length of the contract. The 24-year-old Sterling, who led Manchester City to last season's English Premier League title, is in his final year of the current Nike boot deal and is now one of the most sought-after commercial properties across Europe. The Air Jordan brand only moved into football one year ago, with the branding of the Paris Saint-Germain (PSG) kit, but now wants Sterling. Air Jordan, a subsidiary of American sportswear company Nike, has not yet marketed football boots, but the success of its collaboration with PSG has proved that it could be a growth market. The brand chiefly has endorsements with NBA basketballers some Major League baseball players and also works with famous music artistes. The brand was founded for NBA basketball star Michael Jordan, who is one of the all-time richest sporting athletes, largely from his commercial income. Sterling, who began the new Premier League season with a hat-rick in his team's 5-0 win over West United on Saturday, also endorses Microsoft, as well as Nike. He has also been targeted by Gillette and clothing brand H&M. Other Sports Stories Bailey, Williams making right moves at TG Gayle leaps into Puma family Powell ready to lift Inter Miami NZ test for Sunshine Girls Gibson named Tigers bowling coach Mexico’s Chicharito signs with LA Galaxy Gilbert wants U-20 Girlz job Promising college start for Farr, Freeman
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Apply To Join the Good Food Accelerator’s Ranks Of Fellow Achievers Posted on August 14, 2017 August 17, 2017 by FamilyFarmed by Bob Benenson, Rebecca Frabizio and Chelsea Callahan, FamilyFarmed FamilyFarmed invites rising food and farm entrepreneurs to apply for a Fellowship in our Good Food Accelerator (GFA). The application period began Monday (Aug. 14), and we have scheduled a GFA Application Celebration and Networking Event on the evening of Tuesday, Sept. 5 at 1871 in the Merchandise Mart. If you are a farmer, processor or otherwise involved in Good Food marketing in the Chicago foodshed, there are numerous reasons why you should click this link and apply for our intensive business development program. The Accelerator provides a six-month curriculum, technical assistance, industry-leading mentors, interaction with FamilyFarmed’s broad network across the Good Food business spectrum, and connections to financiers and lenders. To date, we have graduated 27 Fellows over the Accelerator’s first three years, and all have reported significant benefits for their companies. Maya-Camille Broussard, a graduate of the third and most recent Good Food Accelerator cohort, chats with FamilyFarmed Programs Assistant Chelsea Callahan at her Justice of the Pies stand at Chicago’s Daley Plaza Farmers Market on Aug. 10. Nearly half of the GFA Fellows so far have been minority-owned businesses, nearly have are women-owned, and several — including Justice of the Pies — have stated social missions. Photo: Bob Benenson/FamilyFarmed We’re proud of all of our hard-working Accelerator Fellows and their accomplishments… including a brand-new one that Jenny Yang is celebrating today! Jenny Yang of Chicago’s Phoenix Bean Tofu during a sampling at a Whole Foods Market store in 2015. Photo: Bob Benenson/FamilyFarmed Jenny owns Chicago’s Phoenix Bean Tofu and graduated in the first (2014-15) Good Food Accelerator cohort. And her delicious tofu products — made from organic Illinois-grown soybeans and re-branded as Jenny’s Tofu — are going on the shelves in all 54 stores in Whole Foods Market’s Midwest region. (The timing of this expansion on the same day as the Good Food Accelerator application launch was purely coincidental, though we can’t totally rule out that some karma was involved.) Phoenix Bean Tofu is a particularly fresh and flavorful variety of the product. Demand was already rising when Jenny, a native of Taiwan who came to the United States to go to college, joined the Accelerator. But that demand was mainly from chefs at Chicago restaurants. Her products were in just a couple of Whole Foods store in Chicago when she did a sampling event at one of them in January 2015 (pictured here). Then things escalated quickly with the help of the Good Food Accelerator. In part because of FamilyFarmed’s longstanding partnership with Whole Foods Market, Phoenix Bean’s presence of their store shelves grew quickly, even as other grocery stores and restaurants were becoming acquainted with Jenny’s excellent products. Then the Accelerator helped facilitate connections for Jenny that helped her clinch a $1.5 million loan, backed by the U.S. Small Business Administration, that is enabling her to build a new factory (near her original tiny location) that will increase her production capacity five-fold. The Accelerator has produced similar stories. For example, Megan Klein launched HERE’s cold-pressed juice line just recently, while she was a Fellow in the Accelerator’s 3rd cohort (2016-17), and the company’s juices are already in 131 Chicagoland stores. (HERE has since added a line of delicious dips made from local produce.) Another highlight of the Accelerator graduates’ growth curve is Fillo’s Sofrito Beans. Their Latin-American style beans are made with sofrito, aromatic vegetables cooked with herbs and spices in olive oil, and are sold in pouches throughout Whole Foods Midwest, a number of smaller grocery stores, and Amazon Prime. Owner Daniel Caballero also segued quickly from being a Good Food Accelerator Fellow in the 2nd Cohort (2015-16) to being a program mentor. “The Accelerator gave us all of the foundational knowledge to see past our daily activities and map out the path to every one of our benchmarks,” reported Jordan Buckner and Isaac Lozano, 3rd cohort graduates whose company produces Tea Squares, an energy snack that includes caffeine derived from tea. “Moreover, we built strategic partnerships with business veterans and insiders to best tailor our product to our core market.” The Merchandise Mart, a Chicago landmark since 1930, is home to FamilyFarmed’s Good Food Accelerator (GFA). A GFA Application Celebration and Networking Event will be held there on Sept. 5 at the 1871 business incubator, where Accelerator classroom sessions are held. Photo: Bob Benenson/FamilyFarmed The Good Food Accelerator, to ensure that the program is meeting its goals, conducts periodic surveys of graduate fellows. The metrics underscore the value of this program: AGGREGATE BUSINESS GROWTH, COHORTS 1-3 (2014-17) 148% increase in full-time employees (FTEs) 176% increase in Markets 41% increase in Sales Collectively, entrepreneurs in the GFA network have obtained $38 million+ in debt and equity financing. ACCELERATOR PROGRAM VALUE, COHORTS 2 AND 3 All (100%) of the Fellows said that by participating in GFBA, they learned new skills that they can apply directly to their businesses. BUSINESS GROWTH AND ACCELERATOR, COHORT 3 $1.8 million in financing 350% increase in FTEs 183% increase in market distribution 16% increase in Gross Profit Margin 100% (9/9) said “by completing the GFBA program, I feel better prepared to grow my business.” 100% (9/9) said they were better prepared to lead their organization. 100% (9/9) said they were better prepared to increase sales. 88% (8/9) said they were better prepared to talk to investors about their offerings. 78% (7/9) said they were better prepared to increase their profit margins. 78% (7/9) said they were better prepared to create more jobs within their organizations. Megan Klein of HERE, which produces cold-pressed juices and dips made from local ingredients, presented her business to other members of the Good Food Accelerator’s third cohort at an event at Chicago’s Kendall College on April 17, 2017. Photo: Bob Benenson/FamilyFarmed Time flies, and it feels like almost yesterday that the Cohort 3 Fellows completed their course and graduated on April 24. The following are photos of the Fellows with Jim Slama, founder and CEO of FamilyFarmed, and Bobby Turner, a FamilyFarmed Board member who then was the longtime Vice President of Purchasing for Whole Foods Market Midwest (Bobby since earned a promotion to President of Whole Foods Southern region, based in Atlanta). Want to be part of the Cohort 4 graduating class next April? Apply now! Maya-Camille Broussard of Justice of the Pies with Bobby Turner of Whole Foods Market (left) and Jim Slama of FamilyFarmed at the graduation of the Good Food Accelerator’s third cohort on April 24, 2017. Isaac Lozano and Jordan Buckner of Tea Squares (left and right center) with Bobby Turner of Whole Foods Market (center) and Jim Slama of FamilyFarmed at the graduation of the Good Food Accelerator’s third cohort on April 24, 2017. Michele Gazzolo and Beth Denton (left and right center) of Fruitbelt with Bobby Turner of Whole Foods Market (left) and Jim Slama of FamilyFarmed at the graduation of the Good Food Accelerator’s third cohort on April 24, 2017. Art Jackson (left) of Pleasant House Pub & Bakery with Bobby Turner of Whole Foods Market (center) and Jim Slama of FamilyFarmed at the graduation of the Good Food Accelerator’s third cohort on April 24, 2017. Megan Klein of HERE with Bobby Turner of Whole Foods Market (left) and Jim Slama of FamilyFarmed at the graduation of the Good Food Accelerator’s third cohort on April 24, 2017. Daniel Sikorski of The Eating Well with Bobby Turner of Whole Foods Market (left) and Jim Slama of FamilyFarmed at the graduation of the Good Food Accelerator’s third cohort on April 24, 2017. Colin Tomkins-Bergh of Simply Native Foods with Bobby Turner of Whole Foods Market (left) and Jim Slama of FamilyFarmed at the graduation of the Good Food Accelerator’s third cohort on April 24, 2017. Alison Velazquez of Skinny Souping with Bobby Turner of Whole Foods Market (center) and Jim Slama of FamilyFarmed at the graduation of the Good Food Accelerator’s third cohort on April 24, 2017. Mitch Wasserman of Full Belly Foods (left) with Bobby Turner of Whole Foods Market (center) and Jim Slama of FamilyFarmed at the graduation of the Good Food Accelerator’s third cohort on April 24, 2017. This entry was posted in Uncategorized and tagged 1871 Chicago, Amazon Prime, Bobby Turner, Daniel Caballero, FamilyFarmed, Fillo's Sofrito Beans, Fruitbelt, Full Belly Foods, Good Food Accelerator, Here.co, Isaac Lozano, Jenny Yang Chicago, Jim Slama, Jordan Buckner, Justice of the Pies, Megan Klein, Phoenix Bean tofu, Pleasant House Bakery, Pleasant House Pub, Simply Native Foods, Skinny Souping, Tea Squares, The Eating Well, U.S. Small Business Administration, Whole Foods Market. Bookmark the permalink. ← Chicago’s Purple Asparagus Spearheads Food Literacy For Youngest Students Paul Virant: A Good Food Chef Who Keeps On Giving →
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Help Grow Our Good Food Mission: Donate to FamilyFarmed Posted on November 14, 2017 November 28, 2017 by FamilyFarmed by Katie Daniel, Development Manager, FamilyFarmed Everyone eats, and what you eat matters — which is why we at FamilyFarmed are proud of our work growing the availability of Good Food: delicious; produced as locally as possible; using sustainable, humane and fair practices. FamilyFarmed works to support food and farm entrepreneurs with the goal of a healthier, more environmentally sustainable and more economically dynamic food system. In the coming weeks, we’ll share stories of the local food and farm entrepreneurs whose mission to produce Good Food has been served by FamilyFarmed — thanks to contributions from Good Foodies like you. We ask for your support so these programs thrive and we can continue to develop new and innovative Good Food initiatives in 2018. Click here to make a tax-deductible contribution to FamilyFarmed. Your first opportunity to contribute to the cause involves fueling an inner-office Good Food rivalry: The Birthday Fundraising Faceoff: We decided to have a little fun kickoff event, with a competition between FamilyFarmed CEO Jim Slama and Communications Manager Bob Benenson to see whose birthday can generate the most donations. Bob’s birthday is today (Nov. 14) and Jim’s birthday is Thursday (Nov. 16); the competition runs through Friday. Click here to go to the GiveGab fundraising site and donate to your favorite in the Faceoff. Remember to choose your favorite on the last screen of the donation prompts! [Note: The Birthday Fundraising Faceoff has concluded, with more than $2,000 raised in four days. Many thanks to all who contributed! Our Annual Appeal campaign continues with Giving Tuesday.] Your contribution will support Good Food Entrepreneurs such as Maya-Camille Broussard of Justice of the Pies — a 2017 graduate of FamilyFarmed’s Good Food Accelerator. She graduated in April in the third cohort of our Good Food Accelerator, and has nothing but praise for how the program has helped her build her business. “I often tell people it felt like getting an MBA in six months,” she said. To read more about Maya, Justice of the Pies and the Good Food Accelerator, please click here. Learn more about the following Good Food programming your contribution will support with new profiles over the next two weeks, culminating on Giving Tuesday on Nov. 28. We know that there are numerous worthy non-profits and charities asking for your donations. Please read the summary of our programs and achievements below to see why we think FamilyFarmed should be on your giving list. Farmer Training: There would be no Good Food without great, productive farmers. And growing young farmers is a critical national need, as the USDA reports the average age of farmers in the United States is nearly 60. FamilyFarmed has helped producers improve their skills with workshops that have trained more than 13,700 farmers in 43 states. Our farmer training program was built around our Wholesale Success manual, a farmer’s guide to food safety, selling, postharvest handling and packing produce. In 2017, FamilyFarmed expanded the program to include Direct Market Success, a farmer’s guide to selling at farmers markets, farmstands, through CSAs or online marketplaces and to restaurants, and a series of Food Safety Training workshops designed to give small to mid-scale produce growers the tools to comply with best practices in food safety and to introduce writing on-farm food safety plans. Atina Diffley, a longtime organic farmer from Minnesota, is lead instructor for FamilyFarmed’s Farmer Training workshops, which have provided intensive learning experiences for more than 13,700 farmers across the United States. Photo: Bob Benenson/FamilyFarmed Good Food EXPO: YOU’RE INVITED!! The 2018 Good Food EXPO will next be held March 23-24 at Chicago’s UIC Forum. The 2017 EXPO set a record with 7,500 attendees and nearly 200 Good Food purveyors and farms. Past EXPOs have seen appearances by Chef Rick Bayless, former USDA Secretary Tom Vilsack and Erika Allen of Growing Power. To learn more about the EXPO, click here and here. To register as an exhibitor before Dec. 31 and receive a $150 discount, click here. The 2017 Good Food EXPO drew record crowds who got to meet and buy products from 180 exhibitors while enjoying chef demos and other great programming. Photo: Barry Brecheisen Good Food Accelerator: At its launch in 2014, this was the first business accelerator focused on local and sustainable food companies. We have just begun the intensive six-month program for our fourth cohort of Accelerator Fellows (click here to find out who these exciting businesses are). All 27 businesses competitively selected for the first three cohorts graduated, and all report that they benefited from their participation. Combined, the Financing & Innovation Conference (below) and the Good Food Accelerator have generated more than $38 million in equity and debt financing deals for participating businesses. Learn more about our Good Food Fellows here. The entrepreneurs in the 4th cohort of FamilyFarmed’s Good Food Accelerator posed for a “class photo” during orientation on Nov. 7. To learn about their great businesses, click here. Photo: Bob Benenson/FamilyFarmed Good Food Financing & Innovation Conference: This event is focused heavily on facilitating connections between early-stage food businesses and the buyers and investors who can help them grow. After a long stint as the opening day of a three-day Good Food EXPO, the Financing & Innovation Conference is going to be a stand-alone event on June 19 in Chicago! Highlights from the 2017 Financing & Innovation Conference can be found by clicking here. The Financing Fair is a feature of FamilyFarmed’s annual Good Food Financing & Innovation Conference, and it provides early-stage businesses with opportunities to present their products to potential investors, lenders and buyers. Megan Klein, shown with her Here brand salad dressings and dips (made from locally grown ingredients) at the 2017 Financing Fair, is a recent graduate of FamilyFarmed’s Good Food Accelerator. Photo: Bob Benenson/FamilyFarmed FamilyFarmed never stops innovating. Here are three important projects that are currently under development. Good Food Is Good Medicine: Medical training in the United States typically focuses on treating symptoms of illness, and has been lacking in a crucial element — the impact of food on health. But there is rising interest in integrative medicine and other approaches that factor food into efforts to prevent illness. FamilyFarmed has produced several informative programs around this theme — including a standing-room-only panel discussion at last year’s Good Food EXPO — and is developing a Good Food Is Good Medicine program that will take this crucial message out into communities. Learn more about this concept by clicking here and here. Organic Grain Promotion Initiative: The demand for locally and sustainably produced grains for baking, cooking, brewing, distilling and other needs is rising fast. FamilyFarmed is developing a coalition of growers, buyers and sellers to help expand this market and to persuade more farmers to transition land to growing grain sustainably. Improved Communications Platforms: FamilyFarmed is conducting a comprehensive overhaul to modernize and integrate its online information and program platforms. The result will be websites that are much more appealing, more informative, and better at helping Good Food farmers and producers tell their stories and sell their products. All contributions, however large or small, help us advance our Good Food goals and support the businesses and farmers who produce the Good Food we all love! Click here to support FamilyFarmed’s Birthday Challenge, or click here to find out how your Giving Tuesday Contribution can have a direct impact on the Good Food ecosystem. This entry was posted in Direct Farm Marketing, Direct Market Success, FamilyFarmed fundraising, Farm businesses, Farmer training, Financing, Food Entrepreneurs, Good Food and economic development, Good Food Business Accelerator, Good Food business development, Good Food Festivals, Good Food Financing Fair, Good Food Is Good Medicine, Good Food marketing, Local Food, Wholesale Success and tagged Direct Market Success, FamilyFarmed, FamilyFarmed Farmer Training, Good Food Accelerator, Good Food Expo, Good Food Financing &Innovation Conference, Good Food Is Good Medicine, Justice of the Pies, On-Farm Food Safety, Wholesale Success. Bookmark the permalink. ← Meet Accelerator Grad Maya Broussard And Her Justice Of The Pies Farmer’s Fridge Fortunes Flourished At FamilyFarmed’s Good Food EXPO →
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Junity Hendrik Meurkens / Misha Tsiganov: Junity (Duo & Quartet) HMS Recordings – 2014 Listen to Excerpts from All Tracks (1) • Blackbird (Lennon/McCartney) 5:16 (2) • Luiza (A.C. Jobim) (Corcovado Music Corp/BMI) 4:07 (3) • Lady Bear’s Lullaby (Evgeny Krylatov) 6:12 (4) • Junity (H. Meurkens) (Meurkens Music/BMI) 4:47 (5) • Norwegian Wood (Lennon/McCartney) 4:15 (6) • Olena (M. Tsiganov) (Tsiganov Music/BMI) 3:58 (7) • Pent Up House (S. Rollins) (Prestige Music Co/BMI) 4:17 (8) • Ruby, My Dear (T. Monk) (Embassy Music Co/BMI) 4:48 (9) • Menina na Janela (H. Meurkens) (Meurkens Music/BMI) 3:59 (10) • West Coast Blues (W. Montgomery) (Taggie Music Co/BMI) 5:02 (11) • Scriabin (M. Tsiganov) (Tsiganov Music/BMI) 4:40 (12) • Close Enough For Love (Mandel/Williams) (Warner Olive Music/ASCAP) 6:45 (13) • Etude Op.2, No.1 (Alexander Scriabin) 3:49 Hendrik Meurkens – harmonica Misha Tsiganov – piano Oleg Osenkov – bass (on tracks 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 12) Willard Dyson – drums (on tracks 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 12) Arrangements by Misha Tsiganov Hendrik Meurkens’ harmonicas maintained by Michael Easton www.harmonicarepair.com Oleg Osenkov uses Thomastik strings, Fishman Full Circle pickup, DPA microphones Willard Dyson plays Istanbul Cymbals Recorded May 23rd & 24th, 2013 by Michael Brorby at Acoustic Recording, Brooklyn, NY Mixed and Mastered by Dave Darlington at Bass Hit Recordings, New York, NY What is Junity? Hendrik Meurkens, the celebrated harmonica master, explains: “It’s a play on words between the English word unity, which means the state of being united, and the Brazilian word junto, which means together.” The title is appropriate because, Meurkens, a musician known for his superb artistry and his quick wit, and Misha Tsiganov, a Russian pianist of remarkable proficiency, have been collaborating for nearly a decade. These thirteen tracks document the magic that transpires when two become one. But why a harmonica/piano duo? “The harmonica likes small settings,” Meurkens believes. “It is a very intimate instrument so small settings make the instrument sound good. With this project, it’s really about the two instruments and the right compositions. Musicians want to play beautiful melodies. It’s not about the style. It’s about what sounds good when we play it. But of course Misha can play anything.” “We’ve done two or three concert tours as a duo in Russia and this is the first time we’ve recorded our collaboration,” Meurkens explains. “We’ve checked with the audience and it works. This is not just a one time recording, but documentation of an ongoing project.” They met in a now defunct New York Jazz club, Meurkens remembers. “Then I went to hear Misha play and he became the pianist in my Samba Jazz Quartet. Since then we’ve been all over the world together, playing everywhere from Jakarta to Siberia.” Tsiganov, who came to America in 1991 to study at the Berklee School of Music, knew about Hendrik from his recordings and jumped at the opportunity to play together. For that first Samba Jazz Quartet rehearsal, “he sent me some really difficult chorinho music and I was practicing like crazy, just to get it right. When I came to the US, I learned very quickly that when you go to the first rehearsal, you have to know the music, and know it very very well. You have to proof right there that you are prepared. You might not get a second chance. So I went to the rehearsal and nailed the music and that’s how our collaboration began.” “Misha,” Hendrik believes, “does everything possible to make your music sound better. There is no ego involved. Plus he has the Russian musical education. The Russian piano players, the classical school, are the best in the world. And, he is just a great musician.” Now a resident of Brooklyn, Tsiganov is equally enthusiastic about Meurkens. “I call him the Art Tatum of the harmonica,” he explains. Misha believes that his friend Hendrik has three sides. “First, he’s a virtuoso, he can play anything on the harmonica. Then, he can be both melodic and lyrical. In fact, his lyricism is unbelievable. I’ve toured with him and seen people cry when he plays ballads. And the third thing is, his music is based in bebop. And I love that about him, he really has his bebop vocabulary together. And finally, he’s a superb composer.” This recording captures it all, from the tasteful lyricism of Tsiganov’s tribute to his wife, “Olena,” to a Jobim composition, to the burning bebop of the Sonny Rollins composition “Pent Up House.” The tracks are divided between the harmonica/piano duo, and a quartet with bassist Oleg Osenkov and drummer Willard Dyson. “Oleg Osenkov can play anything,” Tsiganov explains. “Funk, Brazilian, even the most complex of harmonies.” Meurkens feels he’s truly a “master of his instrument. A Russian who came to this country and loves Jazz more than most Americans do.” And Willard Dyson, Meurkens explains, “is an American American. There are still Americans in this country, believe it or not. He’s another miracle who can just play any style great. Master musicians today are masters of styles and not just their instruments. There are still specialists in 2014, but now you find quite a few musicians who sound really really good on a variety of styles.” As a composer, Meurkens can appreciate the way his collaborator writes. “It’s Rachmaninoff meets Jazz. It’s a very beautiful approach to composing that doesn’t include any clichés; it’s fresh.” “He’s from Russia, I’m from Germany and we are adding something here that’s a little different,” Meurkens believes. Although he’s best known for his Brazilian music, “this project is all over the place. We play a Jobim tune, and my original, “Menina na Janela, some Monk, “Ruby My Dear,” Wes Montgomery’s “West Coast Blues,” and the Beatles. These days,” Meurkens explains, “the idea of staying with just one sort of music is a thing of the past.” Misha Tsiganov’s Russian roots surface on three tracks. “Lady Bear’s Lullaby,” by Evgeny Krylatov, is very popular in Russia. “Everyone in Russia can whistle this song,” Tsiganov explains. “It’s from a famous cartoon, Umka. Krylatov is one of my favorite composers, as well.” Also a major influence on the music of Tsiganov is Alexander Nikolayevich Scriabin, the Russian composer and pianist who passed prematurely at the age of 43. Misha has arranged a Scriabin etude for this recording, and written “Scriabin,” in tribute. The haunting lyricism of this composition, provides the perfect vehicle for the harmonica/piano duet. As for the future, Hendrik Meurkens and Misha Tsiganov will keep playing together because for Tsiganov “Jazz is freedom. It allows me to play anything.”
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Beneficial cover crops could contribute to climate change New research says tall, leafy cover crops could reduce snow reflectivity and trap solar heat. Enrique Saenz BLOOMINGTON, Indiana – Every winter, farmers in Indiana and the rest of the Midwest are encouraged to plant cover crops as a way to keep their land fertile, keep weeds away and help control pests. But new research indicates certain cover crops could have a previously undiscovered effect on winter temperatures. Scientists at the National Center for Atmospheric Research say farmers who decide to plant tall, leafy crops could warm the surface in their growing region by nearly 5.5 degrees. That warming could provide unforeseen consequences on areas already being affected by climate change. Danica Lombardozzi, project scientist at NCAR, led the team that made the discovery. They looked at several computer models simulating different levels of cover crop planting. “Cover crops are planted in between growing seasons for harvest crops. They are beneficial in a variety of ways,” Lombardozzi said. “They are helpful for erosion control and can reduce compaction. Some studies suggest that they can help with nutrient retention. So, there's a whole suite of localized benefits.” Farmers in Indiana use cover crops on at least 1.1 million acres of their land every year. Farmers in Indiana use at least 1.1 million acres of their land for cover crops every year. Cover crop benefits depend on what type of crop is planted. To prevent soil erosion, scientists have found that barley, cereal rye, sorghum-sudangrass and cowpea work best. The best crops for building up soil are cereal rye, sorghum-sudangrass, sweetclovers and woollypod vetch. Farmers have found that oats, cereal rye, buckwheat, radishes, berseem clover, cowpeas, subterranean clovers and woollypod vetch are efficient at fighting weed growth. Lombardozzi’s model simulations compared four different cover crop scenarios in snowy fields. In one, no cover crops were planted. Two other scenarios looked at short cover crops. The final scenario looked at tall, leafy cover crops. Lombardozzi says models suggested that the surface temperature on fields with short cover crops did not significantly increase, but fields with tall, leafy crops did show a significant increase in temperature. The researchers found that crops that poke out of the snow reduce the reflectivity of the surface, preventing snow from bouncing solar heat back into space. Taller, leafier crops absorb the heat and warm the surface. “That’s where we saw the temperature increase 5.5 degrees Fahrenheit, which is about 3 degrees Celsius,” Lombardozzi said “And so that sort of is what helps to lead me to this conclusion that when the cover crops are taller, they're going to have more of an impact in these regions where there's variable snowpack. When cover crops could stick up above the snow, they can cause temperature changes.” Researchers looked at model simulations of several cover crop scenarios to determine changes in surface temperature. Although many researchers have studied how cover crops affect soil health, erosion and other factors on the ground, Lombardozzi’s study is the first to study how cover crops affect temperature. “As with all scientific research, there is some variability in the magnitude of these responses, and it depends on a lot of environmental factors and a lot of management factors,” Lombardozzi said. Lombardozzi says she wants to encourage research in cover crop surface temperatures to get a more robust sense of what those impacts are. Climate change is expected to raise worldwide temperatures by up to 2 degrees Celsius between 2030 and 2052. Scientists from the Purdue Climate Change Research Center have researched how climate change will affect agriculture in the state of Indiana. They found that warming due to climate change reduced corn yields during the summer and reduced the number of days suitable for spring fieldwork. Warming temperatures due to climate change also caused plants to flower before frost damage risk ended, decreased forage quality for livestock and poultry, and resulted in an increase in weeds, pests and disease pressure. Higher temperatures due to cover crops could amplify the effects of climate change. Lombardozzi says there is no question that cover crops are beneficial, and she hopes her research encourages farmers and other stakeholders to figure out how to use cover crops in a way that will mitigate its effect on an already changing climate. “I think that there’s a lot of nuance involved in this kind of work, and I do think they are important and can have a big climate impact. But we need to think what that is and how to best manage that,” Lombardozzi said. “It’s completely possible to get all the benefits of cover crops and also not be contributing to climate change at the same time.” More in Agriculture USDA gathering data to evaluate agriculture economy Increased winter coyote numbers not cause for alarm, DNR says A new, natural biodegradable spray can help protect crops Small Farms and Community Markets Create Space for Revitalization DNR announces changes to Lake Michigan fish stocking Mosquito-killing pesticide may also harm bee population Cover crops are extremely beneficial in a variety of ways, but new research indicates that tall, leafy crops could warm surface temperatures by up to 5.5 degrees Fahrenheit. Dr. Danica Lombardozzi, project scientist for the National Center for Atmospheric Research, found that tall, leafy crops reduce the reflectivity of snow and absorb solar heat.
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News & Information http://info.owt.com Local & Regional Events PC/Windows Cougars Sports Husky Sports Regional Sports Senior Health & Living Apple PC/Windows Linux Cloud Computing Search Engines Security Web Development 01/22/2020 PC World Latest News Microsoft begins bringing in developers to build its dual-screen future, including Windows 10X Over the next few weeks, Microsoft will begin asking developers to start building apps for the dual-screen future, including the Surface Duo Android phone and the Surface Neo PC that will run Windows 10X, the company's next-generation operating system. Microsoft said Wednesday that it will begin providing access to a pre-release version of the Windows SDK through its normal Windows Insider builds. Specifically, on February 11, Microsoft will drop the Microsoft Emulator, a HyperV development platform that will allow app developers to begin porting their UWP and Win32 apps to Windows 10X. To read this article in full, please click here Microsoft's Office 365 for enterprises will switch Chrome search to Bing, unless you do this In what seems like a broad case of overreaching, an upcoming version of Microsoft’s Office 365 for enterprises will automatically switch Google Chrome’s search engine to Bing. And Firefox is next on the list. Yes, Google Chrome. Yes, Bing. Microsoft says it’s doing so to enable Microsoft Search, which essentially evolves the Bing search engine into a way to delve through your corporate files and other information. But still, altering another company’s search engine to do so? (We’ve reached out to Google for comment, but the company hadn’t responded by press time. ) 01/22/2020 ZDNet Microsoft Microsoft is starting to roll out developer kits and emulators for both Android and 10X developers who want to build for coming dual-screen devices, starting with its own. Shop carefully: Some Radeon RX 5600 XT graphics cards are much faster than others AMD’s $279 Radeon RX 5600 XT launched this week, and it goes toe-to-toe with Nvidia’s powerful $350 GeForce RTX 2060, nearly matching even AMD’s own $350 Radeon RX 5700 in several games. Sometimes. Other times, it’s merely an okay alternative to the $279 GeForce GTX 1660 Ti, which itself was effectively rendered obsolete by the launch of the $230 GeForce GTX 1660 Super last fall. Talk about Jekyll and Hyde. It all depends on which custom model you buy, and whether that card has the correct software preinstalled. Sapphire Pulse Radeon RX 5600 XT review: Punching above its class With the launch of the $279 Radeon RX 5600 XT, AMD’s finishing off the mainstream push for its cutting-edge “Navi” architecture by aiming for PC gaming’s sweet spot, the no-compromises 1080p arena currently dominated by Nvidia’s trio of GeForce GTX 1660 graphics cards. It more than gets the job done—especially if you get the right overclocked model, equipped with a supercharged BIOS. Yes, the Radeon RX 5600 XT can be much faster than AMD originally claimed, but you need to jump through some hoops to achieve those speeds if you’re an early buyer, adding a regrettable layer of confusion. In the default configuration announced at CES 2020, the card does a solid job of matching up with Nvidia’s identically priced $279 GeForce GTX 1660 Ti. It’s good! But mere days before the card’s launch, AMD sent us a new BIOS for the custom $289 Sapphire Pulse Radeon RX 5600 XT on our test bench. This BIOS pushed the power limits to new levels, which allowed Sapphire to crank up the overclock on the GPU and the already blazing-fast GDDR6 memory. How to use, modify, and create templates in Word In Microsoft Word, templates are pre-designed documents that you or someone else (such as Microsoft) creates to use as a pattern for a project. The template could be for a business card, brochure, resume, presentation...the list goes on. Regardless of the purpose, templates provide the design consistency that any organization (or individual) needs to look professional. (You can also find templates for Excel, PowerPoint, and other applications, but in this article we’re focusing on Microsoft Word.) The template contains a specific layout, style, design and, sometimes, fields and text that are common to every use of that template. Some templates are so complete (such as business cards), you only have to change the individual’s name, phone number, and email address. Others, such as business reports or brochures, could require that everything is changed except the layout and design. 01/22/2020 InfoWorld Insider How to keep bias out of your AI models Bias in artificial intelligence (AI) is hugely controversial these days. From image classifiers that label people’s faces improperly to hiring bots that discriminate against women when screening candidates for a job, AI seems to inherit the worst of human practices when trying to automatically replicate them. The risk is that we will use AI to create an army of racist, sexist, foul-mouthed bots that will then come back to haunt us. This is an ethical dilemma. If AI is inherently biased, isn’t it dangerous to rely on it? Will we end up shaping our worst future? (Insider Story) RCA Ultra-Thin Multi-Directional Amplified Indoor Antenna review: Good performance for the price This inexpensive TV antenna does a good job pulling in strong signals, but you might be happier paying a little more for higher performance. Samsung Galaxy S20 preview: This one goes past 11 with more screen, more cameras, more everything In just about a month, Samsung will take the wraps off the new Galaxy S phone, the first premium Android phone of 2020. It’s shaping up to be a great one. Not only will it bring the latest processor, oodles of RAM, and tons of storage, but it’s also expected to make a major leap where it counts: the camera and display. It’s so big, in fact, it’ll likely get a new name. A whole bunch of recent rumors and leaks (including the image at the top of this article) are claiming that Samsung is going to switch to whole numbers for the next Galaxy S phone and jump all the way to the Galaxy S20 (so for the sake of simplicity, that’s what we’ll call it here). This is all likely more marketing than magnitude, but Samsung’s new phone may still be worthy of a ten-fold jump in numbering. Here’s everything we know so far: The best indoor air-quality monitors: Identify the pollutants that can compromise your health and comfort Whether you suffer from allergies or asthma or just want to optimize your indoor environment, these devices will give you insight into the air you're breathing. Best TV antennas for cord cutters 2020: Tested for real-world signal strength Ready to cut the cord? You’ll need a quality antenna to pick up digital broadcasts. Here are our recommendations for best indoor and outdoor TV antennas. Sonos will stop issuing software updates for 'legacy' speakers and devices in May You’ll still be able to keep using older Sonos devices, but they’ll gradually lose functionality once the software updates stop. Watch The Full Nerd talk about the RX 5600 XT review live! Join The Full Nerd gang as they talk about the latest PC hardware topics. In today's show we go over the recent price drops of Nvidia RTX 2060 GPUs and Brad's review of AMD's Radeon RTX 5600 XT. As always we will be answering your live questions so speak up in the chat. If YouTube is not your thing you can also watch us on Twitch, Facebook, and Twitter. PC sales expected to fall after Windows 10 sales bump ends Although analyst firms recently predicted that PC sales for 2019 would show the first signs of growth in nearly a decade, Gartner threw cold water on those findings on Tuesday: After the Windows 7 to Windows 10 migration ends, PC sales will decline once again. On the other hand, global device sales—PCs, tablets, and smartphones—should continue to grow slightly by 0.9 percent in 2020, the firm said. Of note, too, is what Gartner predicts about 5G smartphone penetration: an estimated 12 percent of smartphone shipments in 2020, growing to 43 percent in 2022. Microsoft makes performance, speed optimizations to ONNX machine-learning runtime available to developers Microsoft is making new additions to the open-sourced ONNX Runtime to provide developers with access to advances it has made to deep-learning models used for natural-language processing. Noon Lighting System review: It’s the very best smart switch for your home, and it’s priced accordingly The ability to create scenes using your room’s lighting is positively magical. Puma Smartwatch review: A smartwatch that’s best when the smart stuff is turned off As soon as I took the Puma Smartwatch out of the box, I wanted to like it. Unlike the sea of bulky, all-black Wear OS entries of late, the Puma Smartwatch is lightweight and sporty, with a slimming aesthetic and minimal single-button design. Add to that Puma's fitness pedigree, Qualcomm’s newest Wear 3100 processor, and built-in GPS, and I had high hopes that I was strapping a rare Wear OS winner to my wrist. Michael Simon/IDG The single-button design eliminates some of the confusion from the Fossil Sport's trio of buttons. Understanding Azure Container Registry When you get to the end of a devops build pipeline you’re left with a set of artifacts: binaries, configuration files, Web pages, even virtual machines and containers. They’re the components that go together to construct a modern application. Wrapping as many of those components as possible into a container makes a lot of sense, giving you a simpler deployment model. But that leaves a new set of questions: How do you manage those containers and how do you deploy them across a global-scale cloud application? Services such as GitHub offer private and public registries for your build artifacts, using open standards and open source code. Azure has done the same, using the open source Docker Registry 2.0 as the basis for its own container registry, compliant with Open Container Initiative. It’s not intended to be only for containers; with the increasing importance of Kubernetes-based cloud-native applications, it’s meant to be a one-stop repository for all your OCI-compliant build artifacts. That now includes Helm charts, so you can use Azure’s Container Registry (ACR) as the deployment hub for your applications, using Helm 3.0 for delivery to Kubernetes instances. Kwikset Halo smart deadbolt review: Wi-Fi in, attractive design out Kwikset’s smart lock gains in connectivity, but loses out in the looks department. Will virtual reality finally break out in 2020? Maybe this will be the year virtual reality goes mainstream. If we say it enough times we’ll be right eventually, yeah? But it really does feel like 2020 might be the year. Four years into consumer virtual reality, I finally feel excited again. The hardware is great, and cheaper than ever before. The games are promising, albeit few. And there’s a sense that maybe the “We need software to sell hardware to make developing software worthwhile” vicious cycle has finally been overcome. Maybe. I could be wrong. I certainly hate to get excited about virtual reality’s prospects in 2020, in a “Fool me twice” sort-of way. I’ve had my heart broken by VR before. And yet… Amarey A980 robot vacuum review: Pet hair is no match for this super sucker This inexpensive mapping robot vacuum is a fantastic option for animal owners. Best robot vacuums: We name the most effective cleaners Vacuuming is one of the most hated household chores. Here are your best choices for outsourcing it to some automated help. 6 great new Python features you don’t want to miss Any programming language that fails to add new functionality over time has stopped being a technology with a future and become a technology of the past. Python 3 continues to move forward with the addition of significant new features, though it’s difficult to keep up with them when you’re preoccupied with the nitty-gritty of your development work. Here are six of the newest features in the last few versions of Python 3 that not only deserve your attention, but probably a place in your software projects. [ Also on InfoWorld: 24 Python libraries for every Python developer ] F-strings The Zen of Python states that there should be one obvious way to do things. String formatting in Python deviates greatly from this rule, because there is a slew of ways to do it. But the “f-string” format, unveiled in Python 3.6, is both the fastest and among the most convenient. Nevertheless, many Python programmers, who learned string formatting on earlier versions of Python, don’t take advantage of them. How to use projections in C# Projection is an operation that transforms the results of a query. You can use projection to transform an object into a new form that has only those properties needed in your application. In this article, we’ll look at how we can work with projections in C#. To work with the code examples provided in this article, you should have Visual Studio 2019 installed in your system. If you don’t already have a copy, you can download Visual Studio 2019 here. [ Also on InfoWorld: Visual Studio Code vs. Visual Studio: How to choose ] Create a console application project in Visual Studio First off, let’s create a .NET Core console application project in Visual Studio. Assuming Visual Studio 2019 is installed in your system, follow the steps outlined below to create a new .NET Core Console Application project in Visual Studio. Microsoft didn't win the PC turf war. Sony never showed up. This week, Kotaku reported that PlayStation 4 exclusive Horizon: Zero Dawn may come to the PC in the near future. And let me first say, it’s interesting this became big news because when Quantic Dream announced that Detroit: Become Human was coming to PC last year—another Sony-published game—it didn’t inspire nearly the same levels of pontificating about Sony’s intentions for the PC. Of course, people generally praised Horizon: Zero Dawn and disliked Detroit. Maybe that’s the only difference, that Horizon is seen as one of Sony’s “prestige” games. Best antivirus: Keep your Windows PC safe from spyware, Trojans, malware, and more Antivirus software is nearly as crucial as a PC’s operating system. Even if you’re well aware of potential threats and practice extreme caution, some threats just can’t be prevented without the extra help of an AV program—or a full antivirus suite. You could, for example, visit a website that unintentionally displays malicious ads. Or accidentally click on a phishing email (it happens!). Or get stung by a zero-day threat, where an undisclosed bug in Windows, your browser, or an installed program gives hackers entry to your system. We’re not suggesting that PC security software is fool-proof. Antivirus software often can’t do much to stop zero-day exploits, for example. But it can detect when the undisclosed vulnerability is used to install other nasty bits, like ransomware, on your machine. Anyone who actively uses email, clicks on links, and downloads programs will benefit from an antivirus suite. JDK 14: The new features in Java 14 Java Development Kit (JDK) 14 has moved to a second rampdown phase, with the overall feature set now frozen. The planned upgrade to standard Java will feature new capabilities such as JDK Flight Recorder event streaming, pattern matching, and switch expressions. [ Also on InfoWorld: 10 software development cults to join | Keep up with hot topics in software development with InfoWorld’s App Dev Report newsletter ] JDK 14 is scheduled for a production release on March 17, 2020, following the six-month release cadence set for Java. The features targeted to JDK 14 include: Microsoft to add new Chief Strategy and Digital Officers to its executive roster It's the start of 2020, so let the Microsoft executive shuffles and reorgs officially begin. Microsoft touts new cell-connected, ARM-based Windows 10 PCs for the education market Ahead of next week's Bett UK education conference, Microsoft is showcasing new and refreshed Windows 10 PCs.. Making AI’s arcane neural networks accessible We’re only a few weeks into the new year, but already we’re seeing signs that automated machine learning modeling, sometimes known as autoML, is rising to a new plateau of sophistication. Specifically, it appears that a promising autoML approach known as “neural architecture search” will soon become part of data scientists’ core toolkits. This refers to tools and methodologies for automating creation of optimized architectures for convolutional, recurrent, and other neural network architectures at the heart of AI’s machine learning models. CockroachDB review: Distributed SQL shifts into high gear When I reviewed CockroachDB early in 2018, I found that the distributed SQL database, built on top of a transactional and consistent key-value store, was designed to survive disk, machine, rack, and even data center failures with minimal latency disruption and no manual intervention. That is all still true. At the time, CockroachDB had three large deficits, in my opinion: Limited optimization of SQL JOIN queries, no fully managed service, and no support for JSON or Protobuf data types. I’m happy to report that all of these lacks have since been remedied. JOINs now use a cost-based optimizer, the CockroachCloud is in beta, and a JSONB data type has been implemented. Microsoft kicks off staged rollout of Chromium-based Edge: What to expect Microsoft is making its new Chromium-based Edge browser available for manual download starting January 15. Here's what happens next in its migration plan. 6 Git mistakes you will make — and how to fix them A big reason developers use a source control system like Git is to avoid disasters. If you do something as simple as mistakenly delete a file, or you discover that the changes you’ve made to a dozen files were all ill-advised, you can undo what you’ve done with little hassle. Some Git mistakes are more intimidating and difficult to reverse, even for experienced Git users. But with a little care — and provided you don’t panic — you can roll back from some of the worst Git disasters known to programmers. [ Also on InfoWorld: 27 essential tips for Git and GitHub users ] Here is a list of several of the bigger Git boo-boos, along with tips for backing out of them and preventing some of them. The further you go down the list, the bigger the disasters get. Version control: Track the who, what, and when of software changes You could say that the opposite of version control—from the perspective of internal software development—is chaos. If development teams don’t manage various versions of their work, things can quickly spiral out of control. Version control software, a component of software configuration management, helps teams manage changes to documents, programs, websites, and other development initiatives. Given the fact that so many development efforts rely on teams working on the same files at the same time, a lack of version control could create serious problems. [ Also on InfoWorld: Git tutorial: Get started with Git version control ] When multiple teams design, develop, and deploy applications, often more than one version of the same software is deployed at different sites, and developers work on updates simultaneously. Some features—and in many cases some bugs—might be present in only certain versions of the software. Understanding Azure Arc One of the more interesting announcements at Microsoft’s 2019 Ignite conference was Azure Arc, a new management tool for hybrid cloud application infrastructures. Building on Azure concepts, Arc is designed to allow you to manage on-premises resources from the Azure Portal, deploying policies and services to virtual machines and Kubernetes. It also includes containerized versions of Azure’s SQL Database and PostgreSQL Hyperscale to give your Kubernetes-based hybrid applications Azure-consistent data options. Here's what will happen to your Windows 7 PC on January 15, 2020 Microsoft is ready to push a full-screen warning to Windows 7 users who are still running the OS after January 14. The nag-screen payload is part of the December 10 Patch Tuesday monthly rollup. How to format response data in ASP.NET Core ASP.NET Core provides excellent support for formatting data, whether it’s output data or data in the request body. When working in ASP.NET Core, your API methods will typically return JSON data, but you can also return data in formats other than JSON such as XML. For example, a call to /api/default.json should return data from the API method in JSON format, whereas a call to /api/default.xml should return the data in XML format. In this article, we’ll look at how we can control the format in which data will be returned from ASP.NET Core based on the extension of the URL. [ Also on InfoWorld: Microsoft developer tools and technologies to explore in 2020 ] Microsoft is planning to phase out the Windows 10 Store for Business Microsoft is going to deprecate the Windows Store for Business and Store for Education, my contacts say, as the company works to undo past Windows 10 app-distribution mistakes. Microsoft to add new firstline-worker features, like 'Walkie Talkie' voice calls, to Teams Microsoft is continuing its pursuit of deskless, 'firstline workers' with several new features coming to its Teams group-chat application in the coming months. Microsoft's new Dynamics 365 Commerce app to be available February 3 Microsoft is ready to replace its Dynamics 365 Retail offering with the Dynamics 365 Commerce app, starting February 3, and will be showing off that app at NRF next week. Why data-driven businesses need a data catalog Relational databases, data lakes, and NoSQL data stores are powerful at inserting, updating, querying, searching, and processing data. But the ironic aspect of working with data management platforms is they usually don’t provide robust tools or user interfaces to share what’s inside them. They are more like data vaults. You know there’s valuable data inside, but you have no easy way to assess it from the outside. The business challenge is dealing with a multitude of data vaults: multiple enterprise databases, smaller data stores, data centers, clouds, applications, BI tools, APIs, spreadsheets, and open data sources. [ Also on InfoWorld: How to choose the right database for your application ] Sure, you can query a relational database’s metadata for a list of tables, stored procedures, indexes, and other database objects to get a directory. But that is a time-consuming approach that requires technical expertise and only produces a basic listing from a single data source. New Windows 10 Fast Ring test build adds new Task Manager, Notification options Microsoft has rolled out a new Windows 10 feature update test build, No. 19541, to Fast Ring Insiders. It includes a couple of minor option changes which may or may not make it into some future Windows 10 release. How to use the Flyweight design pattern in C# Design patterns help us solve design problems often encountered in software development and reduce the complexities in our code. The Gang of Four design patterns fall into three categories: creational, structural, and behavioral. The Flyweight design pattern falls in the structural category. The Flyweight pattern helps reduce memory consumption when working with many similar objects at the same time. This article examines how we can work with the Flyweight design pattern in C#. [ Also on InfoWorld: 10 bad programming habits we secretly love ] Call it “serverless,” call it “event-driven compute,” or call it “functions as a service (FaaS),” the idea is the same: dynamically allocate resources to run individual functions, essentially microservices, that are invoked in response to events. Serverless compute platforms allow application developers to focus on the app, not the underlying infrastructure and all of its management details. Most cloud providers offer some kind of serverless platform, but you can build one yourself with only two ingredients. One is Kubernetes, the container orchestration system that has become a standard platform for building componentized, resilient applications. The second is any of a number of systems used to build serverless application patterns in Kubernetes. Get started with Azure Bastion As the public cloud matures, it’s becoming clear that we need a new tier of systems and application management tools. Clouds, whether public, private, or hybrid, depend on one thing: the abstraction of the application layer away from the underlying physical infrastructure. Applications don’t need to consider the underlying physical hardware anymore; all that’s necessary is either a managed PaaS environment or an application-specific virtual infrastructure. That change has already happened, and those new management tools are starting to arrive. Alongside basic management, they deliver a new set of questions: Who are they for and how do we build them into our workflows? They’re important issues, which seem to suggest a new role in our devops teams. It’s one we don’t have a name for yet, a role that lies between the new infrastructure operators and the applications teams, one that’s responsible for managing the PaaS and the virtual infrastructure, more closely aligned with the applications than traditional system administrators. Mitigating the risks of the AI black box Enterprises are placing their highest hopes on machine learning. However machine learning, which sits at the heart of AI (artificial intelligence), is also starting to unnerve many enterprise legal and security professionals. One of the biggest concerns around AI is that complex ML-based models often operate as “black boxes.” This means the models—especially “deep learning” models composed of artificial neural networks—may be so complex and arcane that they obscure how they actually drive automated inferencing. Just as worrisome, ML-based applications may inadvertently obfuscate responsibility for any biases and other adverse consequences that their automated decisions may produce. 5 Microsoft developer tools and technologies to explore in 2020 At the end of 2019, it’s worth looking ahead as you put together your application development plans and your technology roadmaps. The last few years have delivered a lot of change for anyone building on Microsoft’s many platforms, and that pace isn’t slowing down. What should you be looking at in 2020, and why? Here are five options for Windows, for Azure, and beyond. They’re not the only ones, but they should start you on a road to a more modern set of development platforms and tools. [ Also on InfoWorld: .NET Framework APIs that won’t be coming to .NET 5.0 ] Start the transition to .NET 5 Perhaps the biggest challenge facing anyone building .NET code is the change from the aging .NET Framework to .NET Core with the release of .NET 5 towards the end of 2020. Bringing together the two strands of .NET makes sense, even if it does require losing some older APIs. Microsoft has put out a list of what will and won’t make the transition on the .NET GitHub repository. Some of the missing APIs will shift to community implementations, while others gain more modern alternatives. Azure founders reflect on Microsoft's first decade as a public cloud vendor Microsoft's Yousef Khalidi and Hoi Vo, key members of the original Azure 'dream team,' look back on the ups, downs and lessons learned since Microsoft began working on its Azure public cloud. The 2010s: Microsoft, the cloud company Microsoft made substantial headway in its goal to morph from the Windows company to a cloud company over the past decade. Artificial intelligence predictions for 2020 Artificial intelligence (AI) has become integral to practically every segment of the technology industry. It’s having an impact on applications, development tools, computing platforms, database management systems, middleware, management and monitoring tools—almost everything in IT. AI is even being used to improve AI. What changes in core AI uses, tools, techniques, platforms, and standards are in store for the coming year? Here is what we’re likely to see in 2020. Provided by One World Telecommunications, Inc.
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For Authors: + Before You Begin Policies on Plagiarism Paper Categories Criteria for Acceptance Submission Charges Paper Revision Time Frame English Language Editing Services ScholarOne Submission + Initial Review Manuscript Preparation Single PDF File Authors and Co-Authors Section Headings Math Notation Units and Abbreviations Additional Formatting Resources ScholarOne Manuscript Central Paper Upload + Final Submission and Payment Paper Accepted Payment for Final Submission IEEE Copyright Form ScholarOne Author Guide Home > Authors > Before Starting The Canadian Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering is committed to the timely publication of high-quality papers that advance the state of the art in Electrical and Computer Engineering research. The journal publishes theoretical research presenting new techniques, concepts, or analyses and applied contributions reporting on experiences and experiments with actual systems. PAPERS SUBMITTED TO CJECE ARE NOT TO BE SUBMITTED TO ANY OTHER JOURNAL/PUBLISHER UNTIL A FINAL DECISION IS MADE. PAPERS SUBMITTED WILL BE VERIFIED WITH A NUMBER OF DETECTION TOOLS SUCH AS CrossCheck™ Powered by iThenticate Submission of previously published work or works under review at a different journal is strictly forbidden and could attract severe penalties.This is the act of double submission and a serious departure from honesty under IEEE plagiarism guidelines followed by the CJECE editorial board. Papers that have been previously published fully or in part in another journal or book will not be considered for publication in CJECE. In case a submission contains material which has been previously published in any form, Authors must include specific information identifying such prior publication(s) together with a link to the publication(s), as well as a brief explanation of the differences between the prior publication(s) and the present submission. 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Linux Gui Builder Red Hat® Enterprise Linux® is the world’s leading enterprise Linux platform. Linux does not have the goal of being the most popular and widespread OS on the planet. " It is called a "data display control" because it queries a MySQL database table and displays the resulting rows in tabular format. This software has the ability to generate Java code for your from itself, or you are given an option to use the open source runtime library to load Jform. Additionally, most desktop environments include a set of integrated applications and utilities. Fortunately, there are a lot of Python GUI options: The Python wiki on GUI programming lists over 30 cross-platform frameworks, as well as Pyjamas, a tool for cross-browser Web development based on a port of the Google Web Toolkit. Netbeans is built on a plugin architecture, and it has respectable third-party vendor support. Cscope is a developer's tool for browsing C programming code. It will help you in your journey of discovery with Linux. It makes communication between a human and a digital product. 'LAPP', 'MAPP' and 'WAPP' (Linux/Mac/Windows + Apache + PHP + PostgreSQL) stacks are available from BitNami. It is under development since 1998. Over 100,000 developers and designers are more productive with Tower - the most powerful Git client for Mac and Windows. Management of releases. It works under Linux, Windows and Mac OS. Note that I sign my released source code tarballs with the same GPG key I use for email and my Debian/Ubuntu APT repositories: sub-key ID 0x74AF00AD F2E32C85 of key ID 0x0F92290A 445B9007. On Unix-like systems, there is no reason to build separate GUI and non-GUI versions. ethOS Mining OS. The command line is a powerful tool for any Linux user, but there are times when a GUI can also be quite useful, particularly when it comes to managing firewalls. Introduction. For most Unix systems, you must download and compile the source code. The GUI builders are toolkit specific. Fortunately, Linux has plenty of GUI tools that can help you avoid the command line (although every serious sysadmin should become familiar with the commands). How to build the Dropbox installer for Linux from source The Dropbox installation package source has been released to the public via a GPL license. A graphical user interface builder (or GUI builder), also known as GUI designer, is a software development tool that simplifies the creation of GUIs by allowing the designer to arrange graphical control elements (often called widgets) using a drag-and-drop WYSIWYG editor. 3-alpha The Java Gui Builder program is designed to decouple the GUI building code from the rest of the application code, without hand-writing code. Preparing CMake's directory. cd examples mkdir build cd build cmake. Linux GUI Programming I have mostly done Windows GUI programming with C#, and if I want to program something in Linux it'll be terminal programs in C#, C++ (still new with the language) or Python. The Unity Editor is a creative hub for 3D artists, 2D artists, designers and developers. "Look" refers to the appearance of GUI widgets (more formally, JComponents) and "feel" refers to the way the widgets behave. about; news; get started; download; documentation; community; site map. Luckily, both UNIX and Linux ships with plenty of tools to write beautiful GUI scripts. This programme works perfectly in Linux with Python 2. Learn about and download the latest ColdFusion product updates providing bug-fixes, security fixes, platform additions, and minor feature enhancements. mhatch writes: Integrated Computer Solutions, Inc. One other option for remote GUI management of linux servers is to use X forwarding over an SSH connection. It integrates the two primary tasks of app building―laying out the visual components and programming app behavior―and allows you to quickly move between visual design in the canvas and code development in an integrated version of the MATLAB Editor. To manage the rulesets we currently use fwbuilder to manage the firewalls and the relations between the different firewalls. Firewall Builder is a GUI firewall configuration and management tool that supports iptables (netfilter), ipfilter, pf, ipfw, Cisco PIX (FWSM, ASA) and Cisco routers extended access lists. GNOME 3 can be selected when installing the latest version of openSUSE. Building the OpenVPN installer bundle. Download for Linux and Unix. xml file are defined as replaceable properties, so you can override their values from the command line. If it seems to work, then try some simple changes to the GUI. What is the easiest way to make Linux C++ GUI apps? I'm using GNOME and ubuntu 8. Qt Creator provides support for building and running Qt applications for desktop environments (Windows, Linux, FreeBSD and Mac OS), mobile devices ( Android, BlackBerry, iOS, Maemo, and MeeGo) and embedded Linux devices. xml file's source code. qt designer python. Make gets its knowledge of how to build your program from a file called the makefile, which lists each of the non-source files and how to compute it from other files. Products The easiest way is to use an GUI GUI builder. It consists of several. 2 cross-platform framework it. Visual Tcl is a freely-available, high-quality application development environment for UNIX, Windows, Macintosh and AS400 platforms. I want to make GUI programs for Linux because I want to help grow desktop applications on Linux. MySQL GUI Tools for Ubuntu 18. This is the first video in a set of three on Qt application development on the Beaglebone or any other embedded Linux device. The LVM chapter of the Storage Administration Guide provides step-by-step instructions for configuring an LVM logical volume using this utility. Glade is a graphical user interface (GUI) builder for creating your own applications using the GTK+ (GIMP ToolKit) and Gnome toolkits. You can check balance of your SIM card, send or receive SMS messages, control mobile traffic consumption and more using Modem Manager GUI. To keep the GUI simple not all combinations of settings can be handled from the GUI, but the most common can. Once upon a time (circa 1995), there was a clean, well-defined split between graphical applications and the web. Old dsource. For minimal setup, please check the followings: 1 DISPLAY environment variable export DISPLAY=127. Koala is a GUI application for Less, Sass, Compass and CoffeeScript compilation, to help web developers to use them more efficiently. Some tasks are best suited to a GUI, word processing and video editing are great examples. It is a Linux system, that uses the minimal desktop LXDE/LXQT, and a selection of light applications. Bluefish is an open source development project, released under the GNU GPL licence. It is useful also to unset BUILD_EXAMPLES, BUILD_TESTS, BUILD_PERF_TESTS - as they all will be statically linked with OpenCV and can take a lot of memory. This is the first video in a set of three on Qt application development on the Beaglebone or any other embedded Linux device. Cross-platform Java executable wrapper. Additional Software Software Catalogue. Whether you want to deploy an OpenStack cloud, a Kubernetes cluster or a 50,000-node render farm, Ubuntu Server delivers the best value scale-out performance available. How to Install GNOME Shell Extensions Using GUI & Command Line Interface January 16, 2018 Updated November 1, 2018 By Jamie Arthur LINUX HOWTO GNOME Shell extensions are small and lightweight pieces of codes that enhance GNOME desktop's functionality and improves the user experience. 2, you must download yasm (1. 04 or Debian Linux 9. Many desktop Linux distros actually come preloaded with a firewall GUI, some of which are discussed here, but you could use a different one if you'd like. The experts behind Embedded Wizard are UI developers with many years' experience under their belts, and as such we offer you a range of specialized services. where you have masses of GUI development facilities essentially built in to the language). 0+ includes the Java Swing GUI builder Swing GUI builder (formerly Matisse) (Netbeans Gui building tutorial) Installing Borland JBuilder 9 Enterprise on Linux: UML design, edit, test Java IDE tool. See here for burning instructions. To create content you have to register first. TortoiseSVN is an Apache ™ Subversion (SVN) ® client, implemented as a Windows shell extension. 20) Read Documentation. That is, through the middle of the 1990s, you could not go onto online discussion media without encountering some dumbasses arguing that the Linux operating system was useless for developers and end-users alike, and one of the very most common talking points was the allegation that there were 'no IDEs for Linux'. This report in Listing 1 is a simple tabular report that, for lack of a better term, will be called a "data display control. py into a standalone executable and a hosted installer. 3-alpha Advertisement The Java Gui Builder program is designed to decouple the GUI building code from the rest of the application code, without hand-writing code. His other occupations include being a writer, journalist, web designer, computer graphics artist and programmer. Introduction. Ubuntu Linux Firewall. GUI DESIGNER. linux-magazin. It primarily targets KVM VMs, but also manages Xen and LXC (linux containers). Settings now open in a new window, with the default and user settings side-by-side Hovering over a symbol will show a popup indicating where it's defined. Web Builder is a WYSIWYG (What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get) program used to create web pages. It can generate Python, C++, Perl, Lisp and XRC (wxWidgets' XML resources) code. 04, but it's not available in Xubuntu 12. It is the successor to DBDesigner 4 from fabFORCE. Our main focus is system containers. JavaFX Scene Builder is a tool which allows GUI to be developed without coding. Creating GUI application is not an expensive task but a task that takes time and patience. Eliminates requirement to code directly in XML. getSource()). You may want to use GNU make as your builder, with your own Makefile (I don't know Windows and I recommend Linux; perhaps some system provided Windows GUI library is usable from Cygwin) Your program will then become event-driven, with the event loop usually provided by the GUI library. Kivy is an open source Python library which is used to create applications on Windows, Linux, MacOS, Android and iOS. In your python program, tell GTK to load the UI definitions. Xlib programming: a short tutorial I haven't found anything very satisfying on the Web as an Xlib tutorial. iRedMail is the right way to build your mail server with open source softwares. You can think of the Poky build system as a reference system for the entire project—a working example of the process in action. wxWidgets Developer Julian Smart created wxWidgets 24 years ago (making it even older than Qt!) and remains a core developer. A GUI (graphical user interface) is a system of interactive components such as icons and other graphical objects that help a user interact with computer software, such as an operating system. Gallery is where you find awesome dashboards. Kivy is a cross-platform GUI library supporting both desktop operating systems (Windows, macOS, Linux) and mobile devices (Android, iOS). We will work through the layout and design of a GUI and add a few Buttons and Text Boxes. 6 and Python 2. 3 (29 ratings) Course Ratings are calculated from individual students’ ratings and a variety of other signals, like age of rating and reliability, to ensure that they reflect course quality fairly and accurately. Forms or Xwt are the big ones. To list all available installation groups on Redhat 7 Linux use: [[email protected] The Linux/Unix and Mac OS X implementations utilize the standard command line executable. The API of CGUI is a set of C-functions, which makes it usable in both C and C++ applications. ::: The iLE88Dj. July 2012 LAB:. These are the canonical release forms of GnuPG. I would like the software to meet these requirements: Open source where I can use the software for commercial projects; Compatible with Windows 10 64bit. Use the WYSIWYG visual designer and layout tools to create simple forms to complex windows; the Java code will be generated for you. It's intuitive and easy to use, since it doesn't require the Subversion command line client to run. Python (with Qt or Gtk) is very much viable for GUI applications, as is C# if you work in a Windows house. GWT is the official open source project for GWT releases 2. So, today In the lab – How to create a custom ESXi 6. Firestarter is a firewall tool for Linux, and uses GNOME. The GNOME Project is a diverse international community which involves hundreds of contributors, many of. Grab yourself a copy of the Qt SDK or if you are on Linux the system-provided copy of Qt and a compiler. If you have any issue registering, please see the "Contact us" section below. It was even featured in twelve movies , including The Matrix Reloaded , Die Hard 4 , Girl With the Dragon Tattoo , and The Bourne Ultimatum. You need a Dataplot executable that is compatible with Tcl/Tk. Building OpenVPN-GUI. #1 How to create a custom Linux GUI (Desktop) from scratch #2 Create a Barebones Linux Desktop GUI without a Display Manager (Even lighter!) Mum Tries To Build Her Own Open Suse Based. Executable versions of GNU Octave for GNU/Linux systems are provided by the individual distributions. lib to the module bochs - change the runtime library for all modules to Multithreaded-DLL (/MD) Compiling with MSVC nmake is not supported yet. Sikuli Project. GUI DESIGNER. QjackCtl is a simple Qt application to control the JACK sound server daemon, specific for the Linux Audio Desktop infrastructure. Most Linux distributions keep their Nmap package relatively current, though a few are way out of date. Glade is a RAD tool to enable quick & easy development of user interfaces for the GTK+ toolkit and the GNOME desktop environment. The builder generates multibrowser code, worked on IE 7, FF and Opera. Many desktop Linux distros actually come preloaded with a firewall GUI, some of which are discussed here, but you could use a different one if you'd like. Download information for the JavaFX Scene Builder samples is also included. Get started with both free!. To open the Designer you must right-click MainWindow from the Solution Pad and select Open. Cygwin comes with an X server, so usually you should compile your GUI applications as X applications to allow better interoperability with other Cygwin GUI applications. When Visual Studio is able to build everything without errors, right-click on the INSTALL project (further down within the "Solution Simgear" solution) and choose Build, which will put the include and lib files in ${CMAKE_INSTALL_PREFIX}. Context-menus direct the user to allowable selections of Tasks, nested Tasks and their respective attributes. Build settings allow the user to switch between build targets, different Qt versions and build configurations. It is a quick drag and drop GUI builder and runtime that is primarily targetted at embedded platforms, but you can very quickly build up an application's UI and then tie in your own custom logic using either Lua extensions or native C/C++ modules. ARM Template Builder GUI As a User, it would be nice to build ARM Templates in a visual way. Page Generator is a Tkinter drag & drop builder For Python. Free Powershell tools, including GUI Designer, Cmdlet Builder and a public repository. It was even featured in twelve movies , including The Matrix Reloaded , Die Hard 4 , Girl With the Dragon Tattoo , and The Bourne Ultimatum. Fedora Server or Ubuntu Server * Install a distro that is command-line-oriented, like Arch. Follow these steps to check your build. It can also convert from a Swing GUI to a SWT GUI and vice-versa. 7, but it shou Stack Exchange Network Stack Exchange network consists of 175 Q&A communities including Stack Overflow , the largest, most trusted online community for developers to learn, share their knowledge, and build their careers. You can load a GUI from Python. Provides an attractive look and feel on X-Window-based UNIX systems (including Linux) which looks quite foreign on Microsoft Windows. Select the C/C++ Build properties and choose the GCC compiler. Another option is to use wxWidgets as your framework and just use Visual Studio as the IDE. July 2012 LAB:. How to Install GNOME Shell Extensions Using GUI & Command Line Interface January 16, 2018 Updated November 1, 2018 By Jamie Arthur LINUX HOWTO GNOME Shell extensions are small and lightweight pieces of codes that enhance GNOME desktop’s functionality and improves the user experience. It's kind of like VNC or RDP but for just a single application. Install DLNA software on a server on your network, and you can easily access photos, videos, and music from any device that has a DLNA client on it. LinuxLive USB Creator is a free and open-source software for Windows. Glade is a RAD tool to enable quick & easy development of user interfaces for the GTK+ toolkit and the GNOME desktop environment. The µGFX-Studio is a desktop application that provides a drag'n'drop interface to quickly assemble a graphical user interface. Save and close the project then reopen the project to make sure it still works. QEMU is a member of Software Freedom Conservancy. Required are Tcl/Tk 8. qpfstmo: HDR Tone Mapping GUI for Linux I have written a GUI interface to Rafał Mantiuk and Grzegorz Krawczyk's collection of tone mapping operators, pfstmo. QtNetwork, that provides a useful set of classes to deal with network communications QtWebkit, the webkit engine, that enable the use of web pages and web apps in a Qt application. FreePBX is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), an open source license. Settings now open in a new window, with the default and user settings side-by-side Hovering over a symbol will show a popup indicating where it's defined. It allows you to download a World Wide Web site from the Internet to a local directory, building recursively all directories, getting HTML, images, and other files from the server to your computer. It is the successor to DBDesigner 4 from fabFORCE. Download Geany 1. So what could I do to create a Raspberry Pi GUI? Python is popular in Pi projects, so I decided to stick with it and find out what GUI toolkits are ready to go. Free Powershell tools, including GUI Designer, Cmdlet Builder and a public repository. It can also convert from a Swing GUI to a SWT GUI and vice-versa. phpDesigner 8 is a fast PHP IDE and PHP editor with built-in HTML5-, CSS3- and JavaScript editors boosted with features to help you create amazing websites. How to Install GNOME Shell Extensions Using GUI & Command Line Interface January 16, 2018 Updated November 1, 2018 By Jamie Arthur LINUX HOWTO GNOME Shell extensions are small and lightweight pieces of codes that enhance GNOME desktop's functionality and improves the user experience. It will help you in your journey of discovery with Linux. Generates xml. Builder widget, this is important in order to import the. SQLLDAP Support, you can now export and import records as update, delete and insert statements. You ladies and gents are probably more interested in Ultimate Edition 6. Then you can either use a FB code generator that forum user tjf has built, or load the XML file at run time using the GtkBuilder class. 6 and Python 2. Virtualmin 6. 0 is the first version of Redis to introduce the new stream data type with consumer groups, sorted sets blocking pop operations, LFU/LRU info in RDB, Cluster manager inside redis-cli, active defragmentation V2, HyperLogLogs improvements and many other improvements. It is the first GUI tool to implement full editing of Windows 7/Vista Boot Configuration Data (BCD) store. In Debian or Mint, build HandBrake from its source, and install it as follows. For more details see the link below. Introduction to Linux * * ". 💡 If you want to develop the easy way with MCUXpesso SDK using a GUI: The MCUXpresso IDE (Eclipse based) runs on Ubuntu (and Windows and Mac) too. In our recent articles we've discussed creating SPF-records to avoid spoofed mails, and the creation and setup for DKIM-signing emails, for a similar purpose. A GUI is considered to be more user-friendly than a text-based command-line interface , such as MS-DOS , or the shell of Unix-like operating systems. Qt itself is written in C++. This is controlled with the show_definitions setting. The query builder was a big plus too. linux-magazin. Fortunately, there are a lot of Python GUI options: The Python wiki on GUI programming lists over 30 cross-platform frameworks, as well as Pyjamas, a tool for cross-browser Web development based on a port of the Google Web Toolkit. All the Tinkerboard OS's looked to me more like compromise solutions to make the board work, rather than real OS's I could trust. It is the first GUI tool to implement full editing of Windows 7/Vista Boot Configuration Data (BCD) store. getSource()). Generate GUI into. QjackCtl is a simple Qt application to control the JACK sound server daemon, specific for the Linux Audio Desktop infrastructure. TurnKey is inspired by a belief in the democratizing power of free software, like science, to promote the progress of a free & humane society. Forms or Xwt are the big ones. License: Scene Builder 11 is licensed under the BSD license. And be sure to check out my favorite GUI VisiCorpVisi On now with a downloadable hard drive image that you can run under MESS 0. Learn about and download the latest ColdFusion product updates providing bug-fixes, security fixes, platform additions, and minor feature enhancements. Visual Tcl is written entirely in Tcl/Tk and generates pure Tcl/Tk code. Windows 10’s Bash shell doesn’t officially support graphical Linux desktop applications. Some of the commands take a long time. Here is how to do this on Debian and Ubuntu. RAID setup General setup. Builder Xcessory to get us there. This GUI Composer application can be used in conjunction with the example available for PGA460 in the Sensor and Actuator Plugin for SimpleLink SDKs. Boot anywhere. linuxcontainers. Containers are therefore widgets or GUI controls that are used to hold and group other widgets such as text boxes, check boxes, radio buttons, et al. The µGFX-Studio is a desktop application that provides a drag'n'drop interface to quickly assemble a graphical user interface. What I'm looking to do is have a Linux GUI as the main OS to run Vsphere Hypervisor which runs other OS's like Plex, Cuberite. 💡 If you want to develop the easy way with MCUXpesso SDK using a GUI: The MCUXpresso IDE (Eclipse based) runs on Ubuntu (and Windows and Mac) too. Building Modem Manager GUI on Linux starts by installing the latest version of Mercurial. Buildroot is a simple, efficient and easy-to-use tool to generate embedded Linux systems through cross-compilation. MySQL Workbench provides data modeling, SQL development, and comprehensive administration tools for server configuration, user administration, backup, and much more. The available settings are: Binary class files. Step 2: Creating the GUI. This tool has a simple interface that enables the creation of 3D environments very quickly. Qt/E is a very sophisticated GUI library, which allows about anything one may desire from GUI in an embedded design. This new Java development tool extends the flagship line of BX builders that lead the market in visual drag-and-drop builders that accelerate successful development and deployment of complex, mission-critical applications. Xlib programming: a short tutorial I haven't found anything very satisfying on the Web as an Xlib tutorial. Building the OpenVPN installer bundle. PEG+ PEG+ has a small footprint, high performance, and event-driven programming model, which make it perfect for today's multi-threaded embedded applications using LCD and video displays and controllers. This GUI Composer application can be used in conjunction with the example available for PGA460 in the Sensor and Actuator Plugin for SimpleLink SDKs. For example, Visual Studio is free on Windows and GCC is free and works well on Mac OS X and Linux systems. For conventions used in this document, see Help:Reading. You can check balance of your SIM card, send or receive SMS messages, control mobile traffic consumption and more using Modem Manager GUI. Supported platforms: Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and Linux. You can follow these steps. It is a stable, multi-user, multi-tasking system for servers, desktops and laptops. Introduction to Linux - A Hands on Guide This guide was created as an overview of the Linux Operating System, geared toward new users as an exploration tour and getting started guide, with exercises at the end of each chapter. Turnkey GNU/Linux is a free Debian based library of system images that pre-integrates and polishes the best free software components into secure, easy to use solutions. A graphical user interface builder (or GUI builder ), also known as GUI designer, is a software development tool that simplifies the creation of GUIs by allowing the designer to arrange graphical control elements (often called widgets) using a drag-and-drop WYSIWYG editor. The Linux Kernel Media Subsystems provide support for devices like webcams, streaming capture and output, analog TV, digital TV, AM/FM radio, Sofware Digital Radio (SDR), remote controllers and encoders/decoders for compressed video formats. com offers free software downloads for Windows, Mac, iOS and Android computers and mobile devices. Define files to deploy by platform and build configuration. You can open this utility by typing system-config-lvm. Some of them are listed below and I will add the others as soon as I can find the URLs. " The Professional GUI Builder for Linux and UNIX. GUI Clients. 3-alpha The Java Gui Builder program is designed to decouple the GUI building code from the rest of the application code, without hand-writing code. It covers a very basic example of how to use Qt Designer with PyQt and Python. Ubuntu-vm-builder is a very powerful tool - to get a more detailed list of its capabilities, use ubuntu-vm-builder --help. - The new CentOS Stream is a rolling-release distro that tracks just ahead of Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) development, positioned as a midstream between Fedora. So what could I do to create a Raspberry Pi GUI? Python is popular in Pi projects, so I decided to stick with it and find out what GUI toolkits are ready to go. You at least need Insider Preview Build 14316. Visual Basic) to interactively create the GUI on a canvas from components (widgets) provided by the toolkits. To get this device working on Linux, a recent XorgX Server (7. Deprecation Notice. I saw committed people who really knew what they were doing, and it gave me a feeling of reliability. LFS is not exactly a tool, like the rest on this list, but you can still use it for the same purpose – to create your own Linux distro (and to learn a lot about Linux as a whole). Install Gnome GUI on CentOS 7 – License Accepted. It primarily targets KVM VMs, but also manages Xen and LXC (linux containers). Before installing, it would be advised to view the FAQ. TEMPLATE describes the type to build. Installation of WPA Supplicant. It is capable of lightweight profiling. It's the only software for now that will receive analogue (FM, AM, sideband) and digital modes such as AP25, FSK and ADS-B. The distribution package contains Arduino 1. Download information for the JavaFX Scene Builder samples is also included. It will help you in your journey of discovery with Linux. They in turn extend the resources in pfstools. Effective GUI. fbs's job was to turn main. For information about how to get help or get involved see the Community page. Because a extremely powerful and complex tool like a firewall need not be at odds with the design. class Handler: Here we’re creating a class called “Handler” which will include the the definitions for the actions & signals, we create for the GUI. Old dsource. Go to the signals tab and set up your callback, such as on_window1_destroy. For minimal setup, please check the followings: 1 DISPLAY environment variable export DISPLAY=127. Get Started with OpenVPN Connect. Then you can either use a FB code generator that forum user tjf has built, or load the XML file at run time using the GtkBuilder class. I have signed up for this, which looks extremely promising, but is still 6 months or more away. Glade is a RAD tool to enable quick & easy development of user interfaces for the GTK+ toolkit and the GNOME desktop environment. Beginners should start with NOOBS. pl) is a consultant specializing in helping companies and individuals use Linux as a desktop or personal system for common, everyday jobs. With this tools ,We can make many nice GUI to build a desktop application. 13 or newer) installed and added to your path $ hg clone. Here are some open source options. Arch Linux ARM is a distribution of Linux for ARM computers. TEMPLATE describes the type to build. Step 1: Loading the monomers from the database; Step 2: Growing polymers; Step 3: Optimizing the structure with UFF; ADF-GUI tutorials. However, for my home personal desktop, I use Fedora for my main desktop GUI, and Slackware for all of my servers, which way out number my desktop environments. mhatch writes "Integrated Computer Solutions, Inc. From another thread I was able to obtain a target file, containing the built Lightcrafter GUI for Linux (Ubuntu 16. Until I came across Armbian, that appeared to be more like the real Linux distros I was used to in the past. Our Embedded Wizard team will support you throughout your entire development cycle - according to your specific needs. Dia is a GTK+ based diagram creation program for GNU/Linux, MacOS X, Unix, and Windows, and is released under the GPL license. Debugging Embedded Linux with GDBserver and Insight (gdb GUI) Although it it sometimes possible to debug applications using GDB (The GNU Debugger) on the target boards, there is often not enough memory available to run GDB on embedded systems running Linux. The ANSI/ISO C++ compiler included for free is a powerful tool. Launch a Linux Shell from the File Explorer. All the functionality of the Komodo GUI software works on Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X operating systems. For more information about Scientific Linux please review our About page. As I understand it, on Windows, you can probably use the Win32 API calls through MinGW to develop a GUI app, but I don't see that as a good way to start off doing Windows GUIs. This video introduces the LCD module that I used, reviews it and then discusses how you can install it and develop very basic on-board GTK GUI applications. Scientific Linux is an Enterprise Linux rebuild sponsored by Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. Sure, that was the "main screen" GUI, but I'm not talking on that level. This page discusses some of the configure options, but for the full list of options, enter the command configure -h. Unity is the ultimate game development platform. " To a certain extent you would be right, and by no means am I suggesting you should ditch the GUI. Note that the matrix_gui Qt application uses the same executable file for the debug and release build configurations. And some discussion of whether the Twitter bootstrap can/should be used with AngularJs. Monero Private Digital Currency. Configure can exclude a feature in Qt as well as determine how Qt builds and deploys applications onto host platforms. ) must be placed into a Container (HBox, Vbox, Table etc. To build Nmap from source, see the section called “Linux/Unix Compilation and Installation from Source Code”. MSYS, a contraction of "Minimal SYStem", is a Bourne Shell command line interpreter system. Windows Forms is a graphical user interface application programming interface (API) included as a part of Microsoft's. It is faster and has more functionality than build-in Transmission web interface. FreePBX is a web-based open source GUI (graphical user interface) that controls and manages Asterisk (PBX), an open source communication server. In your python program, tell GTK to load the UI definitions. The LVM chapter of the Storage Administration Guide provides step-by-step instructions for configuring an LVM logical volume using this utility. Hundreds of DBAs and software engineers voted and we listed the top 5 MySQL gui tools for Windows. Is the free STM32 GUI builder right for your next embedded project? If you’re using an STM32 microcontroller, you may know that ST now bundles in free graphics software from TouchGFX. Get Started with OpenVPN Connect. Some of them are very attached to GUI, and refuse to use PowerShell. Bash – the famous shell used in Linux – was introduced in Windows 10 last week as part of Insider Preview Build 14316, thus allowing you to run Unix commands on Windows. A lot of efforts have been made so that these tutorials are as simple to compile & run as possible. The ARM64 project is pleased to announce that all ARM64 profiles are now stable. GUI compilation. 3-alpha Advertisement The Java Gui Builder program is designed to decouple the GUI building code from the rest of the application code, without hand-writing code. $ sudo apt install xfce4 slim After this GUI is installed start the display manager by using the below command or simply restart your Ubuntu server if that is an option:. Painless editing. GMAMEUI is a front-end program that helps you run MAME on non-Windows platforms, allowing you to run your arcade games quickly and easily. ), and an integrated development environment with GUI designer, debugger, etc. ( Moderated by 2ManyDogs, ewaller, fukawi2, HalosGhost, R00KIE, Slithery, V1del, WorMzy, Xyne). Buildroot is a simple, efficient and easy-to-use tool to generate embedded Linux systems through cross-compilation. Whether you want to deploy an OpenStack cloud, a Kubernetes cluster or a 50,000-node render farm, Ubuntu Server delivers the best value scale-out performance available. An easy to use file server that combines Windows-compatible network file sharing with a web based file manager. Usability & Design. The query builder was a big plus too. It is designed to provide a stable, secure, and high performance execution environment for applications running on Amazon EC2. Download Customer information : JFormDesigner 7 is free of charge for existing customers if the "Free updates until" date of your license key is 2017-07-01 or later. CD images for Ubuntu 14. Once a GUI has been laid out, the Builder can then generate the functional GUIslice skeleton framework code, for both Arduino and LINUX targets. It’s one of the most popular GUI choices for Python programming. Building Modem Manager GUI on Linux starts by installing the latest version of Mercurial. Framework builder : Build a pillared, functionalized MOF; Building Polymers.
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中国物理C Chinese Physics C All Title Author Keyword Abstract DOI Category Address Fund PACS EEACC Just Accepted 2018 Impact Factor 5.861 2019 CPC Top Reviewer Awards Title Author Keyword 2010 Vol. 34, No. 11 Particle and field theory particle and nuclear astrophysics and cosmology Nuclear and ion Physics Detection Technology and Methods Synchrotron radiation，applications of nuclear techniquees，etc Display Method: | Kinematics of τ two-body decay near τ threshold at BESⅢ MO Xiao-Hu 2010, 34(11): 1671-1679. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/001 Cited by () The kinematic properties of two-body decay near τ threshold are studied according to the special capacity of the BEPCⅡ accelerator and the BESⅢ detector. Explicitly presented are the transformations of energy and momentum of hadronic particles between different reference frames, and the corresponding distributions. A brand new method is proposed to obtain the energy spread of the accelerator by fitting the energy distribution of hadron from τ semi-leptonic decays. MO Xiao-Hu. Kinematics of τ two-body decay near τ threshold at BESⅢ[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1671-1679. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/001. Probing new physics in B→J/ψ π0 decay LI Jing-Wu, WU Xiang-Yao We calculate the branching ratio of B→J/ψ π0 with a mixed formalism that combines the QCD-improved factorization and the perturbative QCD approaches. The result is consistent with experimental data. The quite small penguin contribution in B→J/ψ π0 decay can be calculated with this method. We suggest two methods to extract the weak phase β. One is through the dependence of the mixing induced CP asymmetry SJ/ψπ0 on the weak phase β, the other is from the relation of the total asymmetry ACP with the weak phase β. Our results show that the deviation ΔSJ/ψ π0 of the mixing induced CP asymmetry from sin(－2β) is of O(10－3) and has much less uncertainty. The above O(10－3) deviation can provide a good reference for identifying new physics. LI Jing-Wu and WU Xiang-Yao. Probing new physics in B→J/ψ π0 decay[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1680-1686. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/002. Supersymmetric contributions to Bs→K－π+ decay XU Yuan-Guo, WANG Ru-Min, YANG Ya-Dong Recently, the CDF Collaboration has measured the branching fraction and time-integrated direct CP asymmetry of B_s→K－π+ decay. The branching ratio is lower than the previous predictions based on QCD factorization. The experimental results favor a large CP asymmetry in Bs→K－π+ decay while the standard model prediction is very small. We compute the supersymmetry contributions to Bs→K－π+ decay using the mass insertion method, and find that the LR and RL mass insertions could suppress this branching ratio and increase this direct CP asymmetry well in line with the experimental data. XU Yuan-Guo, WANG Ru-Min and YANG Ya-Dong. Supersymmetric contributions to Bs→K－π+ decay[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1687-1692. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/003. Entanglement in a two-qubit Heisenberg XXZ chain with different Dzyaloshinskii-Moriyacouplings and an inhomogeneous magnetic field QIN Meng, LI Yan-Biao, BAI Zhong, LIN Shang-Jin, LIU Wei Ground state entanglement and thermal entanglement of a two-qubit Heisenberg XXZ chain in the presence of the different Dzyaloshinski-Moriya interaction and inhomogeneous magnetic field are investigated. By the concept of concurrence, we find that the inhomogeneity of the magnetic field may make entanglement last for a long time and the critical temperature is dependent on Jz and b. The entanglement can be increased by increasing the temperature in some cases. We also find that the x-component parameter Dx has a higher critical temperature and more entanglement for a certain condition than the z-component parameter Dz. QIN Meng, LI Yan-Biao, BAI Zhong, LIN Shang-Jin and LIU Wei. Entanglement in a two-qubit Heisenberg XXZ chain with different Dzyaloshinskii-Moriyacouplings and an inhomogeneous magnetic field[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1693-1695. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/004. Influence of medium effects on the rotating hybrid stars KANG Miao, ZHOU Xia, WANG Xiao-Dong, HENG Yao-Fu A hybrid star with a pure quark core, a hadron crust and a mixed phase between the two is considered. The relativistic mean field model for hadron matter and the effective mass bag model for quark matter are used to construct the equation of state for hybrid stars. The influences of medium effects that are parameterized by the strong coupling constant have been discussed on the configuration of rotating stars. The strong coupling constant is a prominent factor that influences the properties of rotating hybrid stars. KANG Miao, ZHOU Xia, WANG Xiao-Dong and HENG Yao-Fu. Influence of medium effects on the rotating hybrid stars[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1696-1699. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/005. Beta decay of nuclide 56Fe, 56Co, 56Ni, 56Mn, 56Cr and 56V due to strong electron screening in stellar interiors LIU Jing-Jing According to a new electron screening theory, we discuss the beta decay rates of nuclide 56Fe, 56Co, 56Ni, 56Mn, 56Cr and 56V with and without strong electron screening (SES). The results show that SES has only a slight effect on the beta decay rates for ρ/μe<10^8 g/cm3. However the beta decay rates would be influenced greatly for ρ/μe≥10^8 g/cm3. Due to SES, the maximum values of the C-factor (in %) on beta decay rates of 56Fe, 56Co, 56Ni, 56Mn, 56Cr and 56V is of the order of 95.03%, 35.02%, 98.05%, 80.33%, 98.30% and 98.71% at T9 =4.0 and 98.83%, 98.89%, 99.65%, 10.32%, 4.10% and 40.21% at T9=7.0, respectively. LIU Jing-Jing. Beta decay of nuclide 56Fe, 56Co, 56Ni, 56Mn, 56Cr and 56V due to strong electron screening in stellar interiors[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1700-1703. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/006. Effect of the mesons σ* and Φ and the variety of UΣ(N) on the transition density of hyperon stars ZHAO Xian-Feng, ZHANG Hua The effect of the mesons σ* and Φ and the variety of UΣ(N) on the transition density of hyperon stars is examined within the framework of relativistic mean field theory for the baryon octet {n, p, Λ, Σ－, Σ0, Σ+, Ξ－ and Ξ0} system. It is found that, compared with that without considering the mesons σ* and Φ, the transition density of hyperon stars decreases, the critical baryon density that hyperons Σ－, Σ0, Σ+, Ξ－ and Ξ0 appears to decrease too, but for Λ the effect is not obvious. As UΣ(N) goes up, the critical baryon density of Σ+, Σ0 and Σ－ increases, that of Ξ0 decreases and that of Λ and Ξ－ is fixed. In addition, it is found that the variety of UΣ(N) almost does not influence the transition density. ZHAO Xian-Feng and ZHANG Hua. Effect of the mesons σ* and Φ and the variety of UΣ(N) on the transition density of hyperon stars[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1704-1708. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/007. Effects of the density dependence of the symmetry energy on neutron stars LIU Xiao-Jin, WU Chen, REN Zhong-Zhou In this paper, we include the density dependence behavior of the symmetry energy in the improved quark mass density dependent (IQMDD) model. Under the mean field approximation, this model is applied to investigate neutron star matter and neutron stars successfully. Effects of the density dependence of the symmetry energy on neutron stars are described. LIU Xiao-Jin, WU Chen and REN Zhong-Zhou. Effects of the density dependence of the symmetry energy on neutron stars[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1709-1713. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/008. Study of shape isomer yields of 240Am in the framework of a dynamical-statistical model Hadi Eslamizadeh A dynamical statistical model is used to analyze the experimental shape isomer yields data in the reaction d+240Pu at E=20—29 MeV. The possibility of determining the nuclear dissipation is discussed. Comparison of the experimental data with the calculations leads to a value of the reduced dissipation coefficient β=0.45×1021 s－1 for the Am isotopes. Hadi Eslamizadeh. Study of shape isomer yields of 240Am in the framework of a dynamical-statistical model[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1714-1716. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/009. Transverse mass distributions of protons produced in heavy-ion collisions at high energies XIE Wen-Jie The transverse mass distributions of protons produced in Au-Au collisions at 8 A GeV and Pb-Pb collisions at 158 A GeV are calculated by using the Monte Carlo method in the framework of the multisource ideal gas model. It is found that our calculated results are in agreement with the experimental data in nucleus-nucleus collisions at high energies. XIE Wen-Jie. Transverse mass distributions of protons produced in heavy-ion collisions at high energies[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1717-1723. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/010. Study of absorption and re-emission processes in a ternary liquid scintillation system XIAO Hua-Lin, LI Xiao-Bo, ZHENG Dong, CAO Jun, WEN Liang-Jian, WANG Nai-Yan Liquid scintillators are widely used as the neutrino target in neutrino experiments. The absorption and emission of different components of a ternary liquid scintillator (Linear Alkyl Benzene (LAB) as the solvent, 2,5-diphenyloxazole (PPO) as the fluor and p-bis-(o-methylstyryl)-benzene (bis-MSB) as wavelength shifter) are studied. It is shown that the absorption of this liquid scintillator is dominant by LAB and PPO at wavelengths less than 349~nm, and the absorption by bis-MSB becomes prevalent at the wavelength larger than 349 nm. The fluorescence quantum yields, which are the key parameters to model the absorption and re-emission processes in large liquid scintillation detectors, are measured. XIAO Hua-Lin, LI Xiao-Bo, ZHENG Dong, CAO Jun, WEN Liang-Jian and WANG Nai-Yan. Study of absorption and re-emission processes in a ternary liquid scintillation system[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1724-1728. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/011. 236U AMS measurement at CIRCE GUAN Yong-Jing, de Cesare, WANG Hui-Juan In order to measure the isotopic ratio of actinides, the upgrade of the accelerator mass spectrometry system at the Center for Isotopic Research on Cultural and Environmental heritage at the Second University of Naples, Italy, was performed. The beam emittance of 238U and the isotopic abundance sensitivity of 236U were measured on the present beam line. Utilizing a 16-strip silicon detector, the sensitivity of 236U/238U≈1×10－11 was obtained. GUAN Yong-Jing, de Cesare and WANG Hui-Juan. 236U AMS measurement at CIRCE[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1729-1732. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/012. Multi-pulsed intense electron beam emission from velvet, carbon fibers, carbon nano-tubes and dispenser cathodes XIA Lian-Sheng, YANG An-Min, CHEN Yi, ZHANG Huang, LIU Xing-Guang, LI Jin, JIANG Xiao-Guo, ZHANG Kai-Zhi, SHI Jin-Shui, DENG Jian-Jun, ZHANG Lin-Wen The experimental results of studies of four kinds of cathode emitting intense electron beams are demonstrated under multi-pulsed mode based on an experimental setup including two multi-pulse high voltage sources. The tested cathodes include velvet, carbon fibers, carbon nano-tubes (CNTs) and dispenser cathodes. The results indicate that all four are able to emit multi-pulsed beams. For velvet, carbon fiber and CNTs, the electron induced cathode plasma emission may be the main process and this means that there are differences in beam parameters from pulse to pulse. For dispenser cathodes tested in the experiment, although there is a little difference from pulse to pulse for some reason, thermal-electric field emission may be the main process. XIA Lian-Sheng, YANG An-Min, CHEN Yi, ZHANG Huang, LIU Xing-Guang, LI Jin, JIANG Xiao-Guo, ZHANG Kai-Zhi, SHI Jin-Shui, DENG Jian-Jun and ZHANG Lin-Wen. Multi-pulsed intense electron beam emission from velvet, carbon fibers, carbon nano-tubes and dispenser cathodes[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1733-1737. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/013. Theoretical analysis of a new extraction system for a DUHOCAMIS operating in a high magnetic field WANG Jing-Hui, ZHU Kun, ZHAO Wei-Jiang, LIU Ke-Xin A new extraction system is designed for a penning ion source DUHOCAMIS (dual hollow cathode ion source for metal ion beams) being installed at the Institute of Heavy Ion Physics, Peking University. We have analyzed theoretically the central particle trajectories in the extraction region for ions having different q/m ratios and then compared our results with the simulation results of CST (Computer Simulation Technology) software. The validity of the system is verified and some analytical formulas are obtained which will be used for the optimization of the extraction system as well as the experimental setup. WANG Jing-Hui, ZHU Kun, ZHAO Wei-Jiang and LIU Ke-Xin. Theoretical analysis of a new extraction system for a DUHOCAMIS operating in a high magnetic field[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1738-1741. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/014. Application of movable collimators to the BEPCⅡ LUO Tao, JIN Da-Peng, XING Jun, HUANG Nan, DONG Ming-Yi, LI Wei-Guo, LI Hai-Bo, WU Ying-Zhi, ZHANG Qing-Jiang, LIU Guan-Chuan BEPCⅡ is a double ring e+e－ collider with high beam currents and luminosity, so the high beam-related backgrounds may disturb the detector. In order to have a good quality of data taking, backgrounds should be kept at a level as low as possible. A series of collimators are designed and installed in both the e+ and e－ rings. Two of the collimators are horizontally movable, each for one ring, about 8 m upstream from the interaction point. Experiments have been done to identify the effectiveness of the movable collimators with different apertures and beam currents. The results show that the movable collimators are very effective and can reduce as much as about 50% of beam-related backgrounds. LUO Tao, JIN Da-Peng, XING Jun, HUANG Nan, DONG Ming-Yi, LI Wei-Guo, LI Hai-Bo, WU Ying-Zhi, ZHANG Qing-Jiang and LIU Guan-Chuan. Application of movable collimators to the BEPCⅡ[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1742-1748. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/015. A Particle-in-cell scheme of the RFQ in the SSC-Linac XIAO Chen, HE Yuan, LU Yuan-Rong, Yuri Batygin, YIN Ling, WANG Zhi-Jun, YUAN You-Jin, LIU Yong, CHANG Wei, DU Xiao-Nan, WANG Zhi, XIA Jia-Wen A 52 MHz Radio Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ) linear accelerator (linac) is designed to serve as an initial structure for the SSC-Linac system (injector into Separated Sector Cyclotron). The designed injection and output energy are 3.5 keV/u and 143 keV/u, respectively. The beam dynamics in this RFQ have been studied using a three-dimensional Particle-In-Cell (PIC) code BEAMPATH. Simulation results show that this RFQ structure is characterized by stable values of beam transmission efficiency (at least 95%) for both zero-current mode and the space charge dominated regime. The beam accelerated in the RFQ has good quality in both transverse and longitudinal directions, and could easily be accepted by Drift Tube Linac (DTL). The effect of the vane error and that of the space charge on the beam parameters have been studied as well to define the engineering tolerance for RFQ vane machining and alignment. XIAO Chen, HE Yuan, LU Yuan-Rong, Yuri Batygin, YIN Ling, WANG Zhi-Jun, YUAN You-Jin, LIU Yong, CHANG Wei, DU Xiao-Nan, WANG Zhi and XIA Jia-Wen. A Particle-in-cell scheme of the RFQ in the SSC-Linac[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1749-1753. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/016. A lattice scenario for a proton radiography accelerator WEI Tao, YANG Guo-Jun, HE Xiao-Zhong, LONG Ji-Dong, ZHANG Zhuo, WANG Shao-Heng, YANG Zhen, LI Wei-Feng, LI Hong, YANG Xing-Lin, WANG Min-Hong, SHI Jin-Shui, ZHANG Kai-Zhi, DENG Jian-Jun, ZHANG Lin-Wen A proton radiography system is an accelerator-based facility. Especially high-energy proton radiography is an advanced hydrodynamics diagnostic tool, and it is the trend of radiography technology development. In this paper, a 20 GeV accelerator complex scenario, including a 35 MeV linac, a 1 GeV booster and a 20 GeV main ring, is introduced. The overall physics design of the proton radiography accelerator is described, including the design of each part of the accelerator and the choice of the main parameters. WEI Tao, YANG Guo-Jun, HE Xiao-Zhong, LONG Ji-Dong, ZHANG Zhuo, WANG Shao-Heng, YANG Zhen, LI Wei-Feng, LI Hong, YANG Xing-Lin, WANG Min-Hong, SHI Jin-Shui, ZHANG Kai-Zhi, DENG Jian-Jun and ZHANG Lin-Wen. A lattice scenario for a proton radiography accelerator[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1754-1756. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/017. Preliminary study of a niobium quarter-wave prototype cavity for a heavy-ion superconducting linac ZHANG Cong, ZHAO Hong-Wei, HE Yuan, XU Zhe, ZHANG Zhou-Li, SUN Lie-Peng, MEI Li-Rong, CONG Yan Superconducting quarter-wave resonators, due to their compactness and their convenient shape for tuning and coupling, are very attractive for low-β beam acceleration. In this paper, two types of cavities with different geometry have been numerically simulated：the first type with larger capacitive load in the beam line and the second type of lollipop-shape for 100 MHz, β=0.06 beams；then the relative electromagnetic parameters and geometric sizes have been compared. It is found that the second type, whose structural design is optimized with the conical stem and shaping drift-tube, can support the better accelerating performance. At the end of the paper, some structural deformation effects on frequency shifts and appropriate solutions have been discussed. ZHANG Cong, ZHAO Hong-Wei, HE Yuan, XU Zhe, ZHANG Zhou-Li, SUN Lie-Peng, MEI Li-Rong and CONG Yan. Preliminary study of a niobium quarter-wave prototype cavity for a heavy-ion superconducting linac[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1757-1761. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/018. Study of lower emittance dedicated synchrotron radiation mode for the BEPCⅡ WANG Dou, QIN Qing, GAO Jie In this paper, a dedicated synchrotron radiation (SR) mode for the BEPCⅡ with an emittance of 85 nm has been designed, including the linear lattice, chromaticity correction and dynamic aperture optimization. The emittance of the new mode is about 60% of the previous mode used for routine operation of the BEPCⅡ. The effect of wigglers on the linear lattice was compensated and the total dynamic aperture including the wigglers' nonlinear effect was estimated. The preliminary commissioning at the end of 2008 and the formal operation with the new mode confirmed its merits. WANG Dou, QIN Qing and GAO Jie. Study of lower emittance dedicated synchrotron radiation mode for the BEPCⅡ[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1762-1767. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/019. Comparison of linac-based fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy and tomotherapy treatment plans for intra-cranial tumors Jang Bo, Suk Lee, Sam Ju, Sang Hoon, Juree Kim, Kwang Hwan, Chul Kee, Hyun Do, Rena Lee, Dae Sik, Young Je, Won Seob, Chul Yong, Soo Il This study compares and analyzes stereotactic radiotherapy using tomotherapy and linac-based fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy in the treatment of intra-cranial tumors, according to some cases. In this study, linac-based fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy and tomotherapy treatment were administered to five patients diagnosed with intra-cranial cancer in which the dose of 18—20 Gy was applied on 3—5 separate occasions. The tumor dosing was decided by evaluating the inhomogeneous index (II) and conformity index (CI). Also, the radiation-sensitive tissue was evaluated using low dose factors V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, and V10, as well as the non-irradiation ratio volume (NIV). The values of the II for each prescription dose in the linac-based non-coplanar radiotherapy plan and tomotherapy treatment plan were (0.125±0.113) and (0.090±0.180), respectively, and the values of the CI were (0.899±0.149) and (0.917±0.114), respectively. The low dose areas, V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, and V10, in radiation-sensitive tissues in the linac-based non-coplanar radiotherapy plan fell into the ranges 0.3%—95.6%, 0.1%—87.6%, 0.1%—78.8%, 38.8%—69.9%, 26.6%—65.2%, and 4.2%—39.7%, respectively, and the tomotherapy treatment plan had ranges of 13.6%—100%, 3.5%—100%, 0.4%—94.9%, 0.2%—82.2%, 0.1%—78.5%, and 0.3%—46.3%, respectively. Regarding the NIV for each organ, it is possible to obtain similar values except for the irradiation area of the brain stem. The percentages of NIV10%, NIV20%, and NIV30% for the brain stem in each patient were 15%—99.8%, 33.4%—100%, and 39.8%—100%, respectively, in the fractionated stereotactic treatment plan and 44.2%—96.5%, 77.7%—99.8%, and 87.8%—100%, respectively, in the tomotherapy treatment plan. In order to achieve higher-quality treatment of intra-cranial tumors, treatment plans should be tailored according to the isodose target volume, inhomogeneous index, conformity index, position of the tumor upon fractionated stereotactic radiosurgery, and radiation dosage for radiation-sensitive tissues. Jang Bo, Suk Lee, Sam Ju, Sang Hoon, Juree Kim, Kwang Hwan, Chul Kee, Hyun Do, Rena Lee, Dae Sik, Young Je, Won Seob, Chul Yong and Soo Il. Comparison of linac-based fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy and tomotherapy treatment plans for intra-cranial tumors[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1768-1774. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/020. Preliminary shielding analysis for the CSNS target station monolith ZHANG Bin, CHEN Yi-Xue, YANG Shou-Hai, WU Jun, YIN Wen, LIANG Tian-Jiao, JIA Xue-Jun The construction of the China Spallation Neutron Source (CSNS) has been initiated at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. In spallation neutron sources the target station monolith is contaminated by a large number of fast neutrons whose energies can be as large as those of the protons of the proton beam directed towards the tungsten target. A detailed radiation transport analysis of the target station monolith is important for the construction of the CSNS. The analysis is performed using the coupled Monte Carlo and multi-dimensional discrete ordinates method. Successful elimination of the primary ray effects via the two-dimensional uncollided flux and first collision source methodology is also illustrated. The dose at the edge of the monolith is calculated. The results demonstrate that the doses received by the hall staff members are below the required standard limit. ZHANG Bin, CHEN Yi-Xue, YANG Shou-Hai, WU Jun, YIN Wen, LIANG Tian-Jiao and JIA Xue-Jun. Preliminary shielding analysis for the CSNS target station monolith[J]. Chinese Physics C, 2010, 34(11): 1775-1778. doi: 10.1088/1674-1137/34/11/021. IF: 5.861 Monthly founded in 1977 Chinese Physical Society Institute of High Energy Physics, CAS Institute of Modern Physics, CAS ISSN 1674-1137 CN 11-5641/O4 Original research articles, Ietters and reviews Covering theory and experiments in the fieids of Particle and nuclear astrophysics A SCOAP3 participating journal - free Open Access publication for qualifying articles Average 24 days to first decision Fast-track publication for selected articles Subscriptions at over 3000 institutions worldwide Free English editing on all accepted articles Chinese New Year-Office closure 2019 CPC Top Reviewer Awards The 2019 National Day closure Editor Recruitment Meet Editor 29 July- 1 August, 2019 HFCPV-2019 16-21 Aug, Guilin, XVIII International Conference on Hadron Spectroscopy and Structure (HADRON 2019) 21-25 June, 18th Conference on Medium and High Energy Nuclear Physics 19-22 Sep, Zhengzhou, 2019 CPS Fall Meeting 4-11 July, Seoul, ICHEP 2018 IOPScience SCOAP3 E-mail: cpc@ihep.ac.cn CPC Website IOP Website CPC WeChat Copyright © Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19B Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China Supported by: Beijing Renhe Information Technology Co. 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Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 1. Cereals and pulses. Editors: M. Brink G. Belay. Associate editors: J.M.J. de Wet O.T. Edje E. Download "Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 1. Cereals and pulses. Editors: M. Brink G. Belay. Associate editors: J.M.J. de Wet O.T. Edje E." Noah Dalton 1 Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 1 Cereals and pulses Editors: M. Brink G. Belay Associate editors: J.M.J. de Wet O.T. Edje E. Westphal General editors: R.H.M.J. Lemmens L.P.A. Oyen PROTA Foundation / Backhuys Publishers / CTA Wageningen, Netherlands, 2006 r\ 2 Correct citation of this publication: Brink, M. & Belay, G. (Editors), Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 1. Cereals and pulses. PROTA Foundation, Wageningen, Netherlands / Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands / CTA, Wageningen, Netherlands. 298 pp. Correct citation of articles from this publication: [Author name, initials, Title of article]. In: Brink, M. & Belay, G. (Editors). Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 1. Cereals and pulses. PROTA Foundation, Wageningen, Netherlands / Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands / CTA, Wageningen, Netherlands, pp.... ISBN (book only) ISBN (book + CD-Rom) PROTA Foundation, Wageningen, Netherlands, No part of this publication, apart from bibliographic data and brief quotations embodied in critical reviews, may be reproduced, re-recorded or published in any form including print, photocopy, microfilm, electric or electromagnetic record without written permission from the copyright holder: PROTA Foundation, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands. Printed in the Netherlands by Ponsen & Looijen bv, Wageningen. Distributed for the PROTA Foundation by Backhuys Publishers, P.O. Box 321, 2300 AH Leiden, Netherlands (worldwide), and CTA, P.O. Box 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, Netherlands (ACP countries). 3 Contents Contributors 6 PROTA Board of Trustees and Personnel 9 Introduction 11 Alphabetical treatment of cereals and pulses 15 Cereals and pulses with other primary use 239 Literature 242 Index of scientific plant names 289 Index of vernacular plant names 293 PROTA in short 296 CTA in short 297 Map of Tropical Africa for PROTA 298 4 6 CEREALSAND PULSES Contributors E.G. Achigan Dako, IPGRI West and Central Africa, 08 B.P. 0932, Cotonou, Benin (Digitaria exilis, Macrotyloma geocarpum) S.G. Agong, Department of Horticulture, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box , Nairobi, Kenya (Amaranthus caudatus) R. Akromah, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana (Vigna unguiculata) D.J. Andrews, Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska, P.O. Box , Lincoln, NE , United States (Pennisetum glaucum) I.K. Asante, Department of Botany, P.O. Box LG55, University of Ghana, Legon. Accra, Ghana (Vigna unguiculata) G. Assefa, Humboldt University, Berlin, Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture, Philipstrasse 13, House no. 9, Berlin, Germany / Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Holetta Research Centre, P.O. Box, 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Avena sativa) B. Badu-Apraku, UTA Ibadan, c/o Lambourn (UK) Limited, Carolyn House, 26 Dingwall Road, Croydon, CR9 3EE, United Kingdom (Zea mays) T.V. Balole, Botswana College of Agriculture, Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, Botswana (Sorghum bicolor) J.P. Baudoin, Faculté universitaire des Sciences agronomiques de Gembloux (FUSAGx), Unité de Phytotechnie tropicale et d'horticulture, Passage des Déportés, 2, 5030 Gembloux, Belgium (Phaseolus lunatus) G. Bejiga, Green Focus Ethiopia, P.O. Box 802, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Cicer arietinum, Lathyrus sativus, Lens culinaris) G. Belay, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Debre Zeit Centre, P.O. Box 32, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia (Eragrostis tef, Triticum aestivum, Triticum turgidum, editor) G. Bezançon, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), B.P , Niamey, Niger (Oryza glaberrimà) C.H. Bosch, PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands (Bauhinia petersiana) M. Brink, PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands (Avena abyssinica, Brachiaria deflexa, Cenchrus biflorus, Cenchrus prieurii, Cordeauxia edulis, Craibia brownii, Crotalaria karagwensis, Crotalaria lachnophora, Digitaria iburua, Echinochloa frumentacea, Echinochloa obtusiflora, Echinochloa stagnina, Eragrostis aethiopica, Eragrostis annulata, Eragrostis nindensis, Eragrostis plana, Limeum obovatum, Macrotyloma uniflorum, Mucuna gigantea, Oryza barthii, Oryza longistaminata, Oryza punctata, Panicum kalaharense, Panicum laetum, Panicum turgidum, Phaseolus coccineus, Secale cereale, Setaria italica, Sporobolus fimbriatus, Sporobolus panicoides, Tylosema fassoglense, Urochloa mosambicensis, Urochloa 5 CONTRIBUTORS 7 trichopus, Vatovaea pseudolablab, Vicia hirsuta, Vigna aconitifolia, Vigna adenantha, Vigna subterranea, editor) S. Ceccarelli, ICARDA, P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria (Hordeum vulgare) K.E. Dashiell, USDA-ARS Northern Grains Insect Research Laboratory, 2923 Medary Avenue, Brookings SD 57006, United States (Glycine max) J.M.J, de Wet, Department of Crop Sciences, Urbana-Champaign, Turner Hall, 1102 South Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, United States (Eleusine coracana, associate editor) S. Diallo, ISRA / Zone Fleuve, CRA de Saint-Louis, B.P. 240 Sor Saint-Louis, Senegal (Oryza glaberrima) O.T. Edje, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Swaziland, P.O. Luyengo, Luyengo, Swaziland (associate editor) M.A.B. Fakorede, Department of Plant Science, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria (Zea mays) K.E. Giller, Plant Production Systems, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 430, 6700 AK Wageningen, Netherlands (Glycine max) S. Grando, ICARDA, P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria (Hordeum vulgare) G.J.H. Grubben, Boeckweijdt Consult, Prins Hendriklaan 24, 1401 AT Bussum, Netherlands (Vigna unguiculata) P.C.M. Jansen, PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands (Coix lacryma-jobi, Fagopyrum esculentum, Lupinus albus, Vigna aconitifolia, Vigna adenantha, Vigna angularis, Vigna mungo) M. Jarso, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Holetta Research Center, P.O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Pisum sativum, Vicia faba) R.N. Kaume, P.O. Box , Kitui, Kenya (Panicum miliaceum) G. Keneni, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Holetta Research Center, P.O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Pisum sativum, Vicia faba) K.A. Kumar, Agriculture Environmental Renewal Canada Inc., 711 Schäfer Road, P.O. Box 186, Delhi, ON N4B 2W9, Canada (Pennisetum glaucum) G.M. Legwaila, Botswana College of Agriculture, Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, Botswana (Sorghum bicolor) R.H.M.J. Lemmens, PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands (general editor) R. Madamba, Crop Breeding Institute, Department of Research & Specialist Services, Box CY 550, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe (Vigna unguiculata) H.C.C. Meertens, Pomona 250, 6708 CJ Wageningen, Netherlands (Oryza sativa) C.-M. Messiaen, Résidence La Guirlande, Bat. B3, 75, rue de Fontcarrade, Montpellier, France (Pisum sativum) K.K. Mogotsi, Botswana College of Agriculture, Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, Botswana (Phaseolus acutifolius, Vigna radiata) B.R. Ntare, ICRISAT, B.P. 320, Bamako, Mali (Arachis hypogaea) Achmad Satiri Nurhaman, Southeast Asian Regional Centre for Tropical Biology (SEAMEO BIOTROP), P.O. Box 17, Bogor, Indonesia (illustrations) L.P.A. Oyen, PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands (general editor) 6 8 CKREALSAND PULSES - R. Rajerison, CNRE, B.P. 1739, Fiadanana, Antananarivo (101), Madagascar (Vigna umbellata) - G.M. Ramolemana, Department of Crop Science and Production, Botswana College of Agriculture, Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, Botswana (Vigna subterranea) - A.A. Seif, ICIPE, P.O. Box 30772, Nyago Stadium, Nairobi, Kenya (Pisum sativum) - K.P. Sibuga, Department of Crop Science and Production, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3005, Morogoro, Tanzania (Vigna subterranea) - Iskak Syamsudin, Herbarium Bogoriense, Research Centre for Biology - LIPI, Jalan Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor 16122, Indonesia (illustrations) - H. Tefera, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Debre Zeit Centre, P.O. Box 32, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia (Eragrostis tef) - L.J.G. van der Maesen, Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University, Gen. Foulkesweg 37, 6703 BL Wageningen, Netherlands (Cajanus cajan, Cicer arietinum, Tylosema esculentum) - S.R. Vodouhè, IPGRI West and Central Africa, 08 B.P. 0932, Cotonou, Benin (Digitaria exilis, Macrotyloma geocarpum) - W. Wessel-Brand, Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University, Gen. Foulkesweg 37, 6703 BL Wageningen, Netherlands (illustrations) - E. Westphal, Ritzema Bosweg 13, 6706 BB Wageningen, Netherlands (associate editor) - CS. Wortmann, University of Nebraska Lincoln, IANR, Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, 154 Keim Hall, Lincoln, NE , United States (Phaseolus vulgaris) - S.S. Yadav, Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi , India (Lathyrus sativus) Acknowledgments - S. van Otterloo-Butler, Bowlespark 21, 6701 DR Wageningen, Netherlands (English language correction) - N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto, PROSEA Network Office, P.O. Box 332, Bogor 16122, Indonesia (coordination illustrators) 7 PROTA Board of Trustees and Personnel Board of Trustees J.R. Cobbinah (FORIG, Ghana), chairman M.J. Kropff (WU, Netherlands), vice-chairman H. Andriamialison (PBZT, Madagascar) P.R. Crane (RBGKEW, United Kingdom) D. Garrity (ICRAF, Kenya) L.S. Luboobi (MU, Uganda) Z.L.K. Magombo (NHBGM, Malawi) G. Matheron (AGROPOLIS, France) S. Mbadinga (CENAREST, Gabon) M. Ouédraogo (CNSF, Burkina Faso) E. Sukara (PROSEA, Indonesia) Personnel Regional Office Central Africa, Gabon S. Mbadinga, Programme Leader B. Nziengui, Regional Officer P.M. Nsole Biteghe, Assistant Regional Officer D.N. Omokolo, Contact Person Cameroon M.K.D. Ben-Bala, Contact Person Central African Republic Regional Office East Africa, Uganda J.S. Kaboggoza, Programme Leader R. Bukenya-Ziraba, Regional Officer M. Atim, Assistant Regional Officer A. Tsegaye, Contact Person Ethiopia J. Elia, Contact Person Tanzania Regional Office Indian Ocean Islands, Madagascar S. Rapanarivo, Programme Leader M.E. Rahelivololana, Regional Officer A. Gurib-Fakim, Contact Person Mauritius S. Brillant, Contact Person Réunion Regional Office Southern Africa, Malawi Z.L.K. Magombo, Programme Leader N.G. Nyirenda, Regional Officer V.K. Kawanga, Contact Person Zambia 8 10 CEREALS AND PULSES Regional Office (anglophone) West Africa, Ghana J.R. Cobbinah, Programme Leader S. Britwum, Regional Officer A. Armooh, Assistant Regional Officer O.A. Denton, Contact Person Nigeria Regional Office (francophone) West Africa, Burkina Faso M. Ouédraogo, Programme Leader A. Traoré, Regional Officer V. Millogo, Assistant Regional Officer C. Kouamé, Contact Person Côte d'ivoire F. Assogba-Komlan, Contact Person Benin Country Office France M. Chauvet, Programme Leader W. Rodrigues, Country Officer Country Office United Kingdom S.D. Davis, Programme Leader O. Grace, Country Officer Network Office Africa, Kenya E.A. Omino, Head J. Chege, Database Officer D.J. Borus, Dissemination Officer B.O. Obongoya, Programme Officer M.W. Kamanda, Secretary D. Laur, Office Assistant Network Office Europe, Netherlands J.S. Siemonsma, Head A.D. Bosch-Jonkers, Secretary/Management Assistant R.H.M.J. Lemmens, General Editor L.P.A. Oyen, General Editor E.J. Bertrums, Databank Manager C.H. Bosch, Editor/Dissemination Officer M. Brink, Editor A. de Ruijter, Editor G.H. Schmelzer, Editor/Dissemination Officer 9 11 Introduction Choice of species PROTA 1: 'Cereals and pulses' describes the cultivated and wild species of tropical Africa used as a cereal or pulse. Cereals can be defined as grasses (family Poaceae) of which the grain is used for food; they may be cultivated or the grain is collected from wild plants ('wild cereals'). Three cereals that are not grasses ('pseudo-cereals') have also been included in this volume: Amaranthus caudatus L. (grain amaranth), Fagopyrum esculentum Moench (buckwheat) and Limeum obovatum Vicary. Pulses can be defined as leguminous species (members of the families Papilionaceae, Caesalpiniaceae or Mimosaceae, often considered as one family Leguminosae) producing edible mature seeds. Pulses may also be cultivated or collected from the wild. Some species are only used as a cereal or pulse, but most have several uses. PROTA normally assigns a single primary use and, where relevant, one or more secondary uses to all plant species used in Africa. PROTA 1: 'Cereals and pulses' comprises only accounts of species whose primary use is as a cereal or pulse. The primary use of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) is as a pulse, and thus it is treated in PROTA 1, but it has various secondary uses, e.g. the immature seeds and pods are eaten as a vegetable, the seeds and the by-products of dhal production are used as animal feed, the vegetative parts are used as fodder, the stems and branches are used for basketry, thatching, fencing and as fuel, from various plant parts traditional medicines are prepared, and the plants are grown as a shade crop or cover crop and in hedges and windbreaks. Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC), on the other hand, is eaten as a pulse, but its primary use is its immature pods being eaten as a vegetable, and consequently winged bean is described in PROTA 2: 'Vegetables'. Species that are used as a cereal or pulse in tropical Africa but have another primary use are listed after the primary use cereals and pulses, and are fully described in other commodity groups. Some well-known species included in this list are: kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), lablab (Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet) and winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC). Six species are treated which have two primary uses, including use as cereal or pulse, and consequently will be described in two commodity groups. These species are Arachis hypogaea L. (also in PROTA 14: 'Vegetable oils'), Glycine max (L.) Merr. (also in PROTA 14: 'Vegetable oils'), Phaseolus vulgaris L. (also in PROTA 2 'Vegetables'), Pisum sativum L. (also in PROTA 2 'Vegetables'), Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. (also in PROTA 2 'Vegetables'), and Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (also in PROTA 3: 'Dyes and tannins'). In PROTA 1: 'Cereals and pulses' comprehensive descriptions are given of 35 important species (15 cereals, 19 pulses and 1 pseudo-cereal). These major cereals and pulses comprise most cultivated species, but also several wild or partly domesticated ones. The accounts are presented in a detailed format and illustrated with a line drawing and a distribution map. In addition, accounts of 38 species of minor importance (22 cereals, 14 pulses and 2 pseudo-cereals) are given. Because information on these species is often scanty, these accounts are in a simplified format. For another 10 12 CEREALSAND PULSES 9 species (5 cereals and 4 pulses) the information was too scarce to justify an individual treatment and they have only been mentioned in the accounts of related species. Plant names Family: Apart from the classic family name, the family name in accordance with the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification is also given where it differs from the classic name. Synonyms: Only the most commonly used synonyms and those that may cause confusion are mentioned. Vernacular names: Only names in official languages of regional importance in Africa are included: English, French, Portuguese and Swahili. It is beyond the scope of PROTA to give an extensive account of the names of a species in all languages spoken in its area of distribution. Checking names would require extensive fieldwork by specialists. Although regional forms of Arabic are spoken in several countries in Africa, the number of African plant species that have a name in written, classical Arabic is limited. Arabic names are therefore omitted. Names of plant products are mentioned under the heading 'Uses'. Origin and geographic distribution To avoid long lists of countries in the text, a distribution map is added for major species. The map indicates in which countries a species has been recorded, either wild or planted. For many species, however, these maps are incomplete because they are prepared on the basis of published information, the quantity and quality of which varies greatly from species to species. This is especially the case for wild species which are not or incompletely covered by the regional African floras, and for cultivated species which are only planted on a small scale (e.g. in home gardens). For some countries (e.g. Central African Republic, Chad, Sudan, Angola) there is comparatively little information in the literature. Sometimes they are not covered by recent regional or national floras and although species may be present there, this cannot be demonstrated or confirmed. Properties The food value of the cereals and pulses is mentioned in the species accounts. The analytical method used to determine the various elements of the nutritional composition considerably influences the values found. For this reason a few standard sources were used wherever possible and the sources are mentioned in the text. These sources are: the USDA Nutrient database for standard reference; McCance & Widdowson's The composition of foods; FAO Food composition table for use in Africa. Apart from nutrients, this section includes other properties relevant to the respective uses. 11 INTRODUCTION 13 Description A morphological characterization of the species is given. The description is in 'telegram' style and uses botanical terms. Providing a description for the general public is difficult as more generally understood terms often lack the accuracy required in a botanical description. A line drawing is added for all major and some lesser-known species to complement and visualize the description. Management Descriptions of husbandry methods including fertilizer application, irrigation, and pest and disease control measures are given under 'Management' and under 'Diseases and pests'. These reflect actual practices or generalized recommendations, opting for a broad overview but without detailed recommendations adapted to the widely varying local conditions encountered by farmers. Recommendations on chemical control of pests and diseases are merely indicative and local regulations should be given precedence. PROTA will participate in the preparation of derived materials for extension and education, for which the texts in this volume provide a basis, but to which specific local information will be added. Genetic resources The genetic diversity of many plant species in Africa is being eroded, sometimes at an alarming rate, as a consequence of habitat destruction and overexploitation. The replacement of landraces of cultivated species by modern cultivars marketed by seed companies is another cause of genetic erosion. Reviews are given of possible threats for plant species and of the diversity within species. Information on ex-situ germplasm collections is mostly extracted from publications of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). References The main objective of the list of references given is to guide readers to additional information; it is not intended to be complete or exhaustive. Authors and editors have selected two categories of references; 'major references' are limited to 10 references (5 for minor species), the number of'other references' is limited to 20 (10 for minor species). The references listed include those used in writing the account. Where the internet was used, the website and date are cited. 12 14 CEREALS AND PULSES 13 Alphabetical treatment of cereals and pulses 15 14 16 CEREALSAND PULSES 15 AMARANTHUS 17 AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS L. Protologue Sp. pi. 2: 990 (1753). Family Amaranthaceae Chromosome number 2n - 32 Vernacular names - Grain amaranth, Inca wheat, jataco (En). Amarante-grain, blé des Incas (Fr). Amarante de cauda (Po). - African spinach, Indian spinach (En). Brède malabar (Fr). Bredo (Po). Mchicha (Sw). - Love-lies-bleeding, red-hot cattail, foxtail (En). Queue de renard, discipline des religieux (Fr). Cauda de raposa, moncos de peru (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Amaranthus caudatus is not known from the wild. It originated in the Andes, possibly as a hybrid between the wild Amaranthus hybridus L. subsp. quitensis (Kunth) Costea & Carretero and the cultivated Amaranthus cruentus L. (originating from Central America). Amaranthus caudatus has long been grown as a food crop in the Andes, e.g. by the Incas, and the greatest genetic variation occurs in this area (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina). The earliest archaeological evidence of its cultivation dates from 2000-year-old tombs in northwestern Argentina. The chronicler Cobo wrote in 1653 that in the city of Guamanga (now Ayacucho) delicious sweets were prepared from amaranth and sugar. Amaranthus caudatus was introduced into Europe in the 16 th century and it was spread to Africa and Asia later. The cultivated area has notably decreased over the years, but Amaranthus caudatus has remained a grain crop in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina. It is occasionally grown as a grain Amaranthus caudatus - planted crop in Asia and Africa. As an ornamental it is grown throughout much of the tropics and in some temperate regions. The exact distribution of Amaranthus caudatus in Africa is not known, because it has often been confounded with other Amaranthus species. It is grown in Ethiopia and Eritrea for its grain and as an ornamental; it has also been grown in Uganda and Kenya and has been recorded from several other countries in Central, East and southern Africa, and the Mascarene Islands, where it may also be found as a weed escaped from cultivation. Uses Amaranthus caudatus seeds are toasted and popped, ground into flour or boiled for gruel. For making leavened foods, they must be blended with wheat. The seeds are fermented to make alcoholic beverages, e.g. beer ('tella') in Ethiopia. In Ethiopia cooked seeds are made into porridge, and ground seeds are mixed with tef to prepare pancake-like bread ('injera'). Seeds can be sprouted for use as a nutritious vegetable. The leaves are eaten as a vegetable like those of other amaranth species, e.g. in Peru and Ethiopia. Harvest residues are used for feeding livestock and for thatching. In South America grain amaranths are traditionally used in medicine, folk festivals, and as dye sources. In Ethiopia the root is used as a laxative, and the seed for expelling tapeworms and for treating eye diseases, amoebic dysentery, and breast complaints. In India the plant is taken as a diuretic and it is applied to sores. Amaranthus caudatus is widely grown as an ornamental ('Love-lies-bleeding'). Production and international trade No statistics are available on production and trade of grain amaranths in general and Amaranthus caudatus in particular. Reports from the 1990s mention several thousands of ha of grain amaranths in China, similar large production areas in Argentina, and about 2000 ha in the United States. Estimates for India and Nepal are up to 4000 ha. In Peru, there are over 1000 ha under grain amaranths (mainly Amaranthus caudatus) in the high Andean region alone. The United States imports large quantities of grain amaranth from Mexico. Properties Grain amaranth (species unspecified) seeds contain per 100 g edible portion: water 9.8 g, energy 1565 kj (374 kcal), protein 14.5 g, fat 6.5 g, carbohydrate 66.2 g, dietary fibre 15.2 g, Ca 153 mg, Mg 266 mg, P 455 mg, Fe 7.6 mg, Zn 3.2 mg, vitamin A 0 IU, thiamin 0.08 mg, riboflavin 0.21 mg, niacin 1.29 mg, vitamin B mg, folate 49 ug and 16 18 CEREALS AND PULSES ascorbic acid 4.2 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 181 mg, lysine 747 mg, methionine 226 mg, phenylalanine 542 mg, threonine 558 mg, valine 679 mg, leucine 879 mg and isoleucine 582 mg. The main fatty acids are (per 100 g edible portion): linoleic acid 2834 mg, oleic acid 1433 mg, palmitic acid 1284 mg and stearic acid 220 mg (USDA, 2004). Amaranth grain is renowned for the excellent quality of its protein because of the high lysine content. Gluten-free types exist and are suitable for people with coeliac disease. The starch mainly consists of amylopectin, with only5 7% amylose. The rather small starch granules (1-3 im in diameter) have drawn wide attention for industrial uses of grain amaranths. The oil contains 4-11% of the triterpenoid squalene, which may find a niche market in products such as lubricants in the computer industry and in cosmetics. The stems, leaves and seeds of Amaranthus caudatus contain water-soluble red-violet betacyanin pigments. In aqueous plant extracts they consist on average of 81% amaranthine and 19% isoamaranthine; in dried extracts of 67% amaranthine and 33% isoamaranthine. Dissolved in water the pigments are unstable except at low temperatures in the dark and in the absence of air; dried pigments are very stable at room temperature. The seed also contains red-coloured lectins sometimes also referred to as amaranthine. Two peptides isolated from the seed of Amaranthus caudatus (Ac-AMPl and Ac-AMP2) have shown strong antifungal and some antibacterial activity. Description Annual erect herb up to 1.5( 2.5) m tall, commonly reddish or purplish throughout; stem rather stout, not or sparingly branched, glabrous or thinly furnished with rather long hairs. Leaves arranged spirally, simple and entire; stipules absent; petiole up to 8 cm long, but never longer than the blade; blade broadly ovate to rhomboid-ovate or ovateelliptical, (-20) cm x 1-8 cm, base cuneate to attenuate, apex obtuse to acute, glabrous or sparsely hairy on main veins below, pinnately veined. Inflorescence large (up to 1.5 m) and complex, consisting of numerous agglomerated cymes arranged in axillary and terminal spikes, the terminal one pendant to erect; bracts 3 4 mm long, membranous, pale, with a long awn. Flowers unisexual, sessile; with 5 mucronate tepals 2 3 mm long; male flowers with 5 stamens c. 1 mm long; female flowers with superior, 1-celled ovary crowned Amaranthus caudatus - 1, upper part of flowering plant; 2, dehisced fruit. Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin by 3 stigmas. Fruit an ovoid-globose capsule mm long, circumscissile, almost smooth or slightly furrowed, abruptly narrowed to a short thick beak, 1-seeded. Seed almost globose, mm long, smooth and shining, pale coloured (ivory), reddish or dark brown. Other botanical information Amaranthus comprises about 70 species, of which about 40 are native to the Americas. It includes at least 17 species with edible leaves and 3 grain amaranths. Amaranthus caudatus is part of the socalled Amaranthus hybridus aggregate, a group of species in which taxonomie problems are far from clarified, especially because of common hybridization and names often being misapplied. Some recognized species of this aggregate are cultivated taxa. Amaranthus caudatus is one of these, as are the other grain amaranths, Amaranthus cruentus L. and Amaranthus hypochondriacus L., which are included in PROTA 2 'Vegetables'. Amaranthus caudatus can be distinguished by its usually long and pendant terminal spike and comparatively broad tepals of female flowers. A classification in cultivar groups might be more appropriate for the cultivated taxa. Amaranthus caudatus shows a wide genetic variation and diversity of plant form, ranging from erect to completely decumbent. Two types have been distinguished: subsp. caudatus, the 17 AMARANTHUS 19 main type, and subsp. mantegazzianus (Pass.) Hanelt, grown as a grain crop in the valleys of the Andes in north-western Argentina. The latter can be distinguished by its determinate club-shaped inflorescence branches, due to a single recessive gene. According to some, it should be considered as a separate species Amaranthus mantegazzianus Pass., an opinion which has recently been supported by the results of seed protein studies. Growth and development Germination of Amaranthus caudatus seed accelerates with increasing temperature in the range 5-35 C; no germination occurs at 0 C. Seedlings normally emerge 3-5 days after sowing and early growth is slow. Flowering begins days after emergence. Outcrossing rates of 6-29% have been recorded in Amaranthus caudatus. The total crop duration in Peru ranges from 3 4 months at 1800 m altitude to 9 months at 3200 m altitude; in Kenya it is normally days. A single plant may yield more than 50,000 seeds. Amaranthus caudatus is a C4- cycle plant, giving higher yields at higher light intensities and temperatures, and being efficient in water use. Ecology In the tropics Amaranthus caudatus performs well under cool, dry highland conditions. It is more tolerant to chilling than the other 2 grain amaranths and is grown at higher altitudes. In East Africa it is found at m altitude, in South America at m. In Peru it is grown in regions with an average annual rainfall of 550 mm. The photoperiodic response is marked, with flowering being promoted by short photoperiods. Amaranthus caudatus can be grown in sandy and clay soils. In general grain amaranths prefer well-drained neutral or alkaline soils (ph>6), but some types are well adapted to acid and mildly saline soils. Propagation and planting Amaranthus caudatus is propagated by seed. Its 1000-seed weight is g. Seed scarification with concentrated sulphuric acid or sandpaper enhances germination. Common seed rates in Peru are 8-18 kg/ha, but in Kenya seed rates of only 1-2 kg/ha are common. With improved cultivars in Peru densities of 400, ,000 plants/ha gave the highest yields. Emergence of seedlings is best when the seed is sown at a depth of cm, but in dry, hot areas deeper sowing may be necessary. However, emergence is seriously lowered if the sowing depth exceeds 5 cm. Amaranthus caudatus is grown in sole cropping as well as in intercropping systems, e.g. with maize in South America and Ethiopia. Sometimes it is planted as a guard-row for a main crop, e.g. bean, maize or millet. In Ethiopia the plants are sometimes allowed to sow themselves. Management Once they are established, grain amaranths compete well with weeds, but they must be weeded at least once during the first month. Hilling the plants when they are about 30 cm tall helps to control weeds and to reduce lodging; it may also control Alternaria disease. In Peru Amaranthus caudatus is sometimes grown with supplemental irrigation. Results of fertilizer trials are inconclusive, and in general grain amaranths grow well under widely differing nutrient levels. In Peru manure is usually applied. Diseases and pests In Amaranthus caudatus fungal diseases have been observed caused by Alternaria, Mycoplasma and Sclerotinia spp. Pests causing economic damage to grain amaranths are mainly leaf-eating caterpillars (Heliothis, Hymenia, Spodoptera), stinkbugs (e.g. Lygus on the inflorescence), stem-boring larvae of weevils, grasshoppers and aphids. Harvesting Harvesting of Amaranthus caudatus is difficult because of asynchronous ripening. The crop may be harvested once-over by cutting the inflorescences when the plants are still green, to avoid seed shattering. In Peru the plants are cut at ground level with a sickle, bundled, and left to dry in the field for 1 2 weeks. In dry, irrigated areas senescence can be induced by stopping irrigation 2 weeks before the harvest. Leaves may be harvested once or several times to be used as a vegetable, before the grain or total biomass is harvested at maturity for food or forage. Yield Seed yields of grain amaranths vary widely, from as low as kg/ha to as high as kg/ha. In north-western India, where all 3 grain amaranth species are grown, yields of Amaranthus caudatus and Amaranthus cruentus are lower than those of Amaranthus hypochondriacus. Handling after harvest After drying in the field, the plants are threshed by hand or machine, and the seed is cleaned. Additional drying to reduce the moisture content to 12% may be necessary for safe storage. Genetic resources Large germplasm collections of Amaranthus caudatus are kept in Peru (Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco (UNSAAC/CICA), Cusco, 1600 acces- 18 20 CEREALS AND PULSES sions; Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Lima, 333 accessions; Estación Experimental Agraria Banos del Inca, Cajamarca, 257 accessions) and the United States (Organic Gardening and Farming Research Center, Kutztown, Pennsylvania, 297 accessions). The only germplasm collection of Amaranthus caudatus in Africa recorded by IPGRI is in Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu, 4 accessions). Breeding Major breeding objectives for Amaranthus caudatus and other grain amaranths are improved harvestability (less lodging, less shattering, better uniformity of maturity), increased seedling vigour, increased resistance to pests and higher yields. In Peru selection in landraces has led to the release of the Amaranthus caudatus cultivars 'Noel Vietmeyer', 'Oscar Blanco' and 'Alan Garcia'. Genetic studies have identified marker loci for traits such as pigmentation patterns, inflorescence morphology and seed characters in Amaranthus caudatus and other grain amaranths. Research is needed on hybridization barriers among grain amaranth species as well as on the biosystematic identity of the species; only then can the information be indisputably related to species. Prospects In tropical Africa Amaranthus caudatus is presently cultivated on a very limited scale and, like the other grain amaranths, it probably does not have much future as a grain crop, because it cannot compete with cereals that are more productive and easier to grow. On a worldwide scale grain amaranths have some potential, because of their favourable agronomic characteristics, excellent nutritional qualities and diverse food and technical applications. Amaranths are also considered to have prospects in food colouring. Major references Agong & Ayiecho, 1991; Bale & Kauffman (Editors), 1992; Brenner et al., 2000; Costea, Sanders & Waines, 2001; Jain & Sutarno, 1996; National Research Council, 1984; National Research Council, 1989; Sauer, 1967; Townsend, 2000; Williams & Brenner, Other references Berghofer & Schoenlechner, 2002; Broekaert et al., 1992; Cai, Sun & Corke, 1998; Cai et al., 1998; Coons, 1982; CSIR, 1950; Drzewiecki, 2001; Getahun, 1976; Gutterman, Corbineau & Come, 1992; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Hauman, 1951; Janick & Simon (Editors), 1990; Joshi, Mehra & Sharma, 1983; Paredes-López (Editor), 1994; Sauer, 1976; Stallknecht & Schulz-Schaeffer, 1993; Sun, Chen & Leung, 1999; Townsend, 1985; Townsend, 1994; USDA, Sources of illustration Grubben, Authors S.G. Agong ARACHIS HYPOGAEA L. Protologue Sp. pi. 2: 741 (1753). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n = 40 Vernacular names Groundnut, peanut, earthnut, monkey nut (En). Arachide, cacahuète, cacahouète, pistache de terre (Fr). Amendoim, mandobi, caranga (Po). Mjugu nyasa, mnjugu nyasa, karanga (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Groundnut originated in the area of southern Bolivia and north-western Argentina. It is an ancient crop of the New World and was widely grown in Mexico, Central America and South America in pre-columbian times. Domesticated groundnut had already evolved into several types before it was introduced into the Old World by Spanish and Portuguese explorers. Two-seeded types originating from Brazil were brought to West Africa, and 3-seeded types originating from Peru were taken from the west coast of South America to the Philippines, from where they spread to Japan, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Madagascar and East Africa. In the late 1700s 'Spanish' groundnut types were introduced into Europe from Brazil. The first successful introduction in North America concerned small-seeded 'runner'-type groundnuts, Arachis hypogaea - planted 19 ARACHIS 21 probably originating from northern Brazil or the West Indies. Groundnut is now grown in most tropical, subtropical and temperate countries between 40 N and 40 S latitude. It is grown throughout tropical Africa and is a major cash crop in Senegal, Gambia, Nigeria and Sudan. Uses Groundnut seed is mainly used as food and for oil extraction. The seeds are eaten raw, boiled or roasted, made into peanut butter, confectioneries and snack foods, and are used for thickening soups or made into sauces to be eaten with meat and rice. In northern Nigeria groundnut flour is mixed with 'gari' (coarse fermented cassava meal) and made into balls that are eaten as a snack. In the United States and Argentina most of the crop is used as food, but in most other countries the primary use of groundnut is for the oil market. Worldwide, more than 50% of groundnut production is crushed into oil for human consumption or industrial use (e.g. in cosmetics). In countries such as Senegal, Gambia and Nigeria oil extraction has been an important cottage industry for years. The use of groundnut in confectionery and for oil and meal production is increasing, and there is gradual shift taking place from oil and meal to confectionery use, especially in Latin America and the Caribbean. In South America groundnut seeds are fermented into alcoholic drinks. The presscake from oil extraction is a feed rich in protein, but it is also made into groundnut flour, which is used in many human foods. Fermented groundnut cake is eaten fried in Indonesia. The cake finds industrial application in the production of glues, sizes for paper and starches for laundering and textile manufacture. Protein from groundnut cake is made into a wool-like fibre, which can be blended with wool or rayon. Groundnut shells are used as roughage in fodder, as fuel, fertilizer, mulch, in the manufacture of particle board and building blocks, and can be used as a source of activated carbon, combustible gases, organic chemicals, reducing sugars, alcohol and extender resins. Young groundnut pods and leaves are consumed as a vegetable; in West Africa the leaves are added to soups. The foliage is an important fodder, especially in the Sahel; it may be eaten fresh or as hay or silage. In southern India the haulms are sometimes applied as a green manure. Groundnut has a range of uses in traditional African medicine. Pod extracts are taken as a galactagogue, and used as eye-drops to treat conjunctivis. Macerations of peeled seeds are drunk to treat gonorrhoea, macerations of the seed coats against syphilis, while macerations of the seed coats and shells are applied against ophthalmia. Sap of ground leaves and seeds is used for ear-drops against ear discharge. Leaf macerations are drunk as a diuretic. Leaf infusions are drunk against female infertility, and used for eye-drops to treat eye injuries and cataract. Plant ash with salt is applied in case of caries. Pod extracts and young plants are credited with aphrodisiac properties. The plant is also used to relieve cough and is considered emollient and demulcent; emulsions are taken to treat pleurisy, enteritis (including colitis), and dysuria. Agglutinins (lectins) from groundnut seeds are often used in medical research for histochemical investigations. Production and international trade According to FAO estimates, the average world production of groundnut pods in amounted to about 34.4 million t/year from 24.4 million ha. The main producing countries are China (14.0 million t/year in , from 4.9 million ha), India (6.1 million t/year from 6.7 million ha), Nigeria (2.8 million t/year from 2.7 million ha), the United States (1.7 million t/year from 0.5 million ha), Indonesia (1.3 million t/year from 0.7 million ha) and Sudan (1.1 million t/year from 1.7 million ha). The total production in sub-saharan Africa was 8.2 million t/year from 9.5 million ha. Average world export of groundnut seeds amounted to 1.1 million t/year in The main exporters were China (321,000 t/year), Argentina (201,000 t/year) and the United States (171,000 t/year). Export of groundnut seeds from sub-saharan Africa was 64,000 t/year, with Gambia as main exporter (26,000 t/year). Average world export of groundnut pods in was only 176,000 t/year, with China as main exporter (73,000 t/year). Exports of groundnut pods from sub-saharan Africa were negligible. The world production of groundnut oil in was 5.1 million t/year. The main producers are China (2.0 million t/year), India (1.4 million t/year), Nigeria (480,000 t/year), Senegal (178,000 t/year) and Sudan (162,000 t/year). The production in sub-saharan Africa was 1.2 million t/year. The world groundnut cake production in was 6.9 million t/year, mainly from China (2.6 million t/year), India (1.9 million t/year) and Nigeria (750,000 20 22 CEREALSAND PULSES t/year). The production in sub-saharan Africa was 1.6 million t/year. Average world export of groundnut oil in was 271,000 t/year, with as main exporters Senegal (83,000 t/year) and Argentina (69,000 t/year). The total export of groundnut oil from sub-saharan Africa was 114,000 t/year. The main importers were France (68,000 t/year), Italy (46,000 t/year) and the United States (25,000 t/year). Average groundnut cake export amounted to 280,000 t/year. Major exporters were Senegal (103,000 t/year), Argentina (51,000 t/year), India (43,000 t/year) and Sudan (35,000 t/year). Total groundnut cake export from sub-saharan Africa was 143,000 t/year. The main importers were France (129,000 t/year) and Thailand (53,000 t/year). Properties Mature groundnut seeds contain per 100 g edible portion (average of several types, which show little difference): water 6.5 g, energy 2374 kj (567 kcal), protein 25.8 g, fat 49.2 g, carbohydrate 16.1 g, dietary fibre 8.5 g, Ca 92 mg, Mg 168 mg, P 376 mg, Fe 4.6 mg, Zn 3.3 mg, vitamin A 0 IU, thiamin 0.64 mg, riboflavin 0.14 mg, niacin 12.1 mg, vitamin P> mg, folate 240 \ig and ascorbic acid 0 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 250 mg, lysine 926 mg, methionine 317 mg, phenylalanine 1337 mg, threonine 883 mg, valine 1082 mg, leucine 1672 mg and isoleucine 907 mg. The principal fatty acids are per 100 g edible portion: oleic acid 23.7 g, linoleic acid 15.6 g and palmitic acid 5.2 g (USDA, 2004). Groundnut seeds yield 42-56% oil. Groundnut oil contains 36-72% oleic acid, 13 48% linoleic acid and 6-20% palmitic acid. The ratio of oleic to linoleic acid has an important bearing on the stability of the oil; the higher the ratio, the more stable the oil and the longer its shelf life. The ratio in mature seeds can range from less than 1.0 to greater than 3.0; more than 1.3 is generally considered satisfactory by processors. The presscake contains 40-50% easily digestible protein, 20-25% carbohydrate and 5-15% residual oil. Groundnut pods have a thick woody shell containing normally 2-3 seeds ('kernels'). The seed coat constitutes about 4 5%of the seed weight, the cotyledons 90-94% and the germ 3-4%. The major components of the seed coat are carbohydrate, cellulose and protein. Oil and protein are the main constituents of the germ and cotyledons. The germ is associated with bitter components. An important problem in groundnut production is aflatoxin contamination by Aspergillus fungi. Aflatoxin has immunosuppressive effects and epidemiological studies, also in Africa, have shown a positive correlation between aflatoxin intake and the incidence of liver cancer. After industrial oil extraction, aflatoxin remains in the cake, and the refined oil is free of aflatoxin, but in case of small-scale extraction, the nonrefined oil may be contaminated. Groundnut is one of the most allergenic foods known and may cause anaphylactic reactions. Groundnut seeds contain a haemostatic factor which can be useful in haemophilia. Groundnut oil is mildly laxative. Adulterations and substitutes Groundnut oil can be substituted by other vegetable oils, e.g. from maize, soya bean and sunflower. Description Annual herb, with erect or prostrate stem up to 70 cm long; root system consisting of a well-developed taproot with many lateral roots, up to 135 cm deep, but generally restricted to the upper layers of the soil. Leaves arranged spirally, 4-foliolate with two opposite pairs of leaflets; stipules cm long, with a slender free tip, but fused to the petiole for about half their length; petiole cm long; petiolules 1 2 mm long; leaflets Arachis hypogaea - 1, branch with flowers and fruit; 2, inflorescence; 3, fruit; 4, seeds. Source: PROSEA 21 AEACHIS 23 obovate or elliptical, 1-7 cm x cm, cuneate-rounded at base, rounded or emarginate and mucronate at apex. Inflorescence an axillary, 2-5-flowered spike. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous, sessile; receptacle long and slender, pedicel-like, up to 4 cm long; calyx with 4 upper lobes joined, lower lobe free; corolla pale yellow to orange-red, rarely white, standard rounded, c. 1.5 cm x 1.5 cm, wings shorter, keel incurved; stamens (8-) 10, alternately with small, globular anthers and larger, oblong anthers, joined at base; ovary superior but situated at base of receptacle tube, style free within the tube, very long, ending in a minute club-shaped stigma. Fruit an oblong or sausage-shaped pod, borne at the tip of an elongated fruit stalk ('peg') up to 20 cm long,1 8 cm x cm, surface constricted to varying degrees between the seeds and reticulately veined, 1 6-seeded. Seeds cylindrical to ovoid, 1-2 cm x cm, with pointed or flattened ends, enclosed in a thin papery seed coat ranging in colour from white to deep purple. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons thick and fleshy. Other botanical information Arachis comprises about 70 species, all distributed in South America. The centre of origin of Arachis is the Mato Grosso region of Brazil. Arachis hypogaea is by far the most economically important species in this genus, but several other species have been cultivated for their seeds, including Arachis villosulicarpa Hoehne and Arachis stenosperma Krapov. & W.C.Greg. High levels of resistance to many diseases and pests of groundnut have been recorded in other Arachis species. Many of them are closely related to groundnut and include the other 26 species in section Arachis. Several diploid species have been suggested as wild progenitors of groundnut, but molecular and cytogenetic studies indicate that Arachis duranensis Krapov. & W.C.Greg, and Arachis ipaensis Krapov. & W.C.Greg, are most closely related to the progenitors of allotetraploid domesticated groundnut. Arachis monticola Krapov. & Rigoni is the only other tetraploid species in the section; it is very closely related to Arachis hypogaea and may be the direct descendant of the original hybrid between the 2 diploid progenitor species. Hybrids between Arachis hypogaea and other Arachis species have been produced by direct hybridization and by first creating autotetraploids or allotetraploids from the diploid species before making crosses. Hybrids show high levels of sterility due to ploidy level differences and genome incompatibility. There is considerable variation in Arachis hypogaea and two subspecies have been distinguished: subsp. hypogaea and subsp. fastigiata Waldron. Subsp. hypogaea ('runner type') is characterized by a more prostrate growth habit without flowering branches on the main stem, and with the cotyledonary lateral branches carrying alternate pairs of vegetative and reproductive secondary branches; it is usually late-maturing. It includes the 'Virginia' types groundnut. Subsp. fastigiata ('bunch type') is characterized by an erect growth habit with flowering branches on the main stem, and without a regular pattern in the sequence of vegetative and reproductive branches; and it is early-maturing. It includes the 'Spanish' and 'Valencia' types groundnut. Most groundnut cultivars grown in West Africa belong to subsp. hypogaea; most of those in East Africa to subsp. fastigiata. Subsp. hypogaea is mainly used for food, and subsp. fastigiata, which has a higher oil content, as a source of oil. Growth and development Seeds of "Virginia' types have a dormancy period of 1-3 months, whereas 'Spanish' and "Valencia' types are without dormancy. The optimum soil temperature for seed germination is C. Low temperatures retard germination and development and increase the risk of seedling diseases. Upon germination, the primary root elongates rapidly, reaching cm before lateral roots appear. As growth proceeds, the outer layer of the primary root of a seedling is sloughed off so that root hairs do not form. Branching is dimorphic, with vegetative branches and reduced reproductive branches. Secondary and tertiary vegetative branches can develop from the primary vegetative branches. Flowering may start as early as 20 days after planting, but days after planting is more usual. The number of flowers produced per day decreases as the seeds mature. Up to 50% of the embryos may abort even under ideal environmental conditions, but this percentage becomes much higher during times of drought or other environmental stress. However, plants can produce a 'second crop' of seeds if adequate moisture becomes available again. Groundnut is self-pollinating, but outcrossing can occur when bees pollinate the flowers. Groundnut generally produces more flowers under long day conditions, but reproductive efficiency is greater under short days. Only one 22 24 CEREALSAND PULSES of the flowers in an inflorescence opens at a given time. Flowers wither within 24 hours after anthesis. Fertilization usually occurs within 6 hours after pollination, when the basal part of the ovary starts elongating into a structure called 'peg'. The embryo initiates a growth phase until it reaches an 8-16-cell stage. It then becomes quiescent during the 5-15 days required for the 'peg' to enter the soil. The 'peg' stops elongating within a day or two after soil penetration, the embryo then restarting growth. In wild Arachis species the 'peg' may continue to grow to a length of nearly 2 m. Seeds in 'Spanish'-type cultivars usually mature within days after planting, whereas 'Virginia'-type cultivars take 130 days or more. Pods of the same size may differ significantly in maturity and seed weight. Groundnut is usually effectively nodulated by N2-fixing Bradyrhizobium bacteria. Because root hairs are absent, the bacteria infect the root through cracks in the epidermis near multicellular hairs at the basis of the root. Ecology The optimum mean daily temperature for groundnut growth is C; growth ceases when temperature drops below 15 C. Groundnut is mainly grown in areas with an average annual rainfall of mm; mm of rain reasonably well distributed over the growing season allows satisfactory production. Nevertheless, groundnut is drought-tolerant and can withstand severe lack of water, though yield is generally reduced. A dry period is required for ripening and harvesting. The phenology of groundnut is determined primarily by temperature, with cool temperatures delaying flowering. In controlled environments, photoperiod has been shown to influence the proportion of flowers producing pods and distribution of assimilates between vegetative and reproductive structures (harvest index) in some cultivars. Long photoperiods (greater than 14 hours) generally increase vegetative growth and short photoperiods (less than 10 hours) increase reproductive growth. Groundnut can be grown up to 1500 m altitude. The best soils for groundnut are deep (at least cm), friable, well-drained sandy loams, well-supplied with calcium and a moderate amount of organic matter. It is important to maintain near to neutral soil ph levels and Ca:K ratios lower than 3. Propagation and planting Groundnut is propagated by seed, but vegetative propagation using cuttings is possible. The 1000-seed weight ranges from 150 g to more than 1300 g. Sowing high-quality seed in a well-prepared, moist seedbed is essential for crop establishment. Groundnut seeds are often planted at a depth of 4-7 cm at a rate of kg/ha. Groundnut pods intended for sowing are often hand-shelled 1-2 weeks before sowing. Only fully mature pods are selected. Before sowing, groundnut seed may be treated with a fungicide to control seedling diseases. In general, early sowing improves yields and seed quality. Early sown crops also suffer less risk of disease such as groundnut rosette virus. However the appropriate sowing date depends on the maturity period of the cultivar. Small-seeded 'Spanish' types are spaced at cm between rows and 10 cm within the row. This gives an optimum plant population of 133, ,000 plants per ha. Large-seeded "Virginia' types are spaced at 75 cm between rows and 15 cm within the row, giving an optimum plant population of 89,000 plants per ha. Groundnut can be grown on the flat, or on ridges as is often the case in Malawi. Groundnut grown on ridges tends to give higher yields, probably because of more loose soil favourable for pod development and easier uprooting. In tropical Africa groundnut is grown as a sole crop or intercropped between rows of cereals such as maize, sorghum or pearl millet. Management Groundnut does not compete effectively with weeds, particularly in the early stages of development. The crop should be thoroughly weeded within the first 45 days. Once the development of the 'peg' begins, earthing-up is kept to a minimum. Weeds at this stage are hand pulled. Pre-and postemergence herbicides may be used to eradicate weeds, but they are too expensive for most small-scale farmers in Africa. In sound rotation systems, groundnut benefits from residual fertility; in general no additional fertilizer is given if the crop is sown on a well-managed soil previously treated with a balanced fertilizer. However, in order to ensure good crop establishment, high yield and good seed quality, a fertilizer containing Ca, such as gypsum or single superphosphate, should be applied. Calcium is absorbed directly by the pods if soil moisture is adequate. A shortage of Ca in the zone where the pods develop will result in empty pods, particularly in cultivars of the 'Virginia' type. Groundnut is normally a rainfed crop, but it is grown under irrigation in Sudan. Groundnut should preferably not be grown in the same field more than once in 3 years to 23 ARACHIS 25 limit damage by soil-borne diseases, nematodes and weeds. It fits into a wide range of rotations and it can follow any clean-weeded crop, e.g. maize, sorghum, pearl millet, cassava, sweet potato or sunflower. To reduce the incidence of diseases and pests, groundnut should not be sown after cotton or tobacco. Groundnut does well on virgin land or immediately following a grass ley or well-fertilized crop such as maize. The intensity of management of groundnut varies considerably around the world, depending on the economic return for the crop or the role of groundnut in the farming system. In the United States, Australia and parts of South America the crop is grown with intensive management, generally with high levels of mechanical and chemical inputs. In many countries groundnut is grown as a cash crop primarily for export. Diseases and pests Groundnut is susceptible to a number of diseases, such as early leaf spot (Cercospora arachidicola), late leaf spot (Cercosporidium personatum, synonym: Cercospora personata), rust (Puccinia arachidis), groundnut rosette (caused by a complex of 3 agents: groundnut rosette virus (GRV), groundnut rosette assistor virus (GRAV) and a satellite RNA) and aflatoxin contamination caused by Aspergillus fungi. Foliar diseases of groundnut are among the most important yieldlimiting factors in groundnut production. Early and late leaf spots and rust together may cause up to 70% yield losses; even where fungicides are applied significant yield reductions occur. Spraying with fungicide when the disease appears controls both leaf spots effectively. Dusting groundnut leaves with sulphur, early in the morning when there is still dew on the leaves, has been reported to control both early and late leaf spots. The use of sulphur has also been observed to increase leaf retention, thus increasing the quantity of leafy stems available for livestock feed. Cultural practices to control leaf spots include crop rotation and burning of crop residues. Cultivars with partial resistance to leaf spots have been developed. Rust generally occurs sporadically and at low severity, although it can cause crop losses up to 40% when an epidemic occurs. The cultural practices and fungicidal control measures recommended for leaf spots are also applicable to rust. Resistant cultivars are available. Groundnut rosette virus, transmitted by the aphid Aphis craccivora, is endemic to sub-saharan Africa and widely prevalent in Ghana, Nigeria, Malawi and Zambia. It is the most destructive disease of groundnut leading to % yield loss. Early sowing at high plant populations controls the spread of groundnut rosette by giving complete soil coverage as quickly as possible and restricting the movement of aphids. Cultivars resistant to groundnut rosette are widely grown in Africa. In Malawi it is common practice for farmers to interplant groundnut and cowpea to control groundnut rosette. Aspergillus fungi can invade groundnut pods and seeds, producing toxic compounds known as aflatoxin. Contaminated produce can be poisonous to people and livestock, and cannot be exported. Aflatoxin contamination also affects groundnut seed, leading to low germination percentage and poor seedling establishment. It can occur before harvest, during field drying and curing, and in storage. Preharvest contamination is likely to be most serious under drought. Post-harvest contamination occurs if groundnut pods or seeds become moist and/or damaged. Various methods are used to control aflatoxin. They include avoiding mechanical damage to pods or seeds during weeding, harvesting and storage, harvesting as soon as the pods are mature, proper drying and curing, and storing in the shell at low temperature under moisture-free conditions. Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) may cause considerable yield loss in groundnut; they can be controlled by crop rotation. On a global scale the most important insect pests include aphids (Aphis craccivora), thrips (Frankliniella spp.), jassids (Empoasca dolichi), white grubs (larvae of various beetles), termites (mainly Microtermes sp.) and the red tea bug Hilda patruelis. False wireworms and millipedes seem to occur less frequently. In general, soil pests cause more damage than foliage feeders or sucking pests. However, aphids are particularly harmful because they transmit groundnut rosette virus. In Asia and Africa white grubs, termites, millipedes and ants are important pests; in the United States the lesser cornstalk borer (Elasmopalpus lignosellus) and the southern corn rootworm (Diabrotica undecimpunctata) are the main insect pests of groundnut. Pests attacking stored groundnut pods and seeds include bruchids (Caryedon serratus, Callosobruchus spp., Acanthoscelides spp.) and flour beetles (Tribolium spp.). Parasitic plants (Alectra vogelii Benth. and Striga spp.) are recorded as causing damage to groundnut in various African countries. Harvesting The indeterminate flowering 24 26 CEREALS AND PULSES pattern of groundnut makes proper timing of harvest difficult, even though such timing is crucial for obtaining maximum yield and quality. Harvest at the proper time ensures that the maximum number of pods have attained their greatest weight and that pods are not falling off. Methods to determine the proper time for harvesting groundnut are available, but some are environment-specific or are prohibitively expensive. Presently only the shellout method and the hull-scrape method are widely used for groundnut maturity determination. The shell-out method is based on colour changes within the pod wall ( 'hull') that occur as the pod matures. The internal pod wall surface of most cultivars changes from white to brown or black blotches covering a large percentage of the area. The colour of the seed coat changes from white to dark pink or tan at the same time. A sample of plants is taken and pods opened. The percentage of pods with dark colour inside the pod wall is determined. Harvesting should begin when the percentage is 60-80, but recommendations vary. The shellout method is widely used because it can directly be used in the field without further handling of pods, requires no equipment and provides an immediate answer. The hull-scrape method, developed in the early 1990s, is currently accepted as the most accurate means of assessing the maturity of 'runner'-type groundnuts. The method is based on the fact that the pod mesocarp (the area just beneath the pale brown coloured exterior of the groundnut pod) changes from white to yellow to orange to brown to black as the crop matures. The method requires colour charts and a pocket knife to scrape the pod surface. Harvesting is carried out manually in most parts of Africa, as well as Asia. In the United States harvesting is normally done using a digger shaker inverter. When plants are harvested manually, they are loosened with a hoe and pulled out of the ground, after which they are turned to expose the pods to the sun to facilitate drying. When dry, the pods are ripped off the plants. With mechanical harvesting, the plants are cleanly removed from the soil and deposited in inverted windrows. Pods have to remain in the windrows until the average moisture content is 18-24%. Pods are then picked using a combine. Rainfall during windrowing may promote mould growth resulting in reduced milling quality. Yield In tropical Africa the average yield of groundnut pods in the early 2000s was about 850 kg/ha, which is only slightly higher than the average yield in the 1970s (730 kg/ha). National average yields of groundnut pods in tropical Africa range from kg/ha. Average world yields of groundnut pods increased from 0.9 t/ha in the 1970s to 1.4 t/ha in the early 2000s. With good management practices and proper disease control, yields up to 5 t/ha can be achieved. On average 100 kg of pods yield 70 kg of seeds, containing 35 kg oil. Handling after harvest Produce quality is closely related to proper harvesting date, harvesting method and drying; every step is critical to obtaining or maintaining quality. Groundnut pods are dried to an average moisture content of about 10%. Removing foreign materials early helps to maintain quality during storage. Cleaning equipment to remove the foreign material has been developed and includes sand screens and belt screens. Groundnut pods are stored in granaries, tanks, bins, concrete silos, warehouses or in the open. In storage, ventilation is crucial to prevent moisture build up which can promote mould growth and aflatoxin production. Excessive heat should be avoided. Storage structures should be examined frequently for moisture and insect problems as these can greatly reduce quality. Seeds can be protected from mechanical damage by storage and transport in the pods. In many areas groundnut is only shelled when it is to be used or sold; in local markets unshelled pods are often offered for sale. Both mechanical and manual shelling are common. Groundnut removed from storage is transported to shelling centres where the pods are graded, cleaned and shelled, and the seeds are separated into commercial grade sizes. Shelling operations may damage the seeds. Shelling of 100 kg of groundnut pods yields kg of seeds. Generally groundnut seeds can be stored at 1-5 C and 50-70% relative humidity for 1 year without loss of quality. Groundnut seeds tend to absorb gases and off-flavours, which should be avoided. Oil is extracted from groundnut seed by expeller pressing, hydraulic pressing, solvent extraction, or a combination of these methods. Expeller pressing is most widely used. Genetic resources The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India, holds the largest collection of groundnut types, with more than 15,000 accessions, differing for many vegetative, reproductive, physiological and 25 ARACHIS 27 biochemical traits including their reactions to biotic and abiotic stresses. A duplicate sample is maintained in a regional gene bank at Niamey, Niger. Other large collections of groundnut germplasm are held in the United States (Southern Regional Plant Introduction Station, Griffin, Georgia, 9000 accessions), India (National Research Centre for Groundnut (NRCG), Junagadh, 8000 accessions), China (Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (CAAS), Beijing, 5400 accessions; Institute of Oil Crops Research, Wuhan, 5700 accessions). In tropical Africa substantial groundnut germplasm collections are held in Senegal (Centre National de Recherche Agronomique, Bambey, 900 accessions), Uganda (Serere Agricultural and Animal Production Research Institute, Serere, 900 accessions) and Malawi (Plant Genetic Resources Centre, Chitedze Agricultural Research Station, Lilongwe, 500 accessions). The ARC Grain Crops Institute in Potchefstroom, South Africa, has a collection of 850 accessions. Core collections that have been developed are useful for developing models for future germplasm acquisition and evaluation for disease resistance. Additional collections are needed for most groundnut-producing regions, as landraces in these areas are rapidly being replaced with modern cultivars. Breeding Groundnut breeding efforts greatly increased when the ICRISAT groundnut breeding programme was established in Diverse breeding populations are now being tested in regional programmes in sub-saharan Africa and Asia. Most breeding programmes are conducted by public institutions. Groundnut breeding objectives have concentrated on adaptation to regional markets and production systems. All programmes aim at improving the productivity of the crop and resistance to diseases. Large-scale efforts to evaluate wild Arachis germplasm have resulted in identification of useful sources of resistance to many diseases. Recently there have been initiatives to improve flavour and quality. Breeding for resistance to aflatoxin contamination has received increased attention, and the selection of short-duration cultivars with drought resistance is a high priority in many programmes. Commonly used breeding methods in groundnut are pedigree selection, bulk-pedigree selection and single-seed descent. Backcross breeding has not been used extensively as most of the economically important traits of groundnut are quantitatively inherited. The major constraints to rapid genetic enhancement include: the close linkage of disease resistance genes with loci conferring undesirable pod and seed characteristics; the later maturity, lower partitioning to seeds, and higher photoperiodsensitivity of disease-resistant germplasm compared to agronomically elite susceptible materials; the large genotype x environment interactions for traits of economic importance; and limited gene introgression from wild Arachis species to cultivated groundnut. Genetic linkage maps of groundnut have been constructed using various markers, but the saturation level is insufficient for routine application in molecular breeding. An efficient tissue culture and transformation system for groundnut has been developed and transgenic groundnut plants have been produced using biolistic and Agrobacterium-meAiateA methods. Prospects Groundnut remains an extremely useful crop, providing food, oil, fodder and fuel to households and is also an important source of additional income as a cash crop. Important problems in groundnut cultivation in tropical Africa are low yields and its susceptibility to diseases. Many cultivars are still susceptible to early and late leaf spot and rust, as resistance tends to be linked with long duration and undesirable pod and seed characteristics. Therefore, the development of high-yielding cultivars with resistance to disease (especially leaf spots and rust) and adaptation to African production systems remains a major challenge for groundnut breeders. The application of DNA markers may allow breeders to combine resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses with improved productivity and seed quality. The use of biotechnology tools will become increasingly important for large-scale germplasm characterization and resolving some of the constraints (e.g. disease problems) in groundnut production. Major references Dwivedi et al., 2003; Knauft & Ozias-Akins, 1995; Knauft & Wynne, 1995; Kokalis-Burelle et al. (Editors), 1997; Krapovickas & Gregory, 1994; Melouk & Shokes (Editors), 1995; Shorter & Patanothai, 1989; Smartt (Editor), 1994; Stalker, 1997; Wynne, Beute & Nigam, Other references Burkill, 1995; Clavel, 2002; Clavel & Gautreau, 1997; de Waele & Swanevelder, 2001; Gillett et al., 1971; ILDIS, 2005; Isleib & Wynne, 1992; Kochert et al., 1996; Lynch & Mack, 1995; McDonald et al., 1998; Neuwinger, 2000; Norden, Smith & Corbet, 1982; Popelka, Terryn & Higgins, 2004; Purseglove, 1968; Sherwood et al., 1995; Singh, 1995; Singh & Nigam, 1997; Steinman, 1996; 26 28 CEREALS AND PULSES USDA, 2004; Wynne & Gregory, Sources of illustration Shorter & Patanothai, Authors B.R. Ntare AVENAABYSSINICA Höchst. Protologue Schimp, iter Abyss, sectio III No 1877 (1844). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 28 Vernacular names Ethiopian oat, Abyssinian oat (En). Avoine d'abyssinie (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Avena abyssinica probably originated from Avena barbata Pott ex Link. It is native to Eritrea, Ethiopia and Yemen, and is cultivated for its grain in northern Ethiopia. It has been tried as a crop in Tanzania and Algeria. Uses In Ethiopia the grain of Avena abyssinica is used mixed with barley to make pancake-like bread ('injera'), local beer ('tella') and other products. The grain is also eaten roasted as a snack ('kollo'). Malt containing an admixture of Avena abyssinica has been credited with giving better beer than malt from pure barley or wheat. Botany Erect annual grass up to 1.5 m tall. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath long and loose; ligule acute, membranous; blade linear, flat, usually glaucous. Inflorescence a terminal panicle cm long, loose and open, the branches slightly rough. Spikelet slenderstalked, pendulous, cm long, 2-3- flowered, with the uppermost floret reduced or vestigial, non-shattering; glumes almost equal, narrowly elliptical, sharply acuminate, severalveined; lemma cm long, smooth and glabrous or with a few bristly hairs near the awn insertion or margin, narrowly bifid, each lobe with 1 vein extended into an apical bristle 1 3 mm long, usually also minutely toothed at the base of the bristle, with slender, abruptly bent awn cm long, arising from the back of the lemma; palea almost as long as lemma, bifid, 2- keeled, prickly hairy on the back; stamens 3; ovary superior, villous, with 2 stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain). Avena comprises about 30 species, which are diploid (2n - 14), tetraploid (2n 28) or hexaploid (2n 42). The tetraploid Avena abyssinica belongs to section Ethiopica. It can be distinguished from the common oat (Avena sativa L.) by the presence of two bristles at its lemma tip. It crosses easily with the weed Avena vaviloviana (Malzev) Mordv., resulting in weedy hybrid swarms which shatter easily. Ecology Avena abyssinica is cultivated, but is also a weed of arable land, particularly in barley and wheat fields. In Ethiopia it is found at m altitude. Experiments indicate that Avena abyssinica is a long-day plant and that vernalization results in earlier flowering. Management Avena abyssinica is recorded to be grown sometimes in Eritrea and Ethiopia, but it is unclear to what extent this is still the case. As a weed in barley and wheat it is often tolerated and harvested with the main crop. Avena abyssinica is affected by crown rust or leaf rust (Puccinia coronata f.sp. avenae). It is also susceptible to infestation with ergot (Claviceps spp.); consumption of infected grains has led to outbreaks of ergotism in Ethiopia. Genetic resources and breeding The largest germplasm collections of Avena abyssinica are kept at in the United States (USDA-ARS National Small Grains Germplasm Research Facility, Aberdeen, Idaho, 241 accessions), the United Kingdom (John Innes Centre, Department of Applied Genetics, Norwich, 65 accessions) and the Russian Federation (N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry, St. Petersburg, 53 accessions). No germplasm collections are known to exist in tropical Africa. Prospects Avena abyssinica is a semidomesticated plant in Ethiopia, where it is used as a component in mixtures for the preparation of food and local beer. It has, however, not become important and its present status is uncertain. Major references Baum, 1977; Fröman & Persson, 1974; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; National Research Council, 1996; Phillips, Other references Clayton, 1970; Engels, Hawkes & Worede (Editors), 1991; Harlan, 1989a; Harlan, 1989b; rung, 1979; Martens & McKenzie, 1973; Sampson & Burrows, 1972; Welch (Editor), Authors M. Brink AVENASATIVA L. Protologue Sp. pi. 1: 79 (1753). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 42 Vernacular names Oat, oats, common oat (En). Avoine, avoine cultivée (Fr). Aveia, aveia- 27 AVENA 29 amarela (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Avena sativa is only known in cultivation and its exact origin is unclear. Oat was not cultivated as early as wheat and barley and probably it persisted as a weed in fields of these cereals for centuries before it was taken into cultivation. Oat seeds have been found in 4000-year-old remains in Egypt, but these were probably from weeds and not from cultivated oat. The oldest known cultivated oat remains were found in caves in Switzerland that date back to around 1000 BC. Avena sativa probably evolved in central or northern Europe from wild Avena sterilis L. germplasm from southwestern Asia. Nowadays oat is extensively cultivated in northern temperate regions, mainly in Europe and North America. In tropical Africa it is mainly grown in Ethiopia and Kenya. It is also cultivated in South Africa, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Uses Oat has been used as food and fodder since ancient times. Oat grain is an ingredient in a wide range of food products including breakfast cereals, porridge, cookies, breads and muffins, crackers and snacks, beverages, meat extenders and baby foods. Oat grain is considered to have potential as a source of good edible oil. In Ethiopia oat is made into 'injera' (pancake-like bread), 'tella' (local beer) and other products. In industrialized countries oat grain mainly finds application as animal feed, especially for horses, but also for cattle, sheep, turkeys and other animals. The green plant is good forage; it makes good hay and silage or is grazed by animals. The straw too is used as forage, e.g. in Ethiopia, where it also serves as bedding for livestock, fuel and roofing material Avena sativa - planted for traditional houses. Also in Kenya oat is used as food and as fodder. A field sown for grain production can be used for grazing if rains are inadequate; on the other hand fields are sometimes grazed to delay grain development. In Australia oat is planted for sand binding on dunes. An important industrial utilization is the use of oat hulls for the production of furfural and other furan compounds, utilized in the production of fungicides, disinfectants and preservatives. Oat products also find application in the cosmetic industry as talc replacements and in skin care products. Oat flour has anti-oxidant properties and has been used for food conservation, but it has largely been replaced by synthetic chemicals. Production and international trade According to FAO statistics the average world oat grain production in amounted to about 25.9 million t/year from 12.7 million ha. The main producing countries are the Russian Federation (5.8 million t/year in , from 3.8 million ha), Canada (3.3 million t/year from 1.4 million ha) and the United States (2.0 million t/year from 0.9 million ha). The average oat grain production in sub-sahara Africa in has been estimated at 55,000 t/year from 53,000 ha, almost entirely from Ethiopia (50,000 t/year from 49,000 ha) and Kenya (3500 t/year from 3400 ha) and small amounts from Zimbabwe. Due to the decline of oat as animal feed, partly as a result of the mechanization of agriculture and decreased importance of workhorses, world production steadily declined from about 50 million t/year (from about 35 million ha) in the early 1960s to about 26 million t/year (from about 13 million ha) in the early 2000s. In the same period the production in sub-sahara Africa increased from about 20,000 t/year to about 55,000 t/year. The largest part of the oat production is consumed locally, with about 2.5 million t/year entering international trade in Canada (1.2 million t/year), Sweden (450,000 t/year) and Finland (360,000 t/year) are the largest exporters; the United States (1.7 million t/year) the largest importer. International trade in oat in tropical Africa is insignificant. Properties The composition of oat grain per 100 g edible portion is: water 8.2 g, energy 1628 kj (389 kcal), protein 16.9 g, fat 6.9 g, carbohydrate 66.3 g, dietary fibre 10.6 g, Ca 54 mg, Mg 177 mg, P 523 mg, Fe 4.7 mg, Zn 4.0 mg, vitamin A 0 IU, thiamin 0.76 mg, ribofla- 28 30 CEREALS AND PULSES vin 0.14 mg, niacin 0.96 mg, vitamin B mg, folate 56 ig and ascorbic acid 0 mg. The essential amino acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 234 mg, lysine 701 mg, methionine 312 mg, phenylalanine 895 mg, threonine 575 mg, valine 937 mg, leucine 1284 mg and isoleucine 694 mg. The principal fatty acids are per 100 g edible portion: linoleic acid 2424 mg, oleic acid 2165 mg, palmitic acid 1034 mg and linolenic acid 111 mg (USDA, 2004). Compared to other cereals, oat has a high protein content and a good amino acid profile, with a high level of lysine. The fat content is also higher than that of other cereals, with a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. Starch contents of 43-61% have been recorded. The amylose content of the starch is 11-34%. Starch granules are irregular to polygonal in shape with an average diameter of (3.8-) (-10.5) urn. The soluble fibre in oat bran is believed to reduce blood cholesterol in humans, due to the presence of ß-glucan. Oat has shown hypoglycaemic activity and beneficial effects on gastrointestinal functions. Oat bran seems to protect against dental caries. Compounds contributing to the antioxidant properties of oat flour include glyceryl esters of hydroxycinnamic acid, ferulic acid and caffeic acids. Oat seems to be tolerated by most coeliac patients, although concerns remain. The unhulled ground grain is highly acceptable for ruminants and horses. Hulled and ground oat grain is usually fed to pigs and poultry. Oat green forage, hay and silage is highly palatable to ruminants. In Kenya the crude protein content of oat plants (on dry matter basis) declined from 20.2% for 50 cm-tall plants to 8.1% at full flowering, with the in-vitro protein digestibility declining from 84.9% to 46.7%. The crude fibre content increased from 23.3% to 28.1%, the carbohydrate content from 42.0% to 56.0%, the ash content decreased from 11.5% to 5.4%, and the ether-extract from 3.7% to 2.4%. Straw in Kenya contained on dry matter basis: 5.3% crude protein, 38.0% crude fibre, 10.2% ash, 1.4% ether extract and 45.1% N-free extract. Description Erect annual grass up to 2 m tall, with a fibrous root system; stems (culms) solitary or tufted, smooth or scabrous beneath the inflorescence. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath long and loose, rounded on the back; ligule blunt, membranous, 3-5 mm long; blade linear, flat, cm x (-2) cm. Inflorescence a terminal panicle 15 30( 40) cm long, loose and open or contracted. Spikelet Avena sativa - 1, part of stem with leaf; 2, inflorescence. Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin slender-stalked, pendulous, cm long, usually 2-3-flowered, with the uppermost florets reduced, non-shattering; glumes almost equal, narrowly elliptical-oblong, sharply acute, several-veined; lemma cm long, more or less truncate or minutely 2-4-toothed, awn present or absent, glabrous or sparsely hairy around the awn insertion; palea slightly shorter than lemma; stamens 3; ovary superior, villous, with 2 laterally exserted stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), cm long, narrow, with nearly parallel sides, hairy, grooved lengthwise on the face, tightly enclosed by lemma and palea. Other botanical information Avena comprises about 30 species, which are diploid (2n = 14), tetraploid (2ra- 28) or hexaploid (2n = 42). All hexaploid Avena species belong to section Avena. The hexaploids Avena sativa, Avena byzantina C.Koch (red oat), Avena fatua L. and Avena sterilis L. are interfertile. Avena byzantina is closely related to Avena sativa and possibly derived through selection from the latter. Some authors include Avena byzantina in Avena sativa. Avena byzantina is cultivated mainly in southern Europe. In tropical Africa it has been grown experimentally in Kenya and 29 AVENA 31 has been recorded as a weed in Tanzania. It has naturalized in South Africa, where it is found in disturbed locations and on roadsides. Avena fatua and Avena sterilis are important weeds of cereals, e.g. in Europe, Ethiopia and Kenya, and differ from Avena sativa in their shattering spikelets and hairy lemmas. The tetraploid Avena abyssinica Höchst, can be distinguished from Avena sativa by the two bristles at its lemma tip. Avena sativa is variable, which is reflected in elaborate infraspecific classifications, mainly based on inflorescence and lemma characteristics. Growth and development Oat seeds start to germinate 7 days after sowing. Seedlings start tillering days after sowing. Up to 12 leaves are produced per stem. The time from sowing to flowering depends on sowing time, e.g. in north-western Europe it is 100 days for spring-sown crops to 270 days for autumnsown crops. Oat is largely self-pollinated with up to 1% outcrossing. The time from flowering to harvesting is about 60 days in north-western Europe. The total crop duration is 3 6 months in Ethiopia and Kenya, and 6-11 months in temperate regions. Shattered seeds remain viable in the soil for a long time, which may result in weedy growth in subsequent crops. Ecology Oat is mostly grown under cool and moist conditions in cool-temperate regions, mainly as spring-sown and to some extent autumn-sown crop. In tropical Africa it is mostly grown in mid- to high-altitude areas ( m altitude), with an annual rainfall over 800 mm and minimum and maximum air temperatures of 6 C and 24 C, respectively. In Ethiopia it is usually grown at m altitude. Oat is not as sensitive to frost as wheat. When moisture is not limiting it also performs well in warmer, humid mid-altitude tropical environments. Oat needs more water than any other cereal except rice. It is generally a quantitative long-day plant, but differences in photoperiod-sensitivity exist among cultivars, with particularly strong responses in northern European cultivars. Vernalization responses have also been recorded. Oat thrives on a wide range of soil types, as long as drainage is sufficient. It grows on soils that are sandy, low in fertility, or highly acidic (as low as ph 4.5), but it performs best on welldrained, fertile, loamy soils. Propagation and planting Oat is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g. Seeds 2-3 months old normally have more than 85% germination. Oat seeds kept under natural cold conditions in the highlands of Ethiopia still germinated after 15 years of storage. Under tropical highland conditions, the seeds are broadcast or drilled (row spacing cm) at a recommended rate of kg/ha, with drilled crops and crops intended for grain production at the lower end of the range. In Kenya oat is normally sown with a wheat drill in rows cm apart, at a seed rate of kg/ha. In the high-altitude tropics, oat is usually sown at the onset of the rainy season. When grown for forage, oat is sometimes grown mixed with vetches {Vicia spp.) or pea (Pisum sativum L.). Management The vigorous growth of oat seedlings and the release of allelopathic compounds depress weed growth. Hand-weeding (usually once) and application of broadleaf herbicides such as 2,4-D may be used for weed control. In Ethiopia farmers do not weed their oat fields. Oat fields are seldom fertilized in tropical Africa, although the crop responds well to application of NPK. In the Ethiopian highlands the general recommendation is to apply kg N and kg P per ha at sowing, and kg N per ha top-dressing at tillering. Oat is grown in rotation with barley, wheat, faba bean, pea and sometimes with fallow or a green manure. Allelopathic compounds can hinder the growth of subsequent crops, if they are sown within about 3 weeks after the harvest of oat. In Kenya an oat crop may be grazed 1 2 times, before it is allowed to mature as a grain crop. Alternatives are 2 4 grazings of a crop in a season, 2 grazings followed by use as a hay crop, or 1 2 grazings followed by a hay crop and a grazing. Oat can be grazed within 6 8 weeks after sowing. Diseases and pests Leaf (crown) rust (Puccinia coronata f.sp. avenae) and stem rust (Puccinia graminis f.sp. avenae) are the most important diseases of oat. Systemic fungicides such as triazoles and morpholines are effective in controlling them, but this is seldom economical. The use of cultivars resistant to rust is recommended. Septoria leaf spot (Septoria avenae), barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV, also called 'red leaf), halo blight (Pseudomonas coronafaciens), loose smut (Ustilago avenae) and covered smut (Ustilago hordei) are other common diseases of oat. Major pests include grasshoppers, army worms and cut worms. Various aphid species are vectors of BYDV. At later stages of maturity birds and rats are important pests. Weevils (Sitophi- 30 32 CEREALS AND PULSES lus granarius) and some other beetles attack stored oat grain. Harvesting In Africa oat is harvested manually by sickle or scythe, for forage normally after heading, and for grain when the seed is in the hard dough stage, which is normally at the end of the rainy season. The harvest is left in the field for sun-drying and is subsequently threshed (grain crop) or piled (forage crop). A mechanized combine can be utilized for harvesting large-scale grain oat crops or a mower for forage oat crops. When oat straw is needed for roofing, the panicle is harvested by sickle for grain, after which the remaining stubble is harvested by sickle or scythe at ground level. Yield The world average grain yield of oat is about 2 t/ha with straw yields of about 5.5 t/ha. As the result of threshing is not a naked grain, the hull (lemma and palea) generally accounts for 25 35%of the total grain weight. The average oat grain yield in Ethiopia and Kenya is about 1 t/ha. When oat is harvested for green fodder, hay or silage the dry matter yield is 4-15 t/ha. Handling after harvest Oat grain should be dried to a moisture content of 12 14% before storage, with a storage temperature below 20 C. In industrialized countries oat grain processing generally involves cleaning, drying (to partially inactivate lipolytic enzymes which would result in rancidity), hulling, cutting, steaming (to complete inactivation of lipolytic enzymes) and flaking or milling. The cheapest way of conserving oat forage is hay making. In areas where hay making is difficult, oat can be made into silage, either alone or mixed with legumes. Genetic resources Large Avena sativa germplasm collections are maintained in the United States (National Small Grains Germplasm Research Facility, USDA-ARS, Aberdeen, Idaho, 10,000 accessions), the Russian Federation (N.I. Vavilov Ail-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry, St. Petersburg, 8800 accessions), Canada (Soil and Crops Research and Development Centre, Sainte-Foy, Quebec, 7500 accessions) and Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu, 3700 accessions). A total of 656 accessions are kept at ICARDA (Syria) and ILRI (Ethiopia). About 835 oat accessions (mostly from Europe, United States and Ethiopia) are available at the EARO (Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization) Holetta Research Centre in Ethiopia. Oat seeds show orthodox seed storage behaviour. Breeding The major objectives in oat breeding are improved grain and forage yields. The development of cultivars resistant to fungal and viral diseases, especially crown and stem rusts, is important too. Sources of resistance to crown rust are found in wild Avena species, especially Avena sterilis. Modern techniques of breeding have resulted in improved cultivars with desirable traits such as resistance to diseases, high yield, huskless ('naked') grains, white-coloured large grain, and high contents of protein and oil in the grain. Molecular marker maps have been constructed and a genetic transformation system has been developed that allows the insertion of foreign genes into oat using particle bombardment. In tropical Africa there are small-scale breeding activities in Ethiopia and Kenya, mainly focusing on resistance to diseases and increased forage and grain yields. In Ethiopia and Kenya farmers are mainly interested in dual-purpose cultivars. Prospects Due to its tolerance to poor soil fertility and to frost, its low requirements of external inputs such as fertilizers, and its dualpurpose character (food and fodder), oat has favourable prospects in the highlands of tropical Africa, especially for resource-poor farmers. On a worldwide scale, oat also has potential for pharmaceutical and cosmetic uses. Major references Assefa et al., 2003; Baum, 1977; Boonman, 1993; Coffman (Editor), 1961; Coffman, 1977; McMullen, 2000; Phillips, 1995; Suttie, 2004; Thomas, 1995; Welch (Editor), Other references Clayton, 1970; Dougall, 1954; Feyissa, 2004; Frey, 1998; Fröman & Persson, 1974; Gebrehiwot, 1981; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Gibson & Benson, 2002; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Hoover et al, 2003; Jellen & Beard, 2000; Jutzi & Grysels, 1984; Kassam et al, 1991; Mailu, 1997; Mulat & Damesa, 1996; Peltonen-Sainio, 1998; Rogerson, 1956; USDA, 2004; Wight et al, 2003; Zhou, Jellen & Murphy, Sources of illustration Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Hegi, Authors G. Assefa 31 BAUHINIA 33 BAUHINIA PETERSIANA Bolle Protologue Peters, Naturw. Reise Mossambique 6(1): 24 (1861). Family Caesalpiniaceae (Leguminosae - Caesalpinioideae) Chromosome number 2n = 28 Synonyms Bauhinia macrantha Oliv. (1871). Vernacular names Kalahari white bauhinia, wild coffee bean, coffee neat's foot, camel's foot (En). Bauhinia blanc du Kalahari (Fr). Chingando (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Bauhinia petersiana occurs in south-eastern DR Congo and Tanzania, and throughout southern Africa. Uses The meal of pounded seeds of Bauhinia petersiana is eaten. The seeds are also eaten as nuts after roasting and are considered a delicacy in parts of Botswana. Roasted and ground seeds are used as a substitute for coffee. Unripe seeds can also be eaten. The pods are eaten either roasted (Namibia) or boiled (Zambia). Seed oil is extracted in Botswana for local use. In DR Congo the bark fibres are used to make rope and the roots to produce a dye. Bauhinia petersiana is widely browsed by livestock. In Zimbabwe, South Africa and the United States it is grown as an ornamental shrub. In much of its area of distribution the leaves of Bauhinia petersiana are boiled, the steam inhaled and the cooled-down liquid drunk to cure common cough. The Shona people of Zimbabwe take an infusion of the roots to treat dysmenorrhoea and female infertility. In South Africa the pounded leaves mixed with salt are boiled and the warm liquid is sprinkled on wounds to promote healing. A decoction of the macerated roots is drunk as a remedy for diarrhoea. Properties Dry seeds of Bauhinia petersiana contain per 100 g: water 6.8 g, energy 1554 kj (371 kcal), protein 22.9 g, fat 13.1 g, carbohydrate 40.2 g, fibre 13.0 g, Ca 237 mg, P 317 mg, Fe 3.9 mg, thiamin 0.58 mg, riboflavin 0.2 mg and niacin 1.6 mg (Arnold, Wells & Wehmeyer, 1985). The principal fatty acids in the seed oil are linoleic acid (45%), oleic acid (26%), palmitic acid (16%) and stearic acid (7%). The roots and leaves contain tannins. Botany Shrub or small tree up to 10 m tall; young branchlets pubescent and with many small orange glands or scales, some branchlets coiled apically, tendril-like. Leaves alternate, simple; stipules 3-5 mm x 1-2 mm, deciduous; petiole cm long; blade 2-8 cm x 2-10 cm, 2-lobed to one-third to two-thirds down, lobes elliptical to ovate or rounded. Inflorescence an axillary, leaf-opposed or terminal raceme,1 10-flowered. Flowers bisexual, almost regular, 5-merous; hypanthium (1.5-)2-5.5(-6.5) cm long; sepals linear to linear-lanceolate, cm long; petals narrowly elliptical to ovate, cm x cm, white throughout or sometimes base of midrib pink; fertile stamens (4-) 5(-6), slightly unequal in length, staminodes 4-5; ovary superior, slender, hairy, style 2-4 cm long. Fruit a linear-oblong to oblanceolateoblong pod cm x cm, woody, dehiscent, 5-6-seeded. Seeds 1-3 cm x cm, deep chestnut-brown to blackish. Bauhinia is a widespread tropical genus with about 250 species. In Bauhinia petersiana 2 subspecies are distinguished. Subsp. petersiana has 2 10-flowered inflorescences, appressed hairs at the lower side of the leaves, and it is distributed in the more eastern and northern parts of the area of the species. Subsp. macrantha (Oliv.) Brummitt & J.H.Ross has l-3(-4)- flowered inflorescences and curved or spreading hairs at the lower side of the leaves, and it is found from southern Zambia and western Zimbabwe towards the south and west. Bauhinia petersiana does not possess root nodules and relies on soil nitrogen. Ecology Bauhinia petersiana is found in open grassland, wooded grassland and woodland. In East Africa it is found at altitudes of m. In southern Africa it is found in dry localities, e.g. in the Kalahari with an annual rainfall of about 350 mm only, and it tolerates frost. Management In the Kalahari the seeds of Bauhinia petersiana are harvested from April to July. For use as an ornamental Bauhinia petersiana is propagated by seed, cuttings or layering. The 100-seed weight is about 670 g. Genetic resources and breeding There are indications that Bauhinia petersiana has disappeared completely from communal grazing land in southern Botswana, possibly as a result of increased grazing pressure. Two accessions from Botswana are stored in the Millenium Seedbank (Ardingly, West Sussex, United Kingdom), a single accession from Zimbabwe is kept by the Desert Legume Programme in the United States. Prospects Although Bauhinia petersiana has been considered a candidate for cultivation as a food crop for a long time, no attempts have been made to domesticate the species, nor to exploit or even explore its genetic variation. 32 34 CEREALS AND PULSES Efforts to conserve the southern populations, in situ or ex situ, are urgently needed to avoid loss of variation. Major references Arnold, Wells & Wehmeyer, 1985; Coates Palgrave, 1983; Gelfand et al., 1985; Leger, 1997; von Koenen, Other references Brenan, 1967; Brummitt & Ross, 1982; Dakora, Lawlor & Sibuga, 1999; Ketshajwang, Holmback & Yeboah, 1998; National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Neuwinger, 2000; Ross, 1977; Story, 1958; van Wyk & Gericke, 2000; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, Authors C.H. Bosch BRACHIARIA DEFLEXA (Schumach.) C.E.Hubb. ex Robyns Protologue Bull. Jard. Bot. Etat. 9(3): 181 (1932). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 18, 36 Synonyms Pseudobrachiaria deflexa (Schumach.) Launert (1970). Vernacular names Guinea millet, animal fonio, false signal grass (En). Fonio à grosses graines, gros fonio, millet de Guinée, kolo rassé (Fr). Jégé (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Guinea millet is a semi-domesticated weed of the African savanna. It is found from Cape Verde and Senegal eastward to Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia and southward to South Africa; it also occurs in western Asia to Pakistan and India. Uses Guinea millet is considered to belong to the 'kreb' grasses, a group of grasses occurring in the Sahel region and collected for human consumption, especially in time of food shortage. In the Fouta Djallon Highlands on the Guinea-Mali border the grain of a cultivated type is ground into flour used to make cakes and fritters. Guinea grass provides excellent forage. Properties Guinea millet has soft grains that are easily ground into flour. Botany Annual grass up to 70(-100) cm tall; stems (culms) solitary or tufted, slender, often weak and ascending. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath pale, striate, finely pubescent; ligule ciliate; blade broadly linear to narrowly lanceolate, 4-25 cm x cm, velvety pubescent. Inflorescence panicle-like, composed of 5-15 racemes borne on an axis 6-15 cm long; racemes distant, widely spreading, 2-10 cm long, often with side-branches, bearing mostly paired distant spikelets. Spikelet up to 15 mm long stalked, broadly elliptical, mm long, glabrous to pubescent, acute, 2- flowered with lower floret male or sterile and upper bisexual; lower glume up to half as long as spikelet, upper glume as long as spikelet, membranous, 7-veined; lemma of lower floret membranous, lemma of upper floret wrinkled and acute; palea of upper floret obtuse to acute; stamens 3; ovary superior, with 2 stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), ellipsoid, compressed. Brachiaria comprises about 100 species distributed in the tropics and subtropics, mainly in the Old World. It has been proposed that Brachiaria be nearly completely reduced to Urochloa. Brachiaria deflexa is usually easily distinguishable from other Brachiaria species by its panicle-like inflorescence, which resembles that of Panicum spp. It intergrades with Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf and is sometimes included in the latter. Guinea millet is often confused with fonio (Digitaria exilis (Kippist) Stapf). Compared to fonio, it has larger grains and it grows faster, but it requires higher soil fertility and better drainage. The cultivated type sown in the Fouta Djallon Highlands (called var. sativa Portères) differs from the wild types harvested elsewhere particularly by being totally glabrous and by having a branched stem and much larger grains; furthermore, it is non-shattering. Some Guinea millet types mature in as little as days, but most types take days to reach maturity. Guinea millet follows the C4- cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Guinea millet is found from sealevel up to 1500 m altitude in open woodland, forest margins and as a weed of cultivated land and disturbed soils, often preferring slightly shady locations. It is considered droughtresistant. Brachiaria deflexa needs fertile and well-drained soils for optimum growth. Management Guinea millet is mostly collected from the wild, but farmers sometimes encourage its invasion into cereal fields and it is sown as a cereal in the Fouta Djallon Highlands. Farmers also sometimes sow fastmaturing Guinea millet types to fill in gaps in a field sown with fonio, sorghum, maize or other cereals. Genetic resources and breeding Guinea millet collections are held at CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, Cali, Colombia, 16 accessions) and in Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, Kikuyu, Muguga, 5 accessions). In view of its wide distribution, Guinea 33 CAJANUS 35 millet seems not threatened by genetic erosion. The Guinea millet cultivar sown in the Fouta Djallon Highlands may have potential for further selection. Prospects Too little is known about Guinea millet to make an accurate assessment of its potential as a food plant. More information is needed on its nutritional properties, agronomy, ecological requirements and genetic diversity. The wild type will remain a valuable fodder plant for dry regions, due to its drought resistance and excellent fodder characteristics. Major references Burkill, 1994; Clayton & Renvoize, 1982; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; National Research Council, 1996; Portères, Other references Basappa, Muniyamma & Chinnappa, 1987; Baudet, 1981; Clayton, 1972; Clayton, 1989; Cope, 1995; de Wet, 1995c; Froman & Persson, 1974; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Phillips, 1995; van der Hoek & Jansen, 1996a. Authors M. Brink CAJANUS CAJAN (L.) Millsp. Protologue Publ. Field Columbian Mus., Bot. Ser. 2(1): 53 (1900). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceace) Chromosome number In 22 Synonyms Cajanus indicus Spreng. (1826). Vernacular names Pigeon pea, Congo pea, red gram (En). Pois cajan, pois d'angole, ambrevade (Fr). Ervilha do Congo, feijào guandu, ervilha de Angola (Po). Mbaazi (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Pigeon pea originated in India, where it has been grown for thousands of years. It reached Africa about 2000 BC or earlier, and a secondary centre of diversity developed in East Africa. With the conquests and slave trade it reached the Americas probably via both the Atlantic and the Pacific. Nowadays it is grown all over the tropics, but is most important in the Indian subcontinent and East Africa. It is not known in the wild, but often occurs naturalized as an escape from cultivation. Uses In Africa dry pigeon pea seeds are often used for sauces accompanying staple food preparations such as cassava, yam and rice. Ripe seeds are eaten fried or boiled, often after being soaked first, or boiled into porridge. In the Indian subcontinent pigeon pea is mainly used as a pulse, in the form of 'dhal' (soaked, Cajanus cajan - planted dried, hulled and split seeds), and this use is carried on by Indian communities in Africa. The use of immature pigeon pea seeds and pods as a vegetable in soups and sauces is common in many African countries. Canning and freezing of the green seed is mainly done in Central America. In Asia pigeon pea may be used instead of soya bean to make tempeh or tofu. Vegetative parts are excellent fodder and seeds are also used as animal feed. The by-products of dhal production (seed coat and broken cotyledons) are used as cattle and poultry feed in India, and also in Kenya and Malawi. Pigeon pea is useful in hedges and windbreaks on dry soils and in agroforestry (e.g. in alley cropping systems, where it is pruned to supply green manure). It is also grown as a shade crop, cover crop, or as support for vanilla. Pigeon pea improves the soil through its extensive root system, nitrogen fixation and the mulch provided by the fallen leaves. It serves as a host for silkworm (Madagascar) and the lac insect. Stems and branches, especially those of medium- and long-duration cultivars, are used for basketry, thatching, fencing and as fuel. In Nigeria the stems serve as stakes for yam. Pigeon pea finds wide application in traditional medicine. Diarrhoea, gonorrhoea, measles, burns, eye infections, earache, sore throat, sore gums, toothache, anaemia, intestinal worms, dizziness and epilepsy are treated with leaf preparations. Root preparations are taken to treat cough, stomach problems and syphilis. Stem ash is applied on wounds, and stalks and roots are chewed against toothache. Powdered seeds serve as a poultice on swellings. In 34 36 CEREALS AND PULSES Madagascar the leaves are used to clean teeth. Production and international trade According to FAO statistics the world pigeon pea production in amounted to 3.1 million t/year from 4.3 million ha; the main producing country is India (2.5 million t from 3.4 million ha). The main producers in tropical Africa in were Malawi (79,000 t from 123,000 ha), Uganda (78,000 t from 78,000 ha), Kenya (59,000 t from 152,000 ha) and Tanzania (47,000 t from 66,000 ha). The annual production in Mozambique is estimated at 40,000 t. Worldwide the area under pigeon pea has increased steadily from about 2.8 million ha in the early 1960s to about 4.3 million ha at present, whereas the production increased from million t to around 3 million t in the same period. Pigeon pea is mostly consumed locally, with limited amounts entering international trade, and trade statistics are hardly available. Occasional export demand may boost cultivation. In Malawi and Kenya an estimated 65% of the pigeon pea production in was consumed on-farm, 10% traded on the domestic market, and 25% exported. For Tanzania these amounts were 35%, 10% and 55%, respectively. By far the most important export market is India, followed by the Middle East. In the Indian market African pigeon pea has to compete mainly with pigeon pea from Myanmar and pea from Canada and France. Pigeon pea is widely, but often informally, traded within Africa, for instance between Mozambique and Malawi and between Tanzania and Kenya. In northern Tanzania most of the pigeon pea produced is sold in Kenya, where it is very popular among the Indian community. Properties The composition of raw mature pigeon pea seeds per 100 g edible portion is: water 10.6 g, energy 1435 kj (343 kcal), protein 21.7 g, fat 1.5 g, carbohydrate 62.8 g, dietary fibre 15.0 g, Ca 130 mg, Mg 183 mg, P 367 mg, Fe 5.2 mg, Zn 2.8 mg, vitamin A 28 IU, thiamin 0.64 mg, riboflavin 0.19 mg, niacin 3.0 mg, vitamin Ik 0.28 mg, folate 456 Jg and ascorbic acid 0 mg. The essential amino acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 212 mg, lysine 1521 mg, methionine 243 mg, phenylalanine 1858 mg, threonine 767 mg, valine 937 mg, leucine 1549 mg and isoleucine 785 mg. The principal fatty acids per 100 g edible portion are: linoleic acid 778 mg and palmitic acid 307 mg (USDA, 2004). Methionine is the limiting amino acid, followed by tryptophan and threonine. Antinutritional factors in Nigerian pigeon pea seed include trypsin inhibitor activity, tannins and phytate. The composition of raw immature seeds per 100 g edible portion is: water 65.9 g, energy 569 kj (136 kcal), protein 7.2 g, fat 1.6 g, carbohydrate 23.9 g, dietary fibre 5.1 g, Ca 42 mg, Mg 68 mg, P 127 mg, Fe 1.6 mg, Zn 1.0 mg, vitamin A 67 IU, thiamin 0.40 mg, riboflavin 0.17 mg, niacin 2.2 mg, folate 173 Jg and ascorbic acid 39 mg (USDA, 2004). The leaves contain 15-24% crude protein. Extracts of pigeon pea seeds have shown antisickling action on red blood cells. This activity has been related to the presence of phenylalanine and hydroxybenzoic acid; related compounds have an even more pronounced effect. Description Erect shrub or subshrub, but regularly grown as an annual, up to 4 m tall, with roots up to 2 m deep; stem erect, ribbed, up to 15 cm in diameter; branches many, slender. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules linear, 2-4 mm long; petiole (l-)1.5-6(-8) cm long, grooved above; rachis cm long, slightly winged; stipels filiform, 1-4 mm long; petiolules 1-4 mm long; leaflets elliptical to lanceolate, cm x cm, acute, covered with small yellow glands, green above, Cajanus cajan - 1, part of flowering and fruiting branch; 2, seed. Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman 35 CAJANUS 37 silvery grey-green beneath. Inflorescence an axillary false raceme cm long; peduncle up to 8 cm long; bracts deciduous, ovate, c. 8 mm x 5 mm, acute. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel cm long; calyx campanulate, yellowish velvety and glandular, tube (3-)4-5(-6) mm long, lobes 3-5(-7) mm long; corolla yellow or cream, standard almost round, mm in diameter, dorsally yellowred, orange or purple, wings obovate, mm x 6 7 mm, yellow, clawed, keel petals mm x 5-7 mm, yellow-green, clawed; stamens 10, 9 fused and 1 free; ovary superior, 1- celled, sessile, style curved. Fruit a straight or sickle-shaped pod 2-10(-13) cm x (0.5-)l-1.5 cm, hairy, glandular-punctate, splitting into 2 spiralling valves, septate between the seeds, (2-)4 9-seeded. Seeds globose to ellipsoid or squarish, 4 9 mm x 3-8 mm x 3-6 mm, white, cream, brown, purplish to almost black, plain or mottled. Seedling with hypogeal germination; first leaves simple. Other botanical information Cajanus comprises 34 species. Two wild Cajanus species are known in Africa: Cajanus kerstingii Harms from West Africa, and Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars occurring along the coasts of Africa and Madagascar, and at some locations more inland. The former does not cross with Cajanus cajan, but the latter can produce hybrids with it; spontaneous hybrids are known but rare. Although the use of Cajanus kerstingii as human food and animal feed seems not recorded, it could be of value in ways similar to pigeon pea. In Senegal the branches of Cajanus kerstingii are used for making temporary hut walls. Other relatives of pigeon pea are found in Asia and Australia. In India 10 maturity groups are distinguished in pigeon pea, usually combined into four categories: extra early, early, medium and latematuring cultivars (120, 145, 185, more than 200 days after sowing, respectively). Growth and development Pigeon pea seeds germinate at temperatures of C, but most rapidly at C. Emergence is complete 2-3 weeks after sowing. Vegetative development starts slowly, but after 2-3 months growth accelerates. Flowering (of 50% of the plants) starts days after sowing; seed maturity normally ranges from days. In humid areas, flowering and fruiting may continue throughout the year. The flower structure of pigeon pea favours self-pollination, but up to 82% out-crossing has been recorded, depending on the presence and activity of pollinating insects. Pigeon pea roots are nodulated and fix nitrogen in association with Bradyrhizobium and Rhizobium strains. Ecology Pigeon pea is grown in the tropics and subtropics between 30 N and 30 S latitudes. Optimum average temperatures range from C; frost is not tolerated. Above 29 C, soil moisture and fertility may be limiting. The optimum annual rainfall is mm, but pigeon pea is tolerant to drought and can be grown in areas with less than 600 mm rainfall. It also grows in regions with an annual rainfall of over 2500 mm. Flowering is accelerated by short days; there are very few truly day-neutral types. In Africa pigeon pea is grown at altitudes up to 2000(-2400) m. It can be grown on a wide range of soil types, but waterlogging is harmful. Drained soils of intermediate water-holding capacity and with ph 5-7 are favourable. A soil salinity of 6-12 ds/m is tolerated by many cultivars. Propagation and planting Pigeon pea is propagated by seed. Stem cuttings rarely succeed. Longevity of seeds depends on storage conditions; in gene banks at low temperature and moisture the seed survives for decades. The 1000-seed weight is g; in Africa large-seeded cultivars are the commonest. Planting arrangements vary widely, and seeds may be broadcast or sown in rows with plant spacings of cm x cm. Seedlings are difficult to transplant. In Africa and India pigeon pea is often grown in intercropping systems, usually with cereals, but also with cassava and cotton. It fits well in intercropping systems because its slow initial growth reduces competition for the associated crop and its late maturity spreads labour requirements at harvest time. After harvest of the intercrop, longduration pigeon pea continues to grow and to produce seed and to protect the soil. Pigeon pea performs well when grown in single rows alternating with 2 rows of cereals (e.g. sorghum, millets), cotton or groundnut. In Uganda and Mauritius, it is generally planted as a restorative crop towards the end of a rotation cycle. In vitro cultures have been initiated successfully from different tissue sources, including leaves, shoots and roots, and organogenesis as well as somatic embryogenesis is possible. Regenerated plants have also been obtained via callus and by direct differentiation from leaves. Management As a field crop, pigeon pea may be typified as rather primitive; the tall genotypes in particular are quite cumbersome in cultivation. Weed control is necessary be- 36 38 CEREALS AND PULSES cause of the slow initial growth. Response to fertilizers is rarely economic; a phosphate dressing is generally recommended at kg/ha. In tropical Africa fertilizer application to pigeon pea is not common. Residual nitrogen after a crop of pigeon pea can be about 40 kg/ha. In India the nutrient uptake of a pigeon pea crop yielding 1.2 t seeds and 6.3 t straw per ha has been calculated as 85 kg N, 8 kg P, 16 kg K, 23 kg Ca, 15 kg Mg, 9 kg S, 38 g Zn, 31 g Cu, 128 g Mn and 1440 g Fe per ha. Wind may bend the plants but staking is not practised. Irrigation as a lifesaver can be economic; in intensive cropping of short-duration cultivars, irrigation may be required. Pigeon pea is also grown as a ratoon crop, e.g. in Central and East Africa. For fast regrowth, the pruning height should not be lower than 50 cm. Part of the shoots may be removed to reduce competition. Diseases and pests The most important fungal diseases of pigeon pea in tropical Africa are leaf spot (Mycovellosiella cajani, synonym: Cercospora cajani), Fusarium wilt (Fusarium udum) and powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica). Leaf spot is not important in drier areas, but can cause serious losses in humid regions. It can be controlled by periodic sprays of fungicides such as benomyl and mancozeb and by the use of disease-free seed and the selection of fields away from perennial pigeon pea, which may act as a source of inoculum. Pigeon pea lines with resistance to leaf spot have been identified. Recommended control measures a- gainst seed-borne and soil-borne Fusarium wilt are intercropping and crop rotation with cereals, fallow, removal of diseased plants, seed treatment with fungicides, and the use of disease-free seed and fields, but the best strategy is the use of resistant cultivars. Moderately resistant lines in all maturity groups are available. Fusarium wilt is generally more severe in ratoon crops, from the second year onwards. Suggested control measures against powdery mildew include the use of fungicides and the selection of fields not near perennial pigeon pea; resistant lines have been identified. Pigeon pea sterility mosaic virus (PPSMV) is the most important disease of pigeon pea in India, but it appears to be restricted to Asia. Pigeon pea is susceptible to root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) and reniform nematodes (Rotylenchus spp.). Resistant lines have been identified in India. Insect pests are important in all pigeon peagrowing areas. The most important ones are pod-sucking bugs (mainly Clavigralla spp.), pod borers (including Helicoverpa armigera and Maruca vitrata, synonym: Maruca testulalis) and the pigeon pea pod fly (Melanagromyza chalcosoma). The use of insecticides is recommended, but chemical control is cumbersome and expensive in tall indeterminate forms. Pigeon pea lines have been recorded with resistance to either or both Helicoverpa armigera and Melanagromyza chalcosoma, and to Maruca vitrata, but resistance has not been incorporated into cultivars that are acceptable to farmers with respect to taste, seed colour and size. Integrated pest management (IPM), comprising the judicious application of insecticides, the use of tolerant or resistant cultivars, agronomic practices (planting date) and biological control with natural enemies, is receiving attention. Because of its long flowering period, damage by pests such as Helicoverpa armigera and other borers, and Agromyza fruit flies, may be compensated for by new flushes. Bruchids (Callosobruchus spp.) are important pests of pigeon pea, infecting pods in the field as well as stored seeds. Seed storage in clean bins and in the form of split seeds reduces bruchid attack. Other control measures include sundrying, treatment with insecticides and storage in admixture with ash and various plant products, such as tobacco and neem (Azadirachta indica A.Juss.) extracts or leaves. Harvesting Immature pigeon pea pods are picked over a long period of time in home gardens or hedge crops, as is usual in Africa. For ripe seeds the crop is usually cut near the ground when most pods are mature; many leaves are still green at that stage. Alternatively, the ripe pods are picked from the standing crop, sometimes in several rounds as the crop often matures unevenly. Mechanical harvesting of ripe pods is possible with combineharvesters, but only for short-statured cultivars maturing uniformly with pods at a uniform level above the soil. Yield In Africa pigeon pea seed yield averages around 600 kg/ha with traditional landraces in mixed intercropping. For Uganda 1000 kg/ha has been recorded. Under optimum conditions in sole cropping, yields of more than 5000 kg/ha are possible. Low yields may be partly due to the fact that a considerable part of the seeds is harvested and eaten before maturity. Forage yields range from 3 8 t/ha, but in experiments 50 t/ha have been obtained. Fuel yields are usually 7-10 t/ha, but yields up to 30 t/ha have been recorded. 37 CAJANUS 39 Handling after harvest Entire air-dried pigeon pea plants are threshed, usually by hand or with cattle, and seed is cleaned. Shelled fresh peas are sold on markets as a vegetable. Processing includes dhal-making, either wet, after sprinkling heaps of seed, or dry, by milling. Genetic resources The world pigeon pea germplasm collection covers India and several African countries, and some Caribbean islands. More than 13,000 samples of Cajanus cajan are available in the collection of the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi- Arid Tropics (ICRISAT, Patancheru, India), and various breeders and institutes have parts of this collection. Some 18 wild Cajanus species and at least 39 other species of the subtribe Cajaninae are represented. Related perennial species are regularly rejuvenated in ICRISAT's Botanical Garden. Attempts are continuing to cover all taxa and areas of occurrence. In tropical Africa the National Genebank of Kenya in Kikuyu has a collection of more than 1200 accessions of pigeon pea. Pigeon pea has orthodox seed storage behaviour. Breeding Pigeon pea breeding work started in India in the early 20 th century, and mainly involved the selection of more productive and early-maturing landraces. Concerted international pigeon pea improvement work began in the 1970s at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (UTA), where shortstatured cultivars of determinate growth habit were developed. Within the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) system, ICRISAT now has the mandate for pigeon pea improvement. So far, national breeding programmes in Africa have mainly relied on ICRISAT lines and selections from local landraces, but some countries (e.g. Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda) have developed their own crossing programmes. Breeding of pigeon pea for high yield, and for consumer and miller preference are prime criteria. Stability of yield may be obtained by selecting for photoperiod insensitivity, disease and pest resistance, and suitability for intercropping and multiple harvests. Improved genotypes are now available for most of these characteristics. Resistance is available in wild relatives and there are promising pestresistant and disease-resistant types. Because out-crossing is frequent, traditional methods for self-pollinated crops, such as pedigree breeding, have not been very effective. Selection is further complicated by large genotype x environment interaction. Genetic male sterility is available in Cajanus cajanifolius (Haines) Maesen and is now used in hybrid breeding programmes. However, the production costs of hybrid seeds are high, and a search is going on for cytoplasmic male sterility. Short-duration Indian cultivars include 'Prabhat', 'T21', 'UPAS- 120'; medium-duration cultivars are 'C 11', 'BDN- 1', 'Pusa Ageti', 'Sharda' and several 'ICP' lines developed by ICRISAT. Hybrid cultivars are also available. Improved cultivars in Kenya include 'NPP 670', 'KAT 60/8' (both developed in Kenya) and 'ICPL 87091'. However, they are more susceptible to insect pests than the local landraces, due to their determinate growth habit and the fact that they start flowering when pest populations are high. Furthermore, the seeds of 'KAT 60/8' and 'ICPL 87091' are relatively small, making them less wanted on the local markets than the larger seeds from landraces. The Fusarium wilt-resistant cultivar TCP 9145', derived from a landrace collected in Kenya by ICRISAT, has been successfully released in Malawi. 'ICPL 87' and 'ICPL 146' lines are recommended as sole-cropping, multiple-harvest cultivars for Tanzania, Malawi and Zimbabwe. The transfer of insect resistance (from Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars), high protein content (several species), improved drought resistance (Cajanus acutifolius (Benth.) Maesen), soil salinity tolerance (Cajanus albicans (Wight & Arn.) Maesen) or annual behaviour (Cajanus platycarpus (Benth.) Maesen) has not yet materialized. Insect-tolerant lines have been identified, however. Transgenic pigeon pea plants, expressing a cowpea protease inhibitor gene or a protective antigen of the Rinderpest virus, have been obtained using Agrobacterium-medi&ted gene transfer or bombardment with micro-particles. Prospects As a multi-purpose crop pigeon pea is well known but ought to be promoted especially in more semi-arid regions, for which the crop is well suited due to its tolerance to drought and low soil fertility and its ability to recover after environmental or biotic stress. Its large seed-yield potential offers promise in more favourable environments. Pigeon pea fits well in agro-forestry, in smallholder garden cropping and in hedge cultivation, and is suitable for improved short-duration fallows. It also fits in more intensive systems. Shortduration, photoperiod-insensitive, short-statured cultivars of determinate growth habit with fast growth and elevated harvest index 38 40 CEREALS AND PULSES may be the ideotype to aim for. In the export market (mainly India) African pigeon pea faces strong competition and higher productivity; more efficient marketing arrangements are necessary to remain competitive in this market. Major references Hillocks et al., 2000; lo Monaco, 2003; Nene, Hall & Sheila, 1990; Reddy, Raju & Lenné, 1998; Silim, Mergeai & Kimani (Editors), 2001; Silim, Tuwafe & Singh (Editors), 1994; Singh et al., 2001; van der Maesen, 1985; van der Maesen, 1989a; Whiteman, Byth & Wallis, Other references Akojie & Fung, 1992; Aulakh et al., 1985; Berhaut, 1976; du Puy et al., 2002; Ene-Obong, 1995; Gillett et al, 1971; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Joshi et al., 2001; Kay, 1979; Mackinder et al., 2001; Mergeai et al., 2001; Neuwinger, 2000; Polhill, 1990; Popelka, Terryn & Higgins, 2004; Remanandan & Singh, 1997; Tabo et al., 1995; Thulin, 1989a; USDA, 2004; van der Maesen, 2003; Westphal, Sources of illustration Busson, Authors L.J.G. van der Maesen CENCHRUS BIFLORUS Roxb. Protologue FL ind. 1: 238 (1820). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number n = 15, 16, 17, 18, 24 Vernacular names Cram-cram, Indian sandbur (En). Cram-cram (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Cenchrus biflorus is found throughout tropical Africa, extending eastwards through Arabia and Iran to Pakistan and India. It has been introduced elsewhere, e.g. in North America and Australia. Uses The grain of Cenchrus biflorus is edible and highly nutritious. People in areas of marginal subsistence regularly collect the seed; elsewhere it is considered a famine food. In the Sahel it is collected as a wild cereal, e.g. by the Tuareg people. The grains are pounded and eaten raw, made into porridge, or mixed and cooked with other foods. The grain is also made into a drink. In Sudan a thin bread ('kisra') is made from the grain and in Mauritania the ground grains are made into cakes. The grain of Cenchrus biflorus is also a famine food in India, where it is eaten raw or used, mixed with pearl millet, to make bread. In normal years it is mixed with sugar and 'ghee', and eaten as a children's food. Cenchrus biflorus is considered a valuable forage grass in the Sahel; it is mainly browsed in the juvenile stage and when the grains have fallen off. It can be cut several times during the rainy season and made into hay or silage. The spiny involucres are sufficiently softened by ensiling to make consumption of the whole plant possible. Cenchrus biflorus persists until the end of the dry season and thus is important as a reliable source of fodder. Also in India the plant is used as a fodder and it is sown against desertification; in northern Australia it is sown as a forage. The leaves are eaten during famine in the Thar desert in India. The root of Cenchrus biflorus is an ingredient of traditional aphrodisiac prescriptions. Properties The composition of hulled grains of Cenchrus biflorus per 100 g is: water 9.8 g, energy 1549 kj (370 kcal), protein 17.8 g, fat 8.5 g, carbohydrate 62.3 g, Ca 144 mg, P 270 mg and Fe 22 mg (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g hulled grain is: lysine 214 mg, methionine 393 mg, phenylalanine 926 mg, threonine 658 mg, valine 1052 mg, leucine 2745 mg and isoleucine 892 mg (FAO, 1970). The protein and fat contents are high compared to other cereals. Cenchrus biflorus plants in the Sahel contain crude protein 10.0%, crude fibre 34.6%, crude fat 1.5%, nitrogen-free extracts 42.8%, P 0.35%, K 4.18%, Ca 0.28%, Mg 0.21% and Na 0.01%. In spite of its usefulness, Cenchrus biflorus is often considered a noxious weed; the spiny inflorescences may injure humans and livestock and cause infection. Botany Loosely tufted, annual grass, with ascending stems (culms) up to 1 m tall. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; ligule a line of hairs; blade linear, flat, 2-25(-35) cm x 2-7(- 10) mm, apex filiform. Inflorescence a spikelike panicle 2-15 cm x 9-12 mm, with 1-3 spikelets enclosed by an involucre of prickly bristles; rachis angular, sinuous; involucre ovoid, 4-11 mm long with numerous spines, inner spines erect, fused at base, retrorsely hairy on the pungent, recurving apex, outer spines shorter, spreading. Spikelet lanceolate mm long, acute, consisting of 2 glumes and usually 2 florets; glumes shorter than spikelet; lower floret male or sterile, its lemma as long as spikelet, membranous, upper floret bisexual, its lemma as long as spikelet, thinly leathery; stamens 3, ovary superior, glabrous, with 2 hairy stigmas. Fruit a dorsally compressed caryopsis (grain), mm x 1.5-2 39 CENCHRUS 41 Cenchrus comprises about 20 species in tropical and warm temperate regions, mainly in Africa and the Americas. It is closely related to Pennisetum, which differs in non-spiny inner involucral bristles free to the base. The spiny spikelets of Cenchrus biflorus adhere to hairs of animals and clothes, making possible wide dispersal. Cenchrus biflorus follows the C4-cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Cenchrus biflorus is mostly found in semi-arid and arid regions with an annual rainfall of mm, up to 1300 m altitude, usually on dry sandy soils and in cultivated, overgrazed or otherwise disturbed areas. It is extremely abundant in the Sahel and southern Sahara, where it may form massive stands. A study in western Niger showed that it had become much more abundant and dominant in the late 1980s than it was in the early 1960s. Management Cenchrus biflorus can be propagated by seed. The optimum temperature for seed germination is 35 C. In tropical Africa the grains are collected from the wild. The spiny spikelets shatter easily at maturity and are often allowed to fall, after which they are swept into piles with a bunch of straw, or they are raked with a big 'comb' with a handle. The plants may be beaten with a stick if not all spikelets have fallen. The spikelets are pounded in a mortar and the grains are separated by winnowing. In the Lake Chad area the inflorescences are cut off with a knife, after which the grains are dried, threshed and winnowed. In Kordofan (Sudan) the grains are hulled by rubbing them between two pieces of leather. Genetic resources and breeding The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, holds 10 accessions of Cenchrus biflorus. In view of its wide distribution and abundance, Cenchrus biflorus is certainly not threatened by genetic erosion. Prospects Cenchrus biflorus yields a highly nutritious grain, with unusually high protein and fat contents. Formerly it was important as a wild cereal, but nowadays it seems to play a role in human nutrition in times of shortage only. As a forage it has remained important, especially because of its persistence throughout the dry season. Cenchrus biflorus is unlikely to become more important in the future, mainly due to its spiny spikelets which adhere to clothes and cause injuries to humans and animals, and result in the plant often being considered a noxious weed. Major references Burkill, 1994; Clayton & Renvoize, 1982; Naegele, 1977; National Research Council, 1996; Phillips, Other references Bartha, 1970; Batello, Marzot & Touré, 2004; Bhandari, 1974; Bouwman, 1979; Clayton, 1989; Cope, 1995; FAO, 1970; Harlan, 1989b; Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968; Peyre de Fabrègues, Authors M. Brink CENCHRUS PRIEUEII (Kunth) Maire Protologue Bull. Mus. natn. Hist, nat., Paris, sér. 2, 3: 523 (1931). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n - 34 Origin and geographic distribution Cenchrus prieurii is distributed from Mauritania and Senegal through the Sahel zone to Ethiopia; it also occurs in Arabia, Pakistan and northern India. Uses The grain of Cenchrus prieurii is an important food for some desert nomads; it serves as a famine food in Africa and India. The crushed or ground grain is made into porridge. In India the grains are eaten raw and are used, mixed with pearl millet, for making bread. Cenchrus prieurii is valued for grazing; it also makes suitable hay and silage. It persists until the endof the dry season and thus is important as a reliable source of fodder. In northern Nigeria Cenchrus prieurii is planted as a forage. Properties The fodder value of Cenchrus prieurii plants in the Sahel is: crude protein 9.2%, crude fibre 37.1%, crude fat 1.8%, nitrogen-free extractives 42.8%, P 0.15%, K 3.36%, Ca 0.23%, Mg 0.19% and Na 0.02%. Information on the nutrititional characteristics of the grain is not available. Botany Loosely tufted, annual grass, with stems (culms) up to 80 cm tall. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; ligule a line of hairs; blade linear, flat, cm x mm, finely acute. Inflorescence a cylindrical spikelike panicle 5-12 cm x 2-4 cm, with 1-2 spikelets enclosed by an involucre of long bristles; rachis angular, scabrid, sinuous; involucre with many slender scabrid bristles mm long and furnished with spines directed upwards, far exceeding the spikelet, fused at base. Spikelet lanceolate, 4-5 mm long, acute, consisting of 2 glumes and usually 2 florets; glumes shorter than spikelet; lower floret male or sterile, its lemma as long as spikelet, mem- 40 42 CEREALS AND PULSES branous; upper floret bisexual, its lemma as long as spikelet, thinly leathery. Fruit a dorsally compressed caryopsis (grain). Cenchrus comprises about 20 species in tropical and warm temperate regions, mainly in Africa and the Americas. It is closely related to Pennisetum, which differs in non-spiny inner involucral bristles free to the base. Cenchrus prieurii follows the C4-cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Cenchrus prieurii is found in semiarid and arid regions with an average annual rainfall of mm, in open sandy locations up to 1000 m altitude. A study in western Niger showed that Cenchrus prieurii had become much more abundant and dominant in the late 1980s than it was in the early 1960s. Management Cenchrus prieurii is collected from the wild. The 1000-seed weight is 0.2 g. Genetic resources and breeding A few accessions of Cenchrus prieurii are held in Australia (Australian Tropical Crops & Forages Genetic Resources Centre, Biloela, Queensland, 3 accessions) and the United Kingdom (Welsh Plant Breeding Station, Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research, Aberystwyth, Wales, 2 accessions). In view of its wide distribution, Cenchrus prieurii is not threatened by genetic erosion. Prospects Cenchrus prieurii has some value as a source of food in times of scarcity and as a fodder grass, but it is unlikely to increase in importance in the future. Investigations are necessary to find out if the nutritional quality of the grain of Cenchrus prieurii is as high as that of the grain of Cenchrus biflorus Roxb. Major references Bogdan, 1977; Burkill, 1994; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Peyre de Fabrègues, 1992; Phillips, Other references Bartha, 1970; Breman & de Ridder, 1991; Clayton, 1972; Freedman, undated. Authors M. Brink ClCERARIETINUM L. Protologue Sp. pi. 2: 738 (1753). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceace) Chromosome number 2n = 16 Vernacular names Chickpea, Bengal gram, gram, garbanzo (En). Pois chiche (Fr). Grâo de bico, gravanço, ervanço (Po). Mdengu (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Chick- Cicer arietinum -planted pea is not known in a wild state. Its origin is believed to be in south-eastern Turkey and adjoining Syria and Iran. The earliest remains of chickpea seeds date back to around 7000 BC (Syria and Turkey). Chickpea was gradually introduced to the western Mediterranean region, to eastern and southern Asia and East Africa. It reached the Indian subcontinent before 2000 BC. Chickpea cultivation is expanding where it has been recently introduced, e.g. in Australia, New Zealand, the United States and Canada. In tropical Africa it is mainly cultivated in East Africa (Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania) and in Malawi; it is grown particularly in areas with a marked cool season. Lesotho and South Africa have recently introduced chickpea at experimental level. Chickpea is found semi-naturalized as an escape, e.g. in Tanzania. Uses Chickpea is primarily grown for its mature seeds, which are used as human food. These are consumed alone or together with cereals as a side dish in the form of a sauce or soup. In Ethiopia sauces ('wot') made of ground seeds ('shiro') and split seeds ('kik') are commonly eaten with 'injera' (unleavened, pancake-like bread). Chickpea is also an ingredient of weaning foods. The immature seeds are consumed fresh, or roasted and salted as snacks. In India the whole dried seeds are eaten boiled or made into dhal, prepared by splitting the seed and separating the husk. In Mediterranean countries, chickpea is eaten whole in salads, or in stews, and flour mixed with sesame paste yields the well-known appetizer 'hummus'. Canned chickpea seeds are popular in the United States and in Europe. 41 ClCER 43 In India young chickpea sprouts are eaten as a vegetable. Broken seeds and residues from dhal production are used as feed, the straw serves as fodder and dried stems and roots are used as fuel for cooking. Chickpea starch is suitable for textile sizing, giving a light finish to silk, wool and cotton clothes, and can also be used in the manufacturing of plywood. An indigo-like dye is obtained from chickpea leaves. Production and international trade According to FAO statistics, the annual world production and harvested area of chickpea from 1961 to 2003 has remained relatively stable at around 7 million t and 10 million ha, respectively. The production in amounted to 7.9 million t per year from 10.3 million ha. The main producing countries were India (4.1 million t per year from 6.3 million ha), Turkey (600,000 t from 600,000 ha), Pakistan (500,000 t from 1.1 million ha), Canada (250,000 t from 200,000 ha), Mexico (250,000 t from 150,000 ha) and Australia (200,000 t from 200,000 ha). The annual production in sub-saharan Africa was about 280,000 t from 430,000 ha, the main producers being Ethiopia (168,000 t from 191,000 ha), Malawi (35,000 t from 88,000 ha), Sudan (25,000 t from 13,000 ha), Tanzania (25,000 t from 63,000 ha) and Kenya (20,000 t from 55,000 ha). In tropical Africa the area and production of chickpea have been increasing recently, whereas they are declining in northern Africa. The decline in Ethiopia was arrested and has been reversed due to the release of improved cultivars, liberalized markets and intensive extension activities. In Zambia chickpea is grown by commercial farmers around urban areas. The world trade in chickpea steadily increased from 100, ,000 t per year in the 1970s to about 700,000 t per year in The main exporters in were Australia (192,000 t per year), Mexico (155,000 t), Turkey (114,000 t), Canada (85,000 t) and Iran (75,000 t). Ethiopia exported about 50,000 t in 2002, but insignificant amounts in Tanzania exported about 20,000 t in 2002 and less than 10,000 t per year in The main importers in this period were India (183,000 t per year), Pakistan (98,000 t), Spain (57,000 t), Algeria (43,000 t) and Bangladesh (40,000 t). Imports into sub-saharan Africa were very low. Properties The composition of mature raw chickpea seeds per 100 g edible portion is: water 11.5 g, energy 1525 kj (364 kcal), protein 19.3 g, fat 6.0 g, carbohydrate 60.7 g, dietary fibre 17.4 g, Ca 105 mg, Mg 115 mg, P 366 mg, Fe 6.2 mg, Zn 3.4 mg, vitamin A 67 IU, thiamin 0.48 mg, riboflavin 0.21 mg, niacin 1.5 mg, vitamin Be 0.54 mg, folate 557 (ig and ascorbic acid 4.0 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 185 mg, lysine 1291 mg, methionine 253 mg, phenylalanine 1034 mg, threonine 716 mg, valine 809 mg, leucine 1374 mg and isoleucine 828 mg. The principal fatty acids are per 100 g edible portion: linoleic acid 2593 mg, oleic acid 1346 mg, palmitic acid 501 mg, linolenic acid 101 mg and stearic acid 85 mg (USDA, 2004). The protein content of chickpeas is lower than that of most other pulses, but this is compensated for by the higher protein digestibility. Antinutritional factors include trypsin inhibitors, haemagglutinins, tannins and oligosaccharides. Adulterations and substitutes In India chickpea is sometimes adulterated with the cheaper, but potentially toxic, grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.). Description Spreading to erect, annual herb up to 100 cm tall; stem simple or Cicer arietinum branch; 2, seed. Source: PROSEA 1, flowering and fruiting 42 44 CEREALS AND PULSES branched from the base; taproot reaching 1-2 m depth, secondary roots mostly spreading in the top cm soil layer. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate, with (7 )11 15( 17) leaflets; stipules 2 5-fid, ovate to triangular, 3-5 mm x 2-4 mm; rachis cm long, grooved above; leaflets sessile, ovate to elliptical, 5-20 mm x 2-15 mm, the upper two-thirds of the margins sharply toothed, glandular pubescent on both sides. Inflorescence reduced to a single axillary flower; peduncle 3-20(-37) mm long; bracts 1-3, linear to triangular, up to 3 mm long. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel 3-12 mm long, recurved at fruiting; calyx campanulate, tube 3 4 mm long, teeth lanceolate, 4 5 mm long, with prominent midribs; corolla white, pink, purplish or blue, standard obovate, 8-10 mm x 7 10( 17) mm, with a broad claw, wings obovate, 6-9 mm x c. 4 mm, auriculate, keel6 8 mm x c. 3 mm with a 2 3 mm long claw; stamens 10, 9 united for 4-5 mm and 1 free, anthers basi-dorsifixed; ovary superior, sessile, ovate, 2 3 mm x mm, 1-celled, style incurved, 3-4 mm long, stigma small. Fruit an inflated rhomboid-ellipsoid pod mm x 8-20 mm, densely glandular pubescent, 1 2(-4)- seeded. Seeds globular to angular obovoid, 5 14 mm x 4-10 mm, with a median groove and a conspicuous beak overhanging the hilum, creamy to brown, green or black, surface smooth or wrinkled. Seedling with hypogeal germination; the first two leaves scale-like. Other botanical information Cicer comprises 43 species, 9 annual and 34 perennial. The wild Cicer species most closely related to Cicer arietinum are the annuals Cicer reticulatum Ladiz. and Cicer echinospermum P.H. Davis. Cicer reticulatum, a rare species from Turkey, is sometimes regarded as a subspecies of Cicer arietinum; it is morphologically, biochemically and karyologically very similar and completely cross-compatible. Fertile hybrids have also been produced in crosses of chickpea and Cicer echinospermum, though fertility barriers do exist. Other related species are Cicer bijugum Rech.f., Cicer chorassanicum (Bunge) Popov, Cicer cuneatum Höchst, ex A.Rich., Cicer Judaicum Boiss., Cicer pinnatifidum Jaub. & Spach, Cicer yamashitae Kitam. (all annuals) and Cicer anatolicum Alef. (a perennial), and some of these have been used for crossing with cultivated chickpea. Within cultivated chickpea 2 main groups are commonly discerned: the large-seeded, creamcoloured Kabuli types and the small-seeded, darker-coloured, smooth or wrinkled Desi types. Some intermediate cultivars also exist. Desi-type chickpeas are bushy plants with relatively small leaflets and flowers, purplish anthocyanin pigments in their stems and blueviolet flowers, and are primarily grown in southern Asia and Ethiopia. The Kabuli types have erect growth and white flowers and are grown in the Mediterranean region. Cultivars of the Kabuli type cook faster and have less dietary fibre than those of the Desi type. Seed colour is an important characteristic of chickpea, determining its quality and acceptance in many countries. In East Africa brown Desi chickpeas are most popular. Growth and development Seedlings normally emerge 7 15 days after sowing. Flowering starts after days. Chickpea is selfpollinated, with less than 2% out-crossing. The crop duration is normally 3-6 months, but chickpea is indeterminate by nature and may continue to grow as long as moisture is not limiting. The deep, strong taproot serves as a water-storage organ for the growing plants, extending growth into the dry season. Chickpea is effectively nodulated by Mesorhizobium ciceri and Mesorhizobium mediterraneum. Ecology Chickpea is cultivated in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate zones. Its production is concentrated in the cool, dry season of the semi-arid tropics. It grows from sealevel to over 2500 m altitude, but it is not suitable for the humid and hot lowland tropics, where it often fails to flower. In East Africa it is grown at m altitude, in areas with an annual rainfall of mm and an average temperature of C during the growing period. Under these conditions the crop takes days to mature. It performs well when planted during the rainy season provided that the field is well drained, but humidity favours the development of aseochyta blight. Rain during flowering hampers seed set. The drought tolerance varies from moderate to considerable. Chickpea is generally a quantitative long-day plant. Soils need to be well drained, with ph 5-7 or more. Salinity is hardly tolerated, if at all. Soils vary from sandy to sandy loam and black cotton soils. In Ethiopia and Kenya chickpea is mainly grown towards the end of the rainy season on black cotton soils with declining soil moisture. Propagation and planting Chickpea is propagated by seed. Seed can be stored for 4 5 years at a temperature of 4 C. The 1000-seed weight varies widely, from 20 g for some Desi types, to more than 600 g for the larger Kabuli 43 ClCER 45 types. Seed does not show dormancy. Because of the large variation in seed size, seed rates may range from kg/ha for small-seeded cultivars to kg/ha for large-seeded ones. In East Africa the seeds are broadcast and then ploughed under by animal-drawn ploughs. In southern Asia spacings of cm between rows and cm between plants in a row are common. Chickpea is grown as a sole crop or in intercropping with linseed, sorghum or other crops. It is often sown as a relay crop, e.g. in rice paddies. Management Chickpea is very sensitive to weed competition, especially in the first 4-6 weeks after sowing. Weed control is usually by mechanical methods. The weed population can be high if the crop receives late rains after sowing and in that case immediate weeding is required. The use of P-fertilizer high in S is recommended, but normally no inorganic fertilizers are applied. Some farmers in Sudan apply 100 kg diammonium phosphate (DAP) per ha. In Sudan and in India chickpea is sometimes grown under irrigation. In Ethiopia chickpea is grown in rotation with cereals, mainly tef (Eragrostis te/(zuccagni) Trotter); in India it is also grown in rotation with cereals, including pearl millet, sorghum, wheat, barley and rice. Diseases and pests The most important chickpea disease worldwide is ascochyta blight caused by the seed-borne Ascochyta rabiei, but this disease is of lesser importance in Ethiopia, except when chickpea is sown early in the rainy season. Important diseases in Ethiopia, Sudan and Eritrea are fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris, dry root rot caused by Macrophomina phaseolina (Rhizoctonia bataticola), and collar rot caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. Control measures against the seed- and soil-borne fusarium wilt include the use of seed from disease-free plants, seed treatment with fungicides, and the use of resistant cultivars. Crop rotation is not effective, because the fungus survives in the soil for long periods. Control measures for dry root rot and collar rot include the use of disease-free seed, the removal of crop residues and the elimination of weed hosts. Effective control with crop rotation is difficult, because both pathogens have a wide host range. Resistance to Macrophomina phaseolina has been observed, but the disease may affect even resistant cultivars if these are grown in infected soil for a long period. Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne javanica) is an important parasite of chickpea. Pod borer (Helicouerpa armigera) and cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon) are common insect pests on chickpea in East Africa and India. Insecticides such as endosulfan are recommended for the control of these insects. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices, including tolerant cultivars, pest population monitoring, bio-pesticides and natural enemies, have been developed to reduce the reliance on insecticides. Callosobruchus spp. are important storage insects in chickpea. Harvesting Mature seeds are harvested when the pod tips of the uppermost branch of the plant turn yellow. Harvesting is done manually by pulling the plants, after which they are sun-dried in the field. Where chickpea is machine-harvested, a tall and erect plant type is preferred. Yield The average yield of chickpea is less than 1 t/ha in sub-saharan Africa, except under irrigation in Sudan, where average yields up to 1.9 t/ha are obtained. In the Central Highlands of Ethiopia, farmers harvest over 2 t/ha due to a favourable growing environment, while research shows a potential yield up to 5.5 t/ha in this area. The average yield of chickpea in India is also less than 1 t/ha. Handling after harvest When the harvested pods have been sun-dried to a moisture content of 12 13%, they are taken to the threshing ground. In Ethiopia, Eritrea and Sudan, threshing is done by trampling using draught animals. Small harvests are threshed by beating with sticks. Seeds are separated from the chaff by winnowing. The cleaned seeds are kept in stores or taken to the market. Bruchid attack makes storage for more than 6 months difficult. Ethiopian farmers mix chickpea with tef to keep the seeds for a longer period. Seed for planting may be protected with Pyrethrine insecticides. Genetic resources ICRISAT (Patancheru, India) has a collection of about 17,000 chickpea accessions, from which a representative core collection of 1956 accessions has been formed. Other large collections are kept by ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria, about 10,000 accessions) and in Australia (Australian Temperate Field Crops Collection, Horsham, 7700 accessions) and the United States (USDA-ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, Washington, 4400 accessions). ICRISAT and ICARDA have 58 and 268 accessions of wild Cicer species, respectively. Many species from Central Asia are not yet represented in the collections. In Ethiopia, which is considered a secondary 44 46 CEREALS AND PULSES centre of diversity for chickpea, the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation has the largest collection (of about 1000 accessions) in Africa. Chickpea shows orthodox seed storage behaviour and can be stored for long periods without loss of viability. For long-term storage a temperature of-20 C is used. Breeding Genetic improvement of chickpea aims at higher yield and resistance to diseases, insects and other stresses such as drought, waterlogging and cold. Sources of resistance/tolerance have been identified for diseases (including ascochyta blight, fusarium wilt and dry root rot), insect pests (including pod borer) and abiotic stress factors (including cold and drought). Cultivars have been released with resistance to ascochyta blight, fusarium wilt and cold, but limited success has been attained in the development of cultivars tolerant to insect pests. Conventional breeding techniques for self-pollinated crops are used in chickpea breeding. Mutation breeding has been carried out to create new variability, e.g. for ascochyta blight resistance. Wild Cicer species have been used in interspecific hybridization programmes, but few perennials have been tried for use in chickpea improvement. Chickpea crossing techniques are tedious. Within the CGIAR system ICARDA and ICRISAT are involved in chickpea breeding. The only substantial national chickpea programmes in the sub- Saharan region are those of Ethiopia and Sudan, which have made much progress in developing high-yielding and disease-resistant cultivars for commercial production. In Ethiopia 10 cultivars (5 each from Kabuli and Desi types) were released and more than 7 cultivars were promoted by extension for multiplication. Kenya so far released one cultivar from germplasm received from ICRISAT. Linkage maps of chickpea have been developed, and molecular markers associated with quantitative trait loci for resistance to ascochyta blight, fusarium wilt and various morphological traits have been located on these maps. Transgenic chickpea plants, e.g. showing inhibitory effects on development of Callosobruchus spp. due to an a-amylase inhibitory gene from common bean, or inhibitory effects on the growth on larvae of Helicoverpa armigera due to gene transfer from Bacillus thuringiensis, have been obtained using Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer or biolistic transformation. Prospects Chickpea is a very suitable crop for the semi-arid regions of Africa, due to its moderate to high drought tolerance. Chickpea production in the North African countries is declining due to its low yield compared to cereals. Therefore, countries elsewhere in Africa, such as Ethiopia, Sudan and Tanzania, may increase their production to take advantage of the markets in North Africa and the Indian subcontinent. Chickpea is one of the main pulses providing affordable protein for the Ethiopian, Eritrean, and Sudanese populations, whereas more promotion is required in Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi. In Zimbabwe, Uganda, South Africa and Lesotho chickpea trials, received from ICARDA and ICRISAT, have recently been started. The development of new food products and recipes will help to increase chickpea consumption in sub-saharan Africa. Major references Bejiga, Eshete & Anbessa, 1996; Haware, 1998; Pope, Polhill & Martins (Editors), 2003; Saxena & Singh (Editors), 1987; Saxena et al. (Editors), 1996; Singh & Saxena, 1999; Singh et al., 1997b; Smithson, Thompson & Summerfield, 1985; Telaye et al. (Editors), 1994; van der Maesen, 1989b. Other references Ahmad, 1999; Anbessa & Bejiga, 2002; Bejiga, 1990; Bejiga & Degago, 2000; Bejiga et al., 1998; Choumane et al, 2000; Flandez-Galvez et al., 2003; Gillett et al., 1971; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Joshi et al., 2001; McPhee & Muehlbauer, 2002; Polhill, 1990; Popelka, Terryn & Higgins, 2004; Singh, 1993; Thulin, 1989a; Upadhyaya, Bramel & Singh, 2002; USDA, 2004; van der Maesen, 1972; Westphal, 1974; Williams et al., Sources of illustration van der Maesen, 1989b. Authors G. Bejiga & L.J.G. van der Maesen CODCLACRYMA-JOBI L. Protologue Sp. pi. 2: 972 (1753). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 20 Vernacular names Job's tears, adlay (En). Larmes de Job, larmilles, herbe à chapelets (Fr). Lâgrimas de Job, lâgrimas de Nossa Senhora, erva dos rosârios (Po). Mtasubihu, mtasbihi (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Job's tears is indigenous to southern and eastern Asia. It has been cultivated since ancient times, years ago in India, 2000 years ago in China, and was very important 45 COIX 47 before maize and rice became widespread staple foods. At present Job's tears is cultivated as a minor cereal crop throughout the tropics and subtropics, especially in Asia. Plants escaped from cultivation occur as weeds. In Africa Job's tears is naturalized in most countries but only very occasionally cultivated (e.g. in Liberia). Uses Types of Job's tears with soft-shelled false fruits can be easily husked and have large grains which are eaten in the same way as rice, alone or mixed with it. They can be substituted for rice in all foodstuffs. The grain can also be roasted before husking and then used in porridge, cakes, soups and other foods or in the preparation of sweets. Dough made from the flour will not rise because of the absence of gluten. A good mixture for bakery purposes is 70% wheat flour and 30% Job's tears flour. The raw grain tastes sweet and is often eaten as a snack. In Africa Job's tears is considered a famine food. Both alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks are prepared from it. A beer made from the pounded grain is popular among Indian hill tribes and in the Philippines. The whole grain and the bran are fed to poultry and the flour can replace maize flour in poultry feed. Job's tears is often given as a fodder, especially for cattle and horses. It is suitable for silage, and straw and leaves are used for thatching. The grain and flour of Job's tears are easily digestible and given to people in weak condition. They are believed to have medicinal value with diuretic, depurative, anti-inflammatory and antitumour activity. A decoction of the leaves is drunk against headache, rheumatism and diabetes. Sap of the stem is applied against insect bites. A decoction of the roots is used as a vermifuge and to treat dysentery, gonorrhoea and menstrual disorders. Almost everywhere where Job's tears grows, the decorative, hard-shelled false fruits of the wild types are used as beads for necklaces, rosaries, rattles, curtains etc., and in Africa they are often worn at ritual and religious occasions. The whole inflorescence is sometimes used in dried flower arrangements. Properties Whole grain of Job's tears contains per 100 g edible portion: water 8.9 g, energy 1394 kj (333 kcal) protein 10.4 g, fat 5.3 g, carbohydrate 66.5 g and fibre 10.5 g. The hulled grain contains per 100 g edible portion: water 11.6 g, energy 1511 kj (361 kcal), protein 14.8 g, fat 4.9 g, carbohydrate 66.9 g, fibre 0.5 g, Ca 47 mg, P 254 mg, Fe 6.0 mg, ß-carotene 0 mg, thiamin 0.26 mg, riboflavin 0.19 mg and niacin 4.7 mg (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). The content of essential amino acids per 100 g protein (16 g N) is: tryptophan 0.5 g, lysine 1.9 g, methionine 2.6 g, phenylalanine 4.9 g, threonine 3.0 g, valine 5.7 g, leucine 13.6 g and isoleucine 3.9 g (Busson, 1965). The root contains coixol, which is analgesic and sedative. Methanolic extracts of the grains showed an antiproliferative effect on human lung cancer cells in vitro and in vivo and might reduce the risk of tobacco-induced lung tumorigenesis. The grains might also be beneficial for the treatment of allergic disorders. Botany Erect, perennial, strongly tillering grass up to 3 m tall, often cultivated as an annual; stem (culm) filled with pith, glabrous, branched in the upper part. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath short, glabrous or with long hairs at apex; ligule short and membranous; blade linear to ovate-lanceolate, cm x cm, base rounded to almost cordate, apex acute, margins rough, upper surface smooth or scabrid, midrib prominent. Inflorescences in axils of upper leaves, solitary or Coix lacryma-jobi - 1, flowering stem; 2, male inflorescence; 3, male spikelet; 4, female inflorescence with cupule partly removed. Source: PROSEA 46 48 CEREALS AND PULSES 2-7-fascicled and arranged panicle-like, on peduncle 3-6 cm long, consisting of 2 unisexual racemes; female raceme enclosed by a hollow, bony, globular to ovoid-ellipsoid cupule 5 15 mm long, shiny, white, pale brown, grey, bluish or black, with a sessile spikelet accompanied by 2 barren pedicels; male raceme 3-5 cm long, exserted from the mouth of the cupule, with about 10 spikelets borne in pairs or threes, one pedicelled, the other(s) sessile. Female spikelet 2-flowered, with orbicular glumes, lower floret reduced to an orbicular lemma, upper floret with membranous lemma and palea and superior ovary with 2 stigmas exserted from the mouth of the cupule; male spikelet lanceolate to ellipsoid, 7-8 mm long, 1-2-flowered, lower glume winged, upper glume boat-shaped, each floret with membranous lemma and palea and 3 stamens. Fruit a caryopsis (grain) enclosed by the cupule (shell of false fruit), globose, dark red in hard-shelled types, pale brown in softshelled types. Coix comprises about 5 closely related species, all native in Asia, but some have been introduced elsewhere. Mainly based on characteristics of the false fruit, 4 varieties have been distinguished in Coix lacryma-jobi, but only var. lacryma-jobi occurs in Africa; it is characterized by ovoid, hard, smooth false fruits. Most agricultural information (from outside Africa) concerns var. ma-yuen (Rom.Caill.) Stapf, with ovoid to pear-shaped, quite soft, striate false fruits; it is cultivated as a cereal. Job's tears takes about 1-2 weeks to germinate, depending on the moisture content of the soil. Both self-pollination and cross-pollination are possible, with the latter usually being predominant. Total crop duration is 4 6( 8) months. When most of the seeds are ripe, the plant starts to dry. Job's tears follow the C4- cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Job's tears occurs wild in swampy locations and along watercourses. It is a quantitative short-day plant and requires high temperatures, abundant rainfall and reasonably fertile soils. In the tropics it occurs from sealevel up to 2000 m altitude, in Africa often around villages and on abandoned fields. Management Job's tears is usually propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g. Seed is dibbled, 5 cm deep, at the start of the rains, after ploughing or hoeing the field. Row spacing is cm, and seed rate 7-15 kg/ha. When cultivated as an intercrop, it is sown at random or plants are grown along field borders. Propagation by cuttings is possible and recommended for fodder production. Propagation by seed gives deeper rooting, and, consequently, better drought tolerance and higher grain yield. Weeding is necessary up to 60 days after sowing or until Job's tears has reached a plant height of 40 cm. In general, plants are not given much care, but when young they need abundant water. They respond well to application of manure; chemical fertilizers or insecticides are not used. The most serious disease of Job's tears is smut (Ustilago coicis) which destroys the ovaries. Smut can severely damage crops and therefore seed treatment with fungicide or with hot water (60-70 C) for at least 10 minutes before sowing is recommended. Another important disease of Job's tears is leaf blight (Bipolaris coicis); control measures include burning of crop residues, spraying of fungicides and the use of more resistant cultivars. Tar leaf spot (Phyllachora coicis), rust (Puccinia operata) and Ustilago lachrymae-jobi (synonym: Sporisorium lachrymae-job) are some of the other diseases attacking Job's tears. Rats, birds and sometimes grasshoppers and termites may cause considerable losses. Job's tears is normally harvested 4-6 months after sowing, depending on the cultivar and the season. Usually, whole plants are cut at the base when the grain is ripe. The stubble can be left in the field and will then tiller again; the new fresh leaves are an excellent fodder. Normal yield of husked grain varies from 2-4 t/ha. The hulling percentage is 30-50%. If cultivated for fodder, several cuts per year are possible. After threshing and husking, which is done manually or with the same tools as for rice, the grain is sun-dried on mats. Under humid conditions, the storability of the grain is limited, but is better for whole than for husked grain. Genetic resources and breeding The largest germplasm collections of Job's tears are held in China (Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (CAAS), Beijing, 87 accessions) and the Philippines (Institute of Plant Breeding, University of the Philippines Los Banos (UPLB), College, Laguna, 31 accessions). The greatest variation in wild forms occurs in India and Myanmar, in cultivated Job's tears in South-East Asia. In the course of time, Job's tears has been selected by farmers for easy husking, resulting in var. ma-yuen. However, the crop has a relatively long growing season, shows uneven ripening and variable yields. Nevertheless, the large variability in Job's 47 CORDEAUXIA 49 tears offers opportunities for breeding programmes, e.g. to obtain resistance against smut disease. In Japan selection work focuses on the use as a fodder. In Brazil a high-yielding 'dwarf cultivar, probably introduced from Japan, has been selected and distributed. Prospects Although enjoyed locally by many people, Job's tears is still decreasing in popularity in favour of higher-yielding cereals, mainly maize and rice. However, because it is less susceptible to diseases and pests, it can be grown where other crops are difficult to cultivate, it does not need much care, it is highly nutritious and has promising medicinal properties, Job's tears deserves more research attention. Major references Burkill, 1994; Chang, Huang & Hung, 2003; Clayton & Renvoize, 1982; Mello et al, 1995; van den Bergh & Iamsupasit, Other references Busson, 1965; Chang & Hwang, 2002; Gurib-Fakim, Guého & Bissoondoyal, 1997; Hsu et al., 2003; Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968; Naku Mbumba, Walangululu & Basiloko, 1984; Neuwinger, 2000; Numata et al., 1989; Purseglove, 1972; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, Sources of illustration van den Bergh & Iamsupasit, Authors P.C.M. Jansen Based on PROSEA 10: Cereals. CORDEAUXIA EDULIS Hemsl. Protologue Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew: 361 (1907). Family Caesalpiniaceae (Leguminosae - Caesalpinioideae) Chromosome number 2M = 24 Vernacular names Yeheb nut, yeheb bush (En). Yeheb (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Cordeauxia edulis is endemic to south-eastern Ethiopia (eastern Ogaden) and central Somalia. It is cultivated on a small scale in Somalia and near Voi in Kenya, where it was introduced in the 1950s. It has been introduced on an experimental scale into Sudan, Tanzania, Yemen, Israel and the United States. Uses In its native region the seeds ('yeheb nuts') of Cordeauxia edulis are an important food for pastoralists, especially as a famine food during drought periods. They are eaten fresh, dried, roasted or boiled. The seeds taste sour when eaten fresh or dried, but have a Cordeauxia edulis - wild sweetish, agreeable, chestnut-like taste after roasting. The water in which the seeds have been boiled is sweet and is sometimes consumed. The seed oil is useful for soap making. The seeds have been mentioned as a coffee substitute. Cordeauxia edulis is said to regulate gastric secretion and to permit treatment of ulcers due to hot food. It is also believed to alleviate anaemia by augmenting the number of red blood cells. The leaves are made into a tea. Cordeauxia edulis is an important dryseason fodder for camels, goats, sheep and cattle, but in the rainy season other plants are preferred. The red pigment in the glands on several plant parts forms vividly coloured, fast and insoluble combinations with many metal mordants, and is locally used for dyeing textiles. The wood is used as firewood. Production and international trade The seeds of Cordeauxia edulis are mostly consumed locally, but are also sold in towns. Demand exceeds supply because of rapidly diminishing plant populations. From Ethiopia the seeds are exported to Somalia and Arab countries, but no quantitative information is available. Cordeauxia edulis seeds have export potential for European markets as 'dessert nuts'. Properties Shelled Cordeauxia edulis seeds contain per 100 g edible portion: water 11.1 g, energy 1666 kj (398 kcal), protein 10.8 g, fat 12.0 g, carbohydrate 63.9 g, fibre 1.4 g, Ca 32 mg, P 185 mg and Fe 6.4 mg (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). The protein content is considerably less than that of most pulses, but the fat content is higher. In various studies the protein was found to resemble that of other pulses in containing considerable and well-balanced 48 50 CEREALSAND PULSES amounts of essential amino acids, especially lysine ( %), and being deficient in methionine. The seed lipids contain palmitic acid (26-31%), stearic acid (12-13%), oleic acid (31-32%), linoleic acid (25-30%) and linolenic acid (traces). The seed oil is yellow. The seeds contain trypsin inhibitors, which can be inactivated by boiling. Cordeauxia edulis leaves from Somalia have a low crude protein content ( %), energy content ( kj per 100 g dry matter) and in vitro dry matter digestibility ( %). Furthermore they have a high tannin content ( %), which reduces their feed quality. The leaves contain N %, P 0.1%, Ca %, Mg % and S %. According to herdsmen the meat of animals fed with Cordeauxia edulis is particularly tasty. Cordeauxia edulis is reputed to cause intestinal disorders in goats when eaten as the sole diet. The red pigment of Cordeauxia edulis is cordeauxione (cordeauxiaquinone), a naphthaquinone which is unknown in other plants. The leaves contain % of this dye. When fresh leaves are handled, they stain the hands red. When animals eat the leaves, their teeth are stained orange-red and the dye is also deposited as a calcium complex in their bones, which become pink. This colouration is considered a sign of good meat quality, e.g. in Somalia and Saudi Arabia. The wood of Cordeauxia edulis has been described as good firewood, inflammable even when wet. Description Densely branched, evergreen shrub or small tree up to 2.5(-4) m tall, with a long taproot up to 3 m deep and lateral roots at cm below the soil surface extending up to 2.5 m; stem with conspicuous red glands. Leaves alternate, paripinnate, without stipules; leaflets (2-)4-8(-12), elliptical-oblong, up to 3(-5) cm x 1.5(-2.5) cm, leathery, olive-green above, paler with many red glands beneath. Inflorescence a terminal few-flowered raceme. Flowers bisexual, almost regular, 5-merous, c. 2.5 cm in diameter; sepals oblong, c. 1 cm long, obtuse, green with red glands; petals almost equal, c. 1.5 cm long, yellow, clawed; stamens 10, free, straight, filaments hairy below the middle; ovary superior, 1-celled, shortly stalked, densely glandular; stigma obtuse. Fruit an ovoid pod, 4-6 cm x 2 cm, shortly stalked, with a curved beak, opening by 2 hard valves, l(-6)- seeded. Seed ovoid, cm long, with thin, easily cracked testa. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons thick. Other botanical information Cordeauxia Cordeauxia edulis - 1, flowering twig; 2, fruit; 3, seed; 4, seed kernel. Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman comprises a single species. It is closely related to Caesalpinia and Stuhlmannia. Cordeauxia edulis is rather variable, and sometimes two types are distinguished: 'suley' ('sulei') and 'moqley'('mogollo'). 'Suley' is pale green, with a large stem diameter and large leaflets. 'Moqley' is dark green, with small stem diameter and small leaflets. Pods of the 'moqley' type contain a large single seed. Pods of the 'suley' type contain several seeds, which are compressed laterally and smaller in size. The seeds of the 'moqley' type are claimed to be sweeter. Mixed stands of the two types exist but are rare. The leaves of Cordeauxia edulis have an extremely thick cuticle and mesophyll consisting of palisade cells with lateral walls capable of folding in a concertina-like way. This may enable the leaves to survive extended periods of drought and store water quickly when available, thus allowing them to remain evergreen. Growth and development Germination of Cordeauxia edulis is rapid. Subsequent growth of the aerial parts is very slow, especially in the seedling stage, whereas the root system grows rapidly. Plants 60 cm tall may already 49 CORDEAUXIA 51 have roots 2 m long. Under natural conditions flowering starts just before the onset of the rains, when the relative humidity rises, or immediately after the first rains, whereas some sources indicate flowering is year-round but more profuse during the rainy season. The floral parts fall soon after pollination, leaving only the fertilized ovary. The fruit ripens days after flowering. Unlike in many other plants, seeds of Cordeauxia edulis mature when the plant moisture content is at its peak. Fruit development stops when the rain ceases and the ovaries remain dormant for 4-5 months, resuming ripening after the rains have returned. Cordeauxia edulis requires 3 4 years to bear fruit. The plants are long-lived, some reaching more than 200 years according to Somali sources, and they coppice well. It is unclear whether Cordeauxia edulis is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Ecology In Ethiopia and Somalia Cordeauxia edulis is found in semi-desert regions in Acacia-Commiphora deciduous bushland and shrub vegetation at (100-) (-1000) m altitude, with a minimum distance of 100 km to the Indian Ocean. These regions have an average annual temperature of C, an average annual rainfall of (-400) mm and two rainy seasons. Cordeauxia edulis is resistant to normal drought periods of 4-5 months and occasional drought of up to 15 months. It does not tolerate frost. It grows on deep, permeable, reddish, sandy, slightly alkaline (ph up to 8-8.5), noncalcareous soils with a very low nutrient status. Cordeauxia edulis does not tolerate waterlogging. Propagation and planting Cordeauxia edulis is normally propagated by seed, but vegetative propagation through stem cuttings is also possible. The 100-seed weight is g. The seed is often said to be viable for a few months only, but seed coated in wood ash and stored in a sack is reputed to remain viable for at least a year. Direct sowing in the field seems preferable, as the fast-growing taproot is easily damaged in transplanting, with mortality rates of up to 100%. No information is available on optimum plant densities and spacings. Under natural conditions in Somalia there are up to 320 plants/ha, depending on growing conditions and distance from villages and water points. Management Cordeauxia edulis is usually collected from the wild. Ample water is needed for seedling establishment, but once the plants are established, little care is needed. Diseases and pests Cordeauxia edulis shrubs are essentially free of insect pests, but storage pests, such as weevils and larvae of moths, heavily attack the seeds. Harvesting Cordeauxia edulis fruits are picked from the plant, the fruit wall is peeled off and the seeds are placed in sacks. The seeds are often harvested before maturity, which may be a factor in the low seed viability often encountered. Usually all seeds are removed from the plant at the same time, hampering regeneration of natural stands. Fruits can be harvested twice a year, provided rainfall is adequate during both rainy seasons. Yield The seed yield of Cordeauxia edulis is 5 8 kg per plant per year, but may be zero in drought years. The estimated average forage production is kg/ha (1.4-2 kg/plant). Handling after harvest To prevent Cordeauxia edulis seeds from being attacked by insects, freshly picked seeds are roasted or boiled to kill insects and harden the seed coat. In this form they fetch a higher price on the market, but the practice contributes to the difficulty of obtaining viable seed for planting. Pastoralists keep the seeds for many years in containers made of tanned, dried camel leather. For dyeing, Somalis pulverize about 200 g of dried leaves in water to dye about 10 m 2 cotton cloth. Alkaline extracts develop a more intense violet colour than neutral or slightly acid extracts. Genetic resources The populations of Cordeauxia edulis declined in the 20 th century due to deterioration of the vegetation caused by overgrazing, and overharvesting of the seed. In the IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (1997) Cordeauxia edulis is classified in the category 'rare', which includes taxa with small world populations that are not at present considered endangered or vulnerable, but are at risk. Regeneration and protection of natural stands and cultivation in afforestation projects, in and outside its native region, are recommended. Germplasm collections are seriously lacking, with one accession kept in Ethiopia at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, one in Kenya at the National Genebank of Kenya, Kikuyu and one in the United States at the Southern Regional Plant Introduction Station, Griffin, Georgia. Prospects Cordeauxia edulis is a useful multipurpose plant in dry areas of Ethiopia and Somalia. Natural stands are threatened by over-exploitation, and protection of natural stands as well as expansion of its cultivation 50 52 CEREALS AND PULSES are called for. Cordeauxia edulis could be a promising potential source of food and dryseason fodder for other hot, arid regions. However, the limited availability of viable seed and the shortage of knowledge on the crop, especially its propagation, agronomic practices and potential for selection and breeding, are important constraints. Major references Assefa, Bollini & Kleiner, 1997; Bally, 1966; Booth & Wickens, 1988; Drechsel & Zech, 1988; Miège & Miège, 1978; National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Seegeler, 1983; Thulin, 1989a; Thulin, 1993; Yahya & Durand, Other references Bekele-Tesemma, Birnie & Tengnäs, 1993; Brenan, 1967; Curtis, Lersten & Lewis, 1996; Drechsel, 1988; Drechsel & Assefa, 1991; El-Zeany & Gutale, 1982; Eugster, 1967; Greenway, 1947; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Hedberg, 1979; International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), undated; Kebebew, 1988; Lepidi, Nuti & Capretti, 1979; Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968; Lewis, 1996; Miège, Crapon de Caprona & Lacotte, 1978; Walter & Gillett (Editors), 1998; Wickens, 1998; Zemede Asfaw & Mesfin Tadesse, 2001; Zimsky, Sources of illustration Booth & Wickens, 1988; Thulin, Authors M. Brink CRAIBIA BROWNII Dunn Protologue Journ. Bot. 49: 108 (1911). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Synonyms Craibia elliottii Dunn (1911). Origin and geographic distribution Craibia brownii is found in north-eastern DR Congo, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and possibly in Rwanda. Uses The seeds of Craibia brownii are edible after long cooking. The wood is used for building poles, tool handles and wooden spoons, and as firewood and to make charcoal. Craibia brownii is also planted as a shade tree. Properties The wood of Craibia brownii is whitish and hard, and has a fine texture. Botany Small to medium-sized tree up to 24 m tall, with a pale grey bark. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate with 3 8 leaflets; stipules oblong, often semi-persistent; petiole cm long, rachis up to 12 cm long; stipels sometimes present; petiolules l-2(-5) mm long, wrinkled; leaflets alternate, elliptical, lanceolate or oblong, 4-15 cm x cm, base cuneate to rounded, apex gradually acuminate, glabrous, shiny. Inflorescence a many-flowered terminal or axillary raceme 4-15 cm long, densely brown-pubescent; bracts oblong, up to 5 mm long, caducous. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel up to 12(-19) mm long; calyx brown-pubescent, tube 4-5 mm long, lobes very broad, c. 2 mm long; corolla bluish, pinkish or white, mm long, standard with a short claw, wings and keel with well-marked auricles; stamens 10, 9 fused and 1 free, sheath mm long, free parts 5 6 mm long; ovary superior, shortly stalked, mm long, densely hairy, style cylindrical, 5-6 mm long. Fruit a shortly stalked, flat pod, cm x cm, asymmetric, shortly beaked, glabrescent, dehiscing with twisted valves, 2-3- seeded. Seeds ellipsoid, c. 17 mm x 15 mm, black. Seedling with hypogeal germination. Craibia comprises 10 species and is confined to tropical Africa. Ecology Craibia brownii is found in dry and moist forest and along rivers, at m altitude, in areas with an annual rainfall of mm. Genetic resources and breeding Craibia brownii is not threatened by genetic erosion as it is widespread and locally common. Prospects Since very little is known about Craibia brownii, its prospects are unclear. Research is needed on the nutritional and chemical properties of the seeds. Major references Beentje, 1994; Gillett et al., 1971; Hauman et al., 1954b; Lovett, Ruffo & Gereau, 2003; Troupin, Other references ILDIS, 2002; USDA, ARS & National Genetic Resources Program, Authors M. Brink CROTALARIA KARAGWENSIS Taub. Protologue Engl., Pflanzenw. Ost-Afrikas C: 204 (1895). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae- Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Synonyms Crotalaria lugardiorum Bullock (1932). Origin and geographic distribution Crotalaria karagwensis is distributed in Central and East Africa, from Cameroon to Ethiopia and southward to DR Congo and Tanzania. Uses The seeds of Crotalaria karagwensis are considered edible in Kenya. 51 CROTALAEIA 53 Properties Various toxic compounds (alkaloids and non-protein amino acids) are present in Crotalaria spp., but toxin levels in Crotalaria karagwensis are not known. Botany Erect, annual herb up to 1 m tall, often with spreading, weakly ascending branches from the base; stem appressed hairy. Leaves alternate, simple; stipules linearsubulate, up to 3.5 mm long; petiole 1-2 mm long; blade linear-lanceolate to elliptical, cm x 2-12 mm, acute to rounded at apex, appressed hairy beneath. Inflorescence a terminal or axillary lax raceme 9-24 cm long, (6-) flowered. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel c. 5 mm long; calyx (4.5-)6-8 mm long, upper lobes narrowly attenuate-triangular, longer than the tube; corolla yellow, standard elliptical, c. 9 mm x 7 mm, with reddish-purple veins, wings c. 7 mm x 2 3 mm, keel angular, 7-11 mm x 4 mm, with a long straight twisted beak; stamens 10, all joined; ovary superior, oblong, c. 3.5 mm long, 1-celled, style c. 7 mm long. Fruit an oblong, clubshaped pod, narrowed basally into a 2 3 mm long stipe, c. 2.5 cm x 3.5 cm x 0.5 cm, seeded. Seeds obliquely heart-shaped, mm in diameter, smooth. Crotalaria comprises about 600 species distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics, with about 500 species in tropical Africa. Crotalaria karagwensis belongs to section Crotalaria, subsection Longirostres. In this subsection levels of toxic compounds are in general relatively low, although most species contain the free amino acid y-glutamyltyrosine. Ecology Crotalaria karagwensis occurs at m altitude in grassland and woodland; it also persists on roadsides and in cultivated land. Genetic resources and breeding No germplasm collections of Crotalaria karagwensis are known to exist. In view of its wide distribution Crotalaria karagwensis is not threatened by genetic erosion. Prospects It is unclear to what extent Crotalaria karagwensis seeds are eaten in tropical Africa. More information is needed on the levels of toxic compounds in the seeds and appropriate processing methods to eliminate these compounds. Major references Burkill, 1995; Gillett et al, 1971; Pilbeam & Bell, 1979; Polhill, 1982; Thulin, 1989a. Other references Hepper, 1958; ILDIS, 2005; Toussaint et al., Authors M. Brink CROTALARIA LACHNOPHORA Höchst, ex A.Rich Protologue Tent. fl. abyss. 1: 151 (1847). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number n = 8 Vernacular names Crotalaire à toison (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Crotalaria lachnophora is widespread in tropical Africa, from Senegal east to Ethiopia and south to Angola and Zimbabwe. It has recently been introduced into Madagascar from Rwanda. Uses The seeds of Crotalaria lachnophora are considered edible in DR Congo. Crotalaria lachnophora is promoted in Rwanda as a green manure crop in rotation systems, together with pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) and Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. In Madagascar it is being used experimentally as a cover crop for fallow land and in contour hedges. In Guatemala it has been recommended as a shade plant for coffee plantations and for soil conservation. Leaf sap is dropped into the ear or drunk to treat otitis. Properties Various alkaloids and nonprotein amino acids (y-glutamyltyrosine, isowillardiine, 2-piperudinecarboxylic acid) have been detected in Crotalaria lachnophora seeds and may cause toxicity. However, amino acids known to be toxic to mammals and birds and present in many Crotalaria species were not detected in Crotalaria lachnophora. Botany Perennial herb or shrub up to 3 m tall, much-branched above; branches densely hairy. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules oblong-falcate, cm x 2-8 mm, caudate; petiole (-5) cm long; petiolules mm long; leaflets oblanceolate to obovate, 3-7.5( 10) cm x cm, base cuneate, apex acute to rounded, densely appressed pubescent beneath. Inflorescence a terminal, lax raceme cm long, few-many-flowered. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel 5-11 mm long; calyx 11-15(-18) mm long, spreading hairy, lobes twice as long as the tube; corolla yellow, fading to orange-red, standard circular, c. 20 mm x mm, wings broadly oblong, mm x mm, keel abruptly rounded in lower half, (13-)20-24(-26) mm x 11 mm, with a rather short, blunt, slightly incurved beak; stamens 10, all joined; ovary superior, 1- celled, style mm long. Fruit a broadly cylindrical pod, cm x 1 2 cm, hairy, seeded. Seeds oblong to kidney-shaped, mm long, granulate, orange-yellow. 52 54 CEREALS AND PULSES Crotalaria comprises about 600 species distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics, with about 500 species in tropical Africa. Crotalaria lachnophora belongs to section Chrysocalycinae, subsection Stipulosae. Ecology Crotalaria lachnophora occurs in grassland and woodland, sometimes in thorn scrub; it is also found on roadsides and in disturbed or cultivated locations, at m altitude. In Nigeria it occurs in regions with an average annual rainfall of mm, on acidic, ferruginous soils. Genetic resources and breeding One accession of Crotalaria lachnophora from Kenya is kept in the National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu. Crotalaria lachnophora is widely distributed and not threatened by genetic erosion. Prospects Although the seeds of Crotalaria lachnophora are considered edible, possibly toxic compounds have been detected in the seeds. More information is needed on the toxicity of the seeds and appropriate processing methods to eliminate the toxic compounds. Crotalaria lachnophora has some potential as a green manure. Major references Beentje, 1994; Burkill, 1995; Gillett et al, 1971; Pilbeam & Bell, 1979; Polhill, Other references Berhaut, 1976; du Puy et al., 2002; Hepper, 1958; Husaini & Gill, 1985; ILDIS, 2005; Moller, 1990; Neuwinger, 2000; Thulin, 1989a; Toussaint et al., 1953; Wiedenroth, Authors M. Brink DlGITARIAEXILIS (Kippist) Stapf Protologue Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1915: 385 (1915). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number In = 54 Vernacular names Fonio, hungry rice, white fonio (En). Fonio, fonio blanc, petit mil (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Fonio is only known from cultivation and its exact origin is unknown, but it is of ancient cultivation in West Africa. It may have derived from Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers. in the inland delta region of the Niger. Historical records of the use of fonio as a cereal go back to the 14 th century. Nowadays fonio is grown scattered from Cape Verde and Senegal to Lake Chad, especially on the Fouta Djallon Plateau in Guinea, the Bauchi Plateau in Nigeria and in Digitaria exilis -planted north-western Benin. It is also grown in the Dominican Republic. Uses Fonio is a staple food in various parts of West Africa, where it is also known as 'acha' or 'fundi', but it is also a prestige food ('chiefs food') and a gourmet item. In the Hausa regions of Nigeria, Benin, Togo and Ghana, special couscous types ('wusu-wusu') are prepared with fonio. In southern Togo, the Akposso and Akebou people prepare fonio with beans in a dish for special occasions. In Nigeria fonio flour is made into thick, unfermented porridges ('tuwo acha'), and fermented grains are used for thin porridges ('kunu acha'). Boiled whole grains are eaten with vegetables, fish or meat. In northern Togo, the Lamba people brew beer ('tchapalo') from fonio. It is also popped and can be mixed with other flours to make bread. In the Dominican Republic fonio flour is made into porridges and creams, mixed with other cereal flours to make cookies, and it is used in the preparation of candy and fermented beverages; aside from everyday meals, fonio is also associated with various religious festivities inherited from African ancestors. Fonio grain is a valuable, easily digested feed for farm animals. The straw and chaff are excellent fodder and are often sold in markets for this purpose. Chopped fonio straw is mixed with clay to build walls of houses. The straw is also used as fuel for cooking or to produce ash for potash. Fonio grain is considered to have medicinal properties; it is recommended for lactating women and diabetic people. Production and international trade According to FAO statistics the average world production of fonio (the major share) and black fonio 53 DlGITAEIA 55 (Digitaria iburua Stapf) together in amounted to 257,000 t per year from 360,000 ha, all in West Africa. The main producing countries are Guinea (128,000 t per year in , from 137,000 ha), Nigeria (78,000 t from 142,000 ha), Mali (21,000 t from 33,000 ha), Burkina Faso (13,000 t from 16,000 ha) and Côte d'ivoire (11,000 t from 22,000 ha). The production in the Dominican Republic is not known. FAO statistics show an increase in world production from around 180,000 t per year in the early 1960s to around 260,000 t in the early 2000s, with an increase in acreage from around 280,000 ha to about 360,000 ha. Fonio is hardly traded outside West Africa, except for small quantities sold as luxury product in Europe. Properties The composition of whole fonio grain per 100 g edible portion is: water 11.2 g, energy 1390 kj (332 kcal), protein 7.1 g, fat 3.0 g, carbohydrate 74.4 g, fibre 7.4 g, Ca 41 mg, P 191 mg, Fe 8.5 mg, thiamin 0.24 mg, riboflavin 0.10 mg and niacin 1.9 mg (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). The essential amino-acid content per 100 g grain is: tryptophan 111 mg, lysine 205 mg, methionine 441 mg, phenylalanine 402 mg, threonine 315 mg, valine 457 mg, leucine 772 mg and isoleucine 315 mg (FAO, 1970). The amino acid composition of fonio is comparable with that of other cereals, but it has a relatively high methionine content. The palatability of fonio grain is considered high. Adulterations and substitutes Black fonio and Guinea millet (Brachiaria deflexa (Schumach.) Robyns) are used as substitutes of fonio. Description Ascending, free-tillering annual grass up to 80 cm tall, with delicate kneed stems. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath glabrous, smooth, striate; ligule membranous, broad, c. 2 mm long; blade linear to lanceolate, gradually tapering to an acute apex, 5-15 cm x cm, glabrous. Inflorescence a terminal digitate panicle of 2-5 slender, spike-like primary branches up to 15 cm long. Spikelet up to 1 mm stalked, narrowly ellipsoid, mm long, acute, glabrous, pale green, 2-flowered; lower glume hyaline, minute, upper glume broadly oblong, slightly shorter than spikelet, hyaline between the 3-5 green veins; lower floret sterile, upper floret bisexual; lemma about as long as spikelet, 7-9-veined; palea slightly shorter than lemma; stamens 3; ovary superior, with 2 stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), oblong to globose-ellipsoid, c. 0.5 mm long, white to pale brown or purplish. Other botanical information Digitaria is Digitaria exilis - 1, plant habit; 2, spikelet; 3, grain- Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman a taxonomically difficult genus comprising about 230 species in tropical, subtropical and warm-temperate regions, particularly in the Old World. Digitaria barbinodis Henr., occurring in Mali and Nigeria, is harvested as a wild cereal during times of scarcity and is occasionally grown in Nigeria. Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler is sometimes eaten as a supplementary food (Chad) or as a famine food. Digitaria debilis (Desf.) Willd., Digitaria fuscescens (Presl) Henrard, Digitaria leptorhachis (Pilg.) Stapf, Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers., Digitaria nuda Schumach. and Digitaria ternata (A.Rich) Stapf are also known to be eaten as famine foods in tropical Africa, but are considered more important as forage or auxiliary plant. In India (Assam) and Vietnam Digitaria cruciata (Nees ex Steud.) A.Camus ('raishan') is grown for food and fodder, whereas Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop, ('crabgrass') is or was grown as a cereal in Europe, Asia and America. Diversity within Digitaria exilis is broad, with a large number of locally cultivated landraces, differing in plant habit, plant colour, glume colour, grain size and length of the crop cycle. Based on morphology, 5 varieties have been 54 56 CEREALS AND PULSES distinguished: - var. gracilis Portères: leaf margin curled, inflorescence with 2 primary branches, each with spikelets per 10 cm, spikelets in groups of (2-)3(-4) and in 1-2 rows, stalks rough; early-maturing; Kankan region (Guinea). - var. striata Portères: leaf margin slightly curled, inflorescence with 2 primary branches, each with spikelets per 10 cm, spikelets in groups of (2-)3(-4) and mostly in 1 row, stalks smooth; earlymaturing; Casamance (Senegal), Guinea, Mali and Burkina Faso. - var. rustica Portères: robust plants, inflorescence with (2 )3-4( 5) primary branches, each with spikelets per 10 cm, spikelets in groups of (3 )4 and in 2 3 rows, stalks smooth; late-maturing; Casamance (Senegal), Guinea, Mali and Burkina Faso. - var. mixta Portères: robust plants, vegetative parts reddish pigmented, inflorescence with (2 )3-4(-5) primary branches, each with spikelets per 10 cm, spikelets in groups of (3 )4 and in 2 3 rows, stalks smooth; latematuring; Guinea. - var. densa Portères: tall, strong plants, with a long vegetative cycle, inflorescence with 3 4 primary branches, each with spikelets per 10 cm, spikelets in groups of 2(-3) and in 2 3 rows; late-maturing; Togo. Growth and development Fonio normally germinates 2-4 days after sowing and grows rapidly. Flowering usually occurs 6 8 weeks after emergence. The time from sowing to maturity is normally 2 5(-6) months. Certain landraces mature so quickly that they produce grain already 6-8 weeks after planting, long before all other cereals, and provide food early in the growing season. At maturity the stems bend down due to the weight of the grains. Fonio follows the C4 photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Fonio is grown at sea level in Gambia, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone, but more often it is cultivated at m altitude. The average temperature in the growing season ranges from 20 C at higher altitudes to C near sea level. Fonio is grown in areas with an average annual rainfall of mm, but its cultivation is concentrated in regions with an average annual rainfall of mm. It is not as drought resistant as pearl millet, but fast-maturing landraces are suited to areas with short and unreliable rains. In areas with very low rainfall it is grown in valleys benefiting from run-off water. Fonio can be grown on poor, shallow, sandy or rocky soils unsuitable for other cereals, but does not prosper in saline or heavy soils. On the Fouta Djallon Plateau of Guinea, it grows on acidic soils with very high aluminium contents. Propagation and planting Fonio is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is mg. Fonio is usually sown at the beginning of the rainy season. Soil preparation is minimal: the fallow vegetation is burnt and the ashes spread, and the soil may be loosened by superficial cultivation. Seed, mixed with an equal quantity of sand or ashes, is usually broadcast, and covered with soil by a light hoeing or brushing with tree branches. The seed rate is kg per ha. Fonio is sometimes raised in a nursery and planted out in the field. Fonio is normally grown as a sole crop, but sometimes intercropped with sorghum or pearl millet. Farmers in Guinea commonly sow various fonio types together and later fill in any gaps with Guinea millet. Management Although it has been stated that fonio seldom needs weeding due to its quick establishment and the high seed rates applied, other sources indicate that a weeding at 4-5 weeks after sowing is necessary for good yields. Fonio is usually not fertilized and little is known of its nutrient requirements. In crop rotations fonio often follows rainfed rice, as a short-cycle crop before another crop is sown in the same season. It is also grown at the end of a rotation. Diseases and pests Fonio is susceptible to rust (Puccinia oahuensis). Resistance to the nematodes Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne javanica has been recorded in soils where other plant species were infected. Birds can cause serious losses, so bird scaring is usually necessary. Fonio is attacked by parasitic plants of the genus Striga. Fonio seed is not liable to damage by storage pests and stores well. Harvesting Fonio is usually cut with a knife or sickle, tied into sheaves, dried and stored under cover. Mechanization is difficult because of lodging. When plants are dry, the grain shatters easily, and therefore it is better to harvest before the dry season has fully established and the relative air humidity has considerably declined. Harvesting is often staggered, to suit the immediate needs of the farmer. Yield Grain yields of fonio are normally kg/ha, but yields of over 1000 kg/ha have been recorded. In marginal areas yields 55 DlGITAEIA 57 may be as low as kg/ha. Handling after harvest Fonio is normally threshed at about 8 days after harvesting, traditionally by beating or trampling. The husks remain on the grains, which therefore retain moisture and must be dried further. The grains are sufficiently dry when they run easily through the fingers. The product after threshing ('fonio paddy' or 'raw fonio') is further processed in 2 stages: husking (removal of the husks from the grains) and whitening (removal of the fruitwall and the germ). Husking and whitening are done manually and require 4-5 beatings with pestle and mortar, alternated with winnowing. To obtain a product of good quality, all dirt and sand must be removed by repeated washings. The processing cycle is difficult and time-consuming and efforts are being made to develop equipment that will make processing easier. Small-scale fonio processing enterprises can be found in towns, e.g. in Mali and Burkina Faso, aiming at urban and export markets. Genetic resources Fonio seems not threatened by genetic erosion. RAPD-analysis has shown a relatively high level of genetic diversity in fonio compared to other millets, possibly due to its outbreeding nature. Most germplasm collections made before 1990 and kept in national genebanks have been lost, but duplicates exist at IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement), Montpellier, France, which keeps more than 400 fonio accessions. Fonio accessions are also conserved in Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Togo, Benin and Nigeria. In Nigeria, Benin and Togo germplasm characterization work for a better understanding and utilization of the fonio gene pool has started. Breeding So far fonio has been largely neglected in breeding programmes. Breeding efforts are being undertaken in Guinea, but no results are available so far. Improvement of fonio through traditional hybridization does not seem attractive because of insufficient knowledge on its floral biology and the extraordinarily miniature nature of its floral organs. Prospects Fonio is wrongly named 'hungry rice', because it is not grown to relieve hunger but because of its quality and contribution to food security. It is a crop with a short cycle, able to produce on very poor soils. It is appreciated as a food in West Africa, and its nutritional quality is excellent. Interesting research topics include improved plant architecture to prevent lodging, photoperiod-sensitivity, cultivation techniques, grain size, the development of less laborious processing methods and improvement of farmers' seed systems. Study of the genetic diversity of fonio and multilocational screening of germplasm are also highly recommended. Major references Burkill, 1994; Froment & Renard, 2001; Haq & Dania Ogbe, 1995; Hilu et al., 1997; National Research Council, 1996; Ndoye & Nwasike, 1993; Portères, 1976; van der Hoek & Jansen, 1996a; Vodouhè, Zannou & Achigan Dako (Editors), 2003; Vodouhè & Achigan Dako (Editors), Other references Busson, 1965; Chevalier, 1950; Cissé, ; Clayton, 1972; Cruz, 2004; de Wet, 1995c; FAO, 1970; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Harlan, 1993; Jideani, 1990; Jideani, 1999; Konkobo-Yaméogo et al., 2004; Kuta et al., 2003; Kwon-Ndung, Misari & Dachi, 1998; Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968; Lewicki, 1974; Morales-Payân et al., 2002; Purseglove, 1972; Sarr & Prot, 1985; van der Zon, Sources of illustration Henrard, 1950; Stapf, Authors S.R. Vodouhè & E.G. Achigan Dako DlGITARIAIBURUA Stapf Protologue Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1915: 382 (1915). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number In = 54 Vernacular names Black fonio, iburu, black acha (En). Fonio noir, manne noire, ibourou (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Black fonio is cultivated as a cereal in scattered localities from Côte d'ivoire to northern Nigeria and southern Niger, and in Cameroon. It has also been reported to be grown in Guinea and DR Congo. Black fonio is only known from cultivation. Its origin is uncertain, but it may have been derived from Digitaria ternata (A.Rich.) Stapf. Uses Black fonio is a staple food of the Birom people of the Jos Plateau in northern Nigeria and an important supplementary food to people in the Atakora mountains of Togo and Benin. It is eaten as porridge or mixed with meal of other cereals. The grain is also eaten cooked like rice or in stews. In Benin and Nigeria black fonio is made into couscous. In Togo it is used for brewing beer ('tchapalo'). 56 58 CEREALSAND PULSES Properties The composition of whole black fonio grain per 100 g edible portion is: water 10.3 g, energy 1436 kj (343 kcal), protein 8.9 g, fat 3.0 g, carbohydrate 75.6 g, fibre 6.2 g, P 234 mg and Fe 10.0 mg (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). The essential amino-acid content per 100 g grain is: tryptophan 215 mg, lysine 225 mg, methionine 355 mg, phenylalanine 803 mg, threonine 389 mg, valine 614 mg, leucine 1395 mg and isoleucine 508 mg (FAO, 1970). Botany Loosely tufted, erect, annual grass up to 1.4 m tall, with glabrous stems. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath glabrous, smooth, striate; ligule membranous, rounded, broad, 2-3 mm long; blade linear, tapering upwards, up to 30 cm x 1 cm, glabrous except for some long hairs near the base. Inflorescence a terminal digitate panicle of (2-)4 10(-11) sessile raceme-like primary branches cm long. Spikelet up to 2.5 mm stalked, ellipticallanceolate to oblong, up to 2 mm x 1 mm, acute, glabrous, green to dark brown, 2- flowered; lower glume hyaline, minute; upper glume ovate-oblong, mm long, hyaline, 3- veined; lower floret sterile, upper floret bisexual; lemma of lower floret 7-veined, lemma of upper floret brownish to black; palea slightly shorter than lemma; stamens 3; ovary superior, with 2 stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), ellipsoid, mm x 1 mm. Digitaria iburua mainly differs from its possible ancestor Digitaria ternata by its glabrous spikelets. Digitaria iburua greatly resembles Digitaria exilis (Kippist) Stapf (fonio). It is called black fonio because of its dark spikelets, but its grain is white. Ecology Black fonio is grown at m altitude in areas with an annual rainfall of mm. It is credited with yielding a crop where fonio fails due to drought. Though it reputedly grows well on poor soils, it is planted on more fertile soils in northern Nigeria. Management The 1000-seed weight of black fonio is about 500 g. In northern Nigeria it is usually planted towards the end of June and harvested in November December. It is frequently grown intercropped with fonio, pearl millet or sorghum. Black fonio is difficult to husk and it is mostly eaten imperfectly cleaned. Genetic resources and breeding No germplasm collections or breeding programmes of black fonio seem to exist, but germplasm of 2 landraces ('Tchibam' and 'Tripka'), tentatively identified as Digitaria iburua, has been collected in Togo for the Institut Togolais de Recherche Agronomique (ITRA). Information on the genetic variation within the species and its liability to genetic erosion is not available. Prospects Black fonio is clearly less important than fonio, but is valued as a traditional cereal in some parts of West Africa. Its importance is unlikely to increase, also in view of the difficult husking. Little is known about its ecological requirements, agronomy and potential for genetic improvement, and research in these fields is recommended. Major references Burkill, 1994; Haq & Dania Ogbe, 1995; Hilu et al, 1997; Portères, 1976; van der Zon, Other references Adoukonou-Sagbadja et al., 2004; Busson, 1965; FAO, 1970; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Jideani, 1999; Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968; National Research Council, 1996; Prasada Rao & de Wet, 1997; Stapf, ; van der Hoek & Jansen, 1996a. Authors M. Brink ECHINOCHLOAOBTUSIFLORA Stapf Protologue Prain, FI. trop. Afr. 9(4): 606 (1920). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 18 Origin and geographic distribution Echinochloa obtusiflora is only known from Niger, northern Nigeria, northern Cameroon and Sudan. Uses The grains of Echinochloa obtusiflora are eaten in Sudan (Kordofan) in times of food scarcity; they are collected from the wild. Echinochloa obtusiflora is a good forage plant. Botany Erect, tufted, annual (sometimes perennial) grass up to 1 m tall; stem (culm) erect or ascending. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath glabrous, smooth; ligule ciliate; blade linear, cm x 2-9 mm, hairy at base and margins or glabrous. Inflorescence composed of 2 12 racemes along a central axis 5 17 cm long; racemes erect, 1-4 cm long, with spikelets in 4 rows along the rachis. Spikelet elliptical, mm long, obtuse, somewhat rough towards the tip, 2-flowered with lower floret male and upper bisexual; lower glume obtuse, about one-third as long as the spikelet, upper glume as long as the spikelet; lemma and palea of upper floret with incurved tip; stamens 3; ovary superior, stigmas 2. Fruit a 57 ECHINOCHLOA 59 caryopsis (grain). Echinochloa comprises species. It is a taxonomically difficult genus, because clear-cut boundaries between the species seldom exist and the species are very variable. Introgression between species is common. Examined strains of Echinochloa obtusiflora were partially selfincompatible. Ecology Echinochloa obtusiflora is found in shallow pools, inundation plains and other wet locations. It is a weed of rice. Genetic resources and breeding Although Echinochloa obtusiflora has a limited distribution, it does not seem liable to genetic erosion. Prospects The role of Echinochloa obtusiflora as a cereal is limited to providing some food in times of scarcity, and it is unlikely to become more important in the future. Information is lacking on the nutritional quality of the grain. Major references Burkill, 1994; Clayton, 1972; van der Zon, 1992; Yabuno, 1983; Yabuno, Other references Phillips, 1995; Stapf, Authors M. Brink ECHINOCHLOA STAGNINA (Retz.) P.Beauv. Protologue Ess. Agrostogr.: 53, 161, 171 (1812). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 18, 36, 54, 63, 72, 108, 126 Synonyms Echinochloa scabra (Lam.) Roem. & Schult. (1817). Vernacular names Hippo grass, long-awned water grass, burgu grass (En). Bourgou, roseau sucré, roseau à miel du Niger (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Echinochloa stagnina occurs throughout tropical Africa and is also found in tropical Asia, where it has possibly been introduced. Occasionally, it is naturalized in other tropical regions. Uses In tropical Africa the grains of Echinochloa stagnina are traditionally collected as a cereal, especially in times of food shortage. Echinochloa stagnina is sown as a cereal in India. The sweet stems and rhizomes have been used to produce alcoholic or non-alcoholic beverages and are still used for the extraction of sugar for making confectionery and liqueurs. Children suck the stems for the sugar. Grasslands of Echinochloa stagnina ('bourgoutières') are important dry-season grazing areas for the herds of pastoralists in West Africa. In Chad Echinochloa stagnina is sown to improve pastures; it is also sown as a fodder grass in Egypt. It can be made into hay. The stems are used for thatching and mat-making, and the leaves for caulking boats. The ash of burnt leaves has been used in the manufacture of soap and as a mordant with indigo dye. Properties Echinochloa stagnina plants in mid-bloom in Niger contain crude protein 11.3%, crude fibre 32.5%, crude fat 2.2%, nitrogen-free extracts 44.2%, Ca 0.31%, Mg 0.31% and P 0.25%. The pith of the culms contains 10% saccharose and 7 8% reducing sugars. Because of its high sugar content Echinochloa stagnina is considered an excellent fodder grass. Botany Perennial aquatic grass up to 2.5 m tall, or taller (up to10 m) when floating, with stout, often floating rhizomes; stem (culm) decumbent, with a diameter up to 2.5 cm, often spongy, rooting and branching at the lower nodes. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath cm long, glabrous or rarely hairy, loose at base of plant; ligule a line of hairs, often absent in upper leaves; blade linear, cm x cm, firm, with scabrid margin and filiform tip. Inflorescence composed of racemes along a central axis 6-35 cm long, erect or nodding; racemes up to 15 cm long, closely overlapping or distant, with spikelets in pairs. Spikelets narrowly ovate, mm x1-2 mm, slightly hairy but with prickly hairs on the veins, 2-flowered with lower floret male or sterile and upper bisexual; lower glume c. %of spikelet length, sharply acuminate to mucronate, upper glume as long as spikelet, awnless or with an awn up to 4 mm long; lemma of lower floret with a stout awn up to 25(-50) mm long, lemma of upper floret 3-5 mm long; stamens 3, anthers violet; ovary superior, stigmas 2. Fruit a caryopsis (grain). Echinochloa comprises species. It is a taxonomically difficult genus, because clear-cut boundaries between the species seldom exist and the species are very variable. Introgression between species is common. Echinochloa stagnina is extremely variable. Stem elongation enables Echinochloa stagnina to support a water level increase of 4 cm per day, and it can be found in water depths of up to 4 m. In the central Niger delta the biomass accumulated in the flooding season can be as high as 15-30(-40) t dry matter per ha. Stems trampled by animals and covered by soil form roots at the nodes, which is an important mode 58 60 CEREALS AND PULSES of natural regeneration of Echinochloa stagnina. Echinochloa stagnina is self-pollinating. It follows the Ci-cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology In tropical Africa Echinochloa stagnina occurs from sea-level up to 2300 m altitude, in shallow water, swamps and on periodically inundated clay soils. It often forms large floating mats, rooting in the mud. Echinochloa stagnina is frequently the dominant species of the natural flood-plain grasslands in the central Niger delta and the shores of Lake Chad. It may occur in massive, nearly pure stands or together with Echinochloa colona (L.) Link, Echinochloa pyramidalis (Lam.) Hitchc. & Chase and Oryza longistaminata A.Chev. & Roehr. Echinochloa stagnina is an important weed of rice in tropical Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Thailand, sometimes obstructing waterways. Management Echinochloa stagnina is propagated by seed, stem cuttings or plant division. The 1000-seed weight is about 2.4 g. Under natural conditions the seeds are shed in water. In experiments, seeds stored under water in the dark at a temperature of 20 C C showed no dormancy and had a germination percentage of almost 100%, whereas seeds kept under dry conditions had a dormancy period of 6-7 months. The dormancy is broken by removing the glumes, but this results in rapidly reduced viability. Seeds germinate within a week after sowing. In regeneration programmes in Mali seedlings or rooted cuttings are planted out into the field at densities of 10,000-16,000 plants/ha. In the central Niger delta in Mali the grains of Echinochloa stagnina are traditionally harvested using boats and by beating the inflorescences over a net. As the grains shatter easily, they are harvested at an early stage. To obtain sugar, the harvested plants are traditionally dried in the sun, after which the leaves are burnt off. The stems are washed and ground, and sugar is extracted from them by filtrating with warm water. Vegetative material for forage is cut using boats, and is eaten green or as hay. The forage is not only used locally, but also traded commercially, with an important market in Tombouctou. After the water has receded, animals are allowed to graze on the remaining plant material until the end of the dry season. Genetic resources and breeding Around 100 years ago, the 'bourgou' area in the central Niger delta was estimated at about 250,000 ha, but since then much has been replaced by rice fields. Around 1970 the area was estimated at ,000 ha. Since 1970 further reduction has taken place due to rice cultivation, reduced rainfall, reduced water levels in the river, overharvesting and overgrazing, resulting in a disturbance of traditional pastoral systems. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, holds 9 accessions of Echinochloa stagnina. Prospects Echinochloa stagnina is a useful multipurpose plant in semi-arid regions of West Africa, especially in the central delta of the Niger river. Its area and importance have declined due to various factors, and this trend will be difficult to reverse. In many other regions Echinochloa stagnina is considered a weed, and therefore it does not seem advisable to promote it elsewhere. Information is lacking on the nutritional quality of the grain. Major references Bonis Charancle, 1994; Burkill, 1994; François, Rivas & Compère, 1989; Harlan, 1989b; Phillips, Other references Bartha, 1970; Busson, 1965; Clayton, 1989; François et al, 1991; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; McKenzie et al., 1993; van der Zon, 1992; Yabuno, 1968; Yabuno, Authors M. Brink ELEUSINE CORACANA (L.) Gaertn. Protologue Fruct. sem. pi. 1: 8 (1788). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 36 Synonyms Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. subsp. coracana (L.) Lye (1999). Vernacular names Finger millet, African millet, koracan (En). Eleusine, coracan, mil rouge (Fr). Luco, capim colonial, nachenim (Po). Mwimbi, ulezi (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Finger millet was domesticated in the East African highlands. The oldest known archaeological remains were excavated at Axum, Ethiopia and date back an estimated 5000 years. These resemble types of highly evolved finger millet that are still grown in Ethiopia. Cultivation of finger millet spread across the eastern and southern African savanna during the expansion of iron working technology, to eventually reach South Africa some 800 years ago. In tropical Africa it is now grown from Ethiopia and Eritrea south to Mozambique, Zimbabwe 59 ELEUSINE 61 T" o? Eleusine coracana -planted and Namibia. It is also recorded from Madagascar. Finger millet is of little importance in West Africa, but is recorded from a low-rainfall zone from Senegal eastwards, especially in Niger and northern Nigeria. Finger millet reached India years ago. From India it spread across South-East Asia to China and Japan. In the United States it is grown on a small scale for bird-seed. Uses The principal use of finger millet in Africa is to provide malt for making local beer and other alcoholic or non-alcoholic beverages. In Ethiopia a distilled liquor known as 'areki' is produced from finger millet. Finger millet is also widely used as a food cereal, especially during times of scarcity. The most common use of finger millet flour is to prepare porridge, usually served with a side dish of vegetables, meat or fish. Freshly ground, slightly wet flour is made into 'cakes', which are wrapped in maize husks or banana leaves and roasted. Raw 'cakes' can be stored for several days; when needed, water is added to form a refreshing thin gruel. Flour is also pounded with bananas and the mixture is made into flat cakes that are fried in oil or baked in a dry pan. Finger millet straw is used as forage for cattle, sheep and goats. It produces excellent hay, and in India it is cultivated as a fodder grass. In Uganda the by-products of finger millet beer production are fed to chickens, pigs and other animals. Finger millet is used medicinally, e.g. the seed as a prophylaxis for dysentery. In southern Africa the juice of a mixture of finger millet leaves and leaves of Plumbago zeylanica L. are taken as an internal remedy for leprosy. Finger millet straw is used for thatching and plaiting, and in China for papermaking. In Sudan the leaves are made into string. Production and international trade In trade and production statistics, finger millet is usually combined with other millets, such as pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.), foxtail millet (Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv.) and proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.). The estimated world area of finger millet is about 3 million ha yielding about 2.5 million t of grain annually. India is the largest producer. The total area planted annually in Africa is fairly constant, and slightly less than 1 million ha. Major producers in Africa are Ethiopia, Uganda, Malawi and Zimbabwe. In Africa finger millet grain is produced for local consumption. Surpluses are sold in local markets. International trade, even among neighbouring countries in Africa, is negligible. Properties Whole grain of finger millet contains per 100 g edible portion: water 10.9 g, energy 1377 kj (329 kcal), protein 7.4 g, fat 1.3 g, carbohydrate 77.7 g, fibre 4.3 g, Ca 397 mg, P 190 mg, Fe 17.1 mg, ß-carotene traces, thiamin 0.18 mg, riboflavin 0.11 mg and niacin 0.8 mg (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g food is: tryptophan 107 mg, lysine 213 mg, methionine 229 mg, phenylalanine 383 mg, threonine 310 mg, valine 487 mg, leucine 701 mg and isoleucine 324 mg (FAO, 1970). Whole grain is used in grinding, resulting in a high fibre content of the flour, making it hard to digest. For food, white-coloured grain is preferred. The more bitter dark-coloured grain is preferred for beermaking. In malting, finger millet grain has a higher enzyme activity than all other major cereals except barley, making it very suitable for brewing. Finger millet straw has an in-vitro digestibility of 40-60%. Description Robust, free-tillering, tufted annual grass up to 170 cm tall; stem slender, erect or geniculately ascending, glabrous and smooth, sometimes branching, rooting at lower nodes; root system shallow, branched, fibrous. Leaves alternate, distichous, simple and entire; leaf sheath flattened, overlapping, split along the entire length; ligule 1-2 mm long, fimbriate; blade linear to linear-lanceolate, up to 75 cm x 2 cm, usually folded, scabrous above. Inflorescence a terminal digitate panicle, often with one or a few branches ('thumbs') below the main cluster of 4-19 branches ('fingers'); branches slender to robust, linear to oblong, up to 24 cm long, reflexed when slender or straight to incurved at the tip when robust, 60 62 CEREALS AND PULSES Eleusine coracana - 1, stem part with leaves; 2, inflorescence; 3, part of inflorescence branch; 4, spikelet; 5, floret without lemma and palea; 6, grain within lemma and palea; 7, grain. Source: PROSEA sometimes with secondary branches, each branch with spikelets. Spikelets ovoidellipsoid, up to 10 mm x 4 mm, mostly arranged in two rows along one side of the rachis, (3-)6-9(-12)-flowered; lower glume 1-4 mm long, with a 3-veined keel, upper glume 2-5 mm long, with a (3-)5-7-veined keel; florets bisexual, but terminal ones sometimes sterile or male, arranged in 2 opposite rows; lemma narrowly ovate, 2-5 mm long, palea slightly shorter than lemma; stamens 3; ovary superior, with 2 free styles ending in plumose stigmas. Fruit a grain with free, soft fruit wall (utricle), 4-7 per spikelet, more or less globose, up to 2 mm in diameter, white, red, brown or black; pericarp remaining distinct during development and at maturity appearing as a papery structure surrounding the seed. Other botanical information Eleusine comprises about 10 species, distributed in the tropical and subtropical parts of Africa, Asia and South America. The probable wild ancestor of finger millet is Eleusine africana Kenn.- O'Byrne (wild finger millet), commonly considered as a subspecies of Eleusine coracana (subsp. africana (Kenn.-O'Byrne) Hilu & de Wet) because it is also tetraploid (2n = 36) and crosses with finger millet produce fertile hybrids. It is an aggressive colonizer and forms large continuous populations in disturbed habitats, from where it is still harvested as a wild cereal in times of scarcity. It is a noxious weed of agriculture in Africa and invades fields of finger millet where, although predominantly self-fertilized, it occasionally crosses with the cereal to form extensively variable, weedy hybrid swarms. Primitive finger millet cultivars resemble wild finger millet in inflorescence morphology but lack the ability of natural seed dispersal. They are characterized by inflorescences with spreading branches that are straight or slightly incurved at the tip when mature. These cultivars are widespread in Africa and are also grown in southern and eastern India. A second group of highland African and Indian cultivars is also characterized by spreading inflorescence branches. Cultivars from East Africa typically have inflorescence branches that are up to 24 cm long, while others from East Africa and from southern India have cm long inflorescence branches. Cultivars from Africa commonly have more slender inflorescences than those from India, allowing the branches to become reflexed at maturity. Individuals in fields of these cultivars sometimes have their spikelets arranged in clusters along the rachis. A morphologically distinct group of cultivars is widely grown from Ethiopia to Zambia. These cultivars are characterized by spreading inflorescence branches with large, narrowly lanceolate spikelets that are arranged in two even rows along one side of the rachis. Morphologically related finger millets are grown in the mountains of eastern India, but in these cultivars the large spikelets are irregularly arranged and essentially surround the rachis. The most advanced cultivars have highly proliferated inflorescence branches that are clumped together to form a fist-like structure. These cultivars are grown across the range of finger millet cultivation in Africa and the Indian sub-continent. The most commonly grown finger millet cultivars in Africa and India have much smaller inflorescences with more or less spreading branches that may become somewhat incurved or reflexed at maturity. Growth and development Finger millet seeds lack dormancy. However, they will not germinate in soil that lacks sufficient moisture 61 ELEUSINE 63 to support seedling growth. Seedlings are sensitive to drought, but mature plants go dormant during short periods of drought and produce new tillers when conditions become favourable again. Plants tiller strongly and root from lower nodes, and provide excellent protection against soil erosion. Time from planting to flowering is days; the complete crop cycle is 3-6 months. Flowering on individual inflorescences lasts for 8-10 days and proceeds from top to bottom on branches. Finger millet is predominantly self-pollinated, with about 1% out-crossing. Heavy rain at flowering reduces seed set. Finger millet follows the C4 photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Finger millet grows best at an average temperature around 23 C. In eastern and southern Africa finger millet is grown from sea-level up to about 2500 m altitude, most commonly at m. It is mostly grown in areas with mm of rainfall during the growing season. The minimum rainfall for finger millet is mm, but below 750 mm sorghum and pearl millet are more commonly grown because of their superior drought tolerance. Finger millet is a short-day plant with a critical daylength mostly close to 12 hours. Finger millet grows on a range of soils, but prefers fertile, well-drained, sandy to sandyloam soils with reasonable water-holding capacity. It prefers a ph of 5 7, but tolerates very alkaline (ph 11) soils. It does not tolerate waterlogging. Propagation and planting Finger millet is propagated from seed. The weight of 1000 seeds is 2-3 g. Fields are prepared by hoe or animal-drawn plough. To control weeds, fields may be ploughed at the onset of rains, weeds are allowed to germinate and the fields are ploughed a second time or even as many as six times, before the cereal crop is planted. Harrowing before planting also helps to reduce weeds. Seeds are broadcast or planted in rows behind the plough. Seed rates up to 35 kg/ha may be used when the crop is broadcast; in row planting seed rates are only 3 10 kg/ha. In row planting, seeds are sown 2-3 cm deep in rows cm apart. As soon as convenient, seedlings are thinned to 5-12 cm apart within the row. In India seeds are sometimes germinated in nurseries, and the seedlings planted in the field when they are 3-4 weeks old. Although labour intensive, this practice provides fresh cereal grain well before direct-sown finger millet matures. Alternatively, finger millet may be sown or planted 1-2 weeks before the expected onset of rain. Finger millet is often intercropped with other cereals, pulses or vegetables. In Ethiopia sole cropping of finger millet is common. In Africa finger millet is grown most commonly by smallholders. Management Weeds are a major problem in finger millet, the first two weeks after germination being critical. Several rounds of manual weeding are common, requiring much labour. When finger millet is planted in rows, animaldrawn weeders are often used. Finger millet responds well to fertilizer. Recommended rates of application are kg N, kg P and kg K per ha. Smallholders, however, can rarely afford chemical fertilizers. Finger millet also responds well to the addition of organic manure or ash. In parts of Africa finger millet is grown in a shifting-agriculture system, e.g. in the 'chitemene' system in Zambia. In Kenya and Tanzania it is often grown as the first crop after clearing the land, when weed pressure is low and soil fertility relatively high. Finger millet is commonly grown in rotation with other annual crops, preferably pulses. In Uganda it is grown after tobacco or cotton. Diseases and pests Finger millet is relatively free of diseases and pests. The most serious disease is head blast caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea (synonym: Pyricularia grisea). It attacks finger millet across its range of cultivation. All aerial parts are affected from seedling to maturity. Serious reduction in yield occurs when inflorescences are infected during grain development. Control methods include crop rotation and the use of tolerant or resistant cultivars. Bipolaris nodulosa (synonym: Helminthosporium nodulosum) causes a dark brown leaf blight and foot and root rot, whereas Helminthosporium leucostylum causes leaf shredding, seedling blight and head blight. Insect pests include shoot fly (Atherigona soccatd), stem borers, caterpillars, grasshoppers and locusts; the phytophagous ladybird (Epilachna similis) sporadically causes serious damage. Quelea birds are pests in some areas. Major weeds of finger millet in tropical Africa include wild finger millet, Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. and Brachiaria deflexa (Schumach.) Robyns. These species are difficult to distinguish from finger millet in early stages of development and almost impossible to weed out successfully. The broad-leafed weed Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov. is a problem in Ethiopia, but is commonly weeded out by hand. The root 62 64 CEREALS AND PULSES parasite Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth. occurs across the range of finger millet cultivation in Africa, but rarely seems to cause serious problems. Stored finger millet is insectresistant due to the grains being too small for weevils to squeeze inside, and can be stored for several years without serious damage. Harvesting In Africa finger millet fields are often harvested in several rounds to prevent loss of grain through shattering because of uneven ripening. Harvesting usually starts when grain of the earliest genotypes contains about 10% moisture. Inflorescences are individually cut and allowed to dry. Yield The average finger millet grain yield under local practices of agriculture in tropical Africa is t/ha. With improved cultivars, optimal weed control and use of fertilizers yields of up to 5 t/ha are obtained under experimental conditions. Straw yields range from t/ha for rainfed crops to 9 t/ha for irrigated crops. Handling after harvest Finger millet grain is stored after threshing or in inflorescences that are threshed as needed. Threshing is usually by beating the inflorescences with a stick. Grain is ground on a grinding stone or in a mill. A little water may be added during the grinding process to keep the grains together and to avois fragmentation of the bran. The coarse bran is winnowed off and may be used in making beer. Straw is commonly grazed by cattle. In East Africa grain to be used in brewing is typically soaked in water and left for 2-3 days to germinate, after which the germinated seeds are ground, mixed with fried fermented maize, sorghum or finger millet flour, and placed in water to further ferment for 2-5 days. Genetic resources Major finger millet germplasm collections are being maintained and evaluated by ICRISAT Asia Center (Patancheru, India), with selected duplicate specimens at ICRISAT Southern and Eastern Africa (Bulawayo, Zimbabwe and Nairobi, Kenya) and SADC (Bulawayo, Zimbabwe). Germplasm collections include about 2800 accessions from Africa and about 2100 from Asia. Major African collections are from Uganda, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Malawi and Zambia, and most Asian collections are from India and Nepal. A large collection (about 2000 accessions, mainly from Kenya) is maintained at the National Genebank of Kenya, Muguga. Another extensive collection, numbering 1300 accessions from Ethiopia, is maintained by the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (IBC), formerly known as Plant Genetic Resources Center of Ethiopia (PGRC/E), in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Germplasm from the rest of tropical Africa and tropical Asia needs to be collected. Breeding Finger millet breeders need to identify resistance to head blast and to incorporate such resistance into cultivars with acceptable yield. Screening for resistance is making progress. Progress is also being made to reduce susceptibility to lodging and shorten the growing cycle, and to increase tolerance to moisture stress and yield under traditional farming systems. Hand emasculation and pollination of finger millet florets are tedious and hamper rapid progress through trait recombination. A male sterile line has been developed in Zimbabwe. Improved cultivars released in Africa include 'Tadesse', 'Padet' and 'Boneya' in Ethiopia, 'P-283', 'P-224', 'P-221' and 'Serere-1' in Kenya, 'Engeny', 'Serere-1', 'Gulu-E' and 'P- 224' in Uganda, 'Steadfast' and 'M-144' in Zambia and 'FMV-1' and 'FMV-2' in Zimbabwe. Finger millet has limited levels of polymorphism for DNA-based markers within the cultivated and wild species. A genetic map based on restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers is being constructed using crosses between finger millet and wild finger millet. Prospects The area under finger millet cultivation varies from year to year in both Africa and Asia. The trend, however, shows stability or increases in most countries where finger millet is a staple cereal. A major constraint in finger millet production is the high labour requirement, especially for weeding, harvesting and milling. However, its excellent storage quality and the fact that in Africa it is preferred over other cereals in the production of local beer assure finger millet a place in agriculture. Major references Anand Kumar & Renard, 2001; Bisht & Mukai, 2002; Burkill, 1994; de Wet, 1995a; de Wet, 2000; de Wet et al., 1984; Hilu & Johnson, 1997; Hilu, de Wet & Harlan, 1979; Jansen & Ong, 1996; Prasada Rao & de Wet, Other references Acland, 1971; Clayton, Phillips & Renvoize, 1974; Cope, 1999; Davie & Gordon-Gray, 1977; Dida, Gale & Devos, 2001; Doggett, 1998; FAO, 1970; Harlan, de Wet & Stemler, 1976; Hilu & de Wet, 1976a; Hilu & de Wet, 1976b; Hussaini, Goodman & Timothy, 1977; Kennedy-O'Byrne, 1957; Leung, Busson 63 ERAGROSTIS 65 & Jardin, 1968; McDonough, Rooney & Serna- Saldivar, 2000; Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2002; National Research Council, 1996; Phillips, 1972; Phillips, 1995; Riley et al. (Editors), 1993; Weher, Sources of illustration Jansen & Ong, Authors J.M.J, de Wet ERAGROSTIS AETHIOPICA Chiov. Protologue Rob.-Brich., Somalia & Benadir; 726 (1899). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 20 Origin and geographic distribution Eragrostis aethiopica is distributed from Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djibouti southwards to South Africa. It is also found in the southern part of the Arabian peninsula. Uses The grain of Eragrostis aethiopica is consumed in Ethiopia. In the Turkana area of Kenya the plant is eaten by cattle, goats, sheep and donkeys, but in Ethiopia it is consideredof little importance for grazing. Botany Annual grass up to 75 cm tall, erect or ascending; stem (culm) slender, solitary or tufted, often with pitted glands below the nodes. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath glabrous; ligule a line of hairs; blade linear, 3-20 cm x 1-3 mm, flat or involute, glabrous. Inflorescence a loose, open, ellipsoid panicle up to 26 cm long, branches and pedicels slender and flexible, lowermost primary branches usually in whorls but sometimes solitary or paired. Spikelet linear to oblong, mm x mm, 4-9(-28)-flowered, with bisexual florets; glumes unequal, hyaline, the lower veinless and up to 0.5 mm long, the upper lanceolate, up to 1 mm long; lemma c. 1 mm long, thinly membranaceous, obtuse; palea with smooth keel; stamens 3, anthers c. 0.2 mm long; ovary superior, with 2 stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), ellipsoid, c. 0.5 mm long. Eragrostis is a large and taxonomically complex genus comprising more than 350 species mainly in tropical and subtropical regions, of which 14 are said to be endemic to Ethiopia. The diploid Eragrostis aethiopica is very similar to the tetraploid Eragrostis pilosa (L.) P.Beauv., a forage species of which the grain is sometimes eaten by humans. The former can be distinguished from the latter by its more delicate habit, smaller spikelets with blunter lemmas, smaller grain, and absence of long silky hairs in the lower panicle axis. Furthermore, Eragrostis pilosa is never glandular. In southern Africa Eragrostis aethiopica flowers from January to May. Ecology Eragrostis aethiopica is found up to 1600 m altitude in semi-desert and savanna areas on sand, silt or clay, e.g. in floodplain grassland, small vleis, pan edges and banks and beds of rivers, but also in disturbed habitats, such as roadsides and cultivated land. It is sometimes considered a weed, e.g. in Mozambique. Management Eragrostis aethiopica is collected from the wild. Genetic resources and breeding The National Genebank of Kenya, Kikuyu, Kenya, and the USDA-ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, Washington, United States, each have 1 accession of Eragrostis aethiopica. This species is widespread and in many areas common and thus not liable to genetic erosion. Prospects The role of Eragrostis aethiopica will not extend beyond being a local source of food and forage. Major references Clayton, Phillips & Renvoize, 1974; Cope, 1999; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Phillips, 1995; Zemede Asfaw & Mesfin Tadesse, Other references Cope, 1995; Fröman & Persson, 1974; Holm, Pancho & Herberger, 1979; IPGRI, undated; Morgan, 1981; SEPA- SAL, 2003; USDA, ARS & National Genetic Resources Program, Authors M. Brink ERAGROSTIS ANNULATA Rendle ex Scott- Elliot Protologue Journ. Bot. 29: 72 (1891). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Vernacular names Ringed lovegrass, ring windgrass (En). Eragrostis annelé (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Eragrostis annulata is found in Angola, Namibia, Botswana and South Africa. Uses The grain of Eragrostis annulata is eaten in Namibia. Properties Eragrostis annulata has an unpleasant smell. Botany Annual, loosely tufted grass up to 40 cm tall; stem (culm) ascending, with a glandular ring below the nodes. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath thinly hairy, the slender hairs mixed with shorter gland-tipped hairs; 64 66 CEREALSAND PULSES ligule a line of hairs; blade linear, 2-12 cm x 1-5 mm, flat, thinly hairy, with scattered cratershaped glands along the margins and a lineof glandular pits along the midvein below. Inflorescence an ovoid panicle 4-20 cm long, fairly dense to open, stiffly branched, primary branches not in whorls, terminating in a fertile spikelet. Spikelet on a pedicel 1-3 mm long with a distinct annular gland, narrowly oblong or sometimes linear, laterally compressed, 3 9(-15) mm x mm, 6-16(-40)-flowered, with bisexual florets; glumes almost equal, narrowly ovate, up to 1 mm long, keeled, apex acute; lemma ovate to broadly ovate, mm long, keeled, papery, glabrous, apex obtuse; palea glabrous on the sides, persistent; stamens 3, anthers mm long; ovary superior, with 2 stigmas. Fruit a more or less square caryopsis (grain) c. 0.5 mm long, with a shallow to deep depression along the back. Eragrostis is a large and taxonomically complex genus comprising more than 350 species mainly in tropical and subtropical regions. Eragrostis annulata resembles the forage species Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) F.T.Hubb., but the latter lacks gland-tipped hairs and has a globose grain. In its native region Eragrostis annulata flowers from February to May. Ecology Eragrostis annulata is found on a range of soil types, especially on sandy, stony or calcareous soils where the groundwater table is high, and in disturbed locations. Management Eragrostis annulata is collected from the wild. Genetic resources and breeding The Division of Plant and Seed Control, Department of Agriculture Technical Service, Pretoria, South Africa, holds 2 accessions of Eragrostis annulata. This species occurs in a diversityof habitats in a fairly large region, and thus is not easily liable to genetic erosion. Prospects The role of Eragrostis annulata as a source of food is very limited and will most probably remain so. Major references Cope, 1999; de Villiers & Kok, 1988; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Klaassen 6 Craven, 2003; Launert, Other references IPGRI, undated; Missouri Botanical Garden, undated; USDA, ARS & National Genetic Resources Program, Authors M. Brink ERAGROSTIS NINDENSIS Ficalho & Hiern Protologue Trans. Linn. Soc. London, Bot. 2: 32 (1881). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Synonyms Eragrostis denudata Hack. (1895). Vernacular names Perennial lovegrass, wether lovegrass (En). Eragrostis vivace (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Eragrostis nindensis is distributed from DR Congo and Tanzania southwards to South Africa. Uses In Namibia the grain of Eragrostis nindensis is eaten. Eragrostis nindensis is a palatable pasture grass and is well utilized by sheep in particular. The young leaves are sucked to treat colds. Botany Perennial, tufted grass up to 90 cm tall, with a short oblique rhizome; stem (culm) erect, unbranched, glabrous at the nodes. Leaves alternate, simple, mainly forming a basal tuft; leaf sheath glabrous or with straight silky hairs, terete; ligule a line of hairs; blade linear, 5-30 cm x 2-3 mm, involute, rarely flat. Inflorescence a panicle 5-20 cm long, ovoid with stiffly spreading primary branches, or narrowly lanceolate and densely contracted, or linear and interrupted with the spikelets in clusters on stubby side branches, the primary branches not in whorls, terminating in a fertile spikelet. Spikelet almost sessile, ovate to narrowly oblong, strongly laterally compressed, 4 20 mm x mm, 7-30-flowered, dark yellowish green to dull grey, with bisexual florets; glumes almost equal, ovate, 1-2 mm long, keeled, glabrous, apex acute; lemma ovate, mm long, keeled, leathery, apex acute to acuminate; palea oblong-elliptical, glabrouson the sides; stamens 3, anthers mm long; ovary superior, with 2 stigmas. Fruit an ellipsoid caryopsis (grain) mm long. Eragrostis is a large and taxonomically complex genus comprising more than 350 species mainly in tropical and subtropical regions. Eragrostis nindensis is a polymorphic species, varying widely in the shape of the inflorescence and spikelet. In southern Africa Eragrostis nindensis flowers from October to June. It is a so-called 'resurrection plant', able to survive near-complete desiccation of its tissues. It retains mobile water in its leaves even when dried naturally to less than 20% water content. It also disassembles chloroplasts when too dry to maintain photosynthesis to avoid light-induced oxidative stress. Young seedlings, however, are sensitive 65 ERAGROSTIS 67 to drought. Ecology Eragrostis nindensis is found in bare, exposed or disturbed locations at m altitude, often on moist sandy and stony soils and on granite outcrops. Management Eragrostis nindensis is collected from the wild. Genetic resources and breeding The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, holds 3 accessions of Eragrostis nindensis. Prospects The role of Eragrostis nindensis as a food or fodder plant will remain limited, although its ability to survive in dry conditions offers some prospect in semi-arid and arid regions. Major references Clayton, Phillips & Renvoize, 1974; Cope, 1999; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Klaassen & Craven, 2003; van Oudtshoorn, Other references Balsamo et al., 2005; IPGRI, undated; Mundree et al., 2002; USDA, ARS & National Genetic Resources Program, 2001; vander Willigen et al., Authors M. Brink ERAGROSTIS PLANA Nées Protologue FL Afr. austr. ill: 390 (1841). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number n = 10 Vernacular names Tough lovegrass, South- African lovegrass (En). Eragrostis d'afrique du Sud (Fr). Capim choräo, capim teff (Po). Origin and geographic distribution In tropical Africa Eragrostis plana occurs in Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It is also found in South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. It has been introduced and has naturalized elsewhere, e.g. in India and Brazil. Uses The grain of Eragrostis plana is eaten as a famine food. Eragrostis plana is considered a poor grazing grass, but is utilized late in the rainy season in more arid regions. In Lesotho it is woven into hats, baskets, necklaces and bangles, and made into ropes and plaited items used in funerals. In South Africa the root is used to treat menorrhagia and impotence. Botany Densely tufted perennial grass up to 1 m tall, without rhizomes or stolons; stem (culm) erect, unbranched. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath glabrous, strongly compressed, keeled; ligule a line of hairs; blade linear, cm x mm, flat or folded, glabrous, sometimes with punctate glands along the midvein. Inflorescence a narrowly oblong to narrowly ovoid panicle cm long, branches ascending or spreading; primary branches not in whorls, but sometimes loosely clustered, terminating in a fertile spikelet. Spikelet on a pedicel mm long, linear to narrowly oblong, mm x mm, flowered, with bisexual florets; glumes unequal, the lower mm long, the upper mm long, keeled; lemma mm long, keeled, membranous with prominent lateral veins, olive green; palea with slender keel, persistent; stamens 3, anthers (1-) mm long; ovary superior, with 2 stigmas. Fruit an oblong to ellipsoid caryopsis (grain) c. 1 mm long. Eragrostis is a large and taxonomically complex genus comprising more than 350 species mainly in tropical and subtropical regions. Eragrostis plana flowers from September to May. It has the C4-cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Eragrostis plana occurs from m altitude in grassland on sandy soils and shallow latérite pans, in dry areas on wet soils around vleis and rivers. Its common occurrence in pastures is considered an indicator of overgrazing or too much burning. Management Eragrostis plana is collected from the wild. Genetic resources and breeding The USDA- ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, Washington, United States, holds 3 accessions of Eragrostis plana, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom, 2 accessions. This species is common in disturbed areas and thus not liable to genetic erosion. Prospects Eragrostis plana is eaten only in times of famine and is a poor grazing grass. Therefore it is unlikely that it will become of more than minor importance in the future. Major references Cope, 1999; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Jacot Guillarmod, 1971; van Oudtshoorn, 1999; van Wyk & Gericke, Other references Botha, 1992; IPGRI, undated; Neuwinger, 2000; O'Reagain & Grau, 1995; Spies & Jonker, 1987; Steenkamp, 2003; USDA, ARS & National Genetic Resources Program, Authors M. Brink 66 68 CEREALS AND PULSES ERAGROSTIS TEF (Zuccagni) Trotter Protologue Boll. Soc. Bot. Ital. 1918: 62 (1918). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number In = 40 Synonyms Eragrostis abyssinica (Jacq.) Link (1827), Eragrostis pilosa (L.) P.Beauv. subsp. abyssinica (Jacq.) Asch. & Graebn. (1900). Vernacular names Tef, teff, teff grass (En). Tef, teff (Fr). Tef(Po). Origin and geographic distribution Tef originated in northern Ethiopia, where it is widely cultivated. Details of its domestication are unknown, but it may predate the introduction of wheat and barley to the region. Tef is perhaps descended from the closely related wild Eragrostis pilosa (L.) P.Beauv., which is a tetraploid (2n = 40) annual like tef, and which has a cosmopolitan distribution. Grain cultivation of tef has been confined mainly to Ethiopia and to some extent the highlands of Eritrea. It is also grown in northern Kenya. Small-scale commercial tef production takes place in South Africa, the United States, Canada, Australia, Europe (the Netherlands) and Yemen. Tef is grown as a forage grass, for instance in South Africa, Morocco, Australia, India and Pakistan. It has been introduced experimentally into other tropical countries, either for its grain or for hay, e.g. in other parts of East Africa and in southern Africa. It is commonly found as an escape from cultivation. Uses In Ethiopia and Eritrea tef flour is mainly used to prepare 'injera', a thin, flat, pancake-like bread, made from dough fermented for 2-3 days. 'Injera' is prepared in a Eragrostis tef - planted range of sizes and is consumed with various sauces ('wot'), based on meat or pulses. Tef flour produces the best quality 'injera': pliable, soft with glossy appearance, which does not fall apart under handling or stick to the fingers, and has a slightly sour taste. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) can be added to tef flour in a small proportion to improve the 'injera' flavour. It also increases the lysine content. Tef flour is also mixed with barley or sorghum flour to make 'injera'. Other traditional preparations from tef flour include 'kitta' (unleavened bread), 'atmit' or 'muk' (gruel), porridge and local alcoholic beverages. Several recipes that fit Western tastes have been developed from tef flour particularly in the United States, where it has found niches in the health food market and as a gourmet food. Tef flour is used as a thickening agent in a range of products, including soups, stews, gravies and puddings. In Ethiopia tef straw is used as forage, especially during the dry season. Mixed with clay it is used as plastering material for local houses and to make bricks, stoves, granaries, beds and pottery. Outside Ethiopia tef is mainly grown for hay (e.g. in South Africa) and as green fodder (e.g. in Morocco and India). In South Africa it is planted for erosion control, often in mixtures with Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees or other grasses. Production and international trade In tef was annually cultivated on 1.9 million ha in Ethiopia, which is about 30% of the total acreage of cereals in the country. With an average annual production of 1.6 million t of grain, tef constitutes 22% of the annual cereal grain production in Ethiopia. Annually, an average of 4 million t of forage (27%of national production) is produced from tef. In Ethiopia tef is grown by smallholders, mainly for the local market and home consumption. Statistics for 1997/98 and 1998/99 indicate that 1800 t of tef grain was exported each year. Though recent statistics are not available, there is an export market for this crop in the Middle East, North America and Europe, mainly for Ethiopian expatriates. Properties The composition of whole tef grain per 100 g edible portion is: water 11 g, energy 1407 kj (336 kcal), protein 9.6 g, fat 2.0 g, carbohydrate 73 g, fibre 3.0 g, Ca 159 mg, Mg 170 mg, P 378 mg, Fe 5.8 mg, Zn 2 mg, thiamin 0.3 mg, riboflavin 0.2 mg, niacin 2.5 mg and ascorbic acid 88 mg (National Research 67 ERAGROSTIS 69 Council, 1996). The essentia] amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 146 mg, lysine 273 mg, methionine 246 mg, phenylalanine 474 mg, threonine 334 mg, valine 491 mg, leucine 724 mg and isoleucine 378 mg (FAO, 1970). Tef starch grains are conglomerates of many polygonal simple granules 2-6 lm in diameter. Their amylose content is 25-30%. The Kofler hot stage gelatinization temperature range is 68 C (onset) - 74 C (peak) - 80 C (conclusion), which is similar to that of other tropical cereal starches, but narrower than that of maize. The viscosity of the starch is considerably lower than that of maize starch, its water absorption index is higher, and its water solubility index lower. Due to the small size of its grains, tef is almost always made into a whole-grain flour (bran and germ included), resulting in a high nutrient content. The amino acid composition of tef flour is favourable and its protein is easily digestible. It is a good source of minerals, particularly Ca and Fe, and tef has been implicated in the low incidence of anaemia in Ethiopia. Tef does not contain gluten, making it a suitable substitute for wheat in foods for people with coeliac disease. Several species of yeasts and bacteria are involved in the preparation of 'injera', but little is known about their identity and relative importance. In Ethiopia, white-grained types are preferred for food, but consumption of 'injera' from red- or brown-grained types is on the rise, especially for health-conscious urban people. Tef straw is preferred by cattle over straw of other cereals, and its quality is comparable to good natural pasture. Analyses have shown a relatively high digestibility (65%), but a relatively low protein content ( %). Description Annual, tufted grass, up to 150(-200) cm tall, with a shallow, fibrous root system; stem (culm) usually erect, simple or sparsely branched. Leaves 2-6 per culm, alternate, simple; leaf sheath glabrous; ligule mm long, ciliate; blade linear, cm x cm, glabrous. Inflorescence a panicle cm long, with slender primary branches, very loose with central rachis fully exposed to very compact with central rachis completely hidden, with spikelets per panicle. Spikelet long-stalked, narrowly oblong, 4 9 mm x 1-3 mm, 2-12(-20)-flowered; florets bisexual; glumes unequal, lanceolate, acuminate, the lower mm long, the upper mm long; lemma 2-3 mm long, 3-veined, scaberulous on the keel and towards the acuminate tip, Eragrostis tef- 1, upper part of flowering culm; 2, part of inflorescence with spikelets. Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin pale green to dark purple; palea similar to lemma, but with 2 veins; stamens 3, anthers up to 0.5 mm long, 2-celled; ovary superior with 2 stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), ovoid to ellipsoid, mm x mm, yellowishwhite to deep brown. Other botanical information Little is known on the biosystematics of Eragrostis, a large and taxonomically complex genus comprising more than 350 species mainly in tropical and subtropical regions, of which 14 are said to be endemic to Ethiopia. Tef is the only Eragrostis species cultivated for its grain. The grains of several forage species are sometimes eaten by humans, mainly as famine food, particularly Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) F.T.Hubb., Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br., Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees, Eragrostis cylindriflora Höchst., Eragrostis gangetica (Roxb.) Steud., Eragrostis pilosa (L.) P.Beauv., Eragrostis tremula Steud. and Eragrostis turgida (Schumach.) De Wild. Crossability relationships among the species are largely unknown. Hybridization of tef is a tedious process which is a disincentive to making large numbers of crossing attempts. Era- 68 70 CEREALSAND PULSES grostis tef is an allotetraploid of which the diploid progenitors are unknown. Tef cultivars have been recognized and described based on the colour of the grains and inflorescences, ramification of the inflorescences and the size of plants. For marketing purposes, tef is classified on the basis of seed colour: 'netch' (white), 'tikur/ka'y' (red-brown) and 'sergegna' (mixed). The molecular variation as determined using DNA markers (RFLP, RAPD and AFLP) is not commensurate with the morphological variation. Growth and development Germination of tef normally takes place in 3 4(-12) days after sowing. In experiments germination was above 90% at temperatures of C; no germination occurred at 10 C. A booting stage is not noticeable in tef: the inflorescences emerge suddenly from the upper leaf sheath without boot formation. The flowers open in the morning (7 9 am) in response to light and temperature. Tef is predominantly self-pollinating, with a very low degree of outcrossing (up to 1%), and pollen is set free in the early morning. In the inflorescence floral maturity starts from the top and progresses downward, whereas in the spikelet it progresses from the base upward. Seeds mature within a month after pollination. The total growth cycle from sowing to maturity is 2 5( 6) months. Tef follows the C4- cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Tef is a very versatile cereal and grows in a wide range of environments, from sea-level up to 2800 m altitude. The highest yields are obtained at altitudes of m, an annual rainfall of mm, a seasonal (July-December) rainfall of mm and an average daily temperature range of C. Yields decline when the seasonal rainfall drops below 250 mm, the mean temperature during pollination exceeds 22 C, and when the growing period drops below 90 days, in which case early-maturing cultivars become necessary. Despite its shallow root system, tef is drought resistant, due to its ability to regenerate quickly after moderate water stress and to produce grain in a relatively short period. Its rapid vegetative growth and short life cycle make tef particularly suitable for areas subject to drought after short rains. Flowering in tef is delayed at long daylengths. In Ethiopia the bulk of tef production takes place during the main rainy season ('meher') between July and November. Tef is mostly grown on Vertisols (dark, heavy clay soils with well-developed horizons) and Andosols (young, shallow soils, weathered from volcanic ash under humid conditions). Vertisol-grown tef gives higher yields provided that prolonged waterlogging does not prevail and sufficient nutrients, particularly N, are available. Farmers usually alleviate the effects of waterlogging by adjusting their planting date or using surface drainage systems (furrows). Micronutrient deficiencies can also be limiting factors on Vertisols. Tef is normally grown on soils of neutral ph, but it has been observed that it tolerates soil acidities below ph 5. Differences exist between cultivars for response to saline conditions. Tef can be found as an escape from cultivation along roadsides and railway lines, and in dry grassland on sandy loam soils. Propagation and planting Tef is propagated by seed. There is no seed dormancy and germination is rapid. The 1000-seed weight is mg. A single inflorescence can produce over 1000 seeds and a single plant over 10,000 seeds. Tef seeds remain viable for several years provided direct contact with moisture and sunshine is avoided. In Ethiopia centuries-old traditional practices are used in tef production. An oxen-drawn plough ('maresha') is used to till the land, with 2-5 passes made before sowing. Studies indicate that tef can be successfully grown under reduced tillage conditions (one ploughing to bring the seeds in contact with the soil) provided non-selective herbicides are used. To enhance germination and seedling establishment on Vertisols, a firm seedbed is made by trampling with farm animals. Normally farmers sow tef by broadcasting on a moist, fine seedbed. A seed rate of kg/ha is sufficient, but farmers often use kg/ha, because it is difficult to distribute the seed evenly, the viability of farmers' own seed is reduced, and it helps to suppress weeds at early stages. The seeds are left uncovered or covered lightly by pulling branches over the field using oxen. Tef can also be drilled in rows using adjusted machinery. Row planting minimizes lodging under good growth conditions. Sole cropping is the usual practice, but occasionally early-maturing tef cultivars are used in intercropping systems, including relay- and alley-cropping. Successful in-vitro somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration procedures have been developed, using leaf, root or seed material to initiate callus cultures on Murashige and Skoog medium. Management After crop establishment, most farmers control weeds through hand 69 ERAGROSTIS 71 weeding once or twice. Some farmers use herbicides such as 2,4-D to control broadleaf weeds, supplemented with hand weeding to remove grass weeds. On light soils the following applications are recommended: kg N and kg P per ha; on heavy clay soils kg N and kg P per ha. Tef responds to N more than to P, by producing tall plants and large amounts of biomass; as a result, high N-rates promote lodging. To reduce the risk of lodging, farmers reduce the N-application or plant tef after pulses with no additional fertilization, and they delay the planting time so that rains have stopped by heading stage. Rotation of tef with other cereals, pulses and Niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass.) is common practice in Ethiopia. Diseases and pests A number of diseases (mainly caused by fungi) and pests are known to attack tef, but only a few are of economic importance, mostly in specific localities and production years. Among the diseases, leaf rust (Uromyces eragrostidis), head smudge (Helminthosporium miyakei) and damping off (Drechslerei spp. and Epicoccum nigrum) are the most important. Low plant densities and early sowing reduce the damage caused by leaf rust and damping off, respectively. Fungicides that control these two diseases have been identified at experimental level, although there are no known cases of field applications. Breeding for resistance has not been carried out because of limited genetic variation in resistance and the sporadic nature and environmental specificity of the diseases. No viral or bacterial diseases are known. Pests known to attack germinating tef seeds and seedlings include the Wollo bush-cricket (Decticoides brevipennis), the red tef worm (Mentaxya ignicollis), grasshoppers, ants and termites. The black tef beetle (Erlangerius niger) attacks the inflorescence. Among the weeds, annual grasses cause the biggest damage. The parasitic weed Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth., the recently introduced invasive weed Parthenium hysterophorus L. and the cosmopolitan weed Convolvulus arvensis L. have also become problematic. Hand weeding and crop rotation, particularly with pulses, are the most common methods in dealing with these weeds in tef; the use of herbicides is very limited. Stored tef grains are not attacked by storage insects, but rodents can be a problem. Harvesting Tef is harvested 2-5(-6) months after sowing, when the vegetative parts turn yellow. Yellowing of the stalk of the spikelet is a good indicator of maturity. If harvesting is done after physiological maturity, shattering of seed is inevitable, particularly in windy and rainy conditions. In Ethiopia harvesting starts in November and continues until early January. Harvesting is done by hand using sickles. Farmers cut the plants at ground level, heap them in the field and transport them to a threshing ground. When grown for hay, tef can normally be harvested 9 12 weeks after sowing. Yield The average tef grain yield is less than 1 t/ha, but farmers using improved cultivars and recommended management practices easily get t/ha. Yields over 2.5 t/ha have been recorded from several regions in recent extension programmes in Ethiopia. In experiments, grain yields up to 4.6 t/ha have been obtained. Normal straw yields are about 3 t/ha, but straw yields up to 20 t/ha have been recorded. Handling after harvest Threshing is carried out by trampling by farm animals. Some farmers rent combines used for other cereals for threshing. Tef is stored in any locally available storage facility. Because tef is not attacked by storage insects, no chemical protection is required. Sometimes farmers even mix tef seeds with pulses to protect the latter from weevils. Tef in Ethiopia is traditionally sold in the form of grains, not as flour. The straw is piled up near farmers' houses to be fed to animals during the dry season; a small proportion may be sold. Genetic resources The Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (IBC), formerly known as Plant Genetic Resources Center of Ethiopia (PGRC/E), holds 2541 tef accessions collected from different agro-ecological regions and 1497 accessions acquired through donations and repatriations. IBC currently has no collection of the wild Eragrostis spp. The majority of the tef germplasm collections are conserved ex situ; seeds are dried to a moisture content of 3-7% and stored in laminated aluminium foil bags at 10 C for long-term and at 4 C for short-term storage. In-situ conservation and enhancement programmes are used in some regions of Ethiopia, primarily to help farmers maintain crop diversity and to protect major cultigens from extinction while improving the yield potential. Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center, part of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), has selected 320 core-accessions that represent the phenotypic diversity of tef for genetic studies 70 72 CEREALSAND PULSES and breeding purposes. Outside Ethiopia, smaller tef collections are held in Brazil (Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria dos Cerrados (CPAC), Planaltina; 400 accessions), the United States (Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, USDA-ARS, Washington State University, Pullman), Germany (Federal Centre for Breeding Research on Cultivated Plants (BAZ), Braunschweig; 30 accessions) and Japan (National Institute of Crop Science, Tsukuba; 30 accessions). Breeding Major breeding work on tef has been going on at Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center in Ethiopia since the 1960s. The main objectives have been the development of high-yielding cultivars for the major tef-growing agro-ecological zones and the improvement of resistance to lodging. Conventional breeding has not solved the lodging problem. So far 15 cultivars have been developed through direct selection from the landraces and trait recombination. A crossing technique for the crop was developed in 1974 and since then hybridization of selected parents has resulted in the release of 5 cultivars. The majority of farmers still grow landraces. Among the improved cultivars, 'Magna' (DZ ), 'Enatite' (DZ ), 'Dukem' (DZ ), 'Tseday' (DZ-Cr-37) and 'Ziquala' (DZ-Cr-358) are the most widely grown. Genotype-environment interaction is high in tef production, especially due to environmental effects on the time to flowering and maturity. Interspecific hybridization with wild Eragrostis spp. has been tried, but success was obtained only with Eragrostis pilosa; short-stature and early maturity were the favourable traits transferred to tef. Eragrostis curvula may potentially provide stalk strength and large seed size, but hybrids with tef do not set seed. Attempts are being made to construct a genetic linkage map for tef. Anther/microspore culture and subsequent breeding of double-haploid cultivars is also being attempted. Inter simple sequence repeats are more promising than other DNA-based markers for the quantification of genetic diversity and identification of tef genotypes. Prospects In Ethiopia the expansion of tef to new production areas has continued unabated, despite farmers being encouraged to cultivate other well-known cereals instead of tef. Tef cultivation has expanded to the lowland areas, where sorghum and maize cultivation has frequently failed due to severe moisture stress. Outside Ethiopia, tef cultivation has started to a limited extent in the United States and Europe, targeting immigrant Ethiopian communities and its use as a gluten-free substitute for wheat. There is reasonable optimism that, if investments are made in scientific and developmental research, tef can rise to the status of a specialty crop in developed nations. Proneness to lodging is the biggest drawback of tef; the use of appropriate machinery and agronomic practices may be temporary solutions. In the long run, biotechnological approaches - using cloned dwarfing genes from other cereals - seem necessary to arrive at non-lodging tef genotypes in the field. Increasing the inflorescence:culm ratio could also be a suitable approach, although tef straw is important too. Knowledge of the influence of environmental factors on the nutritional quality of tef andof variation in feed quality is still very limited. Major references Berhe, 1975; Deckers et al., 2001; Ebba, 1975; Ketema, 1997; Lovis, 2003; National Research Council, 1996; Phillips, 1995; Tefera, Belay & Sorrels (Editors), 2001; Tefera, Ayele & Assefa, 1995; van der Hoek & Jansen, 1996a. Other references Assefa, 2003; Assefa, Gaj & Maluszynski, 1998; Ayele et al., 1999; Bai et al, 2000; Bai et al., 1999; Bekele, Klöck & Zimmermann, 1995; Bultosa, Hall & Taylor, 2002; Clayton, Phillips & Renvoize, 1974; Cope, 1999; FAO, 1970; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Ingram & Doyle, 2003; Kebebew, Gaj & Maluszynski, 1998; Kedir, Jones & Mengiste, 1993; Lazarides, 1997; Lemordant, 1971a; Lemordant, 1971b; Mamo & Parsons, 1987; Mekbib, Mantell & BuchananWollaston, 1997; Tefera, Assefa & Belay, 2003; Vecchio, Simoni & Casini, 1996; Yizengaw & Verheye, Sources of illustration Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), Authors H. Tefera & G. Belay FAGOPYRUM ESCULENTUM Moench Protologue Methodus: 290 (1794). Family Polygonaceae Chromosome number 2n = 16, 32 Vernacular names Buckwheat, beech wheat (En). Sarrasin, blé noir (Fr). Trigo sarraceno, fagópiro, trigo-mourisco (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Buckwheat is native to central and northern Asia and was domesticated in south-western China 71 FAGOPYRUM 73 (Yunnan, Sichuan provinces) from wild types. For over a thousand years buckwheat has been an important subsistence and cash crop from northern India and southern China to Korea and Japan. In the early Middle Ages it was introduced into Europe and became a leading crop on poor soils and an important staple food. European emigrants introduced buckwheat in the United States and Canada. The increased use of chemical fertilizer in the beginning of the 20 th century led to an enormous decrease of the buckwheat area in Europe and North America and replacement by higher yielding crops such as rye, oats, maize, wheat, and Irish potato. Buckwheat is still important in India, China, Korea, Japan and eastern Europe. In tropical Africa (e.g. DR Congo, Ethiopia, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Réunion) and South Africa it is cultivated sporadically and it also occurs as an introduced weed. Uses The seed of buckwheat is cooked like rice or made into flour for the preparation of noodles, pancakes, porridge, cakes and biscuits. It is an ingredient in breakfast cereals. Groats is the part of the seed left after hulling. Buckwheat seed is often ground or milled coarsely, to produce broken groats. Many consumers like the coarsely milled flour which is brownish because of the high content of hull particles. At present, high fibre content is considered a favourable character, and buckwheat is gaining importance as a health food. Buckwheat has a particular taste, liked by some, rejected by others. When sieved for almost white buckwheat flour, the extraction rate is quite low (60-70%), the waste being used for fodder. Although pure buckwheat flour is sometimes used for baking bread, the absence of gluten prevents the dough from rising. It is popular for use in mixtures with wheat, barley or rye flour to improve the taste and nutritional value of bread and other foodstuffs. Up to 30% of buckwheat flour may be mixed in wheat dough for baking bread. In the Himalaya buckwheat is processed into alcoholic drinks. The seed is also fed to animals, especially pigs and chickens, and buckwheat is sometimes considered a fodder crop rather than a food crop, e.g. in southern Africa. The plants are occasionally used for silage, but must be mixed with other fodders. The tender shoots make a palatable green leaf vegetable. Honeybees in buckwheat fields produce a dark-coloured fragrant honey. The fruit hulls are used as litter in poultry houses, for stuffing pillows, as fuel or for compost. Buckwheat is grown as green manure and cover crop, e.g. in Uganda. Fresh leaves and inflorescences are used for industrial extraction of rutin, which is applied to strengthen the inner lining of blood vessels (however, it is rather the related species Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn., which is commonly grown for rutin production). Rutin is also industrially used as a natural pigment, antioxidant, stabilizer, food préservant and absorber of UV light. In East Africa leaves are chewed or its juice is drunk against fever. Production and international trade According to FAO estimates, the average world production of buckwheat seed in amounted to 2.7 million t/year from 2.7 million ha. The main producing countries are China (1.4 million t/year from 980,000 ha), the Russian Federation (600,000 t/year from 930,000 ha) and Ukraine (320,000 t/year from 440,000 ha). Buckwheat is mainly commercialized locally. Average world export of buckwheat was only 160,000 t/year in , with as main exporter China (104,000 t/year). No production or trade statistics are available for tropical Africa. At present, buckwheat is regaining some importance in Western countries because of its excellent nutritional qualities. In Brazil, Canada, the United States and South Africa buckwheat is grown as an export crop on highly mechanized farms. Properties The composition of buckwheat seed per 100 g edible portion is: water 9.8 g, energy 1435 kj (343 kcal), protein 13.3 g, fat 3.4 g, carbohydrate 71.5 g, dietary fibre 10.0 g, Ca 18 mg, Mg 231 mg, P 347 mg, Fe 2.2 mg, Zn 2.4 mg, thiamin 0.10 mg, riboflavin 0.43 mg, niacin 7.0 mg, vitamin B mg, folate 30 ig and ascorbic acid 0 mg. The essential aminoacid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 192 mg, lysine 672 mg, methionine 172 mg, phenylalanine 520 mg, threonine 506 mg, valine 678 mg, leucine 832 mg and isoleucine 498 mg. The principal fatty acids are per 100 g edible portion: oleic acid 988 mg, linoleic acid 961 mg and palmitic acid 450 mg (USDA, 2005). Whole buckwheat fruits are rich in fibre, the hull providing most of it. Stored flour may become rancid because of the high fat content. Buckwheat differs from true cereals in the high biological value of the protein, caused by the high content of essential amino acids, in particular lysine. Due to the absence of gluten, buckwheat is suitable for the diet of people with coeliac disease. On the other hand, buckwheat seed is considered to be one of the most important food allergens. It also contains com- 72 74 CEREALSAND PULSES pounds which can cause irritating skin disorders ('fagopyrism') mainly in sheep and pigs and occasionally in humans in case of heavy consumption and exposure to sunlight. Fagopyrism has also been observed in humans after consumption of buckwheat honey. It may also affect cattle when fed pure buckwheat silage. The flavonoid rutin is present in all aboveground plant parts (leaves, stems, inflorescence, fruit). It has antioxidative, anti-inflammatory and antihypertensive activity; it strengthens the inner lining of blood vessels, reduces cholesterol levels, protects the blood vessels from rupturing, and blood from forming clots. Botany Erect annual herb up to 120 cm tall with angular, hollow stem. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; stipules fused into a tubular, short, truncate ocrea; petiole up to 10 cm long in lower leaves, upper leaves almost sessile; blade triangular, hastate or cordate, 2-10 cm x 2-10 cm, acute, 5-7-veined from the base. Inflorescence an axillary or terminal cluster of flowers combined into false racemes. Flowers bisexual, regular, small, rose-red to white, heterostylous; pedicel slender; tepals 5, 3-4 mm long, persistent; stamens 8, alternating at the base with 8 honey glands; ovary superior, 1- Fagopyrum esculentum - 1, flowering branch; 2, flower; 3, unwinged fruit; 4, winged fruit; 5, top view of winged fruit. Source: PROSEA celled, trigonous, with 3 styles ending in headshaped stigmas. Fruit a 3-sided nutlet, mm x 3 mm, sometimes winged, grey-brown, dark brown to almost black, 1-seeded. Seed pale green turning reddish brown, slightly smaller than fruit. Fagopyrum comprises about 15 species most of them from eastern Asia. Harpagocarpus, comprising a single species, Harpagocarpus snowdenii Hutch. & Dandy from Central and East Africa, is closely related and should possibly be included in Fagopyrum. Numerous landraces and cultivars of Fagopyrum esculentum are known, differing in fruit shape, adapted to summer or winter cultivation and comprising special-purpose types for grain, fodder, vegetable or medicine. At soil temperatures above 10 C the seed germinates fast, and seedlings emerge within 7 days. The crop grows fast, reaching the full height of cm in 4-6 weeks. Flower formation starts 20 days after emergence, anthesis starts a week later and continues until complete senescence and death of the whole plant. Buckwheat is self-incompatible. Crosspollination occurs by insects, mostly bees and flies. After the onset of flowering, the vegetative organs (leaves and stems) continue to grow while fruits develop, hence seed ripening is very uneven. From the middle of the flowering period onwards, when the leaf area has reached its maximum, further growth of vegetative organs is slow, and the seed becomes the main sink for assimilates. The seed is ready for harvesting days after emergence, depending on cultivar and ecological conditions. Ecology Buckwheat is a crop of temperate and subtropical areas, but may be grown successfully at higher elevations in the tropics. In Ethiopia it is grown at about 1500 m altitude. Exact data on optimal temperatures for buckwheat cultivation are scarce, but climate descriptions indicate a range of C for day temperatures, and night temperatures 5-10 C lower. Because the leaf mass dries slowly, a dry period is required at maturity and harvest. Buckwheat is very sensitive to frost. Strong winds cause lodging during crop growth and seed shattering at maturity. Buckwheat is rather sensitive to drought because of its poorly developed root system. During flowering, drought combined with high temperatures will cause poor seed set. Much rain during the crop cycle stimulates vegetative growth, but inhibits seed setting, also because it hampers pollination by insects. Buckwheat cultivars are 73 FAGOPYRUM 75 either day-neutral or short-day plants. Buckwheat performs best on nitrogen-poor light sandy soils, from neutral to rather acid (ph 4.5-7). It is suitable for newly cleared infertile land, drained marshland, rough land or acid soils with a high content of decomposing organic matter. Buckwheat has the reputation of producing an acceptable yield on marginal, infertile land. On wet soils or soils rich in nitrogen, luxuriant growth leads to lodging, poor fruit set, considerable losses during harvest, and thus reduced yields. When used for silage or as green manure, a low seed yield is unimportant, and more biomass will be produced on wetter, heavier soils. Management Buckwheat is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g, averaging about 22 g. Before sowing, the seedbed should be finely crumbed. A firm soil at about 5 cm depth reduces drought injury and lodging. Very crusted land and heavy clay soil will result in poor field emergence. Most growers use farm-saved seed. In mechanized cultivation, seed is drilled in rows about 30 cm apart, at a depth of 2-4 cm, requiring kg of seed per ha. The crop compensates for a thin stand by branching more. Thin stands produce more inflorescences and seeds per plant. In manual cultivation, seed is broadcast, followed by harrowing to cover the seed with topsoil. Broadcasting requires kg seed more per ha than row drilling. Buckwheat is a crop with a short growing season, easily fitting in cropping patterns with cereals, root crops, pulses, and forages. It is sometimes intercropped with vegetables. Buckwheat competes well with most weeds, but some fast-growing weeds can be a problem. Some growers sow more densely on purpose, and then weed mechanically by harrowing about 4 weeks after emergence, killing most weed plants together with a number of buckwheat seedlings. The uptake of minerals per ha for a seed yield of 2 t/ha is about 45 kg N, 10 kg P and 50 kg K. Growers usually apply no organic manure and no or little chemical fertilizer, e.g kg N, 0-15 kg P and kg K. Only P and K fertilizers should be applied if there is a risk of lodging. In crop rotations with buckwheat, any crop is suitable as preceding crop provided that it does not leave much nitrogen or weed infestation. Many fungal diseases have been recorded to affect buckwheat, but they only occasionally cause serious damage. Downy mildew (Peronospora sp.), powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) and Rhizoctonia root rot {Rhizoctonia sp.) are the major ones. Cultivars differ markedly in susceptibility. Several viral diseases have been recorded, but they do not cause much damage. Insect damage is rare, but grasshoppers, bean weevils, cutworms, aphids, grain moths and storage beetles may feed on the crop. The worst problem for buckwheat production is damage by birds at maturity and after harvest, when the crop is left to dry in the field. Rats are also sometimes destructive. When most (at least 75%) seed is mature and most leaves have yellowed and dropped, the crop is harvested by mowing, after which the stems are bundled and put in heaps to dry. Farmers prefer to harvest early in the morning or late in the afternoon, or even at night, when the plants are slightly damp from dew, to reduce grain shattering. The bundles are stacked alternately head-to-tail in the heaps, to reduce bird damage. If the leaves are not dry enough, they may stick together, causing problems for threshing. Combine harvesting is practised in more industrialized countries. Seed yields normally vary from t/ha, but 3 t/ha is occasionally obtained. Research has not succeeded in raising yields of buckwheat; they remain about the same as a century ago. Thorough drying to a moisture content below 16% facilitates the removal of straw fragments and immature seed. Small farmers usually thresh manually. Mechanical threshing requires careful regulation of the threshing cylinder to avoid damaging the seed. Processing starts with hulling and separation of the hulls from the groats, followed by milling. Formerly, processing was done by individual households or in small village workshops. At present, most buckwheat is processed in factories that apply advanced food technology to make specific foodstuffs. Genetic resources and breeding The largest collections of buckwheat germplasm are held in the Russian Federation (N.I. Vavilov All- Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry, St. Petersburg, 2010 accessions), China (Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (CAAS), Beijing, 1495 accessions) and Canada (Agriculture Canada Research Station, Morden, Manitoba, 570 accessions). Germplasm is also available in national collections in the United States, South Africa, Japan, Korea, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Slovenia, Poland and Germany. All these countries are part of a net- 74 76 CEREALS AND PULSES work under the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), responsible for characterization and documentation. There are numerous landraces and many have already been collected for selection, testing and storage in genebanks. Buckwheat is not threatened by genetic erosion. Breeding of buckwheat has been carried out in, for example, the United States, Russia, Japan, India and former Yugoslavia. Uniform, highly self-compatible diploid lines have been isolated. They revealed a severe inbreeding depression, and heterosis in Fi generations. Breeders have selected improved cultivars with higher yields, e.g. by improving the plant habit (shorter stems with reduced liability to lodging). Autotetraploid buckwheat selections show superior characters in many aspects (self-fertile, higher rutin content, increased dry matter production, improved nitrogen uptake, no seed shedding). Improvement is also expected from breeding programmes with close relatives of buckwheat such as Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn. (Tatary buckwheat) and Fagopyrum homotropicum Ohnishi, e.g. to increase the rutin content and to increase self-compatibility. Somatic embryogenesis of buckwheat is possible using immature embryos, protoplasts, cotyledons, hypocotyls, leaf segments or stem segments as expiants. Prospects Internationally, the interest in buckwheat as a health food is increasing. With a higher price compensating for the lower yield level compared to cereals, the acreage under buckwheat may increase. It is potentially an interesting crop for marginal land in highland areas in Africa, especially as a low-input subsistence or cash crop in rotation with other crops. An interesting feature is that at the moment buckwheat is hardly affected by diseases and pests. The main disadvantages of the crop are lodging, seed shattering and low yields. Given the existing genetic variability, it is likely that breeding will result in cultivars better adapted to tropical conditions, with less lodging and seed shattering, and improved seed set, hence with higher yield levels. Major references Biacs et al., 2002; Campbell, 1997a; Grubben & Siemonsma, 1996; Ohnishi, 1998; Zeiler & Hsam, Other references Edwardson, 1996; Gumerova et al., 2003; Hedberg, 2000; Joshi & Rana, 1995; Kim et al., 2005; Kokwaro, 1993; Ohnishi & Asano, 1999; Sohn, Lee & Kim, 2003; USDA, 2005; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, Sources of illustration Grubben & Siemonsma, Authors P.CM. Jansen Based on PROSEA 10: Cereals. GLYCINE MAX (L.) Merr. Protologue Interpr. Herb, amboin. 274 (1917). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n - 40 Synonyms Glycine hispida (Moench) Maxim. (1873). Vernacular names Soya bean, soybean (En). Soja, soya (Fr). Soja (Po). Soya (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Soya bean was domesticated in the north-east of China around the 11 th century BC. From there, it spread to Manchuria, Korea, Japan and other parts of Asia. Soya bean was introduced into Korea between 30 BC and 70 AD, and it was mentioned in Japanese literature around 712 AD. It reached Europe before Soya bean was introduced into the United States in 1765 and into Brazil in It is unclear when soya bean first reached tropical Africa. There are reports of its cultivation in Tanzania in 1907 and Malawi in 1909, but it is likely that soya bean was introduced during the 19 th century by Chinese traders who were active along the east coast of Africa. Nowadays, soya bean is widely cultivated in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions throughout the world. The slow distribution outside Asia is explained by the absence of soya bean specific rhizobia in the soils of other regions; the crop Glycine max-planted 75 GLYCINE 77 only developed in the United States at the beginning of the 20 th century, following the discovery of the nodulation process by scientists. Uses In tropical Africa dry soya bean seeds are boiled for use in relishes, or used in the preparation of milk substitutes and flour. A popular use of soya bean milk in Nigeria is to make a tofu-like product that is deep fried and sold as a snack or breakfast food. The flour is used as a component of bread or mixed with maize flour to make a fortified porridge ('ugali', 'sadza'). In West Africa soya bean flour is used to thicken soup and to replace a traditional flour that is made from the seed of egusi melon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai). 'Okara' is the pulp and bran left over from making soya milk; this cake is used in almost all the same ways as soya bean flour. Soya bean seeds are dry roasted and used directly as a snack or as a coffee substitute. The seed is also milled into flour and mixed with maize meal to serve as a relief food during famine. In Asia soya bean is used in the preparation of a variety of fresh, fermented and dried food products like milk, tofu, tempeh, miso, yuba, soya sauce and bean sprouts (soya bean sprouts are meant here, and not mung bean sprouts, which are more common in Western countries, and which are often called 'germes de soja' in French). Immature soya bean seeds are eaten as a vegetable. Soya bean seed is processed to extract oil for food and for numerous industrial purposes; the crop is currently the world's most important source of vegetable oil. The edible oil enters the market as cooking oil, salad oil, margarine and shortening. Soya bean lecithins are used as emulsifier in the food industry, in pharmacy, and in the industrial production of decorating materials, printing inks and pesticides. Soya bean oil is the main commercial source of oetocopherol (natural vitamin E) and contains stigmasterol, which is used for the commercial synthesis of steroid hormones and other pharmaceutical products. The cake remaining after oil extraction is rich in protein and is an important animal feed. Uses of soya bean proteins in food include defatted flours and grits, concentrates, isolates, textured flours and textured concentrates (commonly used as meat extender). The protein is also used in the production of synthetic fibres, glues and foams. Soya bean is also grown as fodder and as green manure; it is suitable for haymaking and silaging. The leafy stems remaining after pod removal can also be used as fodder. Production and international trade According to FAO estimates, the average world production of soya bean seeds is 173 million t/year from 77 million ha (mean of ). The main producing countries are the United States (73.5 million t/year in , from 29.4 million ha), Brazil (39.0 million t/year from 15.1 million ha), Argentina (26.4 million t/year from 10.2 million ha), China (15.4 million t/year from 9.0 million ha), India (5.9 million t/year from 6.3 million ha), Paraguay (3.4 million t/year from 1.3 million ha) and Canada (2.3 million t/year from 1.0 million ha). South Africa produced 188,000 t/year from 121,000 ha. The soya bean production in tropical Africa in was 790,000 t/year from 895,000 ha, the main producers being Nigeria (439,000 t/year from 601,000 ha), Uganda (139,000 t/year from 124,000 ha) and Zimbabwe (119,000 t/year from 62,000 ha). Average world export of soya bean seeds amounted to 47.4 million t/year in , the main exporters being the United States (25.4 million t/year), Brazil (12.3 million t/year) and Argentina (4.7 million t/year). Export of soya beans from tropical Africa was only 27,000 t/year, with Zimbabwe as main exporter (11,000 t/year). The main importer was China (11.0 million t/year). Soya bean import in tropical Africa was 37,000 t/year. Average world export of soya bean oil in was 8.2 million t/year, with as main exporters Argentina (3.0 million t/year), Brazil (1.5 million t/year) and the United States (0.9 million t/year). The export of soya bean oil from tropical Africa was negligible. The main importers in were China (975,000 t/year), India (837,000 t/year), Iran (701,000 t/year) and Bangladesh (522,000 t/year). Soya bean oil import in tropical Africa in amounted to 338,000 t/year, the main importing countries being Senegal (83,000 t/year), Angola (39,000 t/year), Mauritius (25,000 t/year), Madagascar (22,000 t/year) and Zimbabwe (22,000 t/year). Average soya bean cake export amounted to 40.8 million t/year, with as major exporters Argentina (13.6 million t/year), Brazil (10.8 million t/year) and the United States (6.4 million t/year). Soya bean cake export from tropical Africa was 30,000 t/year, mainly from Zimbabwe (14,000 t year) and Zambia (12,000 t/year). The main importers were countries of the European Union. Tropical Africa imported 72,000 t/year. Soya bean is grown by smallholders in many countries of West, East and southern Africa, 76 78 CEREALS AND PULSES though normally as a minor food crop. Commercial soya bean production on large farms and estates is common in Zambia and Zimbabwe, and also in South Africa. Properties The composition of mature raw soya bean seeds per 100 g edible portion is: water 8.5 g, energy 1742 kj (416 kcal), protein 36.5 g, fat 19.9 g, carbohydrate 30.2 g, dietary fibre 9.3 g, Ca 277 mg, Mg 280 mg, P 704 mg, Fe 15.7 mg, Zn 4.9 mg, vitamin A 0 IU, thiamin 0.87 mg, riboflavin 0.87 mg, niacin 1.6 mg, vitamin BÖ 0.38 mg, folate 375 (ig and ascorbic acid 6.0 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 530 mg, lysine 2429 mg, methionine 492 mg, phenylalanine 1905 mg, threonine 1585 mg, valine 1821 mg, leucine 2972 mg and isoleucine 1770 mg. The principal fatty acids are per 100 g edible portion: linoleic acid 9925 mg, oleic acid 4348 mg, palmitic acid 2116 mg, linolenic acid 1330 mg and stearic acid 712 mg (USDA, 2004). Soya bean seeds have a protein content higher than any other pulse. The seeds have a high lysine content; the limiting amino-acid is methionine. Mature soya bean seeds are not easily digested, contain toxic compounds and have an unpleasant taste. Therefore they must be soaked and cooked for a long time before being edible, or be processed by techniques such as roasting, fermentation or sprouting. Heat-labile antinutritional factors of soya bean are trypsin inhibitors, haemagglutinins, goitrogens, antivitamins and phytates, and heatstable ones are saponins, oestrogens, flatulence factors and lysinoalanine. Yield of meal from soya bean seeds is 80% and of oil 18%. The meal contains about 50% protein. The average fatty acid composition of commercial soya bean oil is: linoleic acid 54%, oleic acid 22%, palmitic acid 10%, linolenic acid 10% and stearic acid 4%. Soya bean oil is rich in vitamin E and contains % lecithins. Soya bean seeds are always heat-treated before oil extraction, because of the presence of antinutritional compounds. Soya bean oil tends to become rancid when exposed to air or light, due to the instability of the linolenic acid. The protein and oil concentrations of soya bean are negatively correlated, and efforts to raise both simultaneously have been unsuccessful. The oil content tends to increase with increasing temperature during growth, whereas the protein content tends to decrease. Consumption of soya bean is associated with decreased risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease, although the exact mechanisms are not clear. There are also indications that soya bean has a positive effect on bone health. The relation between soya bean consumption and reduced risk of cancer is more uncertain. Description Usually erect, bushy annual herb up to 2 m tall, sometimes viny; taproot branched, up to 2 m long, lateral roots spreading horizontally to a distance of up to 2.5 m in the upper 20 cm of the soil; stem brownish or greyish pubescent. Leaves alternate, 3( 7)- foliolate; stipules broadly ovate, 3-7 mm long; petiole 2-20 cm long, especially in lower leaves; leaflets ovate to lanceolate, 3-15 cm x 2-6(-10) cm, base cuneate or rounded, apex acute to obtuse, entire, glabrous to pubescent. Inflorescence an axillary false raceme up to 3.5 cm long, often compact, densely hairy, (2-)5-8(- 35)-flowered. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel up to 3 mm long; calyx tubular, with 2 upper and 3 lower lobes, hairy; corolla 5-7 mm long, white, pink, purple or bluish, standard obovate to rounded, c. 5 mm long, glabrous, wings obovate, keel shorter than the wings; stamens 10, 9 fused and 1 free; ovary superior, style curved with head-shaped stigma. Fruit a slightly curved and usually compressed pod 2.5-8(-15) cm x cm, hairy, dehiscent, (1-) 2-3(-5)-seeded. Seeds globose to ovoid or rhomboid, 6 11 mm x 5 8 mm, yellow, green, brown Glycine max - 1, flowering branch; 2, fruiting branch; 3, seeds. Source: PROSEA 77 GLYCINE 79 or black, or blotched and mottled in combinations of those colours; hilum small, black, brown or yellow. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons thick and fleshy, yellow or green; first leaves simple and opposite. Other botanical information Glycine comprises about 20 species distributed in the tropics and subtropics of Asia and Australia. It is divided into 2 subgenera; Glycine (perennials) and Soja (annuals), with the latter including 2 species: Glycine soja Sieb. & Zucc. (wild types, occurring in eastern Asia) and Glycine max (cultivated types). Glycine soja is considered the wild ancestor of Glycine max. The 2 taxa hybridize easily and may also be considered a single species with 2 subspecies, Glycine max (L.) Merr. subsp. max and subsp. soja (Sieb. & Zucc.) Ohashi. Numerous cultivars are recognized in tropical Asia that vary in time to maturity, size, plant habit, colour, content of oil and protein in the seed, and uses to which they are put. For oil production, yellow seeds are preferred. For immature seeds to be used as a vegetable, types with large yellow or green seeds are preferred. Hay and fodder cultivars usually have brown or black seeds and the plants often twine. In tropical Africa the older cultivars that originated from Asia tend to be tall and indeterminate in growth habit, take comparatively long to mature (about 120 days) and are 'promiscuous' in their ability to nodulate with rhizobia indigenous to African soils. These cultivars can be contrasted with soya bean cultivars that have emerged from breeding programmes and tend to be short-statured, determinate, and relatively fast-maturing (70-90 days). Growth and development Soya bean seedlings emerge within 5 15 days after sowing; a seedbed temperature of C is optimal. Flowering starts from 25 days to more than 150 days after sowing, depending on daylength, temperature and cultivar. Flowering can take 1 15 days. Soya bean is normally selfpollinated and completely self-fertile with less than 1% cross-pollination. Pollen is normally shed in the morning, before the flowers have completely expanded. At higher altitudes with lower temperatures, flowers are usually cleistogamous. The time from flowering to pod maturity is days. The total crop cycle from sowing to maturity is days. Development to maturity is usually shorter with short days than with long days. The number of pods per plant varies from a few to more than Although older literature indicates that soya bean is nodulated exclusively by slow-growing rhizobia (Bradyrhizobium spp.; initially called 'cowpea-type rhizobia') it is now well established that the fast-growing Sinorhizobium fredii can also form effective nodules with the crop. Soya bean genotypes differ enormously in their ability to nodulate with indigenous rhizobia in soils. The ability to nodulate spontaneously and prolifically with indigenous rhizobia is known as the 'promiscuous' character, compared with the 'specific' character of soya bean types that normally require inoculation with a specific type or with a few specific types of rhizobia in order to grow well. However, it has now been established that all soya bean genotypes nodulate to some extent with indigenous rhizobia, but the diversity of strains with which they can nodulate determines the extent of their promiscuity. Rates of N2-fixation in soya bean are greatest in the more luxuriant and late maturing genotypes. Studies conducted in Nigeria have measured a N2-fixation rate of 126 kg of N per ha for an uninoculated late-maturing soya bean line. Ecology Soya bean is grown from the equator to latitudes 55 N or 55 S, at altitudes from close to sea level up to 2000 m. Although the crop grows well under a wide range of temperatures, the optimum temperature for growth and development is in general around 30 C. Both excessively high (>32 C) and low (<20 C) temperatures can reduce floral initiation and pod set. Soya bean requires at least 500 mm water during the growing season for a good crop; water consumption under optimal conditions is 850 mm. Drought stress during flowering reduces pod-set but drought during podfilling reduces yield even more. Soya bean can tolerate brief waterlogging but weathering of seed is a serious problem under humid conditions. Soya bean is considered a quantitative short-day plant, but some cultivars are insensitive to photoperiod. The response to photoperiod interacts strongly with temperature, and given the relatively small variation in daylength in the tropics, temperature is the major factor influencing the rate of phenological development. The photoperiod sensitivity means that types brought directly into tropical Africa from North America will often flower and set seed before they have fully developed, restricting their yields. Soya bean grows well on most soils, except very coarse sands. The optimum ph is , and soya bean is sensitive to soil acidity, in particu- 78 80 CEREALS AND PULSES lar to aluminium toxicity. Where soya bean has not grown previously, or where P is limiting, symbiotic N2-fixation may be inadequate to meet the N requirement of the plants. Propagation and planting Soya bean is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g. The seed can be sown before the start of the rainy season, or when the soil is moist. Seed rates are kg/ha. Soya bean is sown in rows (20-)40(-75) cm apart. Within the rows, 2-3 seeds are sown in hills spaced at cm intervals, at a depth of 2-5 cm. With intercropping, sowing rates are less than for sole cropping. In traditional agriculture the land is prepared by hand or animal traction before sowing. Soya bean is grown mainly on the flat, but sowing on hills or ridges may be practised where the soil is heavy, the water table high, or rainfall heavy. Small-scale farmers in tropical Africa grow soya bean as a sole crop or in mixed cropping with maize, sorghum or cassava. Management Soya bean is usually weeded 1-3 times during the first 6-8 weeks after planting, after which its canopy should be sufficiently developed to suppress weeds. Irrigation is uncommon except for dry season production. Basal fertilization with kg P per ha is often required for adequate symbiotic N2- fixation and general growth. Soya bean is commonly grown in rotation with cereals, such as maize, rice, sorghum, wheat and finger millet, whereby all fertilizer may be applied to the cereal. Diseases and pests Various fungal diseases affect soya bean. Soya bean rust (Phakopsora pachyrhizi and Phakopsora meibomiae) is a devastating disease that can reduce yields by as much as 90%. It is widespread; in tropical Africa it is recorded from Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria, DR Congo, Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia. Partial resistance has been found in various cultivars; fungicides may reduce damage. Red leaf blotch (Dactuliochaeta glycines, synonym: Pyrenochaeta glycines) is confined to Africa; it is economically important in Zambia and Zimbabwe, where yield losses of up to 50% have been recorded. Seeds are not infected, but the fungus can survive in the soil for many years. Tolerant cultivars have been developed in Zimbabwe. Frogeye leaf spot (Cercospora sojina, synonym: Passalora sojina) occurs worldwide. It is primarily a leaf disease, but it may also affect stems, pods and seeds. It survives on stored seeds and crop residues and is spread by wind. Control measures include seed treatment (e.g. with thiram), deep-ploughing of crop residues, crop rotation and application of fungicides. Resistant cultivars are available. Purple seed stain and leaf blight are caused by Cercospora kikuchii, also occurring worldwide. Recommended control measures are crop rotation, the use of clean seed, ploughing back of crop residues, spraying with fungicides and the use of tolerant cultivars. Among the bacterial diseases of soya bean, bacterial blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea, synonym: Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. glycinea) is common wherever soya bean is grown. Control practices of this foliar disease include the use of resistant cultivars, the use of clean seed, crop rotation and burying of crop residues. Bacterial pustule (Xanthomonas campestris pv. glycines, synonym: Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines) is also widespread. It is seedtransmitted and survives on crop debris. Control measures are similar to those of bacterial blight. Virus diseases of soya bean include soya bean mosaic virus (SMV), cowpea mild mottle virus (CPMMV) and bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV), but these are of little importance in tropical Africa. Soya bean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines) and root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) can cause severe damage, especially on sandy soils. Therefore, soya bean should not be grown continuously or in rotation with other susceptible crops, such as tobacco. Soya bean cultivars resistant to nematodes are available. The most widespread and probably most serious pest of soya bean in tropical Africa is the southern green stink bug or soya bean green stink bug (Nezara viridula), of which the nymphs and adults feed on soya been seeds. Control is by using insecticides. The most important leaf-eating pest is probably the soya bean looper (Xanthodes graellsii). Bean flies (mainly Melanagromyza sojae and Ophiomyia centrosematis) can cause complete yield loss. Soya bean seedlings are occasionally damaged by cutworms (Agrotis spp.). No major storage pests are recorded from Africa, except rodents. Harvesting Mature seeds of early-maturing soya bean cultivars can be harvested 65 days after planting; late maturing cultivars may need more than 150 days. In tropical Africa the plants are generally allowed to dry in the field and the whole plants (above ground) are collected by hand when most leaves have turned yellow and fallen, and when the pods have turned brown. The moisture content of the seeds at harvesting should be 14-15%. Pods of 79 GLYCINE 81 older cultivars have a tendency to shatter in the field when drying and plants need to be harvested on time to prevent major loss of yield. Combine-harvesting is used on large farms and estates. Soya bean seed for vegetable use is harvested when the pods are still green but the seeds fill the pod. Yield Average world soya bean yields are 2.25 t/ha; those in the United States 2.5 t/ha. Under smallholder farming conditions in tropical Africa yields are often as low as 0.5 t/ha due to a combination of poor soil conditions and poor management. However, yields of more than 2 t/ha have been recorded on smallholder farms in Zimbabwe and Nigeria, particularly when farmers are growing soya bean as a cash crop to sell in urban food markets or for processing for oil and feed. The average yield of commercial, large-scale farmers hovers around 2 t/ha. Under optimal growing conditions yields of more than 4.5 t/ha have been recorded in Zimbabwe. In Nigeria and most of West Africa the yield potential of soya bean is about 3 t/ha. Handling after harvest The whole plants are dried in the sun. They are then threshed by beating with sticks. The seeds are winnowed, cleaned and prepared for store or market. For on-farm storage a seed moisture content of10 12% must be maintained. Deterioration of seed in storage is a major problem in the humid tropics and is attributable to poor storage conditions and pests. In the savanna region of West Africa producers have developed appropriate seed handling methods that ensure good seed germination when they save their own seeds. Genetic resources The largest germplasm collections of soya bean are held in China (Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (CAAS), Beijing, 23,600 accessions; Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 13,000 accessions), the United States (USDA-ARS Soybean Germplasm Collection, Urbana, Illinois, 18,400 accessions) and Taiwan (Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre (AVRDC), Shanhua, 12,500 accessions). In tropical Africa substantial germplasm collections are held in Zimbabwe (Crop Breeding Institute, Harare, 2250 accessions), Nigeria (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (UTA), Ibadan, 1800 accessions), Rwanda (Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda (ISAR), Butare, 550 accessions) and Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu, 130 accessions). Genebank accessions have been successfully used for the improvement of resistance to diseases and pests, plant morphology and seed composition. The genetic variation of soya bean cultivars is rather narrow. For instance, about 80% of the genepool of the soya bean cultivars grown in the United States can be traced to only 7-10 introductions from the same geographical area. It is therefore considered necessary to broaden the genetic base of cultivated soya bean by using wild relatives. Breeding Breeding work on soya bean in tropical Africa aims at the development of improved cultivars with high and stable seed yield, resistance to major diseases and pests, tolerance to aluminium toxicity, resistance to lodging and pod shattering, promiscuous nodulation, improved seed longevity and acceptable seed colour, oil and protein content. A breeding programme at UTA has focused since the early 1980s on combining the yield potential of cultivars bred in North America with the 'promiscuous' or 'naturally-nodulating' ability of landraces from Asia to form nodules and fix nitrogen without inoculation in African soils. This breeding programme has produced a series of excellent multi-purpose cultivars that combine a leafy growth habit with appropriate seed type and high yield potential. These cultivars are liked by smallholder farmers because they provide biomass for forage or to improve soil fertility in addition to having high seed yields. They are being actively promoted in many countries in East and West Africa at present. In southern Africa similar benefits of a largely unimproved cultivar, 'Magoye', were recognized. 'Magoye' is a leafy, indeterminate cultivar, relatively resistant to stresses and mid-season drought, that grows better on poor soils than some of the improved cultivars, nodulating well with indigenous rhizobia. Despite its smaller, yellow seed, and susceptibility to some diseases such as bacterial pustule, this makes it an attractive cultivar for use by smallholder farmers in southern Africa. Research at UTA has identified soya bean breeding lines that favour the germination of Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth., a parasitic weed that infects maize, sorghum and pearl millet, and one of the major constraints to production of these crops in Africa. The probable cause of this effect of soya bean is the presence of root exudates. The inclusion of these soya bean cultivars in crop rotations stimulates Striga germination and reduces infestation levels in following sorghum, maize or pearl millet crops as a result of the decline of Striga 80 82 CEREALS AND PULSES seed numbers in the soil. After germination the Striga plants are unable to infest the soya bean crop, and die without producing seed. A 3-year trial conducted in Benin showed that 2 seasons of soya bean followed by maize reduced Striga hermonthica emergence by about 80-90% and increased maize yield from 1.5 t/ha to 3 t/ha. Similar results have been obtained in farmers' fields in Nigeria. As soya bean becomes more popular in areas where maize, sorghum and pearl millet are grown, the amount of damage caused by Striga hermonthica should become significantly less. A number of private seed companies are involved in breeding soya bean in southern Africa, with particular emphasis on cultivars suitable for mechanized production. The companies are targeting a number of traits including high seed yield, resistance to lodging, resistance to pod shattering, rapid stem dehydration, seed quality and resistance to diseases (particularly red leaf blotch and frogeye leaf spot). New cultivars are 'Solitaire', 'Soma', 'Soprano' and 'Viking', all of which have some resistance to frogeye leaf spot. These cultivars are all specific in their nodulation ability and require inoculation with the appropriate rhizobia. Inoculants for soya bean are produced, sold and used on a large scale in both Zimbabwe and South Africa. Soya bean is a leading crop in the field of genetic transformation. In 2001 the world area under transgenic herbicide-tolerant soya bean was estimated at 33 million ha; it was grown in the United States, Argentina, Canada, Mexico, Uruguay, Romania and South Africa. Genetic linkage maps have been constructed for soya bean on the basis of various markers (RFLP, SSR, RAPD, AFLP), and several moderate- to high-density genetic maps are now available. In-vitro regeneration of soya bean is possible through organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis. Prospects Soya bean is a relatively new crop in tropical Africa. It has long been thought that soya bean was not a suitable food crop for the region, because of the long cooking time needed and the unacceptable taste. However, the importance of the crop in tropical Africa has grown rapidly during the past decades. Especially Nigeria witnessed a rapid expansion in soya bean production in the smallholder farming sector in the savanna zone during the 1990s. The driving force for this expansion was the use of soya bean in the preparation of many traditional foods and the introduction of soya tofu which rapidly became one of the most popular snacks in markets in the region and is widely used by the food processing industry. In some areas, the low world prices may depress opportunities for local producers to respond to increased local demand for soya bean. Soya bean can play an increasingly important role in diversifying cereal-based farming systems in tropical Africa. Apart from being a source of residual nitrogen for subsequent cereal crops in crop rotations, the new multi-purpose cultivars bred by UTA provide the additional benefit that they help to reduce Striga hermonthica damage on maize, sorghum and millet, thus representing a major opportunity to provide sustainable crop rotations for smallholder farmers. It is therefore very likely that soya bean production will expand in many tropical African countries in the future. Major references Boerma & Specht, 2004; Carsky et al., 2000; Dashiell & Fatokun, 1997; Hymowitz, 1995; Javaheri & Baudoin, 2001; Mpepereki et al., 2000; Sanginga et al., 2003; Shanmugasundaram & Sumarno, 1989; Sinclair, 1998; Singh, Rachie & Dashiell (Editors), Other references Akem & Dashiell, 1996; Aljanabi, 2001; Dashiell & Akem, 1991; FAO, 1998; Giller, 2001; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Hume, Shanmugasundaram & Beversdorf, 1985; ILDIS, 2005; James, 2002; Mackinder et al., 2001; Musiyiwa, Mpepereki & Giller, 2005; Rehm & Espig, 1991; Sanginga, Thottappilly & Dashiell, 2000; Sanginga et al., 1997; Sanginga et al., 1999; Shannon & Kalala, 1994; Thulin, 1989a; Tindall, 1983; USDA, 2004; Weiss, Sources of illustration Shanmugasundaram & Sumarno, Authors K.E. Giller & K.E. Dashiell Based on PROSEA 1: Pulses. HORDEUMVULGARE L. Protologue Sp. pi. 1: 84 (1753). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number In = 14 Synonyms Hordeum sativum Jess. (1863). Vernacular names Barley (En). Orge (Fr). Cevada (Po). Shayiri (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Barley was domesticated in western Asia before 7000 BC. Cultivation spread to northern Africa and, moving upwards along the Nile, into Ethiopia, 81 HORDEUM 83 Hordeum vulgare - planted where it became one of the major cereals. It is not known exactly when barley reached Ethiopia, but it has been grown there for at least 5000 years. Barley reached southern Spain BC and central and northern Europe, as well as India, BC. It reached China BC. Barley was cultivated in oases in the Sahara BC, but seems not to have migrated southwards into West Africa before the 16 th Century AD. Columbus took it to the New World. Nowadays it is grown over a broader environmental range than any other cereal, from 70 N in Norway to 44 S in New Zealand. In Ethiopia, Tibet and the Andes it is cultivated higher on the mountain slopes than other cereals. In tropical Africa it is mainly found in East Africa. In West Africa barley is grown as a cold season crop in the Sahel region and northern Nigeria. In Madagascar it is grown in the dry season. Uses On a worldwide scale barley is used, in order of importance, as animal feed, for malting (especially for beer brewing) and as human food. In the tropics and subtropics it is mainly grown for human food. In Ethiopia and Eritrea most of the grain is used for making the local pancake-like bread ('injera'), but it is also made into porridge, soup and home-made alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks. In Kenya and Tanzania it is more important for brewing. Grains are roasted or fried, and consumed as snack, particularly during social gatherings. Barley straw is used as animal feed, for animal bedding, and as cover material for huts. Barley can be grazed during tillering or cut before maturity and directly fed to the animals or used for silage. In temperate areas barley grain is also fed to animals. By-products from the brewing process are also used in livestock feed. Production and international trade Annual world production of barley is 136 million t grains (mean of ) from 54 million ha. Major producing countries are the Russian Federation, Germany and Canada with 16.2, 12.1, and 11.4 million t per year, respectively. In tropical Africa the main barley-producing country is Ethiopia, with 950,000 t of grain from 870,000 ha in , followed by Kenya (45,000 t from 20,000 ha) and Eritrea (24,000 t from 44,000 ha). In Ethiopia and Eritrea barley production is mainly for subsistence, and in Ethiopia the share of malting barley is about 2% of the total production. Small areas of barley (less than 4000 ha) are planted in Mauritania, DR Congo, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Most barley is consumed locally, with about 20 million t per year entering international trade in The European Union, Australia and Canada are the largest exporters; Saudi Arabia, China and Japan the largest importers. In the largest importers in tropical Africa were Zimbabwe and Ethiopia, with average annual imports of 8000 t and 3000 t, respectively. Properties The composition of barley per 100 g edible portion is: water 9.4 g, energy 1482 kj (354 kcal), protein 12.5 g, fat 2.3 g, carbohydrate 73.5 g, dietary fibre 17.3 g, Ca 33 mg, Mg 133 mg, P 264 mg, Fe 3.6 mg, Zn 2.8 mg, vitamin A 22 IU, thiamin 0.65 mg, riboflavin 0.29 mg, niacin 4.6 mg, vitamin B mg, folate 19 Xg and ascorbic acid 0 mg. The essential amino acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 208 mg, lysine 465 mg, methionine 240 mg, phenylalanine 700 mg, threonine 424 mg, valine 612 mg, leucine 848 mg and isoleucine 456 mg. The principal fatty acids are per 100 g edible portion: linoleic acid 999 mg, palmitic acid 411 mg, oleic acid 241 mg and linolenic acid 110 mg (USDA, 2004). Barley cannot be used to make leavened bread because of its low gluten content. The relatively high dietary fibre content makes barley interesting from a nutritional point of view, as increased amounts of dietary fibre have been shown to help in controlling diabetes, hyperlipidaemia, obesity, hypertension, coronary heart disease and various gastro-intestinal disorders. Barley is preferred to wheat and rye for malting because of the cemented lemma and palea, which protect the young plumule during germination, produce a firmer grain at the high moisture content needed for steeping 82 84 CEREALS AND PULSES and malting, and facilitate filtering. Description Annual grass up to 120(-150) cm tall, tillering freely; root system consisting of 3 9 primary roots and adventitious roots; stem (culm) usually erect. Leaves 5-10 per culm, alternate, simple; leaf sheath glabrous, with large, overlapping auricles at apex; ligule 1-3 mm long, hyaline, ciliate; blade linear-lanceolate, 5-40 cm x cm. Inflorescence a terminal cylindrical spike 5-10(-30) cm long, with groups of 3 spikelets attached alternately. Spikelets 1-flowered, with bisexual floret; glumes narrow, about half the length of the lemma, with fine bristles at the tip; lemma ovate, 9-11 mm x 3 mm, 5-veined, usually ending in an awn up to 15 cm long; palea as long as lemma, awnless; stamens 3; ovary superior, with 2 stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), ellipsoid, flattened and grooved on one side, varying in size according to cultivar, hairy at the tip. Other botanical information Hordeum comprises 32 species. Hybrids from crosses of Hordeum vulgare with other Hordeum species are sterile or anomalous. The large variability in barley led to many barley species being distinguished in the past. At present, the accepted view is that in barley evolution only a single species is involved, Hordeum vulgare, forming a crop-weed complex, in which the cultivated Hordeum vulgare spike; 3, spikelets. Source: PROSEA 1, lower part of plant; 2, barley has been developed from original wild populations. Fertile hybrids between wild and cultivated types are easily obtained and occur naturally where the two grow together. Wild barley has been classified as subsp. spontaneum (C.Koch) Thell. (synonym: Hordeum spontaneum C.Koch), distributed in northern Africa, the eastern Mediterranean area and western Asia, and cultivated types as subsp. vulgare. The variation in cultivated barley is overwhelming, with thousands of landraces and hundreds of cultivars. Cultivars can be divided according to the number of rows of grains (2 or 6), lax and compact spikes, or awned and awnless lemmas. All wild types have 2-rowed spikes, i.e. of the 3 spikelets at each node the two lateral ones are sterile, and only the central one develops a grain. Under domestication 6-rowed types appeared in which all 3 spikelets produce grains. Here, 2 genes are involved, both with multiple allelic series, but a single recessive mutation is enough for a 2-rowed barley to become 6-rowed. Cultivars grown in West Africa have 6 rows of grains in the spike, but in Ethiopia, especially in the upper highlands, a type of barley is found with 2 full rows and parts of other rows ('irregular barley'). In 'husked barley' lemma and palea adhere to the grain at threshing, whereas in 'naked barley' the grain threshes free. A single recessive gene controls the latter character. Based on vernalization requirements barley is classified in winter and spring types. Growth and development The seedling emerges from the soil 5-6 days after germination. Tillers are produced on the main shoot until flower initiation. The number of tillers per plant is influenced by plant density, cultivar and environmental factors: a single plant usually develops 1 6 stems, but at low densities it may be several times as high. Time to flower initiation varies among cultivars, but in general barley flowers earlier than wheat. Barley is a quantitative long-day species, flowering earlier under longer photoperiods, but the photoperiod sensitivity differs between cultivars, ranging from very sensitive to almost insensitive. Flowers are predominantly self-pollinated, but cross-pollination can be as high as 10%. The grain ripens in days. Barley can mature in a short season of 3-4 months, which is shorter than the season needed for other major cereals. Ecology Barley grows under a wide range of photoperiod, temperature and rainfall condi- 83 HORDEUM 85 tions, but is best adapted to temperate climates. It withstands high temperatures in dry climates and humidity in cool climates, but it is ill adapted to hot, humid climates, primarily because of its susceptibility to diseases. In Ethiopia, barley is cultivated at m altitude, but mainly between 2000 m and 3000 m. In Kenya it is grown at m altitude. Winter barley types need vernalization by a period of low temperature (3-12 C). Barley is adapted to an annual rainfall ranging from 200 mm to more than 1000 mm. It is more droughtescaping, due to its early maturity, than drought-tolerant. Well-drained fertile loams or light clay soils are best for barley production. Barley is more tolerant of alkaline soils than other cereals, but does not tolerate acid soils; a ph of is generally acceptable. It is very sensitive to waterlogging. Some cultivars withstand up to 1% salt in the soil. Propagation and planting Barley is planted through direct seeding. The 1000-seed weight is g. Before sowing, the land is ploughed to a depth of cm. On smallholdings the land is prepared by animal traction. The seed should preferably be treated with fungicide to protect the crop from seed- and soil-borne diseases. Barley can be planted with drills, but on smallholdings seeding is usually by hand. When sowing with drills, the distance between rows is cm, and the seed rate is kg/ha. The sowing depth is 2 6 cm. In the highlands of Ethiopia, barley is cropped twice a year. The main cropping season ('mener') is from June December (with most of the rain in June-September), while the minor cropping season ('belg') is from February June (most rain in March April). Barley is the most suitable crop for 'belg'-season production. Barley is usually sole-cropped, but in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia barley is often intercropped with wheat (the 'hanfetz' cropping system). In Eritrea farmers traditionally broadcast mixtures of 67% barley and 33% wheat; sometimes 50:50 mixtures are sown. In Ethiopia and Eritrea barley is a smallholder crop, but in Kenya it is grown on large-scale mechanized farms. Management Weeds cause economic losses in barley due to a reduced number of tillers and grains per spike. Resource-poor farmers weed by hand. The most widely used herbicide to control broad-leaved weeds in post-emergence spraying is 2,4-D. Barley requires about kg N to produce 1 t of grain. Nitrogen can be applied before seeding or as topdressing after planting. Under dry conditions high rates of N application can cause yield reductions, whereas under favourable conditions high rates of N increase the risk of lodging and diseases. Excessive rates of N fertilization of malting barley may increase the protein level in the grain above the acceptable level. In Ethiopia farmers usually grow barley in lowinput systems, with minimal seedbed preparation and weeding, and without applying herbicides, fertilizers or insecticides. Low soil fertility and insufficient weed management are major constraints. In experiments at Holetta, application of 57 kg N and 25 kg P per ha led to a grain yield increase of up to 200%, whereas a single hand weeding at 35 days after emergence gave a grain yield increase of up to 20% compared to an unweeded crop. Lodging is also a common problem in Ethiopian barley cultivation. In West Africa barley is grown as a dryseason crop, often under irrigation. Diseases and pests Barley is affected by several viral and fungal diseases. The most important viral diseases are barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV), transmitted by various aphid species, and barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV), transmitted through seed or plant contact. Control measures for BYDV include the use of tolerant or resistant cultivars and aphid control, whereas BSMV can be controlled by using virus-free seed and resistant cultivars. Epidemics of African cereal streak, caused by maize streak virus (MSV) and transmitted by leafhoppers (Cicadulina spp.), have occurred in Kenya. Important fungal diseases include powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei, synonym: Erysiphe graminis f.sp. hordei), spot blotch (Bipolaris sorokiniana, synonym: Helminthosporium sativum), scald (Rhynchosporium secalis f.sp. hordei), scab (Fusarium spp.), rusts (Puccinia spp.), net blotch (Pyrenophora teres), barley stripe (Pyrenophora graminea) and smuts (Ustilago spp.). In Ethiopia and Eritrea, scald, blotches and rusts are the most important fungal diseases; the use of resistant cultivars is often the most effective control measure. Other control measures include crop rotation, the use of clean seed, seed treatment, fungicides, the destruction of infected plant material and deep ploughing. Several nematodes can parasitize barley: cereal cyst nematodes (Heterodera spp.), root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), root-gall nematode (Subanguina radicicola) and root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.). 84 86 CEREALS AND PULSES Control measures include crop rotation and fallow. Resistance breeding and the use of fungal pathogens have been successful against cereal cyst nematodes. Barley is susceptible to attack by many kinds of pests, including aphids, shoot flies, grasshoppers, crickets, thrips, army worms, cutworms, and beetles and their larvae. Control may involve adjusting the planting date, and applying insecticides. In general, losses due to pests are relatively limited, with many of the pests causing greater damage as vectors of viruses, notably BYDV. Major storage pests of barley are insects and rodents. Harvesting Barley is ready for harvesting after reaching 35-40% kernel moisture. The crop is harvested by hand using a sickle or by combine. Threshing of malting and 'naked' barley requires special care to avoid too much broken seed. Yield Barley yields vary from 0.3 t/ha in dry years and in marginal environments to 10 t/ha in high input agriculture. In Africa average yields are t/ha. In Asia and South America average yields are t/ha, in North America 2.9 t/ha and in Europe 4 t/ha. Straw yields are equally important in many developing countries, but yield statistics are not available. Handling after harvest A high moisture content of barley grains at harvest favours the development of mycotoxins dangerous to humans and livestock. Before storing, grain has to be dried to 14% moisture or less. When barley is cultivated on small areas, it is common practice to keep selected spikes to provide the seed for the next crop. Genetic resources Current barley germplasm collections at ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo, Syria) contain more than 25,000 accessions. Since 1989 the 'International Barley Core Collection' has been developed by an international consortium including ICARDA. Many national programmes maintain their own working collections. The Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (IBC, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia) has a collection of more than 12,500 accessions. Smaller collections in sub-saharan Africa are held in South Africa (National Department of Agriculture, Pretoria; Small Grain Institute, Bethlehem), Madagascar (Département de Recherches Agronomiques de la Republique Malgache, Antananarivo) and Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, KARI, Kikuyu, Muguga). Barley shows orthodox storage behaviour. Breeding In barley breeding methods are used that are typical for self-pollinated crops. Until 1950 the main breeding method was either mass selection or pure line selection within landraces, which are still cultivated today in many countries, e.g. Ethiopia. New variability has been created by crossing, backcrossing and mutation. Recurrent selection is applied to increase recombination by crossing among Frs and by repeating the crosses among a number of F2 plants or by using male-sterility genes. Mutation breeding with radiation or chemicals and double haploids have been widely used in barley breeding. Among the International Centres, ICARDA has the global mandate for assisting barley improvement programmes of National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) in developing countries. Modern breeding has resulted in barley types with improved amino-acid composition (4.1% of the protein as lysine). The major emphasis is on producing cultivars resistant to diseases and pests and with adaptation to specific agro-ecological environments. Resistance to aphids has been incorporated into some cultivars. Ethiopian barley has been particularly useful in the improvement of nutritional quality and in supplying resistance to fungal and viral diseases (including powdery mildew, smuts, rusts, net blotch, scald, BYDV and BSMV). In Ethiopia, 9 improved barley cultivars were released between 1980 and 2000, but the adoption level is low (11% of the area). The first genome-wide maps of barley were published in 1991, and more than 40 genomewide maps have now been published. Prospects In general large improvements in barley production are possible through breeding of cultivars resistant to lodging and diseases. As most barley breeding has been for favourable environments, the potential of the crop in low-input agriculture is largely underexploited. In the Ethiopian highlands, where barley is the preferred food crop, soil fertility has declined as a result of erosion and continuous cultivation. Under these circumstances it has been difficult to improve the locally adapted farmers' cultivars. The staple Ethiopian cereal tef (Eragrostis tef (Zuccagni) Trotter), is taking over from barley as a result of favourable market prices, and high-yielding 6- rowed barley cultivars are becoming less important. In these areas breeding for earlymaturing cultivars with higher resistance/tolerance to moisture stress than the existing 85 LATHYRUS 87 ones might reverse the trend. Ethiopia has the potential to meet the local demand for malt barley and to produce for the African market. This can be achieved with the breeding and production of high-quality malt barley that meets the breweries' standards, a concomitant increase in the number and capacity of maltprocessing factories, and an efficient market structure. Major references Ceccarelli & Grando, 1996; Gebre & van Leur (Editors), 1996; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Harlan, 1995; Hockett, 2000; Mathre, 1997; Nevo, 1992; Rasmusson (Editor), 1985; Slafer et al, 2002; von Bothmer, Jacobsen & Baden, Other references Asfaw, 1990; Aw-Hassan & Shideed, 2003; Berhane, Yitbarek & Fekadu : 1995; Briggs, 1978; Burkill, 1994; Clayton. 1972; Engels, Hawkes & Worede (Editors) 1991; Launert, 1971; National Research Coun cil, 1996; Phillips, 1995; Purseglove, 1972: Rehm & Espig, 1991; Sharpley, 1988; Tarekegne, Gebre & Francis, 1997; Thomas, 2003 USDA, 2004; von Bothmer et al, 2003; Williams, 2003; Woldeamlak, 2001; Yirga, Alemayehu & Sinebo (Editors), Sources of illustration Ceccarelli & Grando, Authors S. Ceccarelli & S. Grando Based on PROSEA 10: Cereals. LATHYRUS SATIVUS L. Protologue Sp. pi. 2: 730 (1753). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n = 14 Vernacular names Grass pea, chickling pea, chickling vetch, white pea (En). Gesse, gesse blanche, gesse commune, pois carré, lentille d'espagne (Fr). Chicharo, chicharo comun, sincho (Po). Origin and geographic distribution The origin of Lathyrus sativus is unknown. Records exist of wild Lathyrus sativus plants in Iraq, but it is not clear if these are truly wild or escapes from cultivation. Lathyrus sativus is perhaps a derivative from Lathyrus cicera L., which occurs wild in southern Europe, northern Africa and western Asia and is sometimes grown there. Domestication of grass pea probably took place in the Balkan around 6000 BC. Remains of Lathyrus sativus dating back to BC have been recorded from In- Lathyrus sativus -planted dia. Nowadays grass pea is widely cultivated in large parts of Asia (especially Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and the Middle East), southern Europe and northern Africa, and to a lesser extent in America, Australia and South Africa. In tropical Africa it is mainly grown in Ethiopia, but also in Sudan, Eritrea, Kenya, Tanzania, Angola and Mauritius. Uses In Ethiopia and Eritrea grass pea seeds are mainly consumed in the form of sauces ('wot'); 'shiro wot' (sauce made of flour) and 'kik wot' (sauce made of hulled split seeds) are eaten together with 'injera' (a pancake-like unleavened bread). Boiled grass pea seeds ('nifro') are also consumed in most areas, whereas 'kitta' (an unleavened bread) made from grass pea seeds is consumed mainly during times of acute food shortage. In India the seeds are sometimes boiled whole, but are most often processed into dhal. The flour, made by grinding either the whole or split seeds, is sold as 'besan'. In Bangladesh 'roti' made out of grass pea flour is a staple for landless labourers. In India grass pea is sometimes used to adulterate more expensive pulses, such as chickpea or pigeon pea. Care should be taken in the consumption of grass pea seeds, as excessive consumption leads to a neurological disorder in people and animals, called lathyrism and characterized by paralysis of the lower limbs. In many countries grass pea seeds are used as animal feed, e.g. as an ingredient in pig starter and grower diets. In Asia immature pods are cooked and eaten as a vegetable, or are boiled, salted and consumed as a snack. Young vegetative parts are cooked as a green vegetable; they are also dried for off- 86 88 CEREALS AND PULSES season use as a vegetable. Young grass pea plants are used as fodder for cattle or for grazing in many countries. The stems and chaff remaining after harvest are often the most important reason for growing the crop in Asia. As fodder, the plants can be eaten green or as hay; they are not suitable for silage. Grass pea is grown as a green manure, e.g. in Australia and Canada. Oil from the seeds is used medicinally as a powerful cathartic. Production and international trade According to estimates India produced about 0.8 million t grass pea seeds per year from 1.5 million ha in the mid 1990s, whereas production was lower in Bangladesh (175,000 t from 240,000 ha) and Pakistan (45,000 t from 130,000 ha). In the late 1990s production in Ethiopia was estimated at 105,000 t from 142,000 ha. As a food grain, grass pea is traditionally traded within the region of production, and it does not enter international trade. Properties The composition of whole grass pea seed per 100 g edible portion is: water 8.4 g, energy 1457 kj (348 kcal), protein 27.4 g, fat 1.1 g, carbohydrate 59.8 g, fibre 7.3 g, Ca 127 mg, P 410 mg and Fe 10.0 mg (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). Grass pea is highly deficient in methionine and tryptophan. Raw whole seeds contain 41% starch on a dry matter basis; the starch granules are oval and on average 25 (im long and 17 (xm wide. The neurological disorder lathyrism is caused by the water-soluble non-protein amino acid ODAP (ß-N-oxalyl-L-a,ß-diaminopropionic acid), also known as BOAA (ß-N-oxalylamino-Lalanine) and OAP (L-3-oxalylamino-2-aminopropionic acid). ODAP is present in all parts of the plant and affects various parts of the central nervous system, disrupting neurotransmission and thus impairing muscular activity. The onset of lathyrism can be slow or sudden, and is often indicated by a feeling of heaviness and pain in the lower limbs. Lathyrism is often irreversible, but not fatal. Lathyrism seems to occur when food ratios containing at least 25% grass pea are consumed continuously over months and may then affect up to 5% of the population. Outbreaks of lathyrism often occur during near-famine conditions that force people to rely too heavily on grass pea. The ODAP content of grass pea seeds typically ranges from (-2.5) g per 100 g seed. ODAP levels are not only genetically determined, but also highly influenced by growing conditions. In general, soaking and boiling reduce ODAP levels in the seeds, and this effect is enhanced if water is changed after soaking and during cooking. When the seeds are ground into flour, which is then used in baking or cooking, ODAP may not be removed. Unfortunately, effective detoxification treatments often also result in decrease of nutritional quality. Other antinutritional factors in grass pea include trypsin inhibitors, tannins, lectins, phytate and oligosaccharides. Grass pea hay contains: water 14.6%, protein 9.9%, fat 1.9%, fibre 36.5%, nitrogen-free extract 31.0% and ash 6.1%. The seeds of cultivars with up to 0.22 g ODAP per 100 g seed could be included in the diets of growing chicks at a rate of 400 g grass pea seeds per kg feed without negative effects on weight gain or fat or protein digestibility. Description Much-branched, erect, straggling or climbing, glabrous annual herb; stem slender, quadrangular, winged, up to 90( 170) cm long; taproot well-developed. Leaves alternate, 2- or 4-foliolate, ending in a simple or branched tendril; stipules prominent, leaf-like, narrowly triangular, with a smaller but similarly shaped basal appendage and often with a small tooth between the lobes; petiole mostly Lathyrus sativus - 1, flowering and fruiting branch; 2, seeds. Source: PROSEA 87 LATHYRUS 89 winged, (l-) (-3.5) cm long; leaflets sessile, narrowly elliptical-oblong, (3-)4-5(-7.5) cm x 3-5(-13) mm, cuneate at base, acute or acuminate at apex. Flowers solitary in leaf axils, bisexual, papilionaceous, pedicel with joint, lower part (l-)3-3.5(-5) cm long, upper part (2 )5 7( 8) mm long; calyx campanulate, tube c. 3 mm long, lobes 5, almost equal, narrowly triangular, 3-6 mm long; corolla blue, reddish-purple, red, pink or white, standard erect and spreading, very broadly obovate, c. 15 mm x 18 mm, clawed, retuse at top, wings broadly obovate, c. 14 mm x 8 mm, clawed, with auricle, keel slightly twisted, boat-shaped, c. 10 mm x 7 mm, clawed, with 2 auricles; stamens 10, 9 united and 1 free; ovary superior, sessile, c. 6 mm long, style abruptly upturned, c. 7 mm long, stigma spoon-shaped. Fruit an oblong, flattened pod (1.5-) (-5.5) cm x cm, upper margin 2-winged, shortly beaked, glabrous, (l-)2-5(-7)-seeded. Seeds wedge-shaped, 4 7 mm in diameter, white, pale green, grey or brown, marbled; hilum elliptical. Seedling with hypogeal germination. Other botanical information Lathyrus comprises about 150 species, mainly in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere and South America, with a few species in Africa. Lathyrus sativus is placed in section Lathyrus along with about 30 other annual or perennial species. Based on crossability and cytological evidence, Lathyrus amphicarpos Gouan and Lathyrus cicera L. have been placed in the secondary gene pool of grass pea. More recently, successful crosses between Lathyrus sativus and Lathyrus pseudocicera Pamp. have been made. Apart from Lathyrus sativus, other Lathyrus species cultivated in Ethiopia are the ornamental Lathyrus odoratus L. and the forage Lathyrus aphaca L. Infraspecific classification is mainly based on colour of flowers, markings on pods and size and colour of seeds. In general, white seed is most popular for human consumption. The level of infraspecific variation for RAPD markers is low compared to other grain legumes such as lentil and pea. Based on isozyme analysis variation was found to be highest in western Asia and northern Africa. Growth and development Germination of grass pea seeds is most rapid around 20 C. Flowering time is months after sowing. The floral biology of grass pea favours selfpollination (anthers usually dehisce before full opening of the flower), but there are many records of substantial outcrossing (up to 28%). Total crop duration is 3-6 months. Grass pea effectively nodulates with Rhizobium leguminosarum. Ecology Grass pea is grown successfully in regions with an average annual rainfall of mm/year and an average temperature of C. It withstands heavy rains in early growth stages and prolonged drought during grain-filling. It grows well in the subtropics as a winter crop. Grass pea can be grown on a wide range of soil types, including poor soils and heavy clays. It tolerates waterlogging and moderate salinity. In Ethiopia grass pea is often grown in the dry season on residual soil moisture in heavy black clay soils at m altitude. In India grass pea is grown as a cold-season crop up to 1200 m altitude. Propagation and planting Grass pea is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight ranges from g. In Ethiopia it does not require a fine seedbed; 1-2 ploughings are enough. The average seed rate is normally kg/ha for a sole crop, and about 35 kg/ha when intercropped. Seeds that may have been soaked in water overnight are broadcast or drilled in furrows. Plant densities of 200, ,000 plants/ha are common for grass pea. In Ethiopia grass pea is usually sown in September-November and harvested in January- April. Grass pea is grown as a sole crop or intercropped, e.g. with barley, linseed or chickpea. In many countries grass pea is produced in rice-based cropping systems before the rice crop or alternately with a rice crop. In India grass pea is often grown as a relay crop: it is broadcast into a standing rice crop about 2 weeks before the rice harvest and left to grow on the residual moisture. Management Grass pea often receives hardly any attention after sowing, although for optimum yields it should be kept reasonably free from weeds. In a well-prepared field, the crop comes up as a thick mass over the entire surface, smothering out weeds. Grass pea is not normally fertilized, but atmospheric nitrogen fixation rates of kg/ha have been recorded. In Ethiopia grass pea is grown in rotation after barley or sometimes after a pulse crop, such as pea or chickpea, which has been sown in April and harvested in July. Diseases and pests The main diseases of grass pea are powdery mildew (Erysiphe pisi) and downy mildew (Peronospora spp.), but the latter not in Ethiopia. Rust (Uromyces fabae) and Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) have 88 90 CEREALSAND PULSES been recorded from Ethiopia. Faba bean necrotic yellows virus (FBNYV) has been observed on grass pea in Ethiopia; it is transmitted by the aphids Acyrtosiphon pisum and Aphis cracciuora. In host-range studies grass pea was found to be susceptible to pea seedborne mosaic virus (PSbMV). Insect pests of grass pea include aphids and thrips. The pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) is the main pest of grass pea in Ethiopia. Harvesting Harvesting of grass pea should be done when leaves turn yellow and pods turn grey, to avoid shattering. The plants are pulled out by hand or cut with a sickle near the base. They are then stacked and allowed to dry for 7-8 days in the field or on the threshing floor. Yield The average seed yield of grass pea is kg/ha; in Ethiopia it is about 700 kg/ha. Yield trials conducted recently in various countries recorded yield levels of kg/ha. Handling after harvest Grass pea pods are threshed by animal trampling or by beating with sticks, after which the seed is winnowed and cleaned. The seeds may be dried for a few days before storage. Genetic resources ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria) holds a Lathyrus collection of about 1880 accessions, of which 1560 belong to Lathyrus sativus. Large grass pea germplasm collections are also kept in France (IBEAS, Laboratoire d'ecologie Moleculaire, Université de Pau; 1810 accessions), Australia (Australian Temperate Field Crops Collection, Horsham, Victoria; 844 accessions), Russia (N.I. Vavilov All- Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry, St. Petersburg; 688 accessions), Bangladesh (Plant Genetic Resources Centre, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Joydebpur, Gazipur; 584 accessions) and the United States (USDA/ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, Washington; 248 accessions). In tropical Africa germplasm collections are kept in Ethiopia (197 accessions at the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation, Addis Ababa; 13 accessions at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa) and Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu; 4 accessions). Grass pea seeds show orthodox seed storage behaviour. Breeding The major objective in grass pea breeding is reduction of ODAP levels, which is the most feasible method of producing a safe crop. Secondly, increasing the genetic yield potential is an important goal. Other breeding objectives are the incorporation of disease resistance and increase of seed size, earlier maturity and a higher harvest index. Lines with moderate resistance to powdery mildew have been identified. In Ethiopia a large number of accessions and breeding lines introduced from ICARDA are resistant to powdery mildew. Improvement has been slow in grass pea. Highyielding improved cultivars low in ODAP and with resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses have not been released in Africa. Some attempts to provide improved cultivars with low ODAP content have been made in India. In Chile and Bangladesh some promising lines have also been identified with low ODAP and high yield. Recently, of the 13 lines with low ODAP content identified in Ethiopia, three lines introduced from ICARDA have consistently shown low ODAP and reasonable yield over three years. However, the substantial outcrossing rate in grass pea has limited the progress in identifying stable lines with low ODAP content; seeds of selected lines must be multiplied in isolation and be provided to farmers every year. Indirect somatic embryogenesis (from callus) is possible in grass pea using shoot tips, axillary buds, and stem, leaf and root expiants. Direct somatic embryogenesis has been achieved from immature leaflets and nodal segments. Somaclones with low ODAP combined with high yield have been developed. Other biotechnological approaches applied in breeding for low ODAP grass pea types include incorporation into grass pea of ODAP-degrading genes from microbes, and application of antisense technology to silence the genes involved in the biosynthesis of ODAP. Transgenic grass pea plants have been produced using bombardment of expiants with DNA-coated particles. Genetic linkage maps of the Lathyrus sativus genome have been developed using various molecular markers (RAPD, STMS and STS/CAPS), and quantitative trait loci associated with resistance to ascochyta blight (Mycosphaerella pinodes) have been located for possible future transfer of this trait into the closely related Pisum sativum L. Prospects Grass pea is the least preferred among the common food legumes, but it has a number of features that make it attractive particularly to resource-poor farmers, because of its adaptation to harsh conditions such as drought and waterlogging. Therefore, grass pea is a useful crop for dry and poor soils and a 89 LENS 91 rescue crop when other crops have failed. However, the presence in the seeds of the toxin ODAP is a serious disadvantage, as it poses a real danger to the health of consumers. Cultivation of grass pea is often discouraged or has sometimes even been forbidden, e.g. in certain states of India, but this has not been successful due to the absence of cheap alternatives. The first priority in grass pea breeding therefore is the development of high-yielding cultivars with low ODAP content, which can safely be consumed. Also, more research is needed on effective detoxification methods without reducing the nutritional value of the seeds. Major references Campbell, 1997b; Campbell et al, 1994; Jansen, 1989a; Kay, 1979; Kearney & Smartt, 1995; Kislev, 1989; Knight (Editor), 2000; Muehlbauer & Kaiser (Editors), 1994; Smartt, 1984; Westphal, Other references Akalu et al., 1998; Barna & Mehta, 1995; Chowdhury & Slinkard, 2000; Croft, Pang & Taylor, 1999; Dadi et al, 2003; Getahun, Lambein & Vanhoorne, 2002; Getahun et al., 2002; Hanbury et al., 2000; ILDIS, 2002; Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968; Mehta, Ali & Barna, 1994; Mehta & Santha, 1996; Mondai et al., 1998; Rotter, Marquardt & Campbell, 1991; Skiba, Ford & Pang, 2004 Spencer, 1994; Tekle Haimanot et al, 1993 Thulin, 1989a; Wuletaw & Endashaw, 2003 Yunus & Jackson, Sources of illustration Jansen, 1989a. Authors S.S. Yadav &G. Bejiga LENS CULINARIS Medik. Protologue Vorles. Churpfälz. Phys.-Okon. Ges. 2: 361 (1787). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceace) Chromosome number In 14 Synonyms Lens esculenta Moench (1794), Vicia lens (L.) Coss. & Germ. (1845). Vernacular names Lentil, common lentil (En). Lentille, lentillon (Fr). Lentilha (Po). Mdengu (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Lentil is one of the oldest pulse crops and of ancient cultivation in western Asia, Egypt and southern Europe. It probably originated in western Asia, from where it spread into the Mediterranean region, Asia, Africa and Europe. Lentil was a common part of the diet of the ancient Greeks, Jews and Romans and was the mainstay of the poor, especially in Egypt. It was Lens culinaris -planted associated with many legends, tales and customs, and it is the first pulse crop mentioned in the Bible. The oldest archaeological remains of lentil are from Greece, dated 11,000 BC, and Syria, dated BC. However, it is uncertain whether they were from cultivated plants or from wild ones. It is from the 5 th millennium BC that unequivocally domesticated lentil seeds have been found. Lentil has been introduced into the Americas, New Zealand and Australia. It is now widely cultivated in temperate and subtropical regions, and in the tropics at higher elevations and in cool seasons. In tropical Africa it is grown in Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia (mainly in the northern, central and eastern Highlands), Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Réunion and Mauritius. It is also cultivated in Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Egypt and South Africa. Uses Lentil is primarily grown for its mature seeds, which are consumed mainly in sauces and soups. In Ethiopia they are used in 'kik wot' (sauce of split seeds), soup (from whole seeds or flour), 'nufro' (boiled and salted), 'azifa' (cooked and mashed) and 'elbet' (paste from flour). Many other dishes are prepared from lentil in different countries. Some of these are: spicy lentil salad, lentil burgers with coriander-yoghurt sauce, lentil and mushroom cottage pie and lentil potatoes. In India split seeds (dhal) are used in soups and the whole seed is eaten salted and fried. The seeds are ground into flour used for cakes and bread and for the preparation of special foods, e.g. for infants and invalids. Young pods, sprouted seeds and leaves are eaten as vegetable. Lentil seeds are occasionally fed to animals as 90 92 CEREALSAND PULSES a source of protein, particularly to poultry. They are sometimes used as a source of starch for the textile and printing industries. The husks, bran and fresh or dried leafy stems provide fodder for livestock. Lentil is sometimes grown for forage or as green manure, though the dry matter production is low. Lentil straw is used as fuel. The seeds are believed to remedy constipation and other intestinal problems. In India they are applied as a poultice to slow-healing sores. In Ethiopia the seeds are credited with aphrodisiac properties. Production and international trade According to FAO statistics, the annual world lentil production in amounted to 3.1 million t/year from 3.8 million ha. The main producers were India (948,000 t/year from 1.43 million ha), Canada (616,000 t/year from 554,000 ha) and Turkey (473,000 t/year from 490,000 ha). In tropical Africa the main producer is Ethiopia (47,000 t/year from 78,000 ha). About 60% of the lentil production in Africa (including North Africa) comes from Ethiopia, where the area under lentil has decreased since the mid-1980s, but in the late 1990s this trend reversed due to the release of cultivars with resistance to rust and fusarium wilt. In Malawi lentil is grown in the northern part (near Mzimba) to supply the Indian community. World lentil exports in amounted to about 1 million t/year. The main exporters were Canada (430,000 t/year), Turkey (127,000 t/year), Australia (124,000 t/year) and India (120,000 t/year). The main importers were Egypt (90,000 t/year), Sri Lanka (86,000 t/year) and Turkey (81,000 t/year). Properties The composition of mature raw lentil seeds per 100 g edible portion is: water 11.2 g, energy 1413 kj (338 kcal), protein 28.1 g, fat 1.0 g, carbohydrate 57.1 g, dietary fibre 30.5 g, Ca 51 mg, Mg 107 mg, P 454 mg, Fe 9.0 mg, Zn 3.6 mg, vitamin A 39 IU, thiamin 0.48 mg, riboflavin 0.25 mg, niacin 2.6 mg, vitamin B mg, folate 433 (ig and ascorbic acid 6.2 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 251 mg, lysine 1957 mg, methionine 238 mg, phenylalanine 1383 mg, threonine 1006 mg, valine 1392 mg, leucine 2034 mg and isoleucine 1212 mg (USDA, 2004). The main limiting amino acids are methionine and cystine. Antinutritional factors include trypsin inhibitors, haemagglutinins, tannins, phytate and oligosaccharides, but the levels are considerably lower than those in e.g. pea and faba bean, and lentils are considered more easily digested. Lentil hay contains moisture 10.2%, protein 4.4%, fat 1.8%, carbohydrate 50.0%, fibre 21.4% and ash 12.2%. Description Erect, pale green annual herb up to 60(-75) cm tall; stem square, muchbranched; taproot slender. Leaves alternate, pinnately compound, with 5-16 leaflets; rachis (1-) (-5) cm long, usually ending in a tendril or bristle; stipules entire, mm long; leaflets opposite or alternate, sessile, oblong or elliptical, (3-)10-15(-20) mm x (1.5-)2-5(-8) mm, entire. Inflorescence an axillary raceme, l-4(-7)-flowered; peduncle slender, (2-) 3 4(-5.5) cm long. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel short; calyx campanulate, narrowly 5-lobed, tube c. 1.5 mm long, lobes c. 3 mm long; corolla pale blue, white or pink, standard 5-7 mm x 4-5 mm, wings c. 4.5 mm x 1.5 mm, keel c. 4.5 mm x 2 mm; stamens 10, 9 united and 1 free, anthers uniform; ovary superior, 1-celled, style inflexed, inner surface bearded. Fruit a rhomboid, laterally compressed pod, 6-20 mm x mm, shortbeaked, l-2(-3)-seeded. Seeds lens-shaped, 2-9 mm x 2-3 mm, grey, green, brownish green, pale red speckled with black, or black; hilum Lens culinaris - 1, flowering and branch; 2, seeds. Source: PROSEA fruiting 91 LENS 93 minute. Seedling with hypogeal germination. Other botanical information In a recent revision of Lens 4 species are recognized on the basis of morphological characters, crossability relationships and cytogenetic, biochemical and molecular evidence; these are Lens culinaris (containing wild and cultivated types) and 3 wild species: Lens ervoides (Brign.) Grande, Lens nigricans (M.Bieb.) Godr. and Lens lamottei Czefr. Lens ervoides is found in East Africa (Ethiopia and Uganda). Lens culinaris has been divided into 4 subspecies (1 cultivated and 3 wild): - subsp. culinaris: stipules entire, lanceolate, pod indéhiscent, glabrous, seed coat spotted; the cultivated lentil; - subsp. odemensis (Ladiz.) M.E.Ferguson et al. (synonym: Lens odemensis Ladiz.): stipules slightly hastate, at least the lower ones slightly toothed, pod dehiscent, glabrous, seed coat with W-shaped pattern; native to Libya, Israel, Turkey and Greece; - subsp. orientalis (Boiss.) Ponert (synonym: Lens orientalis (Boiss.) Hand.-Mazz.): stipules entire, obliquely lanceolate, pod dehiscent, glabrous, seed coat usually spotted; the wild progenitor of the cultivated lentil, distributed from Greece to Uzbekistan and from the Crimean Peninsula to Jordan; - subsp. tomentosus (Ladiz.) M.E.Ferguson et al. (synonym: Lens tomentosus Ladiz.): stipules entire, obliquely lanceolate, pod dehiscent, tomentose, seed coat spotted; native to Syria and Turkey. Lentil cultivars have been divided into 2 cultivar groups, based mainly on seed size: - Microsperma Group: flowers small (5-7 mm long), violet-blue to white or pink, pods small, convex, seeds small (diameter less than 6 mm, 1000-seed weight less than 45 g), convex, cotyledons red, orange or yellow; - Macrosperma Group: flowers large (7-8 mm long), white, rarely blue, pods large, generally flat, seeds large (diameter more than 6 mm, 1000-seed weight more than 45 g), flattened, cotyledons generally yellow, sometimes orange. Macrosperma Group predominates in North Africa, Europe and America, Microsperma Group in Asia, Egypt and Ethiopia. In western Asia and south-eastern Europe both cultivar groups are grown. Growth and development At optimum temperatures lentil seeds germinate in 5-6 days. Flowering starts 6 7 weeks after sowing. Lentil is usually self-fertilized, but up to 1% cross-pollination by insects may occur. The growth cycle ranges from days for early-maturing cultivars to days for late-maturing ones. Lentil is effectively nodulated by Rhizobium leguminosarum. Ecology Lentil is grown as a summer annual in temperate regions and as a winter annual in subtropical regions. In the tropics it is cultivated at higher elevations ( (- 2700) m in Ethiopia) or as a cool season crop. It grows at mean temperatures of 6-27 C, but lentil is not suited to the hot and humid tropics. Intense or prolonged frost and temperatures much higher than 27 C seriously affect growth. Lentil requires an annual rainfall of about 750 mm, with dry conditions around harvest time, but an annual rainfall of mm is tolerated. It is moderately tolerant to drought, but differences exist between cultivars. Lentil normally requires long daylengths for flowering, but the response varies among genotypes, and some cultivars are daylength insensitive. In Ethiopia lentil is grown in the short rainy season ('belg', February-May) and during the main rainy season ('kiremt', June- December), the latter being predominant. To avoid waterlogging the 'kiremt' crop is sown on Vertisols at the end of the rainy season (September) and grown on residual soil moisture. In India lentil is grown during winter on residual soil moisture. Lentil can be grown on a wide range of soil types, from sandy to fairly heavy clay soils, but does not tolerate flooded or waterlogged soils. A ph near 7.0 is best for lentil production, but it tolerates a ph of Lentil is generally very sensitive to salinity. Propagation and planting Lentil is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight ranges from g. Seeds remain viable for more than 5 years under cool and dry storage conditions. A dormancy period of 4 6 weeks is common, and some cultivars have been found to be responsive to vernalization. The minimum temperature for germination is 15 C and the optimum temperature C; temperatures above 27 C are harmful. A firm, smooth seedbed is best for lentil. The seed is broadcast, or planted in rows cm apart with 5-25 cm between plants within the row. Seed rates range from only 10 kg/ha in intercropping systems to 150 kg/ha for sole-cropped large-seeded cultivars. The sowing depth is 1-6 cm depending on seed size and moisture availability. Lentil is mainly grown as a sole crop, but sometimes mixed with other crops, e.g. in India with 92 94 CEREALS AND PULSES barley, mustard or castor. Management Lentil is a poor competitor with weeds, especially when young. It should be sown in a clean field and weeding should generally be done within 3 weeks after sowing. Lentil normally responds well to P fertilizer. Effectively nodulated lentil seldom responds to application of N fertilizer. A lentil crop yielding about 2 t seed per ha takes up about 100 kg N, 12 kg P and 65 kg K per ha. In Sudan lentil is grown under irrigation, but elsewhere in tropical Africa it is a rainfed crop. In Ethiopia it is often grown in rotation with the major smallgrain cereals. In crop rotations planting lentil after other legumes, Brassica crops, sunflower or potato should be avoided because these are susceptible to the same diseases. Diseases and pests The economically most important diseases of lentil are rust (Uromyces viciae-fabae), Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta fabae f.sp. lentis), grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), Stemphylium blight (Stemphylium botryosum), collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) and fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lentis). Other fungal diseases include Rhizoctonia root rot (Rhizoctonia solani), powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni, Leveillula taurica), anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.), leaf spot (Alternaria alternata) and Sclerotinia stem and root rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum). Rust, fusarium wilt and root rot are the most important diseases in Sudan, Eritrea and Ethiopia. Yield losses of 10% due to rust and 50% due to fusarium wilt and root rot have been recorded on Vertisol-grown lentil in Ethiopia. Symptoms of rust are leaves and stems losing their green colour and turning purple, in case of serious infection leading to death of the plant. The spread of rust is favoured by high humidity and moderate temperatures (17-25 C). Control measures include destruction of diseased plants, treatment of seed with fungicide, and the use of resistant cultivars. Fusarium wilt causes leaf curling, followed by wilting of individual branches or the whole plant. It is favoured by light, dry soils. Suggested control measures are crop rotation, treatment of seed with fungicide, and the use of resistant cultivars. Integrated disease management packages have been developed to control wilt and root rot in Ethiopia and Sudan. Seed treatment compounds should be selected and used with care as they can interfere with the nodulation process. Several virus diseases affect lentil, the most important being cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), faba bean necrotic yellows virus (FBNYV), alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) and tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). Pea seed-borne mosaic virus (PSbMV) is common in Ethiopia. Among the common insect pests of lentil, aphids are important. The pea aphid (Acrythosiphon pisum) is the most important aphid in Ethiopia, causing up to 25% yield loss. Stored seeds are attractive to bruchids (Callosobruchus spp.). Broomrape (Orobanche spp.) is an important parasitic weed on lentil in the Mediterranean region and western Asia; it is difficult to control by management practices or genetic means. Harvesting Lentil is harvested when the pods turn yellow-brown and the lower ones are still firm. Further delay may lead to shattering. In many areas the plant is cut down manually to ground level and left to dry for about 10 days, before being threshed and winnowed. Alternatively, for instance in Ethiopia, lentils are harvested by hand-pulling the plants, after which they are left in the field to dry to a seed moisture content of 12-13%. In the United States lentil is harvested mechanically, preferably at a moisture level of 18-20% to prevent excessive shattering and seed damage. Yield The average lentil seed yield in Ethiopia is about 600 kg/ha, which is below the average world yield of about 800 kg/ha. In the Ethiopian highlands, where the growing period is long, yields of about 4 t/ha have been obtained in experiments, and more than 2 t/ha in farmer's fields when the recommended agronomic package was applied. In Asia average seed yields are kg/ha in mixed crops and kg/ha for sole crops. Leafy stem yields of up to 7 t/ha are possible for late-type lentils in Ethiopia. Handling after harvest Harvested lentil should be dried to a moisture content of11 14%; at a lower moisture content seeds tend to break. In Ethiopia the dried plants are spread on a cemented area, where they are threshed by animals, after which the seeds are separated from the residues by winnowing. The clean seeds are stored as whole seeds or in dehulled form. Because of storage insects, mainly Callosobruchus spp., lentil seeds are not stored for more than half a year, except where pit (underground) storage is used. Mechanically harvested lentil seeds can be dried in heated air dryers, but the temperature should not exceed 43 C to reduce cracking of the seed coat. Genetic resources The largest lentil germplasm collection is that of ICARDA (Interna- 93 LENS 95 tional Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas, Aleppo, Syria), with about 10,000 accessions, including wild Lens. Large collections are also kept at the Australian Temperate Field Crops Collection (Horsham, Victoria, Australia, about 4800 accessions), the USDA- ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station (Pullman, Washington, United States, about 2800 accessions), and the N.I. Vavilov Ail-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (St. Petersburg, Russia, about 2400 accessions). The largest lentil germplasm collection in tropical Africa (about 370 accessions) is held by the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (IBC), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, a country which is considered as a secondary centre of diversity for lentil. Some accessions of Lens ervoides have been collected by IBC. Cultivated lentil shows a wide range of morphological variation, in vegetative as well as in generative parts. Analyses using biochemical and molecular markers such as RFLPs and RAPDs generally show little genetic variation, but more variation is revealed when ISSR markers are used. Breeding Like in many other self-pollinating crops, the genetic variation in lentil has been structured into true-breeding landraces endemic to restricted areas. Since the 1920s breeding work has focused on the collection and evaluation of landraces, on the basis of yield, seed size and disease resistance. Selection is now complemented by crossing programmes, the main breeding objective being yield, but also with attention to broad adaptation, tolerance to environmental stresses, resistance to diseases and pests, and nutritional quality. Considerable progress has been achieved in breeding for resistance to rust, wilt, Ascochyta blight and Stemphylium blight. ICARDA has the global mandate for research on lentil improvement. National lentil improvement programmes in lentil-producing countries use their own germplasm collections and introductions from other institutes for their breeding programmes. The national programmes of lentil-producing countries have released many cultivars. Ethiopia, for instance, has released 10 cultivars ('EL-142', 'R-186', 'Chalew', 'Chekol', 'Adaa', 'Gudo', 'Alemaya', 'Assano', 'Alem Tena' and 'Teshale') and others are being developed for different agroecological zones. Cultivars derived from hybridization schemes are also being developed. Sudan has released some cultivars for its irrigated agriculture. Wild relatives are considered potentially valuable to improve the tolerance to environmental stresses. Different institutions are studying crossability of these wild relatives among themselves and with cultivated lentil. Crosses between Lens culinaris and Lens ervoides or Lens nigricans usually abort, but Fi hybrids can be rescued and produce viable and largely fertile Fa segregates. Successful tissue culture of lentil has been achieved with shoot apical meristem tips, nodal segments and intact seedlings. Genetic transformation of lentil plants has been achieved by electroporation, particle bombardment and Agrobacterium-mediated methods. Fertile transgenic plants have been obtained using particle bombardment. Genetic linkage maps for lentil have been developed. Prospects Lentil seeds are tasty, relatively easily cooked and have excellent nutritional qualities because of the high protein content and good digestibility. The susceptibility of lentil to diseases, especially rust and wilt, has limited its development, but considerable progress has been achieved in breeding for resistance to major diseases. In North and East Africa the demand for lentil remains high while the area and production remained constant or declined until the late 1990s, but recovered thereafter. Currently, there is also an increasing export demand, which can be met with research and development efforts towards increasing yield, setting up seed supply schemes and improving quality through processing industries. The crop can be grown in various agro-ecological zones and is useful in rotations with cereals. Therefore, its role in crop production systems remains important, especially in Ethiopia. Major references Bayaa & Erskine, 1998; Ferguson et al., 2000; Jansen, 1989b; Kay, 1979; Knight (Editor), 2000; Muehlbauer, Cubero & Summerfield, 1985; Muehlbauer & Kaiser (Editors), 1994; Telaye et al. (Editors), 1994; Webb & Hawtin, 1981; Zohary, Other references Abraham & Makkouk, 2002; Bejiga, Tsegaye & Tullu, 1995; Bejiga et al., 1996; Durân et al, 2004; Erskine, 1997; Gulati, Schryer & McHughen, 2002; Hawtin & Chancellor (Editors), 1979; ICARDA, 2002; Lock, 1989; Polhill, 1990; Popelka, Terryn & Higgins, 2004; Rubeena, Ford & Taylor, 2003; Smartt, 1976; Sonnante & Pignone, 2001; Summerfield (Editor), 1988; Tadesse et al., 1999; Thulin, 1983; USDA, 2004; Westphal, 1974; Williams et al, 1994. 94 96 CEREALSAND PULSES Sources of illustration Jansen, 1989b. Authors G. Bejiga LlMEUM OBOVATUM Vicary Protologue Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 16: 1163 (1847). Family Molluginaceae Chromosome number n = 9 Synonyms Limeum indicum Stocks ex T.Anderson (1861). Origin and geographic distribution Limeum obovatum is distributed in the desert regions of Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Sudan and Eritrea and through northern Africa and Arabia to Pakistan. Uses In Tibesti (northern Chad) the seeds of Limeum obovatum are collected as food. They are a famine food for the Touareg in the Hoggar Mountains in southern Algeria. In Kordofan (Sudan) the plant in all growth stages is reportedly grazed by livestock, especially sheep. In Chad the plant is used for the treatment of burns. Botany Annual or short-lived perennial, glandular-pubescent herb; stems prostrate, up to 40 cm long, pale brown, strongly branched. Leaves opposite, simple and entire; stipules absent; petiole up to 5 mm long; blade orbicular to obovate or elliptical, up to 12 mm x 10 mm, cuneate at base, rounded at apex. Inflorescence an apparently axillary cyme up to 5 mm across. Flowers bisexual, regular, small, green; sepals 5, ovate, c. 2.5 mm long, acuminate; petals absent; stamens 7, inserted on a disk; ovary superior, 2-celled, styles 2. Fruit splitting into 2 mericarps; mericarp indéhiscent, hemispherical, smooth, pale brown, 1-seeded. Limeum comprises about 20 species and is distributed in the Old World tropics, with the centre of distribution in south-western Africa. Limeum is sometimes included in the family Aizoaceae and occasionally in Phytolaccaceae. Ecology Limeum obovatum occurs on dry sandy soils, often in dry riverbeds. In Eritrea it is found in sandy locations on coastal plains. Genetic resources and breeding It is unlikely that Limeum obovatum is threatened by genetic erosion in the light of its wide occurrence and habitat conditions. Prospects Limeum obovatum seems to be a useful wild source of food and fodder in desert regions. However, research on the nutritional and chemical properties of the seeds is needed. Major references Burkill, 1985; Burkill, 2000; Gast, 2000; Gilbert, 2000; Keay, Other references Ozenda, Authors M. Brink LUPINUSALBUS L. Protologue Sp. pi. 2: 721 (1753). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n = 50 Vernacular names White lupin, Egyptian lupin (En). Lupin blanc, lupin (Fr). Tremoceiro, tremoceiro branco, tremoceiro da Beira, tremoço (Po). Origin and geographic distribution White lupin originates from south-eastern Europe and western Asia where wild types still occur. It is known to have been cultivated since ancient times in Greece, Italy, Egypt and Cyprus. The importance of white lupin has fluctuated often during the history of its cultivation; at present it has almost disappeared in central Europe, while it is becoming more widely grown in the Americas. Today it is a traditional minor pulse crop, grown around the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, and in the Nile valley, extending to Sudan and Ethiopia. It is also occasionally grown elsewhere, e.g. in Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Mauritius, United States and South America (mainly Brazil and Chile). Uses White lupin is traditionally cultivated for human consumption, green manuring and as forage. Before consumption, seeds are first soaked for 1-3 days in running water to remove the bitter, toxic alkaloids, then cooked and eaten as a pulse or pickled in brine and served as a snack. In Ethiopia a high-quality spirit ('araki') is distilled from fermented seeds. In general, consumption of white lupin seeds is restricted to low-income classes and to times of drought, because of their bitter taste. Modern sweet cultivars have very low alkaloid contents, and their seeds do not require laborious detoxification; they are a promising nutritive pulse and can be used as a rich additive for human food and livestock feed products. White lupin plants are fed to livestock as fresh or dry fodder. In southern Europe it is a traditional green manure crop in vineyards and olive plantations. White lupin is a good honey plant and an attractive annual ornamental. In traditional medicine it is used for various ailments, e.g. as an anthelmintic, carminative, deobstruent, diuretic and pectoral. Lupin meal 95 LUPINUS 97 mixed with honey or vinegar is used as a cure for worms, while infusions or poultices are applied to treat boils and skin complaints. Burning seeds are used as an insect repellant. Production and international trade No specific statistics are available for Lupinus albus. About 2 million ha are cultivated with lupin (all species) worldwide, of which 60% is mainly for seed production and 40% for forage and green manure. The major producer of lupin seed is Australia, with about 1.4 million t/year from 1.2 million ha in the early 1990s, mainly Lupinus angustifolius L. for livestock feed. Properties Mature, raw Lupinus albus seeds contain per 100 g edible portion: water 10.4 g, energy 1552 kj (371 kcal), protein 36.2 g, fat 9.7 g, carbohydrate 40.4 g, Ca 176 mg, Mg 198 mg, P 440 mg, Fe 4.4 mg, Zn 4.8 mg, vitamin A 23 IU, thiamin 0.64 mg, riboflavin 0.22 mg, niacin 2.2 mg, vitamin He 0.36 mg, folate 355 ig and ascorbic acid 4.8 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 289 mg, lysine 1933 mg, methionine 255 mg, phenylalanine 1435 mg, threonine 1331 mg, valine 1510 mg, leucine 2743 mg and isoleucine 1615 mg. The principal fatty acids are per 100 g edible portion: oleic acid 3558 mg, linoleic acid 1995 mg, palmitic acid 742 mg, linolenic acid 446 mg, stearic acid 316 mg and eicosenoic acid 255 mg (USDA, 2005). The seed coat makes up about 15% of the seed weight. The net protein utilization for humans is 77% and the protein fraction is low in lysine and methionine. The levels of antinutritional compounds such as condensed tannins and trypsin inhibitors are lower than in other pulses. Suspensions of ground seed of white lupin have shown hypoglycaemic effects in rats. The major alkaloids of white lupin are lupanine, 13-hydroxylupanine and sparteine. The pharmacological effects of these alkaloids are that they block ganglionic transmission, decrease cardiac contractility and contract uterine smooth muscle. 'Sweet lupin' is defined as having less than 200 mg alkaloids/kg; it can be consumed without special precautions. In bitter cultivars the alkaloids, which are watersoluble, can be soaked out from seeds in running water. Processing techniques such as sprouting and fermentation into tempeh also strongly reduce the alkaloid content. Best control is achieved by chemical extraction, which currently is not economically feasible. When white lupin is fed as dried forage, lupinosis can occur. This disease is caused by the ingestion of toxins, known as phomopsins, produced by the fungus Diaporthe toxica that colonizes lupin plants. It is primarily a disease of sheep but can also occur in other livestock and is characterized by severe liver damage, which results in loss of appetite and condition, lethargy, jaundice and often death. Most of the problem can be solved by using Diaportheresistant cultivars such as 'Kiev' and 'Ultra'; where other cultivars are used, overfeeding must be avoided. Botany Annual, erect, branched, bushy, short-hairy herb up to 120 cm tall, with a strong taproot. Leaves alternate, digitately compound with 5-9 leaflets; stipules linear to narrowly triangular, up to 1 cm adnate to the base of the petiole; petiole 3.5 7( 12) cm long; leaflets obovate, 2-6 cm x cm, cuneate at base, rounded and mucronate at apex, nearly glabrous above, hairy beneath. Inflorescence a terminal false raceme 3 30 cm long, manyflowered, lower flowers alternate, upper ones in whorls; peduncle short or absent. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel 1 2 mm long; calyx 8-14 mm long, densely hairy outside, tube c. 4 mm long, 2-lipped, upper lip entire, lower lip entire or slightly 3-toothed; corolla white to violet-blue, standard obovate, mm x 8-12 mm, margins partly reflexed, wings obovate, mm x 6-10 mm, keel ladleshaped, mm x 4 mm, beaked; stamens 10, all joined into a tube; ovary superior, 1- celled, style c. 7.5 mm long with a ring of small hairs below the stigma. Fruit a narrowly oblong, laterally compressed pod 6-15 cm x 1-2 cm, bulging over the seeds, shortly hairy but glabrescent, yellow, 3-6-seeded. Seeds rectangular or square with rounded corners, laterally compressed, 7-16 mm x 6-12 mm x 2-5 mm, more or less smooth, white variably tinged salmon pink or mottled dark brown. Seedling with epigeal germination. Lupinus comprises about 200 species, mostly American; only 12 species are native to the Old World. In tropical Africa 3 native or naturalized species occur and another 9 species have been introduced. Many Lupinus spp. are ornamental garden plants, and 4 species are cultivated on a larger scale as agricultural crops. Lupinus albus represents a crop-weed complex with wide variability in wild and cultivated types. Both types have been classified as subspecies although for the cultivated types a classification into cultivar groups and cultivars would be more appropriate. The wild type is distinguished as subsp. graecus (Boiss. & 96 98 CEREALS AND PULSES Spruner) Franco & P.Silva (synonym: Lupinus graecus Boiss. & Spruner) and can be found in south-eastern Europe and western Asia. The corolla is dark violet-blue, pods are 6 8 cm x1 1.5 cm and shatter seeds at maturity, and seeds are small, 7-10 mm x 6-8 mm x 2-3 mm, mottled dark brown with impermeable seed coat. The cultivated types are distinguished as subsp. albus (synonym: Lupinus termis Forssk.), with corolla white, pods 9-15 cm x cm with non-shattering seeds at maturity, and seeds mm x 8-12 mm x 3-5 mm, pinkish white or white with permeable seed coat. In Ethiopia 2 types of cultivated plants are found: a large-seeded type as grown in Egypt and Sudan, but also a small-seeded type with small leaves. In northern parts of the distribution area of white lupin, in South Africa and in the Americas mostly sweet (lowalkaloid) modern cultivars are grown, whereas in the Mediterranean region and eastern Africa bitter landraces prevail. White lupin is mainly self-pollinating, but 5 10% outcrossing can occur. White lupin nodulates effectively with Bradyrhizobium bacteria. Atmospheric nitrogen fixation rates up to 400 kg N per ha have been observed in Europe and Australia. Ecology Wild white lupin prefers disturbed sites and poor soils, where there is less competition from other species. White lupin is usually grown at mean monthly temperatures during the growing season of C, the optimum being C C. Higher temperatures and moisture stress hinder flowering and pod setting. White lupin is cold-tolerant, but temperatures of 6 to -8 C are harmful at germination, temperatures of -3 to 5 C at flowering. A rainfall of mm during the growing period is optimal for yield. Lupin species are drought-tolerant due to their deep roots, but are sensitive to moisture deficiency during the reproductive period. White lupin is adapted to well-drained, mildly acid or neutral soils of light to medium texture, with ph Growth is hampered on heavy clay and waterlogged soils, while calcareous or alkaline soils induce chlorosis and reduce growth, frequently precluding cultivation. The accepted maximum soil level of CaC03 is 3-5 g/100 g. Some cultivars of white lupin are more tolerant to soil salinity and heavy soils than most other crops. In Ethiopia white lupin is grown at m altitude, on soils too poor for a good faba bean crop. Management White lupin is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight ranges from 70 g in some Kenyan populations to more than 1 kg in modern seed cultivars. Seed can easily be stored for 2 4 years under normal conditions; longer storage is possible at lower temperatures. In areas with mild winters such as the Mediterranean region, seed is sown broadcast or drilled from mid September to late October. The seed rate is kg/ha, the seeding depth cm. In Ethiopia seed is sown in the main rainy season (July-September). White lupin is often grown intercropped with cereals or forage legumes, or in rotation with cereals. Weed control is essential until a closed canopy is formed. White lupin is sensitive to P deficiency, but its roots can make more P available through acidification of the rhizosphere, a property from which also associated crops benefit. Wheat intercropped with white lupin has access to a larger pool of P, Mn and N than sole-cropped wheat. Inoculation of the soil with Bradyrhizobium bacteria is beneficial, giving up to a 5-fold increase in yield and a higher protein content of the seed. A well-known commercially available inoculant strain is the Australian WU425. The major diseases of white lupin are root rot and brown leaf spot caused by Pleiochaeta setosa, anthracnose (Colletotrichum acutatum), resulting in early plant death through stem breakage, and rust (Uromyces lupinicolus). Sources of resistance to anthracnose have been found in Ethiopian landraces, but resistant cultivars are not yet available. Bean Yellow Mosaic Virus (BYMV) is the major virus disease; it is transmitted by aphids and by seed. No sources of resistance have yet been identified. White lupin is immune to Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV), a major disease of other Lupinus spp. Major pests are the bean seedling maggot (Delia platura, synonym: Phorbia platura) causing seedlings to wilt and die, beetle and moth larvae (e.g. Agriotes and Agrotis spp. killing seedlings), slugs (attacking leaves), thrips (Frankliniella spp., attacking flower buds and leaves), mirid bugs (attacking young pods) and budworms (e.g. Helicoverpa armigera feeding on pod and seed). In Ethiopia harvesting is in December. Seed yields are kg/ha. Genetic resources and breeding Major germplasm collections of white lupin are available in France (INRA, Station d'amélioration des Plantes Fourragères, Lusignan, 1400 accessions), the United Kingdom (University of 97 MACROTYLOMA 99 Reading, Reading, 1100 accessions), Australia (Western Australian Department of Agriculture, South Perth, 890 accessions) and Spain (Servicio de Investigation y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Guadajira, 690 accessions). In tropical Africa small collections are held in Ethiopia (International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 25 accessions) and Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu, 20 accessions). Major objectives in breeding of white lupin are to produce rapid-growing, alkaloid-free, disease-resistant (particularly against anthracnose), high-yielding, high-ph-tolerant, frosttolerant dwarf cultivars, well adapted to local ecological conditions. It appears that bitter cultivars tolerate cold and disease stress better than sweet ones. The level of cross-pollination may limit the relevance of sweet white lupin cultivars in regions where also bitter weedy or cultivated types are present, because pollen of the latter would reintroduce the bitter character in farm-saved sowing seed. Sweet cultivars, however, are a prerequisite for any further breeding advancement. Commercial cultivars are pure lines bred through pedigree selection. Some well-known cultivars of white lupin are: 'Eldo', 'Kiev', 'Multolupa' and 'Ultra'. From Ethiopia 'Bahar Dar' is known. Prospects White lupin is a promising annual legume crop for human consumption, green manuring and forage. The composition of the seed and especially the high protein content makes white lupin highly suitable for livestock diets as a protein-rich product in intensive farming systems. The low level of antinutritional factors facilitates a direct on-farm use of white lupin in self-sustained systems. Since it often can grow on land unsuitable for other crops (too saline, heavy, acid or poor), the development of cultivars adapted to tropical African conditions is highly recommended. Much can be learned from the excellent results obtained with Lupinus angustifolius in Australia. Major references Cowling, Buirchell & Tapia, 1998; Gladstones, Atkins & Hamblin (Editors), 1998; Huyghe, 1997; van Santen et al. (Editors), 2000; Westphal, Other references al-zaid et al., 1991; Duke, 1981; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Haq, 1993; Hill, 1998; Kay, 1979; López-Bellido & Fuentes, 1997; Thulin, 1989a; UC SAREP, undated; USDA, Authors P.C.M. Jansen MACROTYLOMAGEOCARPUM (Harms) Maréchal & Baudet Protologue Bull. Jard. Bot. Belg. 47(1-2): 50 (1977). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n = 20, 22 Synonyms Kerstingiella geocarpa Harms (1908). Vernacular names Kersting's groundnut, geocarpa groundnut, ground bean (En). Lentille de terre, fève de Kandale, doï, dohi (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution The origin of Kersting's groundnut is not known, but it may originate from northern Togo or central Benin. Supposedly wild types of Kersting's groundnut are found in Cameroon and the Central African Republic, but these may be considered as representing a separate though related species. Kersting's groundnut is cultivated in the West African savanna zone, from Senegal to Nigeria and Cameroon. It is also grown in Mauritius and Fiji and has been grown in Tanzania. Kersting's groundnut is often said to be grown by elderly people only, e.g. in Ghana, and thus gradually going out of production. Uses Kersting's groundnut is cultivated primarily for its edible seeds. Mature seeds are boiled with salt and eaten with palm oil or groundnut oil, and accompanied with fermented cassava flour, called 'gari', yams or rice. They may also be boiled in soups and served to guests as a sign of honour. Dry seeds are ground into flour used in making cakes and Macrotyloma geocarpum - wild and planted 98 100 CEREALS AND PULSES other dishes. In central Benin, for instance, people eat a fried paste made from the seed alone ('ata') or with fermented maize paste ('akassa'). Sometimes roasted seeds of blackseeded types or fresh unshelled pods are boiled with salt and eaten as snacks. Kersting's groundnut seeds play an important role in traditional customs in West Africa, particularly in Togo, where they are used in funeral ceremonies of the Kabyé and Mauba people. This seems to have contributed largely to the survival of the crop in northern Togo. In many areas consumption is limited to the male members of the family, the headman in particular, and the seeds are a favourite dish of voodoo priests. In the tradition of the Sisala people of northern Ghana boiled seeds are the only food served to surviving children during the funeral of their mothers. The leaves of Kersting's groundnut are sometimes eaten as a vegetable or in soups. In northern Ghana and central Benin the water in which the seeds have been boiled is taken against diarrhoea. Powdered dry seed mixed with water or local beer ('pita') is used as an emetic in case of poisoning. Leaf decoctions act as a vermifuge. The Igbo of Nigeria use the plant in the treatment of dysentery, venereal diseases, fever and diabetes. In arid zones, the vegetative parts serve as fodder after the harvest. Production and international trade Reliable production statistics for Kersting's groundnut are not available because it is of little economic importance and mainly grown for local consumption. Some trade exists between neighbouring countries such as Togo, Benin and Nigeria, but no statistics exist. Because of the low yield and poor storage capability the economic importance of Kersting's groundnut has decreased considerably in recent times. Properties The composition of dried Kersting's groundnut seeds per 100 g edible portion is: water 9.7 g, energy 1457 kj (348 kcal), protein 19.4 g, fat 1.1 g, carbohydrate 66.6 g, fibre 5.5 g, Ca 103 mg, P 392 mg, Fe 15.0 mg, thiamin 0.76 mg, riboflavin 0.19 mg, niacin 2.3 mg and ascorbic acid 0 mg (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). The content of essential amino acids per 100 g food is: tryptophan 155 mg, lysine 1280 mg, methionine 267 mg, phenylalanine 1125 mg, threonine 738 mg, valine 1209 mg, leucine 1485 mg and isoleucine 871 mg (FAO, 1970). Kersting's groundnut seeds contain antinutritional factors, including tannins, haemagglutinins and phytate. Boiling pre-soaked (12 hours at 27 C) seeds for 30 minutes reduces tannin content by 98%, haemagglutinating activity by 100% and phytate level by 70%. Description Annual herb with prostrate rooting stems; stem pubescent or almost glabrous, up to 10 cm long. Leaves alternate, 3- foliolate; stipules triangular-ovate, 2-7 mm long, pubescent; petiole erect, up to 25 cm long; rachis c. 7 mm long; stipels linear-lanceolate, 2-5 mm long; petiolules hirsute, lateral ones 1-2 mm long, terminal one 4-10 mm long; leaflets broadly ovate or obovate, 3-8 cm x cm, glabrous, 3-veined from the base. Flowers in pairs or solitary in leaf axils, bisexual, papilionaceous, almost sessile; bracteoles lanceolate, (1 )3.5 4 mm long; calyx pilose, tube mm long, lobes linearlanceolate, (2-)3.5-4 mm long; corolla white or greenish-white, sometimes tinged with purple, standard 6-10 mm x mm, wings 6-7 mm x 1.5 mm, keel mm x 1 mm; stamens 10, 9 fused and 1 free; ovary superior, shortly stalked but stalk elongating during fruit development, 1-celled, style slender, curved, stigma minute. Fruit an indéhiscent pod cm x cm, on a stalk up to 2 cm long, - " H ' ', Macrotyloma geocarpum - 1, plant habit; 2, fruit; 3, seed. Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin 99 MACROTYLOMA 101 (l-)2(-3)-seeded, constricted between the seeds, maturing on or below the soil surface. Seeds oblong or oblong-ovoid, 5-10 mm x 4-7 mm x 3 5 mm, whitish, red, brown or black, sometimes striped, spotted or speckled. Seedling with epigeal germination, with cotyledons falling off about 2-3 days after emergence and 2 3 simple lanceolate primary leaves persisting until maturity. Other botanical information Macrotyloma comprises about 25 species, most of which are restricted to Africa. In Macrotyloma geocarpum 2 varieties have been distinguished: var. geocarpum: internodes short, petiole 8-25 cm long, terminal leaflet up to 7.5 cm x 5 cm, pod (l-)2(-3)-seeded, seed c. 9 mm x 6 mm; only known from cultivation; - var. tisserantii (Pellegr.) Maréchal & Baudet: internodes long, petiole up to 1 cm long, terminal leaflet up to 3.5 cm x 2.5 cm, pod l(-2)-seeded, seed c. 5 mm x 4 mm; found wild in Cameroon and the Central African Republic, and perhaps better considered a separate species (originally described as Kerstingiella tisserantii Pellegr.), which is supported by the results of isozyme analysis and possibly also chromosome number. Genotypes are distinguished on the basis of seed colour. White types are best known and used as food, whereas black types mainly serve as medicine or in cultural ceremonies, although they are also used as food. Growth and development Germination of Kersting's groundnut normally occurs within 3 5 days after sowing. The seedling emerges with simple, opposite primary leaves; the first 3-foliolate leaves appear after 5-10 days. Flowering starts days after sowing and may continue until the plant dies. Self pollination is the rule and 2 days after fertilization a stalk is formed at the base of the ovary, carrying the ovary to the ground. This mechanism is similar to that in groundnut, but different from that in bambara groundnut, where the peduncle grows to the ground. Pods mature either on the soil surface or 1-2 cm under it. They reach maturity days after flower opening. The duration of the crop cycle is days. Kersting's groundnut effectively nodulates with nitrogen-fixating bacteria of the Bradyrhizobium group. Ecology Kersting's groundnut is found at altitudes up to 1600 m. It requires ample sunshine and an average temperature of C. It is grown successfully in semi-arid regions with an annual rainfall of mm in 4-5 months, but it is also found on the fringes of the humid tropics. Kersting's groundnut tolerates poor, sandy soils, but sandy loams are required for optimum yields. It is often found on slightly acid soils (ph 5). Propagation and planting Kersting's groundnut is propagated by seed. Seeds used for planting are retained from the previous harvest though some farmers may buy them locally. The 1000-seed weight is g. In West Africa Kersting's groundnut is sown from the beginning to the middle of the rainy season. It is grown mostly in small fields or backyards, in pure stands or intercropped with yam, cowpea, cassava or other crops on mounds, beds or ridges. When grown as a sole crop, it is often the first crop in a rotation, planted in rows cm apart and 15cm within the row. Management Cultivation of Kersting's groundnut is traditional and management mainly consists of 2 3 manual weedings. The use of inorganic fertilizers is not common. Diseases and pests In semi-arid regions Kersting's groundnut is not subject to serious attacks from diseases or pests. In more humid regions fungal diseases (rust, mould) may occur. Stored seed is very liable to infestation by weevils (Piezotrachelus spp.) and beetles (Bruchidae). Harvesting Kersting's groundnut is harvested when leaves start to turn yellow and wither. As the crop is harvested in the dry season, farmers generally dig up whole plants using a hoe and leave them in the field to dry for a few days, after which the pods are picked by hand, allowing easy separation of the pods. Often some seeds are left in the ground after harvesting and germinate with the return of the rains, thus enabling Kersting's groundnut to persist in a semi-wild state. Yield Dry seed yields of Kersting's groundnut average 500 kg/ha. Handling after harvest After harvest, the pods of Kersting's groundnut are dried in the sun to a moisture content of about 12% and stored in granaries or anywhere in the house. They are shelled using a pestle and mortar or by beating with sticks. Usually the major part of the production is sold. Seeds are mostly kept in sealed containers. They are mixed with sand, pepper, ash or insecticide to ensure longer storage. Genetic resources Work on the genetic resources of Kersting's groundnut is relatively recent, and only a few small collections are available. Twelve accessions collected in West 100 102 CEREALS AND PULSES and Central Africa are kept in the gene bank of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria. Other collections are present in Guinea (Bureau des Ressources Phytogénétiques, Conakry, 8 accessions), Ghana (Plant Genetic Resources Centre, Bunso, 8 accessions), Togo (Institut de Recherches Agronomiques Tropicales et des Cultures Vivrières, Lomé, 8 accessions) and Benin (Agricultural Research Centre of South Benin, Niaouli, 6 accessions). Little is known of the genetic diversity of Kersting's groundnut. In a recent survey of allozyme variation no diversity was found within and among domesticated accessions and within and among wild accessions, but the difference between domesticated and wild accessions was much larger than that found in other tropical legume species. Breeding No breeding programmes of Kersting's groundnut are known to exist. Prospects Kersting's groundnut is a traditional crop of West Africa, and it has largely been replaced by more productive and profitable crops, such as groundnut and cowpea. The low yields, small size of the seeds, amount of labour required for harvesting, and the liability to storage pests are the main causes for its decline. Kersting's groundnut has not entirely disappeared due to its role in traditional ceremonies, but the fact that at present it is mainly grown by elderly people indicates that the decline will continue and that the prospects for this crop are bleak. Major references Achigan Dako, Vodouhè & Koukè, 2003; Amuti, 1980; Baudoin & Mergeai, 2001a; Burkill, 1995; Kay, 1979; Maréchal & Baudet, 1977; Mergeai, 1993; Pasquet, Mergeai & Baudoin, 2002; Rehm, 1989; Verdcourt, Other references Berhaut, 1976; Busson, 1965; Dakora & Muofhe, 1997; Duke, 1981; FAO, 1970; Gillett et al., 1971; Goli, 1997; Hepper, 1958; Hepper, 1963; ILDIS, 2002; IPGRI, undated; Irvine, 1969; Leakey & Wills, 1977; Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968; Obasi, 1997; Purseglove, 1968; Rehm & Espig, 1991; Schuster et al., 1998; Smartt, 1976; Tamini, 1995; Verdcourt, Sources of illustration Verdcourt, Authors E.G. Achigan Dako & S.R. Vodouhè MACROTYLOMA UNIFLORUM (Lam.) Verde. Protologue Kew Bull. 24: 322 (1970). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n = 20, 22, 24 Synonyms Dolichos uniflorus Lam. (1786), Dolichos biflorus auct. non L. Vernacular names Horse gram, horse grain, Madras gram (En). Kulthi, grain de cheval (Fr). Feijoeiro de lagartixa, favalinha, culita (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Horse gram is native to the Old World Tropics. It was probably domesticated in India, where its cultivation is known since prehistoric times. Nowadays horse gram is cultivated as a lowgrade pulse crop in southern Asia, mainly from India to Myanmar. It is also grown as a forage and green manure in many tropical countries, especially in Australia and South-East Asia. In tropical Africa horse gram is recorded to occur wild or naturalized in Central, East and Southern Africa. It has also been cultivated as a food crop and green manure in various tropical African countries, but it is unclear to what extent it is currently grown. Uses Mature whole or ground seeds of horse gram are eaten poached, boiled or fried. Sprouted seeds are widely consumed in India. In Myanmar the seeds are boiled, pounded with salt and fermented into a product similar to soya bean sauce. Horse gram seeds are also fed to horses and cattle, usually after boiling. The stems, leaves and pod walls are used as fodder. Horse gram is sown as a green manure or cover crop. In Indian traditional medicine horse gram seeds are used as a diuretic, astringent and tonic. Properties The composition of whole horse gram seeds per 100 g edible portion is: water 9.7 g, energy 1394 kj (333 kcal), protein 22.5 g, fat 1.0 g, carbohydrate 60.5 g and fibre 4.7 g (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). The seeds contain antinutritional compounds such as lectins, trypsin inhibitors, phytates, tannins and oxalic acid. Horse gram seeds have shown in-vivo antihepatotoxic activity in rats. Lipid from the seeds has shown in-vivo protective and healing activity against peptic ulcers in experiments with rats. Extracts from the seeds have shown in-vitro antilithic activity. Botany Climbing herb with stems up to 60 cm tall, with a perennial fibrous rhizome; stem annual, sparsely to densely covered with spreading or appressed whitish hairs. Leaves 101 MACROTYLOMA 103 Macrotyloma uniflorum - 1, part of branch with inflorescence and young fruit; 2, fruits; 3, seeds. Source: PROSEA alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules lanceolate, 4 10 mm long, striate; petiole 1 7 cm long, rachis mm long; petiolules 1-2 mm long; leaflets ovate-rhombic, obovate or elliptical, 1 7( 8) cm x i_4(_8) Cni ; apex rounded to acute, base rounded, lateral leaflets asymmetric, hairy to glabrescent on both surfaces. Inflorescence an axillary (l-)2-3(-5)-flowered fascicle; bracts up to 3 mm long. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel 1 7 mm long; calyx pubescent, tube 2 mm long, lobes triangularlanceolate, 3 8 mm long, long-acuminate, upper pair entirely fused; corolla with cream, yellow or greenish yellow standard, often with a small purple blotch inside, obovate-oblong,6 12 mm x 4-7 mm, wings and keel greenish yellow, 5-10 mm long; stamens 10, 9 fused and 1 free; ovary superior, stiped, 1-celled. Fruit a linear-oblong pod 3 8 cm x 4-8 mm, upcurved towards apex, acuminate, densely hairy when young, later more sparsely so, margins glabrous, smooth or warty, dehiscent, seeded. Seeds trapezoidal, oblong or roundedreniform, 3 8 mm x 3-5 mm, pale to dark reddish brown, speckled or mottled with black and orange-brown or all black. Macrotyloma comprises about 25 species, most of which are restricted to Africa. Within Macrotyloma uniflorum 4 varieties have been distinguished: - var. uniflorum: pods 6 8 mm wide; wild in southern Asia and Namibia, widely cultivated in the tropics as a cover and forage crop; - var. stenocarpum (Brenan) Verde: pods mm wide, shortly stiped and with more or less smooth margins, leaflets pubescent; occurring in Central, East and southern Africa and in India, up to 1700 m altitude in grassland, bushland and thicket, often on sandy soils and in disturbed locations; cultivated in Australia and California (United States); - var. verrucosum Verde: pods mm wide, distinctly stiped and with obscurely to markedly warted margins, leaflets pubescent; occurring in East and southern Africa up to 550 m altitude in grassland and thicket; - var. benadirianum (Chiov.) Verde: pods mm wide, shortly stiped and with slightly warted margins, leaflets densely velvety; occurring in East Africa (Somalia, Kenya) at sea-level on sand dunes and thin soils on coral rag. Horse gram is self-pollinating. Total crop duration is usually 4-6 months. It effectively nodulates with nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the Bradyrhizobium group. Ecology Horse gram requires an average temperature of C and does not tolerate frost. It is drought-resistant and can be grown with rainfall as low as 380 mm. It is mostly grown in areas with less than 900 mm annual rainfall. In higher rainfall areas it is grown on residual moisture in the dry season, e.g. after a rice crop. Most horse gram cultivars are shortday plants. Horse gram grows on a wide range of soils with ph 5-7.5, including poor soils. It does not tolerate waterlogging. Management Horse gram is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g. The crop is sown broadcast or in rows cm apart, at a seed rate of kg/ha. The sowing depth is cm. In India horse gram is usually sown as a sole crop, but sometimes it is intercropped, e.g. with finger millet, maize, chickpea, groundnut or castor. The main diseases on horse gram in India are horse gram yellow mosaic virus (HgYMV), anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum), leaf spot (Cercospora dolichi, synonym: Mycosphaerella cruenta), rust (Uromyces appendiculatum), root 102 104 CEREALS AND PULSES rot {Pellicularia filamentosa, synonym: Thanatephorus cucumeris) and dry root rot (Macrophomina phaseolina). Recorded pests include the gram caterpillar (Azazia rubricans, synonym: Anticarsia irrorata) and the green podboring caterpillar (Etiella zinckenella). Horse gram grown for the seeds is harvested when the pods begin to shrivel and the leaves begin to dry and fall off. The plants are cut or uprooted, stacked, and dried in the sun for a week, after which they are threshed using sticks, stone rollers or oxen. Seed yields are usually low ( kg/ha in India) but much higher yields have been obtained with improved cultivars (900 kg/ha in India, kg/ha in Australia). In experiments in Nigeria in the 1990s seed yields of kg/ha were obtained. When grown for fodder, horse gram can be harvested about 6 weeks after sowing. Forage yields are 4-15 t dry matter per ha. Genetic resources and breeding Germplasm collections of horse gram are held in Australia (Australian Tropical Crops & Forages Genetic Resources Centre, Biloela, Queensland, 38 accessions) and Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu, 21 accessions). Cultivated horse gram is usually a mixture of several landraces with different seed colours and periods of maturity. Breeding activities are focused on yield potential, resistance to diseases and insensitivity to daylength. Improved cultivars have been developed and released in India; a popular forage and fodder-grain cultivar with indéhiscent pods in Australia is 'Leichhardt'. In-vitro regeneration has been achieved by direct organogenesis using shoot tip and cotyledonary node expiants, and by somatic embryogenesis through cell suspension culture of callus induced on leaf expiants. Prospects It is unclear to what extent horse gram is presently grown in tropical Africa, and how frequently it is consumed as a pulse or used for other purposes. It seems an interesting crop for dry areas in tropical Africa, but more information is needed on the nutritional characteristics of the seed and on the acceptability of its taste for the African consumer. Major references Gillett et al., 1971; Jansen, 1989c; Kay, 1979; Varisai Mohamed et al., 2004; Verdcourt, Other references Garimella, Jolly & Narayanan, 2001; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; ICRISAT, undated; Jayaraj et al., 2000; Laskar et al., 1998; Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968; Mackinder et al, 2001; Omokanye, 1996; Purseglove, 1968; Sudha et al, Sources of illustration Jansen, 1989c. Authors M. Brink Based on PROSEA 1: Puises. MUCUNAGIGANTEA (Willd.) DC. Protologue Prodr. 2: 405 (1825). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Synonyms Mucuna quadrialata Baker (1871), Mucuna longipedicellata Hauman (1955). Vernacular names Sea bean, burny bean (En). Liane cadoque, liane caiman, mort aux rats (Fr). Mtera (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Mucuna gigantea is distributed in tropical Asia, Japan, Australia, Pacific Islands and Africa. In tropical Africa it is found from DR Congo to Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique, also in Madagascar and other Indian Ocean islands. Uses The seeds of Mucuna gigantea are considered edible in Kenya. In India boiled seeds are sometimes eaten as a pulse, e.g. in the Andaman Islands. Aboriginals in Australia used to heat the seeds on hot stones or sand, remove the peel, and grind them to flour, which was then mixed with water, wrapped in leaves and baked. Root decoctions of Mucuna gigantea are taken to treat gonorrhoea and schistosomiasis. In India the bark is applied externally to treat rheumatic complaints. Powdered seed is used as a purgative in Hawaii. The irritant hairs on the outside of the pods are mentioned as being used in criminal poisoning in Malaysia. In Vietnam they are mixed with food to get rid of rats. Properties Mucuna gigantea seeds contain 1.7-2% L-dopa (levodopa; L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine), an amino acid which stimulates the formation of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain. Dopamine lessens tremor experienced in Parkinson's disease. However, opinions differ on the side effects and efficacy in the long run of L-dopa. Because of the presence of toxic compounds in the plant, it seems advisable to eat the seed only after prolonged soaking and boiling. Botany Large liana up to 30(-80) m long; stems initially covered with orange-brown bristle hairs, glabrescent. Leaves alternate, 3- 103 ORYZA 105 foliolate; stipules 3 5 mm x 1 mm, deciduous; petiole 4-15 cm long, rachis cm long; stipels needle-shaped, 2-3 mm long, persistent; petiolules c. 5 mm long; leaflets ovate or elliptical, 4-15 cm x 2-9 cm, the lateral ones oblique, acuminate and markedly apiculate at apex, rounded at base, thinly appressed hairy when young, soon glabrescent. Inflorescence an axillary, pendulous false umbel cm long, with flowers on short lateral branchlets 5-10 mm long; peduncle 4-22(-30) cm long. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel cm long; calyx cup-shaped, mm long, 2-lipped, covered with fine grey hairs and long deciduous orange-brown bristle hairs, tube 7-11 mm long, lobes 2 3 mm long, the upper lip somewhat emarginate; corolla pale creamy-green, white or pale lilac, standard (2-) cm x (1.5-)2-2.5 cm, round, with sparse orange-brown bristle hairs, wings and keel (3-) cm long; stamens 10, 9 united and 1 free; ovary superior, 1-celled, style long, filiform, stigma small and terminal. Fruit a stiped pod, oblong or oblong-elliptical, 7-15 cm x 3-5.5(-6.5) cm x 1-2 cm, each margin with 2 wings, densely covered with orange-brown bristle hairs at first, becoming glabrous at maturity, l-4(-6)-seeded. Seeds cm x 2-3 cm x cm, discoid, dark brown or densely mottled with rust brown or black, smooth, hilum extending around the seed-margin for c. three-quarters of the circumference. Seedling with hypogeal germination; first leaves scale-like or simple. Mucuna belongs to the tribe Phaseoleae and comprises about 100 species distributed pantropically. In tropical Africa about 10 species are present. Several subspecies have been distinguished within Mucuna gigantea, with subsp. quadrialata (Baker) Verde, in Africa. However, Mucuna gigantea is very variable throughout its range and it seems not possible to retain subsp. quadrialata. Initial growth of Mucuna gigantea is rapid: seedlings may attain a height of more than 1 m in 3 weeks. In Madagascar it flowers during the dry season. The flowers are much visited by humming-birds. The seeds are dispersed by sea currents. All green plant parts, including the flowers, become black when bruised or dried. Ecology Mucuna gigantea is essentially a littoral species found around the Indian Ocean, but in tropical Africa it also occurs inland. It is found in coastal scrub, on riverbanks, and near water in woodland and forest edges, up to 1800 m altitude. Management Mucuna gigantea is collected from the wild. The presence of the intensely irritant bristle hairs makes handling difficult. Genetic resources and breeding One accession from Kenya is kept in the National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu. In view of its widespread distribution Mucuna gigantea is not threatened by genetic erosion. Prospects Because of the toxic compounds in the seed necessitating long cooking and the presence of irritant hairs on the pods it is unlikely that Mucuna gigantea will become a more important food crop. Major references Beentje, 1994; Dahal & van Valkenburg, 2003; Dick, 1994; du Puy et al., 2002; Gillett et al., Other references Eilittä et al., 2002; Friedmann, 1994; ILDIS, 2002; Mackinder et al., 2001; Neuwinger, 2000; Polhill, 1990; Rajaram & Janardhanan, 1991; Wilmot-Dear, 1984; Wilmot-Dear, 1991; Wilmot-Dear, Authors M. Brink ORYZA BARTHII A.Chev. Protologue Bull. Mus. natn. Hist, nat., Paris 16: 405 (1911). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n 24 Synonyms Oryza breviligulata A.Chev. & Roehr. (1914), Oryza stapfii Roshev. (1931). Vernacular names Wild rice, self-sown rice, Mandinka rice (En). Riz sauvage annuel, riz de marais, riz sauvage (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Oryza barthii is distributed in tropical Africa from Mauritania east to Ethiopia and south to Botswana and Zimbabwe. Uses The grains of Oryza barthii are sometimes collected if enough plants are available, and they serve as a famine food. They are sometimes sold in markets. However, Oryza barthii is regarded mostly as a weed. Before flowering the plant provides good grazing for livestock; after flowering the awns may cause injury to the mouth. Properties The grain of Oryza barthii has a good flavour. Botany Annual grass up to 150 cm tall, growing in tufts; stem (culm) erect or geniculately ascending, with roots from the lower nodes, spongy, striate, glabrous. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath striate, smooth; ligule 2 6(-9) mm long, truncate or rounded; blade linear, cm x cm, 104 106 CEREALS AND PULSES with acute apex, intense green, glabrous, smooth on the lower surface, slightly rough on the upper surface. Inflorescence a terminal panicle cm x cm, rather dense, erect or more rarely somewhat nodding, with erect or obliquely ascending branches. Spikelet oblong to narrowly oblong, 7-11 mm long (awn excluded), deciduous, pale green to strawcoloured, 3-flowered but 2 lowest florets reduced to sterile lemmas mm long; glumes reduced to a 2-lobed rim; lemma of fertile floret slightly shorter than spikelet, boatshaped, leathery, hairy, with 2 longitudinal lateral grooves, with pink to purplish stiff awn (4-)8-16(-19) cm long; palea about as long as lemma but much narrower, with the apex drawn out in a short blunt point; lodicules 2; stamens 6; ovary superior, with 2 plumose stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain). Oryza comprises about 20 wild species distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics, and 2 cultivated species, Oryza sativa L. and Oryza glaberrima Steud. Oryza barthii is classified in ser. Sativae, together with Oryza sativa, Oryza glaberrima and Oryza longistaminata A.Chev. & Roehr. Oryza barthii is predominantly inbreeding, with an outcrossing rate of 5-20%. Ecology Oryza barthii grows in shallow water in ponds and marshes, and as a weed in rice fields, up to 1500 m altitude. It may form pure stands, but is usually found scattered with other aquatic grasses. It may become a noxious weed and may act as a reservoir for important rice diseases and pests. Oryza barthii is a short-day plant. Management Oryza barthii is not normally cultivated, but the grain is collected from the wild. The grain shatters very easily, and the panicles are usually collected before they are mature. If ripe, the panicles are harvested over a basket or calabash to collect falling grain. Genetic resources and breeding Oryza barthii has a relatively narrow genetic variation. It is considered a source of resistance to various diseases affecting Oryza sativa, including bacterial leaf blight (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae), rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV) and sheath blight (Thanatephorus cucumeris, anamorph: Rhizoctonia solani). Prospects Although Oryza barthii may serve as a famine food during times of shortage, it is probably more often considered a weed of Oryza sativa than a valuable food plant, and there seems to be no reason to justify its promotion. The greatest potential of Oryza barthii is probably as a source of resistance to various diseases affecting Oryza sativa. Major references Burkill, 1994; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Launert, 1971; National Research Council, 1996; Smith & Dilday, Other references Abo, Sy & Alegbejo, 1998 Akromah, 1987; Clayton, 1970; Clayton, 1972 Engels, Hawkes & Worede (Editors), 1991 Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Kaushal & Ravi, 1998; Lu, 1999; Phillips, 1995; Vaughan & Chang, Authors M. Brink ORYZA GLABERRIMA Steud. Protologue Syn. pi. glumac. 1(1): 3 (1853). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number In - 24 Vernacular names African rice, red rice (En). Riz africain, riz de Casamance (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Oryza glaberrima was derived from the wild annual Oryza barthii A.Chev. (synonym: Oryza breviligulata A.Chev. & Roehr.). Oryza barthii probably grew abundantly in lakes that existed in what is now the Sahara from BC, and it was harvested as a wild cereal. When the climate became drier, Oryza glaberrima, which had gradually developed from Oryza barthii (probably around 1500 BC or later), was grown as a rainfed homegarden crop in oases. When the population took refuge in the interior delta of the Niger river (around 1500 BC) and became much larger, Oryza glaberrima was transformed into the current floating Oryza glaberrima -planted 105 ORYZA 107 rice crop. African rice is now grown in a zone extending from the delta of the River Senegal in the west to Lake Chad in the east. To the south-east its range is bordered by the river basins of the Benue, Logone and Chari, but it has also been recorded from the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar (Tanzania). The areas of most intensive cultivation of African rice are the floodplains of northern Nigeria, the inland delta of the Niger river in Mali, parts of Sierra Leone and the hills on the Ghana-Togo border. African rice was probably introduced into the New World during the slave trade era, and it is still occasionally cultivated there, e.g. in Brazil, Guyana, El Salvador and Panama. Uses In parts of West Africa the grain of African rice is a staple food, highly appreciated for its taste and culinary qualities. It is also used in traditional and ritual ceremonies, e.g. in the Casamance region of southern Senegal. The finer parts of the bran and broken grains are given as feed to chicken and other livestock. In the Central African Republic the root is eaten raw to treat diarrhoea. Production and international trade In statistics on rice production in West Africa no distinction is made between African rice and Asian rice (Oryza sativa L.). It is estimated that African rice is grown in less than 20% of the total area allocated to rice in West Africa. As a traditional food grain it is not traded internationally, but only within the region of production. Properties The composition of whole African rice grain (hulled) per 100 g edible portion is: water 11.3 g, energy 1524 kj (364 kcal), protein 7.4 g, fat 2.2 g, carbohydrate 77.7 g, fibre 0.4 g, Ca 38 mg, P 294 mg, Fe 2.8 mg, thiamin 0.34 mg and niacin 6.5 mg. Milled African rice contains per 100 g fresh edible portion: water 11.4 g, energy 1532 kj (366 kcal), protein 6.3 g, fat 0.3 g, carbohydrate 81.6 g, fibre 0.2 g, Ca 22 mg, P 98 mg, Fe 1.7 mg, thiamin 0.06 mg, niacin 2.0 mg and tryptophan 110 mg (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). African rice is superior to Asian rice in its content of the important vitamin thiamin and in iron. The degree of gelatinization depends on the amylose content, which ranges from 14-30%, and influences consistency of the rice in cooking and thus consumer choice. Most cultivars of African rice have red-skinned grain and some are strongly scented. Adulterations and substitutes In most regions of West Africa, at least in commercial farming, African rice has been replaced by Asian rice, which is more productive, shatters less easily and has a softer grain that is easier to mill. Small-scale farmers in West Africa, however, often still prefer to grow African rice for its taste and culinary properties, its ability to withstand flooding, and its resistance to several diseases and pests. Description Annual grass up to 120 cm tall (up to 5 m in some floating types), often tufted; dryland types with simple culm often rooting at lower nodes, floating types often branching and rooting at upper nodes too. Leaves alternate, simple; sheath terete, up to 25 cm long, with transverse veinlets; ligule c. 4 mm long, truncate, membranous; blade linear, flat, 20-25(- 30) cm x 6-9 mm, sagittate at base, rugose beneath. Inflorescence a terminal, ellipsoid, stiff and compact panicle up to 25 cm long, with ascendent racemose branches. Spikelets ellipsoid, c. 9 mm x 4 mm, more or less persistent, 3-flowered but 2 lowest florets reduced to sterile lemmas separated from the lemma of the fertile, bisexual upper floret by a stipe; glumes absent or strongly rudimentary; lemma hispidulous, 5-veined, usually without apical awn; palea 3-veined; lodicules 2; stamens 6; ovary superior, with 2 plumose stigmas. Fruit Oryza glaberrima - 1, plant habit; 2, inflorescence; 3, spikelet. Redrawn and adapted by W. Wessel-Brand 106 108 CEREALS AND PULSES a laterally compressed caryopsis (grain) up to 9 mm x 3 mm, often reddish, tightly enveloped by lemma and palea. Other botanical information Oryza comprises about 20 wild species distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics, and 2 cultivated species, Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima. Several classifications of Oryza have been made. Most recently the genus has been divided into 3 sections: sect. Pädia, sect. Brachyantha and sect. Oryza. Section Oryza is subdivided into 3 series: ser. Latifoliae, ser. Australiensis and ser. Sativae. Oryza glaberrima, its direct ancestor Oryza barthii A.Chev. and the rhizomatous perennial Oryza longistaminata A.Chev. & Roehr. are classified in ser. Sativae, together with Oryza sativa. Morphologically, Oryza glaberrima can be distinguished from Oryza sativa by its shorter ligule and less-branched panicle. Growth and development African rice seedlings normally emerge in 4 5 days after sowing. The vegetative phase of African rice consists of a juvenile phase of about 3 weeks followed by a tillering phase of 3 4 weeks. Vegetative growth is rapid. Tillering, high leaf area index and high specific leaf area contribute to its high competitiveness against weeds. However, culms tend to be weak and brittle, making African rice prone to lodging. African rice is self-fertilizing. The duration of the crop varies from 3-6 months depending on cultivar and type of culture. Some cultivars selected for rainfed conditions are of very short duration, shorter than cultivars of Oryza sativa. Cultivars for deep water conditions tolerate flooding up to 2.5 m deep and culms may grow up to 5 m long. Some shattering of seed occurs in many cultivars. Ecology African rice grows well above 30 C, but above 35 C spikelet fertility is noticeably reduced. Temperatures below 25 C reduce growth and yield; temperatures below 20 C do so markedly. African rice is grown from sealevel to 1700 m altitude. It is generally a shortday plant, but photosensitivity varies between cultivars from day-neutral to strongly sensitive. African rice is grown on a wide range of soils. Although preferring fertile alluvial soils, it tolerates low soil fertility. Some cultivars can produce higher yields than Asian rice on alkaline and on phosphorus-deficient soils. They are also more tolerant to iron-toxicity. Floating rice is planted on loam or clay soils. Propagation and planting African rice is propagated by seed. The weight of 1000 seeds is g. Seed dormancy disappears a few months after maturity; for experimental purposes, dormancy can be broken by removing the lemma and palea and about one-third of the albumen, allowing germination in 2-3 days. Before sowing the soil may be prepared with a hoe or, as in Senegal, Gambia and Guinea, with a long-handled spade, but soil preparation is rarely practised. Seed is mostly broadcast and transplanting is rarely practised. For floating rice, seed is densely sown in soil that has been recently weeded and that may or may not have been ploughed or hoed. Cultivars are selected according to expected flood duration and generally have a growing period of 4-6 months. In West Africa from Senegal to northern Cameroon, where rainfall generally exceeds 1000 mm/year, African rice is mostly planted as an upland crop, depending solely on rain and surface run-off. In some regions short-duration cultivars are grown that are adapted to annual rainfall amounts as low as 700 mm. In Senegal and Gambia the crop is sown in moist locations, often under palm trees, after simple soil cultivation. This is locally called 'riz de plateau'. 'Riz de montagne' is grown throughout the forest zone covering western Côte d'ivoire, Liberia, the Fouta Djallon and eastern Guinea mountains. It is grown in shifting cultivation, often following logging, even on steep slopes. The undergrowth is cut and at the end of the dry season fields are burned. Sowing is mostly carried out without any soil cultivation. Rice is grown in pure stands or intercropped with other crops, e.g. maize. After 2-3 years, the field is used to grow cash crops such as cacao or coffee, or left fallow. Farmers return after years, or later, depending on the recovery of the vegetation and the soil. In such fields, cultivars of shortest duration are grown and African rice is only rarely replaced by Asian rice, e.g. in the forest zone of Guinea and western Côte d'ivoire. Irrigated rice systems depend more on river water than on rainfall and are found in areas with a much drier climate; the degree of control of irrigation is variable. Floodplain rice on hydromorphic soils is found in Guinea, Côte d'ivoire, Mali, Burkina Faso and Nigeria. Floating rice cultivars are very common in the interior delta of the Niger river in Mali, and is also planted in Senegal, Gambia, Niger and Nigeria. It grows sometimes very rapidly in length as the flood water rises, tolerating sub- 107 ORYZA 109 mersion for several days. Cultivars grown have a crop duration of 4-5 months. Along the rivers in northern Senegal and in Mali, in the northern part of the interior delta of the Niger river south-west of Timbuktu, in a zone stretching from Dire and Goundam to the series of lakes Faguibine, Gouber and Kamango, rice is grown on floodplains after floods have receded. In this cropping system, rice is sown in moist soil and the crop development relies on ground water ('riz de décrue'). Weeds are few. Both Oryza glaberrima and Oryza sativa are grown and have a duration of 4-5 months. Along the Atlantic coast, e.g. in Sierra Leone, African rice is grown in mangrove swamps. Management Weeding of African rice in non-flooded areas is manual and often late. In some regions, such as the Basse Casamance, weed control is combined with land preparation: a first light irrigation favours the germination of weeds, which can subsequently be eradicated. Mechanization and fertilizer application are rarely practised. In floodplain and wet rice cultivation neither crop rotation nor fallow is practised, contrary to the practice for upland rice. Diseases and pests The most important and widespread disease of African rice is rice blast (Pyricularia grisea; synonyms: Magnaporthe grisea, Pyricularia oryzae). Rice yellow mosaic virus (RYMV) and soil parasites (nematodes) often cause large losses. There are few control measures, but some cultivars are resistant to such pathogens. In floodplain and wet rice systems the main problems are rizophagous fish (Distichodus, Tilapia), while birds cause serious damage in all rice cropping systems. Children armed with pebbles and slings offer some protection. Rodents, buffaloes, elephants and hippopotamuses can all cause serious damage. African rice gall midge (Orseolia oryziphora), crickets and grasshoppers are also important pests, as are stem-borers that destroy the apex of the plants and so prevent the formation of inflorescences. Annual wild rice {Oryza barthii) is very common in wet rice fields. It can be recognized by its red awns but it is then too late to remove it. It is characterized by very strong shattering and, as it often ripens before the cultivated rice, it multiplies and spreads throughout the rice field. It is sometimes harvested with the rice crop. If the seed is not cleaned carefully, the field will be infested with wild rice within a few years. Annual wild rice readily crosspollinates with Oryza glaberrima; the resulting red grains shatter more easily and have to be milled more tightly, resulting in more weight loss and higher costs. Under conditions of deep flooding, perennial wild rice (Oryza longistaminata) is cut below the surface of the water in order to kill it. Harvesting The harvesting season for African rice is October-December. Upland rice is harvested first. Panicles are bundled and stacked in elevated granaries under which a smoking fire is maintained to keep away storage insects. After manual or mechanical threshing, grain can also be stored in bulk in bags. Floating rice is harvested in several rounds mostly from canoes, which leads to considerable losses. Yield Yields of African rice obtained under traditional conditions rarely average more than 1 t/ha. In experiments with deep water rice cultivars carried out in Gao and Timbuktu (Mali) from , yields of 1-4 t/ha were obtained. Handling after harvest The produce of African rice, whether stored before or after threshing, should be protected against pests, mainly insects and rodents. The paddy should be dried well to reduce the moisture content to a maximum of 14% to achieve good storage and a high milling yield. The grain of African rice is more brittle than that of Oryza sativa, making it more difficult to mill. Genetic resources IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, formerly ORSTOM) and CIRAD (Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement) collected cultivated and related wild types of rice (both African and introduced) throughout their area of distribution. Between 1974 and 1983, over 3700 samples were collected in Africa and Madagascar, of which 20% are Oryza glaberrima and 12% related wild species. These collections are kept in cold storage (4 C, 20% humidity) for mediumterm conservation and partly frozen at -20 C for long-term storage at IRD in Montpellier (France). The collection is duplicated at CIRAD in France and at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), the Philippines. The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (UTA), Ibadan, Nigeria keeps almost 2800 accessions, and the Africa Rice Center (WARDA), Bouaké, Côte d'ivoire, almost 1900 accessions. Collections of Oryza glaberrima germplasm are also kept at the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Dhaka, Bangladesh (200 accessions) 108 110 CEREALS AND PULSES and the USDA-ARS National Small Grain Collection, Aberdeen, Idaho, United States (174 accessions). African rice shows orthodox seed storage behaviour. Currently no in-situ conservation programmes of rice of African origin exist but they would be desirable. Breeding While the genetic variation in Oryza glaberrima is small in comparison with that of Oryza sativa, types with important characteristics have been identified: resistance to RYMV, rice blast (Pyricularia grisea), African rice hispa (Trichispa sericea), the African rice gall midge (Orseolia oryziphora), and to several stem-borers and nematodes, including Heterodera sacchari, Meloidogyne graminicola and Meloidogyne incognita. African rice shows resistance to salinity, drought and iron toxicity and it competes well with weeds. Various cultivars have shown partial resistance to and tolerance of parasitic plants of the genus Striga. In general, hybrids between Oryza glaberrima and Oryza sativa are highly sterile in the Fi and early generations. However, in a hybridization programme initiated in 1992,WARDA succeeded in crossing the two species into stable and fertile progenies through backcrossing and doubled haploid breeding. Interspecific progenies, which are called 'New Rice for Africa' (NERICA), are now being grown by farmers in Africa. They are more productive than Oryza glaberrima, but retain favourable characteristics such as competitiveness against weeds, resistance to diseases and pests, tolerance to poor soils, and high grain quality. Few genetic improvement programmes of Oryza glaberrima itself have been undertaken. Extensive genetic linkage maps have been made for rice, and IRD andwarda are working together in a programme to systematically integrate the genome of Oryza glaberrrima into that of Oryza sativa. The objective is to follow the introgression of small genome fragments of Oryza glaberrima into the genetic base of Oryza sativa using molecular markers. Prospects For over 30 years it has been predicted that African rice would disappear under the pressure of widespread introduction of improved cultivars of Oryza sativa, but this has not happened, although in Burkina Faso, for example, a strong decline of African rice has been observed. The explanation for the resilience of African rice is that it is highly appreciated by the people of West Africa, who continue to grow African rice for its taste and culinary properties, and that it is highly adapted to particular growing conditions, e.g. as floating rice. Cross-breeding of Oryza glaberrima and Oryza sativa should continue to include programmes aiming at the transfer of genome fragments. Such breeding programmes should be carried out in association with a programme of in-situ conservation of genetic resources of wild and cultivated rice of African origin. For specific objectives certain regions should be identified, e.g. Guinea for its diversity of rice cropping systems, the regions of southern Chad/northern Cameroon and the interior delta of the Niger river in Mali for the contacts between wild and cultivated types, and the valley of the Ferlo in Senegal to study spontaneous populations of the annual Oryza barthii away from all rice cultivation. Improvement of African rice cultivation should aim at decreased lodging, increased yield, less seed scattering and decreased brittleness of the grain. Major references Bezançon, 1994; Brenière, 1983; Jones et al., 1994; Jones et al., 1997; Linares, 2002; Lorieux, Ndjiondjop & Ghesquière, 2000; Lu, 1999; National Research Council, 1996; Séré & Sy, 1997; Sumi & Katayama, Other references Aluko et al., 2004; Bettencourt & Konopka, 1990; Bezançon, 1995; Bouharmont, Olivier & Dumont de Chassart, 1985; Buddenhagen & Persley (Editors), 1978; Burkill, 1994; Catling, 1992; Chang, 1995; Guei, Adam & Traoré, 2002; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Heuer et al, 2003; IPGRI, undated; Johnson et al., 1997; Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968; Nwilene et al, 2002; Plowright et al, 1999; Purseglove, 1972; Rehm & Espig, 1991; Ukwungwu, Williams & Okhidievbie, 1998; Watanabe et al., Sources of illustration National Research Council, 1996; Roshevitz, Authors G. Bezançon & S. Diallo ORYZA LONGISTAMINATA A.Chev. & Roehr. Protologue Compt. Rend. Acad. Sei., sér. 2, Mec. Phys. Chim. Sei. Univers. Sei. Terre. 159: 561 (1914). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 24 Synonyms Oryza barthii auct. non A.Chev. Vernacular names Wild rice, red rice (En). Riz sauvage vivace, riz vivace (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Oryza longistaminata is distributed throughout tropical Africa (including Madagascar) and is also 109 ORYZA ill found in South Africa. Uses The grains of Oryza longistaminata are sometimes eaten and sold on local markets. They serve as famine food, e.g. in Sudan and Ethiopia. Dense stands provide good grazing for cattle. The straw is used for thatching. Botany Robust perennial grass up to 2.5 m tall, with long, creeping, branched rhizomes; stem (culm) up to 2.5cm or more in diameter, erect or ascending, with aerial roots from the lower nodes, glabrous. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath spongy, pale green to brownish, smooth, glabrous; ligule (l-) cm long, acute, often split down the middle; blade linear, 10-45(-75) cm x (^2.5) cm, acuminate, bright to dark green, glabrous, smooth or slightly rough on the lower surface, slightly rough on the upper surface. Inflorescence a terminal panicle cm x cm, dense, erect or slightly drooping, with obliquely ascending to almost erect branches. Spikelet asymmetrically elliptical-oblong, 7 12(-15) mm long (awn excluded), deciduous, pale green to brownish, 3-flowered but 2 lowest florets reduced to sterile lemmas (2-)2.5-4(-4.5) mm long; glumes reduced to a membranous rim; lemma of fertile floret slightly shorter than spikelet, boat-shaped, leathery, hairy, with pink or purplish, rather slender awn (2.5 )4 7.5( 8) cm long; palea slightly shorter than lemma and much narrower, acute or tapering into a point; lodicules 2; stamens 6; ovary superior, with 2 plumose blackish stigmas. Fruit an oblong caryopsis (grain) mm long, glabrous, pale brown, glossy. Oryza comprises about 20 wild species distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics, and 2 cultivated species, Oryza sauva L. and Oryza glaberrima Steud. Oryza longistaminata is classified in ser. Sativae, together with Oryza sativa, Oryza glaberrima and Oryza barthii A.Chev. Oryza longistaminata can be distinguished from other wild Oryza spp. by its very long, pointed ligule. Oryza longistaminata is partly self-incompatible and allogamous. Often only few seeds are set and natural reproduction is mainly by its rhizomes. Ecology Oryza longistaminata is found in shallow or deep water in pans, pools, swamps, flood plains and riverbanks, up to 1800 m altitude. It often occurs in pure stands. Oryza longistaminata is a noxious weed in wet-rice cultivation; it suppresses cultivated rice and forms hybrids with it. It may also act as a reservoir for important rice diseases and pests, such as bacterial leaf blight (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae). Management Oryza longistaminata is mostly collected from the wild and only occasionally cultivated. The grains shatter easily, and it is common practice to harvest panicles just before maturity or to shake ripe panicles over a basket or calabash. The long, scabrid awns form a disincentive to touch the panicle. Genetic resources and breeding As seed production of Oryza longistaminata is very poor, in situ conservation is recommended. Oryza longistaminata is considered a sourceof resistance genes to various diseases affecting cultivated Oryza sativa. Resistance to bacterial leaf blight has successfully been transferred. Oryza longistaminata is a host plant of rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV), an important disease of Oryza sativa in Africa, but in general Oryza longistaminata is more tolerant of it, and some accessions are immune. Oryza longistaminata is a potential source of genes for the development of perennial types of Oryza sativa, which would provide a permanent ground cover and reduce erosion. Prospects Oryza longistaminata serves as a famine food during times of shortage, but is also a noxious weed of Oryza sativa. The greatest potential of Oryza longistaminata is probably in Oryza sativa breeding as a source of genes conferring disease resistance and perennial habit. Major references Burkill, 1994; Engels, Hawkes & Worede (Editors), 1991; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Launert, 1971; National Research Council, Other references Abo, Sy & Alegbejo, 1998; Akromah, 1987; Clayton, 1970; Clayton, 1972; Gibbs Russell et al, 1990; Lu, 1999; Phillips, 1995; Sacks, Roxas & Sta Cruz, 2003; Smith & Dilday, 2003; Vaughan & Chang, Authors M. Brink ORYZA PUNCTATA Kotschy ex Steud. Protologue Syn. pi. glumac. 1(1): 3 (1853). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 24, 48 Vernacular names Red rice, wadi rice (En). Mchetez (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Oryza punctata is distributed in tropical Africa from Côte d'ivoire to Sudan and southwards to Angola, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Madagascar. 110 112 CEREALS AND PULSES It also occurs in South Africa and Thailand. Uses The husked grains of Oryza punctata are sometimes eaten as a famine food in Sudan and Kenya. In Sudan they are consumed after boiling with milk or water. Properties Per 100 g dry matter the grain of Oryza punctata from Sudan contains: crude protein 13.9 g, fat 4.0 g, soluble carbohydrate 74.8 g, crude fibre 2.9 g, Ca 40 mg, Mg 270 mg, P 550 mg, Fe 16.8 mg and Zn 3.9 mg. The essential amino acid composition per 100 g protein (16 g N) is: lysine 3.6 g, methionine 2.2 g, phenylalanine 5.2 g, threonine 3.4 g, valine 5.9 g, leucine 8.6 g and isoleucine 4.1 g (Salih & Nour, 1992). Botany Annual or perennial grass (- 150) cm tall, growing in tufts; stem (culm) erect or geniculately ascending, branched, striate, glabrous. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath often spongy, distinctly striate; ligule 3 10 mm long, rounded, truncate or somewhat acute; blade linear, cm x cm, acuminate, pale green or rarely glaucous, glabrous, usually slightly rough on both surfaces. Inflorescence a terminal panicle cm x 3-17 cm, loose, erect or somewhat drooping, with spreading or ascending branches. Spikelet asymmetrically ellipticaloblong or broadly oblong, (5-) mm long, deciduous, greyish green or glaucous, 3- flowered but 2 lowest florets reduced to sterile lemmas mm long; glumes reduced to a membranous, whitish narrow rim; lemma of fertile floret slightly shorter than spikelet, boat-shaped, leathery, hairy or rarely glabrous, with pale yellow slender flexuous awn (1 )2 7.5 cm long; palea slightly shorter than lemma and much narrower, acute or tapering into a short point; lodicules 2; stamens 6; ovary superior, with 2 plumose blackish stigmas. Fruit an oblong caryopsis (grain) 4-5 mm long, glabrous, pale brown. Oryza comprises about 20 wild species distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics, and 2 cultivated species, Oryza sativa L. and Oryza glaberrima Steud. Oryza punctata is classified in ser. Latifoliae. Within Oryza punctata diploid (2re = 24) and tetraploid (2n = 48) plants are known. Oryza punctata can be crossed with Oryza sativa using embryo rescue techniques. Ecology Oryza punctata is found in swampy locations, on stream banks, in pond margins and pools, up to 1200 m altitude. It is a noxious weed in rice cultivation and a potential seed contaminant of rice cultivars. Management Oryza punctata is collected from the wild. The 1000-seed weight is about 25 g. Husking requires vigorous pounding, resulting in the grain being seldom whole when eaten. Genetic resources and breeding Oryza punctata is considered a source of resistance to various diseases and pests affecting Oryza sativa, including bacterial leaf blight (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae) and brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens). Prospects Although the grains of Oryza punctata have a good nutritional quality, they seem to be used as a famine food only, and the plant is considered a noxious weed in rice cultivation. Oryza punctata may be useful in Oryza sativa breeding, although it is genetically more distant than Oryza barthii A.Chev. and Oryza longistaminata A.Chev. & Roehr. Major references Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Kaushal & Ravi, 1998; Launert, 1971; National Research Council, 1996; Salih & Nour, Other references Burkill, 1994; Clayton, 1970; Clayton, 1972; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Lu, 1999; Mahmoud et al., 1995; Smith & Dilday, 2003; Vaughan & Chang, Authors M. Brink ORYZA SATIVA L. Protologue Sp. pi. 1: 333 (1753). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 12, 24, 36 Vernacular names Rice, paddy, Asian rice, Asiatic rice (En). Riz, riz asiatique (Fr). Arroz (Po). Mpunga (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Oryza sativa evolved in Asia, but the exact time and place of its domestication are not known for certain. Remains of rice in China have been dated to 6500 BC; the earliest archaeological evidence from India goes back to 2500 BC. Oryza sativa was brought from Asia into tropical Africa along different routes. Seamenfarmers began sailing from Indonesia to Madagascar probably a few centuries BC and started cultivating Oryza sativa there. Another important contact between Africa and Asia at the dawn of the Christian era was the trade route from Sri Lanka and India via Oman to Somalia and the islands Zanzibar and Kilwa off the coast of Tanzania. Most probably Oryza sativa migrated from Egypt, where it was introduced 111 ORYZA 113 Oryza sativa -planted about AD, to West Africa. The final penetration of Oryza sativa into Africa was along the slave trading routes from the East African coast and Zanzibar to DR Congo from about 1500 AD onwards. At the same time Oryza sativa was introduced into Senegal, Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone by the Portuguese on their return from expeditions to India. Nowadays it is cultivated throughout the humid tropics and in many subtropical and temperate areas with a frost-free period longer than 130 days. Uses The rice grain is cooked by boiling or steaming, and eaten mostly with pulses, vegetables, fish or meat. Flour from rice is used for breakfast foods, baby foods, bread and cake mixes and cosmetics. Starch made from broken rice is used as laundry starch and in foods, cosmetics and textile manufacture. Beers, wines and spirits are made from rice. The husk or hull is used as fuel, bedding, absorbent, packing material and as carrier for vitamins and drugs; it is also made into building board. The charred hull is used for filtration of impurities in water, a medium for hydroponics and manufacture of charcoal briquettes. Rice bran or meal obtained in pearling and polishing is a valuable livestock and poultry feed. Oil is extracted from the bran. Crude rice bran oil is processed into solidified oil, stearic and oleic acids, glycerine and soap. Processed bran oil is used for cooking, antirust and anticorrosive agents, textile and leather finishers, and in medicine. Rice straw is used for animal feed and bedding, for the manufacture of straw boards and pulp for paper, for the production of compost and mushroom growing medium, for mulching vegetable crops, for making ropes, sacks, mats and hats, for roof thatching, and to make plastering material (mixed with clay mud) for the construction of houses, and for incorporation into the soil or burning on the field as a way to maintain/improve soil fertility. Several traditional medicinal applications of rice have been reported from tropical Africa: leaf dressings are applied to ulcers and grain decoctions are drunk to treat diarrhoea, as a diuretic and as an emollient. Rice powder is applied against itch in Senegal. In DR Congo a decoction of the roots, leaves and husks is taken against madness and beriberi. Production and international trade According to FAO estimates the average annual world production during was 593 million t paddy (unhusked grain) from 153 million ha. Asia accounts for 90% of the world production and area. During tropical Africa produced on average 11.9 million t paddy (2% of world production) annually on 7.7 million ha (5% of world area); these data include African rice (Oryza glaberrima Steud.), which occupies less than 20% of the rice area in West Africa. The main producers are Nigeria (3.5 million t from 2.9 million ha), Madagascar (2.6 million t from 1.2 million ha) and Côte d'ivoire (1.1 million t from 0.5 million ha). The annual world paddy production increased steadily from 241 million t/year in to 593 million t/year in , and the harvested area from 121 to 153 million ha. In the same period the annual paddy production in tropical Africa increased from 3.6 to 11.9 million t/year, and the harvested area from 2.8 to 7.7 million ha. Only 5% of the world's rice production enters into international trade. Thailand is the world's largest exporter of milled rice (26% of world trade during ) followed by Vietnam, India, the United States, China and Pakistan. All countries in tropical Africa are net importers of milled rice and during an average of 4.8 million t milled rice was imported annually. This means that more than one third of the rice consumption in tropical Africa is satisfied through imports. Main rice importers are Nigeria, Senegal and Côte d'ivoire. Per capita annual milled rice consumption in tropical Africa varies tremendously between 0.15 kg and 95 kg with an average of about 18 kg for the period In Madagascar, Sierra Leone and Guinea Bissau it is the main source of energy. 112 114 CEREALS AND PULSES Properties Raw brown rice contains per 100 g edible portion: water 13.9 g, energy 1518 kj (363 kcal), protein 6.7 g, fat 2.8 g, carbohydrate 81.3 g, dietary fibre 3.8 g, Ca 10 mg, Mg 110 mg, P 310 mg, Fe 1.4 mg, Zn 1.8 mg, thiamin 0.59 mg, riboflavin 0.07 mg, niacin 5.3 mg, vitamin B mg, folate 49 ug, ascorbic acid 0 mg. Raw polished rice contains per 100 g edible portion: water 11.7 g, energy 1536 kj (367 kcal), protein 6.5 g, fat 1.0 g, carbohydrate 86.8 g, dietary fibre 2.2 g, Ca 4 mg, Mg 13 mg, P 100 mg, Fe 0.5 mg, Zn 1.3 mg, thiamin 0.08 mg, riboflavin 0.02 mg, niacin 1.5 mg, vitamin B mg, folate 20 (ig, ascorbic acid 0 mg (Holland, Unwin & Buss, 1988). The essential amino acid composition of raw polished rice per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 87 mg, lysine 250 mg, methionine 140 mg, phenylalanine 330 mg, threonine 230 mg, valine 390 mg, leucine 560 mg and isoleucine 260 mg (Paul, Southgate & Russell, 1980). Milling and polishing result in a loss of protein, fat, minerals (phosphorus and potassium) and vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin and niacin). However, these operations improve the storability and reduce the cooking time. Rice grain endosperm may be waxy (glutinous) or non-waxy (non-glutinous) depending on the content of amylose and amylopectin. The higher the amylopectin content, the more glutinous the product is. The endosperm also contains sugar, fat, crude fibre, vitamins and inorganic matter. The flavour of rice is variable and aromatic rice cultivars are highly appreciated throughout the world. A major component of the flavour is 2-acetyl-l-pyrroline. Rice bran contains: water 9.9%, gross energy 1940 kj (463 kcal) per 100 g, crude protein 13.8%, crude fibre 7.8%, ether extract 16.4%. After oil extraction, rice bran contains: water 9.8%, gross energy 1590 kj (380 kcal) per 100 g, crude protein 14.4%, crude fibre 9.3%, ether extract 3.1%. The husk forms about 20% of the unhusked grain weight, and is very rich in silica. Rice straw contains approximately: water 7.0%, protein 3.4%, fat 0.9%, carbohydrate 47.8%, fibre 33.4% and ash 7.5%. It is nutritionally inferior to other cereal straws unless ensiled. Rice straw is not particularly suitable for papermaking due to the high silica content (12 18%) and is used for this purpose mainly in countries where wood is scarce, e.g. in India and China. The ultimate fibre cells are (0.4-) 1.4(-3.4) mm long and (4-)9(-16) (im wide. Description Annual grass up to 1.8 m tall Oryza sativa - 1, plant base with roots; 2, ligule and auricles; 3, panicle with leaf; 4, flowering spikelet; 5, ovary with stigmas; 6, spikelet with mature grain. Source: PROSEA (up to 5 m long in some floating types), forming small tufts; roots fibrous, arising from the base of the shoots; stem (culm) erect or ascending from a geniculate base, terete, smooth, glabrous. Leaves alternate, simple; sheath coarsely striate, tight when young, later somewhat loose, often somewhat spongy, green or sometimes tinged with brown or purple, smooth, glabrous; ligule cm long, triangular, acute, entire or split, membranous, usually glabrous; auricles often present, falcate, 1-5 mm long, hairy; blade linear, tapering to an acute point, cm x cm, bright green to glaucous, glabrous or puberulous, smooth on the lower surface, slightly rough on the upper surface, midrib usually distinct. Inflorescence a terminal panicle up to 50 cm long, erect, curved or drooping, with spikelets; branches solitary or clustered, nearly erect to spreading. Spikelet solitary, asymmetrically oblong to elliptical-oblong, 7-11 mm x mm, with pedicel up to 4 mm long, 3-flowered but 2 lowest florets reduced to sterile lemmas 2-3 mm long; glumes small; lemma of fertile floret 6-10 mm long, boat-shaped, sometimes awned; palea 113 ORYZA 115 about as long as lemma; lodicules 2; stamens 6; ovary superior, with 2 plumose stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), ovoid, ellipsoid or cylindrical, mm x mm, often whitish yellow or brown to brownish grey. Other botanical information Oryza comprises about 20 wild species distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics, and 2 cultivated species, Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima. In the most recent classification Oryza has been divided into 3 sections: sect. Pädia, sect. Brachyantha and sect. Oryza. Section Oryza is subdivided into 3 series: ser. Latifoliae, ser. Australiensis and ser. Sativae. Oryza sativa is classified in ser. Sativae, together with, among others, Oryza glaberrima, Oryza barthii A.Chev., and Oryza longistaminata A.Chev. & Roehr. Oryza glaberrima cultivars are grown only in Africa. Introgression of characters from Oryza glaberrima, Oryza barthii and Oryza longistaminata may have added new dimensions to the variability of Oryza sativa. Cultivated rice Oryza sativa is supposed to have evolved from perennial types (Oryza rufipogon Griff.) to annual types (Oryza nivara S.D.Sharma & Shastri, sometimes included in Oryza rufipogon). There is a natural gene flow between these 3 species, and they form a large species complex together with weedy forms of rice (popularly called 'red rice' because of their red endosperm). There are 2 major eco-geographical cultivar groups of Oryza sativa: Indica Group, which mainly includes cultivars from the tropics, and Japonica Group, which includes cultivars from temperate/subtropical areas. Traditional cultivars from Indica Group are tall, leafy, strongly tillering, and prone to lodging; they respond poorly to fertilization, particularly to nitrogen, and are sensitive to photoperiod; they are hardy, resistant to disease and tolerate unfavourable growing conditions; they will produce fair yields under conditions of low management. Modern Japonica Group cultivars are small, and are less tillering, less leafy, resistant to lodging, insensitive to photoperiod and are early maturing. The characteristics of the two cultivar groups have become less distinct because of the interbreeding programmes in recent years. Rice may also be classified according to the conditions under which it is grown, according to the size, shape and texture of the grain, or according to the period needed to mature. Growth and development Rice seed germinates in hours. The optimum temperature for germination is C. Most cultivars have a short dormancy or none at all, but in some it may last up to 4 months. Ten days after germination the plant becomes independent as the seed reserve is exhausted. Tillering begins thereafter, although it may be a week later in transplanted seedlings. In modern cultivars with an average maturation period, maximum tillering stage is attained around 45 days after transplanting and coincides with panicle initiation. The duration of the vegetative stage ranges from 7 to more than 120 days. The reproductive stage starts at panicle initiation, and the period from panicle initiation to flowering is around 35 days. Rice is almost 100% self-pollinating, but small amounts of cross pollination by wind do occur. It takes around 7 days to complete the anthesis of all spikelets in a panicle, starting from the top and progressing downwards. The period from flowering to full ripeness of all the grains in a panicle is usually about 30 days. Low temperature can delay maturity and high temperature accelerates it. Floating rice has a long maturation period of 7 months or more. Rice roots can grow under low oxygen concentrations. The roots are not typically aquatic as they are much branched and have a profusion of root hairs; later, spongy tissue (aerenchyma) develops in the cortex. Ecology Rice is grown as far north as 53 N in Moho, northern China and as far south as 35 S in New South Wales, Australia. It grows on dry or flooded soil and at elevations ranging from sea level to at least 2400 m. The average temperature during the growing season varies from C. Night temperatures below 15 C can cause spikelet sterility. Temperatures above 21 C at flowering are needed for anthesis and pollination. Upland rice requires an assured rainfall of at least 750 mm over a period of 3-4 months and does not tolerate desiccation. Lowland rice tends to be concentrated in flat lowlands, river basins and deltas. The average water requirement for irrigated rice is 1200 mm per crop or 200 mm of rainfall per month or an equivalent amount from irrigation. Relative humidity within the crop canopy is high, since there is standing water in most rice crops. A low relative humidity above the canopy during the dry season aggravated by strong winds can cause spikelet sterility. Traditional cultivars are generally photoperiod sensitive, and flower when daylengths are short (critical daylength of hours). Many modern cultivars are photoperiod insen- 114 116 CEREALS AND PULSES sitive. The soils on which rice grows vary greatly: texture ranges from sand to clay, organic matter content from 1-50%, ph from 3-10, salt content up to 1%, and nutrient availability from acute deficiencies to surplus. Rice does best in fertile heavy soils. The optimum ph for flooded soil is The often sandy texture of soils in tropical Africa is a constraint to productivity due to drought stress, low inherent soil fertility and leaching. Groundwater salinity problems occur in the dry Sahel zone where rice is grown under irrigation. In lowland coastal West Africa rice productivity is affected by saline water intrusion. The majority of mangrove swamp soils along the West African coast are furthermore potential or actual acid sulphate soils. In West Africa iron toxicity in valley bottoms is most severe in areas where the adjacent uplands are strongly leached Ultisols. Lowland rice and deep-water rice may be subjected to both drought or complete submergence. In submerged soil the ph tends to be neutral, i.e. the ph of acid soils increases whereas the ph of calcareous and sodic soils decreases. Ions of Fe, N and S are reduced, the supply and availability of the elements N, P, Si and Mo improve, whereas the concentration of water-soluble Zn and Cu decreases. Toxic reduction products such as methane, organic acids and hydrogen sulphide are formed. The flooding of rice soils also creates a favourable environment for anaerobic microbes and the accompanying biochemical changes. As a result, the decomposition rate of organic matter decreases. However, a thin surface layer generally remains oxidized and sustains aerobic microbes. Propagation and planting Rice is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g. The seed may either be broadcast or drilled directly in the field, or seedlings may be grown in nurseries and transplanted. Direct seeding is done in dry or puddled soil. In puddled soil the (pre-germinated) seeds are broadcast. After sowing the water level is kept at 0 5 cm under tropical conditions. In dry soil the seeds are sown just before or after land preparation. In the latter case the seeds are then covered lightly with soil. The seeds are sown just before the rains begin and germination occurs after heavy continuous rains. This method makes it possible to have initial crop growth from early rains. In tropical Africa various rice-growing systems are distinguished: - Upland rice, which may be subdivided into dryland rice, whereby moisture supply is entirely dependent on rainfall, and hydromorphic rice where the rooting zone is periodically saturated by a fluctuating water table, in addition to rainfall; - Lowland rice, including mangrove swamp rice along the coastal regions with tidal intrusion, inland swamp rice on flat or V- shaped valley bottoms with varying degrees of flooding, and rice on bunded fields under rainfed or irrigated conditions; - Deepwater rice, in which the rapid growth of the internodes keeps pace with the rising water up to 5 m or more, starting from 50 cm of standing water. In upland rice cultivation the fields are normally cleared through the slash-and-burn practice. Soil preparation is normally minimal. The rice is broadcast or dibbled when the rains start. It is often grown as the first crop in rotation or intercropped with other crops such as cassava, maize, sorghum, cowpea, groundnut and other pulse crops. In lowland rainfed-rice areas the land is mostly prepared while it is wet and only in rare occasions when it is dry. The wetland tillage method consists of soaking the land until the soil is saturated, ploughing to a depth of cm using a plough drawn by oxen/small machines or by using a hand hoe, preferably when there is a little water on the land, and harrowing, during which big clods of soil are broken and puddled with water. The important benefits of puddling include the apparent reduction of moisture loss by percolation, better weed control, and easy transplanting. In lowland rice cultivation seedlings are mostly raised on wet nursery beds and sometimes on dry nursery beds. Wet nursery beds are made in the puddled or wet field. Normally farmers use kg of rice seeds to plant one ha. Seeds are pregerminated and spread on the bed which is kept constantly wet. Dry nursery beds are prepared near the water source before land preparation. The seeds are sown and then covered with a thin layer of soil and watered until saturation for uniform germination. Further watering is applied as needed. In both cases the seedlings are ready for transplanting days after sowing. At transplanting heavy tillering cultivars in fertile valley bottoms are wider spaced (30 cm x 30 cm) than slightly tillering cultivars in upper, sandy fields (20 cm x 20 cm). The spacing in irrigated rice is normally 20 cm x 20 cm with 2 4 plants per hill 115 ORYZA 117 (500,000-1,000,000 plants/ha). Rice is generally a sole crop under lowland conditions. Near harvest, relay planting is rarely practised. In many parts of the tropics 2 or even 3 crops of rice can be grown per year. There is a lack of accurate data on the extent of different rice systems in tropical Africa. The upland rice ecosystem, including hydromorphic rice, accounts for an estimated 50% of the total rice area in tropical Africa; lowland rice cultivation, including mangrove swamp rice, inland swamp rice and irrigated rice, accounts for 45% of the total rice area; deep-water rice cultivation occupies the remaining 5%. Most rice is grown on smallholdings of ha. Management The agronomy of rice is diverse due to the differences in cultivation systems. Growing of upland rice is usually relatively labour-extensive, but transplanting rice by hand in puddled soil is a labour-intensive operation. Weeding is generally not necessary in the first 2 weeks. Manual weeding is common practice, although chemical weed control is also becoming popular in tropical Africa, especially in irrigated rice areas. Three timely weedings are normally necessary in broadcast rice. In the cultivation of lowland rice, the land is inundated from the time of planting until the approach of harvest. The water is supplied either by flooding during the rainy season, by growing the crop in naturally swampy land or by controlled irrigation. The water level is kept at a height of 5-15 cm to suppress weed growth and to ensure water availability. Continuous flooding at a static cm depth is best. The fields may be drained temporarily to facilitate weeding and fertilizing. At flowering the water level is gradually reduced until the field is almost dry at harvest. Generally m of water (rainfall plus irrigation) are required to produce a good crop. The period in which rice is most sensitive to water shortage is from 20 days before to 10 days after the beginning of flowering. Fertilizer application is limited in rice cultivation in tropical Africa. Only in irrigated rice with controlled water supply and modern cultivars do farmers generally use significant amounts of mineral fertilizers. The amount of fertilizer used is usually kg N, kg P and 0-30 kg K per ha. Higher nitrogen rates are used during the dry season when solar radiation is higher and increase in grain yield is larger. Generally, nitrogen fertilizer is only topdressed, mostly before or at panicle initiation. Fertilizer is broadcast by hand. The most common mineral deficiencies in rice cultivation are of nitrogen and phosphorus, with potassium and sulphur in limited areas and sometimes zinc and silicon on peaty soils. Deficiency of potassium is often associated with iron toxicity. Upland rice often suffers from sulphur deficiency. Zinc deficiency occurs regularly in rice areas because of the high ph and strong reduction of the soil. Influenced by reduction and poor internal drainage, several toxic elements such as iron, which inhibit the uptake of phosphorus in the plant, may accumulate in the environment of the root. Often a harmful excess of elements such as calcium is accompanied by a lack of other elements such as phosphorus, iron and zinc. Double cropping is inadvisable where physiological diseases occur. Green manure and Azolla are rarely used in tropical Africa. However, the fast growing and actively nitrogen-fixing Sesbania rostrata Bremek. & Oberm. is a promising green manure crop. Nitrogen fixation also takes place in paddy soils by Azotobacter and blue green algae (cyanobacteria). Organic fertilizers such as farmyard manure and compost are not commonly applied to rice crops in tropical Africa. Although soil conditions are normally improved by incorporating organic fertilizers, the result is not immediately apparent. Poor availability, transport problems and the high amount of labour involved also discourage its use. The degree of mechanization is in general limited in rice cultivation in tropical Africa. Occasionally farmers use tractors or small twowheel power tillers for land preparation and powered threshing machines during harvest. For various reasons many rice fields are left fallow in the dry season. In areas with suitable climatic and soil conditions for dry-season cultivation, rice may be rotated with crops such as other cereals, pulses and vegetables. Diseases and pests The most common and severe disease of rice in tropical Africa is blast (Pyricularia grisea, synonym: Pyricularia oryzae). Although this disease is often related to drought stress and therefore especially severe in upland and drought-prone areas, it may also be severe elsewhere. Low light intensity, nutritional imbalances (especially K-deficiency), excessive N-supply, and relatively low temperatures (20-28 C) are further factors favouring this disease. The blast fungus can infect rice leaves, nodes and floral parts, particularly the basal part of the panicle. Other important 116 118 CEREALS AND PULSES diseases of rice in tropical Africa are bacterial leaf blight (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae), rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV, only found in Africa), brown spot (Cochliobolus miyabeanus), leaf scald (Microdochium oryzae), sheath blight (Thanatephorus cucumeris), narrow brown leaf spot (Cercospora janseana) and sheath rot caused by Sarocladium oryzae. The use of resistant cultivars, the judicious application of N fertilizer, adjusted planting time, crop rotation and phytosanitary and quarantine measures limit losses from rice diseases. Chemical control for blast and other rice diseases is hardly used in tropical Africa. Nematodes attack roots and young, unfurled leaves and reduce rice production in certain parts of tropical Africa. Most insect species causing damage to rice in the field and to the grain during storage in tropical Africa are indigenous, and different from those found in Asia. Internal stem feeders such as stem borers, the stalk-eyed fly and gall midge generally cause the most severe damage. The most common species of stem borers in tropical Africa are white stem borer (Maliarpha separatella), pink stem borers (Sesamia spp.) and striped stem borer (Chilo spp.). Damage results from larvae feeding within the stem, severing the vascular system. Dead heart is the damage to the tiller before flowering. White head is the damage after flowering which causes the entire panicle to dry. The damage from the stalk-eyed fly (mainly Diopsis macrophthalma) resembles the dead heart damage from stem borers as it generally attacks the rice plant at the early tillering stage. The feeding of the gall midge maggot (Orseolia oryzivora) stimulates the leaf sheath to grow into a gall and tillers with galls do not bear panicles. Termites and mole crickets attack rice plants especially in rainfed upland rice. The most serious insect pests of stored rice are the rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) and the lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica). These insects can completely destroy the grain. Insects can be controlled by chemical, cultural, and biological methods. In tropical Africa farmers use insecticides but at far lower levels than in Asia. It is important to use various crop protection methods in an integrated pest management (IPM) system for rice in tropical Africa that is sustainable, inexpensive, and environmentally safe. It should combine the use of resistant cultivars, cultural methods, biological control and, finally, chemical control when pest damage threatens to exceed the economic injury threshold. Cultural methods include sanitation (the destruction of crop residues, of alternative hosts including weeds and of habitats), tillage and flooding of fields, crop rotation, intercropping, proper timing of planting and harvest, use of trap crops, and proper fertilizer and water management. Birds eat broadcast seeds, disturb young transplanted seedlings and eat rice grains; losses can be very high. Rodents attack rice at all stages of growth and also stored grain, and losses due to rodents are often serious. Less damage is caused by snails, crabs and shrimps. Parasitic weeds of the genus Striga may cause serious losses in upland rice, e.g. Striga aspera (Willd.) Benth. and Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth. in West Africa, and Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze in the Indian Ocean Islands. Harvesting Grain should be harvested before it is fully mature (around 21 24% moisture), usually about 30 days after flowering, or when 90% of the grains are firm and do not have a greenish tint. Wetting and drying cause grain cracking, cracks being formed more readily when the grain is quite hard. Harvesting by hand, the commonest method, is very labourintensive. In some areas a small knife is used, but in many areas farmers use a sickle to cut the panicles plus some or all of the culms. Mechanical harvesters are very rare in tropical Africa. The harvested rice plants are either allowed to dry in the field or bundled for processing in a selected area. Yield Average rice yields are 1.4 t/ha in tropical Africa, 4.1 t/ha in Asia and 4.0 t/ha in the world in general. Yields are generally higher during the dry season than during the wet season, and higher in lowland rice than in upland rice. The yield of upland rice varies between 0.5 and 1.5 t/ha in tropical Africa but may reach 4 t/ha in Latin America. Rainfed lowland rice is higher yielding than upland rice but may suffer a drastic reduction in years with drought or floods. In a rainfed bunded lowland rice area in Tanzania yields are 3-4 t/ha in good years, but can drop to 0.5 t/ha in bad years. Yields of irrigated lowland rice in tropical Africa are generally 3-6 t/ha. Yields in the deep-water rice areas are generally low ( t/ha), but they are more stable than in the upland rice areas of tropical Africa. Handling after harvest Threshing is generally done by hand, by beating the bundles on a stone or drum, or by beating the panicles with wooden sticks on a canvas. However, motorized and pedal-driven threshing machines 117 ORYZA 119 are becoming popular. Winnowing is usually done by shaking and tossing the grain on a basket-work tray with a narrow rim. Sometimes hand-winnowing machines are used. After winnowing, the grain is dried in the sun and is then ready for hulling or transport to the mill. Proper drying of the rice grains is important to prevent germination and rapid loss of quality. Optimum moisture content for storage is 12.5%. Rice grain is mostly stored in sacks after drying. Increase in fat acidity during improper storage reduces the eating quality. Temperature and humidity during storage affect rice quality. Rice for home consumption is stored unhusked, as it is less susceptible to deterioration. In rice milling the aim is to avoid breaking the kernels because whole kernels command a higher price. There are different methods of milling. On milling, the grain gives approximately: husk 20%, whole kernels 50%, broken kernels 16%, bran and meal 14%. The husked or hulled rice is usually called brown rice, and this is then milled to remove the outer layers, after which it is polished to produce white rice. During milling and polishing some of the protein and much of the fat, minerals and vitamins are removed, reducing the nutritional value but increasing storability and reducing cooking time. Parboiling (soaking, boiling and drying) before milling improves the nutrient value of the grains but it is not common in tropical Africa. Genetic resources The exploration and collection of germplasm of African wild and cultivated rice species was started in 1959 by Japanese researchers who were attracted by the great diversity. The earliest collections of rice genetic resources in West Africa were built up at research stations at Rokupr, Sierra Leone and Badeggi, Nigeria. Later on the French research institutes ORSTOM and IRAT started collecting rice germplasm from francophone countries and UTA, Ibadan, Nigeria, from mainly anglophone countries. A combination of these germplasm collections with almost 15,000 accessions was then established by WAR- DA at Bouaké, Côte d'ivoire. Most of these accessions are also available in the International Rice Germplasm Collection at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Banos, the Philippines where the largest Oryza sativa collection is found with more than 86,000 accessions, characterized on the basis of about 80 traits. These traits not only include morphological characters but also susceptibility to diseases and pests, and reaction to environmental stresses, mineral deficiencies or toxicities. Large germplasm collections of Oryza sativa are also held in China (China National Rice Research Institute, Huangzhou, 70,000 accessions) and India (National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, 26,000 accessions). Apart from at WARD A, in tropical Africa large collections are present in Nigeria (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (UTA), Ibadan, 9400 accessions; National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi, 3500 accessions) and Madagascar (Département de Recherches Agronomiques de la République Malgache, Antananarivo, 2000 accessions). Collection of wild rices is being emphasized for possible new sources of important genes. Breeding Rice grain yields in the tropics have increased dramatically since the mid 1960s with the introduction of 'IR8' and other semi-dwarf cultivars, which do not lodge easily and allow high nitrogen fertilizer doses. In tropical Africa these green revolution cultivars are mainly used in irrigated rice with controlled water supply. Genetic improvement of rice in Africa was mainly focused on the upland crop. This has led to the 'New Rice for Africa' ('NERICA') cultivars, WARDA's major breakthrough in the early 1990s. 'NERICA' cultivars were the result of successful crossing of Oryza glaberrima with Oryza sativa. They combined higher tolerance to deep water, drought, weeds, blast and stalk-eyed fly from Oryza glaberrima with greater grain productivity and retention on the plant from Oryza sativa. 'NERICA' cultivars are proving to be popular with farmers, not only because of their growth characteristics, but also for their grain quality and nutritive value. They are further well suited to lowinput conditions. Breeding activities of WARD A on lowland cultivars have led to the release of cultivars with improved grain yield, resistance to blast and rice yellow mottle virus and tolerance to drought and iron toxicity. The improved cultivar 'Sahel 108', released in 1994 by WARDA, has a short life cycle enabling doublecropping in the irrigated rice systems in the Sahel. Wild Oryza species, such as Oryza barthii, Oryza longistaminata and Oryza punctata are useful sources of resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses. For instance, resistance to bacterial leaf blight has successfully been transferred from Oryza longistaminata. Biotechnology techniques used in rice breeding include plant tissue culture, molecular biology and genetic engineering. Two tissue culture 118 120 CEREALS AND PULSES techniques, embryo rescue and anther culture, have already made important contributions. Saturated genetic linkage maps based on molecular markers have been developed for rice, using crosses between cultivars of Indica Group and Japonica Group, or between Oryza sativa and Oryza longistaminata. These maps have made possible the identification of QTLs for many useful traits, such as resistance to diseases and tolerance to drought. More than 3000 molecular markers are available now, making rice the best characterized crop. The project for sequencing the complete rice genome has recently been completed. Biotechnology's most novel contribution will probably be in adding alien genes to the rice gene pool through genetic engineering. One example is 'Golden Rice', which is rice enriched with vitamin A. It is, however, still not clear if this genetically modified rice will yield well, not be susceptible to diseases and pests and be palatable. Several insecticidal toxin genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have been transferred to rice and plants containing Bt genes have shown substantial resistance to stem borers and leaf folders. Recently, transgenic rice has been obtained conferring resistance to sheath blight. Genetic engineering is a relatively new technology and one of the principal biosafety concerns is the spread of foreign genes by pollen dispersal from transgenic rice to other rice cultivars and wild rice species. Prospects At present, only an estimated 2% of the 200 million ha of wetlands in tropical Africa are used for lowland rice cultivation. Therefore one of the biggest challenges for rice development in tropical Africa is the utilization of the large potential for expansion of lowland rice. The emphasis of genetic improvement should be directed to lowland rice ecosystems, which have a higher production potential than upland rice, for example the breeding of crosses of Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima for lowland rice ecosystems. Any new types recommended should be well adapted to the local environment and methods of cultivation. For that matter it is advisable that in the breeding process greater use is made of farmer participatory varietal selection (PVS) and farmer participatory plant breeding (PPB). Breeding activities for tropical Africa should include tolerance of and adaptation to iron toxicity, salinity, alkalinity, acid sulphate soils, and relatively extreme cool and hot temperatures. In tropical Africa there is still much room for increased and integrated use of organic and mineral fertilizers with a higher efficiency and greater use of nitrogen-fixing legumes, bacteria and bluegreen algae. The applicability of methods of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) in a certain locality can be best tested through farmer field schools. An increased use of farmer field schools is also advocated for the adoption of methods of integrated pest management (IPM) by more rice farming households in tropical Africa. Further improvements are expected from mechanization of rice farming, especially regarding land preparation, weeding, harvesting, threshing and further processing. All these suggestions require research adjusted to the local conditions, a well-functioning extension service, government support, and active participation of farming households. Some of the above topics are already being researched. Major references Alam, John & Zan, 1985; Buddenhagen & Persley (Editors), 1978; Catling, 1992; Grist, 1986; Lorieux, Ndjiondjop & Ghesquière, 2000; Meertens, Ndege & Lupeja, 1999; Schalbroeck, 2001; Smith & Dilday, 2003; Vergara & de Datta, 1996; Zan, John & Alam, Other references Abo, Sy & Alegbejo, 1998; Burkill, 1994; Catling & Islam, 1999; Chang, 2000; Choudhury & Kennedy, 2004; de Datta, 1981; de Vries & Toenniessen, 2001; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Holland, Unwin & Buss, 1988; Johnson et al., 1997; Jones et al., 1997; Khush, 1997; Latham, 2004; Launert, 1971; Lu, 1999; Neuwinger, 2000; Paul, Southgate & Russell, 1980; Sauvant, Perez & Tran, 2004; Vergara & Chang, 1983; Widjaja, Craske & Wootton, Sources of illustration Vergara & de Datta, Authors H.C.C. Meertens Based on PROSEA 10: Cereals. PANICUM KALAHARENSE Mez Protologue Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 57: 187 (1921). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Origin and geographic distribution Panicum kalaharense is distributed in Zambia, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa. Uses The grain of Panicum kalaharense is eaten by the Wambo people in Namibia. Panicum kalaharense is also a pasture grass. 119 PANICUM 121 Properties As a pasture grass Panicum kalaharense is recorded as being moderately palatable when young. Botany Robust, perennial grass up to 2.5 m tall, tufted or with a short rootstock; stem (culm) pubescent at base. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath densely hairy along margins in upper part; blade linear, cm x 2-8 mm, acuminate, flat or rolled, tough, upper surface densely covered with short hairs. Inflorescence a broadly ovoid panicle cm long, moderately to much branched. Spikelet ovoid, 3-4 mm long, 2- flowered; lower glume broadly ovate, half to two-thirds the length of the spikelet, acute or acuminate, 3-5-veined, upper glume 5 9- veined; lower floret male, lemma 7-9-veined, palea well-developed, upper floret female, lemma and palea pale or dark, glossy; stamens 3; ovary superior, stigmas 2. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), ellipsoid, compressed. Panicum comprises about 470 species and is mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with some species extending to temperate regions. Panicum kalaharense follows the C4-cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Panicum kalaharense is considered to be drought resistant. It is locally common in grassland and savanna habitats on sandy soils in areas with an annual rainfall of mm, at m altitude. It is also found in disturbed locations such as roadsides. Management The grain of Panicum kalaharense is collected from the wild. Genetic resources and breeding A small collection of 3 accessions of Panicum kalaharense is held at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Prospects Panicum kalaharense is an unimportant local source of food and forage, and will probably remain so. Little is known about this species and more information would be useful, particularly on its food and fodder quality. Major references Clayton, 1989; Gibbs Russell et al, 1990; Launert, Other references Klaassen & Craven, 2003; Schulze et al., Authors M. Brink PANICUM LAETUM Kunth Protologue Révis. gramin. 2: 399, f. 113 (1831). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Vernacular names Wild fonio, desert panic (En). Haze, fonio sauvage (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Panicum laetum is distributed from Mauritania, Senegal and Gambia eastwards through the southern Sahara and the Sahel to Eritrea; it is also recorded from Tanzania. Uses Panicum laetum is one of the 'kreb' grasses, a group of grasses occurring in the Sahel and collected from the wild for human consumption on a regular basis and especially in times of food shortage; it is also regarded as a delicacy. The grain of Panicum laetum is crushed and made into porridge and cakes, and is sometimes collected on a large enough scale to be sold in local markets. Panicum laetum is much appreciated by animals for grazing and is suitable for making hay or silage. It is considered to have potential for the restoration of degraded pastures. Properties Whole grains of Panicum laetum collected in Mali contained per 100 g: water 3.3 g, energy 1580 kj (377 kcal), protein 9.5 g, fat 4.8 g, carbohydrate 70.8 g, Ca 51 mg and Fe 210 mg. The essential amino acid content of whole grains per 16 g N was: tryptophan 1.3 g, lysine 2.0 g, methionine 2.6 g, phenylalanine 5.9 g, threonine 3.7 g, valine 6.0 g, leucine 11.3 g and isoleucine 4.7 g. Husked grains contained per 100 g: water 1.9 g, energy 1630 kj (389 kcal), protein 12.4 g, fat 2.2 g, carbohydrate 82.1 g, ash 1.4 g, Ca 13 mg and Fe 24 mg. The essential amino acid content of husked grains per 16 g N was: tryptophan 1.4 g, lysine 1.3 g, methionine 2.6 g, phenylalanine 6.3 g, threonine 3.6 g, valine 6.0 g, leucine 12.2 g and isoleucine 5.1 g (Beseth Nordeide, Holm & Oshaug, 1994). The most limiting amino acid is lysine. Panicum laetum plants in mid-bloom in Niger contain crude protein 14.3%, crude fibre 28.8%, crude fat 1.8%, nitrogen-free extracts 42.9%, Ca 0.30%, Mg 0.28% and P 0.42%. Botany Annual, tufted grass up to 75 cm tall; stem (culm) slender, erect or geniculately ascending, branched. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath glabrous or bristlyhairy; ligule short, fringed; blade linearlanceolate, flat, 5-25 cm x 5-12 mm, acuminate, usually glabrous, margin smooth or bristly hairy in lower part. Inflorescence an ovoid 120 122 CEREALS AND PULSES panicle 6-20 cm long, much-branched, primary branches ascending or spreading, branchlets and pedicels slender. Spikelet narrowly ellipsoid, mm x 1.5 mm, acute, usually pale green, 2-flowered; lower glume ovate, about % the length of the spikelet, 5-7-veined, acute, upper glume elliptical, 7 11-veined, acute; lower floret sterile, lemma 9-11-veined, palea almost equally long, upper floret bisexual, lemma narrowly ovate, acute, pale, smooth, glossy; stamens 3; ovary superior, stigmas 2. Fruit an ellipsoid caryopsis (grain) mm long, compressed, yellowish. Panicum comprises about 470 species and is mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with some species extending to temperate regions. Ecology Panicum laetum is found in seasonally moist locations in grassland, ditches, and pond and river margins, often on black clay soils. It is not particularly drought tolerant. In West Africa Panicum laetum often occurs in very large, nearly pure stands. In Tanzania it is found at m altitude. Management Panicum laetum is propagated by seed. The optimum temperature for seed germination is 35 C. Scarification or removal of the lemma and palea from the grain greatly improves germination. In West Africa Panicum laetum is collected from the wild by sweeping through the crop with a calabash, bowl or tray when the ears are ready to shatter. The grains of Panicum laetum are favoured by quelea birds. Genetic resources and breeding A collection of 25 accessions of Panicum laetum is held at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. In view of its wide distribution and abundance Panicum laetum is not threatened by genetic erosion. Prospects Panicum laetum is of importance in marginal areas and has potential for restoring over-grazed pastures. The selection of improved strains for grain and fodder production is recommended. Major references Beseth Nordeide, Holm & Oshaug, 1994; Burkill, 1994; Naegele, 1977; National Research Council, 1996; Phillips, Other references Bartha, 1970; Clayton, 1972; Harlan, 1989b; Keith & Plowes, 1997; le Grand, 1979; van der Hoek & Jansen, 1996a; Veldkamp, 1996b; Veldkamp, Wijs & Zoetemeyer, Authors M. Brink PANICUM MILIACEUM L. Protologue Sp. pi. 1: 58 (1753). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number ïn = 36 Vernacular names Proso millet, common millet, hog millet (En). Millet commun, kibi (Fr). Milho miudo, milho de canario (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Proso millet is of ancient cultivation. Its origin has not been ascertained, but it was probably domesticated in central and eastern Asia, where it has been cultivated for more than 5000 years. Proso millet has long been a major crop in northern China. In the Bronze Age it spread widely in Europe, also to northern regions where the cold-susceptible foxtail millet (Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv.) could not be grown. In Europe remains have been found in agricultural settlements dating back about 3000 years. Proso millet was the 'milium' of the Romans and the true millet of history. It was introduced into North America after the arrival of Columbus. In Europe and the United States its popularity as a cereal declined after the large-scale introduction of potato and maize. Nowadays proso millet is cultivated for human consumption mainly in eastern and central Asia, and to a lesser extent in eastern Europe (Russia, Danube region) and from western Asia to Pakistan and India (Bihar, Andhra Pradesh). It is occasionally grown in other parts of Europe and Asia and in North America, mainly as a source of feed for cage-birds and poultry, and as fodder. In tropical Africa, it is cultivated in Ethiopia, eastern Kenya, Malawi, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Madagascar. It is also recorded from Lesotho. Its importance in Kenya is said Panicum miliaceum -planted 121 PANICUM 123 to have declined since the 1950s following the advance of maize cultivation. Proso millet has widely naturalized, and is sometimes a troublesome weed, e.g. in the United States and Russia. Uses The husked grains of proso millet are eaten whole, boiled like rice or after roasting. They are also cooked into porridge, or, after grinding, baked into flat bread or chapatti. Only the flour of gluten-rich types can be used for leavened bread and cakes; the flour of other types has to be mixed with wheat flour. In China, where proso millet flour is made into bread, cultivars with glutinous (waxy) endosperm are favoured; in Mongolia, where the grains are cooked like rice, non-glutinous cultivars are grown. In Ethiopia, the grains are fermented into a kind of beverage ('tella'). Elsewhere they are used for making beer and brandy. The grain is a feed for animals, including pigs, fowls and cage-birds. The plant is used as a forage. The forage quality of the straw is poor, and in India it is more often used for bedding for cattle. The straw is also made into brooms. Starch from the grains has been used for sizing textiles. Various medicinal uses of proso millet have been recorded in Asia; the seeds are used as a demulcent and as a treatment for abscesses and boils, and stem and root decoctions are taken against haematuria. Production and international trade Production statistics for proso millet are scarce because they are usually lumped with those of other millets. The average annual world production of proso millet in was estimated at 4.9 million t, with the Soviet Union (2.3 million t), China (1.6 million t) and India (0.5 million t) as main producers. The annual production in was estimated at 4 million t. In tropical Africa the production of proso millet is very low compared to that of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.) and finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.), but no statistics are available. Compared to the total world trade in cereals, the international trade in millets is insignificant. The world millet trade in amounted to about 250,000 t/year. The share of proso millet of the total recorded millet trade has been estimated at about two-thirds. Most proso millet traded internationally is imported by the pet-food industry in industrialized countries for use as bird feed. As millet yields are relatively low, prices on the world market are generally higher than those of other cereals; the small size of the international millet trade results in volatile prices. Properties Proso millet contains per 100 g edible portion: water 8.6 g, energy 1582 kj (378 kcal), protein 11.0 g, fat 4.2 g, carbohydrate 72.9 g, dietary fibre 8.5 g, Ca 8 mg, Mg 114 mg, P 285 mg, Fe 3.0 mg, Zn 1.7 mg, vitamin A 0 IU, thiamin 0.42 mg, riboflavin 0.29 mg, niacin 4.7 mg, vitamin P> mg, folate 85 ug, ascorbic acid 0 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 119 mg, lysine 212 mg, methionine 221 mg, phenylalanine 580 mg, threonine 353 mg, valine 578 mg, leucine 1400 mg and isoleucine 465 mg. The principal fatty acids are (per 100 g edible portion): linoleic acid 2015 mg, oleic acid 739 mg, palmitic acid 528 mg, stearic acid 145 mg and linolenic acid 118 mg (USDA, 2004). The grains have a relatively high indigestible fibre content because the seeds are enclosed in hulls which are difficult to remove by conventional milling processes. The husked grain of proso millet has a slightly nutty flavour. Panicum miliaceum - 1, upper part of flowering culm of plant type with loose inflorescence; 2, inflorescence branch of plant type with loose inflorescence; 3, upper part of flowering culm of plant type with compact inflorescence; 4, inflorescence branch of plant type with compact inflorescence; 5, grains. Source: PROSEA 122 124 CEREALS AND PULSES Non-glutinous proso millet cultivars are considered suitable for the diet of people with coeliac disease. Experiments with rats indicate that proso millet protein may be useful as a preventive food for certain types of hepatitis. Proso millet has been found to induce allergic reactions in bird keepers. Description Erect annual grass up to 1.2( 1.5) m tall, usually free-tillering and tufted, with a rather shallow root system; stem cylindrical, simple or sparingly branched, glabrous to variously hairy. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath variously hairy; ligule membranous, c. 1 mm long, ciliate; blade linearlanceolate, cm x cm, variously hairy, with 3-6 veins on each side of the midrib. Inflorescence a slender panicle 10-30(-45) cm x 5-15 cm, open or compact, erect or drooping. Spikelets solitary, stalked, ovoid-ellipsoid, 4-6 mm long, 2-flowered, glabrous; glumes unequal, the upper as long as spikelet, manyveined; lower floret sterile, upper one bisexual with thick broad (c. 2 mm) lemma and palea, 2 lodicules, 3 stamens and superior ovary with 2 plumose stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), broadly ovoid, up to 3 mm x 2 mm, smooth, variously coloured but often white, enclosed by the persistent lemma and palea and shedding easily. Other botanical information Panicum is a large genus comprising about 470 species and is mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with some species extending to temperate regions. Panicum miliaceum is a complex species with wild and cultivated types. In the literature the following two groups have been classified as subspecies: subsp. ruderale (Kitag.) Tzvelev including all spontaneous types, wild and weedy, and subsp. miliaceum comprising the cultivated types. The cultivated types have sometimes been classified into a cultivar group: Proso Millet Group. The wild types have lax panicles, usually jointed spikelet stalks and narrow lemmas, whereas the cultivated ones have either lax or compressed panicles, spikelet stalks without joints and wider lemmas. The true wild type is native to central China and is considered to be the ancestor of the cultivated types. In temperate regions of Europe, Asia and the United States, however, wild types occur that differ from the wild type in China and are most probably derivatives of cultivated types which have regained the ability of natural seed dispersal and spread as weeds. Cultivated proso millet comprises many cultivars and landraces, and 5 groups have been distinguished, mainly based on size and shape of the inflorescences. Within these groups, cultivars are mainly distinguished on the basis of grain colour (varying largely from white, yellow, brown, red, to almost black) and ecological adaptation. Growth and development Proso millet matures in days. Emergence of the seedling is usually in 4-8 days after sowing. During the vegetative phase, which is usually completed days after sowing, tillering occurs and the inflorescence primordia are initiated. From then it takes days to flowering of the main culm, but this period is somewhat shorter at higher temperatures. It is accompanied by an increase in leaf area and rapid elongation of stem internodes. The leaf number on the main culm differs among cultivars, but each cultivar produces a fixed number of leaves before flowering. Flowering proceeds from top to bottom. The flowers are normally selffertilized, but cross-fertilization frequently exceeds 10%. The period from flowering to grain maturity has a duration of about days, and is almost constant among cultivars. At grain maturity the lower part of the inflorescence as well as the stem and leaves are still green. Proso millet follows the Ci-cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Although proso millet is primarily a crop of temperate regions, it has a wide adaptability and can be grown in climates which are too hot and dry, and on soils which are too shallow and poor for successful cultivation of other cereals. It is cultivated further north than any other millet, the limit being the June isotherm of 17 C and the July isotherm of 20 C. Cultivation as a grain crop occurs up to 3000 m altitude in the Himalayas. It susceptible to frost. Proso millet has one of the lowest water requirements of all cereals. An average annual rainfall of mm is sufficient, of which 35-40% should fall during the growing period. Most soils are suitable for proso millet, except coarse sand. Propagation and planting Proso millet is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is (4.7-)5(-7.2) g. Proso millet seeds germinate well at temperatures of C, with the highest rate at temperatures between 35 C and 40 C. The seed is either broadcast or drilled in rows cm apart and at a distance of 7.5 cm in the row. This corresponds with a seed rate of 8-12 kg/ha. The recommended seed rate for furrow planting in Kenya is 4 kg/ha, with a 123 PANICUM 125 row distance of 30 cm and 10 cm between plants within the row. The seedbed should be moist, firm and free of weeds. For optimal germination seed should be soaked in water for 24 hours and planted no deeper than 4 cm. In India the crop is sometimes grown from transplanted seedlings. Sowing early in the rainy season is less important for proso millet than for cereals such as sorghum and pearl millet, as yield reduction due to late sowing is relatively small. Proso millet is usually grown as a sole crop, but may be intercropped with other cereals and with pulses. In-vitro regeneration of proso millet is possible on Murashige and Skoog medium, using excised embryos, shoot tips and segments of young inflorescences. Management The first weeks after sowing are critical in proso millet cultivation, as initial growth is slow, thus making competition with weeds difficult. In Kenya the first weeding of proso millet is recommended to take place at 2-3 weeks after emergence of the seedlings, and the second 2 weeks later. Little is known about the fertilizer response of proso millet. In India recommended fertilizer rates are kg N, 20 kg P and 0-20 kg K per ha. Proso millet is usually grown as a rainfed crop, but in India it is sometimes irrigated. In Russia proso millet is usually grown in rotation with a forage grass, wheat or barley. In Bangladesh the rotation may comprise a pulse, wheat, jute, rice, potato or a Brassica crop. Diseases and pests Proso millet is relatively little affected by diseases and pests. The most important disease is smut (Sphacelotheca destruens and Ustilago spp.). Control measures include seed treatment with fungicide (copper sulphate) and crop rotation. Other diseases recorded are anthracnose (Colletotrichum graminicola), leaf blast (Pyricularia grisea), downy mildew (Sclerospora graminicola), ergot (Claviceps spp.), rust (Puccinia and Uromyces spp.), leaf blight (Helminthosporium sp.) and foot rot (Sclerotium rolfsii). The bacterium Xanthomonas holcicola can cause melanopathy, a darkening of the endosperm. Proso millet can be damaged severely by maggots of the shootfly (Atherigona miliaceae), which attack the growing point. Infestation usually begins in the seedling stage, but may also occur in older plants. Tolerant lines have been identified in India. Other pests that are sometimes troublesome include stem borers (Chilo partellus, Chilo suppressalis and Sesamia inferens), midges, bugs, army worms, grasshoppers and termites. Birds and rats may destroy a considerable part of the harvest. Harvesting Proso millet is ready for harvest when the seed has a moisture content of 14 15%. Delayed harvesting should be avoided, as the seed shatters easily if allowed to become too mature. Premature harvesting, on the other hand, results in reduced yield and quality. Plants are usually harvested by pulling them up by the roots, and they are threshed immediately to avoid grain loss. If proso millet is harvested during the rainy season with high relative humidity, the grain must be dried to 14% moisture content. Households usually dry the grains over fire. Yield The average yield of proso millet under rainfed conditions is kg/ha. With sufficient rain and fertile soils or under irrigation and with application of fertilizers, yields of over 2 t/ha have been obtained. The milling recovery is 70-80%. Handling after harvest Proso millet grain stores well for up to 5 years. Because of its small size it is hardly susceptible to insect attack. In India it is stored in granaries with clay walls or clay jars; sometimes the grain is mixed with ash or slightly baked before storage. It should be stored at 13% moisture content or less. Genetic resources The largest germplasm collections of Panicum miliaceum are held in Russia (N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry, St. Petersburg, about 9000 accessions), China (Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (CAAS), Beijing, about 7500 accessions) and Ukraine (Institute of Plant Production, Kharkiv, about 5000 accessions; Ustimovskaya Experimental Station for Plant Cultivation, Ustimovka, about 3500 accessions). In tropical Africa, accessions are held in Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu). In China, proso millet germplasm is being evaluated for resistance to smut, salt tolerance and nutritional quality. Of 4200 accessions described in China, 53% were nonglutinous. Breeding In Kenya some selection work with local lines and lines obtained from ICRISAT has been carried out. The recommended cultivar in Kenya is 'KAT/PRO-1', developed by Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI). It was selected from 'N40101', an introduction from the former Soviet Union, received through ICRISAT. 'KAT/PRO-1' was derived from single plants selected for erect 124 126 CEREALS AND PULSES tillers, large inflorescences and large grains, and repeated cycles of mass selection of the progeny for the same traits and high yield potential. This cultivar is self-pollinated, has an open inflorescence and cream-coloured grains. It has the ability to stop growing when under severe drought stress, but it recovers quickly and resumes growth when the source of the stress is removed. It can be grown up to 2000 m altitude, becomes about 80 cm tall, flowers in days, and matures in days, depending on altitude and season. The average yield of 'KAT/PRO-1' was 1400 kg/ha, which was 50% higher than the mean of the local cultivar s. Breeding programmes in India and Russia aim at a higher productivity (drought resistance and earlier or late maturity), disease resistance (especially to smut) and grain quality (uniform size and shape, yellow endosperm with high carotenoid content). The main breeding method employed in Russia is intraspecific hybridization. The floral morphology of proso millet (small florets with tightly held lemma and palea) makes emasculation prior to anthesis and artificial crossing difficult, but techniques were developed in the United States and a number of cultivars have been released since In the United States breeding efforts include the development of cultivars with higher yield, better harvestability and large grain. In addition, germplasm with waxy starch characteristics (used for steam breads in South-East Asia) is being developed, to expand the export potential for proso millet in the United States. Interspecific crossing of Panicum miliaceum with some other Panicum species resulted in abnormal embryos, which could be rescued by in-vitro ovary culture. Pollen sterility of the hybrid progeny could partly be overcome by invitro propagation. Prospects The production of proso millet is declining and the crop is being replaced in the human diet by other cereals, especially rice, wheat and maize. However, it will continue to be an important staple in semi-arid areas where hardly any other cereal can be grown. Proso millet is considered a potentially useful quick-maturing crop for the drier regions of tropical Africa, to fill the hunger gap before the main cereals are harvested. Major constraints are low returns due to high labour requirements (mainly for bird scaring, but also for planting and weeding) and low yields, limited alternative uses, existing eating habits, and a lack of information on the crop. Measures resulting in less tillering, e.g. narrow distances between rows, give a more uniform crop maturity and will reduce labour requirements for bird scaring. The export market for millets in general will remain small, as millet prices tend to be too high compared with those of other cereals. Further development of niche markets, e.g. waxy starch for Asian markets, may improve the export potential of proso millet. Major references Cardenas, Nelson & Neild, 1984; FAO, 1995; Fröman & Persson, 1974; Hülse, Laing & Pearson, 1980; Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2002; M'Ragwa & Watson, 1994; Penninkhoff, 1984; Riley et al. (Editors), 1993; Seetharam, Riley & Harinarayana, 1990; van der Hoek & Jansen, 1996b. Other references Bajaj, Sidhu & Dubey, 1981; Baltensperger, 1996; Baltensperger, 2002; Bohle et al, 2003; CSIR, 1966; de Wet, 1995c; Douglas, 1974; Gibberd, 1996; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Haq, 1989; ICRISAT & FAO, 1996; Kashin et al., 1997; M'ragwa & Kanyenji, 1987; Nelson, 1984; Nishizawa et al., 2002; Petr et al., 2003; Purseglove, 1972; Seetharam, 1998; USDA, 2004; Veldkamp, 1996b. Sources of illustration van der Hoek & Jansen, 1996b. Authors R.N. Kaume Based on PROSEA 10: Cereals. PANICUM TURGIDUM Forssk. Protologue Fl. aegypt.-arab.: 18 (1775). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 18, 36, 54 Vernacular names Desert grass, turgid panic grass (En). Origin and geographic distribution Panicum turgidum is distributed from Mauritania and Senegal eastwards through the Sahara and Sahel to Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia, and through northern Africa and western Asia to Pakistan and India. Uses Panicum turgidum is one of the 'kreb' grasses, a group of grasses occurring in the Sahel region and collected from the wild for human consumption on a regular basis and especially in times of food shortage. Formerly the grains of Panicum turgidum were gathered in large amounts, but nowadays they are rarely harvested. The grains are mainly made into 125 PANICUM 127 porridge. They may also be pounded and eaten without further preparation ('tebik'). In Djibouti the young shoots are eaten; they are said to be sweet. When green, Panicum turgidum is eaten by all livestock; when dry, only by camels and donkeys. The stems are used for thatching and for making mats, baskets and cordage. The Tamachek people in Niger weave the straw as the weft, with thin threads of leather as the warp, into mats which can only be rolled one way. Mats of Panicum turgidum have been used as funeral shrouds. In the Sahara the stems are used as fuel. Plant ash is mixed with tobacco for chewing and in southern Algeria the powder of ground stems is used as a wound-dressing. In Mauritania the grains are credited with antidiabetic properties. Panicum turgidum has occasionally been used for dune fixation in arid areas. Properties The palatibility of the leaves of Panicum turgidum is low, but sufficient for camels and donkeys, and, when young, for sheep and goats. Herdsmen in Niger say that milk becomes foul-smelling 2-3 days after cows have grazed Panicum turgidum. The grains thresh free from the glumes but remain covered by the tough lemma and palea. Botany Much-branched, glaucous, perennial grass, forming rounded tussocks up to 1.5(-2) m tall and wide, with a thick rootstock and a fibrous root system up to 2 m deep and laterally spreading for up to 3.5 m; stem (culm) erect or ascending, woody, rooting at the nodes. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; blade linear-lanceolate, up to 20(-30) cm x 7 mm, often much shorter than the sheath, flat, folded or inrolled, stiff and pungent. Inflorescence a moderately branched, pyramidal panicle (-30) cm x 5 9 cm, lax, primary branches distant, eventually spreading. Spikelet ovoid, ( 5) mm long, acute or acuminate, swollen, glabrous, often gaping at anthesis, 2- flowered; glumes broadly ovate, acute to acuminate, lower glume slightly shorter than the spikelet, 5 9-veined, upper glume 7-9-veined; lower floret male, lemma 9-11-veined, palea well-developed, upper floret bisexual, lemma pale or yellowish, smooth, glossy; stamens 3; ovary superior, stigmas 2. Fruit a caryopsis (grain) c. 2 mm long, reddish. Panicum comprises about 470 species and is mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with some species extending to temperate regions. Natural reproduction of Panicum turgidum is mainly vegetatively by stolons. In dry areas the dormant buds sprout rapidly after the onset of the rainy season and the plants stay green over a very extended period, with flowering occurring towards the end of the rainy season and during the early part of the dry season. The seeds of Panicum turgidum mature at different times over an extended period, shatter easily and are often eaten by birds. Panicum turgidum follows the C4-cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Panicum turgidum is extremely drought tolerant, growing in regions with an annual rainfall of mm or sometimes even less. It occurs up to 3200 m altitude, in sandy deserts and semi-deserts, on dunes and seashores, and in sandy pockets in rocky outcrops. Panicum turgidum is an important plant of the Sahara and Arabian deserts, catching sand and forming hummocks, sometimes in nearly pure stands. In Sudan it is dominant on grounds where locusts lay their eggs, and it serves as food for young locusts. Panicum turgidum tolerates saline soils. Management Panicum turgidum is not cultivated as a cereal, but collected from the wild. It is sometimes protected from grazing until after seed harvesting, e.g. in southern Algeria and northern Mali. The panicles may be beaten with a stick to obtain the grains. In Niger the panicles are rubbed between the hands. Panicum turgidum can be propagated by seed or by rootstock cuttings. Seeds do not germinate below 15 C and must be sown superficially. Germination is best at C. Transplanting of seedlings is possible. Genetic resources and breeding A collection of 42 accessions of Panicum turgidum is held at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. High grain-yielding types are particularly found in the Middle East. Because of its wide distribution and abundance Panicum turgidum is not threatened by genetic erosion. Prospects Panicum turgidum has value as a very drought-resistant grass suitable for sand-binding and for providing food and fodder. It is recommended to sample the existing variation and to use the collected germplasm in a breeding programme aimed at developing superior cultivars. More information is needed on the nutritional characteristics of the grain. Major references Burkill, 1994; Harlan, 1989b; Kernick, 1992; Phillips, 1995; Williams & Farias, Other references Ahmad et al., 1994; Bogdan, 1977; Clayton, 1972; Cope, 1995; Hanelt & 126 128 CEREALS AND PULSES Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Haroun, 2000; Kernick, 1978; Kiambi, 1999; Naegele, 1977; National Research Council, Authors M. Brink PENNISETUM GLAUCUM (L.) R.Br. Protologue Prodr.: 195 (1810). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 14 Synonyms Pennisetum spicatum (L.) Körn. (1885), Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke (1907), Pennisetum typhoides (Burm.f.) Stapf & C.E.Hubb. (1933). Vernacular names Pearl millet, bulrush millet, cattail millet (En). Mil, mil à chandelle, mil pénicillaire, petit mil (Fr). Milho zaburro, milho preto, milheto, massango liso (Po). Mwele (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Pearl millet was domesticated in the Sahel years ago from Pennisetum violaceum (Lam.) Rich. It spread to East Africa and from there to southern Africa, and, about 3000 years ago, to the Indian subcontinent. It reached tropical America in the 18 th century and the United States in the 19 th century. Pearl millet is commonly grown as a grain crop in the semi-arid regions of West Africa and the driest parts of East and southern Africa and the Indian subcontinent. It is also grown as a fodder crop, e.g. in Brazil, the United States, South Africa, and Australia. Uses Pearl millet is the staple food for over 100 million people in parts of tropical Africa and India. Decorticated and pounded into flour Pennisetum glaucum -planted it is consumed as a stiff porridge ('tô') or gruel in Africa, or as flat unleavened bread ('chapatti') in India. In Africa there are various other preparations such as couscous, rice-like products, snacks of blends with pulses, and fermented and non-fermented beverages. In several Indian preparations parched seeds are used. The stems are widely applied for fencing, thatching and building, as fuel and as a poorquality fodder. Split stems are used for basketry. A dye for leather and wood is obtained from red- and purple-flowered types. In African traditional medicine the grain has been applied to treat chest disorders, leprosy, blennorrhoea and poisonings, and the ground grain as an anthelmintic for children. A root decoction is drunk to treat jaundice; the vapour of inflorescence extracts is inhaled for respiratory diseases in children. In some areas the grains are used in rituals. Outside Africa and India pearl millet is mostly grown as a green fodder crop for silage, hay making and grazing. Following the discovery that pearl millet can suppress root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus penetrans) it is increasingly being used as an alternative to soil fumigation in tobacco and potato cropping in Canada. Production and international trade Production statistics often combine data on all millet species. Estimates based on total millet production (FAO statistics) and relative importance of pearl millet in different countries indicate an annual grain production of about 18 million t from a planted area of 26.5 million ha mostly in the dry regions of Africa (60% of area and 58% of production) and the Indian subcontinent (38% of area and 41% of production). Production statistics over the past 10 years show a 20% increase in area planted in Africa, with a 12%> increase in yield. Most of the area increase is in Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Niger and Nigeria, but yield levels increased only in the latter two countries. During the same period, the area planted to pearl millet in India declined by 16%, but yield levels increased by 30%. Negligible quantities are traded internationally. Properties Whole dried grain of pearl millet contains per 100 g edible portion: water 12.0 g, energy 1428 kj (341 kcal), protein 10.4 g, fat 4.0 g, carbohydrate 71.6 g, fibre 1.9 g, Ca 22 mg, P 286 mg, Fe 20.7 mg, ß-carotene traces, thiamin 0.30 mg, riboflavin 0.22 mg, niacin 1.7 mg and ascorbic acid 3 mg (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). The content of essential amino acids per 100 g food is: tryptophan 189 mg, 127 PENNISETUM 129 lysine 332 mg, methionine 239 mg, phenylalanine 467 mg, threonine 374 mg, valine 535 mg, leucine 927 mg and isoleucine 397 mg (FAO, 1970). From a nutritional viewpoint pearl millet is better than maize and sorghum. Compared to that of other millets, the protein of pearl millet is rich in tryptophan. Description Robust annual grass up to 4 m tall, with basal and nodal tillering; root system extremely profuse, sometimes the nodes at ground level produce thick, strong prop roots; stem slender, 1-3 cm in diameter, solid, often densely villous below the panicle, nodes prominent. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath often hairy; ligule short, membranous, with a fringe of hairs; blade linear to linearlanceolate, up to 1.5 m x 8 cm, often pubescent, margins minutely toothed, somewhat rough. Inflorescence a cylindrical, contracted, stiff and compact panicle, suggesting a spike, up to 200 cm long; rachis cylindrical, bearing densely packed clusters of 1 5( 9) spikelets, subtended by a tuft (involucre) of up to 90 bristles about as long as spikelets, but in some cultivars with a few stiff bristles up to 2 cm long. Spikelets Pennisetum glaucum - 1, plant habit; 2, part of infructescence; 3, pair of spikelets surrounded by involucre of bristles. Source: PROSEA obovate, 3-7 mm long, usually 2-flowered; glumes 2, lower one c. 1 mm long, upper one c. 2.5 mm; lower floret male or sterile, upper one bisexual; lemma ovate, pubescent on margins; palea almost as long as lemma; lodicules absent; stamens 3, anthers 2-5 mm long, tipped with brush-like bristles; ovary superior, obovoid, smooth, with 2 hairy stigmas, connate at the base. Fruit a free-threshing caryopsis (grain), globose to cylindrical or conical, mm long, variously coloured, from white, pearl-coloured or yellow to grey-blue or brown, occasionally purple, hilum marked by a distinct black dot at maturity. Other botanical information Pennisetum comprises about 80 species and occurs throughout the tropics. Pearl millet is not closely related to most other Pennisetum species, although it hybridizes easily with elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach., a tetraploid with In = 28). Pennisetum glaucum belongs to a complex of 3 taxa that hybridize freely and are sometimes considered as subspecies of Pennisetum glaucum. However, as long as the complicated taxonomy of pearl millet has not been fully cleared up, it is preferable to keep these taxa separate: - Pennisetum glaucum: cultivated types, with persistent, stiped involucres; the dense inflorescences and non-shattering habit are conspicuous. - Pennisetum sieberianum (Schltdl.) Stapf & C.E.Hubb. (synonyms: Pennisetum stenostachyum (A.Braun & Bouché) Stapf & CE. Hubb., Pennisetum dalzielii Stapf & CE. Hubb., Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke subsp. stenostachyum (A.Braun & Bouché) Brunken): weedy types, resulting from introgression between wild Pennisetum violaceum and cultivated Pennisetum glaucum and ranging in morphology between wild and cultivated types; in the latter case they are termed 'shibras' and they look much like Pennisetum glaucum cultivars, but differ in having deciduous shortly stiped involucres, and spikelets which shatter before harvest; bristles numerous, longer than spikelets; widespread in the Sahel and also found, though less frequently, in East and southern Africa. - Pennisetum violaceum (Lam.) Rich, ex Pers. (synonyms: Pennisetum fallax (Fig. & De Not.) Stapf & C.E.Hubb., Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke subsp. monodii (Maire) Brunken): wild, variable type, with deciduous sessile involucres which always contain a 128 130 CEREALS AND PULSES single spikelet; bristles numerous, longer than spikelets; distributed from the West African Sahel region to Eritrea in very dry locations, independent of farming; sometimes harvested as a wild cereal in times of scarcity. Although many intermediate cultivars occur, 4 cultivar groups (originally described as races) can be distinguished in cultivated Pennisetum glaucum, based mainly on grain shape and partly on distribution: - Typhoides Group; grain obovoid, circular in cross-section, mm x mm x1 2.5 mm, inflorescence cylindrical or ellipsoidal, usually less than 0.5 m long; it is the most primitive, the most variable and most widely distributed group, occurring all over the pearl millet range in Africa and India, and is probably ancestral for the other groups. - Globosum Group: grain globose, more than 2.5 mm in diameter, inflorescence cylindrical, often longer than 1 m; most common in the Sahel region west of Nigeria. - Leonis Group: grain oblanceolate in outline, circular in cross-section, mm x mm x mm, apex acute, inflorescence cylindrical; this is the smallest group and is grown in Mauritania, Senegal and Sierra Leone. - Nigritarum Group; grain obovoid but angular in cross-section, 3-5 mm x mm x mm, inflorescence cylindrical; most common in semi-arid regions from Nigeria to Sudan. Agronomically two main groups of cultivars are recognized in West Africa, based on growth duration : short-duration Gero (or Souna) cultivars and long-duration Maiwa (or Sanio) cultivars. Gero cultivars are less photoperiodsensitive, are more widely grown and exhibit more genetic diversity than Maiwa cultivars, in which flowering date is strongly controlled by daylength. Maiwa types are grown in regions where the rainy season is longer and where sorghum is the major cereal, but on poorer, more drought-prone soils. Certain Maiwa millets are transplanted from nurseries into the field and are known as Dauro millet. The improved cultivars and dwarf single-cross hybrids grown in India are stronger tillering, early (80 days) to very early (65 days) maturing and less photoperiod-sensitive than African cultivars. Growth and development Pearl millet cultivars vary in time to maturity from days, but mostly from days. Time to flower initiation is the main factor determining the life cycle of a cultivar. Floral initiation is weakly to strongly controlled by photoperiod, with short days accelerating flower initiation. Photoperiod response allows crop cycle length to be adjusted by time of planting, needed when rains begin late, to ensure that flowering and grain production occur at the same optimum time each year for a specific latitude. In short-duration, photoperiod-insensitive cultivars the developmental stages (from germination to flower initiation, to flowering and to maturity) areof approximately equal duration. Field establishment of pearl millet is affected by its relatively small seed size, especially in crusting soils. Other factors that influence stand establishment include high soil surface temperatures at emergence (as high as C), sand storms and early season moisture stress. During early development the roots grow more than the above-ground parts. Pearl millet produces an extensive and dense root system, which may reach a depth of m, exceptionally 3.5 m. Basal tillering occurs 2-6 weeks after sowing, and when planted in widely spaced pockets up to 40 tillers may be produced, especially on long-season cultivars. Secondary tillering from the upper nodes of stems is a common response to drought, or to damage to the stem or inflorescence. These aerial tillers produce 2-3 leaves and a small inflorescence within days; they may contribute 15% and occasionally up to 50%of grain yield. It takes days from inflorescence differentiation to flowering. Pearl millet has a protogynous breeding system, which encourages but does not enforce cross-pollination; 10% or more inbreeding may occur, depending on overlap in flowering between florets within an inflorescence and among tillers. Pearl millet cultivars are therefore heterogeneous and heterozygous random mating populations, which exhibit substantial inbreeding depression. Heavy rainfall, low temperature and moisture stress reduce seed set. The grain-filling period normally takes days. The harvest index of landraces is low ( ), attaining 0.35 in improved cultivars, and up to 0.45 in dwarf hybrids. Pearl millet is characterized by the C4 photosynthetic pathway. Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (e.g. Gigaspora and Glomus spp.) and nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g. Azospirillium spp.) are commonly found associated with pearl millet roots, which may assist with the uptake 129 PENNISETUM 131 of water, N and P. Ecology In West Africa, from the oases of the Sahara desert (under irrigation) to the northern Sahel (characterized by 250 mm annual rainfall), pearl millet cultivars are grown that are photoperiod insensitive and mature in days. In the mm rainfall zone, where very high temperatures are common, especially at planting time, it is the dominant cereal. The optimum temperature for germination of pearl millet seeds is C; no germination occurs below 12 C C. The optimum temperature for tiller production and development is C, and for spikelet initiation and development about 25 C. Extreme high temperatures before anthesis reduce pollen viability, panicle size and spikelet density, thus reducing yield. Pearl millet is tolerant of various soil conditions, especially of light and acid soils. Its large and dense root system allows it to grow on soils with a low nutrient status. Pearl millet does not tolerate waterlogging. Once established, the crop is fairly tolerant of salinity. Propagation and planting Propagation of pearl millet is by seed, usually sown directly in the field. Transplanting is carried out on a very limited scale in India and West Africa (Dauro millet). The 1000-seed weight is g. In Africa short-duration cultivars are sown early, after the first 20 mm rain of the season and land preparation is limited to a light hoeing. Land preparation for long-duration cultivars, which are sown later, is done more thoroughly. Pearl millet is usually sown directly in pockets (hills) in rows at plant distances of 45 cm x 45 cm to 200 cm x 200 cm depending on the cropping system (intercrop or sole crop). The pockets are opened with a hoe or a stick, a pinch of seeds is thrown in, and the hole is covered by soil using the foot. At the first weeding the crop is thinned to 2 or 3 plants per pocket. Farmers tend to adjust plant density based on average rainfall and soil fertility; it generally ranges from 20,000-50,000 plants per ha in pure stands. Seed rates vary accordingly from 2-5 kg per ha. Pearl millet is often intercropped with one to several crops, including cowpea, sorghum and groundnut. Management Pearl millet frequently needs 2 3 weedings, which are done mostly by hand. With short-duration cultivars in Africa, weeding coincides with land preparation and planting of later crops. Manual weeding places severe demands on available labour and limits the area that can be managed properly. In a few regions animal-drawn implements are used for weeding. Pearl millet is highly responsive to increased soil fertility, but under traditional rainfed farming conditions the application of manure and chemical fertilizers is limited. Because of the depleted fertility status of most pearl millet soils some phosphorus and potassium is needed for an optimal response to nitrogenous fertilizers. As fertilizers increase water use of the crop, plant populations and average seasonal water availability also need to be considered when making fertilizer recommendations. A pearl millet crop yielding about 3.1 t grain per ha in the West African savanna was recorded as removing 132 kg N, 28 kg P, 65 kg K and 31 kg Ca per ha from the soil. Diseases and pests Green ear caused by downy mildew (Sclerospora graminicola), grain smut (Tolyposporium penicillariae), rust (Puccinia substriata var. penicillariae) and ergot (Claviceps fusiformis) are important diseases of pearl millet, both in Africa and in Asia. Sources of resistance against all four have been identified and are being incorporated into new cultivars, except for resistance to ergot which is polygenic and recessively inherited. Birds are the major pest in pearl millet, especially Quelea spp. Bird scaring for several weeks before the harvest is essential. Farmers in West Africa often do not harvest a larger area than they can protect from birds. Cultivars with long, hard bristles are less vulnerable than those without. Stem borer (Coniesta ignefusalis), millet head miner (Heliocheilus albipunctella) and millet midge (Geromyia penniseti) are locally important. Other pests are white grubs, grasshoppers, locusts, and various Lepidoptera. Pearl millet is sometimes seriously attacked by adapted strains of the root parasite Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth. in West Africa. Harvesting Pearl millet is harvested by hand, either by picking the panicles or by harvesting whole plants. In cultivars where tillers ripen unevenly, several pickings are required. Cultivars with long panicles are favoured for ease of harvest, bundling and transport. Yield Grain yields range from 250 kg/ha in the driest areas to kg/ha in the main production areas. Average yields in Africa and India are about 670 and 790 kg/ha, respectively. Under optimal conditions hybrids may reach grain yields of 5 t per ha in 85 days and yields of 8 t per ha have even been obtained. In landraces the above-ground dry matter yield may be 3 10 t/ha. In hybrids bred specifically 130 132 CEREALS AND PULSES for forage dry matter yields in a season range from t/ha. Handling after harvest A harvested pearl millet crop is dried in the sun for a few days. In Africa whole panicles are commonly stored in elevated granaries, built of mud or plant materials and covered with thatch. Sometimes they are stored in pits. Ash or neem (Azadirachta indica A.Juss.) leaves may be put in layers to reduce insect attack. Threshing is normally done manually when grain is needed. If dry and protected from insects, seed can be stored adequately at room temperature for several years. Pearl millet flour, unless dry-milled and well-packed, has poor storage quality because of rancidity due to the high oil content. Genetic resources Landraces of pearl millet have evolved over thousands of years through natural and human selection. Selection at different latitudes and in different agroclimatic zones for crop duration, yield, adaptability to nutrient-poor soils, resistance to drought and diseases, and grain type has resulted in local cultivars with a large range of morphological diversity and photoperiod sensitivity. Continual introgression with wild and weedy relatives in West Africa has further contributed to the crop's genetic diversity. Genetic variation is conserved and evaluated at the Coastal Plains Experiment Station, Tifton (Georgia, United States) and the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in Hyderabad (India), where the world collection of over 24,000 entries is housed. The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) supports a programme, started in Burkina Faso, to improve the description and evaluation of material at the time and location of collection. One particular germplasm source, the Tniadi' cultivar from northern Togo and Ghana, has had a profound effect on pearl millet breeding. Selections from it have been successful as cultivars in northern India, Namibia and Botswana, and it has been extensively used in all breeding programmes. Breeding Both improved open-pollinated types and hybrids have been developed in pearl millet ; cytoplasmic male sterility is available for the commercial production of hybrid seed. Cultivar breeding of pearl millet started in Africa in the 1950s and traditional cultivars are still widely used. Breeding work by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research and ICRISAT has been most successful in developing cultivars that were rapidly adopted by farmers. The discovery of cytoplasmic male sterility in 1958 in the forage breeding programme at Tifton (Georgia, United States) led to the production of early-maturing, semi-dwarf grain hybrids in India, which covered 3 million ha by Despite the occurrence of disease epidemics, some 50% of the Indian pearl millet crop on family farms now consists of hybrids and improved cultivars, and yields have increased by 40% since Early breeding work in West Africa by the Institut de Recherches Agronomiques Tropicales et de Cultures Vivrières (IRAT) and the East African Agriculture and Forestry Research Organization (EAAFRO) produced improved local cultivars, but adoption was negligible. Since the early 1980s ICRISAT, working with a broader germplasm base and in conjunction with national agricultural research programmes in West, East and southern Africa, has produced better cultivars. In 8 countries in West Africa 24 cultivars (11 for the Sahel zone and 13 for the Sudan Zone) have been released and in East and southern Africa 19 new cultivars are available for 8 countries with adoption rates of up to 50% (Namibia, Zimbabwe). Work at ICRISAT is focused on the identification of stable stress tolerance, wide adaptability and high yield potential. Sources of tolerance of the major diseases have been identified and are being incorporated into new cultivars. Two further cytoplasmic male sterility systems (A4 and A5), which have superior attributes both for hybrid breeding and seed production, have been discovered. These allow access to different heterotic patterns and more rapid development of new hybrids, particularly topcross hybrids which are most suited to the higher disease pressures in Africa. On average, single-cross hybrids (male-sterile x inbred restorer) give about 20% more grain yield than open-pollinated cultivars of similar maturity. Topcross hybrids (male-sterile x open-pollinated cultivars) benefit from the adaptability and durable disease resistance of the open-pollinated type, and give 10 15% more yield. The pearl millet genome has now been well mapped, and marker-assisted selection is being used to improve downy mildew and rust resistance. Transgenic pearl millet plants with various marker genes have been obtained using particle bombardment. Forage breeding work, mainly in the United States, Australia, Brazil and southern Africa, has also produced pearl millet hybrids. Interspecific hybrids between pearl millet and ele- 131 PHASEOLUS 133 phant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) are available; these are vigorous, variable, triploid and sterile, but selections are easily vegetatively propagated and used as a persistent perennial forage by small farmers in South-East Asia, East and southern Africa and South America. In the United States dwarf plant stature and synchronous maturity of tillers, in addition to earliness and tolerance of diseases have been successfully incorporated into pearl millet to convert it to a new feed grain crop suitable for mechanical cultivation. Commercial production of grain pearl millet for poultry feed has commenced in Georgia (United States). Prospects Pearl millet has great potential because it has one of the highest rates of dry matter gain among the Ci-cycle cereals, a very flexible breeding system and a large amount of genetic variability in the primary gene pool yet to be used. The results of pearl millet breeding work in India, where gains from breeding have been 1-2% per year over the last 35 years, demonstrate what can be achieved in Africa. Half of the millet area in India is now planted to improved cultivars, including hybrids. Proven breeding techniques and wider use of genetic resources will continue to produce better cultivars. In Africa small and seasonably variable grain markets, lack of credit and bulk grain storage have constrained farmers from making the monetary investments which will increase production. However, the growing urban demand for pearl millet flour, and food products like couscous allow farmer cooperatives in Niger, Mali and Senegal to make contracts before planting directly with urban grain processors, for the supply of grain meeting given standards, including grain type and colour, milling quality, flavour and freedom from impurities. In Senegal the cultivar is also specified. This enables subsistence farmers to benefit from seed of improved cultivars, and from purchased inputs such as fertilizer. Better cultivars, produced by certified seed farmers, are being marketed in Namibia, Nigeria and Senegal. Many production technologies have been researched and tested both for family farmers and largerscale pearl millet cultivation, including improved cultivars, better crop management, soil improvement and moisture conservation techniques for the major pearl millet producing regions in Africa. If reliable grain markets are established, pearl millet production in Africa can follow the example of India, and increase substantially on existing land. Major references Anand Kumar & Andrews, 1993; Andrews & Bramel-Cox, 1993; Andrews & Kumar, 1992; Bidinger & Hash, 2004; Brunken, de Wet & Harlan, 1977; Dendy (Editor), 1995; Khairwal et al., 1999; Oyen & Andrews, 1996; Pearson (Editor), 1985; Renard & Anand Kumar, Other references Andrews & Anand Kumar, 1996; Bationo et al., 1992; Bezançon, Renno & Anand Kumar, 1997; Bonamigo, 1999; Burkill, 1994; Clayton, 1989; Clayton & Renvoize, 1982; de Wet, 1995d; FAO, 1970; 2001; Hash, Schaffert & Peacock, 2002; Jagdale et al., 2000; Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968; McDonough, Rooney & Serna-Saldivar, 2000; Monyo, 2002; National Research Council, 1996; O'Kennedy, Burger & Botha, 2004; Rachie & Majmudar, 1980; Rai et al., 2001; Stoop, 1986; Wilson, Sources of illustration Oyen & Andrews, Authors D.J. Andrews & K.A. Kumar Based on PROSEA 10: Cereals. PHASEOLUSACUTIFOLIUS A.Gray Protologue PI. wright. 1: 43 (1852). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionaceae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n = 22 Vernacular names Tepary bean, Texas bean (En). Haricot tépari, tépari (Fr). Feijäo tepari (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Tepary bean is an ancient crop of the south-western United States and northern Mexico. Recent Phaseolus acutifolius -planted 132 134 CEREALS AND PULSES studies indicate that the earliest remains of domesticated tepary bean, found in Tehuacân Valley, Mexico, date from around 2300 years ago. Isozyme analysis suggests that domestication took place in a single geographic region, with the Mexican states of Jalisco and Sinaloa being potential candidates. Today, wild types are distributed from the south-western United States (Arizona, New Mexico, Texas) to Guatemala, with the core of their distribution in north-western Mexico. Tepary bean is also cultivated in the southern United States and Central America. Cultivation of tepary bean decreased strongly after World War II, but nowadays the crop is regaining interest. Tepary bean has been introduced and is cultivated in Africa, Asia and Australia. It was introduced into francophone West Africa, Central Africa, East Africa and Madagascar between the first and second World Wars, and is now grown there and as far south as Botswana. Tepary bean is also recorded as being grown in Morocco, Algeria, South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho. Uses Tepary bean is mainly grown for its mature dry seeds, which are eaten after boiling, steaming, frying or baking. They are used in stews and soups, and mixed with wholegrain maize. In Uganda the dry seeds are usually boiled and then coarsely ground before being added to soup. Occasionally it is eaten as a green bean or as bean sprouts. The leaves are considered edible in Malawi, but are tougher than those of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and take longer to cook. Pods and stems remaining after removing the seed may be used for animal feed. In Botswana the seeds are a common supplementary feed for chickens. Tepary bean has occasionally been grown for fodder or green manure, e.g. in the United States. It may be used as a cover crop and an intercrop in agroforestry systems. Production and international trade Tepary bean is mainly grown in Mexico and Arizona (United States). Large-scale commercial production was tried in the early 1900s, but efforts were abandoned due to its unfavourable morphological characteristics compared to the common bean, changes in eating habits and lack of information on its performance. Tepary bean has recently gained importance in semiarid parts of tropical Africa, e.g. in Sudan, north-eastern Kenya, Uganda and Botswana, where most other grain legumes fail due to drought and where short-duration crops are often needed. Production is mainly for domestic consumption, and no production and trade statistics are available. Properties Per 100 g edible portion the composition of dry tepary bean seeds is: water 8.6 g, energy 1478 kj (353 kcal), protein 19.3 g, fat 1.2 g, carbohydrate 67.8 g, fibre 4.8 g, Ca 112 mg, P 310 mg, thiamin 0.33 mg, riboflavin 0.12 mg, niacin 2.8 mg and ascorbic acid 0 mg (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). As with other pulses, the seeds are low in the sulphurcontaining amino acids methionine and cystine ( % and % of total amino acids, respectively). With respect to antinutritional factors, such as trypsin inhibitors, flatulent oligosaccharides and phytic acid, tepary bean is similar to cowpea and chickpea; the lectin activity is exceptionally high, but is readily reduced by cooking, whereas cyanogenic glucosides have not been detected. Consumption of raw tepary bean flour has been recorded to cause death in mice and rats within 3 4 days, but soaking and cooking the seeds eliminated toxicity completely. Tepary beans have a strong flavour and odour and are less palatable than common beans. On storage the dry seeds become very hard and take a long time to cook. Cultivars with white seeds have a more permeable seedcoat than cultivars with black seeds, resulting in a shorter cooking time. Tepary bean hay contains 6.6% water, 9.9% protein, 1.9% fat, 43.1% N-free extract, 29.3% fibre, and 9.2% ash. Pods and stems contain 8% water, 4.1% proteins, 0.5% fat, 43.6% N-free extract, 37.0% fibre and 6.8% ash. Description Climbing, trailing or more or less erect and bushy annual herb, with stems up to 4 m long; roots fibrous. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules lanceolate, 2-3 mm long, appressed to stem; petiole 2-10 cm long; stipels linear, up to 2 mm long; leaflets ovate to ovatelanceolate, 4-8 cm x 2-5 cm, acute, usually pubescent below. Inflorescence an axillary raceme, 2-5 flowered. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel 3 7 mm long; calyx campanulate, 3 4 mm long, the upper 2 lobes united into one, the lower 3 triangular; corolla white, pink or pale lilac, standard halfreflexed, broad, emarginate, up to 1 cm long, wings up to 1.5 cm long, keel narrow, coiled; stamens 10, 9 fused and 1 free; ovary superior, c. 0.5 cm long, densely pubescent, style with a thickened terminal coil, with collar of hairs below the stigma. Fruit a compressed pod, straight or slightly curved, 5 9 cm x cm, rimmed on margins, with short but distinct beak, hairy when young, 2-9-seeded. Seeds 133 PHASEOLUS 135 Phaseolus acutifolius - 1, flowering branch with young fruit; 2, fruits; 3, seeds. Source: PROSEA globose to oblong, 4-7(-10) mm x 2-5(-7.5) mm, white, yellow, brown, purple, black or variously speckled, dull. Seedling with epigeal germination; first pair of leaves simple. Other botanical information Phaseolus comprises about 50 species, most of them in the Americas. Three varieties of Phaseolus acutifolius have been distinguished, based on the shape of leaflet and seeds. Var. acutifolius and var. tenuifolius A.Gray comprise wild types from south-western United States and northwestern Mexico, whereas var. latifolius G.F. Freeman comprises wild and cultivated types. Isozyme and AFPL analyses have shown no clear-cut differentiation between var. acutifolius and var. tenuifolius. Growth and development Tepary bean seeds absorb water easily; in moist soils the testa wrinkles within 5 minutes, in water in 3 minutes. This leads to quick germination. Seedling emergence is faster in white-seeded than in dark-seeded types. The seeds of domesticated types have no dormancy, which is a disadvantage in humid regions, where fallen seeds will germinate rapidly. The rate of germination increases with increasing temperatures from 10 C to 35 C. Flowering occurs within days. Self-pollination occurs before anthesis. In the tropics, short-duration types may mature within 2 months, but most types have a growth period of days. In cooler regions, such as coastal Algeria, the growth period averages 120 days. The seeds of many domesticated types of tepary bean are shattered less easily than those of wild types. Tepary bean shows effective nodulation and nitrogen fixation only with Bradyrhizobium isolates. Hybrids of tepary bean and common bean (the latter nodulating with Bradyrhizobium but only fixing atmospheric nitrogen when nodulated with Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. phaseoli) can be divided in 2 groups: one group only fixing nitrogen with Bradyrhizobium, the other only with Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. phaseoli. Ecology Tepary bean is particularly suited to arid regions as it is tolerant of drought, heat and a dry atmosphere. Factors contributing to the drought tolerance of tepary bean are sensitive stomata, closing already at relatively high water potentials, and a deep and extensive root system. Tepary bean is found in regions with a mean annual temperature of C; the minimum night temperature should not drop below 8 C. It can grow in areas with an annual rainfall ranging from mm, but where annual rainfall exceeds 1000 mm, vegetative growth is usually excessive, at the expense of seed yield. After flowering little or no rain is needed. In most of Africa, tepary bean is grown as a short-season crop, but in the more humid parts it is grown year-round. In Mexico and Arizona, it is usually grown at medium altitudes. Some tepary bean types require short days for flowering, but others seem day-neutral. Light, well-drained soils are preferred; reasonable yields can be obtained on poor sandy soils with ph 5-7. Tepary bean does not tolerate waterlogging, and heavy clays are unsuitable. It is moderately tolerant of saline and alkaline soils. The salt tolerance may not be physiological but result from its ability to escape salinity due to its root system going deeper than that of e.g. common bean. Propagation and planting Tepary bean is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g for cultivated and g for wild genotypes. Seeds are broadcast at a rate of kg/ha, or drilled in rows cm apart with cm between plants within the row. The sowing depth is cm. Tepary bean is sometimes sown on mounds, with 2-4 seeds per mound. In Kenya tepary bean is sown at 134 136 CEREALS AND PULSES kg/ha in a spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm. When grown for hay, seed rates are about 70 kg/ha. Tepary bean is grown as a sole crop or intercropped with cereals (sorghum, millet, maize), vegetables (Allium, Brassica, Capsicum, Cucurbita spp.), or other pulses. In the United States and Mexico tepary bean is sometimes sown in unsorted admixtures with common bean, thus providing greater yield stability than common bean alone and higher potential yields than tepary bean alone. Management Weeding of tepary bean is essential, particularly during early growth. It requires little weeding, however, when it is grown as an 'end-of-season' crop. Little is known about its nutrient requirements, and its response to nitrogen and potassium fertilizers is not consistent. Irrigation may be applied, but is not usual. In intercropping the cultural practices for the main crop are applied to tepary bean. In Senegal and Mali tepary bean is grown as a kitchen garden vegetable. Diseases and pests Tepary bean is generally not affected by diseases in semi-arid regions, except during periods when humidity is high. Within the species, variable levels of resistance exist against common bacterial (bean) blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. phaseoli), bean rust (Uromyces appendiculatus), Fusarium rot (Fusarium sp.), powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni), anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum), angular leaf spot (Phaeoisariopsis griseola) and charcoal rot (Macrophomina phaseolina). Tepary bean is susceptible to white mould disease (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) and also considered susceptible to halo blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola); it is listed as a host of southern blight (Sclerotium rolfsii) and Pythium rot (Pythium aphanidermatum). Tepary bean is highly susceptible to bean common mosaic virus (BCMV), and also has shown susceptibility to alfalfa mosaic virus (AMY), bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV), beet curly top virus (BCTV), bean pod mottle virus (BPMV) and bean golden mosaic virus (BGMV). Leafhoppers (Empoasca kraemeri) and pod borers (Epinotia opposita) were found in waterstressed trials. Several lines have shown resistance against the former, but the mechanism was non-preference rather than antibiosis. The Mexican bean beetle (Epilachna varivestis) and the potato leafhopper (Empoasca fabae) have been found to cause damage to tepary bean. Some resistance to the black bean aphid (Aphis fabae) and the lesser corn stalk borer (Elasmopalpus lignosellus) has been observed. The hard seed coat makes the seed resistant to storage pests such as bruchid beetles (Callosobruchus and Acanthoscelides spp.). In Uganda, however, the rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) has been recorded in stored seed. Harvesting Pods on the same tepary bean plant do not usually mature simultaneously, and as pods may shatter if left to dry up in the field, they are normally harvested by hand as soon as they change colour, usually months after planting. Sometimes whole plants are pulled up by hand. Normally the pods are dried for a few days before they are threshed. In Africa beating the dried pods or plants with sticks is common practice to thresh tepary bean. Yield In Uganda average yields of tepary bean are kg dry seeds per ha. In dryland farming in the United States yields are kg/ha, under irrigation kg/ha. When grown for fodder, ,000 kg/ha oven-dry hay can be obtained. Handling after harvest Unlike most other pulses, tepary bean seed stores well and it hardly needs storage pest control. Genetic resources The genetic basis of cultivated tepary bean is narrower than that of cultivated common bean and Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.), and most genetic diversity for future improvement resides in the wild types. Collection of germplasm from the native area of tepary bean is recommended. Wild tepary bean genepools have decreased due to habitat elimination and degradation, whereas domesticated tepary bean has suffered genetic erosion due to its shrinking area of cultivation. Exchange of genetic information between common bean and tepary bean is possible, but only for the transfer of simple traits involving only a few genes. Although common bean and tepary bean have the same chromosome number and similar karyotypes their mitochondrial genomes, agroecological adaptations and morphological characters are distinct, indicating that they are fairly divergent species. The largest germplasm collection of tepary bean (about 350 accessions) is held at CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical) in Cali, Colombia. Another large collection is present at the USDA-ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, Washington, United States (211 accessions). Smaller collections are held in Australia (Australian Tropical Crops & Forages Genetic Resources 135 PHASEOLUS 137 Centre, Biloela; 70 accessions), Belgium (National Botanical Garden of Belgium, Meise; 59 accessions), Mexico (Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agricolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP), Col. San Rafael; 40 accessions) and Guatemala (Centro Universitario de Sur Occidente (CUNSUROC), Universidad de San Carlos, Mazatenango; 31 accessions). In Africa, 29 accessions are held at ISRA (Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles), Dakar, Senegal, and 10 accessions at ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Most collections comprise wild as well as cultivated types. Breeding Tepary bean is generally resistant to diseases and pests, tolerant to drought, heat and salinity and has a short crop cycle. Prospects for selection are favourable, as sufficient variation in resistance to biotic and abiotic stress factors exists within the species. Except for some mass-selected populations, no improved tepary bean cultivars have been released to farmers. Rather, its favourable traits have mainly been targeted to improve common bean instead of tepary bean itself. Resistance to common bacterial (bean) blight, for instance, has been transferred into common bean through interspecific hybridization. In attempts to cross Phaseolus acutifolius with Phaseolus vulgaris, artificial cross-fertilization does not pose problems, but post-zygotic barriers usually prevent normal embryo development, and, as a rule, no viable hybrids are obtained. Embryo rescue through in-vitro culture is normally required to complete hybridization successfully. Through recurrent backcrossing with alternating parents the hybrids become cross-fertile with both species. However, genes obtained from common bean tend to be predominant in these hybrids. Seeds have also been obtained from a cross involving a Phaseolus acutifolius accession (NI 576) without invitro culture. Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation of this accession has been achieved, based on regeneration from callus. This has opened up the possibility of using Phaseolus acutifolius to introduce transgenes into the economically more important Phaseolus vulgaris. Prospects Tepary bean seems a very suitable crop for resource-poor farmers in Africa, since its rapid germination, deep root system and short life cycle make it well adapted for production in arid or semi-arid regions. Reasons for reluctance to adopt tepary bean as a food include the small seed size, the tendency to cause flatulence, the long cooking time, the laboriousness of the harvest, and its strong flavour and, according to some, objectionable odour. However, in northern Kenya and Nigeria, traditional dishes prepared with tepary bean instead of cowpea were found very acceptable. To promote tepary bean in Africa, the selection of high-yielding cultivars, the development of food products (protein supplements) with reduced odour, and the creation of a marketing infrastructure are a prerequisite. Major references CIAT, 2003; Dillen et al., 1997; Hornetz, 1993; Jansen, 1989d; Kaplan & Lynch, 1999; Kay, 1979; Miklas et al, 1994; National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Pratt & Nabhan, 1988; Tinsley et al., Other references Aganga et al., 2000; Baudoin & Maquet, 1999; Debouck & Smartt, 1995; Freytag & Debouck, 2002; Garvin & Weeden, 1994; Idouraine, Tinsley & Weber, 1989; Idouraine, Weber & Kohlhepp, 1995; Kaiser, 1981; Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968; Lin & Markhart III, 1996; Markhart III, 1985; Mogotsi, 1982; Munoz et al, 2004; Nabhan & Felger, 1978; Purseglove, 1968; Schinkel & Gepts, 1988; Somasegaran, Hoben & Lewinson, 1991; Stanton, 1966; Thorn et al., 1983; White & Montes, Sources of illustration Jansen, 1989d. Authors K.K. Mogotsi PHASEOLUS COCCINEUS L. Protologue Sp. pl. 2: 724 (1753). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2/t = 22 Vernacular names Scarlet runner bean, runner bean, multiflora bean, case knife bean (En). Haricot d'espagne (Fr). Feijào da Espanha, feijäo escarlata, feijäo trepador (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Scarlet runner bean occurs wild from Mexico to Panama. It was probably domesticated in Mexico. Archaeological evidence indicates that scarlet runner bean was a domesticated crop in Mexico around 900 AD. Nowadays scarlet runner bean is cultivated in temperate countries and occasionally in highland areas of Central and South America, Africa (e.g. Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, South Africa) and Asia. It is probably cultivated in Madagascar and is recorded as being grown in the eastern part of tropical southern Africa, although no specific countries are mentioned. 136 138 CEREALS AND PULSES Phaseolus coccineus - planted Uses In Central America the immature and mature seeds are consumed, elsewhere mainly the mature seeds, e.g. in Ethiopia. Preparation is predominantly by boiling. In temperate regions the immature pods are most commonly eaten, sliced and cooked, as a vegetable. In Central America the young shoots, leaves and inflorescences are sometimes used (boiled or boiled and fried) as a vegetable while the tuberous roots are consumed boiled or chewed as candy. A root decoction is taken against malaria or applied to swollen eyes. In Central America scarlet runner bean is grazed by livestock and dried into hay. It is grown as an ornamental. Production and international trade Accurate production statistics for scarlet runner bean are not available. Production is almost exclusively for local use. Commercial production of the pods is done in the United Kingdom and Argentina and of the seeds of white-seeded cultivars in South Africa. In Kenya scarlet runner bean is mainly grown by smallholders. Properties Per 100 g edible portion the composition of dried scarlet runner bean seeds is: water 12.5 g, energy 1415 kj (338 kcal), protein 20.3 g, fat 1.8 g, carbohydrate 62.0 g, fibre 4.8 g, Ca 114 mg, P 354 mg, Fe 9.0 mg, thiamin 0.50 mg, riboflavin 0.19 mg, niacin 2.3 mg and ascorbic acid 2 mg (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). The seeds contain antinutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitors, and must be cooked before being eaten to break down these compounds. Per 100 g edible portion, raw green pods (ends and sides trimmed) contain: water 91.2 g, energy 93 kj (22 kcal), protein 1.6 g, fat 0.4 g, carbohydrate 3.2 g, fibre 2.6 g, Ca 33 mg, Mg 19 mg, P 34 mg, Fe 1.2 mg, Zn 0.2 mg, carotene 145 ng, thiamin 0.06 mg, riboflavin 0.03 mg, niacin trace and ascorbic acid 18 mg (Holland, Unwin & Buss, 1991). Many improved cultivars have substantial reduction in the fibrous vascular strands of the pod sutures ('stringless runner beans'). The tuberous root of scarlet runner bean is edible, but it is fibrous and may contain toxic compounds, which can be removed by soaking or peeling and by discarding the cooking water. Coccinin, a peptide isolated from the seed of scarlet runner bean, has shown antifungal activity against a range of fungi. It also inhibited proliferation in leukaemia cell lines and reduced the activity of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. Description Perennial, climbing herb with stems up to 4(-7) m long or bushy annual herb up to 60 cm tall; taproot tuberous. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules triangular; petiole (6-) (-16) cm long, rachis (1.5-)2.5-4(- 5) cm long; stipels c. 5 mm long; leaflets ovaterhombic, (5-) (-12.5) cm x (3.5-)5-8.5(- 12.5) cm, base cuneate or truncate, apex acute, thinly pubescent to glabrescent. Inflorescence Phaseolus coccineus - branch; 2, fruit; 3, seed. Source: PROSEA 1, part of flowering 137 PHASEOLUS 139 an axillary or terminal raceme, many-flowered; peduncle (5-)ll-16.5(-25.5) cm long; rachis (2-) 10-16(-39.5) cm long. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel cm long; calyx campanulate, glabrescent, tube c. 3 mm long, the upper 2 lobes united, the lower 3 triangular, c. 1 mm long; corolla scarlet, pink or white, standard hood-shaped, circular or broadly obovate, c. 17 mm x 17 mm, wings broadly obovate, c. 25 mm x 17 mm, keel coiled, c. 10 mm long; stamens 10, 9 fused and 1 free; ovary superior, c. 6 mm long, finely pubescent, style coiled, with collar of hairs below the stigma. Fruit a linearlanceolate, straight or slightly curved pod (4.5-) 9-13(-30) cm x cm, laterally compressed, beaked, glabrescent, rough with small oblique ridges, (l-)3-5(-10)-seeded. Seeds ellipsoid-oblong, mm x 6-13(-16) mm, black, white, cream or brown, often pink to purple mottled. Seedling with hypogeal germination; first pair of leaves simple and opposite. Other botanical information Phaseolus comprises about 50 species, most of them in the Americas. Phaseolus coccineus is closely related to Phaseolus dumosus Macfad. (synonym: Phaseolus polyanthus Greenman; year-bean, sometimes also called runner bean) and Phaseolus costaricensis Freytag & Debouck. Hybrids between Phaseolus coccineus and these 2 species have been obtained; natural hybridization also occurs. The 3 species can be crossed with common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), with the latter as female parent, without embryo rescue, although progenies may be partially sterile. Where scarlet runner bean and common bean grow together, natural hybridization may occur. Hybridization of scarlet runner bean with tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius A.Gray) is also possible. Phaseolus coccineus is a variable species, and levels of genetic variability are high, both in wild and in cultivated populations. A whiteseeded type of Phaseolus coccineus is known as 'butter bean' in Kenya and South Africa, but this name is normally applied to Phaseolus lunatus L. In Uganda, where the crop is grown a high altitudes in Nakuru District, whiteseeded cultivars are most common. Growth and development Scarlet runner bean seeds germinate days after sowing. Flowering starts days after sowing. Flowers open at sunrise and fade at sunset. Phaseolus coccineus is predominantly crosspollinating. Harvesting of green pods starts around 3 months after sowing and can be easily sustained for 2-3 months. Mature seed can be harvested 4-5 months after sowing. Bushy cultivars produce earlier and smaller crops than climbing cultivars. In Central America scarlet runner bean is sometimes grown as a perennial: where stems die back during cooler periods, the tuberous taproot remains viable and produces new stems with returning warmth. In temperate regions scarlet runner bean is grown as an annual. Scarlet runner bean fixes atmospheric nitrogen by symbiosis with fast-growing Rhizobium bacteria. Ecology Scarlet runner bean is a crop for temperate climates. In the tropics it is most successful at altitudes of m. In Kenya it is grown at m altitude, in Ethiopia up to about 2000 m. Scarlet runner bean is more tolerant of cool conditions than other Phaseolus species, but damage occurs at temperatures below 5 C. At temperatures above 25 C fruit development is inhibited. Scarlet runner bean is extremely susceptible to drought and requires a well-distributed rainfall throughout the growing period. In Ethiopia it is successfully grown in areas with an average annual rainfall of 1500 mm. It needs a high relative humidity for seed set. Scarlet runner bean comprises short-day and day-neutral types. Scarlet runner bean is adapted to a wide range of soils, but it prefers deep, well-drained, loamy, light- to medium-textured soils, with ph 6-7. Waterlogging is not tolerated. Propagation and planting Scarlet runner bean is normally propagated by seed, but the tuberous root with a piece of stem can also be used. The 1000-seed weight is g. The seedbed should be well prepared and weed free. Normal planting densities are 50,000-75,000 plants/ha for climbing types and double those for bushy types, requiring about 75 kg and 150 kg seed per ha, respectively. However, lower densities have also been recorded. In Mauritius scarlet runner bean is sown in rows 100 cm apart with 30 cm within the row. The sowing depth is cm. In Central America scarlet runner bean is often intercropped with maize. Management To obtain high-quality pods, scarlet runner bean is grown on trellises, poles, fence lines or other support structures. However, labour and material requirements are high and may impede cultivation. Climbing types can yield without support if leading shoots are pinched out to induce bushy growth. Scarlet runner bean should be kept weed-free during the early growth stages and it is commonly weeded once or twice. Tillage should be 138 140 CEREALS AND PULSES shallow to avoid root damage. Supplementary irrigation is beneficial. In Ethiopia scarlet runner bean is a garden crop. Diseases and pests In the tropics scarlet runner bean is affected by anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) and Fusarium wilt (Fusarium solani f.sp. phaseoli). The seedborne disease halo blight (Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. phaseolicola, synonym: Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola) has been isolated from scarlet runner bean in South Africa. Harvesting Green pods of scarlet runner bean are harvested when pod length reaches its maximum before the phase of rapid seed development. Picking is usually at 4 5 day intervals. For dry seed production, plants are pulled or cut when most pods are dry and then allowed to dry for a few days. Alternatively pods may be handpicked in several rounds because of asynchronous ripening. Yield Yields of green pods of 10 t/ha and of seeds of 1.5 t/ha are possible. The yield of dry mature seeds in Kenya has been estimated at kg/ha. Handling after harvest After drying, scarlet runner bean pods are threshed. Genetic resources In Brazil 428 accessions are maintained by EMBRAPA/CENARGEN in Brasilia. Large germplasm collections of scarlet runner bean are also maintained in the United States (USDA-ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, Washington, 478 accessions from throughout the world including Ethiopia and Kenya) and Mexico (Banco Nacional de Germoplasma Vegetal, Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, Chapingo, 311 accessions). In Africa 6 accessions are kept in South Africa (Division of Plant and Seed Control, Department of Agriculture, Pretoria) and 1 in Ethiopia (International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa). Breeding Breeding efforts for scarlet runner bean have been directed to improvement of culinary quality (stringlessness) and disease resistance. Selection to improve cooking quality is promising since seed proteins of scarlet runner bean are more polymorphic than those of common bean. For dry seed production, improvement of plant habit and shorter pods are appropriate objectives of selection. Cultivars with a determinate growth habit suitable for mechanical harvesting CVenere' and 'Alarico') have been developed in Italy, by crossing Phaseolus coccineus with determinate Phaseolus vulgaris cultivars and repeated backcrossing with Phaseolus coccineus. Moderate levels of resistance to common bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. phaseoli), Fusarium root rot (Fusarium solani f.sp. phaseoli) and white mould (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) have been transferred from scarlet runner bean to common bean. Scarlet runner bean is also considered as a potential source of resistance against other diseases of common bean, including anthracnose, Ascochyta blight (Phoma exigua), angular leaf spot (Phaeoisariopsis griseola), powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) and rust (Uromyces appendiculatus). Considerable tolerance to bean flies (Ophiomyia spp.) has been detected in scarlet runner bean, and tolerance has been transferred into common bean. On the other hand, resistance to halo blight has been transferred from common bean to scarlet runner bean. In vitro plant regeneration of scarlet runner bean is possible using cotyledons, through direct organogenesis as well as somatic embryogenesis via callus. Prospects Scarlet runner bean is a suitable pulse and vegetable crop for the humid highland tropics, although the need to provide support and the uneven maturation of the pods are serious drawbacks for commercial production. Scarlet runner bean may have some potential at higher altitudes in tropical Africa, but more information is needed on appropriate sowing and management practices. It is a potential source of resistance to diseases and pests affecting common bean. Major references Campion, 1995; Debouck & Smartt, 1995; Freytag & Debouck, 2002; Gepts (Editor), 1988; Kay, 1979; Singh, 2001; Smartt, 1989a; Suttie, 1969; Webster, Ross & Sigourney, 1980; Westphal, Other references Duke, 1981; du Puy et al., 2002; Escalante et al, 1994; FAO, 1989; Fourie, 1998; Hidalgo & Beebe, 1997; Holland, Unwin & Buss, 1991; Kaplan & Lynch, 1999; Knudsen (Editor), 2000; Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968; Liebenberg, 1995; Mahuku et al., 2002a; Mahuku et al., 2002b; Nagl, Ignacimuthu & Becker, 1997; Ngai & Ng, 2004; Schmit & Baudoin, 1992; Smartt, 1976; Summerfield & Roberts (Editors), 1985; Thulin, 1989a; Yu, Stall & Vallejos, Sources of illustration Smartt, 1989a. Authors M. Brink Based on PROSEA 1: Pulses. 139 PHASEOLUS 141 PHASEOLUS LUNATUS L. Protologue Sp. pi. 2: 724 (1753). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2re = 22 Vernacular names Lima bean, butter bean, Madagascar bean (En). Haricot de Lima, pois du Cap, pois souche, pois savon (Fr). Feijào de Lima, feijào favona, feijâo espadinho (Po). Mfiwi (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Lima bean has a Neotropical origin with at least two centres of domestication: Central America (Mexico, Guatemala) for the small-seeded types and South America (mainly Peru) for the largeseeded types. This distinction coincides with a classification into 2 types (Mesoamerican and Andean) on the basis of morphological, ecological, protein and molecular characters. Wild and cultivated forms of the same race are grouped together. The Andean wild populations have a very limited geographic distribution (Ecuador and northern Peru). The Mesoamerican wild types extend from Mexico to Argentina through the east side of the Andes. Recent discoveries have led to the proposition of 3 primary centres of genetic diversity, 2 of which are also domestication centres: a centre of genetic diversity and domestication on the western slope of the Andes in southern Ecuador and northern Peru; a centre of genetic diversity and domestication in Central America; and a centre of genetic diversity in the region covering northern Peru, northern Colombia, northern Ecuador and western Venezuela. In post-columbian times, Lima bean spread throughout the Americas. Spaniards took seeds Phaseolus lunatus - planted across the Pacific to the Philippines and from there it spread to other parts of Asia, mainly Java and Myanmar (Burma), and to Mauritius. The slave trade introduced Lima bean from Brazil into Africa, particularly to the western and central parts. Some large-seeded types from the Peruvian coast were distributed to south-western Madagascar and southern California. Lima bean is now cultivated throughout tropical Africa and the rest of the tropics, and has frequently become naturalized. Uses Lima bean is cultivated primarily for its immature and dry seeds, which in tropical Africa are usually eaten boiled, fried in oil or baked. In Nigeria they are also cooked with maize, rice or yam and used in making special kinds of soup and stew. The Yoruba people process the seeds into porridges, puddings and cakes. Immature green seeds, young pods and leaves are eaten as a vegetable, e.g. in Ghana and Malawi. In the United States, fresh and dry Lima beans are processed on an industrial scale involving canning and freezing. Sprouts and young plants are cooked and eaten in many Asian countries. The seeds are sometimes used as fodder, but may lead to hydrogen cyanide poisoning when used raw. The leaves and stems may be turned into hay or silage. Juice from the leaves is used in nasal instillations against headache and as eardrops against otitis in Senegal and DR Congo. In Nigeria the seeds are powdered and rubbed into small cuts on tumours and abscesses to promote suppuration. In traditional Asian medicine the seeds and leaves are valued for their astringent qualities and used as a diet against fever. Lima bean has been grown as a cover crop and for green manure. Production and international trade Production statistics for Lima bean from many tropical regions are fragmentary and often aggregated with other pulses. The United States is the largest producer of Lima bean with about 21,000 ha under cultivation (mainly in California, Delaware, Maryland and Wisconsin) and a production of (primarily fresh) beans of about 70,000 t in Madagascar is the second largest commercial producer with an area cropped varying from 3000 to 19,000 ha (mainly in the flood plains of the semi-arid coastal region in the south-western part) and a production of dry seed of about 8000 t, almost exclusively of large white-seeded types. Peru comes third with a production of dry seed of t from ha. In other countries, Lima beans are grown mostly in gardens 140 142 CEREALS AND PULSES or as an intercrop, but there are no estimates of area or production. In Africa the area planted with Lima bean in the sub-humid and humid tropics (especially Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and DR Congo) has been estimated for the 1980s as 120, ,000 ha, with a total annual production of 50, ,000 t. No trade statistics are available. Properties The composition of dried raw seeds per 100 g edible portion is: water 11.6 g, energy 1214 kj (290 kcal), protein 19.1 g, fat 1.7 g, carbohydrate 52.9 g, dietary fibre 19.4 g, Ca 85 mg, Mg 190 mg, P 320 mg, Fe 5.9 mg, Zn 2.8 mg, carotene trace, thiamin 0.45 mg, riboflavin 0.13 mg, niacin 2.5 mg, vitamin B mg and ascorbic acid trace (Holland, Unwin & Buss, 1991). The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g raw Lima beans is: tryptophan 180 mg, lysine 1440 mg, methionine 280 mg, phenylalanine 1160 mg, threonine 800 mg, valine 980 mg, leucine 1560 mg and isoleucine 950 mg (Paul, Southgate & Russell, 1980). As in other pulses, the main limiting amino acids are methionine and cystine. Antimetabolic factors include protease inhibitors, lectins and cyanogenic glucosides (linamarin or phaseolunatin). The latter are accompanied by an enzyme, linamarase, which can hydrolyze the glucosides into a sugar and an aglycone, which in turn is split into acetone and hydrogen cyanide (HCN). Hydrolysis occurs rapidly when the soaked seeds are cooked in water; most of the HCN then evaporates. Linamarin and linamarase are heat-sensitive but inactivated at different temperatures: 140 C for the glucoside and 80 C for the enzyme. If inactivation of the enzymes takes place before complete hydrolysis, the residual glucoside may break down in the human organism under the influence of enzymes secreted by the intestinal microflora, leading to poisoning. The HCN content is significantly higher in wild types ( ppm) than in cultivated ones ( ppm). Soaking Lima bean seeds in water overnight easily eliminates the apparent toxicity, which is explained by the release of HCN during the process. In Nigeria, cooking time for dry seeds is hours. In Malawi, cooking times have been recorded of hours for dry, unsoaked seeds and hours for dry, soaked seeds. Per 100 g edible portion, green pods contain 1.3 g protein, and green leaves 0.6 g. Immature Lima bean seeds contain per 100 g edible portion: water 66.3 g, protein 8.3 g, fat 0.7 g, carbohydrate 23.1 g, fibre 1.0 g, Ca 28 mg, P 111 mg, Fe 2.6 mg, vitamin A 65 IU, thiamin 0.15 mg, riboflavin 0.10 mg, niacin 1.20 mg and ascorbic acid 27.0 mg (Kay, 1979). Lima bean silage contains 27.3% dry matter, 3.3% protein, 2.1% digestible protein and 14.2% digestible nutrients. Description Climbing, trailing or more or less bushy annual or perennial herb, with glabrous or pubescent stems up to 4.5(-8) m long; roots thin or swollen, up to 2 m deep. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules ovate to lanceolate, 2-4 mm long; petiole cm long, rachis 0.5-5(-8) cm long; stipels 1-2 mm long; leaflets ovate, cm x 1-11 cm, acute or acuminate, sparsely pubescent or glabrous. Inflorescence an axillary raceme or panicle up to 15( 40) cm long, with many nodes, fewflowered to many-flowered. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel 5-10 mm long; calyx campanulate, mm long, puberulous, the upper 2 lobes united, the lower 3 broadly triangular; corolla 7-10 mm wide, standard hoodshaped, 5-7 mm x 5-10 mm, white, pale green or rose-violet, wings spatulate to obovate, 7 10 mm long, white or violet, keel sharply up Phaseolus lunatus - 1, flowering and fruiting branches; 2, flower; 3, seeds. Source: PROSEA 141 PHASEOLUS 143 turned, white or pale green; stamens 10, 9 fused and 1 free; ovary superior, c. 3 mm long, minutely hairy, style with a terminal coil, with collar of hairs below the stigma. Fruit an oblong pod (4.5-)5-10.5(-13) cm x l-2(-3) cm, compressed, generally curved, beaked, glabrous or pubescent, 2-4(-5)-seeded. Seeds kidneyshaped to rhomboid or globose, 8-11 mm x 6-7 mm, white, green, yellow, brown, red, purple, black or variously speckled, often with transverse lines radiating from the hilum. Seedling with epigeal germination; first pair of leaves simple and opposite. Other botanical information Phaseolus comprises about 50 species, most of them in the Americas. Wild and cultivated types of Phaseolus lunatus have been distinguished as var. Silvester Baudet and var. lunatus, respectively. Within the cultivated types some cultivar groups have been distinguished: Sieva Group with medium-sized flat seeds, Potato Group with small globular seeds, and Big Lima Group with large flat seeds. Wild types from the Andes appear closest to the cultivated types. In Malawi types of Lima bean are distinguished and named according to the size and shape of the seeds, e.g. 'mayemba' (large white or black speckled seeds, slightly bitter, seed coats moderately tough), 'butter' or 'Madagascar' (large flat white seeds, with a good flavour, seed coats soft and tasteless), 'moki' (small, white, flat seeds, good flavour, seed coats moderately tough), and 'pebugale' (seed shape variable, colour pale pink, speckled red, slightly bitter with tough seed coats). Growth and development Germination of Lima bean seeds occurs 4 10 days after sowing. Vegetative growth accelerates after one month. Flowers appear days and ripe pods days after sowing with short daylength. Cultivated Lima bean has two distinct growth habits: an indeterminate growth habit (prostrate or climbing; with axillary flowering only) and a pseudo-determinate growth habit (dwarf or bush plants; with terminal and axillary flowering). The vegetative cycle of pseudo-determinate growth types is shorter than that of indeterminate ones. The earliest bush cultivars mature within 90 days whereas the climbing types require 6 9 months. In climbing types, flowering and fruiting may extend throughout the wet season. The growth habit of perennial wild types is always indeterminate. Pollen and stigma mature synchronously and in close proximity within the unopened bud, favouring self-pollination. However, crosspollination often occurs too. Pressure on the wings of fully-open flowers by visiting insects forces the stigma and style to protrude through the keel. The exposed stigma remains receptive to pollen for several hours. Bees visit the flowers for both pollen and nectar. Of buds, flowers and young pods, 75 85% are shed under field conditions. Early blooming inflorescences are more productive than later ones, and basal nodes of the inflorescences are potentially more fruitful than terminal ones. Fruit setting proceeds until a 'capacity set' is attained; remaining reproductive structures then abscise. Lima bean can fix nitrogen by symbiosis with Bradyrhizobium bacteria. Ecology Lima bean is particularly well suited to low-altitude humid and sub-humid tropical climates, but it can be grown in a wide range of ecological conditions. It is found in warm temperate zones as well as in arid and semi-arid tropical regions. Lima bean is found from sea-level up to altitudes higher than 2000 m. It comprises photoperiod-insensitive types that flower in day lengths up to 18 hours, and short-day types that require a daylength as short as hours to initiate flowers. Optimum temperatures are C; frost is not tolerated. Average rainfall is mm per year, but once established the crop tolerates as little rainfall as mm. Some types are considered very drought resistant, due to their deep, well-developed root system. Lima bean prefers well-aerated, well-drained soils with ph However, some cultivars tolerate acid soils with ph as low as 4.4. Propagation and planting Propagation of Lima bean is by seed. Seed weight varies between 30 g and 300 g per 100 seeds. Bush types are usually spaced cm within rows and cm between rows, while climbing types may be planted on hills cm apart. Lima bean may be planted in groups of 3 4 plants, separated by at least 1 m. The normal seed rate varies between kg/ha for smallseeded cultivars and kg/ha for largeseeded types. The planting density in southwestern Madagascar is (500-)2100(-4500) pockets per ha, with 3-5 seeds per pocket. In the more humid tropics, Lima bean is mostly cultivated in home gardens or intercropped with cereals (maize, sorghum), root and tuber crops (yam, cassava) or other crops (e.g. banana, groundnut, sugar cane). Sole cropping is more common in drier areas (Madagascar, Peru). In intercropping, seeds are often placed 142 144 CEREALS AND PULSES in the same hill as the companion crop. Management Weeding is necessary during initial growth of Lima bean. In Africa it is usually done 1-3 times. In humid areas, climbing types are staked. Unstaked plants tend to have lower yields because of poor foliage display, and lower seed quality because the pods may be resting on the ground. In parts of West Africa, where Lima bean is intercropped with maize or sorghum, the cereals provide support for climbing. Lima bean may also be planted after yam, with the stake of the previous yam crop providing support. In drier conditions (Madagascar, California and Peru), Lima bean may be left prostrate and irrigated 2-4 times before maturity. In the south-western part of Madagascar Lima bean is planted on alluvial soils in mounds or ridges as the flood waters from a nearby river recede, or is irrigated from a river. Fertilizer is not usually applied in tropical areas. If fertilizer is applied, this is often done at planting, in bands below and adjacent to the seeds. Supplemental nitrogen and phosphorus may be side-dressed at the early bud stage and during fruit development. Lima bean may be planted after a wellfertilized crop, thus benefiting from residual fertilizer, especially phosphorus. Diseases and pests In the tropics the most serious diseases of Lima bean are web blight caused by Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium root rot caused by Fusarium solani, anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum spp., downy mildew caused by Phytophthora phaseoli, bacterial blight due to Xanthomonas campestris pv. phaseoli and two viral diseases: Lima bean golden mosaic virus (LGMV) transmitted by white flies (Bemisia sp.) and Lima bean green mottle virus (LBGrMV) transmitted by aphids. The use of fungicides is recommended to control the fungal diseases. For bacterial blight the use of disease-free seed and crop rotation are the recommended control measures. Root-knot nematodes (mainly Meloidogyne incognita) can cause considerable yield reduction. Crop rotation with cereals can reduce the nematode population in the soil. Mexican bean beetle (Epilachna varivestis), aphids (mainly Aphis craccivora), leafhopper (Empoasca dolichi), flower thrips (Megalurothrips sjostedtî), legume pod borers (Maruca vitrata, Cydia sp. and Etiella sp.), and bruchids (Callosobruchus, Acanthoscelides and Zabrotes spp.) are serious pests. Chemical control measures (e.g. with endosulfan) have been recommended to control them. Harvesting Green and mature pods of the climbing Lima bean types are usually picked manually over an extended period (4-6 weeks). In drier areas (Madagascar), whole plants are cut and left to dry in the field before the pods are removed and the stems are fed to livestock. Mechanical picking is possible with erect cultivars maturing uniformly and setting pods well above the soil surface. Yield In the tropics, yields of dry seeds of Lima bean are kg/ha in intercropping and kg/ha in sole cropping. Yields in south-western Madagascar are (50-)400( 950) kg/ha. In experiments dry-seed yields in pure stands have reached kg/ha for the bush types and kg/ha for the climbing types. In Madagascar yields of 15 t green matter per ha have been obtained for use as fodder. Handling after harvest Pods of Lima bean are usually threshed by hand, and seed is cleaned and sorted. Care should be taken with threshing, as the seeds are brittle and easily damaged. In many tropical countries, seeds are sometimes stored in jars or baskets, and covered with a layer of sand or ash to protect them against bruchid infestation. Genetic resources There is a real risk of loss of genetic diversity of Lima bean in primary centres of diversity (Latin America) as well as in secondary centres of cultivated types (Africa and part of Asia). Over 2600 seed samples of Lima bean are available in the CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical) collection at Cali (Colombia) with seeds coming mainly from South and Central America, West Africa (mainly Ghana and Nigeria), East and Central Africa, Madagascar, India, the Philippines and Myanmar. The wild and weedy types represent 3-5% of the total collection. Among the cultivated types, Sieva Group and Potato Group predominate, while accessions of the Big Lima Group come mostly from a few limited areas, such as the South American Andean region or the desert coast of Peru. According to IPGRI other large Lima bean collections exist in Indonesia (Research and Development Centre for Biology (RDCB), Bogor, 3850 accessions), the United States (Regional Plant Introduction Station, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, 1060 accessions), Brazil (Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuâria (EMBRAPA ), Brasilia, 980 accessions), the Philippines (National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory, University of the Philippines Los Banos (UPLB), College, Laguna, 143 PHASEOLUS accessions) and Costa Rica (Escuela de Biologia, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), San Pedro de Montes de Oca, 400 accessions). In tropical Africa small Lima bean collections are present in Ghana (Plant Genetic Resources Centre, Crops Research Institute, Bunso, 40 accessions; University of Ghana, Accra, 8 accessions), Togo (Institut de Recherches Agronomiques Tropicales et des Cultures Vivrières, Lomé, 36 accessions; Direction de la Recherche Agronomique (DRA), Lomé, 17 accessions), Guinea (Programme de conservation des ressources phytogénétiques, Institut de Recherche, Conakry, 34 accessions), Senegal (Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles (ISRA), Dakar, 23 accessions), Nigeria (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, 15 accessions), Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu, 12 accessions) and Ethiopia (International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, 2 accessions). The National Botanic Garden of Belgium at Meise has been mandated by IPGRI as a base repository collection of wild Phaseolus, which includes wild accessions of Phaseolus lunatus and related species. Breeding Evaluation and breeding based on international collections were carried out at UTA (Ibadan, Nigeria) between 1973 and 1980, and later at CIAT (Cali, Colombia) between 1980 and 1992, the general objectives being to increase dry seed yield, upgrade resistance to pests and diseases and improve nutritional seed quality. Small-scale improvement programmes of Lima bean using local collections are being conducted in Ghana, Nigeria, DR Congo, Zambia and Madagascar. The adopted breeding methods are pure-line selection, bulk and population improvement; the target cropping systems include both sole cropping and intercropping systems. Erectness, resistance to lodging and to web blight are prime criteria to improve pseudo-determinate bush types. Earliness, photoperiod insensitivity, resistance to Lima bean golden mosaic virus and suitability for intercropping are being sought in climbing types. Some promising types in the humid tropics have been identified among the climbing forms. A large secondary genepool is available for improvement and the following wild species have been successfully crossed with Lima bean: Phaseolus jaliscanus Piper, Phaseolus maculatus Scheele, Phaseolus polystachyus (L.) Britton, Sterns & Poggenb. and Phaseolus salicifolius Piper. Introgression of useful genes of the wild taxa (e.g. resistance to Lima bean golden mosaic virus) has been observed in interspecific breeding material. Many commercial Lima bean cultivars have been developed in the United States. Prospects Because of its high yield potential, deep rooting and drought tolerance, Lima bean has good prospects in tropical Africa. Preliminary investigations have shown the great potential and the large genetic diversity of Phaseolus lunatus germplasm. Some progress in crop improvement has been made, mainly in areas outside the region of origin (for example in temperate climates of the United States). Much remains to be done in many regions of the tropics, particularly to develop more stable and higher-yielding cultivars for the humid, sub-humid and semi-arid tropics. Breeding efforts should consider separately the two major growth habits. The climbing indeterminate types usually give high but unstable dry-seed yield and require an expensive system of staking. In tropical regions, these types are mainly grown in intercropping systems with cereals or root and tuber crops. So far, few genotypes suitable for intercropping have been bred, which explains the poor performance of climbing Lima bean in such systems in spite of their high potential. The bushy pseudo-determinate types are more appropriate for sole cropping and intensive production systems. However, results are discouraging, particularly in humid tropics, due to unfavourable plant architecture (profuse branching, pods within the leaf canopy and severe lodging) and high susceptibility to diseases. The key factor to success would be to develop indeterminate bushy types with several traits of wide adaptation (such as deep rooting, drought tolerance, disease resistance and high yield potential). Research priorities should first be devoted to full exploitation of the large genetic variation available in the primary genepool of Mesoamerican and Andean origin. Exploitation of the alien genepools and selection in the interspecific populations should not be neglected when considering the challenge of high and stable yields in the humid tropics. Major references Baudoin, 1989; Baudoin, 1991; Baudoin, 2002; Baudoin & Mergeai, 2001b; Burkill, 1995; Fofana, du Jardin & Baudoin, 2001; Freytag & Debouck, 2002; Kay, 1979; Lyman, Baudoin & Hidalgo, 1985; Rollin, Other references Baudet, 1977; Baudoin, 1988; Baudoin, 1993; Berhaut, 1976; Duke, 144 146 CEREALS AND PULSES 1981; Ezueh, 1977; Fofana et al, 1999; Gillett et al., 1971; Hauman et al., 1954a; Hepper, 1958; Holland, Unwin & Buss, 1991; ILDIS, 2002; Kee, Glancey & Wootten, 1997; Maquet, Vekemans & Baudoin, 1999; Maquet et al., 1997; Paul, Southgate & Russell, 1980; Polhill, 1990; Schmit et al, 1993; Westphal, 1974; Williamson, Sources of illustration Baudoin, Authors J.P. Baudoin Based on PROSEA 1: Puises. PHASEOLUSVULGARIS L. (common bean) Protologue Sp. pi. 2: 723 (1753). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n = 22 Vernacular names Common bean, haricot bean, kidney bean, navy bean (En). Haricot commun, haricot (Fr). Feijäo, feijoeiro (Po). Mharagwe (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Common bean originated in Central and South America. Small-seeded and climbing ecotypes are found in the wild in northern Argentina and Central America. Common bean was independently domesticated in both Central America (Mexico and Guatemala) and in the South American Andes (mainly Peru). The resulting gene pools are distinct. Archaeological evidence indicates that common bean was a domesticated crop already in 6000 and 5000 BC in Peru and Mexico, respectively. Common bean was taken to other parts of the world since the 16 th century. Portuguese traders probably introduced common bean to Africa from the 16 th Phaseolus vulgaris - planted century through Sofala (Mozambique), Zanzibar and Mombasa, from where it was carried to higher altitude areas of the interior by slave trading caravans and merchants. Common bean became well established as a pulse crop in parts of Africa before the colonial era. Genetic diversity of common bean and its pathogens and linguistic evidence indicate that it became a major crop in Central African highland areas (e.g. in Rwanda and Burundi) earlier than in other parts of Africa. Nowadays, common bean is a crop of global importance, especially in North and South America, Europe and Africa. The crop is of significance in many African countries and most intensively grown in the Great Lakes areas of Central Africa. In tropical Africa common bean is a major food crop in urban as well as rural areas. Uses The mature dry seeds of common bean are eaten worldwide as a pulse and the immature pods and seeds as a vegetable. In tropical Africa common bean is primarily produced and consumed as a pulse. The nutritional value of the seeds is recognized, but common bean is also important for adding diversity and flavour to carbohydrate-rich meals, such as those based on maize or banana. It is the major protein source in various countries, e.g. in Rwanda, Burundi and Kenya. Although common bean is sometimes recognized as the 'meat of the poor', it is also much appreciated by wealthier consumers. In tropical Africa common bean is most typically consumed boiled, often with seasoning and some oil added. It may also be mashed or made into soup. In many parts of the world the dry seeds of common bean are canned, either alone or in tomato sauce. The leaves of common bean are sometimes eaten as a vegetable, e.g. during the hunger months of the year when not much food is available, but relatively few cultivars have leaves of sufficient tenderness. Crop residues are often used as fodder. In Mali a powder of carbonized seeds is applied to wounds. In temperate regions of the world Phaseolus vulgaris is mainly grown for the green immature pods (French bean), which are canned, frozen or eaten fresh. In tropical Africa immature pods are mostly produced as a market crop. A separate article in PROTA 2: 'Vegetables' deals with vegetable aspects of Phaseolus vulgaris. Production and international trade Reliable production statistics for dry common bean 145 PHASEOLUS 147 are difficult to obtain, as its production is often lumped together with that of other Phaseolus species. In 2000 the annual world production of common bean was estimated by FAO to be 8.3 million t; the largest producer is Brazil. Africa produces about 2 million t annually on about 3.5 million ha. Large producers (100, ,000 ha annually) in tropical Africa are DR Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Angola and Mozambique; smaller producers (2, ,000 ha) are Cape Verde, Niger, Cameroon, Sudan, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Most common bean produced in tropical Africa is consumed by the producer, but 40% may be marketed to supply urban areas and for export with a farm gate value of over US$ 200 million per year. Trade with neighbouring countries is important. For example, significant amounts move from Uganda to Kenya, Rwanda and Sudan, but Uganda may import from these countries when localized deficits occur. An example of longer distance trade of common bean is from Kivu in eastern DR Congo to Kisangani and down the Congo River to Kinshasha. Some common bean production is for specialized export markets, e.g. in Ethiopia for export to Europe and the Middle East, and in northern Tanzania for export to Europe. Properties A typical composition of common bean per 100 g edible portion is: water 11.3 g, energy 1218 kj (291 kcal), protein 21.4 g, fat 1.6 g, carbohydrate 49.7 g, dietary fibre 22.9 g, Ca 180 mg, Mg 180 mg, P 310 mg, Fe 6.7 mg, Zn 2.8 mg, carotene trace, thiamin 0.45 mg, riboflavin 0.13 mg, niacin 2.5 mg, vitamin B mg, ascorbic acid trace (Holland, Unwin & Buss, 1991). The essential amino acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 210 mg, lysine 1540 mg, methionine 240 mg, phenylalanine 1130 mg, threonine 860 mg, valine 990 mg, leucine 1640 mg and isoleucine 890 mg (Paul, Southgate & Russell, 1980). Common bean is deficient in the essential amino acids methionine and cystine. Composition alone is not a reliable indicator of its food value as common bean is not very digestible. Much of the phosphorus is phytate-bound and the protein is only 55-65% digestible. Common bean generally requires a long cooking time and may have 'hard-to-cook' properties, which may be due to genetic and environmental factors. Common bean contains antinutritional compounds, such as lectins (haemagglutinins) and trypsin inhibitors, but both are inactivated by proper cooking. It also contains tannins and flatulence-inducing compounds. Common bean starch has shown cholesterollowering effects in rats, whereas lectins have shown in-vitro inhibitory action against HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. A decoction of the pods has shown hypoglycaemic effects in rabbits. Seed coat compounds (methanol extracts, tannin fractions and pure flavonoids) have shown antioxidant activity. Description Climbing, trailing or erect and bushy annual herb, slightly pubescent; taproot well developed, with many lateral and adventitious roots; stem up to 3 m long, angular or nearly cylindrical. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules triangular, small; petiole up to 15(-30) cm long, grooved above, distinctly thickened at base, rachis (1.5-) ( 6) cm long; stipels small; leaflets ovate, (5-)7.5-14(-20) cm x 5-10( 15) cm, lateral ones asymmetrical, central one symmetrical, entire, slightly pubescent, 3- veined from the base. Inflorescence an axillary or terminal false raceme up to 15(-35) cm long, with flowers arranged along the rachis in pairs or solitary. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel up to 1 cm long, slender, with ovate bracteoles; calyx campanulate, tube c. 3 mm long, lobes triangular, 2-3 mm long; corolla white to pale purple or red-purple, standard very broadly obovate, hood-shaped, cm long, wings obovate, c. 2 cm long, keel sharply upturned, c. 1 cm long; stamens 10, 9 fused and Phaseolus vulgaris - branch; 3, seeds. Source: PROSEA 1, inflorescence; 2, fruiting 146 148 CEREALS AND PULSES 1 free; ovary superior, c. 0.5 cm long, laterally compressed, style upturned and spiralled, with collar of fine hairs below the ellipsoid stigma. Fruit a linear pod up to 20 cm long, straight or more commonly curved with a prominent beak, fleshy when immature, green or yellow, sometimes red, purple or with purplish stripes, (2-) 5 7( 12)-seeded. Seeds globose to kidneyshaped, ellipsoid or oblong, (-2) cm long, black, brown, yellow, red or white, sometimes with speckled, flecked or saddled patterns; hilum oblong to elliptical. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons oblong, thick; first two leaves simple and opposite, subsequent leaves alternate, 3-foliolate. Other botanical information Phaseolus comprises about 50 species, most of them in the Americas. Phaseolus vulgaris is closely enough related to some other Phaseolus species, e.g. Phaseolus coccineus L. (runner bean) and Phaseolus acutifolius A.Gray (tepary bean), to make interspecific hybridization possible. Andean types of Phaseolus vulgaris tend to have larger seeds and leaves than the Central American types. All growth habits are found in each gene pool, but determinate bush types and climbing types are more common in the Andean than in the Central American pool. In tropical Africa some genetic diversity is found that is not found in the Americas. Erect bush bean types are most common where mechanical harvest is practised but also in smallholder agriculture. Climbing types are largely restricted to high altitude areas, especially in south-western Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and eastern parts of DR Congo, but they are also grown in northern and western Malawi, northern and southern Tanzania and northern Zambia. Indeterminate trailing or semi-climbing types are common in most bean growing areas and prevail under growing conditions that are marginal due to high temperatures, water deficits and low soil fertility. Red, mottled, large-seeded cultivars are most common in tropical Africa, followed by cultivars with red, small to medium-sized seed. Other seed types may comprise 50% of the production. Black-seeded and white-seeded cultivars are not popular because of the colour of the food preparations. Growth and development For seed germination of common bean the soil must be warmer than 12 C, with optimal emergence occurring at soil temperatures of C. Plant growth habits are broadly grouped into determinate or indeterminate and bush or climbing. Flowering in common bean generally starts days after sowing. Self-fertilization is the rule, but with 1-3% outcrossing. Immature pods for vegetable use can be harvested days after flowering. The seedfilling period may take days. The length of the crop cycle ranges from days for determinate types and may be as long as days for indeterminate climbing types. Several Rhizobium species fix nitrogen with Phaseolus vulgaris, including Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. phaseoli, Rhizobium etli and Rhizobium tropici. The nitrogen-fixing ability of common bean is often considered poorer than that of other pulses such as cowpea, soya bean and groundnut, although fixation rates up to 125 kg of N per ha have been recorded. Ecology In tropical Africa common bean is well adapted to elevations of m, with mean temperatures during the growing season of C. Still, 20% of the common bean production in tropical Africa takes place at a mean temperature higher than 23 C. The crop can withstand occasional daytime temperatures of 35 C, but this often results in flower abortion. Growth stops below 10 C and the plant is killed by frost. At latitudes higher than 10 Phaseolus vulgaris may be grown at low altitudes during cooler months, generally with irrigation, and usually for immature pod harvest. Common bean production occurs with 250 mm mean rainfall during the growing season but 65% of the production is estimated to occur in areas with an average rainfall higher than 400 mm during the season. Occasional water deficits severely reduce common bean yield. More important constraints than water deficits are diseases that are favoured by humid conditions. Common bean genotypes vary for photoperiod sensitivity (short day plants or day neutral); photoperiod sensitivity is typically greater in genotypes of Andean origin than in Meso-American ones. Common bean prefers medium-textured, welldrained soils over 0.5 m deep. It is sensitive to soil acidity, including the associated aluminium and manganese toxicities. The optimum ph is , but most common bean production in tropical Africa is at soil ph 5-6 and 20% takes place on soils with ph below 5. Common bean production in tropical Africa occurs mostly under conditions of P deficiency. Where Phaseolus species have not grown previously, symbiotic N-fixation may be inadequate to meet the N requirement of the plants. Propagation and planting Common bean 147 PHASEOLUS 149 is normally propagated by seed, but vegetative propagation using stem cuttings is possible. The 1000-seed weight is g. Common bean may be sown by broadcasting and row planting. Sole-crop sowing rates range from 150, ,000 seeds per ha. With intercropping, sowing rates are less than for sole cropping. Indeterminate climbing common bean is sown 3 6 seeds per planting hole in rows cm apart with cm spacing within the row. Seeds are normally sown 3-4 cm deep, but as deep as 7 cm if the soil surface is dry and not too heavy or prone to crusting. Often mixtures of different seed types are sown, e.g. in Rwanda, Tanzania and Malawi. In traditional agriculture the land is prepared by hand or animal traction before sowing. Cultivation is mostly on the flat, but sowing on hills or ridges may be practised where the soil is heavy or the groundwater table is high. Only about 30% of the common bean production area in tropical Africa is planted as a sole crop. Intercropping with maize, banana and root or tuber crops is important with these intercrop associations accounting for 40-50%, 10-20% and 10-20%, respectively, of the common bean production area. Less common is intercropping with sorghum, millet, pea, faba bean, coffee and other crops. Climbing cultivars are more often produced in sole cropping than non-climbing types, but the dense foliage in sole cropping easily creates a humid environment promoting diseases. Common bean is sometimes grown as a relay crop on residual moisture, e.g. in Malawi and southern Tanzania. Management For climbing cultivars of common bean, 2 m high poles (usually straight branches or stems of bamboo or Pennisetum) are placed after emergence to support the plants. The crop is usually weeded once or twice, after which its canopy is sufficiently developed to suppress weeds. Earthing-up is often done at about 3 weeks after sowing. This should be done carefully, because common bean is liable to damage to the collar of the plant. Irrigation is uncommon except at higher latitudes with winter (dry season) production. Common bean is rarely fertilized in tropical Africa although N and P deficiencies are major constraints. Adequate P nutrition is important for symbiotic N- fixation and there is often economical response to 20 kg N and 22 kg P per ha. Although much of the common bean production is on acid soils, the use of lime to amend these soils is uncommon. The crop is grown in rotation with other annual or short-lived perennial crops. The rotated crops are typically cereals, other pulses and root or tuber crops. Diseases and pests Common bean is extremely susceptible to diseases and pests and more than 50% of the production in tropical Africa is estimated to be lost every year. The seedborne fungal diseases angular leaf spot (Phaeoisariopsis griseola) and anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum), and the bacterial diseases common bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. phaseoli) and halo blight (Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. phaseolicola, synonym: Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola) are each among the top constraints of common bean production. Estimated total yield loss attributed to these diseases is more than 1 million t per year in sub-saharan Africa. Angular leaf spot and anthracnose are sensitive to many fungicides, but smallholder farmers generally do not use chemicals for common bean disease control. Cultivars vary in their reaction to these diseases. Pre- and postemergence damping off caused by root rot complexes (Pythium aphanidermatum, Rhizoctonia solani (group AG4) and Fusarium solani f.sp. phaseoli) is very important in areas with intensive common bean production and low-fertility soils. Improving nutrient supply and sowing resistant or tolerant cultivars are effective methods of reducing losses to root rot. Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) is an aphidtransmitted and seedborne virus and has been estimated to cause 180,000 t yield loss per year in sub-saharan Africa. Resistance to BCMV is controlled by a single dominant gene, but this gene causes susceptibility to bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV; also known as black root) that is indigenous to Africa. These closely related viruses each have more than one pathogenicity group. Resistance to all groups can be achieved by deploying 2 or more recessive genes. Sowing of disease-free seed can be useful in control of seedborne diseases, but such seed is scarce. Bean rust (Uromyces appendiculatus), Ascochyta blight (Phoma exigua), powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni), floury leaf spot and web-blight (Rhizoctonia solani group AGI) together may cause yield losses of 600,000 t/year in sub-saharan Africa. The most important insect pests are bean flies or bean stem maggots (Ophiomyia spp.), especially at early growth stages and when plants are stressed by water and nutrient deficits. Bean flies can be controlled by treating seed with a systemic insecticide, such as imidaclo- 148 150 CEREALS AND PULSES prid or endosulphan, either as a seed dust or as a spray shortly after seedling emergence. In Africa cutworms (Agrotis spp.) and caterpillars (Spodoptera spp.) may be a problem especially in soils amended with farmyard manure, a common practice by smallholder growers. Thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis, Frankliniella schultzei and Megalurothrips sjostedti) and pod borers (Helicoverpa armigera, Maruca testulalis and Clavigralla spp.) cause 80,000 90,000 t and 130, ,000 t yield loss per year, respectively, in sub-saharan Africa. Thrips, particularly Frankliniella occidentalis, are difficult to control as they are resistant to many commonly used pesticides. Pod borers are easily controlled by Bacillus thuringiensis products. Aphids (Aphis fabae and Aphis craccivora) are among the top 10 constraints to common bean production and are worse under dry conditions. Ootheca foliage beetle causes widespread damage in sub-saharan Africa. Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci), a Madagascan bean leaf roller called 'cigarier'(apoderus humeralis) and painted lady (Vanessa cardui, synonym: Pyrameis cardui) are of local importance. Bruchids (Zabrotes subfasciatus and Acanthoscelides obtectus) are major pests of stored common bean and have been attributed with being the sixth main cause of yield loss (250,000 t/year) in sub-saharan Africa. Pest management typically involves the integration of several low-cost practices including crop rotation, intercropping, sowing of resistant or tolerant cultivars, and insecticide use. Harvesting Common bean may be harvested while most pods are still green but near physiological maturity, for an early harvest of a fresh, easy to cook pulse product, but most crops are harvested when mature. In tropical Africa harvesting is nearly all by hand. Nonclimbing common bean plants are usually uprooted when most of the pods are dry, bundled, and carried home. Pods of climbing types are normally harvested by hand as they mature, with repeated harvests over several weeks. Yield Average common bean yields are about 1.5 t/ha in Europe and industrialized countries of Asia, 1 t/ha in North America and 0.7 t/ha worldwide. Average yields in tropical Africa are often around 0.6 t/ha. Under the best growing conditions, yields of 2.5 and 5 t/ha for non-climbing and climbing types, respectively, are achievable. Under irrigation in Malawi, for instance, yields of 3.8 t/ha have been obtained. Handling after harvest Smallholder farmers transport the common bean harvest from the field to their home to be spread on the ground and dried in the sun. After drying, threshing may be by beating with long sticks, driving over heaps of harvested plants with a tractor, or, less commonly, with a threshing machine. Before being stored, common bean seed is often dried in the sun to destroy bruchids and to reduce moisture content for better storage. Prolonged drying can, however, induce a hard-to-cook condition. In some regions seed is sorted to lots of single seed types, while elsewhere complex mixtures of seed types are intentionally produced and consumed. Seeds may be stored with wood ash, tobacco leaves or ash from bean stems. Genetic resources Common bean is threatened by genetic erosion due to non-traditional farming practices where relatively few genotypes are produced in pure stands, and, especially in Latin America, to displacement of common bean by more profitable crops. In-situ conservation can be of importance especially in countries like Rwanda where many landraces are found under diverse conditions and where they are often grown in complex mixtures of as many as 20 seed types. The largest ex-situ collection of Phaseolus is at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CLAT) near Cali, Colombia. It holds over 40,000 accessions of which over 35,000 are of Phaseolus vulgaris. This was estimated to account for 50-75% of the variability occurring in the centres of diversification for domesticated types, but only less than 30% of diversity of wild types. Germplasm collections held in Africa include: Bunda Agricultural College, Lilongwe, Malawi (6000 accessions), National Genebank of Kenya, KARI, Kikuyu (3000 accessions) and Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, Butare (3000 accessions). African national breeding programmes (e.g. in Uganda) have smaller landrace collections. Breeding Common bean breeding programs in Africa and elsewhere have as their goal to improve yield potential; much of the progress is through improved tolerance or resistance to biotic and abiotic constraints. Improved resistance to diseases has been the main breeding goal and much success has been achieved, although resistance is often not durable due to genetic diversity and adaptive ability of the pathogens. Resistance to common bacterial blight has been introduced from Phaseolus coccineus and Phaseolus acutifolius. Improved insect resistance has been another major 149 PlSUM 151 breeding goal. Wild Phaseolus species have been useful sources of genes, such as for resistance to the bruchid Zabrotes subfasciatus. Breeding for tolerance to abiotic stresses has gained in importance and lines with superior tolerance to acid soils, and others efficient in N or P use, have been released in Africa. Promising progress in breeding for drought tolerance is being achieved where deep root systems are combined with efficient transport of carbohydrates from leaves to seed under drought stress. Progeny produced from crosses between the Andean and Meso-American gene pools typically is weak and of low productivity, but breeders have developed superior lines and parents through inter-pool crosses which have superior traits from each pool. Resource-constrained breeding programmes in Africa have benefited from regional and international collaborative efforts, such as from germplasm generated at CIAT. Efficiency of breeding common bean is improving with increased use of molecular markers. The 'Phaseomics' initiative facilitates collaboration among research institutions in the development of a cdna library and sequencing of the common bean genome. In-vitro regeneration of common bean for breeding purposes is possible using different expiants, including shoot tips, petioles, seedlings, embryonic axes, cotyledons, seedling nodes and meristematic calli. No confirmed reports exist of stable transgenic common bean plants based on Agrobacterium tumefaciens systems, but transgenic plants have been obtained by particle bombardment. However, the most efficient way to improve common bean with gene technology is probably to use Phaseolus acutifolius, which can be routinely transformed using Agrobacterium, and to cross the resulting transgenic plants with common bean using embryo rescue techniques. Prospects Common bean is the most consumed pulse globally and a very important crop in tropical Africa, especially in Central, East and southern Africa, both for its nutritional value and its market potential. It is especially important to smallholder farmers and women, who often are responsible for the common bean crop. Regional trade of common bean is of economic significance for some countries and there is also some common bean production in tropical Africa for export to Europe and the Middle East. There is no reason to expect that the importance of common bean will decrease in the future; in tropical Africa the demand is even likely to increase as population increases. Common bean production in tropical Africa is constrained by susceptibility to diseases and pests. Breeding for resistance to or tolerance of diseases and pests has achieved considerable progress, but work remains to be done as resistance is often not durable. Breeding for better tolerance to abiotic stresses, such as aluminium toxicity, and for more efficient use of inadequate soil water and nutrients, is also necessary to improve production both on marginal and on productive soils. Biotechnological tools will play an increasingly important role in common bean breeding, e.g. the use of molecular mapping to locate resistance genes. Major references Abate & Ampofo, 1996; Allen, Buruchara & Smithson, 1998; Baudoin et al, 2001; Gepts & Debouck, 1991; Hidalgo, 1991; Messiaen & Seif, 2004; Popelka, Terryn & Higgins, 2004; Shellie-Dessert & Bliss, 1991; Smartt, 1989b; Wortmann et al, Other references Beninger & Hosfield, 2003; Chacon S., Pickersgill & Debouck, 2005; Debouck & Smartt, 1995; Freytag & Debouck, 2002; Fukushima et al., 2001; Giller, 2001; Gillett et al, 1971; Graham & Ranalli, 1997; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Hidalgo & Beebe, 1997; Holland, Unwin & Buss, 1991; Johnson, Pachico & Wortmann, 2003; Kay, 1979; Mackinder et al., 2001; Martinez Romero, 2003; Paul, Southgate & Russell, 1980; Qi, Smithson & Summerfield, 1998; Roman- Ramos, Flores-Saenz & Alarcon-Aguilar, 1995; Wang & Ng, 2000; Westphal, Sources of illustration Smartt, 1989b. Authors CS. Wortmann PlSUMSATIVUM L. Protologue Sp. pi. 2: 727 (1753). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n = 14 Vernacular names - Field pea, pea (En). Pois, pois sec (Fr). Ervilha (Po). Njengere, njegere (Sw). - Garden pea, pea, petit-pois (En). Petit pois (Fr). Ervilha (Po). Njengere, njegere (Sw). - Sugar pea, pea pod, snap pea, snow pea, mange-tout (En). Pois mangetout, pois gourmand (Fr). Ervilha torta (Po). Origin and geographic distribution The origin and progenitors of Pisum sativum are not well known. The Mediterranean region, west- 150 152 CEREALS AND PULSES Pisum sativum -planted ern and central Asia, and Ethiopia have been indicated as centres of origin. Recently FAO designated Ethiopia and western Asia as centres of diversity, with secondary centres in southern Asia and the Mediterranean region. Archaeological evidence of the use of pea dating from 8000 BC has been found in the Fertile Crescent. The first cultivation of pea appears to have been in western Asia, from where it spread to Europe, China and India. In classical times Greek and Roman authors mentioned its cultivation as a pulse and fodder crop. Pea was already well known in the mountain regions of Central and East Africa before the arrival of the Europeans and was a well-established and important food crop in Rwanda and southwestern Uganda by The use of the edible pods was first described in the Netherlands and France during the 16 th century, whereas the use of immature seeds as a vegetable began in Europe a century later. At present, Pisum sativum is found in all temperate countries and in most tropical highlands. Field pea is extensively grown in the highlands of eastern Central Africa and East Africa (notably Ethiopia), and in southern Africa. In parts of Rwanda and Uganda it is the main pulse crop. Field pea is hardly grown in West Africa. In Africa garden pea and sugar pea are mostly considered exotic products. They are regionally of some importance, sugar pea more in Francophone countries, garden pea more in Anglophone countries. Imported canned garden pea seeds are available everywhere in food shops. Uses Three main types of pea cultivars can be distinguished: field pea, grown for the dry seeds; garden pea, grown for the immature green seeds; and sugar pea, grown for the immature pods. The dry seeds of field pea are first soaked in water to soften and are then boiled and consumed as a pulse dish. Alternatively, they are decorticated and split ('split peas') before boiling. They are also consumed roasted. The young pods of sugar pea are boiled for a few minutes only, to preserve their crispness; after boiling they may be stir-fried before consumption. The young seeds of garden pea are also boiled for a few minutes. They are commonly offered as canned or - in Western countries as deep frozen products. In Ethiopia the annual consumption per person of pea seeds is estimated at 6-7 kg. Main dishes include 'shiro wot' (split pea seeds ground and made into stew) and 'kik wot' (split pea seeds boiled and made into stew). Snacks include 'eshet' (fresh green field pea seeds either eaten raw or roasted), 'nifro' (boiled dry or fresh green pea seeds) and 'endushdush' (seeds soaked first and then roasted). In local markets white- and cream-coloured seeds are preferred for 'kik'-making, and grey-coloured seeds for 'shiro'-making. In Malawi and some Asian countries, the young shoots are used as a leafy vegetable. In Western countries dry, mature pea seeds are extensively used as animal feed. The haulms or straw after threshing are used as forage, hay, silage and green manure. Apart from being an important source of food and feed, pea plays a role in soil fertility restoration as a suitable rotation crop that fixes atmospheric nitrogen. The seeds of pea are claimed to have beneficial effects on many types of skin complaints; face masks made from crushed seeds are used to treat acne and wrinkled skins. Production and international trade FAO estimated the annual world dry pea seed production in at about 10.5 million t from 6.2 million ha. The main producers are Canada (2.1 million t/year from 1.1 million ha), France (1.9 million t/year from 400,000 ha), China (1.1 million t/year from 900,000 ha) and the Russian Federation (1.1 million t/year from 700,000 ha). The annual production in tropical Africa for this period was about 310,000 t from 470,000 ha. Here, the main producers are Ethiopia (135,000 t/year from 184,000 ha), DR Congo (65,000 t/year from 96,000 ha), Burundi (32,000 t/year from 49,000 ha), Tanzania (28,000 t/year from 63,000 ha), Uganda (18,000 t/year from 29,000 ha) and Rwanda (14,000 t/year from 30,000 ha). The annual world pro- 151 PISUM 153 duction of green pea seeds in was about 8.7 million t from 1.0 million ha, the main producers being India (3.4 million t/year from 300,000 ha), China (1.5 million t/year from 190,000 ha) and the United States (1.0 million t/year from 96,000 ha). In tropical Africa about 30,000 t green pea seed was produced annually from 6400 ha, mainly in Kenya (23,000 t/year from 5600 ha). Statistics on the international trade in pea seed are generally scanty, as they are mostly aggregated in 'pulse crops' as a whole. The main exporting countries are Canada, Australia, France and China. Canada focuses on the European stock feed market and in recent years on the food market in India. Australia focuses on the food markets and the domestic feed market. The top importers for pea feed or food are Spain, Bangladesh, Belgium, India, China, United States, Colombia, United Arab Emirates and Malaysia. Almost all the production in Ethiopia is consumed locally. Most sugar pea pods produced in the world are sold in local markets. Western countries import large quantities of sugar pea pods from developing tropical countries because locally produced ones are available for only a short time of the year and because of the high labour costs of picking. Kenya exports yearly 4500 t sugar pea pods to the European Union. Garden pea seeds are mostly exported as canned or frozen products from Western countries, e.g. the United States and France, but statistical data are not available. Properties Whole mature dried seeds of field pea contain per 100 g edible portion: water 13.3 g, energy 1269 kj (303 kcal), protein 21.6 g, fat 2.4 g, carbohydrate 52.0 g (starch 47.6 g), fibre 15.0 g, Ca 61 mg, Mg 120 mg, P 300 mg, Fe 4.7 mg, Zn 3.7 mg, carotene 245 ug, thiamin 0.6 mg, riboflavin 0.3 mg, niacin 3.0 mg, vitamin Be 0.13 mg, ascorbic acid trace (Holland, Unwin & Buss, 1991). The content of essential amino acids per 100 g food is: tryptophan 210 mg, lysine 1620 mg, methionine 210 mg, phenylalanine 1000 mg, threonine 860 mg, valine 1000 mg, leucine 1480 mg and isoleucine 930 mg (Paul, Southgate & Russell, 1980). The composition of wrinkled pea seeds is different from rounded ones; they have less starch (27-37 g) and more fat (5 g) and sugars. Antinutritional factors in pea seeds include trypsin inhibitors, haemagglutinins (lectins), tannins, oligosaccharides and phytate. Cultivars with a darker seed coat contain more tannin, which tends to decrease their digestibility. Raw garden pea seeds, immature taken from the pods (refuse 63%) contain per 100 g edible portion: water 74.6 g, energy 348 kj (83 kcal), protein 6.9 g, fat 1.5 g, carbohydrate 11.3 g (starch 7.0 g), fibre 4.7 g, Ca 21 mg, Mg 34 mg, P 130 mg, Fe 2.8 mg, Zn 1.1 mg, carotene 300 (Xg, thiamin 0.75 mg, riboflavin 0.02 mg, niacin 2.5 mg, folate 62 u,g, ascorbic acid 24 mg. Raw sugar pea pods, with the ends trimmed (refuse 8%) contain per 100 g edible portion: water 88.7 g, energy 134 kj (32 kcal), protein 3.6 g, fat 0.2 g, carbohydrate 4.2 g (starch 0.8 g), fibre 4.2 g, Ca 44 mg, Mg 28 mg, P 62 mg, Fe 0.8 mg, Zn 0.5 mg, carotene 695 p.g, thiamin 0.2 mg, riboflavin 0.15 mg, niacin 0.6 mg, folate 10 lg, ascorbic acid 54 mg (Holland, Unwin & Buss, 1991). Description Annual, climbing, glabrous herb up to 2(-3) m tall (up to 1.3 m for sugar pea types); taproot well developed, up to 1.2 m long, with many lateral roots; stem terete, with no or few basal branches, internodes hollow. Leaves alternate, pinnate, with l-3(-4) pairs of leaflets and ending in a usually branched tendril; stipules leaf-like, up to 8(-10) cm x 4 cm; petiole (2-)4-6(-7.5) cm long; leaflets shortly stalked, ovate to elliptical, cm x cm, entire to toothed, sometimes converted into Pisum sativum- 1, shoot with flower; 2, part of shoot with fruit; 3, seed. Source: PROSEA 152 154 CEREALS AND PULSES tendrils. Inflorescence an axillary, 1-3-flowered raceme. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; calyx with tube 4-8 mm long, lobes as long or longer than tube; corolla white to purple, standard 1-3 cm x cm, wings a little shorter than standard, keel much shorter; stamens 10, 9 united and 1 free; ovary superior, 1-celled, style curved, longitudinally grooved. Fruit an oblong-ovate pod cm x cm, pendant, 2-11-seeded. Seeds globose, sometimes wrinkled, 5-8 mm in diameter, varying in colour from uniform yellow (sugar pea), green (crinkled garden pea) to purple or spotted or cream-white, sometimes with black hilum. Seedling with hypogeal germination; cotyledons remaining within testa; first 2 leaves simple. Other botanical information Pisum comprises a few species and is related to Lathyrus, Lens and Vicia, from which it can be distinguished by its terete stems, very large stipules and longitudinally grooved style. Pisum sativum has long been studied by geneticists; Knight did his crossing experiments on it in 1787, and it was the subject of the pioneering work of Gregor Mendel in the 19 th century. Within Pisum sativum several varieties or subspecies have been distinguished. A classification in cultivar groups is more appropriate. Sativum Group is cultivated worldwide, including tropical Africa. Abyssinicum Group (Abyssinian pea) is cultivated in the northern (Tigray and Wollo) and south-eastern (Arsi) parts of Ethiopia; it is also grown in Yemen. The latter differs in having leaves with only one pair of leaflets (Sativum Group: 2-3 pairs), and smaller, red-purple flowers. It has slightly glossy seeds with a black hilum; these may mature earlier. Other cultivar groups, varieties or subspecies occur outside Africa; 2 of these represent wild populations from southern Europe and western Asia. Purple coloured flowers are associated with bitter tasting green seeds. For this reason nearly all garden pea cultivars are whiteflowered, while most field pea cultivars are purple-flowered and sugar pea cultivars can have white or purple flowers. Growth and development Pea seeds germinate at ambient temperatures of between 4 24 C, with C being optimal. In sugar pea cultivars flowers appear between the 6 th and 12 th nodes according to cultivar earliness, normally 5 7 weeks after emergence. At optimum temperatures, pods are ready for harvesting 12 days later. For garden pea the duration of the flowering period is 2 3 weeks in cultivars for mechanical harvesting, up to one month in garden cultivars. For field peas the period from emergence to dry seed harvest ranges from 3 6 months depending on cultivar and environment. Most field pea cultivars grown in Africa have an indeterminate growth habit. In a 2-season experiment with 63 genotypes in Ethiopia at 3000 m altitude, the period to flowering and maturity ranged from days and days, respectively. Pea flowers are self-pollinated, with usually less than 1% outcrossing. Pea is nodulated by Rhizobium leguminosarum. Ecology Pea requires a relatively cool climate, with average temperatures between7 24 C, and with optimum yields at average temperatures of C, although maximum rates of development and vegetative growth are reached at considerably higher temperatures. It can be grown at elevations above 1000 m near the equator, or at lower elevations (even in coastal areas) during the cool season at latitudes between Young plants can withstand frost if progressively hardened by lowering temperatures. Pisum sativum is grown in areas with an annual rainfall as low as 400 mm, but the optimum is mm/year. It is slightly susceptible to daylength, with long days promoting flowering. In most tropical circumstances it can be considered day-neutral. In Ethiopia rainfed field pea is grown at m altitude, because it suffers from diseases and drought at lower altitudes and from frost at higher altitudes. It is mostly grown in the main rainy season (June-December). In Uganda pea plants grow best at altitudes above 1800 m, and in Kenya optimum yields are obtained at m altitude. Pea grows on a wide range of soil types with moderate fertility levels, well drained and with ph , although some cultivars tolerate a ph up to 7.5. It is seriously affected by soil acidity, aluminium toxicity and waterlogging. Propagation and planting Pea is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight ranges from 100 g to 500 g. Sugar pea is sown in double rows 10 cm apart with 60 cm (30-80 cm) between the double rows. Within the rows the seed of small cultivars is sown 3 5 cm apart, for taller cultivars up to 10 cm apart. Garden pea is sown rather densely, with plant densities up to 80 plants per m 2. The seed should be sown 4-7 cm deep. Per ha kg of seed is required, with the highest rates for garden pea. Field pea is mostly broadcast in Africa. Even 153 PlSUM 155 though it does not require a fine seedbed, 2-3 ploughings with animal-drawn ploughs or one disc ploughing followed by two disc harrowings may be beneficial. Timely sowing is essential for optimum yields, since late-sown crops are often affected by low moisture availability and heavy aphid infestation at medium altitudes and by frost at high altitudes. In Ethiopia field pea is produced either as a sole crop or in mixed cropping with other crops, e.g. faba bean (Vicia faba L.). In the latter case, faba bean provides physical support and good aeration to field pea, whereas field pea suppresses weed growth. In Ethiopia mixed cropping of field pea with faba bean significantly slows down the rate of Ascochyta blight development and results in higher yields than pure stands. In the Kilimanjaro region of Tanzania pea is grown during the cool season in association with crops such as coffee, banana, tomato and maize. The same practice is found in parts of Kigezi District of Uganda. In Malawi (Ntheu District) it is also grown during the cool season, mostly as a garden crop in mixed stands with other crops, notably wheat. In the tropics, e.g. Rwanda and south-western Uganda, field pea is often the first crop after a fallow period. In temperate areas sugar pea is sown either in autumn or in early spring. Management Sugar pea plants are normally supported. The stems are not twining, but grasp the support with their tendrils. They do not need vertical poles, but the poles can be crossed, or the plants are supported by wire mesh, horizontal wires, vertical lattices or nets, depending on the potential height of the cultivar grown. Garden pea is seldom supported, field pea not at all. Weeds should be rigorously controlled. The critical period of weed competition is 3 8 weeks after emergence. Both annual and perennial grasses affect field pea. Weeds can be controlled by hand weeding where labour is cheap, whereas chemical weed control is more practical in large-scale production. Early land preparation can encourage weed seeds to germinate so that they can be destroyed in subsequent cultivation. Field pea normally needs no fertilizer N as the amount present in the soil and fixed by the plant is sufficient. The total uptake of a crop yielding 5-6 t of seed per ha is kg/ha P and kg/ha K. Young sugar pea and garden pea respond well to a starter dose of N fertilizer, even when nodulation occurs. An indicative fertilizer recommendation on light medium-rich alkaline soils is 40 kg N, 50 kg P, 150 kg K and 30 kg Mg per ha. Irrigation is necessary in dry conditions, e.g. 10 mm twice a week. Diseases and pests Ascochyta blight is a disease complex caused by Ascochyta pisi, Mycosphaerella pinodes (Ascochyta pinodes), and Phoma medicaginis (Ascochyta pinodella); it is widespread throughout the world. It is favoured by frequent rains and high humidity. Moderate levels of resistance have been detected in landraces and in the related Pisum fulvum Sibth. & Sm., which occurs wild in western Asia. Powdery mildew caused by Erysiphe pisi is widespread and important wherever pea is grown. Resistant cultivars have been developed. In sugar pea a recessive resistance gene is present in the cultivar 'Manoa Sugar' bred in Hawaii. Bacterial blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. pisi) is common where pea is grown intensively and humidity is high. Downy mildew (Peronospora viciae) may develop at high altitudes where temperatures are between 1 C and 18 C. As Ascochyta blight, powdery mildew, bacterial blight and downy mildew are seedborne, the use of certified disease-free seed is essential. If own seed is to be used, it may be treated with a systemic fungicide to control Ascochyta blight and powdery mildew. In addition, wide row spacing, eradication of weeds, surface irrigation and rotations of three years or longer help to manage bacterial blight and other diseases. Aphanomyces root rot (Aphanomyces euteiches) is a major root pathogen of pea worldwide. It is extremely difficult to control, as no effective fungicides are available. The development of resistance/tolerance to this disease will be necessary for effective control. Another important soilborne disease is Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. pisi, but cultivars resistant to this disease are available. Aphidtransmitted virus diseases include bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV), pea seedborne mosaic virus (PSbMV), pea leaf-roll (BLRV - bean leafroll luteovirus) and pea enation mosaic virus (PEMV). Recent sugar pea cultivars bred in southern France are relatively tolerant to severe infestation by these viruses (e.g. 'Supermangetout' compared to the traditional 'Carouby de Maussane'). The pea cyst nematode (Heterodera goettingiana) can cause considerable crop loss; control measures are crop rotation and the use of chemicals. Insect pests attacking pea include cutworms (Agrotis spp.), aphids (including the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum, a vector of many virus 154 156 CEREALS AND PULSES diseases, which has become a major pest in Ethiopia and Uganda), bollworms (Heliothis armigera and Spodoptera exigua) and the pea weevil (Bruchus pisorum). Bruchids (Callosobruchus spp.) are a major storage pest of field pea, e.g. in Ethiopia. The parasitic weed Orobanche crenata Forssk. causes crop losses in pea in the Mediterranean region. To control insect pests and diseases, integrated pest management (IPM) is recommended: use of resistant/tolerant cultivars; use of certified disease-free seed or seed treatment of own seed; keeping fields weed-free; appropriate fertilizing and irrigation; growing pea for seed in semi-arid and/or arid areas; regular monitoring of the crop; and judicious use of biocides. Harvesting Sugar pea pods and garden pea seeds are ready for harvesting 8-12 weeks from sowing, field pea seeds one month later. Pods of sugar pea are hand-picked every second day during a day period. Garden pea seeds are either handpicked or in large scale production for canning - machine-harvested. Late harvesting of field pea may result in shedding and rotting of pods and shattering of the seeds. Therefore, harvesting should be done at the appropriate stage: when the leaves begin to yellow, the lower pods begin to wrinkle, and the seed moisture content is reduced to 16-18%. In most parts of Africa where the time of harvest more or less coincides with the start of the dry season, it is easy to achieve low moisture contents while the crop is still in the field. Most field pea cultivars have an indeterminate growth habit and the pods do not mature simultaneously. Therefore, the harvested plants should be dried before threshing. In most parts of Africa (e.g. Ethiopia), harvesting of field pea is done with sickles, the crop is transported to threshing ground and stacked for a few days to dry in the sun. The stack is then spread on the ground and threshed usually by beating with sticks or by trampling with animals. Yield Yields of field pea range from less than 1 t/ha in Africa and South America to over 4 t/ha in Europe. The average world yield is around 1.7 t/ha. Under good growing conditions sugar pea yields of up to 8 t/ha edible pods per ha can be obtained. Garden pea may produce 4-7 t/ha young seeds. Handling after harvest The initial seed moisture content of field pea must be reduced to the required level of about 12% before storage. Optimum moisture content reduces the deterioration rate during storage and prevents or reduces attack by moulds and insects. The seed should be stored in a dry and cool place, free of pests and protected from absorbing moisture from the surroundings. In tropical Africa, e.g. in Ethiopia, pea seed is not stored for more than one season because of insect damage, particularly by bruchids. Small-scale farmers do not commonly use insecticides. Bins made of earth (smeared with cow dung) or wooden materials (sealed with mud) are the most commonly used storage structures in tropical Africa. Sugar pea pods can be kept for only 2 3 days at temperatures of C, but for more than 15 days at C in perforated plastic bags or crates covered with perforated plastic sheets. Garden pea seeds may be kept for 1 3 weeks at temperatures of 0-4 C and a relative humidity of 88-92%. Genetic resources A large genetic diversity has been found in Pisum sativum collections from both Africa (e.g. Ethiopia) and Asia (e.g. India). Genetic erosion in field pea is probably less than in cereals, because of less progress in cultivar development and hence less replacement of landraces by a few new cultivars. Many germplasm collections of pea are held all over the world. The world collection of cultivars and mutant forms of Pisum sativum is housed at the Nordic Gene Bank, Alnarp, Sweden (about 2700 accessions). Emphasis in the collection is on lines with multiple disease resistance, wild and primitive types, lines carrying structural mutations, breeding lines and cultivars of special interest. Large Pisum sativum collections are held in Australia (Australian Temperate Field Crops Collection, Horsham, Victoria, 6300 accessions), the Russian Federation (N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry, St. Petersburg, 6200 accessions), Italy (CNR - Istituto di Genetica Végétale, Bari, 4100 accessions), the United States (Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, 3500 accessions; Horticultural Sciences Department, NY State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, 2500 accessions), China (Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (CAAS), Beijing, 3400 accessions), and the United Kingdom (John Innes Centre, Department of Applied Genetics, Norwich, 2700 accessions). The largest collection of Pisum sativum germplasm in Africa is located at the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, with over 1600 accessions. Breeding All commercial cultivars of Pisum sativum are pure lines. The main breeding 155 PlSUM 157 objectives in temperate regions are colour and quality for fresh product markets and canning, mechanization and cold tolerance. Breeding in most parts of the tropics has an improved seed yield as a first priority through the development of productive cultivars tolerant/resistant to different stress factors and suitable for different agro-ecological conditions. Some progress has been made. In addition to improved yield potential, sources of resistance to powdery mildew have been identified. Attempts to transfer resistance to Ascochyta blight from a wild type have not been successful because of complications due to polygenic inheritance and linkage with other traits. The presence of physiological races of the pathogens is another problem. Manipulation of morphological traits has resulted in determinate types with even maturity, suitable for mechanization and semileafless types with reduced lodging. A peculiar mutant character, 'Afila', with tendrils in the place of leaflets has been introduced in commercial dwarf field pea cultivars. Breeding efforts during the past three decades in Africa have resulted in the release of a number of cultivars (obtained by introduction, hybridization and local selection), but most farmers still use their own farm-saved seed of local cultivars; well-known cultivars are 'Mitali' and 'Miseriseri'. In Ethiopia more than 15 cultivars, with superior yield potential, seed size, seed colour and disease resistance, have been released for different agro-ecological conditions. These cultivars include 'Holetta' (from local collection), 'Tegegnech' (introduced from Burundi), 'Hassabe' and 'Markos' (introduced from the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, ICARDA) and 'Adi', 'Milky' and 'Wolmera' (obtained by hybridization of adapted local cultivars with introductions from the United States and ICARDA). For sugar pea breeding the most urgent objective is powdery mildew resistance (available in 'Manoa Sugar') and to a lesser extent Ascochyta resistance (from green pea cultivars). The 'edible pod' character (absence of 'parchment' in the pod walls) is induced by two recessive genes. A mutation inducing thickening of this wall of up to 3 mm was recently introduced in American cultivars, giving rise to the 'sugar snap pea'. The 'sugar snap' character will be interesting if it appears attractive to consumers. It might also be interesting to introduce more new characters into sugar pea, e.g. true dwarfs which could be grown without support, or climbing semi-leafless types in order to increase yields by higher plant densities and to make fruit picking easier. Well-known cultivars of sugar pea in Africa are 'Sugar Snap', 'Carouby de Maussane', 'Oregon Sugar Pod', 'Shield' and 'Sugar Queen'. Some cultivars of garden pea are 'Alderman', 'Télévision' and 'Green Feast'. Many growers use their own seed originating from old introductions. A consensus genetic linkage map has been developed for Pisum sativum based on various linkage maps. Quantitative trait loci associated with, among others, seed yield, seed protein concentration, early maturity, lodging resistance, plant height and resistance to various biotic stresses (including Ascochyta blight, Aphanomyces root rot and Orobanche crenata) have been identified. Procedures for direct as well as indirect, callus-mediated somatic embryogenesis of pea have been developed for breeding purposes. Transgenic plants have been produced using Agrobacterium-based transformation vectors, e.g. to increase resistance to Callosobruchus chinensis, Callosobruchus maculatus and Bruchus pisorum by incorporating oc-amylase-inhibiting capacity from Phaseolus vulgaris. Prospects Field pea will remain important in Central and East Africa, as well as in temperate areas. It is a major and cheap source of protein, fixes atmospheric nitrogen, and plays an important role in farming systems by breaking cereal monoculture. A drawback is its susceptibility to diseases, which can best be counteracted by the development of resistant cultivars. As a potential export crop, it might represent a special opportunity in the years to come and the major pea-producing countries of tropical Africa could benefit from African (Morocco and Sudan), European (Netherlands, France and Greece), Middle Eastern (Israel and Yemen) and Asian (India and Pakistan) markets. Sugar pea and garden pea will become gradually more important in city markets in tropical Africa. Sugar pea is often considered a tastier vegetable than French bean and it could be interesting to develop its production for the domestic African market and for export. Garden pea could be produced locally on a larger scale to replace imports in canned form. Major references Cousin, 1992; Davies, 1989; Ellis & Poyser, 2002; Kay, 1979; Knight (Editor), 2000; Kraft & Pfleger, 2001; Nadolska-Orczyk & Orczyk, 2000; Telaye et al. (Editors), 1994; Thulin, 1989a; Westphal, Other references Aburjaj & Natsheh, 2003; AVRDC, 1992; FAO, 1998; Griga, 2002; Hanelt 156 158 CEREALS AND PULSES & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Hebblethwaite, Heath & Dawkins, 1985; Holland, Unwin & Buss, 1991; INRA, 2000; Kalloo, 1993; Kraft, Larsen & Inglis, 1998; Makasheva, 1983; Messiaen et al, 1991; Olivier & Annandale, 1998; Paul, Southgate & Russell, 1980; Pilet-Nayel et al, 2002; Pope, Polhill & Martins (Editors), 2003; Rubatzky & Yamaguchi, 1997; Schroeder et al., 1995; Valderrama et al, 2004; Wroth, Sources of illustration Davies, Authors C.-M. Messiaen, A.A. Seif, M. Jarso & G. Keneni SECALE CEREALE L. Protologue Sp. pi. 1: 84 (1753). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n - 14 Vernacular names Rye (En). Seigle (Fr). Centeio (Po). Origin and geographic distribution The centre of origin of rye is not known exactly, but its current centre of diversity is in the mountainous areas of Afghanistan, Iran and the Middle East. Probably from there, rye was spread to the surrounding areas in Asia, northern Africa and later, just like wheat, to Russia, central and western Europe, where it is cultivated under temperate climatic conditions. Rye is a typical 'secondary crop': it was primarily a weed in wheat and barley fields, later adopted as a crop. It may have been domesticated before BC. Rye grains dating back to 6000 BC have been found in Turkey, but it is not known if these were from crop plants or Secale cereale -planted from weeds. Rye has been spread to all continents, especially to areas with temperate growing conditions. Occasionally it is cultivated at high elevations in the tropics and subtropics. In tropical Africa rye is cultivated in the highlands of East Africa and it has been grown successfully in Malawi. In Ethiopia rye is sparingly grown in the highlands of Arsi, where it was introduced through Swedish projects in the 1960s. Rye has been grown experimentally in Zambia and Mozambique, but apparently with little success. In Nigeria it has been tried as a fodder plant in the 1980s. Rye is also grown in Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and South Africa. Uses Rye grain is used as a food for humans, but on a worldwide scale it is more important as animal feed. The grain is processed into bread, cakes, crackers etc. For making bread, whole or broken grain can be used; for making cake, the grain needs to be milled. Rye flour is often mixed with wheat flour. In Africa rye flour is considered to make good porridge with an equal amount of maize flour; if used alone, it is considered too sweet. Rye grain can be sprouted to make malt for beer; several alcoholic beverages are prepared by distilling malted rye grains, e.g. rye whiskey in North America and vodka in Poland and Russia. Rye flour is used as filler for thickening soups and sauces. Rye grain is used as a fodder, especially in pig husbandry. Starch from the grain is industrially used in the production of glue, matches, gum for sizing paper, and plastics. Rye straw is harvested for feed (cattle), litter (in livestock sheds), thatching, mulching material, industrial use (paper/cardboard), packing material (nursery plants, cheese) and fuel. Immature rye is harvested as a whole crop forage and it is grown as a green manure or cover crop. In Europe and India rye is sometimes grown as a host plant for ergot (Clauiceps purpurea), which is used medicinally, e.g. against migraine. Rye pollen extracts are registered and commercially available as a medicine against benign prostatic hyperplasia in western Europe, Japan, Korea and Argentina. In Europe rye is under investigation as a biomass energy crop. Production and international trade According to FAO statistics, the total world rye production in amounted to 20 million t/year from 9 million ha. The main producers are the Russian Federation (5.6 million t/year from 3.2 million ha), Poland (4.2 million t/year 157 SECALE 159 from 1.9 million ha) and Germany (3.9 million t/year from 0.7 million ha). No production statistics are available for tropical Africa. World rye exports in amounted to about 1.8 million t/year. The main exporter was Germany (1.1 million t/year); the main importers were Japan (360,000 t/year), the Russian Federation (170,000 t/year), South Korea (170,000 t/year) and China (140,000 t/year). Properties Rye contains per 100 g edible portion: water 11.0 g, energy 1402 kj (335 kcal), protein 14.8 g, fat 2.5 g, carbohydrate 69.8 g, dietary fibre 14.6 g, Ca 33 mg, Mg 121 mg, P 374 mg, Fe 2.7 mg, Zn 3.7 mg, vitamin A 11 IU, thiamin 0.32 mg, riboflavin 0.25 mg, niacin 4.3 mg, vitamin Be 0.29 mg, folate 60 Xg and ascorbic acid 0 mg. The essential aminoacid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 154 mg, lysine 605 mg, methionine 248 mg, phenylalanine 674 mg, threonine 532 mg, valine 747 mg, leucine 980 mg and isoleucine 549 mg (USDA, 2004). Rye cultivars comparatively rich in lysine are known. The main fatty acids are (per 100 g edible portion): linoleic acid 958 mg, oleic acid 280 mg, palmitic acid 271 mg and linolenic acid 147 mg. Due to the limited gluten content, bread made from rye flour has a compact structure; rye grain or grit is usually combined with wheat flour to improve the volume and texture of the bread. Because rye is not gluten-free, it is not suitable for inclusion in the diet of people with coeliac disease. Rye starch has a high water-absorbing capacity, making it suitable for use in adhesives. The feed value of rye grain is lower than that of other cereal grains, due to decreased feed intake, of which the causes are unclear. Therefore rye is used in mixtures with other grains. Rye straw is not very suitable as fodder because it is tough and fibrous. In a study on forage quality in the United States, the crude protein content of whole rye plants declined from 27.8% in the vegetative stage through 24.2% in the booting stage to 13.4% in the heading stage; the in-vitro dry matter digestibility in these three stages was 79%, 81% and 70%, respectively. Although rye pollen extracts are used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia, results from longterm studies are not available and a metastudy did not show sufficiently strong evidence. Rye, its residues and aqueous extracts have allelopathic properties, enhancing the suitability of rye for use as a weed-suppressing cover crop. The main allelopathic compounds are 2,4- dihydroxy-l,4(2h)-benzoxazin-3-one and its decomposition product 2(3H)-benzoxazolinone. Weed-control effects of a rye mulch remain for days after the rye is killed. Description Annual tufted grass up to 1.5(- 3) m tall, often blue-green; stem (culm) erect, slender, hollow except at nodes, glabrous but pubescent near the spike, producing tillers and roots at base; root system extensive, penetrating to 2 m depth. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath long and loose, with small auricles; ligule short, jagged; blade linear-lanceolate, cm x 1-2 cm, smooth or slightly scabrous. Inflorescence a terminal spike 7-15 cm long, curved, much awned, with spikelets alternating and closely inserted on a long zigzag rachis. Spikelets 2-flowered, with bisexual florets; glumes subulate, 1-veined, up to 1 cm long; lemma lanceolate, up to 2 cm long, tapering into a 2-8 cm long awn, 3(-5)-veined, keel prominently set with stiff bristles; palea about as long as lemma, awnless, scabrid on the keel; stamens 3; ovary superior, with 2 plumose stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), oblongoid, mm x mm, narrowly grooved, short-pointed, pale brown, glabrous. Other botanical information Secale comprises 3 species, and is distributed from east- Secale cereale - 1, plant habit; 2, flowering spikelet; 3, floret without lemma; 4, fruiting spikelet; 5, grains. Source: PROSEA 158 160 CEREALS AND PULSES ern Europe to central Asia, with 1 species also occurring in South Africa. Only Secale cereale is cultivated. Secale strictum (C.Presl) C.Presl subsp. africanum (Stapf) K.Hammer (synonym: Secale africanum Stapf) is only found in a single locality in South Africa. It is recordedly eaten as a cereal. It is liked by livestock and birds and is considered a potential pasture plant. In the literature 2 subspecies have been distinguished within Secale cereale: subsp. cereale (comprising the cultivated types, with a tough rachis) and subsp. ancestrale Zhuk. (comprising the wild and weedy types, with a more or less fragile rachis, mainly found in western Asia). However, more subspecies have also been distinguished. Within cultivated rye there are many landraces (usually with long culms and small grains) and cultivars. Hybrids of rye and wheat called triticale (xtriticosecale) have been developed and these show a mix of characteristics from the parents, combining the hardiness of rye with the high yield and quality of wheat. Triticale is presently grown only locally in tropical Africa, e.g. in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar, and also in northern Africa and South Africa. As a new food crop, it fell short of expectations, but it is becoming increasingly popular as a forage crop. Growth and development Rye germinates within 4 days at a soil temperature of 4-5 C, and more rapidly at higher temperatures. At the appearance of the fourth leaf, tillers and roots are formed to anchor the plant. Shoot initiation ceases as the plant enters the reproductive stage. Then, stem elongation starts and initiation and differentiation of the inflorescence take place. In each spike spikelets are initiated, of which bear 1-2 grains, resulting in grains per spike. Flowering lasts 3-5 days for a spike and 8-12 days for a rye crop. Rye is cross-pollinated by wind. The post-floral period for grain-filling is 4-5 weeks. The period from sowing to harvesting varies from 4-10 months. The duration of growth is largely dependent on temperature during reproductive development. In temperate regions so-called winter rye is planted in autumn to receive sufficient cold and short days to induce vernalization and reproductive growth; spring rye is planted in early spring and can be harvested after 4-6 months. Ecology Rye is a crop of temperate climates; in the tropics it is grown at high altitudes, e.g. at m in Ethiopia. Seedlings can endure frost down to -25 C. Tillering, shoot growth and flower initiation require rather low temperatures (10 15 C); for adequate growth during reproductive development the mean daily temperature must not exceed 20 C. Rye is tolerant to drought. Flowering is favoured by dry and sunny weather. Continuous rain, high humidity and low temperatures hamper pollination, causing incomplete grain set. Winter rye is a long-day plant; the reproductive development is stimulated by daylength increasing from 14 to 20 hours. Therefore, winter rye is mainly grown between N. Cultivars of spring rye are occasionally grown at high elevations in subtropical and tropical areas. They are less sensitive to daylength and do not need vernalization. Their flowering and seed set are satisfactory at a daylength of hours. Rye can be grown on most well-aerated soil types with a ph from 5-7.5; it is mainly grown on light, sandy and peaty soils. Propagation and planting Rye is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g. The optimal planting time for winter rye usually ranges from mid-september until mid- October in Europe. Seed can be broadcast by hand but needs to be covered to achieve adequate germination. Better conditions are created by drilling seed mechanically at a uniform depth of 2-4 cm in rows cm apart. Seed rates range from kg/ha to obtain an optimal density of plants/m 2. Spring rye needs to be planted as early as possible, if necessary even during winter, if soil conditions are suitable for preparing a seed-bed. Spring rye tillers poorly, so requires a higher seed rate ( kg/ha) than winter rye. Management Rye competes strongly with weeds, but they can cause problems at harvest. They can be controlled mechanically by harrowing or hoeing, or by herbicides during the tillering stage. Lodging can cause considerable damage. The amount of fertilizer required is largely related to the expected yield; about 20 kg N, 4 kg P and 13 kg K are removed from the soil per t grain yield. About 75-80% of the N and P is removed with the grains, whereas 75% of the K remains in the straw. N is often the most yield-limiting nutrient. For yields over 5 t/ha a split N-application is preferred. Diseases and pests Rye is considered relatively tolerant to diseases. Nevertheless, after germination snow mould (Fusarium nivale) can cause considerable plant losses and brown or leaf rust (Puccinia recondita f.sp. secalis) can severely damage leaves and stems. The most 159 SECALE 161 conspicuous disease is ergot (Claviceps purpurea), which infects the grain especially when grain set is poor; it produces alkaloidcontaining sclerotia. Grains with ergot are toxic, causing gangrenous or convulsive ergotism, and can make a rye stock unsuitable for human and animal consumption. No sources of resistance to ergot have yet been identified in rye. Other diseases include eyespot (Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides), sharp eyespot (Rhizoctonia solani), powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis), stem rust (Puccinia graminis), glume blotch (Septoria nodorum) and leaf blotch (Rynchosporium secalis). Most fungal diseases can be controlled by fungicides, but damage by snow mould, sharp eyespot and ergot can only be restricted by using healthy and disinfected seed. Resistance, e.g. to leaf rust and stem rust, is found in several rye cultivars, and resistance to these diseases has been transferred from rye to wheat through intergeneric crosses. Damage by viruses is of minor importance. The nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci can affect rye, but it is not common. Insect pests are not important in rye cultivation. Harvesting Time of harvest of rye is midsummer in Europe when the moisture content of the grain is below 15%. The crop can be harvested by hand; the method of harvesting, threshing, collecting and storing can be similar to that used for sorghum and millets. For combine harvesting, it is best to wait until the moisture content has dropped below 16%. However, to prevent loss of quality due to sprouting in the ear, the crop may be harvested at a higher moisture content (18-20%), especially if wet weather conditions prevail and delay ripening. Then subsequent drying will be required, in sheaves in the field or mechanically during storage. Yield Rye yields vary widely, from less than 1 t/ha in Africa, Latin America and Australia to over 5 t/ha in some western European countries. The world average yield is about 2 t/ha. Handling after harvest Low moisture content of the rye grain and low storage temperatures are desirable for long-term storage. The moisture content of the grain should be less than 13% if rye is to be stored for 6 months (without ventilation) at 15 C. If the stock is regularly ventilated, a moisture content of 14-15% may be acceptable. In temperate regions, such low moisture contents are often not reached at harvesting, and grain needs to be dried by warm air. Cleaning is commonly done before or during storage. After drying in the field, straw is usually baled and stored in barns or stacks for later use. Genetic resources Large germplasm collections of rye are kept in the Russian Federation (N.I. Vavilov All Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry, St. Petersburg, 2635 accessions), Germany (Institute for Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Gatersleben, 1990 accessions), the United States (USDA-ARS National Small Grains Germplasm Research Facility, Aberdeen, Idaho, 1823 accessions) and Poland (Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute (IHAR), Radzikow, Blonie, 1366 accessions; Botanical Garden of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, 1362 accessions). The only rye germplasm collections in Africa recorded by IPGRI are in South Africa (Division of Plant and Seed Control, Department of Agriculture Technical Service, Pretoria, 178 accessions; Small Grain Institute, Bethlehem, 52 accessions). Breeding Rye breeding programmes have given priority to winter types, and aspects as winter hardiness, straw stiffness, disease resistance and resistance to sprouting in the ear have received much attention. These breeding efforts have resulted in a considerable increase in grain yield and yield stability, shorter plants, reduced lodging and enhanced harvest index. Well-known cultivars include 'Petkus', 'Pearl', 'Steel' and 'King II'. Efforts to exploit heterosis for enhancing grain yield have resulted in hybrids that have entered commercial production with high-input management. Hybrids outyield conventional cultivars by 10-20%, but they demand more inputs (seed, crop protection). Tetraploid cultivars have been developed, with more vigorous growth and larger grains. Secale cereale has been crossed with Secale strictum with the objective of improving winter hardiness and resistance to drought and diseases. Perennial rye cultivars, intended for use as fodder, have also been developed by crossing the two species. For the production of ergot, male-sterile lines are used, facilitating the infection by the fungus. Rye is considered one of the most recalcitrant plants for tissue culture and genetic transformation. However, systems for the stable genetic transformation of rye using Agrobacterium tumefaciens or biolistic methods have been developed. It is possible to obtain large numbers of genetically identical plants by invitro regeneration using immature inflorescences as expiants. Genetic linkage maps of rye, 160 162 CEREALS AND PULSES on the basis of various marker types (RFLPs, AFLPs, RAPDs and microsatellite markers) have also been constructed. Genes conferring resistance to leaf rust have been identified. Prospects Rye may be inferior in several ways to the predominant world cereals (wheat, rice and maize), but it will continue to be an important crop because of its winter hardiness, tolerance to drought, ability to grow on poor soils, and consumer demand for baked products with the unique flavour of rye. There is considerable scope for improving yields. The application of high quality seed, new (hybrid) cultivars and advanced management practices can increase yield levels in the short term. The prospects of rye in tropical Africa seem limited. It has been tried in various countries, but its cultivation has not become important. Major references Darwinkel, 1996; Darwinkel, 1999; Frederiksen & Petersen, 1998; Froman & Persson, 1974; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Khlestkina et al., 2004; Kuip & Ponte (Editors), 2000; Popelka & Altpeter, 2003; Popelka, Xu & Altpeter, 2003; Smartt & Simmonds (Editors), Other references Acharrya, Mir & Moyer, 2004; Allkämper, 1984; Barnes & Putnam, 1987; Bosworth, Hoveland & Buchanan, 1986; Burgos & Talbert, 2000; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Launert, 1971; Maikhuri, Nautiyal & Khali, 1991; Masiunas et al., 1997; Musa, 1985; Nwankiti, 1984; Phillips, 1995; Roux et al., 2004; Raemaekers (Editor), 2001; Scholz & Eilerbrock, 2002; USDA, 2004; Vazquez & Linacero, 1995; Weston, 1996; Williamson, 1955; Wilt et al., Sources of illustration Darwinkel, Authors M. Brink Based on PROSEA 10: Cereals. SETARIA ITALICA (L.) P.Beauv. Protologue Ess. Agrostogr.: 51, 170, 178 (1812). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 18 Vernacular names Foxtail millet, Italian millet, German millet (En). Panis, millet des oiseaux, millet d'italie (Fr). Painço, milho painço, milho painço de Itâlia (Po). Kimanga (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Foxtail millet is an old crop, grown since 5000 BC in China and 3000 BC in Europe. It probably Setaria italica - planted evolved from the wild Setaria viridis (L.) P.Beauv. (green foxtail millet), and it was most probably first domesticated in the highlands of central China, from where it spread to India and Europe soon thereafter. Evidence for this origin, however, is not conclusive and its domestication may have taken place anywhere in the area extending from Europe to Japan, perhaps even several times independently. Foxtail millet was the 'panicum' of the Romans. At present foxtail millet is cultivated all over the world. In tropical Africa it is cultivated to a limited extent in upland areas in East Africa and occasionally recorded elsewhere, e.g. in Cameroon and southern Africa (Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique). In these areas it also occurs as an escape. Foxtail millet is also grown in South Africa and Lesotho. Uses The husked grain of foxtail millet is used as food in Asia, south-eastern Europe and Africa. It is most important in China and India. The grain may be cooked and eaten like rice, either entire or broken. It can be ground and made into unleavened bread or, when mixed with wheat flour, into leavened bread. The flour is also made into cakes, porridges and puddings. In northern China foxtail millet forms part of the staple diet; it is usually mixed with pulses and cooked, or the flour is mixed with that of other cereals in the preparation of bread and noodles. It is considered a nutritious food and is often recommended for the elderly and for pregnant women. Since the 1990s it has been used in China for the industrial preparation of mini crisp chips, millet crisp rolls and flour for baby foods. Foxtail millet is used in the preparation of beer and alcohol, 161 SETARIA 163 especially in Russia and Myanmar, and for vinegar and wine in China. Sprouted seeds are eaten as a vegetable, e.g. in China. In Europe and the United States foxtail millet is primarily grown as bird feed. It is an important fodder crop ('moha'); in the United States and Europe it is grown for hay and silage, and in China the straw is an important fodder. The straw is also used for thatching and bedding, e.g. in India. The bran serves as animal feed and can be used for oil extraction. Foxtail millet is credited with diuretic, astringent and emollient properties and is used to treat rheumatism. It can be sown in contour strips for erosion control. Production and international trade Production statistics for foxtail millet are scarce because they are usually lumped with those of other millets. The annual world production of foxtail millet in the early 1990s was estimated at 5 million t (18% of total millet production), with China being the main producer. In tropical Africa the production of foxtail millet is much lower than that of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.) and finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.), but no statistics are available. In India and China foxtail millet is mainly grown for home consumption. Properties The composition of foxtail millet grain per 100 g edible portion is: water 12 g, energy 1470 kj (351 kcal), protein 11.2 g, fat 4.0 g, carbohydrate 63.2 g, crude fibre 6.7 g, Ca 31 mg, Fe 2.8 mg, thiamin 0.6 mg, riboflavin 0.1 mg and niacin 3.2 mg (FAO, 1995). The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g grain is: tryptophan 103 mg, lysine 233 mg, methionine 296 mg, phenylalanine 708 mg, threonine 328 mg, valine 728 mg, leucine 1764 mg and isoleucine 803 mg (FAO, 1970). The starch granules are spherical, angular or polyhedral with a diameter of 6-17 im. Most foxtail cultivars are non-glutinous and are thus suitable for the diet of people with coeliac disease. The bran contains about 9% oil. Description Erect annual grass up to 150(- 175) cm tall, tufted, often variously tinged with purple; root system dense, with thin wiry adventitious roots; stem erect, tillering at base, sometimes branched. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath 10-15(-25) cm long, glabrous or slightly hairy; ligule short, fimbriate; blade linear, 15-30(-50) cm x (-4) cm, acuminate at apex, midrib prominent, slightly rough. Inflorescence a spike-like panicle 5 30 cm x 1-2(-5) cm, erect or pendulous, continuous or interrupted at base; rachis ribbed and hairy; lateral branches short, bearing 6-12 spikelets. Spikelets almost sessile, subtended by 1-3 bristles up to 1.5 cm long, elliptical, usually about half as long as the bristles, 2-flowered; lower glume small and 3-veined, upper glume slightly shorter than spikelet, 5-veined; lower floret sterile, upper one bisexual with 5-veined lemma and palea, 2 lodicules, 3 stamens and superior ovary with 2 plumose stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), broadly ovoid, up to 2 mm long, pale yellow to orange, red, brown or black, tightly enclosed by lemma and palea. Other botanical information Setaria comprises about 100 species distributed in the tropics, subtropics and temperate regions. Foxtail millet is the most economically valuable species of the genus. Several wild Setaria species are harvested for their seeds, e.g. Setaria finita Launert in Namibia. Setaria sphacelata (Schumach.) Stapf & C.E.Hubb. ex M.B.Moss is cultivated as a forage throughout the tropics and its grains are gathered as a famine food in Africa. The grains of Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult, are also eaten as a famine food, e.g. in Mali, Burkina Faso, Sudan and Ethiopia, but it is more important as a forage. Setaria verticillata (L.) P.Beauv. is a forage plant, but also collected as a famine food, e.g. Setaria italica - 1, upper part of plant; 2, sheath mouth with ligule; 3, flowering spikelet with bristles; 4, fruiting spikelet. Source: PROSEA 162 164 CEREALS AND PULSES in Niger, Sudan and Namibia. Setaria italica is a 'crop-weed complex', i.e. with wild and cultivated types. These types show no crossing barriers and isozyme analysis and molecular studies have confirmed their similarity. The wild types are considered to represent Setaria viridis (green foxtail millet), the cultivated ones Setaria italica (foxtail millet). Green foxtail millet occurs worldwide as a variable, annual weed, especially common in temperate regions. It differs from foxtail millet in its completely caducous spikelets, upper glume about as long as the spikelet and more roughly papillose lemma. It is sometimes considered a subspecies of Setaria italica: subsp. viridis (L.) Thell. It is also known as green bristle grass, and is one of the world's most noxious weeds, but it is sometimes used as fodder or for medicinal purposes. Foxtail millet is very variable and numerous cultivars exist, differing in time to maturity, plant height, size, habit and structure of inflorescence, number, colour and length of bristles, and colour of grain. Primitive cultivars have numerous, strongly branched stems (like green foxtail millet), while advanced cultivars produce a single stem with a large, solitary inflorescence. Growth and development Foxtail millet generally starts flowering at about 60 days after sowing, and flowering lasts for days. Flowering proceeds from the top of the panicle downward. The flowers open late at night or early in the morning, and close soon after opening. Foxtail millet is largely selfpollinating with an average outcrossing rate of 4%; natural hybrids between wild and cultivated types occur. Total crop duration is days, although some cultivars only need 60 days to mature. Foxtail millet has largely lost the ability of natural seed dispersal, and shows a tendency toward uniform plant maturity. Foxtail millet follows the C4-cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Foxtail millet is primarily a crop of subtropical and temperate regions; in the tropics it is grown up to 2000(-3300) m altitude. It does not tolerate frost. In China and India it is mainly grown in areas with an annual rainfall of mm. Foxtail millet is not particularly drought-resistant, but its short crop cycle makes it suitable for low-rainfall areas and it can be grown in semi-arid regions with rainfall less than 125 mm in the 3-4 months of growth. It is, however, susceptible to long periods of drought. Flowering is normally accelerated by short days, but day-neutral cultivars exist. Foxtail millet prefers fertile soils with a ph of about 6.5, but can be grown successfully on a wide range of soils, from light sands to heavy clays, and even yields reasonably well on poor or marginal soils. It does not tolerate waterlogging. Propagation and planting Foxtail millet is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is about 2 g. Dormancy is common in freshly harvested seed. The recommended seed rate for sole cropping in Kenya is 4 kg/ha, with a distance of 30 cm between rows and 10 cm within the row. In China and India it is sown at a seed rate of 5-15 kg/ha when grown in pure stands, with plant densities of 300, million plants/ha. It is either broadcast or drilled in rows cm apart, with 5-20 cm within the row, and thinning may be practised. The usual sowing depth is 3-6 cm and a fine, firm seedbed is required. Foxtail millet is grown as a sole crop or intercropped, e.g. with finger millet, cotton, sorghum or pigeon pea in India. Management In Kenya the first weeding of foxtail millet is recommended at 2-3 weeks after emergence of the seedlings, and the second one 2 weeks later. In India foxtail millet is usually weeded once at about 3 weeks after sowing. Foxtail millet responds well to manuring, but generally only irrigated crops are manured. It is usually grown as a rainfed crop, but it may also be grown under irrigation, e.g. in India. Crop rotation of foxtail millet with finger millet and sorghum is common in India. Sometimes it is grown as a catch crop when paddy rice has failed. Diseases and pests The most serious diseases of foxtail millet are blast {Pyricularia setariae), downy mildew (Sclerospora graminicola), leaf rust (Uromyces setariae-italiae) and smut (Ustilago crameri). Downy mildew and smut can be controlled by treating the seed. Important insect pests of foxtail millet are shoot flies (Atherigona spp.), crickets, borers and caterpillars. Foxtail millet is highly susceptible to bird attack in the field, and mice and rats also damage the crop. In stored grain, seed smut (Sorosporium bullatum) and kernel smut (Ustilago paradoxa) may cause considerable losses in addition to the common cereal storage insects. Harvesting Foxtail millet is harvested manually by cutting off the panicles and threshing them. Mechanical harvesting with a combine or binder is possible. In southern In- 163 SORGHUM 165 dia whole plants may be cut and threshed by trampling by cattle or by passing a stone roller over the plants. When grown for fodder, foxtail millet should be harvested before flowering. Yield The average annual yield of rainfed foxtail millet is kg/ha of grain and 2500 kg/ha of straw. Improved cultivars in China yield 1800 kg/ha of grain in regions with less than 900 mm annual rainfall. Much higher grain yields can be obtained with irrigation (in China experimental yields have reached 11 t/ha). As forage it may yield t green matter per ha or 3.5 t hay. Handling after harvest Foxtail millet should be dried thoroughly before storage. The grain is usually husked just before processing because husked grains are readily infested with insects. Husking can be done with a stone roller or with rice milling machinery. In China mini crisp chips are made by cooking husked grains, pressing the product to 1 mm thickness, drying, frying in oil and flavouring. Crispy rolls are prepared from husked grains which are soaked in water, ground and, after addition of sugar, toasted between 2 iron plates and formed into rolls. Genetic resources Large collections of foxtail millet germplasm are kept by the Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (CAAS), Beijing, China (25,380 accessions), the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India (1528 accessions) and the All India Coordinated Minor Millet Project, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India (1300 accessions). In Africa a collection of 451 foxtail millet accessions is kept at the National Dryland Farming Research Station, Machakos, Kenya. Resistance to blast and rust has been identified in germplasm collections. Breeding Foxtail millet breeding is mainly carried out in China and India. Major breeding objectives are developing high-yielding cultivars which produce protein-rich seed and are resistant to diseases, pests and lodging, and adapted to local ecological circumstances. In China, for example, cultivars with a short growing cycle and a high drought and cold tolerance have been developed; these can be grown in the summer season after winter wheat. The recommended cultivar in Kenya is 'KAT/FOX-1'; it matures in 3-4 months. Techniques applied in foxtail millet breeding include selection, hybridization (using malesterile lines) and radiation-induced mutations. Due to the floral morphology (very small flowers) and flowering behaviour of foxtail millet, artificial cross-pollination is difficult, but an effective procedure for artificial hybridization of foxtail millet has been developed in the United States. High levels of heterosis for grain yield (67%) and panicle length (68%) have been found. Prospects On a worldwide scale foxtail millet has lost its importance as a food crop in competition with major cereals such as wheat, rice, maize and sorghum. However, because of its short crop cycle and the fact that it can be grown on a wide range of soil types it may remain a useful crop in Asia on poor agricultural land in regions with low rainfall or a short growing season. The prospects for foxtail millet in tropical Africa seem limited, but it may gain importance as a niche crop in dry regions at medium to high altitudes. Major references de Wet, Oestry-Stidd & Cubero, 1979; FAO, undated; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Oduori, 1993; Prasada Rao & de Wet, 1997; Prasada Rao et al., 1987; Purseglove, 1972; Rahayu & Jansen, 1996; Riley et al. (Editors), 1993; Seetharam, Riley & Harinarayana, Other references Benabdelmouna et al., 2001; Benabdelmouna, Abirached-Darmency & Darmency, 2001; Burkill, 1994; Clayton, 1989; CSIR, 1972; de Wet, 1995b; FAO, 1970; FAO, 1995; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Hülse, Laing & Pearson, 1980; ICRISAT & FAO, 1996; Klaassen & Craven, 2003; le Thierry d'ennequin et al, 2000; Li et al., 1998; Malm & Rachie, 1971; Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2002; Petr et al., 2003; Siles, Baltensperger & Nelson, 2001; Siles et al., 2004; Wanous, Sources of illustration Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Rahayu & Jansen, Authors M. Brink Based on PROSEA 10: Cereals. SORGHUM BICOLOR (L.) Moench Protologue Methodus: 207 (1794). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n = 20 Vernacular names Sorghum, sorgo, guinea corn, great millet, durra (En). Sorgho, gros mil, sorgho rouge (dye cultivars), sorgho des teinturiers (dye cultivars) (Fr). Sorgo, milho miudo, massambala (Po). Mtama (Sw). 164 166 CEREALS AND PULSES Sorghum bicolour - planted Origin and geographic distribution The greatest diversity in both cultivated and wild types of Sorghum is found in north-eastern tropical Africa. The crop may have been domesticated in that region, possibly Ethiopia. Various hypotheses have been put forward as to when the crop was domesticated, from as early as BC to around 1000 BC, but the latter period is more widely accepted now. From north-eastern Africa sorghum was distributed all over Africa and along shipping and trade routes through the Middle East to India. From India it is believed to have been carried to China along the silk route and through coastal shipping to South-East Asia. From West Africa sorghum was taken to the Americas through the slave trade. It was introduced into the United States for commercial cultivation from North Africa, South Africa and India at the end of the 19 th century. It was subsequently introduced into South America and Australia. It is now widely cultivated in drier areas of Africa, Asia, the Americas, Europe and Australia between latitudes of up to 50 N in North America and Russia and 40 S in Argentina. Sorghum types exclusively cultivated for the dye in the leaf sheaths can be found from Senegal to Sudan. Uses Sorghum is an important staple food, particularly in semi-arid tropical regions of Africa and Asia, and an important feed grain and fodder crop in the Americas and Australia. In the simplest food preparations, the whole grain is boiled (to produce a food resembling rice), roasted (usually at the dough stage), or popped (like maize). More often the grain is ground or pounded into flour, often after hulling. Sorghum flour is used to make thick or thin porridge, pancake, dumplings or couscous, opaque and cloudy beers and non-alcoholic fermented beverages. In Africa sorghum grain is germinated, dried and ground to form malt, which is used as a substratum for fermentation in local beer production. White grain is generally preferred for cooking while red and brown grains are normally used for beer making. Where bird pressure is high, e.g. around Lake Victoria, red and brown types rich in tannin may be grown for food instead of white types. In China sorghum is extensively distilled to make a popular spirit and vinegar. Sorghum grain is a significant component of cattle, pig and chicken feeds in the United States, Central and South America, Australia and China, and is becoming important in chicken feed in India. It requires grinding, rolling, flaking or steaming to maximize its nutritional value. Several non-edible sorghum cultivars are exclusively grown for the red dye present in the leaf sheaths and sometimes also in adjacent stem parts. In Africa this dye is used particularly for goat-skin leather (e.g. in Nigeria), but also for mats, textiles, strips of palm leaves and grasses used in basketry and weaving, ornamental calabashes, wool (e.g. in Sudan), as a body paint and to colour cheese and lickstones for cattle (e.g. in Benin). A similar dye can be extracted from the grain refuse (glumes and grain wall) of several red sorghum cultivars grown for food or for beer-making. In Nigeria the red sorghum dyes were traditionally used by the Bunu, Aworo, Igbira and Okpella people for a fabric called 'abata', used as a funeral hanging, decorated with patterns made by thick threads added to the weft of the fabric. The fabrics in which the dominant colours were derived from sorghum were known as 'ifala'. Sorghum is also used to provide the violet colours decorating the masks worn during certain dances by Yoruba people in southern Benin and in south-western Nigeria. In Côte d'ivoire sorghum and other tannin-rich dyes are used in combination with mud to create the patterns of the painted cloths produced in the Korhogo region. The dye was formerly exported to Morocco where it was used in the leather industry. In China sorghum types with red panicles and leaf sheaths were also used for dyeing. In the 19 th century red sorghums were exported to Europe where the dye was known as 'carmin de sorgho'. It was extracted by squeezing out the juice, which was then fermented. Used with wool or silk mordanted with tin or chrome, the 165 SORGHUM 167 result was a colourfast red-brown that was once known as 'rouge badois'. 'Durra red', a similar product, was imported from India into the United Kingdom where the dye was known as 'Hansen brown' or 'Meyer brown'. Recently the use of sorghum dye in hair dying products has been patented. The stems of sweet sorghum types are chewed like sugar cane and, mainly in the United States, a sweet syrup is pressed from them. In North America and eastern Europe special types with very long, fibrous and few-seeded inflorescences, known as 'broomcorn', are grown to make brooms. Sorghum plant residues are used extensively as material for roofing, fencing, weaving and as fuel. The stems can be used for the production of fibre board. Danish scientists have made good panelling using stem chips of sorghum. The stover remaining after harvesting the grain is cut and fed to cattle, sheep and goats, or may be grazed. Some farmers grind harvested stover and mix it with sorghum bran or salt to feed livestock. Sorghum is also grown for forage, either for direct feeding to ruminants or for preservation as hay or silage. Sorghum flour is used to produce an adhesive in the manufacture of plywood. Sweet sorghum is suitable for the production of alcohol, while the bagasse is a suitable source of paper pulp for the production of kraft paper, newsprint and fibre board. Sorghum has various applications in African traditional medicine: seed extracts are drunk to treat hepatitis, and decoctions of twigs with lemon against jaundice; leaves and panicles are included in plant mixtures for decoctions against anaemia. The Salka people in northern Nigeria use sorghum in arrow-poisons. The red pigment is said to have antimicrobial and antifungal properties and is also used as a cure for anaemia in traditional medicine. Production and international trade Sorghum grain is the fifth most important cereal in the world after wheat, rice, maize and barley. In Africa it comes second after maize in terms of production. According to FAO estimates, the average world production of sorghum grain in amounted to 57.7 million t/year from 42.6 million ha. The production in sub-saharan Africa was 19.0 million t/year from 22.8 million ha. The main producing countries are the United States (12.0 million t/year in from 3.2 million ha), India (7.6 million t/year from 9.8 million ha), Nigeria (7.6 million t/year from 6.9 million ha), Mexico (6.0 million t/year from 1.9 million ha), Sudan (3.4 million t/year from 5.3 million ha), Argentina (3.0 million t/year from 630,000 ha), China (3.0million t/year from 840,000 ha), Australia (1.9 million t/year from 690,000 ha), Ethiopia (1.4 million t/year from 1.2 million ha) and Burkina Faso (1.3 million t/year from 1.4 million ha). In sub-saharan Africa annual production increased from around 10 million t from 13 million ha in the early 1960s to about 20 million t from 25 million ha in the early 2000s. Almost all sorghum traded on international markets is for use as livestock feed. Average world exports of sorghum in amounted to 6.3 million t/year, almost all from the United States (5.6 million t/year). The main importers are Mexico and Japan. In tropical Africa most sorghum is grown for home consumption (except for beer production). In southern and eastern Africa malting sorghum for beer brewing has developed into a large-scale commercial industry, using about 150,000 t of sorghum grain annually. In Uganda commercial production of lager beer using sorghum instead of barley is becoming a great success (annual requirement of sorghum is 3000 t) and is very promising for other African countries. In Nigeria sorghum malting has become a major industry for lager and stout beer brewing and for malt beverages, using about 15,000 t of sorghum annually. In South Africa an instant breakfast cereal is made from sorghum that is similar in quality but much cheaper than wheat or maize products. Annual production is 12,000 t and is increasing steadiiy. In West Africa small tied bundles of 4-6 leaf sheaths of sorghum dye cultivars are offered for sale on local markets (in the 1990s the price was about 150 CFA). In 1993 in Burkina Faso, the red pigment was successfully extracted chemically from sorghum leaf sheaths and offered for sale as dry powder on the world market. Properties The composition of sorghum grain per 100 g edible portion is: water 9.2 g, energy 1418 kj (339 kcal), protein 11.3 g, fat 3.3 g, carbohydrate 74.6 g, Ca 28 mg, P 287 mg, Fe 4.4 mg, vitamin A 0 IU, thiamin 0.24 mg, riboflavin 0.14 mg, niacin 2.9 mg and ascorbic acid 0 mg. The essential amino acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 124 mg, lysine 229 mg, methionine 169 mg, phenylalanine 546 mg, threonine 346 mg, valine 561 mg, leucine 1491 mg and isoleucine 433 mg. The principal fatty acids are per 100 g 166 168 CEKEALS AND PULSES edible portion: linoleic acid 1305 mg, oleic acid 964 mg and palmitic acid 407 mg (USDA, 2004). Sorghum grain is first limiting in lysine, then in methionine and threonine. Much of the protein in sorghum is prolamine (39-73%), which is poorly digestible. As a result, maximum available protein in sorghum grain is usually 8-9%. The tannin content of sorghum also affects its nutritional value. High- and low-tannin sorghum types are distinguished. High-tannin sorghum types (sometimes called 'brown sorghums', although the grain may also be white, yellow or red) have less nutritional value but have agronomic advantages, including resistance to birds, insects, fungi and decreased sprouting in the panicle. Sorghum types without a pigmented grain wall ('white sorghums') do not contain condensed tannins and have a nutritional value similar to that of maize. Decortication, parboiling, malting or steeping in alkali solutions significantly reduce the tannin content of sorghum grain. In general the endosperm accounts for 82 84% of the grain weight, the germ for 9-10% and the grain wall for 6-8%. The starch granules in the endosperm have a diameter of (4-)15(-25) im. The starch normally contains 70-80% amylopectin and 20-30% amylose, although some types contain 100% amylopectin and others up to 62% amylose. The gelatinization temperature ranges from C. Sorghum grain does not contain gluten and cannot be used for leavened products unless mixed with wheat. The composition of the green plant varies according to age and cultivar but it normally contains g of water per 100 g of fresh material. On a dry basis it contains per 100 g: protein 12 g, carbohydrate g and fibre g. The glycoside dhurrin occurs in the aerial parts of most sorghum. Dhurrin is hydrolyzed to hydrocyanic acid (HCN), which is highly toxic and can kill grazing animals. It is particularly concentrated in the young leaves and tillers and in plants that are suffering from drought. HCN content usually declines with age, reaching non-toxic levels days after planting, and HCN is destroyed when the fodder is made into hay or silage. The red pigment in sorghum dye cultivars is composed of anthocyanic compounds, particularly rich (95%) in the stable apigeninidin chloride (3-deoxyanthocyanidin) and tannins of the condensed proanthocyanidins group (producing phlobaphen reds). The red pigment in the sorghum leaf sheath makes up to over 20% of the dry weight. The role of the non-pathogenic fungus Bipolaris maydis in the production of apigeninidin in these cultivars deserves further research. Used without a mordant, the dye obtained from sorghum gives a dark red that is fairly colourfast and still much used in eastern Africa, particularly Sudan and Ethiopia, for dyeing leather, cotton and the grasses and reeds used for woven matting. Black colours are obtained with natron salt and iron mordants. From red sorghum grain the pigments apigenin, quercimeritrin, kaempferol glucosides, apigenidin glucosides, apigeninidin, luteolinidin and 7-O-methyl-luteolin-glucoside have been isolated. From the stem of red sorghum cultivars the constituents of the red dye were the anthocyanidin apigeninidin (17%) and the flavonoids luteolin (9%) and apigenin (4%). The anaemia curing property of the red pigment has been confirmed in tests with rats. Description Annual grass up to 5 m tall, with one to many tillers, originating from the base or stem nodes; roots concentrated in the top 90 cm of the soil but sometimes extending to twice that depth, spreading laterally up to 1.5 m; stem (culm) solid, usually erect. Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath cm long, often with a waxy bloom, with band of short white hairs at base near attachment, reddish in dye cultivars, auricled; ligule short, c. 2 mm long, ciliate on upper free edge; blade lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, cm x cm, initially erect, later curving, margins flat or wavy. Inflorescence a terminal panicle up to 60 cm long; rachis short or long, with primary, secondary and sometimes tertiary branches, with spikelets in pairs and in groups of three at the ends of branches. Spikelet sessile and bisexual or pedicelled and male or sterile, with 2 florets; sessile spikelet 3-10 mm long, with glumes approximately equal in length, lower glume 6-18-veined, usually with a coarse keellike vein on each side, upper glume usually narrower and more pointed, with central keel for part of its length, lower floret consisting of a lemma only, upper floret bisexual, with lemma cleft at apex, with or without kneed and twisted awn, palea, when present, small and thin, lodicules 2, stamens 3; ovary superior, 1- celled with 2 long styles ending in feathery stigmas; pedicelled spikelet persistent or deciduous, smaller and narrower than sessile spikelet, often consisting of only two glumes, sometimes with lower floret consisting of lemma only and upper floret with lemma, 2 lodicules and 3 stamens. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), usually partially covered by glumes, 4 167 SORGHUM 169 Sorghum bicolor - panicles and spikelets of the 5 basic races: 1, bicolor; 2, caudatum; 3, durra; 4, guinea; 5, kafir. Source: PROSEA 8 mm in diameter, rounded and bluntly pointed. Other botanical information Sorghum comprises species. Sorghum bicolor belongs to section Sorghum, together with the 2 perennial species Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. and Sorghum propinquum (Kunth) Hitchc. At present, Sorghum bicolor is mostly considered as an extremely variable crop-weed complex, comprising wild, weedy and cultivated annual types (classified as subspecies) which are fully interfertile. The cultivated types are classified as subsp. bicolor (synonyms: Sorghum ankolib Stapf, Sorghum caudatum Stapf, Sorghum cernuum Host, Sorghum dochna (Forssk.) Snowden, Sorghum durra (Forssk.) Stapf, Sorghum membranaceum Chiov., Sorghum nigricans (Ruiz & Pav.) Snowden, Sorghum subglabrescens (Steud.) Schweinf. & Asch., Sorghum vulgare Pers.) and they are subclassified into different races on the basis of grain shape, glume shape and panicle type. Five basic races and hybrid combinations of 2 or more of these races are recognized and grouped into subsp. bicolor. A classification into cultivar groups would, however, be more appropriate. The 5 basic races are: - Bicolor: the most primitive cultivated sorghum, characterized by open inflorescences and long clasping glumes that enclose the usually small grain at maturity. Cultivars are grown in Africa and Asia, some for their sweet stems to make syrup or molasses, others for their bitter grains used to flavour sorghum beer, but they are rarely important. They are frequently found in wet conditions. - Caudatum: characterized by turtle-backed grains that are flat on one side and curved on the other; the panicle shape is variable and the glumes are usually much shorter than the grain. Cultivars are widely grown in north-eastern Nigeria, Chad, Sudan and Uganda. The types used for dyeing also belong here and are known as 'karan dafi' by the Hausa people in Nigeria. - Durra: characterized by compact inflorescences, characteristically flattened sessile spikelets, and creased lower glumes; the grain is often spherical. Cultivars are widely grown along the fringes of the southern Sahara, western Asia and parts of India. The durra type is predominant in Ethiopia and in the Nile valley in Sudan and Egypt. It is the most specialized and highly evolved of all races and many useful genes are found in this type. Durra cultivars range in maturity from long to short-season. Most of them are drought resistant. - Guinea: characterized by usually large, open inflorescences with branches often pendulous at maturity; the grain is typically flattened and twisted obliquely between long gaping glumes at maturity. Guinea sorghum occurs primarily in West Africa, but it is also grown along the East African rift from Malawi to Swaziland and it has also spread to India and the coastal areas of South-East Asia. Many subgroups can be distinguished, e.g. with cultivars especially adapted to high or low rainfall regimes. In the past the grain was often used as ship's provisions because it stored well. - Kafir: characterized by relatively compact panicles that are often cylindrical in shape, elliptical sessile spikelets and tightly clasping glumes that are usually much shorter than the grain. Kafir sorghum is an important staple across the eastern and southern savanna from Tanzania to South Africa. Kafir landraces tend to be insensitive to photoperiod and most commercially important 168 170 CEREALS AND PULSES male-sterile lines are derived from kafir type sorghum. Hybrid races exhibit various combinations and intermediate forms of the characteristics of the 5 basic races. Durra-bicolor is found mainly in Ethiopia, Yemen and India, guinea-caudatum is a major sorghum grown in Nigeria and Sudan, and guinea-kafir is grown in East Africa and India. Kafir-caudatum is widely grown in the United States and almost all of the modern North American hybrid grain cultivars are of this type. Guinea-caudatum with yellow endosperm and large seed size is used in breeding programmes in the United States. The wild representatives are classified as subsp. verticilliflorum (Steud.) Piper (synonyms: Sorghum arundinaceum (Desv.) Stapf, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench subsp. arundinaceum (Desv.) de Wet & J.R.Harlan): tufted annual or short-lived perennial, with slender to stout culms up to 4 m tall; leaf blade linearlanceolate, up to 75 cm x 7 cm; panicles usually large, somewhat contracted to loose, up to 60 cm x 25 cm, branches obliquely ascending, spreading or pendulous. Wild types extend across the African savanna and have been introduced into tropical Australia, parts of India and the New World. The weedy plants are usually considered as hybrids between subsp. bicolor and subsp. verticilliflorum, and named subsp. drummondii (Steud.) de Wet (synonyms: Sorghum x-drummondii (Steud.) Millsp. & Chase, Sorghum aterrimum Stapf, Sorghum sudanense (Piper) Stapf); they occur in Africa wherever cultivated sorghum and its wild relatives are sympatric because they cross freely. These weedy plants occur in recently abandoned fields and field margins as a very persistent weed; stem up to 4 m tall; leaf blade lanceolate, up to 50 cm x 6 cm; panicle usually rather contracted, up to 30 cm x 15 cm, often with pendulous branches. A well-known forage grass, 'Sudan grass', belongs to this complex. Growth and development The optimum temperature for sorghum seed germination is C. Seedling emergence takes 3-10 days. Panicle initiation takes place after approximately one third of the growth cycle. By this stage the total number of leaves (7-24) has been determined and about one-third of total leaf area has developed. Rapid leaf development, stem elongation and internode expansion follow panicle initiation. Rapid growth of the panicle also occurs. By the time the flag leaf is visible, all but the final 3 to 4 leaves are fully expanded and light interception is approaching its maximum; lower leaves have begun to senesce. During the boot stage, the developing panicle has almost reached its full size and is clearly visible in the leaf sheath; leaf expansion is complete. The peduncle grows rapidly and the panicle emerges from the leaf sheath. Flowering follows soon after panicle emergence, with the interval largely determined by temperature. Individual panicles start flowering from the tip downwards and flowering may extend over 4-9 days. Sorghum is predominantly self-pollinating; cross-pollination may range from 0-50%, but is on average about 5-6%. Grain filling occurs rapidly between flowering and the soft dough stage, with about half the total dry weight accumulating in this period. Lower leaves continue to senesce and die. By the hard dough stage, grain dry weight has reached about three-quarters of its final level. At physiological maturity, determined by the appearance of a dark layer at the hilum (where the grain is attached to the panicle), maximum dry weight has been achieved. Moisture content of the grain is usually between 25 35% at this stage. The time taken between flowering and maturity depends on environmental conditions but normally represents about one-third of the duration of the crop cycle. Further drying of the grain takes place between physiological maturity and harvest, which usually occurs when grain moisture content has fallen below 20%. Leaves may senesce rapidly or stay green with further growth if conditions are favourable. Early maturing sorghum cultivars take only 100 days or less, whereas longduration sorghum requires 5-7 months. Sorghum follows the C4-cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Sorghum is primarily a plant of hot, semi-arid tropical environments that are too dry for maize. It is particularly adapted to drought due to a number of morphological and physiological characteristics, including an extensive root system, waxy bloom on leaves that reduces water loss, and the ability to stop growth in periods of drought and resume it when the stress is relieved. A rainfall of mm evenly distributed over the cropping season is normally adequate for cultivars maturing in 3-4 months. Sorghum tolerates waterlogging and can also be grown in areas of high rainfall. It tolerates a wide range of temperatures and is also grown widely in temperate regions and at altitudes up to 2300 m in the tropics. The optimum temperature is C, 169 SORGHUM m but temperatures as low as 21"C will not dramatically affect growth and yield. Sterility can occur when night temperatures fall below C during the flowering period. Sorghum is susceptible to frost, but to a lesser extent than maize and light night-frosts during ripening cause little damage. Sorghum is a short-day plant with a wide range of reactions to photoperiod. Some tropical cultivars fail to flower or to set seed at high latitudes. In the United States, Australia and India the existence of mild photoperiod-sensitive to virtually insensitive cultivars has been recorded. Sorghum is well suited to grow on heavy Vertisols commonly found in the tropics, where its tolerance of waterlogging is often required, but is equally suited to light sandy soils. The best growth is achieved on loams and sandy loams. Sorghum tolerates a range of soil ph from and is more tolerant of salinity than maize. It is adapted to poor soils and can produce grain on soils where many other crops would fail. In the floodplains of the Senegal and Niger rivers and in parts of Chad and Cameroon sorghum is sown in the early dry season when the water recedes, and the crop survives on residual moisture ('culture de décrue'). Propagation and planting Sorghum is normally grown from seed. The 1000-grain weight is g. Seed dormancy is not common in cultivated sorghum. A fine seedbed is preferable but is often not achieved. The seed is usually sown directly into a furrow following a plough, but can also be broadcast and harrowed into the soil. Optimum plant spacing depends on soil type and availability of moisture. In low-rainfall areas a population of 20,000 plants/ha is normal, in high-rainfall areas 60,000 plants/ha. For favourable conditions, spacings of cm between rows and cm within the row, resulting in 80, ,000 pockets per ha, are normal; for drier or less fertile conditions rows 1 m apart, or broadcasting at 6 kg seed per ha. A planting depth of cm is common, and up to 25 seeds may be sown per pocket. Occasionally, seedlings are grown in a nursery and transplanted into the field early in the dry season, e.g. on the floodplains round Lake Chad in Africa ('sorgho repiqué'). Sweet sorghum in the United States is also sometimes transplanted. Sorghum can also be propagated vegetatively by splitting tillers from established plants and transplanting them, a practice that is often used by small farmers to fill gaps. Sorghum may be harvested more than once as a ratoon crop, e.g. in locations with a bimodal rainfall pattern. Sorghum is often grown in intercropping systems with maize, pearl millet, cowpea, common bean, groundnut and bambara groundnut; in India also with pigeonpea. Dye cultivars are never grown in large quantities. Farmers usually grow a few plants in or around their normal sorghum field or near the house. Management Sorghum does not compete well with weeds during the early stages of growth, and it is recommended that weeding be done early during the seedling stage. In tropical Africa weeding is commonly done once or twice with a hoe but sometimes animal-drawn or tractor-drawn cultivators are used. Where couch grass (Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.) is a problem more frequent weeding is necessary. Sorghum may be weeded by a combination of inter-row cultivation with animal-drawn implements and hand weeding within rows. Chemical weed control is almost non-existent among small farmers. Thinning can be carried out at the same time as hand weeding, or at intervals during the crop cycle, particularly where thinnings are used to feed livestock. Subsistence farmers rarely apply fertilizer, but application of farmyard manure or ash is common. In South Africa and the United States high doses of fertilizers are used in the production of sorghum. In tropical Africa sorghum is grown mainly as a rainfed crop, but it is grown under irrigation in Sudan. It is grown in rotations with maize, pearl millet, finger millet, cotton and other crops. It is often planted late in the rotation, as it tolerates low soil fertility. Under certain conditions decomposing roots of sorghum have an allelopathic effect on the subsequent crop, including sorghum. Diseases and pests Common seed and seedling rot diseases in sorghum are caused by soil- and seed-borne Aspergillus, Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia and Rhizopus spp. They are controlled by treatment of the seed with fungicides. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum graminicola) is common in hot and humid parts of Africa. Control measures include the use of resistant cultivars and crop rotation. Downy mildew (Peronosclerospora sorghi) may cause serious yield losses; the use of resistant cultivars and seed treatment are recommended. Smuts (Sporisorium spp.) are important panicle diseases. Loose and covered kernel smut are controlled by seed treatment with fungicides; head smut and long smut by using resistant 170 172 CEREALS AND PULSES cultivars and cultural practices such as crop rotation and removal of infected panicles. Grain mould is caused by a complex of fungal pathogens (predominantly Cochliobolus lunatus (synonym: Curvularia lunata), Fusarium spp. and Phoma sorghina) that infect the grain during development and can lead to severe discoloration and loss of quality. It is most severe in seasons when rains continue through the grain maturity stage and delay the harvest. Control measures include adjustment of the sowing date to avoid maturation during wet weather, and the use of resistant cultivars. Important pests of sorghum in tropical Africa are shoot fly (Atherigona soccata) and stem borers (particularly Busseola fusca, Chilo partellus and Sesamia calamistis). Shoot fly larvae attack shoots of seedlings and tillers, and cause 'dead hearts'. Stem borers cause damage in all crop stages. Damage by both shoot fly and stem borers can be reduced by early, non-staggered planting and seed or soil treatment with insecticides. Resistance to shoot fly is associated with low yield. Foliage pests include army worms (Spodoptera and Mythimna spp.); they are controlled by contact insecticides. Larvae of the sorghum midge (Stenodiplosis sorghicola, synonym: Contarinia sorghicola) feed on the young grains in the panicle. Damage can be limited by sowing early-maturing cultivars and avoiding staggered planting. Head bugs (Eurystylus and Calocoris spp.) suck on developing grains, resulting in yield loss, grain deformation and discoloration and infection by moulds. Guinea type sorghum is generally less affected. In practice, control methods of diseases and pests are mainly preventative or cultural, including selection of optimum planting dates, seed treatment and crop rotation. Early sowing is particularly important as a mechanism to avoid large insect populations at times when plants are most susceptible to damage. High levels of host plant resistance are available for sorghum midge, but only low levels of resistance for the other pests. Chemical control of diseases and insect pests is rarely practised in tropical Africa. Birds, especially Quelea quelea, cause important yield losses. Control measures include the choice of suitable planting dates, timely harvesting, bird scaring and the destruction of roosting and nesting sites. Brown sorghum is less preferred by birds than the tannin-free white sorghum. Sorghum is very susceptible to damage by storage pests, the main ones being rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae), flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) and the grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella). Damage can be minimized by drying grain adequately before storage. Cultivars with hard grain also suffer less damage. The parasitic weed Striga (especially Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth., but also Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze, Striga densiflora Benth. and Striga forbesii Benth.) has become a major constraint to sorghum cultivation, particularly in Africa, where severe infestations can lead to grain losses of 100% and land being abandoned. Striga can be controlled by cultural methods such as rotation with trap crops or with crops that are not susceptible (e.g. groundnut, cotton or sunflower), rigorous removal of the weeds before flowering and application of nitrogen fertilizer and herbicides. A few sorghum cultivars that are resistant or tolerant to Striga have been identified. Harvesting Sorghum is usually harvested when the grain moisture content has fallen below 20%, and the grain has become hard. Harvesting is done by hand using a knife to cut the panicles, which are temporarily stored in sacks before being taken to the threshing floor for further drying to a moisture content of 12 13%. Alternatively, the whole plant is cut or pulled up and the panicle removed later. Combine harvesting is possible, but many small farmers cannot afford to buy the machinery. In South Africa combine harvesting is more common. For dye production, leaf sheaths are harvested when the plant comes to maturity, about 4-6 months after sowing. They can be used immediately or dried and stored. Rainfed forage sorghum is usually cut only once, soon after flowering. Forage sorghum crops grown under more favourable conditions, often with irrigation and high levels of fertilizer, can be harvested and then left to regrow (ratoon). Broomcorn is harvested by hand as mechanical harvesters are not available. Sweet sorghum is harvested when the seed is in the soft dough stage when the sugar content of the stalk is highest. Yield Average sorghum grain yields on farmers' fields in Africa are as low as t/ha because sorghum is often grown in marginal areas under traditional farming practices (low inputs, traditional landraces). Under favourable conditions sorghum can produce grain yields up to 13 t/ha. In South Africa, with intensive agricultural practices and improved 171 SORGHUM 173 cultivars, average commercial yield was 2.3 t/ha in In China, where sorghum is grown with high levels of inputs, yield averages 3.6 t/ha and in the United States 3.8 t/ha. Forage yields from single-cut cultivars and hybrids can reach 20 t/ha of dry matter. Multicut cultivars and hybrids usually give only slightly higher total yields but produce better quality forage. Sweet sorghum yields about syrup per ha in the United States. Average broomcorn yields are kg/ha, enough to make brooms. Handling after harvest The harvested grain of sorghum is usually sun-dried, often in the panicle. Panicles, particularly those to be retained for seed, may be stored hanging from the ceiling of kitchens over cooking fires where the smoke helps to deter insect attack. Alternatively, the heads may be threshed after drying and the grain stored in granaries, above or below ground, designed to prevent insect attack. Traditional food preparation of sorghum is quite varied. The whole grain may be ground into flour or decorticated before grinding to either a fine particle product or flour which is then used in various food products. To prepare porridge, water is boiled and sorghum flour is gradually added until the desired consistency of the paste is reached. Regular stirring is needed to mix the contents thoroughly. Another simple form of sorghum food preparation is to boil the grain before or after decorticating. To make beer, sorghum grain is germinated, dried, pounded into flour and mixed with water and left to ferment in a warm place for some days. To make the non-fermented drink 'mageu' in Botswana and South Africa, milled sorghum malt is mixed with water and kept at room temperature for 2-3 days. Occasional stirring may be necessary. In a traditional method of dyeing hides with sorghum dye in West Africa, a watery extract of wood ashes, preferably from the wood of Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC.) Guill. & Perr., is prepared and allowed to stand for 3-4 hours. The major active compound of the lye is potassium- or sodium carbonate. The red leaf sheaths are pulverized and placed in a large vessel in which the dyeing is carried out. From time to time a little lye is added and diluted with plain water as desired, obtaining a crimson liquid. The tanned hide that has been dressed with oil is folded with the tanned side outwards, the hide is immersed for about two minutes in the dye bath, wrung out and shaken. Alternatively, the dye liquid is painted on the tanned surface with the fingers or a brush. The hide is then rinsed in cold water acidulated with lime juice or tamarind pulp. After the hide has been dried, the process is completed by rubbing the hide with a smooth stone on a wooden block. It is estimated that of dye bath is sufficient for about 6 skins of medium size. Another recipe uses about 30 leaf-sheaths of sorghum, about half a spoonful of soda, a handful of 'sant' pods (Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile) or 2 handfuls of chips of mangrove bark, 2 spoonfuls of palm oil and of water. These are all mixed together and boiled, the juice of 5 or 6 limes added, and the liquid is left to simmer for 2 hours. It is then ready for application on the skin by brushing or rubbing. To obtain a dye of constant high quality, a laboratory extraction technique has been designed in Burkina Faso. Sorghum leaf sheaths are crushed into fine particles, a solvent is added in an acid or basic medium (both give similar results) and a red liquid is produced. By addition of an acid the dyestuff is precipitated and is centrifuged off. The end product is a fine, burgundy-red powder with an apigeninidin concentration of 50-60%, ready for use as a dye. Pure apigeninidin can be obtained by further processing of the powder. Forage sorghum can be fed to livestock while still green or can be stored in various ways for later use. The forage is often dried and stacked or can be made into silage. Stover left after harvest of grain is often grazed by animals. Genetic resources A major collection of sorghum germplasm is maintained and distributed to interested researchers by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi- Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India. The collection extends to over 36,000 accessions from all the major sorghum-growing regions of the world (90 countries). Large germplasm collections of sorghum are also held in the United States (Southern Regional Plant Introduction Station, Griffin, Georgia, 30,100 accessions; National Seed Storage Laboratory, Fort Collins, Colorado, 10,500 accessions) and China (Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (CAAS), Beijing, 15,300 accessions). In tropical Africa large germplasm collections of sorghum are held in Zimbabwe (SADC/ICRISAT Sorghum and Millet Improvement Program, Matopos, 12,340 accessions), Ethiopia (Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (IBC), Addis Ababa, 7260 accessions), Kenya (National Genebank of 172 174 CEREALS AND PULSES Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu, 3410 accessions) and Uganda (Serere Agricultural and Animal Production Research Institute, Serere, 2635 accessions). Breeding The main objectives in sorghum breeding include high grain yield, white grain for human consumption with improved nutritional value and processing quality, and red or brown grain for feed purposes and brewing. In many countries the emphasis is on producing cultivars which combine high grain yield with high stover yields because of the importance of the residues as animal feed. Incorporation of resistance to major yield-limiting diseases and pests, and tolerance of abiotic stresses are also of high priority. Resistance to grain moulds and other diseases as well as to insect pests such as head bugs and sorghum midge has been identified. High-yielding improved cultivars of sorghum are available in most of the main producing countries. These include cultivars and hybrids produced using cytoplasmic male sterility. Compared to traditional landraces they have a weak photoperiodic response and they are less hardy, less tall, with a lower grain quality but a higher yield potential. Striga-resistant cultivars have been released in Africa and India, e.g. 'Framida' in Ghana and Burkina Faso. Cultivars resistant to grain mould have also been released. Special cultivars with high biomass production and good forage quality are bred for animal feed. Modern sorghum cultivars predominate in the Americas, China and Australia, but in Africa they occupy probably less than 10% of the area under sorghum. In India about 50% of the sorghum area is sown to modern cultivars and 50% to traditional landraces. The sorghum genome is relatively small (about 760 Mbp) compared to that of maize (about 2500 Mbp), and construction of a physical genome map is in progress. Several genetic linkage maps have been developed, mainly based on RFLP markers. Various genes have been tagged, e.g. genes associated with head smut resistance, leaf blight resistance and shattering. Many QTLs have been mapped, including those associated with plant height, tillering, seed size, drought resistance and rust resistance. In-vitro plant regeneration has been achieved from calli derived from young leaf bases, shoot apices, immature inflorescences and immature embryos. Protocols have been developed for the production of stably transformed sorghum plants using microprojectile bombardment or Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, but the efficiency is generally low, especially with the former technique. Prospects Sorghum is a hardy, droughttolerant crop with a high potential yield, which plays an important role in tropical Africa and elsewhere, especially as source of food and fodder, but also for a range of other uses, including as a source of dye. Sorghum has lost part of its traditional area in tropical Africa to maize, which yields better in more favourable environments, is less liable to bird damage and easier to process. It is to be expected, however, that sorghum will remain an important food security crop in less favourable environments in tropical Africa. Important problems in sorghum cultivation to be addressed by research and breeding activities are the large yield losses caused by parasitic weeds (especially Striga hermonthica), anthracnose, downy mildew, grain moulds, sorghum midge and stem borers. Improved sorghum cultivars are not widely grown in tropical Africa, and the improvement of seed supply systems should accompany sorghum improvement programmes in this region. Demand for sorghum for nontraditional uses is likely to increase. In particular, the use of sorghum as a feed grain, already well established in many industrialized countries, is likely to become more common in developing countries. However, sorghum faces strong competition from maize in the international feed grain market. Similarly, as increased affluence results in increased demand for meat and dairy products, the use of sorghum as a forage crop in intensive production systems in many tropical regions is likely to expand. The use of sorghum as a raw material for industrial processes will also increase. Research should focus on innovations that are likely to reduce the costs of production of sorghum. This should include research to increase yield levels of available cultivars, and to improve agronomic practices. Emphasis should be placed on enhancing resistance to the main biotic and abiotic stresses and on production of cultivars richer in high quality proteins. Sorghum dye may profit from the trend of increasing use of natural colourants in foods and cosmetics. Rising harvesting costs of broomcorn in North America and Europe may offer possibilities for expanding this commodity in Africa. Major references Chantereau et al., 1997; de Vries & Toenniessen, 2001; de Wet, 1978; Doggett, 1988; Murty & Renard, 2001; Rooney & Serna-Saldivar, 2000; Smith & Frederiksen, 2000; Stenhouse & Tippayaruk, 1996; Sten- 173 SPOROBOLUS 175 house et al, 1997; Taylor, Other references Balole, 2001; Bellemare, 1993; Burkill, 1994; Byth (Editor), 1993; Dalziel, 1926; Gao et al., 2005; Harlan & de Wet, 1972; Kouda-Bonafos et al., 1994; Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2002; National Research Council, 1996; Neuwinger, 2000; Ogwumike, 2002; Pale et al., 1997; Phillips, 1995; Reddy, Ramesh & Reddy, 2004; Rey et al, 1993; Sanders, Ahmed & Nell, 2000; Seshu Reddy, 1991; USDA, 2004; Westphal, Sources of illustration Stenhouse & Tippayaruk, Authors T.V. Balole & G.M. Legwaila Based on PROSEA 10: Cereals. SPOROBOLUS FIMBRIATUS (Trin.) Nees Protologue Fl. Afr. austral, ill.: 156 (1841). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n - 18, 36, 54 Vernacular names Dropseed, perennial dropseed grass, fringed dropseed (En). Origin and geographic distribution Sporobolus fimbriatus is found wild and occasionally cultivated from Sudan and Somalia southwards to South Africa. It has been introduced elsewhere, e.g. into the United States. Uses In southern Africa the grains of Sporobolus fimbriatus are eaten during times of food shortage; they may be ground to prepare a porridge. Sporobolus fimbriatus is a good pasture grass and is browsed by stock, e.g. sheep and cattle. It has been planted for soil stabilization. Properties In South Africa the crude protein content of Sporobolus fimbriatus ranges from 14% in spring to 10% in autumn, and the digestibility from 70% in spring to 63% in autumn. The plant may contain hydrocyanic acid, but poisoning is seldom a problem. Botany Perennial, tufted grass up to 1.7 m tall, with a short rhizome; stem (culm) 2-3 mm in diameter at the base, erect, usually unbranched. Leaves mostly basal, simple; basal leaf sheath papery, glabrous or hairy along the margins, terete to strongly compressed and keeled, persistent; ligule ciliate; leaf blade linear, 10-30(-60) cm x 2-7.5(-14) mm, tapering to a filiform apex, flat, folded or involute, the white midrib prominent above, rough on the surfaces. Inflorescence a panicle cm long, linear to lanceolate, the branches not in whorls, 2-12 cm long, smooth or somewhat rough, with the spikelets on the secondary or short tertiary branchlets. Spikelet mm long, dark green, 1-flowered; lower glume narrowly oblong to lanceolate, mm long, veinless, upper glume narrowly ovate, mm long, 1-veined; lemma narrowly ovate, as long as the spikelet or almost so, 1-veined; palea similar to lemma, but 2-veined; stamens 3, c. 1 mm long; ovary superior, with 2 plumose stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), obovoid, c. 0.5 mm long, truncate, tetragonal in section. Sporobolus comprises about 160 species and occurs in the tropics and subtropics, extending into warm temperate regions. It may resemble Eragrostis, which differs in its 2-manyflowered spikelets (1-flowered in Sporobolus) and 3-veined lemma (1-veined in Sporobolus). The species of Sporobolus are often difficult to identify because they intergrade to such an extent that their limits are often not sharply defined. This is also the case for the variable Sporobolus fimbriatus. Sporobolus fimbriatus follows the C4-cycle photosynthetic pathway. Ecology Sporobolus fimbriatus is commonly found up to 2000 m altitude in open woodland and grassland, often in shallow rainwater pans, sometimes on rocky hillsides, also in disturbed or shady locations. Management The grain of Sporobolus fimbriatus is mostly collected from the wild. In experiments in South Africa ungrazed planted pasture of Sporobolus fimbriatus produced 3.3 t dry matter per ha per year, and grazed pasture 2.7 t dry matter per ha per year. Genetic resources and breeding A collection of 47 accessions of Sporobolus fimbriatus (46 from South Africa and 1 from Botswana) is held in the United States (USDA-ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, Washington). In Africa germplasm collections are held in Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu, 21 accessions), South Africa (Grassland Research Centre, Department of Agricultural Development, Pretoria, 4 accessions) and Ethiopia (International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, 1 accession). In view of its wide distribution and common occurrence Sporobolus fimbriatus is not threatened by genetic erosion. Prospects The present role of Sporobolus fimbriatus seems limited to being a local source of food during times of shortage and of fodder. It is unlikely to increase in importance in the future. Major references Clayton, Phillips & Renvoize, 1974; Cope, 1995; Cope, 1999; Gibbs Rus- 174 176 CEREALS AND PULSES sell et al., 1990; Phillips, Other references Ben-Shahar, 1991; du Pisani & Knight, 1988; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Klaassen & Craven, 2003; Myre, 1972; Sânchez-Monge y Parellada, 1981; Sharma & Sharma, 1979; van der Westhuizen et al., 2001; van Wyk & Gericke, 2000; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, Authors M. Brink SPOROBOLUS PANICOIDES A.Rich. Protologue Tent. fl. abyss. 2: 399 (1850). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Vernacular names Famine grass (En). Origin and geographic distribution Sporobolus panicoides is found in East and southern Africa from Sudan and Ethiopia southwards to South Africa, and in tropical Arabia. Uses The grains of Sporobolus panicoides are eaten during times of food shortage. Botany Annual, slender grass up to 1 m tall; stem (culm) erect, solitary or tufted. Leaves simple; leaf sheath papery, glabrous, but hairy near the margins, slightly compressed; blade linear, 5-30 cm x 2-6 mm, attenuate at apex, flat or involute, pale green, glabrous or sparsely hairy above. Inflorescence a narrowly ellipsoid panicle 4-22 cm long, the branches in a succession of whorls, with 1-4 spikelets per branch. Spikelet mm long, pallid with purple tinge above, 1-flowered; lower glume1 1.5 mm long, rarely minute, narrowly ovate to lanceolate, obtuse to acute at apex, veinless, glabrous, upper glume as long as the spikelet, elliptical-oblong to ovate, acute at apex, 1- veined, glabrous; lemma a little shorter than spikelet, elliptical-ovate, 1-veined; palea 2- veined; stamens 3, mm long; ovary superior, with 2 plumose stigmas. Fruit a caryopsis (grain), 1-2 mm in diameter, oblong-globose, bright brown or orange. Sporobolus comprises about 160 species and occurs in the tropics and subtropics, extending into warm temperate regions. It resembles Eragrostis, which differs in its 2-manyflowered spikelets (1-flowered in Sporobolus) and 3-veined lemma (1-veined in Sporobolus). The species of Sporobolus are often difficult to identify because they intergrade to such an extent that their limits are often not sharply defined. However, Sporobolus panicoides is easily recognized by its comparatively large, brightly coloured grain, the sparsity of spikelets on the panicle branches and the partially or complete sterile lowermost panicle branch whorl. Ecology Sporobolus panicoides is locally common in sunny or lightly shaded locations, up to 2100 m altitude, in woodland on sandy soils, in granite sandveld and on rocky hillsides, often at roadsides or in other disturbed localities. Management The grains of Sporobolus panicoides are only collected from the wild. Genetic resources and breeding One accession of Sporobolus panicoides is kept at the National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu. Sporobolus panicoides is not threatened by genetic erosion as it is widespread and locally common. Prospects The present role of Sporobolus panicoides is very limited, being a local source of food during times of shortage. It is not probable that it will become more important in the future. Major references Clayton, Phillips & Renvoize, 1974; Cope, 1995; Cope, 1999; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Phillips, Other references Fröman & Persson, 1974; IPGRI, undated; Klaassen & Craven, 2003; Mackie, 1976; Shava & Mapaura, Authors M. Brink TRITICUM AESTIVUM L. Protologue Sp. pi. 1: 85 (1753). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2re = 42 Synonyms Triticum vulgare Vill. (1787). Vernacular names Bread wheat, common wheat, wheat (En). Blé tendre, blé, froment (Fr). Trigo mole, trigo (Po). Ngano (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Bread wheat arose in the corridor extending from Armenia in Transcaucasia to the south-west coastal areas of the Caspian Sea in Iran. Hybridization of a wild Aegilops species (Aegilops tauschii Coss., with the D-genome) with emmer, an old type of cultivated wheat belonging to Triticum turgidum L., gave rise to the hexaploid wheats, but it is unknown whether bread wheat or spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L.) appeared first. The earliest archaeological finds of spelt wheat are from the southern Caspian area and are dated at around 5000 BC. Finds of bread wheat are difficult to distinguish from durum wheat (Triticum turgidum), but one thinks that those found in the 175 TRITICUM 177 Triticum aestivum -planted Caucasus, on the anatolian plateau (Turkey), in Central Europe and in Central Asia from the fifth millennium onwards belong to bread wheat. The D-genome in fact conferred to bread wheat and spelt wheat the adaptation to cold winters and humid summers, allowing them to conquer temperate Eurasia, whereas the Mediterranean remained the area of emmer and durum wheat. By the third millennium BC, bread wheat had reached China. In 1529, the Spanish took it to the New World. Bread wheat was introduced into tropical Africa by Arab traders, missionaries and colonial settlers. It is not known exactly when it reached Ethiopia. It was brought from northern Africa to West Africa, where it was already known around 1000 AD. In the early 20 th century it was introduced into Kenya and eastern DR Congo. Bread wheat today is grown in almost all parts of the world. In tropical Africa, it is mainly produced in Nigeria, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Uses Bread wheat flour is made into numerous products including bread (leavened or flat; baked, steamed or deep fried), pastries, crackers, biscuits, pretzels, noodles, farina, breakfast foods, baby foods and food thickeners. It is also used as a brewing ingredient in certain beverages (white beer). Leavened breads are the most popular use of wheat in almost all parts of the world. Increased bread consumption is often linked to increasing urbanization and higher per capita income. Bread wheat utilization has also been adapted to local cuisine. In Ethiopia, for instance, the flour is used to prepare 'injera' (pancake-like unleavened bread), porridge and soup. The grain is eaten as a snack and during social gatherings as 'nitro' (boiled whole grain often mixed with pulses), 'kollo' (roasted grain) and 'dabo-kollo' (ground and seasoned dough, shaped and deep fried). Industrial uses of wheat products centre on the production of glues, alcohol, oil and gluten. By-products of flour milling, particularly the bran, are used almost entirely to feed livestock, poultry or prawns. Wheat germ (from wheat embryos) is sold as a human food supplement. Straw is fed to ruminants or used for bedding material, thatching, wickerwork, newsprint, cardboard, packing material, fuel and as substrate for mushroom production. In many dry parts of the world it is chopped and mixed with clay to produce building material. Production and international trade According to FAO estimates, the average world production of wheat grain (bread wheat and durum wheat together) in amounted to 576 million t/year from 209 million ha. Worldwide, bread wheat constitutes more than 90% of the area under the cultivated wheats. The main wheat producing countries are China (96.8 million t/year from 25.2 million ha), India (71.0 million t/year from 26.4 million ha), the United States (56.9 million t/year from 20.6 million ha), the Russian Federation (39.4 million t/year from 21.7 million ha) and France (35.1 million t/year from 5.0 million ha). Wheat production in tropical Africa in was 2.5 million t/year from 1.6 million ha, the main producing countries being Ethiopia (1.4 million t/year from 1.1 million ha), Kenya (272,000 t/year from 137,000 ha), Sudan (254,000 t/year from 124,000 ha), Zimbabwe (237,000 t/year from 43,000 ha), Zambia (87,000 t/year from 13,000 ha), Tanzania (82,000 t/year from 60,000 ha) and Nigeria (75,000 t/year from 53,000 ha). In Ethiopia close to 50% of the wheat production consists of bread wheat, the other 50%of durum wheat. From to the world production of wheat increased from 248 to 576 million t/year, whereas the harvested area remained stable at around 210 million ha. In the same period the wheat production in tropical Africa increased from 960,000 to 2.5 million t/year, and the harvested area from 1.2 to 1.6 million ha. Average world export of wheat amounted to 115 million t/year in , the main exporters being the United States (26.7 million t/year), Canada (16.5 million t/year), Australia (15.9 million t/year), France (15.9 million t/year) and Argentina (10.0 million t/year). 176 178 CEREALS AND PULSES Main importers are Italy, Brazil, Japan and Iran, each importing more than 5 million t/year. All countries in tropical Africa are net importers. The main importer in tropical Africa is Nigeria (1.9 million t/year in ), followed by Ethiopia (770,000 t/year), Sudan (710,000 t/year) and Kenya (570,000 t/year). The share of food aid in wheat imports is as high as 80%for some countries. Properties The composition of wheat grain is 7-8% coat material, 90% endosperm and 2-3% embryo. The embryo mainly comprises oil and protein, and little starch. The endosperm is starchy, and is surrounded by the aleurone layer which is rich in proteins. When a wheat grain is milled, the outer layers and embryo are separated from the endosperm. The pulverized endosperm becomes wheat flour, while the other parts form the bran. The endosperm varies both in hardness and vitreousness: hard bread wheat grain high in gluten protein tends to be vitreous and low-protein soft wheat grain tends to be opaque. Hard bread wheat grain is best suited for bread making while the soft wheat grain is best for cookies, cakes and pastries. Flour colour varies from white to slightly yellow. Bread wheat grain (hard red spring type) contains per 100 g edible portion: water 12.8 g, energy 1377 kj (329 kcal), protein 15.4 g, fat 1.9 g, carbohydrate 68.0 g, dietary fibre 12.2 g, Ca 25 mg, Mg 124 mg, P 332 mg, Fe 3.6 mg, Zn 2.8 mg, vitamin A 9 IU, thiamin 0.50 mg, riboflavin 0.11 mg, niacin 5.7 mg, vitamin BÖ 0.34 mg, folate 43 ug and ascorbic acid 0 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 195 mg, lysine 404 mg, methionine 230 mg, phenylalanine 724 mg, threonine 433 mg, valine 679 mg, leucine 1038 mg and isoleucine 541 mg. The principal fatty acids are per 100 g edible portion: linoleic acid 727 mg, palmitic acid 283 mg and oleic acid 236 mg. Soft, white bread wheat grain contains per 100 g edible portion: water 10.4 g, energy 1423 kj (340 kcal), protein 10.7 g, fat 2.0 g, carbohydrate 75.4 g, dietary fibre 12.7 g, Ca 34 mg, Mg 90 mg, P 402 mg, Fe 5.4 mg, Zn 3.5 mg, vitamin A 9 IU, thiamin 0.41 mg, riboflavin 0.11 mg, niacin 4.8 mg, vitamin B mg, folate 41 ig and ascorbic acid 0 mg (USDA, 2005). Bread wheat grain is deficient in the amino acids lysine and threonine, and somewhat in isoleucine and valine. It is a good source of B-group vitamins and minerals. Wheat grain possesses a unique viscoelastic and insoluble storage protein complex known as gluten, comprising 78-85% of the total wheat endosperm protein. Gluten is composed mainly of glutenin (polymeric) and gliadin (monomeric ) proteins. Glutenins confer elasticity and dough strength, while gliadins confer mainly viscous flow and extensibility to the gluten complex. Wheat flour contains roughly equal amounts of glutenins and gliadins, and their imbalance may influence its visco-elastic properties. Description Annual, tufted grass up to 150 cm tall, with 2-5(-40) tillers; stem (culm) cylindrical, smooth, hollow except at nodes. Leaves distichously alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath rounded, auricled; ligule membranous; blade linear, cm x 1 2 cm, parallel-veined, flat, glabrous or pubescent. Inflorescence a terminal, distichous spike 4 18 cm long, with sessile spikelets borne solitary on zigzag rachis. Spikelet mm long, laterally compressed, 3-9-flowered, with bisexual florets, but 1-2 uppermost ones usually rudimentary, sometimes only 1 of the florets bisexual; glumes almost equal, oblong, shorter than spikelet, thinly leathery, keeled towards the tip, apiculate to awned; lemma rounded on back but keeled towards the tip, leathery, Triticum aestivum - 1, lower part of plant; 2, ligule and auricles; 3, inflorescence; 4, spikelet; 5, floret (lemma andpalea removed); 6, grains. Source: PROSEA 177 TRITICUM 179 awned or blunt; palea 2-keeled, hairy on the keels; lodicules 2, ciliate; stamens 3; ovary superior, tipped by a small fleshy hairy appendage and with 2 plumose stigmas. Fruit an ellipsoid caryopsis (grain), at one side with a central groove, reddish brown to yellow or white. Other botanical information Triticum is a classic example of allopolyploidy consisting of diploid (2/i - 14), tetraploid (2n = 28) and hexaploid (2re = 42) species. Selection at the diploid and tetraploid levels has proceeded from wild species with hulled grain and brittle rachis to the free-threshing species with tough rachis; hexaploid wheats are not known in the wild, they appeared in cultivation. The classification of the genus Triticum and other related genera within the tribe Triticeae was strongly debated. Polyploidy and biphyletic genome differentiation (B vs. G genome) are isolating mechanisms offering adequate species borders. In this approach, Triticum comprises only 5-6 species, including the diploid Triticum monococcum L. (einkorn, grown sporadically in southern Europe and western Asia), the tetraploid Triticum turgidum L. and the hexaploid Triticum aestivum L. (comprising all cultivated hexaploids). Spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L.) is sometimes separated from Triticum aestivum. It is a hexaploid, not freethreshing wheat, with only 2 3 florets per spikelet, cultivated in small quantities in Europe, Africa and on the plateau of western Iran. It can be cultivated under extreme circumstances, not demanding fertile soils, being relatively disease resistant, and having good taste, food and baking qualities. Before 1850 it was a very important wheat in Europe, declining afterwards, especially because it has to be hulled before milling, but is now gaining in popularity in organic wheat cultivation. Commercially, wheat is classified into distinct categories of grain hardness (soft, mediumhard, and hard) and colour (red, white and amber). Based on growing habit, bread wheat is divided into two subclasses, spring or winter, but facultative types exist. These subclasses in turn may also be divided into grades, which are generally used to adjust prices, based mainly on grain soundness (effects of rain, heat, frost, insect and mould damage), cleanliness, grain protein content and cc-amylase activity. In tropical Africa mostly spring wheats are grown. Hybrids of wheats (tetraploid or hexaploid) and rye called triticale (xtriticosecale) have been developed and these show a mix of characteristics from the parents, combining the hardiness of rye with the high yield and quality of wheat. Triticale is presently grown only locally in tropical Africa, e.g. in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar, and also in northern Africa and South Africa. As a new food crop, it fell short of expectations, but it is becoming increasingly popular as a forage crop. Growth and development Germination of wheat occurs at temperatures of 4-37 C, the optimum being C. The radicle emerges first and the coleoptile emerges 4-6 days after germination. The primary roots may remain functional for life unless destroyed by disease or mechanical injury, but they constitute only a small portion of the total root system. The first true leaf of the seedling emerges from the coleoptile. Secondary roots start to develop about two weeks after seedling emergence. They arise from the basal nodes and form the permanent root system, which spreads out and may penetrate as deep as 2 m, but normally no more than 1 m. Leaf and tiller production increase rapidly soon after crop emergence. The duration of the vegetative stage may vary from days depending on temperature and the cultivar's vernalization and daylength response. For floral induction, spring types usually require temperatures between 7 C and 18 C for 5-15 days, while winter types require temperatures between 0 C and 7 C for days. Flowering begins at the middle third of the spike and continues towards the basal and apical parts in 3-5 days. All spike-bearing tillers eventually flower almost simultaneously. Wheat is normally self-pollinated; crosspollination is 1-4%. Pollen is largely shed within the floret. Stigmas remain receptive for 4-13 days. Pollen is viable for up to 30 minutes only. Grains in the centre of the spike and in the proximal florets tend to be larger than the other ones. Physiological maturity is reached when the flag leaf (uppermost leaf) and spikes turn yellow and the moisture content of the fully formed grain has dropped to 25 35%. The complete crop cycle of bread wheat varies from days in tropical Africa. Ecology Bread wheat can be grown from within the Arctic Circle to near the equator, but it is most successful between N and S. Optimum temperatures for development are C, with minima of 3-4 C and maxima of C. An average temperature of about 18 C is optimal for yield. Temperatures above 35 C stop photosynthesis and growth, and at 40 C the heat kills the crop. 178 180 CEREALS AND PULSES Wheat does not grow well under very warm conditions with high relative humidity, and in the tropics it is best grown at higher elevations ( m) or in the cooler months of the year. Bread wheat requires at least 250 mm water during the growing season for a good crop; it can be grown in areas that receive mm rain annually. The sensitivity to daylength differs among genotypes, but most are quantitative long-day plants; they flower earlier at long daylengths, but they do not require a particular daylength to induce flowering. Soils best suited for bread wheat production are well aerated, well drained, and deep, with 0.5% or more organic matter. Optimum soil ph ranges between 5.5 and 7.5. Wheat is sensitive to soil salinity. Propagation and planting Bread wheat is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g. It is advisable to use certified seed that has been treated with fungicides against soil- and seed-borne diseases, but this is rarely practised in tropical Africa. Wheat is sown by hand or machine. When broadcast, the seed is incorporated in the soil using an animal-drawn plough or machine-drawn disc. The seed may also be dibbled directly into a furrow behind a plough and covered, or machine-planted in rows. Common seed rates are kg/ha for broadcasting and kg/ha for rowplanting. The optimum spacing is cm between rows, but it may extend up to 35 cm. The sowing depth is 2-5(-12) cm, with deeper planting required in dry conditions. At a sowing depth beyond cm seedling emergence is poor. When using a no-till planting machine, sowing can be done straight into the stubble of the previous crop. For rainfed wheat, the seed can be dry-sown, before the start of the rainy season, or when the soil is moist. Bread wheat is usually grown in sole cropping. Management Uniform crop stand and early vigour discourage weed growth in bread wheat. In this respect tillering allows the crop to compensate for poor stands and variable weather conditions. Yield losses due to weeds are caused by early competition in the first 4-5 weeks. Hand weeding, tillage practices, stubble management, pre-sowing irrigation, proper crop rotation and herbicides may control weeds. Herbicide use in tropical Africa ranges from little to none in many countries (e.g. Sudan, Rwanda, Burundi, Madagascar) to almost complete coverage in Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. In tropical Africa bread wheat is produced mainly under rainfed conditions, except in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe where it is grown as an irrigated (flood and sprinkler) 'winter' season crop. In Nigeria wheat production is restricted to the river basin irrigation schemes of its northern states. Irrigation has great potential to increase wheat production in Sudan and Somalia. Care must be taken not to over-irrigate since wheat is sensitive to early waterlogging. Irrigation timing is based either on pre-defined crop stages or on estimates of soil moisture depletion. The mean nutrient removal per 1 t/ha of grain is kg N, 5-8 kg P, kg K, 2-4 kg S, 3-4 kg Ca, kg Mg, and smaller amounts of micronutrients. The exact values depend on the available nutrients and water in the soil, the temperature, and the cultivar. Average fertilizer rates in tropical Africa range from 9 kg N and 10 kg P on rainfed wheat in Ethiopia to 180 kg N, 84 kg P and 50 kg K on irrigated wheat in Zimbabwe. Commercial fertilizer application ranges from less than 1%of the wheat area in Burundi to 100% in Kenya and Zimbabwe. Organic manure and compost are not commonly used on wheat, except in Rwanda. Boron deficiency, resulting in grain set failure, can be observed on certain soils; boron is applied to irrigated wheat in Zambia, Zimbabwe and Madagascar. Copper is applied to most rainfed wheat in Kenya, and manganese is needed in certain areas of Tanzania. Soil acidity can be a constraint, e.g. in wheat production areas at lower elevations in Zambia. Liming might raise the ph, but its economic returns are poor for rainfed wheat. Wheat is best rotated with non-grass crops, particularly with pulses. In the highland areas of East Africa wheat is grown continuously or in rotation with other cereals, pulses or rapeseed (Brassica oilseed crops). In other regions double cropping systems are common, with irrigated wheat grown in the cool dry season and crops such as cotton, sorghum, maize, soya bean and groundnut in the hot rainy season. In Zimbabwe, for instance, double cropping of irrigated wheat and rainfed soya bean is widely adopted, with the same machinery for sowing and harvesting used for both crops. In tropical Africa wheat is produced in farming systems ranging from small scale, labourintensive, rainfed systems, e.g. in Kenya and southern Tanzania, to highly mechanized schemes and farms, e.g. in Nigeria, Sudan, northern and central Tanzania and Zimbabwe. 179 TEITICUM 181 Diseases and pests Bread wheat is affected by several diseases and pests. In tropical Africa stripe rust or yellow rust (Puccinia striiformis), spread by air-borne uredospores, and Septoria blotches, particularly Septoria leaf blotch (Septoria tritici, synonym: Mycosphaerella graminicola), are the major diseases in the highlands. Stem rust or black rust (Puccinia graminis) can be very damaging in Ethiopia, Kenya and some parts of Sudan; like stripe rust it is spread by air-borne uredospores. Other diseases important in some years are common bunt (Tilletia spp.), loose smut (Ustilago tritici, synonym: Ustilago nuda f.sp. tritici), barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) and bacterial leaf streak or black chaff (Xanthomonas translucens). The use of resistant cultivars is the most effective control measure against these diseases. However, resistance breakdown is very frequent for stripe rust. Fungicide application to control stripe rust occurs in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. The most important insect pests in tropical Africa are aphids, which may also transmit viruses. The African migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) is a periodic pest that causes crop damage in northern and eastern Ethiopia. The Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor) has long been an important pest in regions adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea in northern Africa, southern Europe and western Asia. Pest control with commercial insecticides in tropical Africa is rare, except in Sudan, Zambia and Zimbabwe for aphids. Birds (especially Quelea quelea) are especially important in irrigated wheat. Important storage insects, e.g. in Ethiopia, include Sitophilus spp. on whole grains, and Tribolium spp. and Ephestia cautella (synonym: Cadra cautella, flower moth) on wheat flour. Clean storage conditions and maintaining grain moisture and temperature at sufficiently low levels inhibit insect activity and development. Rodents, mainly the black rat (Rattus rattus), also damage stored seeds. Harvesting In tropical Africa bread wheat is usually harvested with sickles or knives, and on large-scale farms with combines. A crop harvested at physiological maturity (grain moisture content 25-35%) must be dried thoroughly before threshing. Wet weather at harvest time can cause serious losses in grain quality because the grain sprouts readily. Sickle-harvested wheat plants are stacked or spread out to dry in the sun. Threshing is done by trampling animals, by beating bagged spikes, or during combine harvesting. In most parts of tropical Africa wheat stubble is grazed by livestock. Yield Yields of bread wheat in tropical Africa vary from 400 kg/ha in Somalia and 700 kg/ha in Angola to 5 t/ha in Zambia and 6.3 t/ha in Zimbabwe. The mean yield of wheat in tropical Africa is estimated at about 1.5 t/ha. Lower yields are due to high temperature, high humidity, disease pressure and the low levels of fertilizer applied. Maximum recorded grain yields of irrigated winter and spring wheats are 14 and 9.5 t/ha, respectively; the absolute maximum yield, based on genetic potential, is estimated at 20 t/ha. Handling after harvest Threshed grain of bread wheat is winnowed, cleaned and prepared for store or market. Seeds should be dried to a moisture content of 13 14% for safe storage. High temperatures and moist conditions may result in spoilage. Regular re-drying may be necessary to maintain seed viability, if the seed is not stored in an airtight container. Genetic resources The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Mexico City, Mexico (60,400 accessions) and the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria (9700 accessions) maintain extensive germplasm collections of Triticum aestivum. Large germplasm collections are also held in the United States (USDA-ARS National Small Grains Germplasm Research Facility, Aberdeen, Idaho, 42,000 accessions), China (Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (CAAS), Beijing, 35,900 accessions), and the Russian Federation (N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry, St. Petersburg, 25,900 accessions). In tropical Africa the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia) has the largest collection of bread wheat (3400 accessions). Wheat is a priority crop for collection and conservation. More collection needs to be done of its wild and weedy relatives in regions where they are native, of landraces in areas where they have not been collected before, and of new or obsolete improved cultivars with specific traits from breeding programmes around the world for future improvement work. Breeding CIMMYT and ICARDA have large breeding programmes and, upon request, have the international mandate to disseminate bread wheat germplasm to national programmes. In tropical Africa, Ethiopia and Kenya have strong public sector breeding pro- 180 182 CEREALS AND PULSES grammes. In Zimbabwe, there is private sector wheat research, and to some extent in Kenya and Zambia too. High grain yield and disease resistance, mainly to stripe rust and Septoria, are the major objectives. Major breeding methods used in tropical Africa are conventional. A number of high-yielding cultivars, mostly spring types derived from CIMMYT germplasm, have been released in tropical African countries. In 1995 their estimated usage ranged from 5% in Malawi to 100% in Zambia and Zimbabwe. Bread wheat is one of the crops that benefited most from transfer of genes from other species, such as Aegilops, Hordeum and Secale spp., by artificial hybridization, mainly to increase resistance to diseases, especially rusts. Developments in molecular genetics and genetic engineering of wheat have been slower than in cereals such as rice and maize, due to its ploidy level, size and complexity of its genome, the low level of polymorphism and relatively inefficient transformation systems. Consequently, far fewer maps exist in wheat and few QTL (quantitative trait loci) studies have been reported. On the other hand, the hexaploid nature of bread wheat and its amenity to cytogenetic manipulation have offered unique tools for molecular genetic studies. These include the uses of aneuploid stocks to assign molecular markers to specific chromosome arms, of chromosomal deletion stocks for physical mapping and of chromosome substitution lines to map genes of known chromosomal location. The development of improved chemical hybridizing agents, which allows breeders to surmount the problems associated with cytoplasmic male sterile systems, has considerably increased the progress towards the development of economically acceptable hybrid wheat cultivars. Recently, an efficient Agrobacteriummediated transformation system has been developed for the large-scale production of transgenic wheat plants. Private companies have developed transgenic herbicide-resistant bread wheat cultivars, but these have not yet been produced commercially. Prospects Since bread wheat is the most important food grain source for humans, the need to continuously increase its production cannot be overemphasized. Bread consumption from wheat in tropical Africa is low and varies from country to country; wheat consumption ranges from 2.5 kg/person/year in Uganda to 43.3 kg/person/year in Sudan. However, with the increasing trends of urbanization and income, there is likely to be a concomitant demand for traditional and new convenient, processed wheat-based products. No tropical African countries are 100% self-sufficient for wheat and the region is confronted by rapidly increasing wheat imports. In many of these countries wheat production is constrained by limited usage of high-yielding cultivars, fertilizer, other inputs and irrigation. Increases in wheat production may come from area expansion to non-traditional areas, coupled with social and economic incentives, and further increases in yield by agronomic research and breeding. Since the 1990s, area expansion of bread wheat has been observed in Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia. Research to improve wheat yields at a global scale includes further mixing of germplasm through wide hybridization and synthetic hexaploids, biotechnology tools, hybrid wheat, and basic studies on wheat physiology and host-plant relationships of various diseases and pests. Tolerances to drought, heat, aluminium soil acidity and waterlogging are some of the abiotic factors that require continued research attention. Major references CIMMYT, 1985; Curtis, Rajaram & Gomez Macpherson (Editors), 2002; Heisey & Lantican, 1999; Heyene (Editor), 2002; Klatt (Editor), 1988; Payne, Tanner & Abdalla, 1996; Saunders & Hettel (Editors), 1994; Tanner & Raemaekers, 2001; van Ginkel & Villareal, 1996; Wiese, Other references Ageeb et al. (Editors), 1996; Bowden, 1959; Braun et al. (Editors), 1997; Byerlee & Moya, 1993; Dvorak et al., 1998; Edwards, 1997; Feldman, Lupton & Miller, 1995; Gebre-Mariam, Tanner & Hulluka (Editors), 1991; Hanson, Borlaug & Anderson, 1982; Hu et al., 2003; Jordaan, 1999; Khairallah et al, 2001; Phillips, 1995; Pickett, 1993; Quisenberry & Reitz (Editors), 1967; Roelfs, Singh & Saari, 1992; Simmonds & Rajaram (Editors), 1988; USDA, 2005; Walker & Boxall, 1974; Zhou et al., Sources of illustration van Ginkel & Villareal, Authors G. Belay Based on PROSEA 10: Cereals. 181 TRITICUM 183 TRITICUM TURGIDUM L. Protologue Sp. pi. 1: 86 (1753). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n 28 Synonyms Triticum dicoccon Schrank (1789), Triticum durum Desf. (1798). Vernacular names Durum wheat, macaroni wheat (En). Blé dur (Fr). Trigo duro, trigo rijo (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Hybridization between the diploids Triticum urartu Tumanian ex Gandylian (A-genome) and the yet unconfirmed B-genome donor (possibly a species of Aegilops section Sitopsis), followed by chromosome doubling gave rise to the first wild tetraploid wheat. Remains of primitive types of cultivated Triticum turgidum (emmer wheat, which has hulled grain) were discovered at several archaeological sites in Syria and dated at around 8000 BC. Emmer wheat became the predominant cultivated wheat in the Fertile Crescent (southern Turkey, northern Iraq and adjacent regions of Iran and Syria, as well the Joran valley) and spread into much of Asia, northern Africa and Europe. It remained the main wheat for several thousands of years. Free-threshing types, such as durum wheat, arose by accumulation of mutations and subsequent selection from the primitive emmer wheat. Around the beginning of the Christian era durum wheat had replaced emmer in most of the wheat growing areas of the Old World. Durum wheat is now commercially the most important type of Triticum turgidum. It is not certain when and how durum wheat reached tropical Africa, but it might have reached the northern highlands of Ethiopia around 3000 Triticum turgidum -planted BC. In tropical Africa durum wheat is predominantly grown in Ethiopia and to some extent in Eritrea and Angola. In other countries, e.g. Sudan and Tanzania, it has been grown experimentally. Durum wheat is also widely grown in northern Africa (from Morocco to Egypt), Mediterranean Europe (Italy, southern France), Turkey, the Middle East (Syria, Jordan, Iraq), Russia, Asia (Iran, Afghanistan, India, China), North America (Canada and the United States) and Argentina. Uses Throughout the world durum wheat is mainly ground to semolina (coarse flour) that is made into various pasta products (macaroni, spaghetti, noodles) and traditional flat bread (little leavened). In tropical Africa durum wheat utilization has been adapted to the local cuisine. In Ethiopia it is used mainly to make 'kitta' (unleavened bread), 'injera' (flat pancake-like unleavened bread), and homemade alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks. Durum wheat is also preferred for preparation of 'kinchie' (crushed kernels, cooked with milk or water and mixed with spiced butter), which is often served for breakfast. The grain is eaten as a snack and during social gatherings as 'nifro' (boiled whole grain often mixed with pulses), 'kollo' (roasted grain), and 'dabo-kollo' (ground and seasoned dough, shaped and deep fried). In northern Africa and the Middle East durum wheat is preferred for making couscous; its granules result from the agglomeration of semolina particles. In the Middle East it is also durum wheat which is used for making 'bulghur', i.e. a wheat which is parboiled, dried and then crushed. The straw of durum wheat is fed to animals and used as bedding material for animals and for thatching. Production and international trade Durum wheat and bread wheat statistics are usually combined and therefore individual and reliable statistics on durum wheat are difficult to obtain. According to FAO estimates, the average world production of wheat grain (durum wheat and bread wheat together) in amounted to 576 million t/year from 209 million ha. Worldwide, durum wheat constitutes less than 10% of the area under the cultivated wheats. Major durum wheat producers are northern Africa, where it covers nearly 50% of the total wheat area, the United States, Canada and the Russian Federation. The main durum wheat-producing country in tropical Africa is Ethiopia. Close to 50% of its total wheat production (1.4 million t/year in 1999 182 184 CEREALS AND PULSES 2003) is durum wheat. In Ethiopia durum wheat production is mainly for subsistence. Ethiopia also produced emmer wheat, but this crop is disappearing. Properties Durum wheat grain contains per 100 g edible portion: water 10.9 g, energy 1418 kj (339 kcal), protein 13.7 g, fat 2.5 g, carbohydrate 71.1 g, Ca 34 mg, Mg 144 mg, P 508 mg, Fe 3.5 mg, Zn 4.2 mg, vitamin A 0 IU, thiamin 0.42 mg, riboflavin 0.12 mg, niacin 6.7 mg, vitamin Ek 0.42 mg, folate 43 ug and ascorbic acid 0 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 176 mg, lysine 303 mg, methionine 221 mg, phenylalanine 681 mg, threonine 366 mg, valine 594 mg, leucine 934 mg and isoleucine 533 mg. The principal fatty acids are per 100 g edible portion: linoleic acid 930 mg, palmitic acid 422 mg and oleic acid 335 mg (USDA, 2005). Durum wheat grain is deficient in the amino acids lysine and threonine, and somewhat in isoleucine and valine. It is a good source of B-group vitamins and minerals. Durum wheat grain is vitreous, amber in colour, and is the hardest of all wheats. The physical and chemical characteristics of durum wheat gluten provide greater stability of the dough and make it specially suited for pasta products. For preparation of pasta, the grain is milled only as far as the semolina stage; a finely ground flour is not required. In the process of cooking, pasta products of good quality do not disintegrate or become soft, mushy, starchy or sticky. Protein should have a minimum level of 12%. Durum wheat is not suitable for making cakes and leavened bread because of its high gluten content and dough strength. Description Annual, often strongly tufted grass up to 170 cm tall; stem (culm) cylindrical, smooth, hollow except at nodes. Leaves distichously alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath rounded, auricled; ligule membranous; blade linear, cm x 1-2 cm, parallel-veined, flat, slightly hairy. Inflorescence a terminal, dense, distichous spike 4-12 cm long, with sessile spikelets borne solitary on zigzag, hairy, tough rachis. Spikelet mm long, laterally compressed, 4-7-flowered, with bisexual florets, but the 1 3 uppermost ones usually rudimentary; glumes almost equal, oblong, shorter than to almost as long as spikelet, thinly leathery, 5 11-veined, strongly keeled throughout, apiculate to awned; lemma rounded on back but keeled towards the tip, leathery, with an awn 8-20 cm long; palea 2-keeled, hairy on the keels; lodicules 2, ciliate; stamens 3; ovary superior, tipped by a small fleshy hairy appendage and with 2 plumose stigmas. Fruit an ellipsoid caryopsis (grain), at one side with a central groove. Other botanical information Triticum is a classic example of allopolyploidy consisting of diploid (2/i = 14), tetraploid (2re = 28) and hexaploid (2n = 42) species. Selection at the diploid and tetraploid levels has proceeded from wild species with hulled grain and brittle rachis to the free-threshing species with tough rachis; hexaploid wheats are not known in the wild, they appeared in cultivation. The classification of the genus Triticum and other related genera within the tribe Triticeae was strongly debated. Polyploidy and biphyletic genome differentiation (B vs. G genome) are isolating mechanisms offering adequate species borders. In this approach, Triticum comprises only 5 6 species, including the diploid Triticum monococcum L. (grown sporadically in southern Europe and western Asia), the tetraploid Triticum turgidum L., and the hexaploid Triticum aestivum L. Some tetraploid cultivated wheats are sometimes specifically distinguished from Triticum turgidum. Triticum aethiopicum Jakubz. is a Triticum turgidum - 1, inflorescences; 2, spikelet; 3, grains. Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman 183 TRITICUM 185 special type of free-threshing wheat, a traditional cereal crop in Ethiopia and the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula. Its spikes are loose to dense, its glumes are usually awned and its grain mostly purple. Triticum dicoccon Schrank (emmer wheat) is the oldest cultivated tetraploid wheat, domesticated in the area of Palestine, south-western Syria and northwestern Jordan. It has disarticulating spikes with 2-grained spikelets and hulled grains, not easy to decorticate. At present it is still cultivated in Ethiopia, Iran, Turkey, Transcaucasia, former Yugoslavia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and India. Triticum durum Desf. is the free-threshing durum wheat or macaroni wheat, that appeared in the Mediterranean, and is cultivated in regions with a hot dry climate; it has its greatest diversity in Ethiopia. It has slender spikes and comparatively long glumes. Triticum polonicum is the freethreshing Galicia wheat (erroneously named 'Polish wheat' by Linnaeus), occasionally cultivated in the same areas as the true durum wheat. It has much longer glumes (2.5 3 cm). In Ethiopia it is found only in mixture with other wheats. The free-threshing rivet wheat or cone wheat (Triticum turgidum L. sensu stricto) is cultivated in northern Africa, southern and central Europe and Asia. It has stout spikes nearly square in section and comparatively short glumes. It is also grown in Ethiopia, usually in mixtures. Most durum wheat cultivars are spring or semi-winter types. Only a few winter types are known. Growth and development Germination of wheat occurs at temperatures of 4-37 C, the optimum being C. The coleoptile emerges 4-6 days after germination. Flowering begins at the middle third of the spike, then rapidly progressing both upward and downward. Durum wheat is predominantly selfpollinated; in Ethiopia cross-pollination rates up to 4.3% have been recorded. Physiological maturity is reached when the moisture content of the fully formed grain has dropped to 25-35%. The complete crop cycle of durum wheat is days in Ethiopia. Ecology Durum wheat is better suited to regions with a low average annual rainfall than bread wheat, e.g. in the Middle East, northern Africa and parts of Mediterranean Europe. In the tropics durum wheat is best grown at higher elevations or in the cooler months of the year. In Ethiopia durum wheat is mostly produced in the central, northern and north-western highlands at m altitude during the main rainy season ('meher') between August and December. Highly rustresistant cultivars are needed to grow durum wheat below 1900 m in Ethiopia. High temperatures and low humidity improve grain quality, and durum wheat is susceptible to low temperatures and severe frosts. The minimum amount of water required for an acceptable crop is 250 mm. Soils best suited for durum wheat are well aerated, well drained and deep, with 0.5% or more organic matter. Optimum soil ph is Durum wheat is sensitive to soil salinity. In Ethiopia durum wheat is preferentially grown on heavy black clay soils (Vertisols); farmers usually delay planting and use surface drainage systems (furrows) to avoid waterlogging. N and micronutrient deficiencies can be limiting on Vertisols. Durum wheat can also be grown on light soils (Andosols), but here short, stiff and disease resistant cultivars are required. Propagation and planting Durum wheat is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g. Durum wheat can be sown by hand or machine; in Ethiopia it is usually broadcast. Dormancy can be a problem in introduced cultivars, but not in the local Ethiopian landraces. Seeding rate is commonly (-175) kg/ha, the higher rates being necessary on heavy clay soils where stand establishment is usually poor on flat seedbeds. It is advisable to use certified seed that has been treated with fungicides against soil- and seed-borne diseases, but this is not practised in tropical Africa. In Ethiopia an oxen-drawn implement ('maresha') is used to till the land before sowing, with 2-3 ploughings made before planting. In Ethiopia planting dates vary from mid-july to early September. Management Weed competition during tillering of the durum wheat crop, usually in the first days after sowing, is most detrimental to grain yield. Uniform crop stand and early vigour discourage weed growth. Competition occurring later in the crop cycle can affect grain numbers and grain weight, but usually has smaller effects on grain yield. Weeds can be controlled by hand weeding, proper crop rotation, pre-seeding irrigation, machine cultivation, or application of chemical herbicides. In tropical Africa hand weeding remains the most common means of weed control. Blanket fertilizer recommendation rates for durum wheat in Ethiopia are 41 kg N and 26 kg P per ha; additionally 23 kg/ha N can be 184 186 CEREALS AND PULSES top-dressed under heavy rain conditions at early growth stages. However, farmers in Ethiopia do not usually give priority to durum wheat when applying commercial fertilizer. Diseases and pests The most important diseases of durum wheat in tropical Africa are stem rust (Puccinia graminis) and leaf rust (Puccinia recondita f.sp. tritici, synonym: Puccinia triticina). The use of resistant cultivars is the most effective control measure against these diseases. In cooler regions, stripe rust or yellow rust (Puccinia striiformis) limits durum wheat production, e.g. in the Arsi highlands of Ethiopia. The most important insect pests in tropical Africa include aphids (which may also transmit viruses), and grasshoppers. The African migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) is a periodic pest that causes crop damage in northern and eastern Ethiopia. The Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor) has long been an important pest in regions adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea in northern Africa, southern Europe and western Asia. Control of insect pests with commercial insecticides in tropical Africa is rare. Important storage insects in Ethiopia include Sitophilus spp. on whole grains, and Tribolium spp. and Ephestia cautella (synonym: Cadra cautella, flower moth) on wheat flour. Rodents, mainly the black rat (Rattus rattus), also damage stored seeds. Harvesting In tropical Africa durum wheat is usually harvested with sickles and rarely by machine. A crop harvested at physiological maturity (grain moisture content 25-35%) must be dried thoroughly before threshing. Wet weather at harvest time can cause serious losses in grain quality because the grain sprouts readily. Plants are stacked or spread out to dry in the sun. Threshing is mostly done by trampling animals. Yield Durum wheat yields on farmers' fields in Ethiopia vary from 800 kg/ha to 2.5 t/ha; mean yield is estimated at less than 1 t/ha. Yields tend to be rather low due to the low application of improved cultivars and optimal production practices, and low levels of fertilizer applied. Yield progress in durum wheat has generally been lower than that in bread wheat. However, durum wheat grain yields of 5-6 t/ha can be obtained with irrigation and the use of improved cultivars and better production practices. Straw yields are equally important in Ethiopia and range from 9-15 t/ha. Handling after harvest In tropical Africa, e.g. in Ethiopia, threshed grains of durum wheat are separated from the residues by winnowing. The clean seeds are stored, sold or processed for home consumption. Harvested durum wheat grain should be dried to moisture content of 13 14% for safe storage. High temperatures and moist conditions may result in spoilage. Regular re-drying may be necessary to maintain seed viability, if the seed is not stored in an airtight container. Genetic resources The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria (21,010 accessions) and the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Mexico City, Mexico (7880 accessions) maintain large germplasm collections of Triticum turgidum. Large germplasm collections are also held in the United States (USDA-ARS National Small Grains Germplasm Research Facility, Aberdeen, Idaho, 42,030 accessions), the Russian Federation (N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry, St. Petersburg, 5580 accessions) and Australia (Australian Winter Cereals Collection, Agricultural Research Centre, Tamworth, New South Wales, 5520 accessions). In tropical Africa the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia) has the largest collection of Triticum turgidum (12,500 accessions). Since Ethiopia is an important centre of diversity of durum wheat, several studies since the 1970s have dealt with the magnitude and structure of Ethiopian durum wheat germplasm using morphological, protein, cytological and molecular markers. While the area of durum wheat has decreased since the 1970s, no drastic changes in the overall diversity are evident. Breeding CIMMYT and ICARDA have the international mandate to disseminate durum wheat germplasm to national programmes. In tropical Africa a strong breeding programme has been underway in Ethiopia since High grain yield and disease resistance, mainly to stem and leaf rusts, have been the major objectives, and recently industrial quality has been included. Genotype x environment interactions in Ethiopia are very high and therefore emphasis has shifted from wide to specific adaptation. Major breeding methods are conventional, and include selection from indigenous landraces and introductions from CIMMYT and ICARDA, and hybridization. Greater success was achieved from the international introductions than from the landrace selections. More than 16 durum wheat cultivars have been officially approved, but their area does 185 TYLOSEMA 187 not exceed 10% of the total durum wheat area. 'Boohai', 'Foka', 'Kilinto' and 'Yerer' are among the most widely sown cultivars. Linkage-maps of durum wheat have been developed and important QTLs (quantitative trait loci) for grain quality traits have been identified. The developments in wheat molecular genetics and genetic engineering have been relatively slow, especially when compared to other cereals such as rice and maize, due to its ploidy level, size and complexity of its genome, the low level of polymorphism and relatively inefficient transformation systems. Breeding of durum wheat is less advanced than of bread wheat; in addition it has benefited less in wide hybridization and alien gene transfers. Durum wheat is an important component species for bread wheat breeding through formation of synthetic hexaploids, and for the production and development of triticale ÇxTriticosecale), the hybrid of wheat and rye. Prospects In tropical Africa, Ethiopia has the greatest potential for durum wheat because of its favourable growing environments in the cool dry highlands and tradition of growing the crop. There is an increasing demand for quality durum wheat grain by the local pasta industries, which is usually met through import. Breeding programmes have developed cultivars that meet the quality demand by the industry, but in the absence of premium price over the higher-yielding bread wheat cultivars, farmers are losing interest in growing durum wheat. The future trends of durum wheat production, as a result of unfavourable market prices, therefore may seem discouraging. On the other hand, large-scale commercial farmers are entering into durum wheat production to supply the industry, some even replacing bread wheat due mainly to price competition from imported flour. Adaptive research is needed to develop durum wheat that reliably produces 2-3 t/ha in farmers' fields. More progress is also required in agronomic research, identification of suitable production areas and in establishing an attractive pricing and marketing structure for farmers. The crucial factor is a stable and long-term commitment from the government, the farmers, the private sector (including seed producers) and national research programmes. With this functional partnership in place, Ethiopia could even export quality durum wheat. Major references Bechere, Kebede & Belay, 2001; Bechere, Tesemma & Mitiku, 1994; Gebre-Mariam, Tanner & Hulluka (Editors), 1991; Morris & Sears, 1967; Scarascia Mugnozza (Editor), 1973; Srivastava, 1984; Tanner & Raemaekers, 2001; Tesemma & Belay, 1991; van Ginkel & Villareal, 1996; Wiese, Other references Alamerew et al., 2004; Belay, 1997; Belay, Tesemma & Mituku, 1993; Belay et al., 1997; Bowden, 1959; Curtis, Rajaram & Gomez Macpherson (Editors), 2002; Elouafi & Nachit, 2004; Eticha et al., 2005; Feldman, Lupton & Miller, 1995; Gashawbeza et al., 2003; Jauhar, 2003; Mac Key, 1966; Mohamed, 1999; Payne, Tanner & Abdalla, 1996; Perrino et al., 1996; Phillips, 1995; Tarekegn, 1994; Tsegaye, 1996; USDA, 2005; Walker & Boxall, Sources of illustration Landwehr, 1976; Vaughan & Geissler, Authors G. Belay TYLOSEMAESCULENTUM (Burch.) A.Schreib. Protologue Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml. München 3: 611 (1960). Family Caesalpiniaceae (Leguminosae - Caesalpinioideae) Synonyms Bauhinia esculenta Burch. (1824). Vernacular names Marama bean, morama bean, gemsbok bean, camel's foot (En). Marama (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Marama bean is native to the Kalahari desert and neighbouring sandy regions in Angola, Namibia, Botswana and South Africa, but it also occurs in Zambia and Mozambique. Experimental cultivation in Kenya, South Africa, Australia, Israel and the United States (Texas) Tylosema esculentum - wild 186 188 CEREALS AND PULSES has been successful. Uses Marama bean is an important part of the diet of the Khoisan people in the Kalahari, where subsistence agriculture is marginal due to drought and low soil fertility, and it is a delicacy among other peoples in southern Africa. The seeds are eaten boiled or roasted. They may be boiled with maize meal or ground into flour to prepare a porridge or a coffee- or cocoalike drink. Roasted seeds are sometimes sold locally but only on a small scale. Marama beans have a pleasant sweet flavour when boiled or roasted, comparable to roasted cashew nuts or almonds, although bitter types are known. The roasted seeds have sometimes been used by Europeans in southern Africa as a culinary substitute for almonds. Immature seeds and stems may be eaten cooked as a vegetable or in soups. The seed oil is used in Botswana for cooking and for making butter. Young tubers are eaten baked, boiled or roasted, as a vegetable dish. Tubers older than 2 years become fibrous and bitter and are usually not eaten, but they are an important emergency source of water for humans and animals. The pods and tubers are recorded to be eaten by animals, but it is not clear whether the foliage is browsed, as contradictory reports exist. Marama bean may have potential as a ground cover or ornamental. Properties Mature, shelled marama bean seeds contain per 100 g: water 3.9 g, energy 2660 kj (635 kcal), protein 31.8 g, fat 42.2 g and carbohydrate 18.9 g (Bower et al., 1988). The protein content of marama bean is comparable to that of soya bean, and the oil content is twice as high as that of soya bean and comparable to that of groundnut. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g food is: tryptophan 219 mg, lysine 1119 mg, methionine 257 mg, phenylalanine 874 mg, threonine 822 mg, valine 1149 mg, leucine 1774 mg and isoleucine 1119 mg (FAO, 1970). The seeds have a relatively high trypsin inhibitor activity, which can be remedied by cooking. The seed oil is golden-yellow, with a nutty odour and a pleasant, although slightly bitter flavour, and has been described as similar to almond oil in consistency and taste. Its principal fatty acids are oleic acid (48-49%), linoleic acid (19-26%), palmitic acid (12-14%), stearic acid (7-10%) and arachidic acid (3%). Per 100 g dry weight the defatted seed meal contains: energy 194 kj (46 kcal), protein 55.0 g, available starch 13.0 g and fibre 1.6 g. Per 100 g, the tubers of a 5- month-old plant contain: water 92.1 g, protein 2.1 g, fat 0.1 g and carbohydrate 4.4 g. Young tubers have a sweet and pleasant taste and the texture has been described as similar to that of artichoke. The tubers are reddish when dried. Description Perennial herb or shrub, with tuberous root; stems prostrate and trailing, up to 6 m long, herbaceous or lower parts woody, rusty-hairy, with axillary forked tendrils 1-4 cm long. Leaves alternate, simple; stipules 3-5 mm x 2-3 mm; petiole cm long; blade 2- lobed for more than half its length, glabrous or pubescent beneath; lobes reniform, cm x cm. Inflorescence a lateral raceme up to 16 cm long; peduncle 2-4 cm long. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, 5-merous, heterostylous; pedicel cm long; sepals free but upper 2 fused, 8-12 mm x 2-3 mm, rusty-hairy; petals unequal, 4 larger ones cm x l_ 1.5 cm and tapering into a basal claw, the upper one smaller, yellow turning reddish with age; stamens 2, free, with filaments 6-12 mm long, staminodes 8, with filaments 3-6 mm long; ovary superior, 5-6 mm long, 1-celled, style elongate, stigma small. Fruit an ovoid to oblong pod cm x 3-4 cm, flattened, woody, l-2(-6)-seeded, constricted between the seeds. Seeds ovoid to globose, cm x cm, reddish to brownish black. Tylosema esculentum - 1, part of flowering stem; 2, fruit; 3, seed. Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman 187 TYLOSEMA 189 Other botanical information Tylosema comprises 5 species and occurs in southern and eastern Africa. Some taxonomists do not consider Tylosema a separate genus, but include it in Bauhinia. Tylosema fassoglense (Schweinf.) Torre & Hillc, which also has edible seeds and tubers, has longer leaf stalks and more shallowly lobed leaves. Growth and development In field experiments in Kenya marama bean seeds started to germinate 9-10 days after planting. Once germinated the seedlings develop rapidly. Marama bean has been recorded as not flowering until the 3 rd or 4 th year after planting, but in experiments in Texas plants started flowering after 2 years, and fruits and seeds were formed after 3.5 years. In its native area marama bean flowers from October to March. It is predominantly outcrossing and may be self-incompatible; it is pollinated by insects. In cultivation fruit and seed set tend to be low. In southern Africa the stems die back during the dry and cool period (May-August), but the tuber remains viable and produces new stems when the temperature rises. Marama bean does not form root nodules and relies on soil nitrogen. Its drought-adaptive mechanisms include closure of leaves, the maintenance of green-leaf area under drought by early stomatal closure, and the use of moisture reserves in the tuber (which shrinks greatly in dry years). Marama bean plants have long trailing stems that creep along the ground and avoid the effects of the strong destructive windstorms of the Kalahari. Ecology Marama bean occurs naturally in an extreme environment with high temperatures (typical daily maximum of 37 C in the growing season), low rainfall ( mm) and long periods of drought. It is found on sandy and limestone (including dolomite) soils, but not on soils developed over granite or basalt. Marama bean is found in grassland and wooded grassland vegetation. It occurs in localized patches. Propagation and planting Propagation of marama bean is by seed. Germination is sometimes said to be improved by scarification. Soaking will kill the seed and it should not be sown in waterlogged soils. The 1000-seed weight is 2-3 kg. Preliminary results under laboratory conditions show that vegetative propagation using sprouts is possible. Harvesting The seeds of marama bean are collected in its native area from the wild and by hand. The tubers are harvested by handdigging when they weigh about 1 kg. Yield In the Kalahari young tubers of marama bean of 1 year old and about 1 kg in weight are preferred. Tubers may reach 10 kg after a few years and tuber weights of up to 300 kg have been reported; a tuber weighing 277 kg contained water. Information on seed yields of marama bean is not available. Handling after harvest Raw seeds of marama bean store well and remain edible for years. Dry storage is preferable. Oil can be extracted from the seeds by conventional pressing or solvent extraction. To obtain water from the tuber, the skin is scraped away and a hole is made. The flesh in and around the hole is mashed with a wooden stick until the consistency is porridge-like. This porridge is put into a piece of fabric and the water is squeezed out with both hands. The water can also be extracted from the tubers by pounding pieces of it in a container. Genetic resources Marama bean is considered neither rare nor threatened. No substantial germplasm collections are known to exist. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, the National Genebank, Muguga, Kenya, and the Plant Genetic Resources Unit of the Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa, have 1 accession each. Marama bean shows orthodox seed storage behaviour. Breeding Programmes for selection and breeding work of marama bean are recorded to be underway in the United States, Australia and Israel. RAPD analysis of 3 populations from various parts of Botswana has shown that a considerable amount of genetic variation exists within marama bean, most of it within rather than between populations. Sufficient genetic variation for breeding may be found by sampling plants from 1 or 2 populations. Prospects Marama bean is regarded as having considerable potential as a crop for arid and semi-arid regions, and it is being investigated in Australia, Israel and the United States (Texas). It has potential for its roasted seeds and as a source of oil. However, before large-scale cultivation can be promoted, more information is needed on its ecological requirements, adaptability to cultivation and agronomy. Furthermore, genetic improvement and germplasm collection need attention and research should be carried out on the presence of toxic constituents or antinutritional factors in the seeds and tubers. Major references Bower et al., 1988; Da- 188 190 CEREALS AND PULSES kora, Lawlor & Sibuga, 1999; Keegan & van Staden, 1981; Ladizinsky & Smartt, 2000; Monaghan & Halloran, 1996; National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Powell, 1987; Ross, 1977; van Wyk & Gericke, 2000; Wickens, Other references Brummitt & Ross, 1976; Chandel & Singh, 1984; FAO, 1970; Francis & Campbell, 2003; Graham & Vance, 2003; Hao Gang et al, 2003; Hartley, Tshamekeng & Thomas, 2002; Hornetz, 1993; ILDIS, 2002; IPGRI, undated; Keith & Renew, 1975; Ketshajwang, Holmback & Yeboah, 1998; Leger, 1997; Lock, 1989; Mitchell et al., 2003; Schreiber, 1967; USDA, ARS & National Genetic Resources Program, 2001; Victor, undated; Vietmeyer, 1978; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, Sources of illustration Powell, Authors L.J.G. van der Maesen TYLOSEMAFASSOGLENSE (Schweinf.) Torre & Hillc. Protologue Bol. Soc. Brot., ser. 2, 29: 38 (1955). Family Caesalpiniaceae (Leguminosae - Caesalpinioideae) Chromosome number In 52 Synonyms Bauhinia fassoglensis Schweinf. (1868), Bauhinia kirkii Oliv. (1871). Vernacular names Sprawling bauhinia, creeping bauhinia (En). Bauhinia rampant (Fr). Origin and geographic distribution Tylosema fassoglense occurs wild from Sudan and Ethiopia southwards to Namibia, Mozambique and South Africa. Uses The seeds of Tylosema fassoglense are frequently eaten, for instance in DR Congo, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Malawi and South Africa. Immature and mature seeds can be eaten raw, but they are usually cooked or roasted. The pods are also eaten raw or cooked. The seeds are a coffee substitute. The leaves and young branches of Tylosema fassoglense are grazed. In Kenya the Masai and Kipsigis people make rope from the stems and plaited items from the young stems or from the fibres. The fibre is also suitable for making cloth. Water is obtained from the tuber in arid regions, and the tuber is sometimes made into porridge. Sap from the shoots can be used as potable water. The roots are used to produce a brown dye. In Ethiopia the seeds, after being hardened over a fire, are strung into necklaces and bracelets. In traditional African medicine root decoctions of Tylosema fassoglense are taken to treat gastrointestinal problems in various countries. They are also used against anaemia, fever and pneumonia, and to heal the uterus after childbirth. The pulverized tuber is taken for the treatment of venereal diseases. The leaf sap is applied to treat inflammations of the middle ear. Infusions of powdered flowers are drunk against jaundice and hypertension. A decoction of the roots and flowers is drunk to treat impotence. Children are encouraged to eat the pods, because these are thought to be good for the stomach. In veterinary medicine root decoctions of Tylosema fassoglense are administered as a galactagogue to cows before calving, and as a drench for a retained placenta. Properties The composition of seeds of Tylosema fassoglense per 100 g edible portion is: water 7.5 g, energy 1888 kj (451 kcal), protein 43.5 g, fat 32.6 g, carbohydrate 14.6 g, fibre 4.2 g, Ca 80 mg, P 200 mg and Fe 40 mg (Malaisse & Parent, 1985). Seeds collected in DR Congo and Burundi yielded g oil per 100 g, with as principal fatty acids linoleic acid (36 43%), oleic acid (33-35%), palmitic acid (12-16%), stearic acid (3-5%), behenic acid (3-5%) and arachidic acid (2-4%). Per 100 g the defatted seedcake meal contains 59 g protein, with a very high level of tyrosine (7-9 g per 100 g dry weight) and relatively high proportions of lysine and proline (3-4 g and 4-5 g per 100 g dry weight, respectively). The seedcake meal contains substantial amounts of trypsin inhibitors (295 TUI/mg) and phytate (3.5 g per 100 g dry weight), but cyanogenic glycosides have not been detected. For human or animal consumption of the seedcake, removal or inactivation of the trypsin inhibitors is recommended. Recently a cyanoglucoside (lithospermoside) has been isolated from the roots. In the rainy season the tuberous root may contain 86% water. Botany Perennial herb or shrub, with tuberous root; stem prostrate and trailing or climbing, up to 6 m long, herbaceous or woody below, young parts rusty-tomentose or rustyhairy, with axillary forked tendrils (2-)3 6.5( 9.5) mm long. Leaves alternate, simple; stipules 2-4 mm x 2 mm, persistent; petiole (2-)3-10(-20) cm long; blade bilobed for up to onethird (sometimes up to half) its length, (5-)7-13(-20) cm x (4-)8-15(-24) cm, base deeply cordate, lobes ovate to obovate, sometimes rounded, subglabrous to densely rusty pubescent beneath. Inflorescence a lateral raceme 5- 189 UROCHLOA cm long; peduncle (2-)4-12(-18) cm long. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, 5-merous, heterostylous; pedicel (1.5 )2-4.5(-6) cm long; sepals l-1.5(-2.5) cm x 3 4 mm, with upper 2 completely united and the other 3 free; petals unequal, 4 (larger ones) obovate-circular, (1.5 ) 2-4(-4.5) cm x 1-3 cm and tapering into a basal claw, the upper one much smaller, yellow, sometimes fading to pink; stamens 2, free, with filaments mm long, staminodes 8, with filaments 3-6 mm long; ovary superior, 5-6 mm long, 1-celled, pubescent, style elongate, stigma small. Fruit an obovoid to oblong-ovoid pod 5-12 cm x cm, flattened, woody, 1-2- seeded. Seeds ellipsoid to globose, somewhat compressed, cm x 1-2 cm, chestnutbrown to black. Tylosema comprises 5 species and occurs in southern and eastern Africa. Some taxonomists do not consider Tylosema a separate genus, but include it in Bauhinia. Tylosema fassoglense is extremely variable, especially in its indumentum, leaf size and inflorescence size. Growth of Tylosema fassoglense is rapid, with the shoots growing up to 5 cm per day. In southern Africa Tylosema fassoglense flowers from October to March. Regeneration after fire is rapid. Tylosema fassoglense does not form root nodules and relies on soil nitrogen. Ecology Tylosema fassoglense occurs up to 2100 m altitude in woodland and grassland, sometimes in cultivated areas. It grows well on poor, sandy soils, but is also found on rocky or clay soils. It is moderately tolerant to flooding and drought. Management Tylosema fassoglense is collected from the wild. Fresh tuber weights up to 78 kg have been recorded. To prepare porridge from the tuber, it is scraped clean, then grated, crushed or pounded, and ground into a fine meal which is cooked. Genetic resources and breeding No substantial germplasm collections of Tylosema fassoglense are known to exist. The Plant Genetic Resources Unit of the Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa, has 1 accession. Tylosema fassoglense is considered neither rare nor threatened. Prospects Tylosema fassoglense has interesting properties, such as tolerance of low soil fertility and drought, seeds with high levels of protein and fat, and tuberous roots storing water. Therefore, research into the potential of this plant and its possible cultivation is certainly justified. Major references Brenan, 1967; Castro et al, 2005; Dubois et al., 1995; Dubois et al, 1994; Ross, Other references Fort, Jolad & Nelson, 2001; Grobbelaar & Clarke, 1975; Huxham et al., 1998; Lock, 1989; Malaisse & Parent, 1985; Neuwinger, 2000; Tabuti, Lye & Dhillion, 2003; Thulin, 1989a; van Wyk & Gericke, 2000; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, Authors M. Brink UROCHLOAMOSAMBICENSIS (Hack.) Dandy Protologue Journ. Bot. 69: 54 (1931). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n 28, 30, 42 Vernacular names Sabi grass, common urochloa, bushveld signal grass (En). Origin and geographic distribution Urochloa mosambicensis is distributed from Kenya southwards to South Africa; it has been introduced as a pasture grass into many other tropical countries, including Ghana and Madagascar. It was introduced into Australia in the early 1900s and has become an important grass for the northern Australian beef industry. Uses In southern Africa the grain of Urochloa mosambicensis is commonly used as a cereal; the ground grain is made into porridge. Urochloa mosambicensis is a useful, droughtresistant, palatable pasture grass also suitable for hay making. It is planted as a pasture grass in East Africa, southern Africa, Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka and Australia. In South Africa it is sown to improve overgrazed pastures. In India it is used against soil erosion. In Australia it plays a role in mine site rehabilitation. Properties Young green leaves of Urochloa mosambicensis typically contain up to 2.5% N, 0.2% P and are 65-70% digestible. In the late wet season these values are 1.2%, 0.15% and 55-60%, respectively. Dry leaves and stems are much lower in quality and typically contain 0.5% N and 0.2% P. Information on the nutritional characteristics of the grain is not available. Botany Tufted or stoloniferous perennial grass up to 1.5 m tall; stem (culm) ascending, sometimes rooting at the lower nodes. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath silky pubescent; ligule a ciliate membrane; blade linear, 2-30 cm x 3-20 mm, pale to bright green, more or less hairy. Inflorescence composed of 2-20 racemes borne on a central axis 3-15 cm long; racemes (l-)2-9( 14) cm long, 190 192 CEREALS AND PULSES bearing solitary spikelets on a narrowly winged rachis. Spikelet ovate, mm x mm, glabrous or hairy, acuminate, 2-flowered with lower floret male and upper bisexual; lower glume elliptical-oblong, shorter than spikelet, 3-veined, shiny, upper glume as long as the spikelet, 5-veined with cross-veins, granulöse to rugulose, with a mucro; lemma acuminate, leathery, 5-veined, with a mucro, palea shorter than lemma; stamens 3; ovary superior, with 2 plumose stigmas. Fruit a strongly flattened caryopsis (grain), pale buff or cream. Urochloa comprises about 12 species distributed in the Old World tropics, mainly in Africa. It is distinguished from the related Brachiaria by the shape and orientation of the spikelets but the boundary between the two genera is unclear due to a number of intermediate species. It has been proposed that Brachiaria be nearly completely reduced to Urochloa, which would increase the size of Urochloa to about 120 species, with a pantropical distribution. Within Urochloa the species are sometimes difficult to separate. Urochloa mosambicensis is the perennial counterpart of the annual Urochloa trichopus (Höchst.) Stapf, which does not possess dormant buds at the base. The grain of Urochloa brachyura (Hack.) Stapf, distributed in East and southern Africa, is eaten in Namibia; the plant is also grazed by animals. Seeds of Urochloa mosambicensis germinate early in the wet season and vegetative growth continues until soil water is exhausted. Flowering starts 3-4 weeks after the start of the rainy season and continues until growth ceases. Seed matures in 3-4 weeks. Leaves live for 5-25 weeks depending mainly on water supply. Plants are often short-lived (3-4 years). Urochloa mosambicensis is an obligate apomict. It follows the C4 photosynthetic pathway. Ecology In its natural habitat Urochloa mosambicensis occurs up to 1600 m altitude in regions with an average annual rainfall of ( 1600) mm, in savanna woodland and open grassland, often in disturbed or overgrazed locations (e.g. fallow land, roadsides). It grows in a wide range of soils, but prefers lighter, more fertile soils. In northern Australia it becomes dominant after fires. Management The grains of Urochloa mosambicensis are mostly collected from the wild, but sometimes plants are grown in gardens alongside maize. The 1000-seed weight is g. Fresh seed has dormancy, which breaks down after 9-12 months storage. Dormancy can be broken by hammer-milling, destroying the hard lemma. In India Urochloa mosambicensis is also propagated vegetatively using rooted cuttings. In pastures a seed rate of 4 kg/ha is recommended, or 2 kg/ha when grown intercropped with other pasture plants. Urochloa mosambicensis does well in intercropping with leguminous pasture plants and is commonly grown together with Stylosanthes spp. To obtain the grain, the inflorescences are picked when still slightly green and spread out in the sun to dry. When dry, the grains are easily rubbed from the stalks; they are ground. Grain yields of kg/ha per year have been recorded from Australia. In pastures dry matter yields of 1 8 t/ha per year are produced. Genetic resources and breeding The largest germplasm collections of Urochloa mosambicensis are held in Australia (Australian Tropical Crops & Forages Genetic Resources Centre, Biloela, Queensland, 73 accessions, mainly from African countries; CSIRO Townsville Division of Tropical Crops and Pastures, Townsville, Queensland, 63 accessions). In Africa 18 accessions are held in South Africa (Grassland Research Centre, Department of Agricultural Development, Pretoria), 7 accessions in Ethiopia (International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa) and 7 accessions in Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu). In view of its wide distribution and abundance, Urochloa mosambicensis is not threatened by genetic erosion. The collection held in Biloela has been investigated for a range of morphological and agronomical attributes, and considerable variation was found in time to maturity, stolon development, plant height and yield. Cultivars of Urochloa mosambicensis have been registered in Australia, e.g. 'Nixon' and 'Saraji'. Prospects Urochloa mosambicensis is a useful wild cereal in southern Africa, but it has more potential as a pasture grass for semi-arid tropical regions. Investigations are needed to assess the nutritional quality of the grains. Major references Burkill, 1994; Clayton, 1989; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Mclvor, 1992; Pengelly & Eagles, Other references Bogdan, 1977; Clayton & Renvoize, 1982; FAO, undated; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Mackay, 1974; Prakash & Uniyal, 1980; van Wyk & Gericke, 2000; Veldkamp, 1996a. Authors M. Brink 191 UROCHLOA 193 UEOCHLOA TRICHOPUS (Höchst.) Stapf Protologue Oliv., Fl. trop. Afr. 9(4): 589 (1920). Family Poaceae (Gramineae) Chromosome number 2n =14, 28 Origin and geographic distribution Urochloa trichopus is distributed in the more dry regions throughout tropical Africa. It also occurs in Yemen and has been introduced into Brazil and India. Uses The grain of Urochloa trichopus is sometimes gathered for food, e.g. in Kordofan (Sudan), Tanzania, Botswana and Zimbabwe. In Botswana it is ground into flour, which may be cooked with water, milk or melon juice or made into cake; it is also used for making beer. Urochloa trichopus is valued as a fodder in semi-arid regions; in Brazil and India it is a forage grass. Properties The fodder value of Urochloa trichopus plants in the Sahel is: crude protein 10.7%, crude fibre 28.5%, crude fat 1.4%, nitrogen-free extractives 45.2%, P 0.19%, K 4.69%, Ca 0.38%, Mg 0.37% and Na 0.02%. In Botswana the crude protein content of Urochloa trichopus ranges from 6.2% in the dry season (July) to 10.4% in the rainy season (January), and the dry matter digestibility ranges from 41% in July to 57% in January. Information on the nutritional characteristics of the grain is not available. Botany Coarse, tufted annual grass up to 1.7 m tall; stem (culm) geniculately ascending, often rooting at the lower nodes. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; leaf sheath glabrous to slightly pubescent; ligule a ciliate membrane; blade linear, 5-30 cm x 5-20 mm, acuminate, glabrous or hairy. Inflorescence composed of 3-20 racemes borne on a central axis 4 20 cm long; racemes 1-14 cm long, bearing solitary spikelets on a narrowly winged rachis. Spikelet ovate, mm long, glabrous or less often hairy, acuminate, 2-flowered with lower floret male and upper bisexual; lower glume elliptical-oblong, slightly shorter than spikelet, 3- veined, upper glume as long as the spikelet, 5(- 7)-veined with cross-veins; lemma acuminate, leathery, 5-veined, with a mucro; palea shorter than lemma; stamens 3; ovary superior, with 2 plumose stigmas. Fruit a strongly flattened caryopsis (grain). Urochloa comprises about 12 species distributed in theold World tropics, mainly in Africa. It is distinguished from the related Brachiaria by the shape and orientation of the spikelets but the boundary between the two genera is unclear due to a number of intermediate species. It has been proposed that Brachiaria be nearly completely reduced to Urochloa, which would increase the size of Urochloa to about 120 species, with a pantropical distribution. Within Urochloa the species are sometimes difficult to separate. Urochloa trichopus is the annual counterpart of the perennial Urochloa mosambicensis (Hack.) Dandy, which possesses dormant buds at the base. Ecology Urochloa trichopus occurs from sealevel up to 1500 m altitude in semi-arid climates, in grassland and savanna woodland; also in disturbed locations and as an arable weed. Management Urochloa trichopus is collected from the wild. In Botswana stored grain is attacked by weevils, ants and rats, but it generally stores well. In Botswana the grain is considered difficult to thresh and pound. Urochloa trichopus is considered a weed in Ethiopia. Genetic resources and breeding The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, holds 5 accessions of Urochloa trichopus (3 from Ethiopia; 2 from Mali). Three accessions from Ethiopia are held at Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, Colombia; 2 accessions from Tanzania in the Australian Tropical Crops & Forages Genetic Resources Centre, Biloela, Queensland. In view of its wide distribution, Urochloa trichopus is not threatened by genetic erosion. Prospects Urochloa trichopus is a useful source of food and fodder in semi-arid regions of tropical Africa, but is unlikely to increase in importance. For use as a cereal, the small grain size and difficulty in processing are considered serious limitations. Its role as a pasture grass will probably remain modest compared to that of its perennial and more persistent counterpart Urochloa mosambicensis. Major references Burkill, 1994; Clayton & Renvoize, 1982; Gibbs Russell et al., 1990; Modiakgotla et al, 1999; Phillips, Other references Bartha, 1970; Clayton, 1972; Clayton, 1989; Cope, 1995; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Longhi-Wagner & de Oliveira, 2002; Pratchett, 1983; Trouin, 1970; Veldkamp, 1996a. Authors M. Brink 192 194 CEREALS AND PULSES VATOVAEAPSEUDOLABLAB (Harms) J.B.Gillett Protologue Kew Bull. 20(1): 104 (1966). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Origin and geographic distribution Vatovaea pseudolablab is found wild in the drier parts of Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania; also in Yemen and Oman. Uses The seeds of Vatovaea pseudolablab are eaten either raw or after boiling or roasting. Immature pods, flowers and leaves are eaten raw or cooked as a vegetable. The tuberous and juicy roots are edible and are consumed raw or after boiling or roasting. They are sometimes eaten as a snack, especially after roasting; they are also used as emergency food and as a source of water. Flour made from the roots is mixed with sorghum flour to prepare a stiff porridge. It is normally stored and used in lean periods. Farmers grow and consume Vatovaea pseudolablab commonly, but during food shortages more people rely on it for their daily food. The plant is eaten by cattle, goats, sheep, camels and donkeys. The root fibres are made into rope, hats and fly whisks. Properties The tuberous roots of Vatovaea pseudolablab are fibrous and contain much juice; they have a pleasant, sweet taste even when eaten raw. Botany Liana or shrub up to 1.5( 3) m tall; stem branched, glabrous to sparsely pubescent; roots tuberous. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules oblong, c. 3.5 mm x 1.5 mm; petiole up to 6 cm long, ribbed, rachis up to 2 cm long; stipels small; petiolules 1-2 mm long; leaflets ovate to narrowly ovate-rhomboid, up to 8 cm x 6.5 cm, sometimes slightly 3-lobed, glabrous to sparsely pubescent. Inflorescence an axillary false raceme up to 50 cm long, pubescent, many-flowered; peduncle 6-21 cm long; bracts up to 2 mm long. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel c. 3 mm long; calyx c. 5 mm long, 5-lobed, 2-lipped, the lower 3 lobes roundedtriangular, the upper 2 lobes united; corolla greenish purple, standard 1-2 cm x cm, emarginate, with 2 appendages near the base, wings with a long narrow spur, keel incurved; stamens 10, 9 fused and 1 free; ovary superior, linear, 1-celled, style long, incurved, usually hairy inside towards the apex and with a reflexed appendage above the stigma. Fruit a linear-oblong pod cm x cm, curved, flattened, widening towards the apex, dehiscent, at first silky pubescent, later glabrescent, up to 8-seeded. Seeds almost globose to irregularly ellipsoid or squarish, mm x mm x mm, brown, sometimes speckled with black. Vatovaea comprises a single species. Although Vatovaea pseudolablab becomes woody, plants may already flower when still quite herbaceous; they are basically self-pollinating. Ecology Vatovaea pseudolablab is found up to 1500 m altitude in dry grassland or bushland in regions with an annual rainfall of mm, often along lava or drainage lines, occasionally in seasonally wet grassland on clay. Management Vatovaea pseudolablab is commonly collected from the wild, but only occasionally sown, e.g. in Kenya. In Ethiopia it is semi-domesticated by Konso farmers, who keep it in their fields intercropped with other food plants. Vatovaea pseudolablab can be propagated by seed. The tuberous roots can be dug out any time of the year; they are best gathered when the foliage has died back. Flour is produced from the roots by peeling, chopping, drying and grinding. Genetic resources and breeding Vatovaea pseudolablab populations are dwindling in East Africa and in the Arabian Peninsula because it is a popular food and fodder. Its genetic pool is likely to shrink fast if no action is taken. Two accessions of Vatovaea pseudolablab are kept in Ethiopia at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa. Prospects Vatovaea pseudolablab is a useful multipurpose plant for dry regions and its potential seems worthwhile exploiting. It is recommended to start collecting and evaluating germplasm and to test accessions for their performance in the field. Promising material should be multiplied further. Furthermore, investigations should be carried out on the agronomy of the plant and its nutritional properties. Major references Beentje, 1994; Gillett et al, 1971; Maundu, Ngugi & Kabuye, 1999; Schippers, 2000; Thulin, Other references African Studies Center, undated; Gillett, 1966; Huxham et al., 1998; ILDIS, 2002; IPGRI, undated; Maundu, 1997; Morgan, 1981; Thulin, 1989a; Thulin, 1989b. Authors M. Brink 193 VICIA 195 VICIA FABA L. Protologue Sp. pi. 2: 737 (1753). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n 12 Vernacular names Faba bean, broad bean, horse bean, field bean, tick bean (En). Fève, fève de(s) marais, fèverole, fèvette, gourgane (Fr). Faveira, fava (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Faba bean is only known in cultivation. Its centre of origin and domestication is probably in western Asia, from where it spread into Europe, Africa and central Asia. Ethiopia and Afghanistan are considered secondary centres of diversity. Faba bean domestication occurred between 7000 and 4000 BC, and by the 3 rd millennium BC it was widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean region. The evolution of the large-seeded type was much later (around 500 AD), and may have occurred in western Asia and in the Mediterranean region. Faba bean was probably not grown to any extent in Japan and China before 1200 AD, nor in the Americas before the arrival of the Spaniards. Nowadays, faba bean is widely grown in temperate and subtropical regions and at higher altitudes in the tropics. In tropical Africa it is mainly found in East Africa, especially in Sudan and Ethiopia. Uses Faba bean is grown as a field crop for the dry mature seeds and as a garden crop for the immature seeds or pods. In Ethiopia, Mediterranean countries, the Middle East and China the dry mature seeds are widely used as food, and in many countries the green immature seeds are boiled or eaten raw as vegetable. In Mediterranean countries and in India whole Vicia faba -planted immature pods are eaten. In Ethiopia and Eritrea main dishes include 'shiro wot' (hulled seeds ground and made into sauce), 'kik wot' (hulled and split seeds boiled and made into sauce), and 'ful' (hulled and boiled seeds, spiced and minced with butter). Snacks include 'eshet' (fresh green seeds eaten raw or roasted), 'kolo' (roasted dry seeds), 'nifro' (boiled dry or fresh green seeds), 'gunkul' (seeds soaked, sprouted and roasted), 'ashuk' (seeds roasted first and then soaked), and 'endushdush' (seeds soaked first and then roasted). Throughout the Arab world faba bean seeds are consumed minced with onion, garlic and herbs, and eaten for breakfast as 'ful medames'. Stewed seeds are eaten at any time of the day; seeds made into a paste are often used as a sandwich filling. Mature seeds and vegetative parts of faba bean serve as concentrate, hay and silage for domestic animals. The straw is used as fuel for cooking in Ethiopia. The stems and leaves are used as green manure, e.g. in China. In China seeds and vegetative parts have a wide range of medicinal applications. In Europe the inside of the green pods is rubbed on warts to remove them. Production and international trade According to FAO statistics the world production of dry faba bean seeds in amounted to 3.9 million t/year from 2.6 million ha. The main producing countries are China (1.9 million t/year from 1.2 million ha), Ethiopia (405,000 t/year from 370,000 ha), Egypt (396,000 t/year from 134,000 ha) and Australia (242,000 t/year from 164,000 ha). The annual production in sub-sahara Africa in was estimated at 510,000 t, almost entirely from Ethiopia (405,000 t) and Sudan (100,000 t). The annual world production of dry faba bean seeds declined from about 5 million t (from 5 million ha) in the early 1960s to about 4 million t (from 2.7 million ha) in the early 2000s. The reduction in area under cultivation in China from about 3.5 million ha in the early 1960s to about 1.25 million ha in the early 2000s accounted for the largest share of the reduction in production. In contrast, the annual production in sub- Sahara Africa increased during the same period from 230,000 t (250,000 ha) to 540,000 t (450,000 ha). The world production of green faba bean seeds in was estimated at 940,000 t/year from 2.6 million ha, with Algeria (118,000 t/year), China (114,000 t/year) and Morocco (112,000 t/year) as the largest producers; the production of green faba bean seeds in tropical Africa is negligible. World exports of dry faba bean seeds in 1998- 194 196 CEREALS AND PULSES 2002 amounted to 475,000 t. The main exporting countries were Australia (201,000 t), the United Kingdom (114,000 t), China (63,000 t) and France (53,000 t). The main importers in this period were Egypt (197,000 t), Italy (169,000 t) and Spain (52,000 t). The exports from African countries are negligible. Properties The composition of raw mature faba bean seeds per 100 g edible portion is: water 11.0 g, energy 1425 kj (340 kcal), protein 26.1 g, fat 1.5 g, carbohydrate 58.3 g, dietary fibre 25.0 g, Ca 103 mg, Mg 192 mg, P 421 mg, Fe 6.7 mg, Zn 3.1 mg, vitamin A 53 IU, thiamin 0.56 mg, riboflavin 0.33 mg, niacin 2.8 mg, vitamin Ik 0.37 mg, folate 423 (ig and ascorbic acid 1.4 mg. The essential amino acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 247 mg, lysine 1671 mg, methionine 213 mg, phenylalanine 1103 mg, threonine 928 mg, valine 1161 mg, leucine 1964 mg and isoleucine 1053 mg. The principal fatty acids per 100 g edible portion are: linoleic acid 581 mg, oleic acid 297 mg and palmitic acid 204 mg (USDA, 2004). In certain persons genetically predisposed, living mainly in the Mediterranean area, consumption of faba bean seeds, particularly immature ones, and even the inhalation of pollen, results in 'favism', a kind of haemolytic anaemia resulting from the accumulation of ß- glycosidase (vicine and convicine) and their aglycones in individuals deficient in the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in their red blood cells. Soaking before cooking inactivates the toxic compounds. Other antinutritional factors in faba bean seeds include trypsin inhibitors, lectins (haemagglutinins), tannins, oligosaccharides and phytate. Faba bean seeds have lipid-lowering effects in humans and rats. Proteins isolated from the seed have shown antioxidative activity, whereas the lectin agglutinin may slow the progression of colon cancer. Faba bean straw is a good feed with high protein content (5-20%) and digestibility (50% of the dry matter). The high tannin content of the seeds (up to 9%) results in a bitter taste when they are fed raw to animals, but cultivars have been developed with low tannin content (1%) and high digestibility. Description Erect, robust, stiff, glabrous, annual herb up to 2 m tall; stem stout, square, hollow with one or more basal branches; taproot well-developed, with strong lateral roots. Leaves alternate, paripinnate, with 2-6 leaflets, without tendril, but rachis ending in a short acumen; stipules conspicuous, widely Vicia faba - 1, flowering and fruiting branch; 2, seeds. Source: PROSEA varying in shape, toothed; leaflets ovate to elliptical, (3-)4-8(-10) cm x l-2(-4) cm, entire. Inflorescence an axillary, sessile, short raceme, 1-6-flowered. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous, almost sessile; calyx campanulate, 5-lobed, tube c. 7 mm long, lobes almost equal, narrowly triangular, 2 8 mm long; corolla white, marked by a dark brown blotch, fragrant, standard broadly ovate, c. 2.5 cm x 1.5 cm, approaching the keel, wings oblong-ovate, c. 2.5 cm x 0.5 cm, keel c. 1.5 x 0.5 cm; stamens 10, 9 united and 1 free, c. 15 mm long, anthers ellipsoid to ovoid, about 1 mm long, dark brown; ovary superior, sessile or nearly so, very slender, compressed, c. 1.5 cm long, style abruptly upturned, c. 3 mm long, with a tuft of hairs near the glandular-papillate stigma. Fruit a narrowly oblong, cylindrical to flattened pod, (3-)5-10(-30) cm x l-1.5(-3) cm, bulging over the seeds, sparsely pubescent when mature, beaked, 2-6-seeded. Seeds ovoid to oblong, compressed, 1 3 cm in diameter, brown, reddish or green; hilum narrowly oblong. Seedling with hypogeal germination. Other botanical information Vicia comprises about 120 species, mainly in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere and 195 VICIA 197 South America, with a few species in Africa. Vicia faba is unique in the genus: it has larger but fewer chromosomes and the greatest amount of DNA content (around 13,000 Mbp). No other Vicia could successfully be crossed with Vicia faba despite many attempts. Morphometry and seed-protein electrophoresis studies have shown marked differences between Vicia faba and wild relatives {Vicia narbonensis L., Vicia galilaea Plitmann & Zohary and Vicia hyaeniscyamus Mouterde). The infraspecific taxonomy of Vicia faba is confusing. Several varieties have been distinguished, based on the shape and size of the seeds. Cultivars with small and rounded seeds are often called tick bean, those with intermediate seed size horse bean, and those with large and flat seeds broad bean. However, there is no discontinuity in seed size between the groups, and they can be freely crossed. Arbitrarily, small-seeded types have been recognized as those with a 1000-seed weight of less than 700 g, medium-seeded types with g, and large-seeded types with more than 1200 g. Vicia sativa L. is widely cultivated as a forage. Its seeds, young stems and leaves are recorded as being used for human consumption in Ethiopia and the Caucasus. However, the seeds and hay can have toxic effects (HCN-poisoning due to the cyanogenic glycoside vicianine; antinutritional effects of ß-cyanoalanine). The seeds of Vicia villosa Roth, cultivated for fodder in East Africa, and Vicia paucifolia Baker are also said to be collected and eaten. Vicia monantha Retz. (bard vetch) has at least in former times been grown in oases in the Sahara. However, the seeds of many Vicia species, including Vicia villosa and Vicia monantha, are known to contain canavanine, a toxic arginine analogue. Growth and development Five principal stages have been distinguished in a key for faba bean development: germination and emergence, vegetative development, reproductive development, pod senescence and stem senescence. Vegetative development continues after reproductive development has started, thus both stages run concurrently. The onset of flowering strongly depends on environmental conditions (temperature, photoperiod), and may range from 1 month to 7-8 months. The longer durations occur in winter-sown crops in temperate regions. Flowering starts, on average, at node 7 and continues over as many as 20 nodes. Faba bean pollination habit is intermediate between self- and cross-pollinating. Cross-pollination rates up to 92% have been recorded, but they are mostly between 20% and 50%. Insects facilitate cross-pollination. The duration of the growth cycle varies from 3 months (Sudan, Canada) to 11 months (northwestern Europe). In Ethiopia the growth cycle is 3-7 months. Faba bean is effectively nodulated by Rhizobium leguminosarum. Ecology Faba bean is grown in temperate regions, as a winter crop in the subtropics, and as a high-altitude crop in the tropics. It is not suited to the lowland tropics, where it may flower well but usually does not produce pods. A mean daily temperature around 13 C is optimal for growth. In Ethiopia faba bean is grown at m altitude, but mostly at m. Rust is the major production constraint below 1800 m, and frost above 3000 m. Faba bean requires an annual rainfall of mm, of which more than 60% during the growing period. Long photoperiods reduce the time to flowering and the position of the first flowering node, e.g. in northern European cultivars, but under field conditions daylengthneutrality is often observed. Faba bean prefers well-drained, almost neutral soils (ph ), with moderate fertility. It hardly tolerates waterlogging or drought. Propagation and planting Faba bean is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g. Faba bean does not require a fine seedbed, but the land should be ploughed to a loose seedbed. The crop is broadcast or planted in rows; in mechanized agriculture drilling is common. The planting depth is 2 5 cm. Seed rates vary widely; higher rates are required in the cool high-altitude areas of the tropics, where crop growth is slower than in warm midaltitude areas. Seed rates up to kg/ha are recommended in Ethiopia, kg/ha in Sudan and kg/ha in Egypt. Spacings vary from place to place. In Ethiopia 40 cm between rows and 5 cm between plants is recommended. In Sudan a distance between rows of cm is recommended, with 5-20 cm within rows and 1-3 plants per pocket. However, small-scale farmers in Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea practice broadcasting. In Egypt planting on ridges is the usual practice. In case of sowing on both sides of the ridges, a spacing of 60 cm between ridges and cm between pockets with 2 seeds/pocket is optimal. In Ethiopia common sowing dates are mid-june in mid-altitude areas and late June to early July in high-altitude areas. Planting in Egypt and 196 198 CEREALS AND PULSES Sudan may start in mid-october and proceed until late November. Faba bean is grown as a sole crop or in intercropping, e.g. with pea in Ethiopia, sugar cane in Egypt and various crops (wheat, rape, cotton and barley) in China. Management Faba bean is sensitive to weed competition and rigorous control of weeds is needed from 3-8 weeks after seedling emergence. Weeds are controlled manually or with herbicides. One or 2 manual weedings may be required, the first one at 3 4 weeks after emergence, the second one at 6 8 weeks. Faba bean is grown under irrigation in Egypt and Sudan, whereas in Ethiopia and Eritrea it is grown entirely under rainfed conditions. Nitrogen application may not be necessary where Rhizobium leguminosarum is present, but in some countries kg N/ha is applied as a starter. Atmospheric nitrogen fixation rates of kg N per ha per year (on average around 200 kg) have been recorded for faba bean. In areas where the bacteria are absent, inoculation of the seed with bacteria is an option. Most small-scale farmers in Ethiopia do not apply chemical fertilizers. Experiments in Ethiopia have shown little or no response to N- fertilization, but P-application often leads to significant yield increases. In Sudan faba bean is not normally responsive to application of N and K, due to the presence of N-fixing bacteria and high inherent K in the soil. However, P is limiting, as the soils are alkaline (ph>8) and only a little P is available for the crop. Hence, placement of P close to the root system is recommended. In Egypt, 36 kg N and 30 kg P per ha is applied for traditional cultivars (yielding about 2.5 t/ha), whereas for improved cultivars (yielding up to 5 t/ha) additional top dressings (at 40 and 70 days after sowing) of 50 kg K per ha are recommended as well as a micronutrient spray of 60 g Zn, 40 g Mn and 20 g Fe per ha. Faba bean plays an important role in soil fertility management as a rotation crop; it is often grown in rotation with cereals, especially with wheat or barley. Diseases and pests The most important fungal diseases of faba bean are chocolate spot {Botrytis fabae and Botrytis cinerea), ascochyta blight (Didymella fabae; synonym Ascochyta fabae), rust (Uromyces viciae-fabae), and black root rot (Fusarium spp.). Chocolate spot and rust have been recorded as causing up to 50% yield loss in Egypt. Suggested control measures include use of resistant cultivars, cultural practices (crop rotation, drainage, disease-free seed, burning of crop residues) and fungicides. Important virus diseases of faba bean are bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV), bean leaf roll virus (BLRV) and broad bean stain virus (BBSV). Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), stem nematodes (Ditylenchus dipsaci) and root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) also affect faba bean. Aphids (Aphis craccivora, Aphis fabae and Acyrthosiphon pisum) are major insect pests of faba bean, e.g. in Sudan and Egypt. Other insect pests are the leaf weevil (Sitona lineatus), the pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera), the root nodule weevil (Sitona amurensis), cutworms (Agrotis spp.), the leaf miner (Liriomyza congesta) and the lesser armyworm (Spodoptera exigua). Bruchids (Bruchus and Callosobruchus spp.) are major storage pests, e.g. in Ethiopia. In Europe, the Middle East and northern Africa the parasitic herb Orobanche crenata Forssk. (bean broomrape) is a critical problem. No practical control measure is available. Harvesting Harvesting of faba bean is done before full physiological maturity, because late harvesting may result in pod shattering and rotting, particularly when rain is encountered. The appropriate stage is when the leaves and the pods dry out and the seed moisture content is reduced to 16 18%. Faba bean can be combine harvested, but in tropical Africa manual harvesting is the common practice. Plants are hand-pulled or cut using a small knife or sickle. Harvesting is usually done in the early morning or late afternoon to reduce losses from shattering. The harvested plants are gathered into small heaps and left in the field for a few days to dry. Then they are transported to a threshing ground. Yield The average seed yield of faba bean in Africa (1.3 t ha/ha) is below world average (1.5 t/ha), while the average yields obtained in Asia (1.7 t/ha) and Europe (2.2 t/ha) are higher. Exceptionally high yields are obtained in Egypt and Sudan where the crop is irrigated (3.0 and 2.3 t/ha, respectively). Handling after harvest Threshing of faba bean is traditionally done by beating the plants with sticks or by trampling animals. Seeds should be stored under dry and cool conditions, free of pests and prevented from absorbing moisture. Cleaning seeds and storage structures before storing is important. Seeds with a moisture content of 11-14% can be stored for 2-7 years at temperatures of 5-10 C and for1 4 years at C. Genetic resources Over 25,000 faba bean accessions are currently conserved in different 197 VICIA 199 countries. The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Aleppo, Syria, holds about 10,700 faba bean accessions and 5900 accessions of wild Vicia species. Other important collections are kept in China (Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (CAAS), Beijing; 3800 accessions) and Australia (Australian Temperate Field Crops Collection, Horsham; 2200 accessions). The largest collection of faba bean germplasm in Africa (2000 accessions) is kept at the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (IBC), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The collections include sources for multiple disease resistance, wild and primitive forms, lines carrying structural mutations, breeding lines and cultivars of special interest. The worldwide diversity available in faba bean has not yet been adequately sampled, and the available collections have not sufficiently been characterized. Faba bean shows orthodox seed storage behaviour. Breeding High yield and resistance/tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses are the prime objectives across faba bean breeding programmes. Some breeding efforts to improve the yield potential of conventional indeterminate types have been promising. Sources of resistance to chocolate spot, ascochyta blight and rust identified at ICARDA have been used in many national faba bean breeding programmes. Australia has released cultivars resistant to chocolate spot and ascochyta blight. In Ethiopia the cultivars 'Wayu' and 'Selale' with resistance to black root rot disease on waterlogged Vertisols have recently been released. More than 10 cultivars have been released for different agro-ecological conditions in Ethiopia and Egypt, and 7 in Sudan. Recently, export-quality seed (large seed size) has attracted attention in breeding programmes in China and Ethiopia. Attempts to develop hybrid faba bean cultivars have not yet been successful because of lack of an effective male sterility system. Efforts to change the indeterminate growth habit into determinate types with increased yield through mutation breeding have also not been successful so far. In-vitro callus formation and plant regeneration have been achieved with hypocotyl, cotyledon and embryo expiants. Stably transformed faba bean lines have been produced using an Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer system. Genetic linkage maps of the faba bean genome have been constructed based on morphological markers, isozymes, RAPDs, seed protein genes and microsatellites. A gene controlling resistance to rust has been tagged, and quantitative trait loci associated with seed weight, resistance to ascochyta blight and resistance to bean broomrape have been located. The presence of vicine and convicine in faba bean seeds is controlled by a single recessive gene that reduces their content 20-fold. However, the same gene increases susceptibility to pathogens and parasites. Two recessive genes eliminate tannin production in faba bean. Prospects Faba bean productivity is far below the potential in many countries of tropical Africa because of the biological limitations of the traditional cultivars and poor management practices. However, faba bean will remain an important crop in parts of tropical Africa. Export demand is strong and regional markets are emerging, e.g. between Ethiopia (exporter) and Sudan and Egypt (importers). In addition to the needs emanating from the physical environment, farming systems and local consumers' preferences, export qualities and standards also deserve priority in research. Efforts are being undertaken in some countries, e.g. China, to develop new highervalue types superior in colour, smell and taste, and these efforts, coupled with the wealth of genetic diversity available, might result in new opportunities. Major references Enneking, 1995; Hawtin & Webb (Editors), 1982; Hebblethwaite (Editor), 1983; Jansen, 1989e; Jellis, Bond & Boulton, 1998; Knight (Editor), 2000; Knott, 1990; Lang et al., 1993; Muehlbauer & Kaiser (Editors), 1994; Thulin, 1989a. Other references Bond, 1995; Bond et al., 1985; Böttinger et al, 2001; Ghizaw et al., 1999; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; ILDIS, 2002; Kay, 1979; Madar & Stark, 2002; Maxted, 1995; McPhee & Muehlbauer, 2002; Polhill, 1990; Purseglove, 1968; Roman et al., 2004; Singh & Saxena (Editors), 1993; Smartt, 1976; Summerfield (Editor), 1988; Tindall, 1983; USDA, 2004; Westphal, 1974; Zemede Asfaw & Mesfin Tadesse, Sources of illustration Jansen, 1989e. Authors M. Jarso &G. Keneni 198 200 CEREALS AND PULSES VICIA HIESUTA (L.) Gray Protologue Nat. arr. Brit. pi. 2: 614 (1821). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n - 14 Vernacular names Hairy tare, tiny vetch, hairy vetch (En). Ers velu, vesceron, vesce hérissée (Fr). Cigerâo (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Vicia hirsuta is widely distributed in Europe, Asia and Africa. In Africa it is native from northern Africa through DR Congo and East Africa to Angola and South Africa. It is often introduced and naturalized elsewhere, e.g. in the Indian Ocean islands. Vicia hirsuta is sometimes cultivated as a pulse or as a fodder crop in India and was formerly grown in eastern Europe. Uses The seeds of Vicia hirsuta are collected from the wild and eaten cooked or roasted in Ethiopia. They were eaten as a famine food in Europe and Asia. The leaves and shoots are used as a vegetable in Ethiopia. Vicia hirsuta is also a forage. Properties The seeds of Vicia hirsuta contain trypsin inhibitors, but heating for 20 minutes at 100 C at ph 2.0 reduces the trypsin inhibiting activity by 50%. The seeds also contain the non-protein amino acid canavanine, a toxic arginine analogue. Botany Trailing or climbing annual herb up to 90 cm tall; stem glabrous or thinly hairy. Leaves alternate, paripinnate, with 6-20 leaflets; stipules semisagittate, 2-15 mm x mm, the upper part entire, the lower deeply divided into 2-3 filiform segments; petiole 0 5(-10) mm long, rachis usually terminating in a branched tendril; petiolules c. 0.5 mm long; leaflets linear or narrowly oblong, 4-20 mm x 1-3 mm, almost glabrous. Inflorescence an axillary raceme 2 6 cm long, 2 7-flowered; peduncle cm long. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel mm long; calyx 5- lobed, pubescent, with tube 1( 2.5) mm long and lobes mm long; corolla white, rose or pale blue, standard obovate, 3-5 mm x 2 mm, wings and keel slightly shorter; stamens 10, 9 fused and 1 free; ovary superior, hairy, 1- celled, style short, curved, stigma small. Fruit an oblong pod 6-10 mm x 3-4 mm, compressed, pilose, dehiscent, (1 )2( 3)-seeded. Seeds globose, 2 3 mm in diameter, dark brown or mottled pale and dark brown. Seedling with hypogeal germination. Vicia comprises about 120 species, mainly in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere and South America, with a few species in Africa. Vicia hirsuta is effectively nodulated by Rhizobium leguminosarum. Ecology In East Africa Vicia hirsuta is found in grassland, scrub, forest margins and lava plains at m altitude. Vicia hirsuta is a long-day plant. In many countries it is considered a weed. Genetic resources and breeding The largest germplasm collections of Vicia hirsuta are maintained at the International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria (39 accessions) and the International Centre for Underutilised Crops, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom (32 accessions). In tropical Africa some accessions are held in Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu, 9 accessions) and Ethiopia (International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, 5 accessions). In view of its wide distribution and unspecific habitat requirements Vicia hirsuta is not threatened with genetic erosion. Prospects Vicia hirsuta is only occasionally used as a pulse. It is unlikely that its importance as a food crop will increase in the future. Still, more information would be useful on the nutritional quality of the seed and appropriate processing methods to eliminate its toxic compounds. Major references Enneking, 1995; Gillett et al., 1971; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Thulin, 1983; Zemede Asfaw & Mesfin Tadesse, Other references Bohra & Sharma, 1981; Holm, Pancho & Herberger, 1979; ILDIS, 2005; Mutch & Young, 2004; Polhill, 1990; Sharma & Lavania, 1977; Southon et al., 1994; Thulin, 1989a. Authors M. Brink VIGNAACONITIFOLIA (Jacq.) Maréchal Protologue Bull. Jard. Bot. Belg. 39(2): 160 (1969). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number In = 22 Synonyms Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq. (1768). Vernacular names Moth bean, moth gram, mat bean, dew bean, dew gram (En). Haricot mat, mat, haricot papillon (Fr). 199 VlGNA 201 Origin and geographic distribution Moth bean is native to India, Pakistan and Myanmar where it grows both wild and cultivated. It is also grown in other parts of Asia, Africa, the United States and Cuba. As a pulse it is mostly grown in India and Thailand; elsewhere it is mostly a forage, green manure or cover crop. In tropical Africa it has been recorded from Sudan, Eritrea, Somalia, Kenya and Botswana. Uses The ripe whole or split seeds of moth bean are eaten cooked or fried. Sprouted and cooked seeds are preferred as breakfast items in India whereas fried splits are consumed in the form of a ready to eat product. The seeds are sometimes ground into flour, which is mixed with other flours to make unleavened bread. The immature pods are sometimes eaten boiled as a vegetable. In India the pod walls and residues left after the preparation of dhal are fed to animals. Moth bean is also grown for green manure, forage and hay and as a cover crop. Seeds are used medicinally in diets to treat fevers; roots are said to be narcotic. Production and international trade In India moth bean is grown on 1.5 million ha producing annually about 0.4 million t of seed which is traded and consumed within the country. Worldwide moth bean is grown on about 2 million ha. Properties Mature, raw moth bean seeds contain per 100 g edible portion: water 9.7 g, energy 1435 kj (343 kcal), protein 22.9 g, fat 1.6 g, carbohydrate 61.5 g, Ca 150 mg, Mg 381 mg, P 489 mg, Fe 10.9 mg, Zn 1.9 mg, vitamin A 32 IU, thiamin 0.56 mg, riboflavin 0.09 mg, niacin 2.8 mg, vitamin Be 0.37 mg, folate 649 Hg and ascorbic acid 4.0 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 147 mg, lysine 1248 mg, methionine 220 mg, phenylalanine 1028 mg, valine 734 mg, leucine 1541 mg and isoleucine 1138 mg. The principal fatty acids are per 100 g edible portion: linoleic acid 485 mg, palmitic acid 313 mg, linolenic acid 265 mg, oleic acid 129 mg and stearic acid 51 mg (USDA, 2005). The protein has a lower digestibility than that of mung bean (Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek). The digestibility of the starch and protein is considerably improved by processing treatments such as soaking, removal of the seed coat, germination and pressure cooking. Botany Annual, slender, hairy herb with short, angular, erect stem up to 40 cm tall and many prostrate branches up to 150 cm long. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules lanceo- Vigna aconitifolia - 1, flowering branch; 2, infructescence; 3, seeds. Source: PROSEA late, c. 12 mm long, peltate; petiole 5-10 cm long, grooved; stipels small; leaflets 5-12 cm long, deeply divided into 3 5 narrow lobes. Inflorescence an axillary, head-like, dense false raceme; peduncle 5-10 cm long. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel 5-8 mm long; calyx campanulate, c. 2.5 mm long; corolla yellow, standard orbicular, up to 8 mm long, wings c. 6 mm long, keel sickle-shaped, c. 7 mm long; stamens 10, 9 united and 1 free; ovary superior, sessile, c. 4 mm long, style incurved. Fruit a cylindrical pod cm x 0.5 cm, brown, covered with short stiff hairs, 4 9-seeded. Seeds rectangular to cylindrical, 3 5 mm x mm, whitish green, yellow to brown, often mottled with black; hilum white, linear. Seedling with epigeal germination. Vigna comprises about 80 species and occurs throughout the tropics. Vigna aconitifolia belongs to subgenus Ceratotropis, which also includes Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek (mung bean), Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (rice bean), Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper (black gram) and Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (adzuki bean). In India numerous landraces and cultivars of moth bean 200 202 CEREALS AND PULSES exist. For germination of moth bean a temperature of c C is optimal. Vegetative development starts slowly. Moth bean is predominantly selfpollinated and takes days after sowing to mature. It effectively nodulates with Bradyrhizobium strains from the cowpea crossinoculation group. Ecology In India moth bean is the most drought-resistant pulse crop and particularly cultivated in hot, arid to semi-arid regions. For optimum production it requires an average temperature of C, but it withstands daytime temperatures up to 45 C. In India moth bean is grown from sea-level up to an altitude of 1300 m. Moth bean thrives with a welldistributed annual rainfall of mm, but it is also grown successfully in areas with as low as mm annual rainfall. Even with as little as mm in 3-4 showers during the growing period, some yield can be obtained. Moth bean is a quantitative short-day plant, but day-neutral types are also known. It grows on many soil types but is particularly suitable for dry light sandy soils. It does not tolerate waterlogging. Some degree of salinity and a wide ph range (3.5-10) are tolerated. Management Moth bean is propagated by seed; the 1000-seed weight is g. It should be sown on a well-prepared seedbed. Moth bean is usually broadcast, at a seed rate of kg/ha when grown for seed as a sole crop and 7-34 kg/ha when grown for forage. When sown in rows the seed rate is 2-5 kg/ha for pure stands; it is sown in rows cm apart at a depth of cm. When grown as a rainfed crop in arid regions best results were obtained in India by planting equal amounts of early and late types in alternate rows. Moth bean is frequently sown towards the end of the rainy season and grown on residual soil moisture. Weed control is important until a full canopy has developed. Irrigation and fertilizer applications are rare. In India moth bean is grown as a sole crop or intercropped with pearl millet, sorghum or other cereals, occasionally with pulses. It is grown as a green manure in rotation with cotton. The most important diseases of moth bean are mung bean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) transmitted by white fly (Bemisia tabaci), and root rot and seedling blight caused by Macrophomina phaseolina, which is soil- and seed-borne. Cultivars resistant to yellow mosaic are available; some cultivars are moderately resistant to Macrophomina phaseolina. Moth bean is also affected by nematodes, especially Meloidoigyne incognita. It is parasitized by several Striga species. Bruchids (Callosobruchus spp.) feed on the seed during storage. Plants are difficult to harvest with a mower because of the prostrate branches. They are usually cut with a sickle, left to dry for one week, then threshed and winnowed. Average seed yields of moth bean are only kg/ha, although in the United States and Australia experimental seed yields of up to 2600 kg/ha have been obtained. Yield of green matter for forage is t/ha and of hay t/ha. Genetic resources and breeding The largest germplasm collection of moth bean is at the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi, India, where more than 1000 accessions are held. Smaller collections are available in the United States (USDA Southern Regional Plant Introduction Station, Griffin, Georgia, 56 accessions), Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, Kikuyu, 47 accessions) and the Russian Federation (N.I. Vavilov All- Russian Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry, St. Petersburg, 56 accessions). Increased efforts in germplasm collection, characterization, evaluation and preservation are recommended. Improved moth bean cultivars have been developed and released in India, e.g. 'RMO-40', 'RMO-225', 'RMO-257', 'RMO-435' and 'Jwala'. Genetic transformation of moth bean has been achieved using particle bombardment or Agrobacterium-mediated transfer. Prospects Moth bean is considered to be one of the most drought-tolerant pulse crops, but its spreading habit, which makes harvesting difficult, and the lack of information on its potential and on appropriate management practices limits its spread and use. Although recorded from various countries, it has not become important in tropical Africa. It could, however, increase production of food and forage in arid and semi-arid regions, and protect the soil against erosion. The ecological limits, optimal cultivation practices and most appropriate cultivars should be investigated. Priorities for breeding include the development of erect, early maturing types, resistance to diseases and high nutritional quality of the seed. Major references Kay, 1979; Narain, Singh & Kumar, 2000; Negi, Boora & Khetarpaul, 2001; Thulin, 1983; van Oers, 1989a. Other references Bogdan, 1977; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Kamble et al., 2003; 201 VlGNA 203 Kathju et al., 2003; Khatri, 2004; National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Nimkar, Mandwe & Dudhe, 2005; Rathore, 2001; Thulin, 1993; USDA, Sources of illustration van Oers, 1989a. Authors M. Brink & P.C.M. Jansen Based on PROSEA 1: Pulses. VlGNAADENANTHA (G.Mey.) Maréchal, Mascherpa & Stainier Protologue Taxon 27: 202 (1978). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n = 22 Synonyms Phaseolus adenanthus G.Mey. (1818). Vernacular names Wild bean (En). Pois marron (Fr). Fava caranguejo (Po). Origin and geographic distribution Vigna adenantha most probably originated from the Neotropics, where it has its greatest variability. It is distributed pantropically and is occasionally cultivated. In tropical Africa it occurs in most countries, but it has not been recorded from Ethiopia, Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe or Mozambique. In the Indian Ocean islands it is found in Madagascar, the Seychelles and Réunion. Uses The green pods and ripe seeds of Vigna adenantha are eaten as emergency food. In Liberia the plant is or has been cultivated for its edible tuberous roots, which are cooked and eaten. The tuberous roots are also eaten in times of food scarcity in India. Cattle in Sudan browse the plant. In Nigeria a decoction of the whole plant is used as a medicine for gonorrhoea, and mixed with rice water to treat diabetes. With its large pink and white flowers which turn yellow with age, Vigna adenantha may be grown as an ornamental climber. Properties In tropical America Vigna adenantha provides a good forage containing 17.4% crude protein and 0.18% P. Botany Perennial climbing herb up to 4 m long, with tuberous roots; stem twining, glabrous or sparsely hairy, rooting at the lower nodes. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules oblong-ovate, 3-6 mm long, base slightly cordate, apex acute, conspicuously veined; petiole 1-14 cm long, rachis cm long; petiolules 3-4 mm long, hairy; leaflets ovate to rhombic, lateral ones slightly asymmetric, (2.5-)5-10(- 14) cm x (1.5-) (-8) cm, base rounded or truncate, apex obtuse to acute, sparsely appressed-hairy on both sides, venation reticulate. Inflorescence an axillary false raceme 5-30 cm long, 6-12-flowered; peduncle up to 25 cm long, rachis 2-7 cm long. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel 2-3 mm long, with ovate-oblong bracteoles 3 4 mm x 2 mm; calyx with tube 3-4 mm long, the 3 lower lobes falcate or narrowly oblong, 3-5 mm long, the upper pair fused into a short, bifid lip, sparsely pubescent; corolla with almost circular standard, cm x cm, rose or white with green veins and a green basal eye surrounded by violet-purple inside, wings c. 3 cm long, white-tinged violet, green and yellow at the base, keel c. 5 cm long, with a long beak, spirally incurved for about 3 turns, white to violet-blue; stamens 10, 9 fused but upper one free; ovary superior, appressed-hairy, style slender, strongly curved. Fruit an oblong pod 7-15 cm x cm, slightly curved, flattened, glabrous or slightly hairy, 9-15-seeded. Seeds reniform, mm x mm x2.5 5 mm, dark reddish brown; hilum central, small, white. Vigna comprises about 80 species and occurs throughout the tropics. However, studies of the embryological characters indicate that Vigna adenantha is possibly better classified in the genus Phaseolus. The seed has a large cavity between the cotyledons which enables it to float, and the distribution pattern of the species indicates that seeds are sometimes dispersed by sea water. Ecology Vigna adenantha is found in humid or swampy locations, along the sea shore and rivers, and in cultivated and disturbed areas at low altitudes. Vigna adenantha is a short-day plant. Management For uniform and faster germination, seeds need scarification. Genetic resources and breeding The Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, Colombia holds 143 accessions of Vigna adenantha. In tropical Africa the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria, holds 18 accessions. Vigna adenantha is widespread pantropically and is not in danger of genetic erosion. Prospects Vigna adenantha will remain of minor importance as an emergency food. More research is needed to evaluate its potential as food, forage, medicinal and ornamental crop. Major references Burkill, 1995; du Puy et al., 2002; Faigón Soverna, Galati & Hoc, 2003; Gillett et al., 1971; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 202 204 CEREALS AND PULSES Other references CSIR, 1969; Dalziel, 1937; Friedmann, 1994; Hepper, 1958; ILDIS, 2005; Lai & Pitman, 1987; Maréchal, Mascherpa & Stainier, 1978; Pitman & Singer, 1985; Tateishi, 1988; Thulin, Authors M. Brink & P.C.M. Jansen VIGNA ANGULARIS (Willd.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi Protologue Journ. Jap. Bot. 44(1): 29 (1969). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number 2n - 22 Synonyms Phaseolus angularis (Willd.) W.Wight (1909). Vernacular names Adzuki bean, azuki bean (En). Haricot adzuki (Fr). Feijâo adzuki (Po). Origin and geographic distribution The exact origin of adzuki bean is not known; wild types occur in Nepal, south-eastern China, Taiwan, Korea and Japan. Cultivation is known since ancient times from northern Korea, China and Japan. Adzuki bean has been introduced to many countries in the world. In Africa experimental plantings have been carried out in DR Congo, Kenya and Angola, but up-to-date information is lacking. Adzuki bean has also been recorded for Madagascar and the Seychelles. Uses The dried seeds of adzuki bean are eaten, either cooked whole or made into flour for use in soups, cakes, confectionery and ice cream. Adzuki bean is particularly popular in China, Taiwan, Korea and Japan ('azuki an'), where the red seeds have a cultural value related to birth, wedding and death. Immature seeds and sprouted seeds are eaten as a vegetable. The seeds may be popped like maize grain, used as coffee substitute or eaten candied. Adzuki bean is also grown for forage, as green manure and for soil conservation. Flour is also used for shampoos, to make facial creams and as ingredient in culture media. In China the seeds are used to treat kidney problems, constipation, abscesses, certain tumours, threatened miscarriage, retained placenta, nonsecretion of milk and for improvement of blood circulation and urination. The leaves are said to lower fever and the sprouts are used to avert threatened abortion caused by injury. Production and international trade No statistics on the world production of adzuki bean are available. Major producers of the crop are China (670,000 ha), Japan (60,000 ha), South Korea (25,000 ha) and Taiwan (15,000 ha). Japan produces about 100,000 t/year and consumes about 140,000 t/year; it imports from China, Taiwan, the United States, Thailand and Canada. Average export from China in the 1990s was 25,000-40,000 t/year. Both the seed and the seed flour are important trade items in oriental markets. Properties Mature, raw adzuki bean seeds contain per 100 g edible portion: water 13.4 g, energy 1377 kj (329 kcal), protein 19.9 g, fat 0.5 g, carbohydrate 62.9 g, dietary fibre 12.7 g, Ca 66 mg, Mg 127 mg, P 381 mg, Fe 5.0 mg, Zn 5.0 mg, vitamin A 17 IU, thiamin 0.46 mg, riboflavin 0.22 mg, niacin 2.6 mg, vitamin B mg, folate 622 ig and ascorbic acid 0 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 191 mg, lysine 1497 mg, methionine 210 mg, phenylalanine 1052 mg, threonine 674 mg, valine 1023 mg, leucine 1668 mg and isoleucine 791 mg. The principal fatty acids are per 100 g edible portion: linoleic acid 113 mg and oleic acid 50 mg (USDA, 2005). Adzuki bean seeds have a sweet, nutty taste. Enzyme-resistant fractions of adzuki bean seeds have shown hypocholesterolaemic effects in rats. Hot water extracts have shown in-vivo hypoglycaemic and antitumour properties. Water extracts of the seed coat have shown hepatoprotective activity. Botany Annual, usually bushy and erect herb up to 90 cm tall, sometimes climbing or prostrate and rooting at the nodes; taproot40 50 cm long. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; stipules small, peltate, often bifid with basal appendages; stipels lanceolate; leaflets lanceolate to ovate, 5 10 cm x 5-8 cm, acuminate, entire to 3-lobed. Inflorescence an axillary false raceme, 2-20-flowered; peduncle long in lower nodes to very short in upper nodes. Flowers papilionaceous, bisexual; pedicel short, bearing an extrafloral nectary at base; bracteoles longer than calyx; calyx campanulate, with short teeth; corolla mm long, bright yellow, standard orbicular, wings oblong, keel turned towards the right, with a horn-shaped spur on the left side; stamens 10, 9 fused and 1 free; ovary superior, shortly hairy, style abruptly bent in upper part, hairy on one side near top, stigma lateral, discoid. Fruit a cylindrical pod 5-13 cm x 0.5 cm, pendulous, slightly constricted between the seeds, nearly glabrous, pale yellow, blackish or brown, 2-14- 203 VIGNA 205 Vigna angularis - 1, fruiting branch; 2, flower; 3, seed. Source: PROSEA seeded. Seeds cylindrical with rounded ends, flattened, mm x mm, smooth, wine red, occasionally buff, creamish, black or mottled. Seedling with hypogeal germination; primary leaves simple, opposite, cordate. Vigna comprises about 80 species and occurs throughout the tropics. Vigna angularis belongs to subgenus Ceratotropis, which also includes Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek (mung bean), Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (rice bean), Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper (black gram) and Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Maréchal (moth bean). Cultivated plants of Vigna angularis have been classified as var. angularis, wild plants as var. nipponensis (Ohwi) Ohwi & H.Ohashi. Wild adzuki bean has an indeterminate growth habit with thin twining stems, small leaves, short and strongly dehiscent black to grey pods and black-mottled seeds. Numerous cultivars have been recorded within Vigna angularis, differing in time to maturity, seed colour and plant habit. Intermediate types between wild and cultivated plants, called weedy types, have been found in Japan. The seeds of adzuki bean retain their viability for at least 5 years when stored with about 13% moisture content, at 15% relative humidity. Germination requires a soil temperature above 6-10 C, with C being optimal. Emergence takes 7-20 days. Growth is slow compared to other pulses. Flowering lasts days and can occur up to 3 times when planted early in the growing season. Selfpollination is predominant, but cross-pollination also occurs. The growth duration is (60-) (-190) days. Nitrogen fixation levels up to 100 kg N/ha have been observed, the amount depending on soil moisture content and ph. Adzuki bean effectively nodulates with Bradyrhizobium bacteria. Ecology Adzuki bean performs best in subtropical and warm temperate climates. It requires average temperatures of C for optimal growth. It tolerates high temperatures but is sensitive to frost. In the tropics it is more suitable for higher altitudes. Adzuki bean grows in areas with average annual rainfall of mm. It is a quantitative short-day plant but day-neutral cultivars exist. Adzuki bean can be grown on a wide range of soils (ph 5-7.5), provided they are well drained. Management Propagation of adzuki bean is by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g. Sowing practices differ greatly but usually seed is sown 2-3 cm deep, in rows cm apart and cm within the row; sometimes it is broadcast. Seed rates vary widely (8-70 kg/ha). Because of the relatively slow growth of adzuki bean, weed control is very important, particularly between germination and flowering. Fertilizer application differs widely. An adzuki bean crop yielding 2160 kg/ha was recorded to have an uptake per ha of 74 kg N, 18 kg P and 50 kg K. Irrigation of adzuki bean is not normally done. In China adzuki bean is often intercropped with maize, sorghum and millet. In Japan adzuki bean is grown in rotation with many crops (e.g. rice, wheat, sweet potato, yam). The seed may be sown directly in rice stubble at a high rate to reduce weed problems. Numerous fungi and bacteria are known to cause diseases in adzuki bean, including powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni, synonym: Erysiphe betae), brown stem rot (Cephalosporium gregatum, synonym: Phialophora gregata) and bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris). Several insect pests, such as the adzuki pod worm (Matsumuraeses phaseoli), the Japanese butterbur borer (Ostrinia scapulalis pacified) and cutworm (Spodoptera litura) attack the crop. Bean weevil (Callosobruchus chinensis) 204 206 CEREALS AND PULSES attacks the stored seed. In general the pods of adzuki bean do not shatter readily and the crop can be harvested with a mower or bean harvester. Traditionally, plants are cut by hand and allowed to cure on the ground for several days before being stacked into drying piles. Drying occurs until moisture content of the seed is about 16% and threshing can start. Some pods are very thin and in wet conditions seed may germinate in the pods. For hay, adzuki bean should be cut when the pods are about half mature. For seed, cutting is done when all pods are mature. Seed yields up to 3500 kg/ha are obtained. In an experimental planting in Kenya seed yields were kg/ha. Genetic resources and breeding Large germplasm collections of adzuki bean are held in China (Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (CAAS), Beijing, more than 3700 accessions) and Japan (Tokachi Agricultural Experiment Station, Hokkaido-ken, about 2500 accessions). In China, Japan, Korea and Taiwan breeding has resulted in locally adapted better yielding cultivars, e.g. 'Baihong No 1' (China), 'Erimo' (Japan), 'Chungwonpat' (Korea) and 'Kaohsiung No 3' (Taiwan). In Japan alone more than 300 cultivars, landraces and breeding lines have been registered. In-vitro adzuki bean plants are routinely obtained using epicotyls as explants. A genetic transformation system for adzuki bean has been established using Agrobacterium-mediated transfer. A genetic linkage map has been constructed using molecular (RAPD, RFLP) and morphological markers. Prospects Adzuki bean is a suitable crop for the subtropics and the high-altitude tropics. The potential of adzuki bean as an anti-erosion crop should not be overlooked either. Further research on its potential in the high-altitude regions of tropical Africa is recommended. Major references Kay, 1979; Lumpkin & McClary, 1994; Schuster et al., 1998; van Oers, 1989b; Zong et al., Other references Duke, 1981; Han et al., 2003; Han et al., 2004; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Itoh et al., 2004; Itoh, Umekawa & Furuichi, 2005; Kaga et al., 1996a; USDA, 2005; Yamaguchi, 1992; Yamada et al., Sources of illustration van Oers, 1989b. Authors P.CM. Jansen Based on PROSEA 1: Pulses. VlGNAMUNGO (L.) Hepper Protologue Kew Bull. 11(1): 128 (1956). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number In = 22 Synonyms Phaseolus mungo L. (1767). Vernacular names Black gram, urd bean, urad bean (En). Haricot urd, urd (Fr). Feijào urida (Po). Mchooko mweusi (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Black gram was most probably domesticated in India from its wild ancestral type, which is also found in Bangladesh, Pakistan and Myanmar. At present black gram cultivation is of major importance in India only, but it is also grown to some extent throughout tropical Asia. In Africa it is grown in Gabon, DR Congo, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Madagascar and Mauritius. It is grown in the United States and Australia mainly as a fodder crop. Uses Black gram seeds are eaten as a pulse, direct or in various preparations (whole or split, boiled or roasted, ground into flour for cake, bread or porridge). It is with the flour of black gram that in India the flat biscuits 'papadum' are made. Seed sprouts are also consumed. Green pods are eaten as a cooked vegetable. Small quantities of the pods and foliage are used to supplement cattle feed or as forage. Sometimes black gram is sown as a cover crop and for green manure. The pod walls are fed to cattle. Flour from the seed is used as a substitute for soap; it makes the skin soft and smooth. In traditional medicine, the seed is used for its suppurative, cooling and astringent properties, e.g. pounded and applied as a poultice on abscesses. Production and international trade In India, the major producer and consumer, average annual production of black gram seed is about 1.3 million t from 3 million ha. Thailand produces annually about 90,000 t which is mainly exported to Japan, where seed sprouts from black gram are preferred to those from green gram (Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek) because of their longer shelf life. Annual production in Pakistan is about 28,000 t from 57,000 ha, and in Sri Lanka 6000 t from 8000 ha. Sri Lanka additionally imports 6000 t/year. Properties Black gram seeds contain per 100 g edible portion: water 8.6 g, energy 1470 kj (351 kcal), protein 25.1 g, fat 1.8 g, carbohydrate 61.0 g, crude fibre 4.4 g, Ca 196 mg, Mg 260 mg, P 575 mg, Fe 6.8 mg, Zn 3.1 mg, vita- 205 VlGNA 207 min A 114 IU, thiamin 0.36 mg, riboflavin 0.28 mg, niacin 1.8 mg, vitamin Ik 0.28 mg, folate 628 Xg and ascorbic acid 4.8 mg. The essential amino-acid composition of black gram seeds per g nitrogen is: tryptophan 65 mg, lysine 415 mg, methionine 91 mg, phenylalanine 365 mg, threonine 217 mg, valine 351 mg, leucine 518 mg and isoleucine 319 mg (Haytowitz & Matthews, 1986). Black gram seeds have shown anti-atherogenic activity in guinea pigs. Botany Erect, hairy annual herb up to 100 cm tall, sometimes twining, with a welldeveloped taproot; stem diffusely branched from the base, furrowed. Leaves alternate, 3- foliolate; stipules peltate, ovate; petiole 6-20 cm long; stipels falcate; leaflets ovate or rhombic-ovate, 4 10 cm x 2-7 cm, entire, acuminate. Inflorescence an axillary false raceme; peduncle up to 18 cm long. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous, small; bracteoles linear to lanceolate, exceeding the calyx; calyx campanulate; corolla yellow, standard mm wide, wings about as long as standard, keel spirally coiled with a terminal horn-like appendage; stamens 10, 9 united and 1 free; ovary superior, style spirally curved. Fruit a cylindrical pod 4-7 cm x 0.5 cm, erect or almost so, with long hairs and short hooked beak, 4-10-seeded. Seed el- Vigna mungo - 1, part of fruiting branch; 2, flower; 3, seed. Source: PROSEA lipsoid, up to 5 mm long, with square ends, and raised and concave hilum, usually black or mottled, sometimes green. Seedling with epigeal germination. Vigna comprises about 80 species and occurs throughout the tropics. Vigna mungo belongs to subgenus Ceratotropis, which also includes Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek (mung bean), Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (rice bean), Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi (adzuki bean) and Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Maréchal (moth bean). There has been confusion on the taxonomie status of Vigna mungo and Vigna radiata; because they are closely related it was proposed that they be grouped into a single species. However, at present they are considered as 2 separate species with as major differences: flower colour (bright yellow in Vigna mungo, pale yellow in Vigna radiata), pocket on the keel (longer in Vigna mungo than in Vigna radiata), fruit shape (pods of Vigna mungo are shorter and erect on the peduncle, in Vigna radiata the pods are longer and spreading or pendulous). Three taxa are distinguished within Vigna mungo: - var. mungo, with large, black-seeded and early-maturing cultivars; - var. viridis Bose, with greenish dull or glossy seeds and late-maturing cultivars; - var. silvestris Lukoki, Maréchal & Otoul, the wild type; compared to cultivated types it is smaller, more climbing, more hairy, with denser inflorescences and small seeds with prominent raised aril; it is considered the ancestor of the cultivated black gram. For cultivated types a classification into cultivars and cultivar groups would be more appropriate. Germination of black gram normally takes 7 10 days. Flowering starts days after sowing. Flowers are normally self-pollinating, with the pollen shedding before the flower opens. Maturity is reached in days after sowing. Black gram effectively nodulates with Bradyrhizobium bacteria. Ecology Black gram is basically a warm season crop, but in India it is grown in both summer and winter, up to 1800 m altitude. It is quite drought resistant but intolerant of frost and prolonged cloudiness. It is normally grown in areas with an average temperature of C and an annual rainfall of mm. In higher rainfall areas it may be grown in the dry season on residual moisture. Heavier, well-drained soils such as black-cotton soils 206 208 CEREALS AND PULSES with ph 6-7 are preferred, but black gram is also grown on lighter soils. Management Black gram is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g. It is sown broadcast or in rows at a depth of cm. The seed rate is kg/ha, space between rows cm, space within the row cm. Thorough field preparation is not required; rough tillage suffices. Weeding is done only once or twice until the canopy is established. The crop is mainly rainfed and fertilizer application is not common. In the wet season in India it is mainly intercropped, with sugar cane, cotton, groundnut, sorghum or pigeon pea as the main crops. In the dry season it is often sole cropped on rice fallow. Important diseases of black gram are mung bean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV), Cercospora leaf spot (caused by Cercospora sp.), web blight {Rhizoctonia solani, synonym: Thanatephorus cucumeris) and powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni, synonym: Erysiphe betae). The most serious pests are white fly and thrips. In storage the seeds are attacked by bruchids (Callosobruchus spp.). Black gram must be harvested before the pods are fully ripe to prevent shattering. The plants are cut or uprooted, stacked to dry for up to 7 days, and threshed by beating with sticks or animal trampling. Alternatively, the pods may be handpicked. Yield of dry seed averages kg/ha but it can reach kg/ha. In India black gram seeds are usually processed into split seeds (dhal). Genetic resources and breeding About 2100 accessions of black gram are maintained by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi, India, at its various research stations. The USDA Southern Regional Plant Introduction Station, Griffin, Georgia, United States, holds 300 accessions, and the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre (AVRDC) in Taiwan maintains a collection of 200 accessions. Breeding programmes for improvement of this pulse aim for a plant type combining determinate growth habit with a plant height of 30 cm, early maturity (60-90 days), and suitability for many different agroclimatic regions. Sources of resistance against most current diseases are available and several resistant cultivars have been released. Genetic variability of black gram is great, allowing development of suitable cultivars for most tropical and subtropical climates. Genetic transformation of black gram has been achieved using Agrobacterium-mediated transfer. Prospects It would be worthwhile trying black gram on a much larger scale in tropical Africa because of its highly nutritious seeds and its wide ecological applicability. Germplasm diversity needs to be exploited to obtain suitable cultivars for Africa. Major references Arora & Shri S. Mauria, 1989; Dikshit et al., 2004; Kay, 1979; Lawn & Ahn, 1985; Souframanien & Gopalakrishna, Other references CSIR, 1976; Ghafoor et al., 2001; Gillett et al, 1971; Haytowitz & Matthews, 1986; ILDIS, 2005; Maréchal, Mascherpa & Stainier, 1978; Midya et al, 2005; Purseglove, 1968; Saini & Jaiwal, 2005; Srivastava & Joshi, Sources of illustration Arora & Shri S. Mauria, Authors P.C.M. Jansen Based on PROSEA 1: Pulses. VlGNARADIATA (L.) R.Wilczek Protologue Fl. Congo Beige 6: 386 (1954). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number In = 22 Synonyms Phaseolus radiatus L. (1753), Phaseolus aureus Roxb. (1832). Vernacular names Mung bean, green gram, golden gram (En). Haricot mungo, mungo, ambérique, haricot doré (Fr). Feijâo mungo verde (Po). Mchooko, mchoroko (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution Mung bean originated in India or the Indo-Burmese region where it has been cultivated for millen- Vigna radiata -planted 207 VlGNA 209 nia. The ancient cultivation of mung bean in India is supported by fossilized remains discovered in central India and dated BC. Mung bean cultivation spread in early times to most other Asian countries and later to Africa, Australia, the Americas and the West Indies. It has not become a major crop outside Asia, although mung bean is cultivated in many tropical African countries. In certain areas of Kenya, especially the Eastern Province, mung bean is the principal cash crop. Uses Mature mung bean seeds or flour enter a variety of dishes such as soups, porridge, snacks, bread, noodles and even ice-cream. In Kenya mung bean is most commonly consumed as whole seeds boiled with cereals such as maize or sorghum. Boiled whole seeds are also fried with meat or vegetables and eaten as a relish with thick maize porridge ('ugali') and pancakes ('chapatti'), whereas consumption of split seeds (dhal) is common among people of Asian descent. In Ethiopia the seeds are used in sauces. In Malawi the seeds are cooked as a side dish, mostly after removing the seed coat by grinding. In India and Pakistan the dried seeds are consumed whole or after splitting into dhal. Split seeds are eaten fried and salted as a snack. The seeds may also be parched and ground into flour after removing the seed coat; the flour is used in various Indian and Chinese dishes. The flour may be further processed into highly valued starch noodles, bread, biscuits, vegetable cheese and extract for the soap industry. Sprouted mung bean seeds are eaten raw or cooked as a vegetable; in French they are erroneously called 'germes de soja', in English 'bean sprouts'. Immature pods and young leaves are eaten as a vegetable. Plant residues and cracked or weathered seeds are fed to livestock. Mung bean is sometimes grown for fodder, green manure or as a cover crop. The seeds are said to be a traditional source of cures for paralysis, rheumatism, coughs, fevers and liver ailments. Production and international trade Reliable production statistics for mung bean are difficult to obtain, as its production is often lumped together with that of other Vigna and Phaseolus spp. India is the main producer, with an estimated production in the late 1990s of about 1.1 million t. China produced 891,000 t (19% of total pulse production in China) from 772,000 ha in No mung bean production statistics are available for Africa. China exported 110,000 t in 1998, 290,000 t in 1999 and 88,000 t in All mung bean produced in India is for domestic consumption. In most parts of Africa where there are Asian communities, mung bean food products are sold in the cities. Properties The composition of mature mung bean seeds per 100 g edible portion is: water 9.1 g, energy 1453 kj (347 kcal), protein 23.9 g, fat 1.2 g, carbohydrate 62.6 g, dietary fibre 16.3 g, Ca 132 mg, Mg 189 mg, P 367 mg, Fe 6.7 mg, Zn 2.7 mg, vitamin A 114 IU, thiamin 0.62 mg, riboflavin 0.23 mg, niacin 2.3 mg, vitamin B mg, folate 625 (ig and ascorbic acid 4.8 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 260 mg, lysine 1664 mg, methionine 286 mg, phenylalanine 1443 mg, threonine 782 mg, valine 1237 mg, leucine 1847 mg and isoleucine 1008 mg (USDA, 2004). The starch consists of 28.8% amylose and 71.2% amylopectin. Mung bean seed is highly digestible and low in antinutritional factors. It causes less flatulence than the seed of most other pulses, making it suitable for children and older people. Mung bean starch is considered to have a low glycaemic index, i.e. to raise the blood sugar level slowly and steadily. The composition of sprouted mung bean seeds per 100 g edible portion is: water 90.4 g, energy 126 kj (30 kcal), protein 3.0 g, fat 0.2 g, carbohydrate 5.9 g, dietary fibre 1.8 g, Ca 13 mg, Mg 21 mg, P 54 mg, Fe 0.9 mg, Zn 0.4 mg, vitamin A 21 IU, thiamin 0.08 mg, riboflavin 0.12 mg, niacin 0.75 mg, vitamin B mg, folate 61 ug and ascorbic acid 13.2 mg. The essential amino-acid composition per 100 g edible portion is: tryptophan 37 mg, lysine 166 mg, methionine 34 mg, phenylalanine 117 mg, threonine 78 mg, valine 130 mg, leucine 175 mg and isoleucine 132 mg (USDA, 2004). Sprouting especially leads to an increased ascorbic acid concentration. Mung bean hay contains: moisture 9.7%, crude protein 9.8%, fat 2.2%, crude fibre 24.0%, ash 7.7%, N-free extract 46.6%, digestible crude protein 7.4%, total digestible nutrients 49.3%. Aqueous extracts of mung bean seed have shown in-vivo hypotensive and hepatoprotective effects in rats. Extracts from mung bean seeds and husks have shown antioxidative effects. Description Annual, erect to semi-erect, slightly pubescent herb up to 1.3 m tall; root system consisting of a well-developed taproot with deeply placed lateral roots; stem much branched, with a tendency to twine at the tips, angular, covered with long spreading hairs. 208 210 CEREALS AND PULSES Vigna radiata - 1, part of flowering branch; 2, part of fruiting branch; 3, seeds. Source: PROSEA Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate (sometimes 5- foliolate), dark green; stipules 5-18 mm x 3-10 mm, peltate, ovate, rhomboid or obovateoblong; petiole 5-21 cm long, rachis cm long; stipels conspicuous, 5-10 mm long; petiolules 3-6 mm long; leaflets entire or 2 3-lobed, 5-18 cm x 3-15 cm, elliptical, rhomboid or ovate, base broadly cuneate or rounded, apex acuminate, glabrous or hairy on both surfaces, distinctly 3-veined from the base, the lateral leaflets unequal-sided. Inflorescence an axillary false raceme up to 20 cm long, 4 15( 30)- flowered. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel 2-3 mm long; calyx campanulate, tube 3-4 mm long and glabrous, lobes narrowly triangular, mm long, ciliate, upper pair united into a bifid lobe; corolla yellow or greenish, standard 11 mm x 16 mm, glabrous, wings c. 11 mm x 7 mm, keel c. 10 mm long, often tinged grey or reddish, with a long beak incurved almost 360, and with a distinct pocket on one side; stamens 10, 9 united and 1 free; ovary superior, sessile, c. 7 mm long, hairy. Fruit a linear-cylindrical pod (2.5 )4-9(-15) cm x 4-9 mm, usually straight, black or tawny brown, with brown short spreading pubescence, (7-)10 15( 20)-seeded, somewhat constricted between the seeds. Seeds mm x mm x mm, globose to ellipsoid or cubelike, commonly green but sometimes yellow, olive, brown, purplish brown or black, marbled or mottled with black patches, glossy or dull; hilum white, conspicuously flat, c. 1.5 mm x 0.5 mm; seed coat often with ridges, making the seed rough to the touch. Seedling with epigeal germination. Other botanical information Vigna comprises about 80 species and occurs throughout the tropics. Vigna radiata belongs to the subgenus Ceratotropis, a relatively homogenous and morphologically and taxonomically distinct group, primarily of Asian distribution. Other cultivated Asiatic Vigna species in this subgenus include Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Maréchal (moth bean), Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi & Ohashi (adzuki bean), Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper (black gram or urd bean), Vigna trilobata (L.) Verde, (pillipesara) and Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & Ohashi (rice bean). Hybrids have been obtained between many of these species. The species have often been confounded, especially Vigna radiata and Vigna mungo. The wild types of mung bean, which are usually smaller in all parts than cultivated types, are usually classified into 2 botanical varieties: - var. sublobata (Roxb.) Verde, occurring in India, Sri Lanka, South-East Asia, northern Australia (Queensland), in tropical Africa from Ghana to East Africa, southern Africa and Madagascar; var. setulosa (Dalzell) Ohwi & Ohashi, with large, almost orbicular stipules and dense long hairs on the stem, and occurring in India, China, Japan and Indonesia. The cultivated types of mung bean are grouped as Vigna radiata var. radiata, although a classification into cultivar groups would be more appropriate. Two types of mung bean cultivars are usually distinguished, based mainly on seed colour: golden gram, with yellow seeds, low seed yield and pods shattering at maturity; often grown for forage or green manure; - green gram, with bright green seeds, more prolific, ripening more uniformly, less tendency for pods to shatter. Two additional types are recognized in India, one with black seeds and one with brown seeds. Growth and development The minimum temperature for seed germination of mung bean is about 12 C, the optimum temperature 209 VlGNA 211 around 25 C. Seedlings emerge in 3-7 days. Mung bean is a short-duration crop, flowering within days and maturing within days after sowing. Self-pollination is the rule, but up to 5% outcrossing may occur. Flowers are usually pollinated during the night, before they open early in the morning. It takes 3-4 weeks from flower opening to mature pod. Flower abscission is prevalent and may reach 90%. Mung bean mostly has a determinate growth habit, but because the inflorescences remain meristematic and may redevelop flowers after a period of adverse conditions, it flowers and fruits over a period of several weeks. Green leaves, open flowers, green pods and ripe pods occur simultaneously on the same plant. A large part of the dry matter accumulated during seed filling may still be partitioned to vegetative parts and thus rapid senescence does not occur. Mung bean nodulates readily with Bradyrhizobium strains from the cowpea cross-inoculation group. Because those strains are rather common, mung bean shows little response to inoculation. Ecology Mung bean is a warm-season crop and grows mainly within a mean temperature range of C, the optimum being C. It can therefore be grown in summer and autumn in warm temperate and subtropical regions and at altitudes below 2000 m in the tropics. It is sensitive to frost. Mung bean is mostly grown in regions with an average annual rainfall of mm, but it can do with less. It withstands drought well, by curtailing the period of flowering and maturation, but it is susceptible to waterlogging. High humidity at maturity causes damage to seeds leading to seed discoloration or sprouting while still in the field. Mung bean cultivars differ markedly in photoperiod sensitivity, but most genotypes show quantitative short-day responses, flower initiation being delayed by photoperiods longer than hours. Mung bean grows in a wide range of soil types, but prefers well-drained loams or sandy loams with ph (5-)5.5-7(-8). Some cultivars are tolerant to moderate alkaline and saline soils. Propagation and planting Mung bean is propagated by seed. The 1000-seed weight is g. There is no seed dormancy, but germination can be affected by a hard seedcoat. Mung bean is broadcast or dibbled in hills or in rows. Recommended sowing rates are 5 30 kg/ha for sole cropped mung bean, and 3-4 kg/ha under intercropping. Recommended spacings are cm x 5-30 cm. For the more modern cultivars ripening in days, maximum yields are obtained at plant densities of 300, ,000 plants/ha. The latermaturing traditional cultivars generally need wider spacing. Recommended spacings for solecropped mung bean in Kenya are 45 cm between rows and 15 cm within the row, with a seed rate of 6-10 kg/ha and a sowing depth of 4-5 cm. Mung bean can be grown mixed with other crops such as sugar cane, maize, sorghum or tree crops in agroforestry systems. Shortduration mung bean is often relay-cropped to make use of a short cropping period. In Kenya mung bean is usually intercropped with maize, sorghum or millet; it is occasionally grown in pure stands or intercropped with other pulses. The usual practice here is to place 1-2 rows of mung bean between rows of a cereal, or to plant mung bean in the cereal row. Management In pure stands, 1 2 weedings are necessary during the early stages of growth. In Kenya weeding is done using hoes and machetes. Farmers do not normally apply any inorganic fertilizer to a mung bean crop. Mung bean uses residues from fertilizer applications to the main crops in the system, though it responds well to phosphorus. Nutrient removal per t of seed harvested (dry weight) is kg N, 3-5 kg P, kg K, kg Ca, kg S and kg Mg. The nutrient removal is much higher when crop residues are removed to be used for fodder. In its major area of cultivation, the monsoon tropics, mung bean is mainly grown as a rainy season crop on dryland or as a dry-season crop after the monsoon in rice-based systems on wetland, making use of residual moisture or supplementary irrigation. In some areas where adequate early rains occur, an early-season crop can be grown before the monsoon. In semiarid regions of Kenya with mm rainfall evenly distributed over 2 rainy seasons, 2 mung bean crops are grown per year. In the Wei Wei Integrated Development Project in Sigor, Kenya, mung bean is grown under irrigation. In India mung bean is often sown as a fallow crop on rice land as a green manure. Diseases and pests The most important and widespread fungal diseases of mung bean are Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora canescens) and powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni). Less serious are scab {Elsinoë iwatae), anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) and rust (Uromyces spp.). Important bacterial diseases are blights caused by Xanthomonas and Pseu- 210 212 CEREALS AND PULSES domonas spp. Mung bean suffers from several virus diseases but they are not well described, except for mung bean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV), which is widespread in South Asia. The main insect pests are aphids (Aphis fabae, Aphis craccivora), bean fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli), thrips (Megalurothrips sjostedii), pod borers (Heliothis spp., Etiella zinckenella, Maruca testulalis) and pod-suckers such as the green stink bug (Nezara uiridula). In the drier areas of Kenya the apion weevil (Apion soleatum) may cause heavy losses. Stored mung bean seed is attacked by bruchids (Callosobruchus spp.). In Africa it is common to use ash made from neem (Azadirachta indica A.Juss.) leaves or cow dung to protect seeds against storage pests. Insecticides are seldom used on mung bean in tropical Africa. Harvesting When grown for the mature seed, mung bean is usually harvested when the pods begin to darken. Harvesting is highly labour intensive as the pods of most local cultivars of mung bean are highly susceptible to shattering and mature at different times. Mung bean is generally harvested in 2-5 handpickings at weekly intervals. In Kenya individual pods are picked as they mature. Where the crop matures uniformly, the entire plant is harvested and sun-dried before threshing. Short-duration cultivars, which ripen more uniformly, may be processed as whole plants with small rice threshers. Cultivars differ markedly in harvesting efficiency, depending on position (above or within canopy) and size of pods. Yield Average mung bean yields are low: kg/ha. Under irrigation in Kenya yields are obtained of 1.25 t/ha. Yields over 3 t/ha have been obtained in trials. Handling after harvest Handpicked pods are dried in the sun. Shattering can be speeded up by beating with a stick or by trampling. Seed is cleaned by screening and winnowing, and dried to a moisture content of 10-12% before storage. Properly dried mung bean seeds maintain high viability over a long period. Seed stored by small farmers for sowing is often of poor quality because of bruchid damage. To prepare mung bean sprouts, the seeds are soaked overnight, drained, placed in containers in the dark, sprinkled with warm water every few hours, and kept for 4-5 days at a temperature of 24 C and a relative air humidity of 60-70%. One kg of mung bean seed produces 6-10 kg sprouts. Genetic resources Large germplasm collections of mung bean are held in the Philippines (National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory, University of the Philippines Los Banos (UPLB), Los Banos, about 6900 accessions), Taiwan (Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre (AVRDC), Shanhua, about 5600 accessions), United States (Southern Regional Plant Introduction Station, Griffin, Georgia, about 3900 accessions), India (National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, about 3000 accessions) and China (CAAS, Beijing, about 3000 accessions). In tropical Africa germplasm collections of mung bean are held in Kenya (National Genebank of Kenya, Crop Plant Genetic Resources Centre, KARI, Kikuyu, 330 accessions), Nigeria (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, 125 accessions) and Ethiopia (International Livestock Research Institute, Addis Ababa, 40 accessions). Breeding In many traditional mung bean growing regions farmers still grow old landraces. Many cultivars have been developed from those landraces by pure-line selection. The traditional late robust types may be replaced by new types useful for short seasons and multiple cropping systems with mung bean occupying the land for short periods between major crops. These new types are short plants with high harvest index, reduced photoperiodic sensitivity and a relatively uniform maturity. Many modern cultivars with improved resistance to major diseases and pests have been released in the major producing countries. Sources of resistance have been identified in germplasm of mung bean and related species. Among the Asiatic Vigna species, black gram (Vigna mungo) shows most promise for interspecific hybridization with mung bean. AVRDC in Taiwan is working on the development of mung bean tolerant to diseases (leaf spot, powdery mildew) and pests (bean fly, bruchids). Information on mung bean breeding in Africa is scanty. In Kenya mung bean improvement work has been carried out by the National Dryland Farming Research Station, Machakos since the late 1970s. Germplasm was collected locally and was introduced from elsewhere, mainly from India and AVRDC. Promising lines were selected and 2 cultivars ('KVR22' and 'KVR26') have been released. 'KVR22' has a determinate growth habit and golden-yellow seed colour; it flowers in days and matures uniformly in days after germination. It has shown high resistance to MYMV, moderate resistance to powdery mildew and 211 VlGNA 213 tolerance to aphids, but it is susceptible to thrips and apion weevil. 'KVR26' has a determinate growth habit and a green seed colour; it flowers in days, and matures fairly uniformly in days. It is much appreciated for its high yield, earliness and large seed size. Direct in-vitro plant regeneration in mung bean is possible using cultured shoot tips, cotyledons and cotyledonary node expiants. Regeneration through organogenesis from callus has also been reported. Somatic embryogenesis has been induced from mature cotyledons, hypocotyl, nodal segments and leaf expiants. AVRDC uses molecular markers to select for resistance to diseases and pests and has worked on gene mapping using RFLP and isozyme electrophoresis. Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation of mung bean has been achieved. Prospects Mung bean is a suitable crop for tropical Africa, especially the semi-arid regions, because of its short crop cycle and nutritional quality. Furthermore, it has a niche on the international market for the production of bean sprouts. However, it has not yet become important in tropical Africa, which may be due to its low yields, susceptibility to diseases and pests, high labour requirement (weeding, harvesting), lack of suitable cultivars and good quality planting material, and lack of information on its potential benefits. It therefore deserves increased attention from research and extension. Major references Dana & Karmakar, 1990; Kay, 1979; Lawn, 1995; Lawn & Ahn, 1985; Mayeux, 1990; Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2002; Muthoka & Shakoor, 1988; Poehlman, 1991; Siemonsma & Arwooth Na Lampang, 1989; Westphal, Other references Avenido, Motoda & Hattori, 2001; Burkill, 1995; Chiu & Fung, 1997; Devi et al., 2004; Dookun, 2001; Duke, 1981; du Puy et al., 2002; Gillett et al., 1971; Hafeez, Asad & Malik, 1991; Hanelt & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001; Huijie et al., 2003; ILDIS, 2005; Jaiwal et al., 2001; Joshi & Saxena, 2002; Madar & Stark, 2002; Mugova & Mavunga, 2000; Thulin, 1989a; Tindall, 1983; USDA, 2004; Wu et al., Sources of illustration Siemonsma & Arwooth Na Lampang, Authors K.K. Mogotsi Based on PROSEA 1: Pulses. VlGNASUBTERRANEA (L.) Verde. Protologue Kew Bull. 35(3): 474 (1980). Family Papilionaceae (Leguminosae - Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) Chromosome number In = 22 Synonyms Glycine subterranea L. (1763), Voandzeia subterranea (L.) DC. (1825). Vernacular names Bambara groundnut, bambarra groundnut, earth pea, jugo bean (En). Voandzou, pois de terre, pois bambara (Fr). Mancara de Bijagó, jinguba de Cabambe (Po). Njugu mawe (Sw). Origin and geographic distribution The centre of origin of bambara groundnut is probably north-eastern Nigeria and northern Cameroon. It is found in the wild from central Nigeria eastwards to southern Sudan, and is now cultivated throughout tropical Africa, and to a lesser extent in tropical parts of the Americas, Asia and Australia. Its use as a pulse in West Africa was recorded by Arabic travellers in the 14 th Century. Its importance declined after the introduction of groundnut from the New World tropics. Uses Bambara groundnut is grown primarily for its seeds, which are used in many types of foods, some of which are an important part of the diet and play a role in traditional ceremonies (e.g. funeral rites) and gift exchanges. Mature, dry seeds are boiled and eaten as a pulse. Dried seeds, either whole or split, are also mixed with maize or plantains and then boiled. The seeds may be ground into flour, sometimes after roasting, to prepare a porridge. They are also added to maize flour to enrich traditional preparations. Sometimes seeds are soaked in water and ground into a Vigna subterranea -planted 212 214 CEREALS AND PULSES paste which is used to prepare fried or steamed dishes. Immature seeds are often boiled with salt and eaten as a snack. They are eaten during the 'hungry gap' during the growing season, when stores are empty and crops are not yet ready for harvest. Vegetable milk and fermented products similar to tempeh (from Glycine max L.) and dawadawa (Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R.Br, ex G.Don) can be made from the seeds. The seeds are fed to pigs and poultry, and the leafy shoots are used as fodder. In Senegal leaf preparations are applied to abscesses and infected wounds, leaf sap is applied to the eyes to treat epilepsy, and the roots are sometimes taken as an aphrodisiac. Pounded seeds mixed with water are administered to treat cataracts. The Igbo in Nigeria use the plant to treat venereal diseases. Production and international trade Reliable production figures for bambara groundnut are difficult to obtain, because the crop is mainly grown for home consumption and sale at local markets. In the early 1980s the estimated annual world production was 330,000 t, 45-50% of which was produced in West Africa. The major producers are Burkina Faso, Chad, Côte d'ivoire, Ghana, Mali, Niger and Nigeria, but the crop is also widely grown in eastern and southern Africa and in Madagascar. The main exporting countries are Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Niger and Senegal; they supply markets in Benin, Ghana, Nigeria and Togo. Properties Raw immature bambara groundnut seeds contain per 100 g edible portion: water 57.3 g, energy 636 kj (152 kcal), protein 7.8 g, fat 3.1 g, carbohydrate 30.0 g, fibre 3.0 g, ash 1.8 g, Ca 14 mg, P 258 mg and Fe 1.2 mg. The composition of mature dry seeds per 100 g edible portion is: water 10.3 g, energy 1537 kj (367 kcal), protein 18.8 g, fat 6.2 g, carbohydrate 61.3 g, fibre 4.8 g, ash 3.4 g, Ca 62 mg, P 276 mg, Fe 12.2 mg, ß-carotene 10 lg, thiamin 0.47 mg, riboflavin 0.14 mg, niacin 1.8 mg and ascorbic acid traces (Leung, Busson & Jardin, 1968). The content of essential amino acids per 100 g food is: tryptophan 192 mg, lysine 1141 mg, methionine 312 mg, phenylalanine 991 mg, threonine 617 mg, valine 937 mg, leucine 1385 mg and isoleucine 776 mg (FAO, 1970). As in other pulses, the sulphur-containing amino acids cystine and methionine are limiting. The main fatty acids in the seed oil are palmitic acid 18-24%, stearic acid 5-12%, oleic acid 18-24%, linoleic acid 34-40%, linolenic acid 2-3% and behenic acid 3-7%. A content of 21% linolenic acid and no oleic acid, however, has also been recorded. The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids is approximately 1:2. The oil content is too low for the seed to be used as a source of oil. Trypsin inhibition occurs. The seeds contain tannins, mainly in the seed coat. In comparative studies in Botswana and Ghana, tannin levels were found to be lowest in cream-coloured seeds, intermediate in red seeds and highest in black seeds. Cooking and other forms of processing (e.g. soaking, milling, hulling, germination, fermentation) reduce the concentration of antinutritional factors. Ripe seeds are very hard and usually have to be cooked longer than those of other legumes. Cream-coloured seeds are often preferred to red and black seeds, because they are less bitter ('sweeter') and take less time to cook. Large seeds are preferred over smaller ones, e.g. for use as snack; smaller seeds are ground into flour for use in various recipes. Dried leaves for fodder contain crude protein 15.9%, crude fibre 31.7%, ash 7.5% and fat 1.8%. Description Annual herb with creeping stems branching just above ground level; root- Vigna subterranea - 1, habit of flowering plant; 2, flower; 3, fruits; 4, seed. Source: PROSEA 213 VIGNA 215 system consisting of a tap root with lateral roots lower down, with rounded and sometimes lobed nodules. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate, glabrous; stipules c. 3 mm long, spurred, striate; petiole erect, grooved, up to 30 cm long, thickened at base, rachis (0.1-)1 2.5 cm long; stipels ovate-oblong, up to 3 mm long; petiolules 1-3 mm long; leaflets elliptical to oblanceolate, 3-10 cm x 1-5 cm. Inflorescence an axillary false raceme, close to the ground, (l-)2(-3)-flowered; peduncle cm long. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous, shortly pedicelled; calyx with tube c. 1 mm long and 5 lobes c. 1 mm long; corolla whitish-yellow, standard obovate, 4-7 mm long, wings and keel slightly shorter; stamens 10, 9 with filaments fused for more than half their length and 1 free; ovary superior, 1-celled, style bent. Fruit an almost globose indéhiscent pod c. 2.5 cm in diameter, usually 1-seeded. Seed mm x mm x mm, variously coloured from white to cream, red, black or brown, sometimes mottled, blotched or striped; eye around the hilum sometimes present, colour and shape variable. Seedling with hypogeal germination. Other botanical information Vigna comprises about 80 species and occurs throughout the tropics. However, it is likely that the American species will be placed in a separate genus in the near future. There are considerable morphological difference between wild and domesticated types of bambara groundnut. Wild bambara groundnut produces long runners, the pods are thin and do not wrinkle upon drying, and the seeds are small (9 11 mm long) and uniform in size. Domesticated types are more compact, with longer, less slender and more erect petioles, fleshy pods which wrinkle on drying, and larger seeds (11-15 mm long). Morphological and isozyme data indicate a gradation from wild to domesticated bambara groundnut through weedy populations. Wild and domesticated types are sometimes distinguished as var. spontanea (Harms) Hepper (wild) and var. subterranea (cultivated). No cultivars of bambara groundnut have been named, but genotypes are distinguished on the basis of seed attributes (colour, size, hardness) and plant form (bushy or spreading). Sometimes names are based on the location where the seed was collected. Growth and development The optimum temperature for germination of bambara groundnut is C; below 15 C and above 40 C, germination is very poor. Emergence takes 5-21 days. Vegetative development may continue after reproductive development has started. Flowering starts days after sowing and may continue until the plant dies. Selfpollination is the rule. After fertilization, the peduncle grows and pods form on or below the ground. Pods reach their maximum size in about 30 days. The seeds expand and reach maturity during the following 10 days, when the parenchymatous layer surrounding the embryo has disappeared and brown patches appear on the outside of the pod. Seeds are mature 3-6 months after germination. Bambara groundnut is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen by nodulating with bacteria of the Bradyrhizobium group. Ecology Bambara groundnut is cultivated in the tropics at altitudes up to 2000 m. A frostfree period of at least 3 months is necessary. Average day temperatures of C and full sun are preferred. The crop tolerates drought and is cultivated successfully in areas with an average annual rainfall of mm, though optimum yields are obtained when rainfall is higher ( mm/year). It is also grown in humid conditions, e.g. in northern Sierra Leone, where the annual rainfall exceeds 2000 mm. There are considerable differences between genotypes in their response to temperature and photoperiod. In many genotypes, flowering is photoperiod-insensitive, while the onset of podding is retarded by long photoperiods. In some genotypes both flowering and the onset of podding are delayed by long photoperiods. Podding may also be delayed by drought. The plant grows on any well-drained soil, but light sandy loams with a ph of are most suitable. Soils rich in phosphorus and potassium are suitable, but calcareous soils are not. Nitrogen-rich soils promote vegetative growth at the expense of seed yield. Sandy soils enhance pod penetration into the soil, but nematode incidence is generally higher on sandy than on loamy soils. Propagation and planting Bambara groundnut is propagated by seed. The seeds are orthodox and can be stored below 0 C. The seed weight is g; sowing rates range from kg/ha, depending on cropping system and climate. Seed to be sown is usually retained from the previous harvest or bought at local markets. Planting material is usually selected after harvesting on the basis of seed characteristics and not on plant characteristics. Often large seeds are selected for planting. Seeds are stored in bags, bottles, gourds or 214 216 CEREALS AND PULSES calabashes sometimes sealed with mud. They should be shelled just before sowing to retain maximum viability, but otherwise are rarely pretreated. Bambara groundnut is not usually sown immediately after the first rains, because staple food and cash crops tend to receive priority. Sowing dates vary considerably within locations. In Zambia and Botswana, for example, sowing takes place from November to February. Late sowing, however, may result in large yield reductions. Sometimes phased planting occurs, e.g. in Sukumaland, Tanzania. Land is cleared, and may be ploughed and ridged before sowing. In Botswana, fields are sometimes ploughed after the seed has been broadcast. The crop performs best on deeply ploughed fields with a fine seedbed, eventually allowing the plant to bury its developing fruits. Ridging is advisable if the soil is shallow or prone to waterlogging. Bambara groundnut may be sown on mounds, e.g. in Ghana. When sowing a new field, inoculation with soil from an old bambara groundnut field is recommended to promote nodulation with rhizobial bacteria. Bambara groundnut is sown in rows or broadcast; densities range from 2,500 plants/ha (intercropping in Botswana) to 250,000 plants/ha (sole cropping in Nigeria). Rows can be cm apart (Nigeria) to (-400) cm apart (Botswana). Spacings can be cm within rows (Nigeria) to cm (Botswana). Dry matter production of bambara groundnut is low, so high plant densities are recommended. However, high densities are only possible where rainfall and soil fertility are adequate. Furthermore, close spacing makes earthing up difficult. Seed is often dibbled, dropping 1-4 seeds in the hole and covering with soil. Sometimes a planter is used, or the seed is sown immediately behind a plough. Under rainfed conditions in sandy soils a sowing depth of at least 6 cm is advisable, but farmers often sow less deep. Thinning may be practised, often in combination with weeding. When establishment problems occur, gaps are sometimes filled in with seeds or plants thinned out elsewhere. Bambara groundnut may be grown in intercropping with cereals, other pulses, root and tuber crops, or vegetables. It is often grown together with maize, sorghum, pearl millet, groundnut and cowpea. Bambara groundnut is mainly grown by smallholders, often women, usually on small fields (less than 0.5 ha). Management Weeding of bambara groundnut takes place 1 3 times, often with a hoe. Earthing up to cover the young pods is common, and may be done by hand, with a hoe or with ox-drawn equipment. Earthing up improves yields, but is labour intensive; it is often combined with weeding. Nitrogen needs may be met by symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen-fixation rates of up to 100 kg/ha have been reported, but sufficient phosphorus availability is essential for nodulation. The use of animal manure or chemical fertilizers is not common. Research in Botswana has shown that under the prevailing conditions nitrogen fertilization is not advisable, whereas phosphorus application is only beneficial when it is done close to the seedlings within 2 weeks of sowing and when the soil during this period is moist. Bambara groundnut is used in rotations, e.g. with maize, sorghum, pearl millet, cassava and yam. Farmers in Swaziland and in parts of South Africa prefer to sow bambara groundnut immediately after fallow, to maximize yields. Diseases and pests Although bambara groundnut is considered to be generally less affected by diseases and pests than groundnut or cowpea, several diseases and pests can cause serious damage to the crop. The most important fungal diseases are Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora spp.), powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) and Fusarium wilt {Fusarium oxysporum). Symptoms of Cercospora leaf spot are reddish-brown circular spots on the leaves, as well as lesions on the stems, petioles, peduncles and pods. The lesions may coalesce to give the appearance of blight. In cases of severe attack, defoliation occurs and plants may die prematurely. Crop rotation and burning of crop debris of the previous season are recommended to reduce damage, but the best solution is to use more resistant types. Symptoms of powdery mildew are a whitish powder on both sides of the leaves, especially on the upper surface. Infected leaves dry out and die. Treatment with a chlorothalonil-based fungicide has sometimes been effective. Fusarium wilt causes vascular discolouration, yellowing, necrosis and wilting and plants become stunted and eventually die. Crop rotation may help, but planting more resistant types is the best control. Other fungal pathogens affecting bambara groundnut include Macrophomina phaseolina (charcoal rot), Phomopsis sp.(blight), Phyllosticta spp. (Phyllosticta leaf spot) and Sclerotium rolfsii (southern blight and pod rot). Virus diseases include cowpea mottle virus (CPMoV), cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus 215 VIGNA 217 (CABMV) and peanut mottle virus (PeMoV). Genotypes resistant to cowpea mottle virus have been identified. Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita, Meloidogyne javanica) can seriously affect yields. Pests of germinating seeds include rodents, termites, ants and cutworms (Agrotis). The standing crop may be attacked by insect pests such as aphids, groundnut jassid (Empoasca facialis), groundnut hopper (Hilda patruelis), brown leaf beetle (Ootheca mutabilis), and bean leaf webber (Hedylepta indicata, synonym: Lamprosema indicata). A serious pest in Swaziland is the American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera). Control measures of insect pests include the use of insecticides, e.g. malathion against aphids. Leaves may also be eaten by mammals, such as duikers. Maturing seeds may be attacked by rodents, ants, wild pigs, monkeys and bush babies (Galago spp.). Important storage pests are the bruchid beetles Callosobruchus maculatus and Callosobruchus subinnotatus, and the maize weevil Sitophilus zeamais. Infestation often begins in seeds ripening in the field and is later carried into the stores. Seeds stored in the pod shell suffer less from deterioration and infestation by insects than shelled seeds. Stored seeds are sometimes protected by applying ash, chemical products (malathion, carbamyl) or plant products, such as ground tobacco leaves, ground peppers or the leaves of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). The parasitic plants Alectra vogelii Benth. and Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke may reduce yields considerably. Harvesting Bambara groundnut is harvested days after sowing, depending on genotype, ecological conditions and farmers' objectives. As the seeds may be consumed either unripe or ripe, different harvesting methods exist. Unripe seeds may be harvested in several rounds from the same plants. Mature seeds are harvested when the leaves turn yellow and fall, and when the pods have become hard. In the latter case, harvesting is usually done by uprooting the plants by hand or with a hoe. The leaves are left in the field or fed to animals. Yield Yield fluctuations between years are large in bambara groundnut and mainly depend on rainfall. The highest recorded seed yield under field conditions is 4 t/ha. Average yields are kg/ha, but yields of less than 100 kg/ha are not uncommon. Bambara groundnut still gives some yield under conditions (poor soils, drought) which are submarginal for groundnut. Handling after harvest The pods of bambara groundnut are sun-dried to a moisture content of 12% and stored in bags or drums in granaries or in the house. They may be shelled first with mortar and pestle, flails or modified groundnut shellers. The shelling percentage ranges from 70-77% by pod weight. Bambara groundnut is a typical dual-purpose crop: usually part of the harvest is sold and the rest is kept for own consumption. Canning of bambara groundnut seeds has been done in Ghana and Zimbabwe. Genetic resources The largest germplasm collection of bambara groundnut (2000 accessions from sub-saharan Africa) is held by UTA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture), Ibadan, Nigeria. Most of the accessions (1400) in this collection have been characterized, evaluated and documented. Other large collections are found at the IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement), Montpellier, France (about 1200 cultivated and 60 wild accessions from Cameroon, of which 50 were morphologically characterized), the University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia (460 accessions), the Grain Crops Institute, Potchefstroom, South Africa (200 accessions) and the Plant Genetic Resources Centre, Accra, Ghana (170 accessions). In many African countries smaller collections are maintained. In studies of genetic diversity in cultivated bambara groundnut with RAPD and AFLP markers, considerable genetic variation was found, with accessions clustering mainly according to their geographical origin. Sometimes, e.g. in Swaziland, farmers sow a mixture of landraces as a buffer to biotic and abiotic stresses, thus helping to maintain the diversity of the crop. Breeding Bambara groundnut breeding has mainly been confined to selection between and within populations for yield, disease resistance (Fusarium wilt and Cercospora leaf spot) and drought tolerance. From the UTA germplasm collection genotypes have been identified with a longer and denser root system, which may be useful in breeding for drought tolerance. Breeding of genotypes with a shorter growth period also seems useful for drier regions. Selection of the most effective combinations of genotypes and rhizobial strains seems promising to improve nitrogen fixation and increase crop yields. Artificial hybrids between cultivated genotypes and between cultivated and wild accessions 216 218 CEREALS AND PULSES have been made in the United Kingdom and Swaziland, but success rates are generally low. A genetic linkage map of bambara groundnut using AFLP markers is being developed in the United Kingdom as well. Micropropagation of bambara groundnut is possible using stem nodal cuttings or embryo axes. Prospects Bambara groundnut is a suitable crop for semi-arid regions, because it tolerates drought and poor soil conditions and appears to be less affected by diseases and pests than cowpea or groundnut. Farmers also value its multiple uses and good taste. Although bambara groundnut will remain an important secondary food crop in Africa, the area under cultivation will probably decline, because of high labour requirements, especially for earthing up and harvesting, the absence of an export market outside Africa, and the competition from groundnut and cowpea. T
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Khan Consulting Pay by swiping your iPhone 5, iPad 2 Apple, iPad, iPhone, News Posted by admin | Apple, iPad, iPhone, News Apple plans to introduce services that would let customers use its iPhone and iPad computer to make purchases, said Richard Doherty, director of consulting firm Envisioneering Group. The services are based on “Near-Field Communication”, a technology that can beam and receive information at a distance of up to four inches, due to be embedded in the next iteration of the iPhone and the iPad 2, Doherty said. Both products are likely to be introduced this year, he said, citing engineers who are working on hardware for the Apple project. Apple’s service may be able to tap into user information already on file, including credit-card numbers, iTunes gift-card balance and bank data, said Richard Crone, who leads financial industry adviser Crone Consulting LLC in San Carlos, California. That could make it an alternative to programs offered by such companies as Visa, MasterCard and eBay’s PayPal, said Taylor Hamilton, an analyst at consultant IBISWorld. “It would make a lot of sense for Apple to include NFC functionality in its products,” Crone said. The main goal for Apple would be to get a piece of the $US6.2 trillion Americans spend each year on goods and services, Crone said. Today, the company pays credit-card processing fees on every purchase from iTunes. By encouraging consumers to use cheaper methods – such as tapping their bank accounts directly, which is how many purchases are made via PayPal – Apple could cut its own costs and those of retailers selling Apple products. Natalie Harrison, a spokeswoman for Apple, declined to comment. Boon for PayPal, Visa and MasterCard “NFC is definitely one of the technologies that’s getting a lot of attention, but ultimately the consumer is going to choose,” said Charlotte Hill, a spokeswoman for PayPal, owned by eBay. Elvira Swanson, a spokeswoman for Visa, said the company was “excited to see NFC mobile devices coming into the market”. Ed McLaughlin, chief emerging payments officer at MasterCard, said the company was “running the world’s fastest payment network, and that doesn’t need to be re-created”. MasterCard sees NFC “as an opportunity to partner with organisations” and has already run NFC payment trials around the world. The recently passed Durbin Amendment makes the timing right for a push by Apple, Crone said. The regulation, which will go into effect this summer, may limit debit-card fees paid by retailers and lets them encourage consumers to use one payment method over another. Competing with Android Under Apple chief operating officer Tim Cook, who is handling day-to-day operations as chief executive officer Steve Jobs takes medical leave, the iPhone is adding features that will help it compete with phones that use Google’s Android software. Samsung Electronics’s Nexus S phone, which runs Android, can read information from NFC tags. Nokia, the world’s largest maker of mobile phones, has pushed NFC adoption for years, though the technology has been slow to take off. “Apple could be the game-changer,” Doherty said. Apple is considering starting a mobile payment service as early as the middle of this year, Doherty said. It would revamp iTunes, a service that lets consumers buy digital movies and music, so it would hold not only users’ credit-card account information but also loyalty credits and points, Doherty said. Using the service, customers could walk into a store or restaurant and make payments straight from an iPad or iPhone. They could also receive loyalty rewards and credits for purchases, such as when referring a friend, Doherty said. Apple also could use NFC to improve how it delivers mobile ads to customers’ handsets and charge higher fees for those ads, Crone said. NFC would let Apple’s iAd advertising network personalise ads to the places where a customer is spending money. That could double or triple the ad rates that Apple charges, Crone said. Apple has created a prototype of a payment terminal that small businesses, such as hairdressers and mum-and-pop stores, could use to scan NFC-enabled iPhones and iPads, Doherty said. The company is considering heavily subsidising the terminal, or even giving it away to retailers, to encourage fast, nationwide adoption of NFC technology and rev up sales of NFC-enabled iPhones and iPads, he said. To help get ready for NFC, Apple last year hired Benjamin Vigier, who worked on the technology at mobile-payment provider MFoundry. It also has applied for a patent on a system that uses NFC to share information between applications running on various Apple devices. You can leave a response, or trackback from own site. Microsoft chases Apple’s iPhone with 2 million phones sold in quarter Tablet publishers still trying to find the missing link: subscribers
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Two More Dog Killings Leave Valley’s Dog Owners on Edge STORY BY KAREN BOSSICK Sun Valley area residents are on edge after two more dogs were killed by mountain lions in the Ketchum area. The attacks early Wednesday morning bring to three the number of dogs killed in the past six days by mountain lions. A fourth dog lost the use of its left eye in an attack. The first attack on Wednesday occurred about 6:30 a.m. in the Warm Springs area near the dog park. The homeowner reported he had let two dogs out only to find a lion had jumped the property’s six-foot fence. It attacked the Australian shepherd, leaving it with severe life-threatening injuries. The owner took it to the veterinarian where it was put down. Idaho Fish and Game received a second call within a half-hour of the first of a larger dog found in a driveway on Short Swing Lane--directly across Warm Springs Road from the first incident--by a neighbor. Idaho Fish and Game officers engaged the services of a hound dog who tracked the mountain lion across the street where it was living underneath a porch deck. Officers were able to corral the lion and euthanize it. “The dog was able to pick up the scent of the lion from the dog that had been killed so we’re very confident it was the lion that killed that dog,” said Terry Thompson, communications manager for Idaho Fish and Game. “It’s more difficult to confirm that it was the same lion that killed the first dog earlier that morning or that it was the same dog that injured the other Australian shepherd over the weekend in West Ketchum without a DNA test.” A mountain lion killed a pudelpointer, breaking its neck, while it was in a fenced backyard on Canyon Drive, a block off Highway 75 four miles south of Ketchum on Sunday evening, Dec. 15. Fish and Game set up a trap in the yard, hanging a pronghorn quarter taken from roadkill. The pronghorn is a typical type of food for a mountain lion, said Thompson. There's also a small stuffed animal put in the trap where officers place a homemade concoction of various scents to attract the lions. But they removed it on Thursday after it there was no activity there. ”Cats will return to a kill site, especially if they have some level of reward,” Thompson said. A miniature Australian shepherd was attacked at about 7:30 p.m. the night before in the vicinity of Bird and Wood River drives in West Ketchum after a homeowner let the dog outside in an unfenced area. The lion dropped the dog and ran off when it saw the homeowner. Thompson said officers do not know how many cats call the Wood River Valley their home. “But there are multiple cats in the Wood River Valley—the Warm Springs area is known for its lions,” he said. “We receive reports all the time from people who have spotted them via their security cameras or even seen them walking down the street in mid-day. Cats have been up here and are here—it’s not like we’re suddenly being invaded by mountain lions.” More encounters tend to happen in winter time as lions move in from the mountains to prey on the resident elk and deer who hunker down in neighborhoods over winter. Cats will go after rabbits and squirrels. “They’re opportunistic—they don’t know from day to day where their next meal is coming from. So, we can’t say cats are learning to prey on pets. But cats tend to have a strong prey instinct and, if they see even a small animal run, they’ll give chase,” Thompson said. Thompson said he can’t think about of any cases where a lion has attacked a person in Idaho. Mountain lions killed a bicyclist and a hiker in North Bend, Wash., and Mt. Hood in 2018. But the vast number of mountain lion killings over the past several decades have taken place in California, Colorado and British Columbia with single incidents reported in Kentucky, Montana and New Mexico. “I don’t know why you hear about so many cases in California. Maybe there are more lions per square mile. Or, maybe it’s because California no longer allows hunting of mountain lions so they’ve lost their fear of humans,” Thompson said. Lack of actual attacks doesn’t mean Wood River Valley residents haven’t had encounters of the close kind. Sloan Storey, a competitive cross county ski racer who works with kids’ programs at The Hunger Coalition, said she was walking her dog—a mid-sized mix of heeler and collie—at sunset in Draper Preserve this fall when she stepped onto the Bow Bridge and spotted what she thought was an adult cougar walking off the bridge on the opposite end. She turned around to leave and spotted a mother cougar about 10 feet away. The mother perched as if it were getting ready to jump on Storey. Then, as Storey froze, the lion looked Storey up and down and turned away. “Then I did what you’re not supposed to do. I ran all the way home,” said Storey. “Fortunately, my dog remained surprising calm during the incident. And I think the fact that I froze, however short I might have done it, helped.” Storey said she now avoids going out at dawn and dusk and, if she does, she confines her walks to neighborhoods, rather than the preserve. She also sometimes carries a stick. Dog owners should keep their pets on a leash when they let them out to pee, Thompson said. “Even if you have a fenced-in backyard go out with them—cats can jump as high as 12 feet. And go out with a light, even if it’s just a flashlight,” he added. Children and adults who are confronted by lions should make themselves look as big as possible, yell and back away slowly. Throw objects, if you have them. “Never turn your back on a lion, and don’t run,” Thompson said. “We don’t want to provoke their instinct to chase. Stay calm. But if they do attack, fight back.” Have an encounter? Call local law enforcement or Magic Valley Regional Fish and Game at 208-324-4359.
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the savvy content marketer’s board journal Captain Marvel: How Her Heroic Workout Can Strengthen Your Content by Annie Ianko | Sep 20, 2018 When the news of a Captain Marvel movie first made waves online, the name “Brie Larson” was not necessarily on the radar. Quite a few other A-list actresses made the cut of consideration within the rumor mill, but it was a big surprise for a lot of MCU... How A Globalized Strategy Can Help Your Brand Business is global, so must content marketing. The need for content is universal. However, marketing your brand in a new region is not as forthright as it seems. A new language, culture, business and legal requirements as well as a new audience that... Mary Poppins Returns: How to Add a ‘Spoonful of Sugar’ When Expanding Old Content Mary Poppins, practically perfect in every way. When the news of a sequel to the timeless classic family film was first confirmed, a lot of people did not react in a positive way. Many argued that Walt Disney Studios was taking an apparent love for rebooting and... Purpose-Driven Content: Your Essential Guide Have you created and implemented a purpose-driven marketing campaign for your business? Does it rely on a comprehensive purpose-driven content strategy? If you haven’t, it might explain why your profits haven’t yet reached the levels you were dreaming of. ... How to Use Content to Change Brand Perception: the Ultimate Guide Imagine that several customers expressed their disappointment with the quality of your product or poor customer service. Even if you have resolved the issue and learned the lesson, your online reputation has now a stain on it. Or imagine that no one pays... The Ultimate Copy Checklist: 10 Questions to Optimize Every Element of Your Online Copy Persuasive content uses a plethora of principles and techniques designed to compel a specific audience. 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The average person is likely to have feelings of uncertainty or skepticism towards media, governments, and businesses. The... The Ultimate Guide to Fall Planning for Your Content Strategy by Annie Ianko | Aug 31, 2018 How to Improve, Create, Reorganize and Successfully Sell with Your Content for the Rest of 2018 If you want to ensure continued success for your company, you need to employ strategic content marketing. Content marketing is what drives traffic to your... How to Put Together a Successful Labor Day Content Marketing Campaign Every year, on the first Monday in September, Labor Day is the last federal holiday before summer ends. What you might not know is that Labor Day was created to celebrate the economic and social achievements of workers in America, according to the U.S.... How to Find the Whitespace in Your Industry and Focus Your Content Strategy Around It If your content strategy is not generating the engagement and conversions you were hoping for, there might be different reasons for it. Maybe the content is not good enough, or the promotion efforts are lacking. Or maybe the issue goes deeper than that and... 5 Psychological Concepts That Can Improve Your Content Marketing There are many psychological factors we are not aware of, but which strongly affect our everyday behavior, including our buying decisions. For content marketers, understanding the psychology at work helps them craft more persuasive content. In this... Short-Termism on Your Content ROI Might Increase Revenue—But Does It Increase Profit? Chasing short-term returns on investment (ROI) may provide an immediate boost to your bottom line. However, you cannot expect to rely on this to lead to long-term success. Companies have become a bit over-concerned with their content marketing strategy and... Marketing to Women: Should Inclusivity and Activism Govern Your Content Strategy? In 1964, Bob Dylan released the ever-famous track “The Times They Are a-Changing” from the album with the same name. These song lyrics couldn’t be any truer today than they were more than 50 years ago. But, what’s changing, you ask? Women! And, how brands... The Lip Sync Battle Challenge: Lessons All Content Creators Should Learn From These Videos Will you accept the lip sync battle challenge? Instead of focusing on where the challenge began or where it will go next, take a moment to focus on the core concept. One police precinct records a well-choreographed video that includes their entire... 4 Ways to Find Original Topics That Your Audience Will Love It’s no secret that all industries have hopped on the content wagon: e-commerce, tech, law… even small local businesses have acknowledged the importance of building an online presence through content. In addition to that, due to the continuing rise of ad... Six Signs That It’s Time for a Content Revamp If you’re a content creator, then you know that regular content creation is a must. However, sometimes parts of a site or blog may fall by the wayside in the pursuit of content creation. Those elements that get left behind may become outdated, bringing... Page 10 of 31« First«...89101112...2030...»Last » Visit Our Writers’ Blog Copyright ©2019 Iris Writing International, LLC
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Directory Resource Find a Registrar Find a Training Program Find an Auditor About ISO Update Advertising On ISO Update Home Sital Administrative Consultancy Consultant Listing Sital Administrative Consultancy Website: http://www.sitalgroup.com Standards: ISO 9001, ISO 14001, OHSAS 18001, ISO 22301:201 Address: P.O Box 2255, P.C. 112 Ruwi, Sultanate of Oman Location: Ruwi, Sultanate of Oman Email Address: info@sitalgroup.com 11 years experience in consulting and auditing domain with various organization. Lead Assessor – EFQM Lead Auditor- QMS, EMS, OHSAS and BCMS Established in 1978 as Sital Enterprises and restructured to Sital Administrative Consultancy in 1998, to support the Omani & GCC market in Management Consultancy and Training Solutions & Services, Sital has evolved as one of the pioneers in the filed with more than 200 clients in GCC throughout its endeavor without compromising on quality and accuracy , and we take pride in our commitment towards excellence. Deliver excellence to all customers and to be the pioneer in consulting arena. Facilitating and counseling industries and personnel to organisational and process excellence. < Back to Consultant Listing DISRUPTIVE FORCES Importance of Audits What’s the Return on Investment (ROI) on Quality? “What’s in it for me?” is not an unreasonable question for anyone to ask, especially if you are going to ask them to spend money. If you want your business…read more Differences between ISO 45001 and OHSAS 18001 Since its first publication in 1999, OHSAS 18001 has been a recognized occupational health and safety management system (OH & SMS) standard against which management systems can be assessed and…read more What is the difference between Stage 1 and Stage 2 Audits? A Certification Audit is the first step for your organization once you have decided to undergo an assessment process. Your options include undergoing an assessment with a Certification Body (CB),…read more How Does ISO 45001 Differ to OHSAS 18001? The new ISO 45001 standard has been published and supersede OHSAS 18001. It is a truly international standard as scores of countries will agree to it. Note: Companies already certified…read more Why is Quality so Important in Business today? Have you ever stood staring at a range of products in a supermarket trying to make up your mind which one to buy? They all look quite similar, but one…read more Internal Audit Frequency: How often should you be having Internal Audits for compliance Management systems such as ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and OHSAS 18001 require that internal audits are scheduled at planned intervals; they do not establish a specific frequency nor do they…read more Follow ISOUpdate on Twitter Tweets by @ISOUpdate
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Deepening Democracy through Access to Information R/€ = 15.91 R/$ = 14.34 Au 1561.95 $/oz Pt 1018.04 $/oz Full access to Polity.org.za Free Registration Now Ramaphosa lauds 'true patriot' Richard Maponya at funeral 14th January 2020 BY: African News Agency President Cyril Ramaphosa President Cyril Ramaphosa lauded businessman Richard Maponya for being a true patriot while addressing mourners at the funeral of the entrepreneur on Tuesday. "Richard Pelwana Maponya was the most devoted of patriots. He loved his country and he loved his people. He was a soldier, not of the battlefield, but at the frontline of the struggle for the economic emancipation of his people – a struggle that endures to this day," said Ramaphosa at the University of Johannesburg's Soweto Campus. Former presidents Thabo Mbeki and Kgalema Motlanthe were also in attendance, along with other dignitaries and politicians. Maponya died on January 6 after a short illness. He was 99-years-old. Ramaphosa described him as a man of "extraordinary resilience" who "persevered until he reached the pinnacle of success". "And yet he remained humble, magnanimous and generous. South Africa indeed has lost one of her finest sons." Maponya was driven by the conviction that South Africa would never be truly free until the fruits of prosperity were shared by all its people, said Ramaphosa, adding that Maponya had stood for self upliftment and inspired a new generation of business people. "Despite his stature as the doyen of black business, he was always there with a hand to pull up those who stood below. "Having scaled the heights, he wanted to see others alongside him on the rostrum of success. "Ntate Richard was always pushing back the frontiers, agitating for more to be done to support small business, and encouraging more people to take the great and daunting leap into entrepreneurship. "From his earliest days, and long before it became a popular term, he demonstrated the qualities of responsible corporate citizenship. "He did not hoard the gains he made over his decades in business, but ploughed much of it back into the communities in which he operated," said the president. Maponya did not see corporate social investment as a box ticking instead, but as an imperative to transform a racialised economy, he added. And during apartheid, Maponya viewed black business as part of the broad liberation movement to advance economic freedom. Maponya was a straight-talker, said the president, who did not hesitate to chide government when it was going off course, but he did this from a position of principle, not malice. "I personally received many a late night call from him, sharing his viewpoint on one or another pressing issue of the day. "In my very last engagements with him he urged me to do everything I can to see his greatest dream realised, to set up a youth entrepreneurship academy. "It is a wish I will endeavour to see fulfilled on his behalf. "What I will remember most from these conversations is that he did not intellectualise problems, simply rant or speak in vague terms. "He always ended these discussions by saying: Here, this is what I can do. This is what I will do. This is what I have. Send me." EDITED BY: African News Agency EMAIL THIS ARTICLE SAVE THIS ARTICLE Subscriptions Advertise About Newsletters Login View Full Website
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New and novel Insecticide Pradia from OHP allows growers to save time and money while controlling a multitude of pests. Photo courtesy of OHP In most situations, the ornamental industry adopts products from agriculture and uses them to suit its own needs. However, a new product from OHP is turning that approach on its head. OHP and ISK have partnered to combine Cyclaniliprole and Flonicamid for the first time in Pradia, an insecticide that controls horticulture pests such as thrips, aphids and whiteflies, says OHP Technical Manager Carlos Bográn. “We are leading the development and utilization of this novel combination,” he says. Multiple product attributes allow Pradia to help growers improve efficiencies and increase their profits, Bográn says. These include broad-spectrum control, residual control and a built-in resistance management tool. Because of Pradia’s broad-spectrum control, growers won’t have to apply as many insecticides or make as many applications. The residual control of Pradia — 30 days or more — prevents growers from having to make weekly applications of product, thereby reducing costs. Together, Cyclaniliprole and Flonicamid can help manage resistance because Bográn says they have “an overlapping spectrum of control” on pests. “By having two things that control the same pest, you are automatically reducing the chances that the population will become tolerant to one of them,” he says. Cyclaniliprole is the newest member of Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) Group 28, and Flonicamid is the only member of IRAC Group 29. OHP will also target the product Sarisa — with solely the active ingredient of Cyclaniliprole — to nurseries with problematic chewing and foliage-feeding insects on site. Some commercial growers have tested Pradia on OHP’s behalf and have seen positive results. The product hit the market in late July. Using both Cyclaniliprole and Flonicamid, Pradia has proven efficacy in controlling everything from mealybugs to borers to leafminers and midges. “Because of the combination of the two active ingredients, it’s effective on all greenhouse insect pests except mites. This is not a miticide,” Bográn says. “But that’s a good thing because it’s compatible with predatory mites, which are used also for control of some of these same pests.” Pradia is also compatible with parasitic wasps and lady beetles, making it well-suited to be a component in an integrated pest management (IPM) program. Overall, several characteristics make Pradia a standout product, Bográn says. “Combinations are not that common in insecticides,” he says. “They are more common in fungicides ... and this one, we think, is very unique because of that unique mode of action, but also because it is not available in ag, in other markets, yet.” Hydrangeas: A fast mover Improved injector
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January 2021 Printable View Library Closed (All Locations) [Holiday] 6p B.Y.O.C. - Bring Your Own Craft (Galvez) [Adult Program] 4p Kokusaika (Gonzales) [For Teens] 12p Library Book Club (Donaldsonville) [Book Club] 6:30p Library Book Club (Dutchtown, Gonzales, & Galvez) [Book Club] 6:30p Pajama Storytime (Donaldsonville & Dutchtown) [Preschool Program] 6:30p Pajama Storytime (Galvez & Gonzales) [Preschool Program] If you love hearing stories before bedtime, then put on your favorite PJ’s and join us at Ascension Parish Library for Pajama Storytime. This month’s theme is silly stories. We’ll read laugh-out-loud stories and sing songs that’ll make you giggle, and you’ll get to make a silly polar bear magnet to take home. Pajama Storytime will be held on Thursday, January 9 in Gonzales and Galvez, and on Tuesday, January 14 in Donaldsonville and Dutchtown. All Pajama Storytimes begin at 6:30 p.m. This program is designed for children ages 7 and younger and their families. For more information on this program, please contact the library in Gonzales at 647-3955, in Donaldsonville at 473-8052, in Galvez at 622-3339, or in Dutchtown at 673-8699. In 1996 autistic video game designer Satoshi Tajiri had been working on the same video game for six years and had given up his own salary so he could pay his employees. Game reviewers continuously told him his company would fail because his new game was on the Game Boy, a system they didn’t think anyone was willing to buy for anymore. But when Satoshi Tajiri finally released his game, Pokémon Red and Blue as we know them in America, it would become a smash success and change the face of video games forever. The eighth generation of Pokémon is officially out now and to celebrate we’ll be making Poke’mon themed Perler crafts on Wednesday, December 4 at 4:00 PM in Gonzales. If crafting isn’t your thing, we will have a Wii U set up for those that want to play games. Kokusaika is Japanese for “internationalization,” and that’s what this club is all about. If you’re interested in cosplay, anime, manga, gaming, etc., then this Japanese cultural club for teens is for you! This program is open to all teens ages 12 through 18. Cosplay is welcome. For more information, please contact Ascension Parish Library in Gonzales at 647-3955. B.Y.O.C. is a monthly craft club that will meet on the first Tuesday of every month at the Ascension Parish Library in Galvez. Bring your own project (or find inspiration at the library!) while you meet and socialize with other crafters in the area. Coffee and assorted equipment will be provided, as well as a selection of instructional material and patterns to get you started. Our next meeting will be Tuesday, January 7, 2020 at 6:00pm. Don’t want to show up empty handed? The library has partnered with Creativebug to provide free access to thousands of art & craft video classes. For more information about our monthly craft club or how to access Creativebug, please contact the Ascension Parish Library in Galvez at 622-3339.
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Ben Wallace MP, Minister of State for Security to address audience at UK Security Expo UK Security Expo, 30 Nov - 1 Dec 2016, London Olympia Ben Wallace MP, Minister of State for Security will deliver a keynote address at UK Security Expo on Nov 30 at 10:30. Admiral Lord West, Chairman of UK Security Expo comments "As the security world grapples with the fallout from Brexit and the intentions of President Donald Trump, UK Security provides a forum to debate the key issues in what has arguably been the most volatile 12 months in global politics." Lord West added "For our 8,000 visiting heads of security, designers, consultants, architects, FMs and emergency planners, this is a timely opportunity to hear insight first-hand from the Minister." On Dec 1 at UK Security Expo, The Director General of Border Force, Sir Charles Montgomery will deliver a presentation on the UK's Border Security Strategy followed by a keynote from the Former Chief of MI5, Sir Jonathan Evans who will discuss the security implications for the UK arising from the decision to leave the EU. Peter Jones, Chief Executive, Nineteen Events added "UK Security Expo offers access to over 150 world-renowned speakers discussing the most pressing issues. With over 200 exhibitors demonstrating the latest products and technologies, plus the Home Office JSaRC and CPNI immersive demonstration of Securing Crowded Places, I don't think I've ever seen a more impressive collaboration of government and industry at such an important time."
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The great sadness of the I35-W Bridge collapse will linger for family and friends of the dead. But vivid memories of the victims' lives will begin to subdue the pain. Sherry Engebretsen It was a little thing, but Sherry Engebretsen knew how to take care of details, especially when it came to her daughters. Artemio Trinidad-Mena Abundia Martinez is Artemio Trinidad-Mena's wife. The two are originally from Mexico, though Artemio has lived in Minnesota for about 10 years, and has worked at New York Plaza Produce in south Minneapolis for almost a year. Julia Blackhawk Julia Blackhawk had recently taken a new Indian name. The 32-year-old from Savage was given the name Thunder Woman during a pow-wow at Easter. Her uncle, John Blackhawk, is a Winnebago Tribal Council member. He says Julia was a kind person who always showed respect for her elders. And he says she had one attribute that was very special. Patrick Holmes Patrick Holmes, 36, of Mounds View, was found dead at the scene of the bridge collapse that same night. His wife, Jennifer, heard the news a little after midnight. The autopsy shows Holmes died instantly from his injuries after falling onto the collapsed portion of 35W. He was on his way home from work. Peter Hausmann Peter Hausmann, 47, was a computer security specialist worked at Assurity River Group in St. Paul. The company's president says Hausmann was a quiet leader and a man of faith. Paul Eickstadt Paul Eickstadt drove a delivery truck for Sara Lee Bakery for 14 years. He was just beginning his shift, on his way to Iowa, when the 35W bridge collapsed. His truck fell forward, burst into flames, and dangled dramatically between two sections of concrete. Eickstadt, 51, lived in Mounds View. He is survived by a brother and two sisters. Greg Jolstad Greg Jolstad's friends called him Jolly "because of his name, and because that's just how he was." Bill Stahlke remembers ice fishing almost daily, as teenagers, with Jolstad and Jim Hallin on Knife Lake, near the Jolstad family farm. The three haven't missed a winter on the lake in the nearly 30 years since they graduated together from Mora High School. Scott Sathers On Aug. 1, Scott Sathers left his job in downtown Minneapolis at Capella University, where he worked as an enrollment director, approximately 40 minutes later than usual. Sathers called his wife Betsy at 5:50 p.m. from Washington Ave. and 35W, where he was about to get on 35W to go north to his home in Blaine. No one has heard from him since. Christina Sacorafas Christina Sacorafas was running late, and called her friend and fellow dance instructor, Rena Tsengas, to say she would be late. But Sacorafas never made it the Minneapolis church where students in her Greek folk dancing group were waiting for her to begin class. Sadiya and Hanah Sahal For Ahmed Iidle, the I-35W bridge collapse has brought a double loss. His daughter Sadiya Sahal, 23, and her 2-year-old daughter Hanah were headed to a relative's house when the bridge crumbled beneath them. They haven't been heard from since. Vera Peck and Richard Chit Vera Peck and her 20-year-old son Richard Chit were traveling in the same car when the bridge collapsed. Special coverage: The impeachment trial of President Trump Find A Program All Things Considered American RadioWorks A Prairie Home Companion As It Happens The Arts Hour Ask Me Another BBC World Service BBC News Hour Bright Ideas Car Talk The Daily Circuit The Dinner Party Download Fresh Air Marketplace Marketplace Morning Report Marketplace Weekend Morning Edition The Moth Radio Hour MPR News Presents MPR News Update On Being On the Media Policast A Prairie Home Companion Radiolab Science Friday Snap Judgment The Splendid Table The Story Studio 360 Talk of the Nation Talking Volumes TED Radio Hour The Takeaway This American Life Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me! Weekend Edition Saturday Weekend Edition Sunday Wits The World Other Radio Streams from MPR iPhone App / Mobile The Current Music Blog Your daily note for good music, news and pop culture. With attempted jokes.
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Home » Health Problems » The neurobiology of noshing: Why is it so easy to overeat calorie-rich tasty foods? 04/24/2019 Comments Off on The neurobiology of noshing: Why is it so easy to overeat calorie-rich tasty foods? Health Problems The neurobiology of noshing: Why is it so easy to overeat calorie-rich tasty foods? When you eat something super tasty, ever wonder why you really don’t want to stop even though you know you’ve eaten enough? Scientists at the UNC School of Medicine may have found the reason. In lab experiments, Thomas Kash, Ph.D., the John R. Andrews Distinguished Professor in the Department of Pharmacology, and colleagues discovered a specific network of cellular communication emanating from the emotion-processing region of the brain, motivating mice to keep eating tasty food even though their basic energy needs had been met. The existence of this mammalian brain circuit, described in a paper in Neuron, might help explain why humans so often overeat in our modern environment of abundant and delicious fare. The circuit is a byproduct of evolution, when large calorie-rich meals were scarce, and so our brains were wired to devour as many calories as humanly possible because no one knew when the next super meal would come. “This circuit seems to be the brain’s way of telling you that if something tastes really good, then it’s worth whatever price you’re paying to get to it, so don’t stop,” Kash said. Scientists in search of anti-obesity remedies have spent decades researching and targeting brain cells and circuits involved in ordinary, “homeostatic” feeding, which is triggered by hunger and keeps our energy level up. But this approach has had limited success. More recently, some scientists have been studying “hedonic” feeding—the pleasure-driven eating of calorie-rich food that tends to go way beyond our strict energy needs. Hedonic feeding is thought to reflect modern humans’ lingering adaptation for ancient environments where famines were frequent. Perceiving calorie-rich food as particularly tasty and pleasurable, and bingeing on it whenever it was available, would have conferred a crucial survival advantage by storing up extra energy. Following that instinct now, in a time of plenty, can lead to obesity—a condition affecting about 40 percent of adults in the United States—and related conditions such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancers. “There’s just so much calorically dense food available all the time now, and we haven’t yet lost this wiring that influences us to eat as much food as possible,” Kash said. Experiments in the past few years have suggested that our wiring for hedonic feeding involves nociceptin, a small protein that works as a signaling molecule in the mammalian nervous system. Kash’s laboratory and other groups have found that compounds blocking nociceptin activity—called nociceptin receptor antagonists—have little or no effect on homeostatic feeding by lab rats and mice, but these compounds do curb hedonic bingeing on tasty, calorie-rich foods. Thus, drug developers have eyed these antagonists as potential anti-obesity, anti-binge-eating drugs, and researchers have been eager to identify the specific brain circuits through which they work. The goal would be to develop a more targeted treatment. Identifying this circuit is largely what Kash and colleagues accomplished in their new study. They engineered mice to produce a fluorescent molecule along with nociceptin, literally illuminating the cells that drive nociceptin circuits. There are multiple nociceptin circuits in the brain, but Kash and colleagues observed that one in particular became active when the mice got a chance to binge on calorie-rich food. The circuit projects to different parts of the brain, including those known to regulate feeding. It starts in an emotion-processing region of the brain called the central amygdala. Deleting about half of the nociceptin-making neurons in this circuit reduced the mice’s bingeing and kept their weight down when they had access to rich food, without affecting their intake of ordinary chow. “Scientists have studied the amygdala for a long time, and they’ve linked it to pain and anxiety and fear, but our findings here highlight that it does other things too, like regulate pathological eating,” Kash said. He and his team are now studying in more detail how this circuit works, the timing of its activity in relation to feeding and other factors, and how nociceptin antagonists alter its functions. First author J. Andrew Hardaway, Ph.D., research assistant professor of pharmacology at the UNC School of Medicine, said, “Our study is one of the first to describe how the brain’s emotional center contributes to eating for pleasure. It adds support to the idea that everything mammals eat is being dynamically categorized along a spectrum of good/tasty to bad/disgusting, and this may be physically represented in subsets of neurons in the amygdala. The next major step and challenge is to tap into these subsets to derive new therapeutics for obesity and binge eating.” Other scientists are studying nociceptin antagonists as possible treatments not only for obesity and binge-eating but also for depression, pain, and substance abuse. Bronchi-on-a-chip technology reveals why it is difficult for asthma patients to find relief Infectious diseases A-Z: Why the measles virus is so contagious Is it harmful to wear synthetic clothes? Why the brain can be blamed for children unknowingly being left to die in a hot car calorie-richEasyFoodsisitneurobiologynoshing:ofovereatsotastythetoWhy Previous Post:Mum falls on hair curler and burns her face during epileptic attack Next Post:Every Different Kind of Non-Monogamous Relationship, Explained
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Home » Kids Health » The Real Reason Meghan Didn’t Open Baby Shower Gifts Doesn’t Involve Harry 03/19/2019 Comments Off on The Real Reason Meghan Didn’t Open Baby Shower Gifts Doesn’t Involve Harry Kids Health The Real Reason Meghan Didn’t Open Baby Shower Gifts Doesn’t Involve Harry Keeping secrets. Duchess Meghan didn’t open her baby shower gifts while celebrating in New York City with her friends last month — but that had nothing to do with waiting for Prince Harry. Gayle King, who attended the baby bash at The Mark Hotel, originally said on CBS This Morning on February 21 that the Duchess of Cambridge, 37, was holding off because of her husband, 34. “If I told you [what I bought Meghan] then I’d have to kill you because she didn’t open any of the gifts because she wants to do that when … she and Harry are back together,” the journalist, 64, said. “So I really don’t know what everybody got.” But a source tells Us Weekly exclusively, “The reason they didn’t open gifts at the shower wasn’t because Meghan wanted to open the gifts with Harry, but because they would have revealed the baby’s gender.” This comes two months after the royal couple told well-wishers in Birkenhead, England, that they wanted to keep the sex of their bundle of joy a surprise. That being said, a source told Us exclusively in February that the former actress and her husband know whether they’re having a boy or a girl. Harry and Meghan announced their pregnancy in October 2018, five months after tying the knot at St George’s Chapel in Windsor Castle. “Their Royal Highnesses The Duke and Duchess of Sussex are very pleased to announce that The Duchess of Sussex is expecting a baby in the Spring of 2019,” the Kensington Palace statement read. “Their Royal Highnesses have appreciated all of the support they have received from people around the world since their wedding in May and are delighted to be able to share this happy news with the public.” The mom-to-be revealed in January that she is due in late April or early May. With reporting by Brody Brown Prince Harry Snaps Gorgeous Maternity Shot of Meghan Markle The Powerful Reason This Breast Cancer Survivor Is Putting Her Mastectomy Scars on Full Display Jessica Chastain Shares Peek of Baby Girl Before 2019 Golden Globes The Latest Teigen-Legend Tropical Vacation Pics Are Nuts BabyDidn'tdoesntGiftsHarryInvolveMeghanOpenRealReasonShowerthe Previous Post:Milk or no milk? Study fills long-time knowledge gap on babies with genetic disorder Next Post:Here Is How to Steal Mark Wahlberg’s Fitness Routine
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5,000 BLACK GANG HOME INVASIONS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA The most dangerous places in America are the places where liberals reign supreme Black Violence: Ignoring the Elephant in the Room By Trevor Thomas The most dangerous places in America are the places where liberals reign supreme – large U.S. cities. The city of Chicago is infamously a significant part of this violence. Tellingly, 80 percent of the shootings in Chicago are classified as gang-related. And what is one of the most common traits among American gang members? Broken families – especially those involving fatherless homes. Yet, in a foolish tweet that followed the tragic death of Nykea Aldridge (Dwyane Wade's cousin) in Chicago – another victim of senseless gang violence – where Donald Trump brazenly (and in all likelihood wrongly) declared that "African-Americans will VOTE TRUMP," Trump failed to make note of the breakdown of the family. If one is going to politicize a violent death (something Obama and his minions have done often, including this incident), one should do so in an intelligent manner. If Mr. Trump wants to endear himself to black Americans who have long suffered under the policies of Democrats, he should regularly and loudly point out how complicit is the party of liberalism in the destruction of the black family and how this destruction has led to the violence killing literally thousands of black Americans annually. Likewise, after the death of his cousin, Dwyane Wade decided to have a "conversation" about the violence that plagues Chicago and other urban areas in America. Several of Wade's cohorts from the elite world of professional athletics participated in the discussion, and ESPN hosted. There were many mentions of "gun violence" but not one mention of the breakdown of the family. There was also the mention of "mentoring." I wonder how many of the athletes featured in this discussion actually "mentor" their own children – you know, by having faithful marriages to the mothers of their children. And how many of these athletes are practicing what they preach by not fathering children out of wedlock? Surely such "men of conversation" are aware that children born out of wedlock are much more likely to embark on a life of thuggery and violence. Until the real problems that result in gangs and violence are addressed, these "conversations" are an embarrassing waste of time. Speaking of athletes who waste their time, any athlete who expends any amount of time and energy perpetuating the lie that is the narrative of the Black Lives Matter movement may as well lose himself on the interstate while driving to his stadium. Yes, Colin Kaepernick, that means you. If Mr. Kaepernick wants to sit in protest – even against the nation that has afforded him so much – fine, but at least find a worthy cause. After being questioned about his decision to sit while the national anthem was being played prior to the start of the most recent San Francisco 49ers pre-season football game, Kaepernick stated, "I am not going to stand up to show pride in a flag for a country that oppresses black people and people of color. To me, this is bigger than football and it would be selfish on my part to look the other way. There are bodies in the street and people getting paid leave and getting away with murder." I think it's fair to conclude that Mr. Kaepernick has completely swallowed the lies of Black Lives Matter. As has been frequently documented recently, the vast majority of the "bodies in the street" to which Mr. Kaepernick refers are the result of young black American males killing other young black American males. And again we come back to the breakdown of the family. When are these athletes going to stand up for marriage and the family? Where's the chorus of those who will join with the likes of the NFL's Ben Watson and speak eternal truth to a nation desperate for it? And if one wants to protest a flag, why not protest the rainbow flag of the homosexual agenda? (Do you think those in the media, or the NFL, who support Kaepernick's right to protest the U.S. national anthem would be so accommodating if he stood against the homosexual agenda?) Where were the player protests when the NFL threatened the state of Georgia (a threat to which the governor of Georgia cowardly succumbed) when a tame religious liberty bill was being considered? Woe to those who stand up (or sit down) for lies but are silent when the truth is under assault! Furthermore, the United States of America has been one of the greatest instruments for good the world has ever known – a fact about which Mr. Kaepernick demonstrates stunning ignorance. With our military might, we have been an unequaled force for freedom and liberty around the world. We have liberated millions and defended millions more. For every human being enslaved in America, hundreds of millions more have been freed due to the brave and selfless efforts of Americans. America is the most generous nation the world has ever known. Americans account for nearly half of all the charitable giving in the world. The vast majority of these contributions are private, not government, funds. Whether wars or hurricanes, floods or famines, earthquakes or tsunamis, with our abundant human, natural, and technological resources, time and again, Americans have come to the aid of their neighbors around the world. In addition, according to Mark Tooley, "America accepts more immigrants, about a million legally every year, than any other nation and, by some measures, than all other nations combined. America permanently resettles more refugees than any other nation." Most importantly, the U.S. sends out more Christian missionaries than any other nation, nearly tripling the second-place nation, Brazil. In other words, Mr. Kaepernick, the United States of America, the nation in which you (and countless others like you) became rich and famous, has given you little reason to protest – much less reason than any other nation in the history of the world. Trevor Grant Thomas: At the Intersection of Politics, Science, Faith, and Reason. www.trevorgrantthomas.com Trevor is the author of the brand new book The Miracle and Magnificence of America. tthomas@trevorgrantthomas.com Read more: http://www.americanthinker.com/articles/2016/09/black_violence_ignoring_the_elephant_in_the_room.html#ixzz4JsR2zOwX According to ABC 7, the gang members involved in the burglary ring allegedly “[struck] homes four to five times in a week” and “are suspected of some 5,000 burglaries” in total. http://abc7.com/news/gang-related-burglary-ring-hit-5000-socal-homes-police-say/1487046/ Gang members suspected of 5,000 burglaries arrested in Torrance-led police raids http://www.dailybreeze.com/general-news/20160826/gang-members-suspected-of-5000-burglaries-arrested-in-torrance-led-police-raids?source=most_viewed TPD Warrants By Larry Altman, Daily Breeze POSTED: 08/26/16, 8:35 AM PDT | UPDATED: 5 DAYS AGO Torrance police arrested 13 reputed South Los Angeles gang members today in a massive pre-dawn operation to break up an organized ring believed responsible for some 5,000 residential burglaries in five Southern California counties. Photo Courtesy Torrance Police Department An army of law enforcement officers led by Torrance police arrested 13 reputed South Los Angeles gang members Friday in a massive pre-dawn operation to break up an organized ring believed responsible for some 5,000 residential burglaries in five Southern California counties. The operation, dubbed “Operation Money Bags,” culminated nearly four years of investigation to not just arrest and prosecute suspected burglars but to tie their crimes to their gangs, using gang-related sentencing laws that could add years to their prison terms, Torrance police Sgt. Paul Kranke said. “We were looking for ways to solve our residential burglary problem,” Kranke said. “This is our long-term plan we came up with.” • READ: Doctors allegedly sold prescriptions to gang members More than 400 officers from 18 police agencies joined the Torrance police force to raid 28 locations, primarily in South Los Angeles. The locations targeted members of the East Coast Crips gang, tying them to residential burglaries committed in Torrance and other South Bay cities as well as communities across Los Angeles, Ventura, Orange, Riverside and San Bernardino counties. Search warrants were served without any problems, Kranke said. Two other suspects were arrested earlier in the week. “We have 13 arrests today,” Kranke said. “We recovered seven firearms and various amounts of narcotics and U.S. currency.” The raids were carried out with no problems or use of force, Kranke said. Others suspects were arrested as the investigation proceeded over the years, including some on other charges, police said. A few suspects are still being sought. Investigators said the operation was part of what they hope is a long-term solution to a sharp increase in residential burglaries that police officers say began when prison overcrowding relief efforts resulted in shorter sentences for offenders committing nonviolent crimes. The so-called “realignment” has allowed burglars to return to the streets to commit more offenses, said undercover police officers involved in Friday morning’s operation. • READ: Reputed gang members charged “They are going to be sentenced and assigned to state prison as opposed to being in a revolving door,” one of the officers said. Additional crimes attributed to the East Coast Crips occurred in Alameda County in the Bay Area, along with locations in Washington and Colorado, police said. Some crimes were committed simply because gang members had traveled to those locations, police said. The gang members also are believed to be partly to blame for a recent high-profile increase in residential burglaries on the Palos Verdes Peninsula causing angst among residents and demands for a crackdown, investigators said. In addition to the raids Friday, state corrections officers performed searches in the cells of 50 inmates in prisons across the state. The inmates are suspected of helping to direct the burglaries using illegally held cellphones behind bars or benefiting financially from cash proceeds delivered to them from the crimes, police said. When Torrance police began noticing the increase in burglaries in 2012, patrol officers studied the numbers and locations, and adjusted shifts to try to tackle the problem. Following some arrests, Torrance police administrators assigned the department’s gang unit to join its burglary investigations team when they found that many of the thieves they were arresting were East Coast Crips gang members. East Coast Crips is a primarily black gang made up of various factions located in neighborhoods east of the 110 Freeway in South Los Angeles. According to investigators, gang leaders had figured out that developing an organized burglary plan could be extremely lucrative. Each day, burglars had a goal of finding $5,000 and a gun, sometimes heading out to commit crimes four or five times a week. Each gang member targeted Friday was suspected of involvement in 125 to 150 crimes. Police have tied more than 50 gang members to the crimes. Gang leaders planned the burglaries in meticulous fashion, picking out neighborhoods to target, dressing professionally and using high-end rental cars in an attempt to not draw attention to themselves. “White pages” apps on their phones were used to call phone numbers along streets to see if anyone was home. Asians were targeted by the burglary crews. Gang members would check for Asian names on targeted streets and look for shoes left on porches, a sign that an Asian family might live there. Gang members, police said, believed Asians kept money in their homes and “had the best gold.” Following many crimes, police said, gang members kept their profit and stolen property for themselves to live a luxurious lifestyle. Others fenced stolen goods. Stolen guns ended up on the street and were used in other crimes, police said. But gang members didn’t stop there. Those involved in the burglaries began flaunting their riches on social media, posting photographs of themselves holding thousands of dollars in cash on Facebook, Instagram and other sites. Sometimes they even recorded themselves committing crimes and put it online to boast, police said. Detectives paid attention. The posts became tools for gang members to promote their gangs and recruit new members, and detectives and prosecutors decided to use their boastful posts against them, investigators said. Gang detectives began scouring websites with a new idea. Instead of prosecuting a gang member for a burglary or two, crimes that might get them limited time behind bars, detectives worked to connect burglars to the ring, using their social media boasts to show their crimes were specifically benefiting their gang. So-called “gang enhancement” charges often are tied to murder cases, where prosecutors allege murders were committed for the gang’s benefit. The District Attorney’s Office signed on to add the gang enhancement to burglary cases. “Hopefully, it will reduce burglaries,” Kranke said. Gang Members Told to Steal $5000 and a Gun Per Day by AWR HAWKINS28 Aug 2016576 Southern California gang members were given orders to break into homes daily and return to their leaders with “at least $5,000 and a weapon every single day,” according to law enforcement. The daily burglary quota was discovered after officials made 15 arrests in “a gang-related burglary ring that they say hit thousands of SoCal homes.” The homes were in “upscale neighborhoods in Los Angeles, Ventura, Orange, Riverside and San Bernardino Counties.” According to ABC 7, the gang members involved in the burglary ring allegedly “[struck] homes four to five times in a week” and “are suspected of some 5,000 burglaries” in total. It took eighteen different police departments and “400” individual law enforcement personnel “three and half years…to track the burglary suspects back to the ringleaders.” Many of the suspects have been in and out of jail multiple times. “Law enforcement officials blame the short sentences on a new state law designed to reduce prison overcrowding” but believe longer sentences will result from the latest arrests because of the compounding nature of gang-related charges. AWR Hawkins is the Second Amendment columnist for Breitbart News and political analyst for Armed American Radio. Follow him on Twitter: @AWRHawkins. Reach him directly at awrhawkins@breitbart.com. As civil society crumbles, flash mob loots Apple store Make no mistake: we are sliding toward something like a third-world urban reality, with street violence frequent and law enforcement unwilling or unable to do much about it.&nbsp; In certain Latin American, Asian, and African cities, stores containin... Make no mistake: we are sliding toward something like a third-world urban reality, with street violence frequent and law enforcement unwilling or unable to do much about it. In certain Latin American, Asian, and African cities, stores containing valuables have bars, locked entrances, and armed guards. Those with enough money hire armed guards and lie behind walls with barbed wire at the top. There are powerful forces attacking the legitimacy of the civil order of the United States. Black Lives Matter is merely the newest visible component of the effort, but efforts are underway to release into the population violent criminals (because “mass incarceration”), to dispute the legitimacy of criminal convictions based on the group rights theory of “disparate impact,” to shackle police tactics, to incite mob violence against police, and to devastate morale and hamper recruitment. Apple Stores are bright, shiny, and full of valuable stuff. CBS Boston reports: A group of thieves stole over $13,000 in iPhones from the Apple store in the Natick Mall in a “flash mob” robbery. Natick Police Lt. Cara Rossi said a group of seven teens were only in the store for less than one minute, but were able to steal 19 phones. (snip) Lt. Rossi said both male and female thieves were involved, and that they all wore hoodies and hats to help conceal their identities. Police said they were working with mall security to try to find footage of the group entering or exiting the mall. Natick Police said they believed the thieves may be connected to asimilar theft that took place in Hingham in September. In that case, a group of 10 to 12 thieves in hoodies stole 22 iPhones from an Apple store, then fled in a Ford Taurus that had its plates covered. The Harvard hoodie on the lead looter is a nice touch, don't you think? It does not take many people to overwhelm and loot a location. And it is happening. Relentless propaganda that blacks are victimized, helpless, and deserving of recompense for their travails provides all the moral justification a frustrated and angry young man needs. Posted by The Mexican Invasion & Occupation at 10:58 AM 5,000 BLACK GANG HOME INVASIONS IN SOUTHERN CALIFO... BLACK VIOLENCE IN AMERICA AS BARACK OBAMA HANDS MI... Mexican President Pena Nieto Orders LA RAZA Suprem... HILLARY CLINTON: OBAMA'S LA RAZA SUPREMACIST SUCCE... FROSTY WOOLDRIDGE: PROFILE OF THE LA RAZA INVADERS... FROSTY WOOLDRIGE: Multiculturalism and the Long De... JUDICIAL WATCH: OBAMA SPENDS MILLIONS GETTING ILLE... DAN CADMAN: Mexico Invades America's Open Borders ... MEXICO'S EXPANSIONIST DOCTRINE: EXPAND LA RAZA SUP... THE LA RAZA CRIME TIDAL WAVE - Most Illegals commi...
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MVC Fall Winter Spring Awards Schools Boys Basketball:StandingsStatisticsScheduleAll Conference TeamChampions Boys Basketball - Game Statistics 1 2 3 4 T LOC 14 11 10 20 55 CHC 17 21 12 17 67 CHCA 0-0 0-0 0-0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cole Fisher 8-14 2-7 10-14 3 10 13 3 0 0 5 0 28 Austin Authurs 6-11 0-0 3-5 3 1 4 4 3 0 3 0 15 Ben Southerland 3-9 1-4 0-2 2 3 5 3 0 0 3 0 7 Jack Kolar 5-15 4-12 3-4 1 6 7 3 1 1 2 0 17 Logan Wilson 0-0 0-0 0-0 1 0 1 0 1 0 3 0 0 Leon Bao 0-0 0-0 0-0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Jack Sonne 0-0 0-0 0-0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Eric Parker 0-0 0-0 0-0 1 2 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 22-49 7-23 16-25 12 22 34 14 7 1 17 0 67 Athletes of Week Cincinnati Christian Cincinnati Hills Christian Academy Miami Valley Christian Academy St. Bernard-Elmwood Place Cincinnati Country Day Clark Montessori Summit Country Day Copyright © 2004 - 2020 Miami Valley Conference. All rights reserved. Use of this site signifies agreement to terms of use and privacy policy. Powered by SIDTools from Sports Websoft. Build: 2019.12.210
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Independent • On the web since 1994 • More than 6000 links • Updated every Sunday Anglicans Believe ... Newspapers Online Resources A to Z, including Biblical Study Worldwide Anglicanism Awards and Publicity Beginnings, AO Today The Society of Archbishop Justus, Ltd The Anglican world has been rather quiet this last week in terms of new topics, but we've summarised all the most recent sites in New This Week, and those include some interesting parish web pages. We enjoyed a visit to St Augustine's, Londonderry, and were fascinated by the history of the former rectors of this pretty parish. One chap of long tenure (and long beard) was rector at the time when one of the greatest of perturbations in the Victorian church was occurring: the Deceased Wife's Sister Act. To understand the turmoil and the scandals surrounding it, one must turn to a section of the prayer book called 'A Table of Kindred and Affinity, Wherein Whosoever Are Related Are Forbidden by the Church of England to Marry Together'. (The very concept of some of the marriages is head-spinning—a man may not marry his mother's father's wife—but I recall as a child pondering the likelihood of such a marriage by matching up real people in one's life with the prohibited condition. This made minutes pass quickly during boring sermons.) One of the most vexing of prohibitions was that of not marrying a deceased wife's sister. This caused much distress particularly in England, where not only was so doing a violation of canon law, it became, in the early 19th century, a violation of civil law as well. Although it may be hard to grasp, the Deceased Wife's Sister Act roused emotions every bit as deep as those we see in discussions of sexuality in our own time. By mid-century there were strong efforts made to repeal it; Sir Robert Inglis, MP, staunch Anglican layman, was the most bitter opponent to the repeal of the law. EM Forster notes*: 'Sir Robert, it is true, opposed everything except science and art: he was against the Jews, the Catholics, the Dissenters, and now he denounced the Deceased Wife's Sister bill as "an alteration of the law of the Land, an alteration of the law of the Church, and an alteration, if man could make it, of the Law of God". The debates were solemn rather than acrimonious in tone: members quoted Latin to each other, even Greek, and the meaning of Leviticus xviii, verse 18, was deeply pondered. Some feared the Bill would break up the home by transforming "beneficent aunts into hostile and partial stepmothers". Other quoted petitions from clergymen who implored that the Bill might be passed, since many of their parishioners had already married their sisters-in-law, under the belief that this was the best thing for the children—and of course it was the best thing for the children. Such an argument did not convince the Bishops in the House of Lords who denounced thunderously: indeed the Lords were far more passionate than the Commons, as sometimes happens when the subject is sexual'. As someone wrote during the impassioned debates: 'Should the law be altered, probably the next generation will wonder at our scruples'. The thunder and those scruples are long gone now and the passion only surfaces in yellowed letters in archives that document broken families and ruined lives. What scruples of ours will future generations wonder at? Cynthia McFarland cmcf@anglicansonline.org Brian Reid reid@anglicansonline.org *Marianne Thornton: A Domestic Biography (1956). We in fact owe the marvellous novel 'Howards End' to a situation in Forster's family directly related to the DWSA, but that's another story for another time. Last updated: 8 October 2000 URL: http://anglicansonline.org/
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Dong Qin dong.qin@mse.gatech.edu MoSE 3100 N http://www.nanodq.com Dr. Dong Qin is an Associate Professor in the School of Materials Science and Engineering, with an adjunct appointment in the School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, at the Georgia Institute of Technology. Her academic records include a B.S. in Chemistry from Fudan University, a Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry with Professor Hai-Lung Dai from University of Pennsylvania, a postdoctoral stint with Professor George M. Whitesides at Harvard University, and an MBA from the University of Washington. She is a recipient of the 3M Non-Tenured Faculty Award (2015–2018), the GT-CETL/BP Junior Faculty Teaching Excellence Award in 2015, and Geoffrey G. Eichholz Faculty Teaching Award in 2018. The Qin Lab centers on the knowledge-based synthesis of metal nanocrystals for applications in plasmonics, catalysis, and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). The lab has pioneered galvanic replacement-free synthesis of a catalytic metal on the surface of silver nanocrystals for the fabrication of bimetallic nanocrystals that can serve as a probe for monitoring catalytic reactions in situ by surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). Most recently, we demonstrate the use of 2,6-dimethylphenyl isocyanide (2,6-DMPI) as a spectroscopic probe to study the heterogeneous nucleation and deposition of Pd on Ag nanocubes under different conditions by SERS. As a major advantage, the spectroscopic analysis can be performed in situ and in real time with the nanoparticles still suspended in the reaction solution. This in situ technique opens up the opportunity to investigate the roles played by reaction temperature and the type of metal precursor in influencing the heterogeneous nucleation and growth of bimetallic nanocrystals. The sensitivity of isocyanide group to Pd atoms helps elucidate some of the details on the reduction, deposition, and diffusion processes involved in heterogeneous nucleation. Processing, Fabrication, & Manufacturing Research Keywords: Plasmonic nanocrystals SERS tag for biological detection and in-situ catalysis reaction Soft lithography Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy Ruoqi Gao Shi Shi Selected publications: A list of publications is available at http://www.researcherid.com/rid/E-1434-2011 “In Situ atomic-level tracking of heterogeneous nucleation in nanocrystal growth with an isocyanide molecular probe”, Wu, Y. and Qin, D. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2018, 140, 8340–8349. “Rational design and synthesis of bifunctional metal nanocrystals for probing catalytic reactions by surface-enhanced Raman scattering”, Zhang, Y.; Wu, Y.; and D. Qin Journal of Materials Chemistry C, 2018, 6, 5353–5362. “Syntheses, plasmonic properties, and catalytic applications of Ag-Rh core-frame nanocubes and Rh nanoboxes with highly porous walls”, Zhang, Y.; Ahn, J.; Liu, J.; and Qin, D. Chemistry of Materials, 2018, 30, 2151–2159. “Site-selective carvings and co-deposition: Transformation of Ag nanocubes into concave nanocrystals encased by Au-Ag alloy frames”, Ahn, J.; Wang, D.; Zhang, J.; Yong, D.; and Qin, D. ACS Nano, 2018, 12, 298–307. “Enriching silver nanocrystals with a second noble metal”, Wu, Y.; Sun, X.; Yang, Y.; Li, J.; Zhang, Y. and Qin, D. Accounts for Chemical Research, 2017, 50, 1774–1784. “Observing the overgrowth of a second metal on silver cubic seeds in solution by surface-enhanced Raman scattering”, Zhang, Y.; Jiu, J.; Ahn, J.; Xiao, T.; Li, Z.-Y. and Qin, D. ACS Nano, 2017, 11, 5080–5086. “Gold-based cubic nanoboxes with well-defined openings at the corners and ultrathin walls less than two nanometers thick”, Sun, X.; Kim, J.; Gilroy, K. D.; Liu, J.; König, T. A. F. and Qin, D. ACS Nano 2016, 10, 8019–8025. “Bifunctional Ag@Pd-Ag nanocubes for highly sensitive monitoring of catalytic reactions by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy”, Li, J.; Liu, J.; Yang, Y. and Qin, D. Journal of the American Chemical Society 2015, 137, 7039–7042. Galvanic replacement-free deposition of Au on Ag for core-shell nanocubes with enhanced chemical stability and SERS activity, Y. Yang; J. Liu; Z. Fu; and D. Qin, JACS, 136, 8153-8156, (2014). EDUCATION & AWARDS B.S. in Chemistry, 1990, Fudan University, China Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry, 1996, University of Pennsylvania Geoffrey G. Eichholz Faculty Teaching Award (2018) CETL-BP Junior Faculty Teaching Award (2015) 3M Non-tenured Faculty Award (2015-2018)
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MojoLand Odessa Permian Football 2-6A Standings MojoLand League LoneStar Fantasy Sportz Time Capsule Over The Hump Ratliff Stadium Stadium Locator Former Coaches Mojo Majorettes Victory Board Origin of Mojo Paw of Fame Permian Traditions Site Accolades About MojoLand Support MojoLand Tag: mojo Palm Desert Dealt Texas-Sized Loss Odessa, TX — Permian slapped a convincing notch in the win column following Friday’s Homecoming celebration at Ratliff Stadium. Palm Desert, the first team from California to play the Panthers, ended up on the short end of a 47-14 defeat. Continue reading “Palm Desert Dealt Texas-Sized Loss” Carroll Brings Good Despite Permian Loss Odessa, TX — Prior to Friday’s non-district meeting between Permian and Southlake Carroll, the Dragon cheerleaders presented a check for over 21 thousand dollars to the Odessa Community Foundation. SLC went on to hand out a 48-7 defeat of the Panthers. Continue reading “Carroll Brings Good Despite Permian Loss” Posted on September 5, 2019 October 5, 2019 Franklin Hands Permian Second Loss Odessa, TX — It was a day of unity – a day to start the healing process between two communities dealing with tragedy. The 2019 season home opener for Permian left more questions than provide answers in a 49-28 loss to El Paso Franklin on Thursday night. Continue reading “Franklin Hands Permian Second Loss” Become A MojoLand Sponsor MojoLand – ‘Land of the Legend’ is an online sports magazine chronicling the Odessa Permian football program – past and present. We are seeking sponsors in various industries – those companies serving the sports community or Permian Basin area businesses trying to expand their marketing and advertising efforts. Sponsorships are reserved on a first come, first served basis. We offer site sponsor tiles, as well as social media (Facebook/Twitter) and e-newsletter opportunities. Campaign packages are available quarterly (3-month) and annually (12-month). Let us improve your company’s internet presence! Contact us today at sponsors at mojoland.net. MojoLand is a multi award-winning and well known site, celebrating its 23rd year of existence. Advertising on this website offers sponsors an exceptional value. There are currently over 150 pages of content on MojoLand.net, and that’s not including the Virtual Museum. Achieve High Click-Through Rates. Online team sports sites, such as MojoLand, have consistently delivered click-through rates 5x higher than the industry average. While one-quarter of one percent has become the norm on the Internet, online team sports sites average over a 2.5% CTR across all sponsor tiles. Reach Qualified Consumers. The MojoLand visitor is typically well educated, affluent men and women. According to NetRatings, our base is: Gender: 66% Male Income: 65% $75,000+ Ages: 21-49 (51%), 50-64 (26%), 13-20 (23%) Do Well By Doing Good. Take advantage of the fact that 78% of adults say they would be more likely to buy a product associated with a subject they care about. – Cone/Roper Survey Becoming a sponsor on the MojoLand site is easy. Send your e-mail inquiries for pricing to sponsors at mojoland.net, or use our convenient Contact Form. MojoLand is not affiliated with the Ector County ISD or Permian Football Booster Club. It is owned and maintained solely by Terry Alan, a Permian graduate. Permian Suffers Rough Start In DeSoto DeSoto, TX — The Eagles wasted no time unleashing their potent offense on the Panthers in the season opener at Eagle Stadium. Permian fell behind 21-7 in the first quarter. Mojo was able to match DeSoto the remainder of the game, but came up short 35-14 in the non-district clash. Continue reading “Permian Suffers Rough Start In DeSoto” Over The Hump – Motivational Quotes An installment of motivational and inspirational quotes from athletes and coaches that have made their mark in the world of Sports. Their successes are a testament of what can be achieved with proper mindset and hard work. “It’s not the will to win that matters… everyone has that. It’s the will to Prepare to Win that matters.” – Paul “Bear” Bryant (Football Coach – University of Alabama) “What to do with a mistake… Recognize it, Admit it, Learn from it, and Forget it!” – Dean Smith (Basketball Coach NC-Chapel Hill) “The difference between the Impossible and the Possible lies in a person’s Determination.” – Tommy Lasorda (Coach Los Angeles Dodgers) “Most people fail not because of lack of desire, but because of lack of commitment.” – Vince Lombardi (Coach Green Bay Packers) “Nobody who ever Gave Their Best regretted it.” – George Halas (Founder, Owner, & Coach Chicago Bears) “Control what you can control. Don’t worry about what you can’t!” – J.J. Watt (Houston Texans Defensive End) “Ability may get you to the top, but it takes Character to stay there.” – John Wooden (Hall of Fame NCAA Basketball Coach) “There may be people that have more talent than you, but there’s no excuse for anyone to work any harder than you.” – Derek Jeter (New York Yankees Shortstop) “How you respond to the challenge in the second half will determine what you become after the game, whether you are a winner or a loser.” – Lou Holtz (NCAA Football Player & Coach) “Somewhere behind the athlete you’ve become and the hours of practice, and the coaches who have pushed you, is someone who fell in love with the game and never looked back.” – Mia Hamm (Gold Medal Olympian Soccer) “An athlete cannot run with money in his pockets. He must run with hope in his heart and dreams in his head.” – Emil Zatopek (Gold Medal Olympian Runner) “Don’t Let What You Cannot Do Interfere With What You Can Do!” “Make sure your worst enemy doesn’t live between your own two ears.” – Laird Hamilton (Profession Surfer) “What you lack in talent can be made up with Desire, Hustle, and Giving 110 percent all the time.” – Don Zimmer (MLB Infielder & Manager) “The five S’s of sports training are: Stamina, Speed, Strength, Skill, and Spirit… but the greatest of these is Spirit (attitude).” – Ken Doherty (Pro Snooker Champion) “The price of success is hard work, dedication to the job at hand, and the determination that whether we win or lose, we have applied the best of ourselves to the task at hand.” – Vince Lombardi (NFL Green Bay Coach) “First become a winner in life. Then it’s easier to become a winner on the field.” – Tom Landry (NFL Dallas Coach) https://t.co/At0GqYXZNH https://t.co/0Ses8qcOiN3 hours ago RT @Big2_Sports: MOJO takes home the town bragging rights after shutting down Odessa High @PermianSports https://t.co/wCA09mvv7E18 hours ago Girls District 2-6A Basketball Results from January 21 Odessa High (1-3) 61, Odessa Permian (1-3) 46 Midland Lee (2… https://t.co/wGOpNHWp9h19 hours ago 1 Mid Lee 4 1 551 214 2 Permian 4 1 328 250 3 Frenship 3 2 403 233 4 Tascosa 3 2 380 226 5 Midland 1 4 135 429 6 Odessa 0 5 191 402 Mojo Football News Site Accodales Created by Sportz Designs SPREAD THE MOJO
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Online Record Store The UK's leading online record store. I was gonna start an online record store for the longest time. 7446 W Madison, Forest Park, IL 60130. Online prog, psych, classic rock and heavy metal store. Shop for VINYL Vinyl Records at Best Buy. Whether you wish to buy from us or sell to us, please get in touch with us today. Order the music you love today. 00 True Ghouls / Sea Ghouls "Some Ghouls EP" LIMITED HALLOWEEN EDITION Ghoulish Green Vinyl 7" Flexi 1/150 (BCR003F) + Download Card. When you search MusicStack you are not just searching one record store, instead you are searching over 1000 record stores and looking through the inventory of millions of vinyl records and compact discs. After I called the radio station to ask about the song, I was recommended this store to find the music for which I had been longing. Home of the entire Freddie Records store online. Sonic Boom Records: Seattle's source for independent music. What is a Learning Record Store (LRS)? The LRS is the heart of any xAPI ecosystem, receiving, storing and returning xAPI statements. Category containing both new and used record albums. Plus, it's worth checking back if you're looking for rare and valuable albums. Buy and sell music with collectors in the Marketplace. Bring your collection into either location for a. Hundreds of thousands of vinyl LPs and singles. 10 to 6 on Saturday. The lineup. Welcome to our online record store. But if all you want to do is make enough money to quit your job and start a “lifestyle” business, you don’t need much money at all!. Tomorrow is National Record Store Day, which gives us the perfect excuse to round up the best Philly record stores for your browsing pleasure. Welcome to the Forever Young Records website. WE BUY & SELL USED VINYL RECORDS, CD’S & DVD’S (818) 848-7090. Twist and Shout will have a limited number of rare indie exclusive RSD items. Features The World's Best Record Stores: 17 Landmarks For Record Store Day. Shop our huge variety of records and CDs from rock to rap to country to classical. I suppose they may go to an online version in the future. View Details. Sun Records Does Hank Williams (Vinyl 1 LP) Regular Price: $21. Vinyl is available in three sizes: 7, 10 and 12 inches. Records Shop : Records For Sale, Second Hand And Used Vinyls For Music Collectors Vinyl For Sale , Online Record Shop , Second Hand And Used Vinyls - RECORDSTORE Chiudi X. News Artists. Every Day is Record Store Day. Stormy is a used record shop located in Dearborn, MI. If you're ever in Chicago, be sure to visit our Chicago record store! 1120 N Ashland Ave Chicago, IL 60622 Open 10am-8pm daily. Buy 3 get 1 FREE on all wearable items, plus a free Leechpit T-Shirt with any purchase over $100! Follow your dreams to the … Continue reading Pre-Spring Fling-A-Ling-A-Ding-Dong!. 10 lost but not forgotten record stores in Toronto Music. There are some great records in the hodgepodge that makes up this store. Find rare & vintage vinyl at Oxfam's Online Shop. I Love Vinyl -The Online Store for Vinyl Music Lovers – Buy Vinyl Records in our Online Shop ilovevinyl. Now, this is not Record Store Day, Jr. Sell new & used CDs, DVDs and records online or at our NJ store. Mail order service worldwide!. Buy CDs, DVDs online from hbdirect. LAKESHORE RECORDS is the independent music division of Lakeshore Entertainment, producers of such films as The Age of Adaline, The Lincoln Lawyer, Million Dollar Baby, The Ugly Truth and The Underworld franchise. com is a directory of independent record shops that offer new and used vinyl, turntables, LPs, 45s, colored vinyl, record player parts, DJ equipment and turntable repair services. Revolver USA is a music distributor. The specimen of stores ledger is given below: Benefits of Stores Ledger. Mojo Books & Records is Tampa's largest used & new book and record store. The Denver-area record store is alive and well, if these nine examples tell us anything. The 8th album by Trappist Afterland issued on vinyl on Sugarbush records. Ghostly International: Simply the best record store in the world for hard to find house and techno. Cassette Tapes For Sale: HipHop, Punk, Metal, Classic Rock, Country, 90s Alternative, Blues, Jazz, Rap, Soundtracks. All vinyl record store located at 322 W Broad Street in downtown Richmond, Va. is located at. Wuxtry Records is an independent record store founded in Athens, Georgia in 1976. Dub Store Records presents 4 additional titles for Story of Federal Records Series!! This release features 3 more 7"s of Merritone Records and previously unleased LP by Ernest Ranglin that recorded in 1964! These are truly the must-haves to add your vinyl collections!!. VINYL RECORDS AND CD MARKETPLACE Buy rare vinyl records, LPs and CDs from independent record sellers worldwide. The benefits of stores ledger are given below: (i) It is an account record which provides information about receipt, issue nod balances both in quantity. Congratulations on participating in a successful GUINNESS WORLD RECORDS event. Dine Alone Records 864 Eastern Ave. The number of record stores in Toronto is a testament to Torontonians' loyalty to - and love of - vinyl records. If you're looking for recent releases, there are many options: * www. Explore our selection of records by price point, by genre & more. The location was tucked away on Bandera and by the painting of the accordion on the front window, I had known I was in the right place. Also Visit Antone's Nightclub WE BUY RECORDS! Mon-Sat 10am-10pm / Sun 11am-8pm: Antone's Record Shop 2928 Guadalupe Austin, TX 78705 Tel # (512) 322-0660 Contact Us Policies. A record shop or record store is a retail outlet that sells recorded music. Buy vinyl records online at the lowest prices possible. Tuesdays Are Vinyl Delirium Days. Jude Rogers visits 10 of the best. Quick worldwide delivery. Find new & used records at our vinyl record store locations in Knoxville and the TriCities, TN. Also Visit Antone's Nightclub WE BUY RECORDS! Mon-Sat 10am-10pm / Sun 11am-8pm: Antone's Record Shop 2928 Guadalupe Austin, TX 78705 Tel # (512) 322-0660 Contact Us Policies. Toolbox records online record store, cd and mp3 specialist of independants and underground music, electronique hardcore hardtek tribe techno ragga jungle drum n bass dubstep breakbeat electro. Dear guest, welcome to www. They sell top-notch vinyl. You’ll need an LRS in order to do anything with xAPI. The Voidz Soccer Jersey (Limited) $60. in Columbus Ohio. The Original WuName Generator! Please enter your name to the left! WE CAN WU YOU!. Sweet Memories Vinyl Record Shop (UK; Over 10,000 rare vinyl records from 1950 til now) Timeless Music (hard to find and rare vinyl/CD) Used CD search 'A used CD search engine - search from hundreds of CD stores worldwide' Vinyl Exchange ('Manchester's largest secondhand record shop' - vinyl & CD) V Vinyl. not a record store, but it does have Harp CDs that you can buy at the center or online. Free Shipping on Orders over $75+. 00 CDs FOR $30. Each of these record store supplies and merchandising fixtures is hand-selected so shop managers can get they most out of their inventory. Another plus, unlike most Tokyo record stores, the store is really easy to find and just 10 minutes from the station. and lots of overstock CD's through Amazon,. "This record is called 16. Sell new & used CDs, DVDs and records online or at our NJ store. All throughout the day, we'll be listing the online sales of Record Store Day items, along with the stores that are offering certain deals on their current stock. Welcome to our online store! On this page we highlight a few awesome Stinkweeds merch items, some of our favorite new releases, and you can even order a Stinkweeds gift certificate! We can ship your order or can you choose to pick up your purchases in-store. 4, 2019 /PRNewswire/ — Milan Records, an imprint of Sony Music Masterworks, today releases EUPHORIA (ORIGINAL SCORE FROM THE HBO SERIES) with music by chart-topping, multiplatinum-selling artist and producer LABRINTH. Record Wonderland sells, buys and trades vinyl records and other audio wonders. Online dance vinyl and CD store. New, Used, Fast Shipping, Tested Guaranteed. Find the record, CD or DVD you've been looking for at an affordable price in our huge collection. Aphex Twin is opening an online record store. Welcome to Japan Records. Michigan Harp Center – in Clawson (just north of Detroit). NETR Online • Niagara • Niagara Public Records, Search Niagara Records, Niagara Property Tax, New York Property Search, New York Assessor Property Data Store Public Records Online. Online business has the advantage of low startup cost as you won't need to spend for a physical location, shop fittings, and overhead. Orders from outside the EU exclude VAT and may be liable to local tax and import duty. new records and cd Store. Dine Alone Records 864 Eastern Ave. LuckyPants. Our team is always looking for new and rare recordings. Juno: Vinyl, DJ equipment and studio equipment. A combo record store, label office and performance spot, Invisible City is a tidy, welcoming space that attracts a lot of foot traffic in its neighbourhood of art studios, antique shops and. Looking for Vinyl Records? Vinyl Destination has a huge range of LPs at great prices. cshafer's compositions are sumptuous yet unfussy, recalling perhaps the concise, vignette-oriented tape works of andrew chalk, which seem to prioritize spontaneity. Now we proudly offer our landmark deep catalogue to browse and shop online. A post shared by Scotti's Record Shop (@scottisrecordshop) on Oct 23, 2019 at 10:27am PDT. EXCLUSIVE: VAN HALEN - THE JAPANESE SINGLES 1978-1984 Limited Edition Red Vinyl 7" Singles Boxed Set. Tracklib is a new music service where every song can be licensed for release in minutes. The Washington Post fingered online sales, specifically mentioning iTunes next to a chart showing CD sales down and online sales up dramatically. Here you can buy high quality rare music - original CDs and DVDs that were released in limited editions, live records of famous musicians, remixes that have been unreleased until then, even some CD-rs that have never been released officially. com Online Record Store Reissues of Psychedelic,Progressive,Soul,Folk,Jazz, Funk, Brazil, Latin,Lounge,Library,Soundtracks Vinyl. In fact, depending on what your end goal is, you can start an online store for less than $6 a month. 10 lost but not forgotten record stores in Toronto Music. But seriously we don't email that much, we save our facebook for the regular silliness. Vinyl Me, Please is a record of the month club. With over 20. The stock is mostly composed of used records, though there’s also a decent selection of new releases and repressings, as well as CDs, music-related books, cheap record players and a few t-shirts. If you've been impressed by a band at one of the best gigs in Hong Kong lately or have enjoyed rummaging through the city's best secret shops and are looking for more of the same, then check out. Welcome to Vinyl Garage Sale; the place for finding vinyl records on the web. Record Tree now offers a USB wallet card making it even easier to store your vital records in one location. Sign up for UO Rewards and get 10% off your next purchase. and lots of overstock CD’s through Amazon,. Vinyl lps music, rare Records, used music, hard to find songs, record restoration, restoration, Record oldies, big band music, long play albums, vinyl Recording, collectors recordings, 33 rpm Record. Fast and easy delivery. We carry a large variety of both used and new LPs across the spectrum of music genres. Follow Us On Instagram. gishkay edited Round Midnight Records 7 hours ago erlich. We guarantee personalized service from people who love music! 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London Drugs is the perfect place to find brand new vinyl for your music library. Finders Records has been an independent resource of music and vinyl records since 1971. Learn about the day-to-day activities of a record store owner, the typical target market, growth potential, startup costs, legal considerations, and more!. Personal data relates to a living individual who can be identified from that data. Shop now!. com – Online record label and vinyl store in the UK (Essex). Please take some time and explore our extensive selection of vinyl records, CD's, DVDs, Import and Domestic releases. When officially launched the store will include an assortment of rare vintage and new sealed records, rare concert posters and record store marketing posters too. Buy and sell music with collectors in the Marketplace. 10 YRS RMX EP2 (Markus SuckuT, BNJMN, Aubrey, Tripeo mixes) Jaunt. Reverb LP is a marketplace bringing together a wide-spanning community to buy, sell, and discuss all things records. Sus artistas redefinen el género, se posicionan en los primeros lugares de las listas y generan gran impacto en las redes sociales. Vinilo, independent vinyl record store serving fresh filter coffee in Southampton city centre. In 1978 another location was opened in Decatur and we’ve been buying, selling and trading records ever since. 400 SW 2nd Avenue. The day brings together fans, artists, and thousands of independent record stores across the world. Choose from a huge selection of used CDs, used DVDs, used Blu-rays, and used Video Games. Buy and sell your used music, DVDs, and Blu-rays online for cash or credit. This is Only a PARTIAL selection of our Inventory! Scotti’s We stock a wide array of music mediums and genres. Online dance vinyl and CD store. srcvinyl is an online vinyl record shop. The original in San Francisco is also worthy, but the LA location gets. Online vinyl records store stocking specialist and hard-to-find indie, alternative, experimental and electronica music. or drop in anytime ! Located in BERKELEY, CA. 20,000 collectable, rare vinyl records from the 50s 60s 70s 80s 90s to date, available to order from our Online Vinyl Shop. The name escapes me. Latest Arrivals. Shop for thousands of records with great prices or visit our Melbourne store for a hands-on experience. Scotti’s Record Shop. Free Shipping on Orders over $75+. We also carry new release LP albums, re-issue LPs and many music related accessories such as turntables and record players. Get In Touch. Order Online! You may order online with Mastercard, Discover, or Visa, or pay by check or money order. More than 800,000 items in stock. Shop our huge variety of records and CDs from rock to rap to country to classical. [fts facebook page id=107651117758 posts_displayed=page_only type=page title=no]. Music Zone are one of Ireland's largest stockist of vinyl records. In their own words: "Fads come and go but we still always sell good dance music, that's basically it. The benefits of stores ledger are given below: (i) It is an account record which provides information about receipt, issue nod balances both in quantity. Trappist Afterland was formed in 2010 and is the Psychedelic folk project fueled by the religious ruminations of songwriter and multi instrumentalist Adam Cole (oud,guitar, Lute,tanpura Bodhran,Vocals). It's a mix of mail order stores, physical store sites, label stores and a couple of distributor sites - but all are places where you can buy vinyl records. We pay attention to high quality standards. Pete/Tampa Bay area!. Ship Worldwide. 400 SW 2nd Avenue. EXCLUSIVE & FEATURED LABELS: Music On Vinyl, Mobile Fidelity Sound Labs, GrooveWasher, Goldmine Magazine, Third Man Records, 453 Music, Asbestos Records, Jett Plastic Recordings, Exhibit Records, iHipHop, Intervention Records, Muddy Roots Music Recordings, Alona's Dream, Orange Mountain Music (Philip Glass), Small Stone Records, The Right Now Music, Cass Records, Slovenly Recordings, Crypt. Delivered to your door. The number of record stores in Toronto is a testament to Torontonians' loyalty to - and love of - vinyl records. You can give us a call for any inquiries about selling your collection. Latest News. Colony Road, Wallingford, redscrollrecords. The 15 Best Record Shops in Berlin. ultramusicstore. "It's not like with every record there's going to be a bootleg. Sydney Record Store. Welcome To Recycled Records. Available on mp3 and wav at the world’s largest store for DJs. The inventory may not be the biggest, but the condition of records are only the best. and lots of overstock CD's through Amazon,. EXCLUSIVE: VAN HALEN - THE JAPANESE SINGLES 1978-1984 Limited Edition Red Vinyl 7" Singles Boxed Set. We area an organisation of enthusiastic UK record traders displaying our large choice of new records vinyl and cds on-line. Burning Witches Records are excited to announce the debut BWR release of Dallas Campbells new mini album EiV. com – A great source for finding that elusive piece of vinyl. Whichever you prefer at Record Head, we have you covered. Everybody's Records If you're ever in Cincinnati, you must stop by this shop, the longest surviving record shop in Cincinnati. New and & used vinyl, CDs, and cassettes. What Records has been a major UK record retailer since 1981. The number of record stores in Toronto is a testament to Torontonians' loyalty to - and love of - vinyl records. Welcome to our online record store. With close links to local heroes Optimo and Chemikal Underground, the shop occupies a place at the heart of the Glasgow scene. Recordsalbums. Sell new & used CDs, DVDs and records online or at our NJ store. Vintage Vinyl IS buying the above, 7 days a week, and offers the option of both cash or a greater dollar amount in trade. Chandos Records is one of the world's premier classical music record companies, best known for its ground breaking search for neglected musical gems. Toronto is serious about preserving the art, with independent shops scattered throughout the. Sells All Genre Rare Japanese Vintage LP, EP, Album and Single Vinyl Records. Sun Records Does Hank Williams (Vinyl 1 LP) Regular Price: $21. com – Buy Rare & Collectible House, Jazz, Blues, Reggae, Disco, funk, Soul, World Music, Latin & Hip-hop. Tradepost Entertainment is excited to once again be part of Record Store Day on April 13, 2019. Our primary genres include pop, classical crossover. 00 You Got Me Running / Release T Colonel Abrams / Boyd Jarvis White Label. Mom n’ Pop shops were locking up left and right for the last time as listeners continued to migrate away from. We stock tens of thousands of pre-owned vinyl records and used 33 1/3 LPs. She will spend a good amount of time helping you find what you are looking for. We specialize in house music, and house classics, but carry a wide variety of techno, hip hop, drum & bass, downtempo, electro, disco, dubstep, etcdance music records, dance music vinyl, Chicago record store, dance records, chicago house. Shop for new and used CDs and Vinyl, including 45s, 10"s, 12"s, and LPs. We are a group of enthusiastic independent UK record dealers bringing you a huge selection of second hand vinyl records and CDs online. Record Stop began as a small chain of record stores on Long Island in New York. UK based online vinyl record store, specialising in Pop, Beatles, Rock, Soul, Disco, Rolling Stones Vinyl Records. If you choose to operate online, get into web marketplaces for record dealers, shops and music collectors and participate in forum to make yourself known to customers. Follow us on Twitter. You can now shop our ONLINE store 24 hours - 7 days a week. We specialize in house music, and house classics, but carry a wide variety of techno, hip hop, drum & bass, downtempo, electro, disco, dubstep, etcdance music records, dance music vinyl, Chicago record store, dance records, chicago house. Tokyo is the record buying capital of the world, a city with a record store around every bend. com will provide you with a wide selection of rockin' tunes to help you relax, pump you up or help lift up your spirits. Category containing both new and used record albums. The best damn record, in fact. Features The World’s Best Record Stores: 17 Landmarks For Record Store Day. Scotti’s Record Shop. Vinyl Loop is the top online store for exclusive deals on new release vinyl records, albums and LPs. We Buy, Sell, Trade CD, DVD, Video Game, Vinyl, Records. The financial data includes revenues, expenses and other changes to the balance sheet and. See for yourself, here you will find a large selection of rarities. Tomorrow is National Record Store Day, which gives us the perfect excuse to round up the best Philly record stores for your browsing pleasure. There are some great records in the hodgepodge that makes up this store. Lambchop share new EP ahead of NYC performance this weekend; TORRES announces Silver Tongue, new album out January 31, 2020; Kick off the season with Merge’s first compilation of holiday tunes!. and lots of overstock CD's through Amazon,. The aptly named Big Love is one of the most loved record stores not only in Japan, but the world. With over 18,000 records for sale (LP’s & 45’s) covering everything from Rock, Jazz, Blues, Soul, Motown, Punk, Heavy Metal and more. Silver Platters Events. Psychotron Records, your friendly local record shop in Birmingham. Sun Records Does Hank Williams (Vinyl 1 LP) Regular Price: $21. You can now shop our ONLINE store 24 hours - 7 days a week. We stock tens of thousands of pre-owned vinyl records and used 33 1/3 LPs. Buy from the world's largest selection of CD's, Vinyl, Blu-ray Disc & DVDs at ImportCds. It's a mix of mail order stores, physical store sites, label stores and a couple of distributor sites - but all are places where you can buy vinyl records. If you’re looking for a specific record, fill out the form below. We specialise in new, preloved, as well as new release vinyl and CDs, and much more. Store Address: Val Shively’s R&B Records 49 Garrett Road Upper Darby, PA 19082. Buy and sell your used music, DVDs, and Blu-rays online for cash or credit. Shop Urban Outfitters for your favorite old-school vinyl records and cassettes. New and Used Vinyl New & Rare OOP CD's DVD s,Books & Tapes!. sells japanese vinyl such as ryuichi sakamoto, tatsuro yamashita, yellow magic orchestra and more!. Brand new vinyl from all corners of the globe. Rediscover a classic LP, or find a refreshing new favourite. Dub Store Records presents 4 additional titles for Story of Federal Records Series!! This release features 3 more 7"s of Merritone Records and previously unleased LP by Ernest Ranglin that recorded in 1964! These are truly the must-haves to add your vinyl collections!!. Discover music on Discogs, the largest online music database. Buy tickets for events, music from fabric and Houndstooth record labels or listen to hours of CD quality music from fabric's DJs. There was for a year or two in the 1990s a record store in the mall called Little High Street, a shop packed full of imported US cut-out and new release hip-hop and R&B vinyl. 10 YRS RMX EP2 (Markus SuckuT, BNJMN, Aubrey, Tripeo mixes) Jaunt. TTL also operates a retail location in NYC. We offer FREE local pick-up* if you find something we have listed online. 2200 Ingersoll Ave · Des Moines. You'll find our collection of old classics and new favorites. What are the best record stores in Germany? A few years ago I was in Hamburg and I remember going to some great record stores there. Sus artistas redefinen el género, se posicionan en los primeros lugares de las listas y generan gran impacto en las redes sociales. Dvne signs worldwide deal with Metal Blade Records; Tribulation launches live video of “Strains Of Horror” from upcoming live album and DVD ‘Alive & Dead At Södra Teatern’ Cattle Decapitation rings in the apocalypse on Decibel Magazine cover. CDs & Vinyl ship free to the US, with no minimum purchase. Still turning up empty-handed, I reached out even further, doing research online to dig up as many record stores as possible, figuring that at least one would have used MiniDiscs somewhere. If you're looking for domestic and imported reissued music CDs, vinyl records, limited edition box sets, music DVDs, and related merchandise, we're the music store you've been searching for. Mon to Sat 10AM - 10PM & Sun 12PM - 8PM. Buy CDs, DVDs online from hbdirect. Monorail is the epitome of the community record store. Repressed Records is located in Newtown, Sydney and has been running for 13 years and independent for 100% of that time. Music lovers around the world wait all year for Record Store Day—but in Music City, every day is a record store day. We also sell dj clothing, dj equipment, turntables, cdjs, record bags, event tickets, record sleeves, stylus, cartridges, slipmats. read more →. In addition, our collection of album displays features low, wholesale price points that enable record shops of any size to purchase exactly what they need. Free Shipping on Orders Over $25! New Releases, CDs, Vinyl, Imports, Boxed Sets, Hard-To-Find. All vinyl record store located at 322 W Broad Street in downtown Richmond, Va. Spinnin' Records is the world's leading record label. Easy Street Records is Seattle's record store. There was for a year or two in the 1990s a record store in the mall called Little High Street, a shop packed full of imported US cut-out and new release hip-hop and R&B vinyl. Choose a free Online Store website template to start creating your stunning website. Wax is an online vinyl record shop based in the UK - We sell classic, rare & collectible records, with over 3000 records in stock. Looking for second hand vinyl records online? Rich Records is an independently run record store for rare and cheap vinyl. 351 Springfield Avenue, Summit, New Jersey, 07901. Lost Weekend Records was established on January 16th 2003. Louis to see these stores, the best time to do it is in April so you can catch Record Store Day on the third Saturday of the month. Browse our massive catalogue online. It's a mix of mail order stores, physical store sites, label stores and a couple of distributor sites - but all are places where you can buy vinyl records. Vinyl records, DJ equipment and studio equipment at low prices. Curators of new and not new music on CD and Vinyl. Plus, it's worth checking back if you're looking for rare and valuable albums. Everybody's is by far my favorite record shop. Signed to recording contract with EMI in 1962. com - Online record store for electronic music - Specialist for Deep House Vinyl records, Techno, House, Electronic, Retro Classics, DJ Vinyl. The UK's leading online record store. Shop for the latest devices, accessories, and software at our online computer store. Dear guest, welcome to www. Mojo offers trading and selling for vinyl records, books, dvds, cds, cassettes, equipment. World's best online vinyl record shop serving DJs since 1999. Latest Arrivals. Vertigo Music — your anti-superstore for music that matters to you. Many of these albums have been honored with awards and nominations such as MICHAEL MARTIN MURPHEY’s Grammy nominated Buckaroo Blue Grass; Lou Reid and Carolina’s DOVE nominated, Sounds Like Heaven to Me; plus. We also sell dj clothing, dj equipment, turntables, cdjs, record bags, event tickets, record sleeves, stylus, cartridges, slipmats. The stock is mostly composed of used records, though there’s also a decent selection of new releases and repressings, as well as CDs, music-related books, cheap record players and a few t-shirts. Our team is always looking for new and rare recordings. Please come and visit us in-store! Into the Music is located at: B-245 McDermot Avenue (corner of King and McDermot) and special online only promos and contests. All templates are fully customizable with drag and drop. Vinyl 7inch, 10inch, 12inch, LP, CD, DVD and more. The aptly named Big Love is one of the most loved record stores not only in Japan, but the world. 000 records Belgian finest online and local dj store, selections in Progressive, House, Tech House, Electro and much more. Funky Moose Records sells new and used vinyl records from the beautiful prairies of Saskatchewan and we spotlight music by Canadian artists. LuckyPants. The location was tucked away on Bandera and by the painting of the accordion on the front window, I had known I was in the right place. To Our World Music Store Customers World Music Store is no longer selling physical CDs. Held the third Saturday of April since 2008, Record Store Day was. The warm sound of a vinyl record is the perfect way to enhance your next gathering or enjoy a relaxing evening at home. Mostly "rock"—white guys with claims on Art & Meaning—but you could often follow the trails outawrd to country, gospel, R&B, and so on. View Details. And we do- over ten thousand of them, with many items out of print for decades. Find something that inspires you, or gives your music some soul. the a-side label has quite a story to tell and shows up many odd marks and a date sticker (as pictured). Few record stores have reached pilgrimage status, but Amoeba is a must visit for any music fan stopping through Los Angeles. Special Price $13. Cult Records is an independent record label and online record store founded by Julian Casablancas. Forbes article on preserving your record collection Amazing original album collages. We offer a wide variety of vinyl records, vinyl albums, vinyl LP'S from our online vinyl albums store. Open Tues-Sat 11am-7pm Sunday 12-6pm (closed Mondays) 804. We do not have a physical shop. Rerun Records – in metro Detroit. The 8th album by Trappist Afterland issued on vinyl on Sugarbush records. Record Store Day 2020 at Dusty Groove Saturday, April 18, 2020 — Extra long hours: 8am-9pm.
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Bengali FM English FM Gujarati FM Hindi FM Kannada FM Malayalam FM Punjabi FM Tamil FM Telugu FM Bollywood Gossips Star Interview Full Songs Bollywood Classics Song Making Song Promo Kids Campus Whatsapp Funny Videos Dil To Pagal Hai - Shahrukh Khan - Madhuri Dixit - Karisma Kapoor Dil To Pagal Hai, also known as DTPH, is a 1997 Indian musical romance film directed by Yash Chopra. The film depicts the love lives of the dancers in a musical dance troupe. It stars Shahrukh Khan, Madhuri Dixit and Karisma Kapoor, with Akshay Kumar in a supporting role. It was Khan's second collaboration with Chopra after Darr. The soundtrack was composed by Uttam Singh, while the lyrics were penned by Anand Bakshi. It was the first Bollywood film to be shot in Baden-Baden and Europa Park, both German tourist attractions. Dil To Pagal Hai was the second biggest hit of 1997, as well as receiving much praise for its storyline and soundtrack. Additionally, many critics praised the emphasis the film placed on soulmates. It also won many awards, including most of the major categories at the Filmfare Awards. Saadi Galli Aaja Full Song With Lyrics Commando Lena Dena Full Song || Vidyut Jamwal, Pooja Chopra Dan Dan Cheeni (Full Video Song) Department (2012) Hudd Hudd Dabangg Full Song with Lyrics | Dabangg Akele Hain To Kya Gum Hai - Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak - Aamir Khan - Juhi Chawla Jolly LLB Full Song Ajnabi Ban Jaye By Mohit Chauhan Heer - Full Song - Jab Tak Hai Jaan YEH JAWAANI HAI DEEWANI ILAHI REPRISE SONG WITH LYRICS Jo Tum Todo Piya - Full Song | Silsila If you liked it, spread the word Junooniyat Official Trailer 2016 | Pulkit Samrat, Yami Gautam Ishkq In Paris New Theatrical Trailer | Preity Zinta, Rhehan Malliek OMG Oh My God (2012) | Official Trailer Kyaa Kool Hai Hum - Movie Trailer Aashiqui 2 Teaser (Official) | Aditya Roy Kapoor | Shraddha Kapoor Copyright © OnLive95.com. All rights reserved.
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Practical Characteristics of Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery Cells Electrical, Lithium battery systems, Marine engineering Add comments This article is part of a series dealing with building best-in-class lithium battery systems from bare cells, primarily for marine use, but a lot of this material finds relevance for low-voltage off-grid systems as well. Batteries are about voltage, current and capacity first and foremost. This article discusses the performance characteristics of lithium iron phosphate cells in service and the key concepts associated with them. It is very important in the context of setting up lithium battery systems, but also useful when living with and operating one. The chemistry and internal construction of the cells is detailed in a separate article of a more fundamental nature. What is a Battery? A battery stores electricity and the question may appear trivial, but it is not. An ideal battery would supply any current at a voltage purely dependent on its state of charge. Real batteries don’t. Real batteries see their voltage drop under load and suddenly step up while being charged. The reason for this phenomenon is that they have an internal resistance. The higher the current flow, the higher the voltage lost to this internal resistance. The electrical symbol for a single battery cell looks like this: Ideal battery representation. Here, the voltage would purely be a function of the state of charge of the battery, at any current, which is obviously incorrect. In order to represent the variation in voltage caused by changes in current and understand the behaviour of batteries, we need to add internal resistance to this ideal battery: A simple model for the non-ideal battery. The ideal battery is in series with an internal resistance element that causes the voltage to change with the current. At rest, the output voltage reflects the state of charge of the battery. If no current is flowing, the internal resistance has no effect on the output voltage; this is why it is important to measure cell voltages at rest if the objective is obtaining an idea of the state of charge. Otherwise, the effect of electrical resistance is skewing the voltage proportionally to the current according to the relation: ΔV = R x I Upon discharge, we can now observe the following effect, which does model the reality of a battery discharging at a steady rate: Under discharge, the voltage at the terminals is lower than the true voltage of the cell because its internal resistance is introducing a loss equal to R x I in the direction of the current. As a consequence, the voltage measured at the terminals of the battery no longer reflect its state of charge. This is why the state of charge of any battery can only be deduced from a stabilised voltage measurement taken at rest: it is called the stabilised open-circuit voltage (OCV). A similar situation arises when charging: While charging, the voltage at the terminals is higher than the true charging voltage of the cell because its internal resistance is introducing a loss equal to R x I in the direction of the current. Now, the internal resistance of the battery is making the charging voltage at the terminals look higher than it actually is in terms of actual state of charge of the battery. Here is a real-world illustration of this behaviour: We were in the process of building a brand new lithium iron phosphate battery bank on a sailing catamaran, charging 400Ah of cells for the first time with both engines running. The charging current had been a solid 180A for almost an hour. The cell voltages, which had initially jumped up around 3.40V, were gradually rising. When they reached 3.60V, we shut one engine down in order not to exceed this value, reducing the current by half, down to 90A. The cell voltages instantly dropped down to 3.45V. We therefore lost 0.15V in cell voltage by reducing the current by 90A. We can use these figures to calculate the internal resistance of the cells using the relation presented earlier, ΔV = R x I: In this case, we have ΔV = 0.15V and I = 90A. As a result, we can write R = ΔV / I = 0.15 / 90 = 1.66mΩ 1.66 milliohms is a very small resistance figure typical of lithium battery cells, but it is nevertheless enough to significantly skew the voltage reading at high amperage. At a current of 10A, its contribution becomes only ΔV = R x I = 0.00166 x 10 = 0.0166V = 16.6mV, but still enough to be measured. We will refer to this again when discussing alternator voltage for charging, low voltage cut-off limits and cell balancing boards amongst other topics. In a bank, all cells don’t share the exact same internal resistance, so their voltage doesn’t automatically read the same when there is current flowing, even when their state of charge is identical. It becomes increasingly true as cells age. Before moving on, let’s point out that the battery model we used above featuring the cell internal resistance is correct as long as the current is steady and the voltage at the terminals has had a few seconds to stabilise. A more complex electrical model would need to be used if the transitions when the current varies were of interest, because of capacitance effects. Battery Currents Current measurements related to batteries in general are expressed in relation with their capacity rather than in absolute terms: a 100Ah battery operated at 100A is said to be charging or discharging at 1C: one time its capacity rating. A 10A current would only amount to 0.1C; a full charge at a rate of C/5 would represent a 5-hour (approximately) charge, etc. Charge and Discharge Ratings Prismatic LiFePO4 battery cells are normally conservatively rated for charge at up to 1-2C and discharge to 3C, and this implies they could theoretically be charged in 30 minutes and discharged in 20 minutes. Practically, even 1C is often quite a formidable figure when related to the size of a house bank on a yacht and recharging a near-empty battery in one hour is seldom achievable. It is not entirely desirable either for reasons that were developed earlier. The maximum recommended routine charge and discharge rate is normally about 0.3C for long-term, sustained operation, but higher currents are obviously acceptable at times, if achievable at all. Beware of Short-Circuits The short-circuit current capacity of LiFePO4 cells can easily exceed 20-30C, which is far more than needed to cause catastrophic heat damage. The greatest of precautions must be taken when working around cell connections as dropping a non-insulated tool onto any battery bank can result in molten metal flying around, a fire, disastrous burns or any combination of the three. The practical difference between working near the common deep-cycle lead-acid batteries on board and working around lithium cells is that there are a lot more exposed connections in much closer proximity and even small tools or metallic objects can be long enough to cause a short-circuit. Furthermore, in the event of short-circuit, even relatively small lithium cells are capable of delivering extremely intense and sustained currents. Incidentally, manufacturer tests have repeatedly shown that a healthy LiFePO4 cell can be bluntly short-circuited to complete destruction without reaching ignition temperature: this is due to the fact that its internal resistance is very low. The same may not hold for a previously damaged cell with an elevated internal resistance and the outcome could then be extremely different. A short-circuit test on a fully charged Sinopoly cell. The current is exceeding 1800A as the cell is venting profusely. This image was extracted from a video released by Sinopoly Battery Ltd, China, where other common battery failure modes were investigated, such as when a crew shoots into the battery with an automatic pistol. Typical Cell Operating Limits Manufacturers ratings for LiFePO4 battery cells have become more conservative in recent years as more experience was gained with the practical operation of these cells. Nowadays, the typical operating specifications for LiFePO4 prismatic cells [1] look as follow: Charging Maximum charge voltage 3.65V Recommended charge current 0.3C Maximum charge current 1-2C Cut-off current 0.033C Charging temperature range 0°C – 45°C Discharging Minimum discharge voltage 2.5V Recommended discharge current 0.3C Maximum discharge current 2-3C Discharge temperature range -20°C – 55°C State of Charge Recommended operating window 10-90% SOC Back in 2007, Thundersky, a manufacturing company later absorbed by Sinopoly Battery Ltd, was advertising its prismatic cells for charge up to 4.25V using a current of 3C and their maximum rated discharge current was 10C. Those who followed these guidelines quickly came to a great deal of grief, first and foremost with charging, destroying cells left, right and centre while charging up to the 4.25V “target” at low current. Today’s charging specifications may still appear as being on the high side, but they must be understood in the context of a constant current/constant voltage (CC/CV) charge regime with charge termination and charging to maximum capacity as the aim. The recommended upper SOC limit is 90% however, not 100%, and charging to 100% SOC in this context means absorbing the cells at 3.65V until the residual current is C/30. Anything short of this will not – by definition – achieve 100% SOC. All maximum ratings must be understood as absolute limits, not standard operating values, which is why the simplistic reasoning suggesting that 4 cells in series can be charged at 4 x 3.65V = 14.6V couldn’t be more wrong. Just as wrong as the suggestion that any old lead-acid charging system is fine for operation with lithium cells “because the voltage range is compatible”. The voltage range can be quite close, but the charging process required is very different because it needs to provide for charge termination. The specifics of charging lithium cells on board will be the subject of a separate article due to the extent of the subject, but the essential charging characteristics of LiFePO4 cells are discussed further below. Peukert’s Law and Lithium Batteries The capacity of a battery is not a constant figure: it depends on the charge and discharge current. The phenomenon was documented whilst working with lead-acid batteries as Peukert’s Law in 1897. In simple terms, Peukert’s Law states that the available capacity shrinks as current increases. The answer to the question of whether Peukert’s relation can really be applied to lithium chemistries is essentially negative [2], but the capacity of Li-ion batteries does also vary with discharge current and Peukert’s Law is all we have at present. Peukert’s Law was only ever formulated to be valid at constant temperature and we do know that Peukert’s effect in LiFePO4 batteries becomes increasingly noticeable as temperature drops below 15°C. Peukert’s relation is characterised by a supposedly constant exponent k and, in the case of LiFePO4 batteries in house bank applications, experimental data at modest temperatures has suggested a value of k=1.04. An exponent of k=1.00 would indicate no dependency between storage capacity and current, i.e. an ideal battery, and lead-acid batteries often score around k=1.25, with the figure getting worse as they age. Configuring Battery Monitors This value of k=1.04 can make for a useful starting point when configuring battery monitors, but temperature variations (which are never accounted for) can easily throw the calculation out, especially when large swings from winter to summer are involved. In the tropics, with batteries at 25°C or over, a value of k=1.02 for the exponent may be more appropriate. Trying to configure battery monitors designed for lead-acid batteries – where they already perform suspiciously at the best of times – to operate with lithium cells is fraught with uncertainty: the supposedly constant exponent k has been shown to be anything but constant with lithium-ion chemistry [3]. Provided the temperature doesn’t change significantly and the currents in operation are reasonably consistent, a set of parameters can be derived to obtain seemingly sensible readings. Rated Capacity and Actual Usage Lithium cells are usually capacity-rated at much higher currents than lead-acid batteries and the battery is deemed discharged when it can no longer supply the discharge current. Capacity rating for discharge at 0.5C (2-hour discharge) or 0.3C are common for prismatic lithium cells, while lead-acid cells are normally rated at C/20 (20-hour discharge). The practical consequence of this is that lithium batteries commonly appear to exceed their capacity ratings at the average currents normally run on board a yacht. Peukert’s Law can be formulated as: C2 = C1 x [ C1 / (I2 x T1) ] (k-1), where: C1 is the battery capacity when discharged in T1 hours at a current I1, and C2 is the calculated capacity when discharged at a current I2. k is the Peukert exponent discussed earlier. What can we expect from a 100Ah lithium battery rated at 0.5C = 50A when used as a house bank and discharged at C/20 = 5A instead? We have C1 = 100Ah, I1 = 50A, T1 = 2 hours, I2 = 5A and we will use k = 1.04: C2 = 100 x [ 100 / (5 x 2) ] (1.04 – 1) = 100 x 10 0.04 = 109.6Ah The same 10% gain stands for a 200Ah battery discharged at 10A, etc. Rated lithium battery capacity at 0.5C Discharge current at C/20 Effectively available capacity 100Ah 5A 109.6Ah 200Ah 10A 219.2Ah These differences can become quite significant in larger banks, as a 400Ah battery discharged at 10A only would now exhibit a theoretical capacity of 476.6Ah. Such calculations are fraught with uncertainty however due to the temperature dependency for the value of k, but matching results have been demonstrated experimentally. At very low temperatures, some of the battery capacity simply becomes inaccessible altogether. Low Temperature Effects Capacity Reduction Capacity is also quite sensitive to temperature effects. Lithium cells offer more capacity and higher performance at higher temperatures, including at excessive temperatures causing accelerated ageing. At freezing temperatures, the available capacity upon discharge shrinks quite significantly [4], but is recovered once the cell warms up again. Available capacity as a function of temperature for a low voltage discharge cut-off threshold of 2.5V/cell (Plot courtesy of Tsinghua University) This phenomenon highlights the fact that lithium ions become more and more difficult to extract from the graphite matrix of the anode as temperature drops and only relatively superficial charge carriers are available at low temperatures; the balance of the capacity effectively becomes “locked-in” out of reach. This loss of available capacity also translates into a lower discharge voltage, with the low voltage cut off point being reached earlier. Constant current voltage discharge curves at different temperatures. The low voltage cut-off threshold leaves significant capacity locked into the battery at freezing temperatures (Plot courtesy of Tsinghua University) Accepting a lower low voltage cut-off threshold would be a way of regaining access to some of this locked-in capacity in sub-freezing conditions, but the matter is only of real interest for automotive applications. Cut-off voltage = 2.5V Cut-off voltage = 2.0V T = 25°C C = 100% T = 15°C C = 98% T = 0°C C = 90% T = -10°C C = 74.5% C = 87% T = -20°C C = 56% C = 72% For all practical purposes on marine vessels, battery temperatures below freezing should be uncommon unless the water also freezes around the hull. Capacity reduction is then limited to about 10% only in the worst case, which should be negligible. While discharge at low temperature yields both reduced power and capacity, it is harmless to the cell. The same cannot be said of low temperature charging. Cold Temperature Charging Cold temperatures are known to be detrimental to the cells if they are exposed to charging. Cycling performance tests at varying temperatures showed the apparent existence of a threshold below which capacity fade with cycling suddenly accelerated. This threshold appeared to be above the temperature of 0°C often suggested as limit for recharging, but the data available was limited and the exact details of cell manufacture are likely to influence this value. The intercalation of lithium ions into the graphite matrix of the anode becomes more difficult as well at low temperatures and lithium ions ejected out of the cathode and unable to soak into the anode instead plate its surface and edges; this lithium is then irreversibly lost. This suggests that fast charging in particular becomes increasingly harmful to the cells as temperature drops. Voltage and State of Charge Characteristics A LiFePO4 cell has a rated nominal voltage of 3.2V. In practice, 3.2V is only reached when heavily discharged (or under significant load) and the normal operating voltage is about 3.3V. This implies that a 12V nominal lead-acid battery made up from six cells in series for a total of about 12.7V in operation can be substituted with four LiFePO4 cells instead, for a resulting voltage of about 13.2V. On-board power from a lithium bank shows an improved and much more constant system voltage; most of the equipment runs noticeably better, from pumps to SSB transceivers. Lights don’t dip either when a load is turned on, because its low internal resistance translates into much less voltage sag. The state of charge (SOC) of a lead-acid battery can normally be deduced from its voltage, but only as long as the battery has been at rest long enough for the reading to stabilise. Lead-acid batteries have significant internal resistance, especially when no longer in their prime and drawing current from them immediately skews the reading to the downside. Lithium batteries are similar, other than for their much lower internal resistance and a more complex relation between state of charge and voltage, which exhibits a prolonged flat when the cells are in the 40% to 65% SOC range. Outside of this region, voltage readings do provide very useful indications of the state of charge. Single LiFePO4 cell stabilised open circuit voltage as a function of the state of charge (Data courtesy of Tsinghua University) The cell voltage differs depending whether the cell was being charged or discharged before the voltage was allowed to stabilise. In nearly all instances on board yachts, small loads quickly bring the voltage back in line with the discharge curve. If this higher resting voltage following charging appears to dissipate very quickly, it is a tell-tale sign that the cells have been abused and suffered electrochemical damage. LiFePO4 4-cell battery stabilised open circuit voltage as a function of the state of charge (Derived from data courtesy of Tsinghua University) At rest, or for low charge and discharge currents, the above plots are extremely useful for estimating the state of charge, even just by glancing at the voltmeter: Voltage reading Assessment Capacity 13.3V or more Near full Over 80% Above 13.2V Plenty of reserve At least 70% Below 13.15V Getting on the low side Less than 40% Below 13.0V Definitely getting low Less than 25% The owners of installations cycling moderately who can refrain from making an automatic beeline to the nearest marine electrical retail store can be pleasantly surprised to discover that the addition of a random number generator battery monitor to the system can be completely superfluous with lithium, as long as a simple voltmeter and a little knowledge are available. Current and Power Efficiency Lithium batteries in general are near 100% current efficient: this means that charging 1Ah yields a typical discharge of 0.997Ah at a similar current. This is hugely higher than what lead-acid chemistry can achieve and often results in gains of 30-50% in charging efficiency when a lead-acid house bank is replaced by LiFePO4 cells on a yacht. The net effect with solar arrays is as if the size of the array had suddenly become significantly larger and a change to a LiFePO4 bank can be a more sensible answer to energy issues than adding more panels or running an engine. Power efficiency, on the other hand, sits around 95%, but varies with current: expend 100Wh charging and you will retrieve about 95Wh on discharge. The difference stems from the fact that the charging voltage needs to be a little higher than what is available afterwards during discharge. In marine use, current efficiency is what matters, because finding a little more voltage is never an issue. Charging Characteristics With regard to charging, lithium cells are both far simpler to charge and totally different than lead-acid cells. As a consequence, they should also be managed differently. Another important aspect is that recharging a fresh, new cell can be very different and much easier than recharging a cell which has just seen a large number of partial charge and discharge cycles, due to memory effects which are discussed further below. The most commonly documented charging regime for lithium cells is constant current, constant voltage (CC-CV). It is also one that is essentially never achieved with marine installations: on-board systems deliver variable current, limited voltage mixed with partial charge/discharge cycles. As a result, the only parameters that actually matter are the maximum voltage the battery is allowed to reach during charging and the way the charge is terminated, because those determine the outcome of the charging process. What is Charging Voltage? The charging voltage is basically the voltage at the battery terminals during charging. The battery user essentially has no control over this voltage for most of the charging process: the battery absorbs all the current provided and the voltage rises at its own pace, as the state-of-charge increases. The voltage can only be controlled – by reducing the charging current – once it would start to exceed a limit. I remember once reading a senseless post about an alternator. The author was complaining that the regulator was “useless” because “it limited the voltage instead of charging at the desired setpoint”. What this person didn’t understand is that the voltage reaches a value that depends on the state of charge of the battery and, with the alternator at full output already, there is nothing more the regulator can do until the voltage naturally rises enough to warrant limiting it. The parameter the user has control over is the end-of-charge voltage. The end-of-charge voltage is simply the voltage limit used by the charging system before the charge is terminated. Because of the higher internal resistance of lead-acid batteries, the charging voltages rises both earlier and a lot more rapidly than what is observed with lithium cells. Lithium cells commonly charge at 3.4V or less for very long periods of time while soaking up full current and, when the voltage finally begins to increase, the battery is already significantly charged. The Relation Between End-of-Charge Voltage and State of Charge The relation between the end of charge voltage and the state of charge eventually achieved by a LFP cell can be explored by charging battery cells using a range of maximum voltage limits until the current has reduced down to a very small value each time before discharging them again to assess capacity. Such an experiment was conducted by Powerstream [5] in 2014 with four different brands of LiFePO4 cells of the same size, which were charged until the current had reduced down to about 0.013C. This is quite a low charge cut-off current and it must have resulted in extended absorption times. I used their published experimental data to plot a more interesting graph showing the state of charge reached against the absorption voltage limit. The graph above illustrates that while 3.3V is insufficient to recharge a cell, 3.4V is enough to obtain near 100% capacity already and limiting voltage cannot realistically prevent overcharging without also compromising charging.It also highlights that using high absorption voltages essentially fails to achieve anything as far as capacity is concerned, but charging times would certainly be reduced if also shown. LFP cells simply don’t really charge at voltages up to 3.3V and then fully charge already at 3.4V and upwards. The transition is so abrupt that claiming to control the charging process by adjusting the voltage is purely and simply bound to fail. Charging at reduced voltages, down to 3.4V/cell, only increases the absorption time and therefore the overall charging time, but achieves strictly nothing in terms of preventing the battery from getting fully charged and then overcharged. It only takes longer for this to happen. Furthermore, low-voltage charging opens the door to severe longer term performance issues which arise from memory effects in the cells. Memory Effects Memory effects in LiFePO4 cells were discovered and studied by Sasaki et al. [6] and the results published in Nature Materials in 2013. The authors illustrated that, under specific circumstances, the prior cycling history of a cell alters the voltage curve during charging by causing the voltage to increase faster and earlier than expected. Memory effect in LFP cell following different incomplete charge and discharge cycles. Note that the voltage is referred to the potential of a lithium electrode (plots from from [6]). For a memory effect to appear, an incomplete charge cycle followed by a rest period and a discharge must have taken place earlier (memory-writing cycle). A partial charge followed by an immediate discharge is not sufficient to record a memory of the incomplete cycle [7]; this is important because the practical consequence is that a charge-and-hold strategy is particularly harmful when full charge was not achieved. It is not uncommon for DIY lithium battery systems to implement deficient charging strategies which in fact result in this scenario taking place and it is detrimental to the long-term performance of the battery bank. When a memory-writing cycle has been completed, an abnormal increase in voltage can be observed afterwards as the charging process approaches the point where charging had stopped earlier; this creates a bump in the charging curve. Partial charging of all common types of lithium cells (with the notable exception of lithium titanate oxide Li4Ti5O12) leaves the cell with divided lithium-rich and lithium-poor phases which persist during and after discharge. In order to erase the cell memory of the previous interrupted cycle(s), a full charge must be performed (memory-releasing cycle) and this requires overcoming the bump caused by past partial cycles. The memory effect was found to strengthen with the number of incomplete charge cycles performed before the erase cycle. It was also strengthened when a partial charge was followed by a shallow discharge, rather than a deep discharge. These latter aspects have proved to be of key significance when considering the longer term performance of LiFePO4 batteries in house bank applications, because incomplete charge cycles are common when relying on renewable energy sources and shallow discharge cycles are also frequently experienced. These have the potential to render battery banks near unusable after as little as 2-3 years in regular service in the absence of memory-releasing cycles. Ineffective memory-releasing cycles are very common in DIY installations where the charging process is not properly controlled and/or configured incorrectly by fear of overcharging or due to widespread mythologies. An absence of memory-release cycles caused by ineffective charging allows the voltage bump caused by the memory effect to grow over time. If the absorption voltage and/or the absorption time are insufficient to overcome it, the charging process gradually terminates earlier and earlier. This has a compounding effect as memory-writing begins to occur at lower and lower values of SOC over time and the available capacity of the battery can disappear almost completely without any loss of lithium or chemical degradation as such. Recovering battery banks in this state can be challenging and require many memory-release charging cycles using high absorption voltages, followed by deep discharge. For these reasons, LiFePO4 batteries should be charged properly whenever the opportunity arises, so the effects of unavoidable previous partial cycles can be wiped out while it is still relatively easy to do so. This calls for a robust absorption voltage and a charging strategy providing adequate charge absorption. Anything else falling short of this will eventually result in significant performance and capacity issues. While we showed earlier that voltages as low as 3.4V/cell were able to fully charge and even overcharge a LFP cell, this must now also be considered in the context of memory effects altering the charging curve of the cells. My experience so far has been that any termination voltage below at least 3.5V/cell should be considered as inadequate if the installation experiences incomplete charge cycles. Any charging system that is unable to provide an adequate absorption down to at least C/20 or less when required should also be considered as unfit for purpose, because it will fail to deliver charge cycles capable of erasing the cell memory. Overcharging means applying a charging voltage to an already fully charged battery. As we just highlighted the fact that – given enough time – lithium batteries always fully charge at 3.4V/cell or above, any voltage from 3.4V up can most definitely overcharge and damage a lithium battery. How quickly this happens certainly depends on how high this voltage is, but – unlike what is observed with lead-acid chemistry – there is no such thing as a safe charging voltage that can be maintained continuously with lithium cells. All charge cycles must end when or before the battery becomes full. A lead-acid battery benefits from what is known as a shuttle reaction, which does (within reason) allow excess energy to be absorbed and dissipated. This mechanism is not present in lithium batteries and it makes them very intolerant to overcharging. A lithium battery that is being held at an elevated voltage with zero current flowing in has been overcharged and is getting damaged. This situation commonly happens with many marine charge controllers, including and especially some supposedly designated for lithium banks. The “lithium” versions of the Genasun GV-5 and GV-10 MPPT solar charge controllers are prime example of this as they maintain 14.2V on the battery indefinitely (based on units inspected in 2015) Charge Termination Since absorption voltage can’t practically be used to limit charging, it becomes a matter of determining when to stop. Charge termination ideally needs to occur before the battery is completely full, because most of the stress on the battery happens when it runs out of lithium to transfer, or when it can’t transfer lithium ions fast enough, such as when the charge rate is very high and the voltage is allowed to rise excessively. The tell-tale sign of a fully charged (or overcharged) battery is that it is no longer able of absorbing any significant current, or even any current at all Voltage-Based Termination If charging at very low currents, such as 0.05C, where internal resistance doesn’t meaningfully skew the voltage reading, termination can be implemented based on a voltage threshold on the basis that the current is then known to be low. A small solar system charging a sizable bank can fall in this category. In this case, charging must stop when the target voltage is reached and not resume until the voltage has dropped to a level indicating that the battery can and needs to be recharged again. At higher currents, this strategy would err on the safe side by leaving an undercharged battery, but it is unsatisfactory, because charge absorption is still essential with lithium cells in order to erase the memory from previous partial cycles and make a good use of the capacity installed. Time-Based Termination Schemes involving a timed absorption period perform an approximate charge termination only. If the battery requires bulk charging and the duration of the absorption period has been determined wisely, a good charge cycle may result. If the battery is already full when charging begins, it will invariably suffer throughout the undesirable absorption phase; using a lower absorption voltage limits the stress placed on the cells, but fails to properly address the issue, increases the overall charging time and opens the door to long-term capacity problems resulting from memory effects. Nearly all so-called “smart” alternator controllers typically implement a time-based absorption strategy to provide a charge termination that is anything but smart… any charge termination is still a lot better than none however. Absorption times with lithium iron phosphate batteries are typically in the 30-40 minutes range in most situations when charging with high-current sources, and much less if the battery is being charged at low current. If a time-based termination is going to be implemented, then the absorption time should be determined experimentally by monitoring the current taper. If the battery is suffering from memory effects due to previous repeated partial charge cycles, then the required absorption time can increase very significantly and a time-based termination will interrupt the charge before the cell memory has been cleared. Optimal Charge Termination In all instances where significant charging currents are present or where the battery has seen a large number of interrupted and partial charge cycles, correct termination can only be obtained by monitoring both current and voltage to make an informed decision. The voltage must be up at the absorption setpoint while the current is down at the charge termination limit; this indicates that the ability of the battery to absorb further charge is near its end. The final state of charge achieved depends on the combination of maximum voltage and minimum current, but changing the termination current is the only reliable way of altering the state of charge obtained and the voltage must always be sufficient to ensure memory effects from previous partial cycles can be overcome. Charging equipment intended for lead-acid batteries is hardly ever able to perform a proper charge termination, because overcharging lead-acid cells (with the exception of gel-cells) is acceptable to some extent, there are no real safety considerations arising and batteries are relatively inexpensive. The functionality required is not present and the addition of the word “lithium” in the product brochure typically does exactly nothing to remedy to this situation. While battery voltage is always available, battery current is either not measured or the information is not exploited by the equipment. For this reason, the only place for realistically determining charge termination in a lithium battery system is at the BMS and the BMS should supervise the charging process. [1] CALB CA180FI and Sinopoly LFP200AHA cell datasheets. [2] D. Doerffel, S.A. Sharkh, A critical review of using the Peukert equation for determining the remaining capacity of lead–acid and lithium-ion batteries, Journal of Power Sources, 155 (2006) 395–400 [3] N. Omar, P. Van den Bossche, T. Coosemans and J. Van Mierlo, Peukert Revisited—Critical Appraisal and Need for Modification for Lithium-Ion Batteries, Energies 2013, 6, 5625-5641; doi:10.3390/en6115625 [4] L. Lu, LiFePO4 battery performance testing and analysis for BMS, Department of Automotive Engineering, Tsinghua University (2011) [5] http://www.powerstream.com/lithium-phosphate-charge-voltage.htm [6] T. Sasaki, Y. Ukyo and P. Novak, “Memory effect in a lithium-ion battery”, Nature Materials, Vol. 12, June 2013; doi:10.1038/nmat3623 [7] H. Kondo, T. Sasaki, P. Barai and V. Srinivasan, “Comprehensive Study of the Polarization Behavior of LiFePO4 Electrodes Based on a Many-Particle Model”, J. Electrochem. Soc. 2018 165(10): A2047-A2057; doi:10.1149/2.0181810jes 8 Responses to “Practical Characteristics of Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery Cells” Patrick Bryant says: In all instances where significant charging currents are present, achieving proper termination requires monitoring both current and voltage to make an informed decision.” This approach does not work well when the charging power available is variable: like with PV sources on a moving vessel with variable PV shading by sails and masts, which will produce output current dips that do not relate to battery SOC. Instead, I am using coulomb counting: measuring amp/hours in and out. When my bank reaches 80% SOC, I terminate charging. This requires occasional recalibration, I set 50% SOC as a floating voltage of 13.18 volts. Charge termination based on residual current always works and it is the only correct way to terminate. An output current dip caused by external factors produces a corresponding voltage dip and the termination condition is not met. From a practical implementation point of view, charging is a slow and gradual process and it is common to impose that the termination condition V > V_target and I < I_residual needs to last from a few seconds to a few minutes. This further protects the algorithm from false positives. Coulomb counting is notoriously unreliable, i.e. impossible to carry out accurately, and terminating charging “at 80%” is nonsensical. Lithium iron phosphate cells need to be recharged correctly (which means fully and without overcharging) at least from time to time when the opportunity arises in order to erase the memory effects caused by partial cycles. When this doesn’t happen, the available capacity shrinks over time and the system eventually becomes unusable. The whole “incomplete, weak charging theory” originated from: 1/ a technical inability to correctly implement charge termination and, 2/ the operation of banks without cell balancing, which drift out of balance and start causing voltage issues near the top after some time. However, it is garbage and leads to bigger issues a little further down the track. Francis Hemeter says: I am about to install a DIY 400AH Winston (8 cell 24V) system. I have a victron 100/50 Solar Charge controller, and a 3000/24v 70Amp inverter charger. 30A DC to DC charger First of all I read about low current 0.05C – 0.033% (for me looking at 20A or greater when installed 8S) which means my original idea for initial top balancing of using a 10Amp power supply is out, even on a single cell but in a paralleled bank totally out. So for initial top balance Instead, stop the charging process, let the cells rest for a few hours, and measure the terminal voltage. When the resting open-circuit cell voltage reaches 3.35 volts (measured with a very accurate meter), you are done. Stop there! For normal operation I can program the changers (also have a programable BMS for cell / secondary protection) -Solar 1300W PV array but that is max in theory, stop on voltage with no absorption? In theory sometimes it could be putting out more 20A, like twice that would I be better treating it is a larger current and have some absorption time (lower voltage) 30A DC to DC charger voltage with absorption time (at a lower voltage?) Victron 70A inverter/charger absorption time (at a lower voltage?) Your recommendations would be appreciated. I want to protect my investment in the battery bank. Hello Francis, 0.033C for a 400Ah bank is 13.2A termination current, so 10A is close enough and you should be able to charge new cells up to 3.65V and stop. There is no need to make things more complicated than they are. It is just a one-off charge of a battery. No absorption is out of the question with LiFePO4 cells. The absorption time needed varies considerably with charge current and cell health. If the bank has seen a lot of incomplete charge cycles, memory effects become very significant and lead to very long absorption times. If you are not charging up to a correct termination point, a lot of capacity becomes unreachable after a few years… or less. I am currently carrying out some tests on clearing the memory effect on a bank which has done hundreds of partial cycles and I will release the data in an article when I am done. Lead-acid chargers by themselves are basically incapable of charging a LiFePO4 battery properly in all circumstances where loads are also present. You should be getting the charge termination signal from the BMS and make the chargers comply with it. Fudging things sort of works for some installations, at least for a while, but it eventually falls apart when the bank can’t be recharged to full frequently enough. It is not so much about what you buy, but rather about how you design and build the system. My LFP bank was designed to sustain the essential electronics in my sailboat for 96 hours without a charging source. My only charging source underway is solar. So my discharge rate is C/96 (to 10% SOC) and my charge rate (worst case estimate) is C/48 (to 90% SOC). Under these conditions, how does one possibly detect C/20 (0.05C) for charge termination – when that current is more than twice the charge current available? That is why I count amp/hours in and out instead. To prevent memory effect, I charge the bank to 100% SOC on a shore power charger using current taper detection (C/20) approximately every 25 cycles. I have over 500 cycles accumulated over 3 years and I cannot detect any memory effect in my bank (400A/H 4S 4P GBS cells). The bank terminal voltage always rests (24 hours resting OCV) to 13.43 volts for an indicated 100% SOC charge, and the 24 resting OCV tracks all along the discharge curve within a few percent. The published advice completely disregards the practical needs of sub-fractional users such as myself. Not everyone has an engine-driven alternator. I have no alternator at all. I have a sailboat — not an “wind-assisted motor boat” (auxiliary sailing vessel). It is not because a boat has an engine and alternator that the energy comes from there. There is nothing uncommon to using solar for most of the charging, at low C-rates, and even extremely low C-rates in adverse conditions. Manufacturers specify charge termination at 3.65V when the current is down to C/30 = 0.033C and the charge rate was C/3 typically. As long as the battery is absorbing and the voltage doesn’t skyrocket, it is charging. There is nothing to get excited about. If you charge and discharge at very low currents, you will be able to access more capacity because there is more time available for diffusion processes. When you terminate charging at voltages lower than 3.65V, you also need to charge to a lower residual current to reach the same SOC anyway. As long as you have the opportunity to recharge properly from time to time, there is no reason why memory effects shouldn’t clear easily and they do. Things become more challenging when you DON’T have the opportunity to recharge to full for very long periods and keep cycling. You write “the bank terminal voltage always rests (24 hours resting OCV) to 13.43 volts” and so by definition there is nothing else to do about “memory effects”, because that is a full charge and possibly even an overcharge. Coulomb counting is NOT RELIABLE because you can’t have an instrument that is going to cope perfectly with a dynamic range of current extending from milliamps to hundreds of amps. As soon as you start metering, you also start accumulating measurement errors and very quickly you have NO IDEA about what the true state of charge actually is. So common sense suggests NOT to use this information to make critical decisions, unless you also have a measure of the quality of the SOC based on how hold it is and other parameters and you can make intelligent decisions integrating cell voltage, current, estimated SOC and SOC quality. There are no “special reasons and circumstances” for ignoring this and doing it anyway, because 1/ you haven’t addressed the reason why it should not be done in the first place and 2/ experience shows that there is no need for ever doing it when you are able to periodically recharge properly. David Harrison says: I’m a little late to the party here, but I have to ask: how often should a full charge be accomplished to wipe memory effects before they become permanent? Once a month? 6 months? a week? I’ve got 3 55A Midnite Classic 250s charging my 50kwh LFP bank w/ a Radian GS8048 inverter. I can adjust the bulk and adsorption voltages & time, and turn off the float. Nothing I have allows me monitor current and get that information into the Midnites or Radian in a useful way. The only way I can see accomplish a periodic full charge is to set the equalize function to 3.6v/cell and the time to a value I establish w/ a current monitor to when the charge current gets to 0 or near 0 and then have it repeat once a week/month/etc. If you have any ideas I’d love to hear them. Memory effects don’t become permanent, they just become more difficult to overcome. Your question is difficult to answer because there is not much data available and it depends too much on the operating regime of the bank. Performing a full recharge once or twice a year would appear to be quite enough in most cases. If you can’t monitor current and use this information, you can’t achieve a correct charge termination. The absorption time varies a lot with the condition (and age) of the cells, so trying to deterine a fixed absorption time is a flawed strategy. You must use voltage and current. Trying to charge LFP banks with lead-acid chargers doesn’t work properly. The BMS must measure the current and be able to control the charge termination. Lithium Battery Banks – Fundamentals Assembling a Lithium Iron Phosphate Marine House Bank
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As Kamal signs a ‘long-term’ deal, and Bamford struts his stuff in red, what next for youth ‘products’? 21st April 2015 By Rick Waghorn 6 Comments If anyone had said the name ‘Bilal Kamal’ to me before Saturday night I would have shrugged my shoulders, looked more vacant than normal and said: ‘Who?’ He only popped up on my radar courtesy of a picture in my Twitter timeline. Putting pen to paper on a ‘long-term’ Canary contract stood next to a beaming David McNally. But still he rang no bells. So, you Googled. And he’s there; on YouTube; scoring something of a worldy. For Norwich Under-14s. And he’s just signed a ‘long term’ contract. So you dig a little bit more; I’m now curious. And there he was, a 90th minute substitute for City’s Under-18s as they beat Southampton Under-18s 2-1. Southampton as in Southampton the South Coast teenage footballer factory. Top six in the English Premier League. So you dig again. Deeper this time. And there is our Bilal picking up a gong in last season’s Academy Awards. As in Colney, not Hollywood. ‘Part of the Under-14 team that beat Arsenal in the third place play-off at Premier League National Tournament before going on to win ‘Midfielder of the Tournament’,’ read the citation. OK. Cool. Hence why the kid is there putting pen to paper on a ‘long term’ contract. Aged 15? The interest was sparked by the story of Patrick Bamford. As in the 19-goal England Under-21 striker short-listed as the SkyBet Championship Player of the Season who rocked up in Norfolk on Friday night with Middlesbrough – where he is on loan from Chelsea. Chelsea producing an English talent of their own? Wow. There’s a first. And at 6ft 2in tall, he actually looks the proper Premiership part. Only, of course, Chelsea didn’t produce him. Nottingham Forest did. Born in Grantham, an A-Level student at Nottingham High School, he made two fleeting substitutes appearances for the club that had long nurtured his teenage talents before Chelsea offered £1.5m for the then 18-year-old in January, 2012. The lad was due to be out of contract that summer; his father and his agent twice turned Forest down leaving chairman Frank Clark with little or no option but to do a deal with the Premiership Champions elect. For £1.5m. There may well be a case of keeping Master Kamal’s talents ‘under wraps’; that maybe even writing this piece will be seen as doing the Canaries something of a disservice. ‘Shhh…’ used to be the response. Don’t make a fuss. Fine. If the kid is winning ‘Midfield Player of the Tournament’ in a Premier League setting and beating Arsenal to boot, he will be in the little black book of every Premier League scout in the country. Already. But, he is at least, a signed Canary player. On a long term deal. I’m guessing. But let’s say that long-term deal is five years. Takes him through till he is 20. If he progresses at his current rate of knots, he will be expected to be in and around the first team by the time he is 18 or 19. If he’s not, then he’s not that good. If they’re good enough, they’re old enough. I still remember an 18-year-old midfielder by the name of Jonjo Shelvey single-handedly dismantling the Canaries at The Valley one afternoon. These are the talents that you want in your midst; kids that are home-grown; kids that care; kids that can make all the difference at that Premier League level when the alternative is to place your faith in the next Ricky van Wolfswinkel. But here’s the fear. If Norwich start to finally churn out the kind of talents that can compete at that level, how long will they be here? Clearly, given the reported £150m prize that is membership of the EPL, City will be far better placed to see off the advances of a Chelsea or an Arsenal than Forest ever were when the King’s Road came a-calling. But money won’t matter if the opportunity on offer is Champions League football. And a big pad over-looking the Thames. It will take an extraordinary young man to say ‘Nah, I’m fine here…’ In a Norwich. Or a Nottingham. Strikes me that as Colney appears to be delivering in terms of this young man and his FA Youth Cup winning peers, you’re damned if you do… and damned if you don’t. Damned to rely on a RvW if you don’t produce your own; damned to watch a Patrick Bamford walk if you do. What the answer is, I’ve no idea. But congrats on your new deal, Bilal. Filed Under: Column, Rick Waghorn Dukether says 21st April 2015 at 8:05 am Sounds a great prospect. However, one has to ask where is the class of 2012? That great youth team that dismantled Chelski in the final of the youth cup? Only Josh Murphy has had a reasonable tilt and to be honest he has faded in the second half of the season and doesn’t look like he can lay claim to a permanent place on current form. Loza looks the ticket, but he’s only made 5 appearances and where is he now? As for the rest? Some seem happy to ply their trade in the lower leagues which is fine for a season’s loan. But when it becomes a second season, and then there’s talk of a permanent deal then I’m afraid I start to lose interest. This was a cup winning squad don’t forget and several of those lads should now be setting the world alight. One has to ask, when did we last have a youth product who blazed a trail, played first team football for a few seasons and then went on to (even) bigger and better things. I’m sure the attrition rate at other clubs is pretty high too, but I’ve lost count of the times i’ve seen yet another 18 year old starlet from Southampton warming up to come on and make an instant impact from the sub’s bench. Apart from Loza, when have we enjoyed that feeling in the recent past? I’ve often looked at this sort of thing and actually wondered the thought process of the young player. Put it like this, a young player gets his early recognition, voted midfielder of the year at u15. The future looks promising to break into a championship/ lower prem team. The question now asked is what is your wish from football? Breaking into a first team, getting games and getting established or move to a ‘ big’ club and be loaned from pillar to post in lower teams than the place you started. The list of players who disappear from trace into the grinding mill of the big clubs is endless as they are crushed under the weight of another big foreign transfer. By exhibit a – Nathan Redmond. Touted for big things, all the attributes of a class player but at this stage not ready to impact a really big club. So he stays at Norwich, gets game time, develops and then moves when he’s ready. I bet his money in our first team is very nearly or actually better than the Chelsea u21 team. Wise move to stay put and make the move when its right for his career as it actually is rather than what his potential (as yet unrealized) says it might be. In my mind is the agents selling a dream, rather than encouraging the hard work that has probably got so many young players to the stage they’re at. fribbs says How many players do Chelsea have out on loan? It can’t be good for the big clubs to hoover up all the young talent, home and abroad, then loan them out it the hope that one or two might make it. It stifles the a clubs own home grown players. There should be a limit to the number of players that a club can have out on loan. Five is more than enough! Ben K says 21st April 2015 at 11:20 am Oh, for another Chris Sutton. But what are the chances now? Josh Murphy has been, or was for a while, depending how you look at it, a refreshing sight. He may yet come good, but I have to agree that if he really was that good he’d already be a regular in the Norwich side or at another club. Cosmo P. says 21st April 2015 at 4:05 pm That young man needs a hair cut! Seriously, one Fellaini bob is 1 too many. Good luck to Bilal but the attrition rate for youth players must be pushing 98% or more. It won’t improve until there is a quota on foreign players introduced. Wonder how much he’s on – in a world where Jordan Henderson is paid 100k a week, the need for a reality check is a desperate one. Gary Field says @3 fribbs – to answer your question, earlier in the season, Chelsea had 26 players out on loan. Some were overseas on season long loans, but the majority were playing in the Championship or below. Rick, as a general question, I thought there was a minimum age before a youngster could sign a professional contract, either 17 or 18.Has this changed? Jacob Ranson@JacobRanson27· Spurs boss Jose Mourinho insists Norwich City win was an important result after failing to win last four #PL fixtures #THFC #NCFC #TOTNOR Read more ⬇️ https://t.co/rNgj7gEwDV John@JWFon· Am I the only #Ncfc fan who’s looking forward to getting Back in the championship? At least every game won’t be a survival game like the prem is and we can beat everyone on the right day yes we deserved it but we can’t afford the prem @BobRutler @hucks6dh6 @CGoreham iNorwichApp@iNorwichApp· Daily Mail: Jose Mourinho insists Harry Winks will be out for 'weeks not months' after limping off vs Norwich https://t.co/zZU5iXhfbR #ncfc #canaries Martyn Mead@MartynMead· The gap is 6 points, two wins. #staypositive #ncfc @NorwichCityFC We’ve been in worst situations. 💚💛 The Pink Un@pinkun· 🗣️ "We can be unbelievably proud of the spirit of the lads and what they brought on the pitch and for that I can't ask for more." The boss reacts to the defeat at Tottenham. 🔰 #ncfc
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19 NOV: Top artists release exclusive 'Torch Songs' for CALM Press release • Nov 18, 2016 18:15 GMT To mark International Men’s Day today, the Campaign Against Living Miserably (CALM) has launched Torch Songs, a new campaign that celebrates the power of music to lift us out of life’s low points. BBC Radio 1’s Huw Stephens will champion the campaign, which brings together top artists and music lovers to share the songs they turn to when things get tough. Stephens said: “Music is a constant, a saviour in the world which is unique to everyone. We all know how much music means to us, and can help us sometimes. The artists involved, sharing their unique cover versions of their personal Torch Songs, are magnificent. The songs strike the right note; give you hope; remind you of the possibilities; remind you you're not alone. We launch Torch Songs with some spectacular talents sharing their intimate Torch Songs with us – it’s a great way to get people talking about talking.” The first official Torch Songs, launching today to coincide with International Men’s Day, will include exclusive, unexpected covers from artists including Years & Years, The Vaccines, Frank Turner, Twin Atlantic, and Blaenavon. The songs go to radio and will become available on Spotify, iTunes, and YouTube. The campaign is expected to continue into 2017 as more artists release their Torch Songs. As each song launches they can be heard with unique Torch Songs visuals at www.torchsongs.co.uk and will build into an enlightening Spotify playlist. You don’t have to be a musician to get involved — fans are encouraged to spread awareness by sharing their own Torch Songs online with the hashtag #whatsyourtorchsong. James Scroggs, CALM’s Chair and creator of Torch Songs, said: “It’s normal for all of us to encounter tough times. We also know music is a universally powerful tool to lift the spirits. So we hope Torch Songs provides the inspiration men need to find a way through." Torch Songs - songs that guide us out of the dark Contact: Rachel Stephenson, Communications Director, CALM 07738160434 rachel@thecalmzone.net All official Torch Songs will be available on streaming platforms and www.torchsongs.co.uk from 00:00 on 19 November 2016 Music lovers can share their own Torch Song online using the hashtag #whatsyourtorchsong Launch artists include: Years & Years, The Vaccines, Frank Turner and Blaenavon Upcoming artists to release their Torch Songs include: Twin Atlantic, Lower Than Atlantis, Neil Cowley Trio, SATELLITES, Her Name is Calla, Tom the Lion, Deadwall, Post War Glamour Girls Download visual assets for artists' Torch Songs here ABOUT CALM Founded in 2006, the Campaign Against Living Miserably (CALM) is an award-winning charity dedicated to preventing male suicide. For more information visit thecalmzone.net. In 2015, 75% of all suicides in the UK were male (NISRA, GRO, ONS 2015) Suicide is the single biggest killer of men aged under 45 in the UK (NISRA, GRO, ONS 2015) CALM’s helpline & webchat are open daily 5pm-midnight thecalmzone.net/get-help CALM is a charity registered in England and Wales (1110621) and in Scotland (SC044347) Torch Songs website (from 00:00 on 19 November 2016) CALM website Mental HealthMusic social mediaSpotifybandsartistsmusicUK musicInternational Men's DayMensuicidemental health Prior to publication, it must be approved by CALM.
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They’ll never know… What millennials might be missing out on by Mahek Khetani|arts and entertainment editor If there’s anything we love as a generation, it’s making fun of ourselves. That being said, your inner 90s kid is about to be revived, see if you remember these fossils that mom and dad are always raving about. We asked a student to address an envelope for us and here’s what we got back. Impressive, yes? Kodak cameras- Those yellow babies were in the hands of every tourist. you couldn’t zoom in, you couldn’t set it on night mode and worst of all, Valencia wasn’t an option for enhancement. You just looked through the lens, turned the dial (about 17 times) then click and hope for the best. Then once you’ve printed the pics, the clunky box goes in the trash only to be replaced with another. Fickle, we know. Paul McCartney- If you’re an avid twitter user, you know that Mr.McCartney’s upcoming collab with Kanye West is deeming him as “an awesome newcomer who’s gonna go big because of Kanye.” Now it’s no one’s fault if they don’t know who the Beatles are but do you really think Kanye would team up with a newcomer? named Paul? But we understand, if in the future, a teen doesn’t know who Lady Gaga is, we may just cry ourselves to sleep listening to ARTPOP. Gameboys- If the Kodak sounded too clunky, just hold one of these badboys. The screens had the clarity of Iggy Azalea’s freestyling and the option of jump and run. And you were most likely limited to Pokemon and Mario. But on the plus side, if you dropped it down a concrete flight of stairs, it’s still good as new. (We speak from experience.) Office phones/fax machines- Those chunky gray things collecting dust in your garage, yup they still exist. But truly we don’t know why? what is a fax. Why can’t you just email it? Why is there a phone, does it even make a call? Why do I have to dial 9 first? And most importantly, of all the colors, why ash gray? Cursive- We can’t even comprehend the widespread panic that occurs during the PSAT pledge, We haven’t seen that much fear in a teenager’s eye since Debbie Cakes were removed from the lunch lines. In all seriousness though, who cares if you can loop an L in a fancy way? We can guarantee you that the person who types 60 words a minute is gonna get a job faster than Mr.Calligraphist (unless he actually wants to be a calligraphist, then good luck). Mailing an envelope- Snail mail isn’t really a thing to us to anymore, but as graduation approaches, we have to lick envelopes left and right. That being said, it’s a little important to know where the addresses go so colleges aren’t completely horrified with our generation. I mean it could be worse, at least the millennials try to learn rather than complaining that the internet is broken… arts and entertainmentcomedyentertainmentgenerationMahek Khetanimillenialsninetiesparentswhat kids dont know
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Mythology & Mystery Archaeology & Science Gematria: Esoteric Numerology Based on the Hebrew Kabbalah Having long been fascinated with the mysterious power of numbers, enough to write two books on the topic, we often sidestepped the subject of numerology because of its lack of a true scientific basis. Yet ancient and esoteric traditions looked at numerology as not only a tool for divination, but a method of acquiring knowledge beyond that of the five senses, even as a path to know the divine itself. W.E.B. DuBois once stated, “When you have mastered numbers, you will in fact no longer be reading numbers, any more than you read words when reading books. You will be reading meanings...Read more © 2017-2019 Our Ancient History. All Rights Reserved. Privacy Policy | Sitemap | Contact
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MiLB Affiliates A’s Top 50 Prospects OaklandClubhouse AZL and DSL Athletics Oakland A’s Minor League Notebook: Updates on Lazarito, Norge Ruiz and more Where will the Oakland A’s high-profile 2016 international free agent signings begin their minor league seasons? We have the details… Melissa Lockard Lazarito will make his minor league debut in the DSL. / Photo by Kimberly Contreras The short-season portion of the minor league baseball schedule officially begins on June 3rd, when the Dominican Summer League kicks off its 2017 season. The short-season New York-Penn League begins its 2017 schedule on June 21 and the Arizona Rookie League follows with its Opening Day on June 24. The A’s will have some well-known prospects on the rosters of all three short-season squads. The A’s Dominican Summer League team will open its season with high-profile international signings Lazaro Armenteros (“Lazarito”), Yerdel Vargas, Marcus Brito and George Bell on the roster, according to A’s Director of Player Development Keith Lieppman. All four players participated in the A’s US Extended Spring Training program and all four are expected to come back to the States and suit up for the A’s Arizona Rookie League team at some point later in the summer. Right-hander Norge Ruiz, another high-profile international free agent signing, will also make his official minor league debut with the DSL A’s. Ruiz, a 23-year-old right-hander from Cuba, has been working out at the A’s Dominican Academy while trying to obtain a visa to play in the United States. It is looking likely that Ruiz will get that visa sometime in mid-June and he should report to the A’s minor league complex in Mesa, Ariz., not long after that. Until then, he will pitch for the DSL A’s. Once Ruiz arrives in the US, a determination will be made as to where he is assigned. Ruiz was projected to be at a Double-A level when he signed with the A’s in December. A’s 2016 fourth-round pick Skylar Szynski won’t likely be on the short-season Vermont roster at the start of the New York-Penn League season. The right-hander experienced forearm soreness at the end of spring training and has been rehabbing the injury in Arizona. In other system news, the Sounds placed RHP Raul Alcantara on the seven-day DL. Joel Seddon will make his Nashville debut on Wednesday in game two of the Sounds’ double-header with Colorado Springs. Stockton Ports’ left-hander A.J. Puk was named the California League’s Pitcher of the Week on Tuesday. Puk has allowed just one hit over his last 10.1 innings (two starts) and he has struck-out 15 over that stretch. Puk has 69 strike-outs in 44.2 innings for Stockton this season. Related TopicsA.J. PukfeaturedGeorge BellLazaro ArmenterosMarcus BritoNorge RuizRaul AlcantaraSkylar SzynskiYerdel Vargas Prospect Q&A with Oakland A’s 23rd-round pick Jack Cushing, RHP An interview with Oakland A's 2019 23rd-round pick Jack Cushing. By Donald Moore A’s 2019 fall Instructional League roster The A's will feature a velocity camp for six pitchers for the first time. By Melissa Lockard Minor League Notebooks / 10 months ago Daulton Jefferies’ return highlights strong Opening Night for Oakland Athletics system Oakland A's affiliates went 3-1 on Opening Night. Oakland Athletics release several veteran minor league pitchers The Oakland A's released several minor league pitchers this week. Archives Select Month September 2019 April 2019 March 2019 February 2019 January 2019 December 2018 November 2018 October 2018 September 2018 August 2018 July 2018 June 2018 May 2018 April 2018 March 2018 February 2018 January 2018 December 2017 November 2017 October 2017 September 2017 August 2017 July 2017 June 2017 May 2017 April 2017 March 2017 February 2017 January 2017 December 2016 November 2016 October 2011 May 2010 January 2008 December 2007 June 2007 March 2007 April 2006 More in AZL and DSL Athletics Oakland Athletics 2019 minor league spring training schedule The Oakland A's 2019 minor league spring training game schedule. A look back at the first week of the Arizona A’s 2018 season A review of the first eight games for the 2018 Arizona Rookie League Athletics. Oakland Athletics sign OF Dairon Blanco The Oakland A's announced the signing of Cuban free agent outfield Dairon Blanco. Oakland A’s Minor League Notebook: Corey Walter completes task Oakland A’s Minor League Notebook: Injuries strike RockHounds Copyright © 2018 OaklandClubhouse.com. All Rights Reserved. | Not affiliated with Major League Baseball or the Oakland Athletics Baseball Company. | Privacy Policy | Terms of Service | Copyright © 2018 The League Theme.
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Top of page navigation - Jump to content Non-member Countries Technical website Start of Content - Jump to navigation on top of page You are here: okdia.org > association > history History of the OK-Dinghy Knud Olsen, the OK designer Memories about Axel Damgaard Olsen, the OK co-designer A brief history of the OK in south Florida A Brief History of the OK In 1957 Axel Dangaard Olsen of Seattle, U.S.A., asked the Danish yacht designer Knud Olsen to prepare drawings for a light and fast single-handed sailing dinghy based on conventional plywood construction. The resulting design was named the O.K., using Knud Olsen's initials in reverse (I guess KO would have sent the wrong message). The O.K. was intended as a preparation class for the Olympic Finn and it has followed its technical evolution ever since. Sometimes the OK even sets new standards in singlehanders. In the beginning, the OK was somerthing like a revolution, some national authorities tried to prohibit the OK, because it was 'not sailable', but after a while it became clear, that it was the sailor not good enough for the OK and not vice versa. OKs are built in plywood, G.R.P and composite construction and all forms enjoy equal racing success. Freedom of choice in hull construction is replicated in choice of rig, with choice of mast, sail and fitting entirely open. Consequently, every OK develops to suit the owner's style of sailing, while the shape of the hull is designed by a comprehensive set of rules ensuring a long competitive life span. Old boats often only need a rig up-date and minor constructional modifications to make them competitive, provided they meet modern buoyancy requirements. In the 60s and 70s, the OK class enjoyed a explosive success, with the total number of boats exceeding 10.000 and large racing fleets building up. In the 80s, the success of the popular one-design single-handed Laser affected the success of OK. In the eastern countries, the OK was the official youth single hander and after the breakdown of the socialist system, many 'old' sailors came back to the class of their youth, now with their own boats instead of club-owned. Today, we are seeing a remarkable revival of the OK class. Lots of older boats are being restored and updated, new boats are being build and participation in club races is on the rise. The OK was elected as single hander for the Asian Games 1998. This strong come-back can be contributed to the unique characteristics of the International OK-Dinghy: a light, responsive sailing dinghy that may be raced in fair and equal competition all over the world, without getting into cut-throat Olympic competition, and with the freedom to appeal to the individual that is in each of us. Since 2003 carbon masts are introduced to the class. Based on a strong history, the International OK class is facing a bright future.
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American Mercenaries Kill Two Iraqi Women Blackwater, USA contractors attacked in Fallujah, Iraq during 2004 Originally uploaded by panafnewswire U.S. Guards Kill 2 Iraqi Women in New Shooting By ANDREW E. KRAMER and JAMES GLANZ BAGHDAD, Oct. 9 — Two women died here on Tuesday when their white Oldsmobile was riddled by automatic gunfire from guards for a private security company, just weeks after a shooting by another company strained relations between the United States and Iraq. The guards involved in the Tuesday shooting were working for an Australian-run security company. But the people they were assigned to protect work under the same United States government agency whose security guards sprayed bullets across a crowded Baghdad square on Sept. 16, an episode that caused an uproar among Iraqi officials and is still being investigated by the United States. In the Tuesday shooting, as many as 40 bullets struck the car, killing the driver and the woman in the front seat on the passenger side. A woman and a boy in the back seat survived, according to witnesses and local police officials in the Karada neighborhood, where the shooting took place on a boulevard lined with appliance stores, tea shops and money changers. American government officials said the guards had been hired to protect financial and policy experts working for an organization under contract with the United States Agency for International Development, a quasi-independent State Department agency that does extensive aid work in Iraq. The organization, RTI International, is in Iraq to carry out what is ultimately a State Department effort to improve local government and democratic institutions. But a Bush administration official said the State Department bore no responsibility for overseeing RTI’s security operations. “A.I.D. does not direct the security arrangements of its contractors,” the official said. “These groups are contractually responsible for the safety and security of their employees. That responsibility falls entirely on the contractor.” A priest and relatives near the scene said that all of the people in the car were Armenian Christians, who make up a small minority group in Iraq. The Oldsmobile was shot once in the radiator, witnesses said, in front of a plumbing supply store as it approached a convoy of white sport utility vehicles 50 yards away. As the car kept rolling, a barrage of gunfire suddenly tore through its hood, roof and windshield, as well as the passenger side. The guards who were in the convoy work for Unity Resources Group, an Australian-run company that has its headquarters in Dubai and is registered in Singapore, according to a statement by the company. Unity Resources was hired by RTI to provide security in Iraq. In its statement, Unity Resources said that according to its initial information, the car had approached the convoy “at speed” and failed to stop in response to hand signals and a warning flare. “Finally shots were fired at the vehicle and it stopped,” the company said. The episode’s connection with the United States Agency for International Development is one of several parallels to the Sept. 16 shootings, in which the Iraqi government says 17 Iraqis died and 27 were wounded. The Sept. 16 episode began when a convoy operated by Blackwater USA, an American private security company hired to protect the aid agency’s officials, entered Nisour Square in central Baghdad and fired several bullets toward a car the guards apparently considered a threat. In the Tuesday shooting, like the one on Sept. 16, the car drifted forward after the initial burst, prompting guards to unleash a barrage of gunfire. And there were no government officials or policy experts in either of the convoys: the Nisour Square convoy was controlling traffic as part of a larger operation, and the convoy in Karada was on a routine movement that involved only security guards, according to American officials. Although the United States Embassy in Baghdad has said almost nothing about the Nisour Square episode while an American investigation grinds on, the Iraqi government has said its own investigation concluded that the shootings were an act of “deliberate murder” and called on the Blackwater guards to be prosecuted. Ali Jafar, a traffic policeman posted near the Karada shooting, said he thought the similarities between the cases were undeniable. “They are killing the people just like what happened in Nisour Square,” Mr. Jafar said. “They are butchering the Iraqis.” The new shootings happened at an extremely difficult time for the State Department, which relies heavily on Blackwater to protect its diplomats whenever they work outside the fortified Green Zone. As a result of new restrictions placed on Blackwater after the Nisour Square shootings, the State Department’s numerous programs for rebuilding Iraqi government and technical institutions have been seriously hampered. Embassy officials have vowed to continue their operations even as they increase oversight of Blackwater operations. But Tuesday’s episode appears to show that the new oversight comes with many loopholes: Unity Resources is not working directly for the State Department, but for RTI International, which has been contracted by the aid agency to provide experts on local governing. In fact, an American Embassy spokesman said, the State Department has no say in the operations of security companies employed by government contractors. “Their contract might be with A.I.D., but that doesn’t shed any light on their choice of security contractor,” he said. A spokesman for Unity Resources, Martin Simich, said Tuesday that he was unsure whether the guards involved in the shooting had been interviewed by American authorities. On Tuesday, the convoy of white S.U.V.’s was stopped in the eastbound lane of Karada Street at an intersection with an alley lined with low concrete homes, witnesses said. A man who works at the plumbing shop, who gave his name only as Muhammad, said the Oldsmobile was approaching the convoy from behind. He said he heard no warnings. “They shot from the back door,” he said. “The door opened and they fired.” Two witnesses said they heard a single shot first, which apparently punctured the Oldsmobile’s radiator, spilling coolant onto the street about 50 yards from where the convoy was parked. As the car continued rolling, the guards opened up with a barrage of sustained automatic fire. The car finally came to a stop about 10 yards from the convoy at a point that, three hours later, was marked by blood stains, broken glass and tufts of brown hair. The plumbing shop employee said the convoy moved out right away, without checking to see what damage had been done or to offer medical help. The Oldsmobile was towed to a nearby police station. The priest and relatives near the scene identified the driver as Maruni Uhanees, 59, and the dead passenger as Jeniva Jalal, 30. As twilight set in, family members gathered beside the car in a dirt alley outside the police station, staring at the blood and hair on the inside of the windshield. A brother-in-law of the driver, Hrair Vartanian, said Ms. Uhanees was the mother of three grown daughters. As he spoke, one daughter arrived and looked at the blood stains, crying softly. Reporting was contributed by Richard A. Oppel Jr., Qais Mizher and Ahmad Fadam from Baghdad, John M. Broder from Washington, and Graham Bowley from New York. An Israeli Strike on Syria Kindles Debate in the U.S. By MARK MAZZETTI and HELENE COOPER WASHINGTON, Oct. 9 — A sharp debate is under way in the Bush administration about the significance of the Israeli intelligence that led to last month’s Israeli strike inside Syria, according to current and former American government officials. At issue is whether intelligence that Israel presented months ago to the White House — to support claims that Syria had begun early work on what could become a nuclear weapons program with help from North Korea — was conclusive enough to justify military action by Israel and a possible rethinking of American policy toward the two nations. The debate has fractured along now-familiar fault lines, with Vice President Dick Cheney and conservative hawks in the administration portraying the Israeli intelligence as credible and arguing that it should cause the United States to reconsider its diplomatic overtures to Syria and North Korea. By contrast, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and her allies within the administration have said they do not believe that the intelligence presented so far merits any change in the American diplomatic approach. “Some people think that it means that the sky is falling,” a senior administration official said. “Others say that they’re not convinced that the real intelligence poses a threat.” Several current and former officials, as well as outside experts, spoke on the condition of anonymity because the intelligence surrounding the Israeli strike remains highly classified. Besides Ms. Rice, officials said that Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates was cautious about fully endorsing Israeli warnings that Syria was on a path that could lead to a nuclear weapon. Others in the Bush administration remain unconvinced that a nascent Syrian nuclear program could pose an immediate threat. It has long been known that North Korean scientists have aided Damascus in developing sophisticated ballistic missile technology, and there appears to be little debate that North Koreans frequently visited a site in the Syrian desert that Israeli jets attacked Sept. 6. Where officials disagree is whether the accumulated evidence points to a Syrian nuclear program that poses a significant threat to the Middle East. Mr. Cheney and his allies have expressed unease at the decision last week by President Bush and Ms. Rice to proceed with an agreement to supply North Korea with economic aid in return for the North’s disabling its nuclear reactor. Those officials argued that the Israeli intelligence demonstrates that North Korea cannot be trusted. They also argue that the United States should be prepared to scuttle the agreement unless North Korea admits to its dealing with the Syrians. During a breakfast meeting on Oct. 2 at the White House, Ms. Rice and her chief North Korea negotiator, Christopher R. Hill, made the case to President Bush that the United States faced a choice: to continue with the nuclear pact with North Korea as a way to bring the secretive country back into the diplomatic fold and give it the incentive to stop proliferating nuclear material; or to return to the administration’s previous strategy of isolation, which detractors say left North Korea to its own devices and led it to test a nuclear device last October. Mr. Cheney and Stephen J. Hadley, the national security adviser, also attended the meeting, administration officials said. The Israeli strike occurred at a particularly delicate time for American diplomatic efforts. In addition to the North Korean nuclear negotiations, the White House is also trying to engineer a regional Middle East peace conference that would work toward a comprehensive peace accord between Arabs and Israelis. The current and former American officials said Israel presented the United States with intelligence over the summer about what it described as nuclear activity in Syria. Officials have said Israel told the White House shortly in advance of the September raid that it was prepared to carry it out, but it is not clear whether the White House took a position then about whether the attack was justified. One former top Bush administration official said Israeli officials were so concerned about the threat posed by a potential Syrian nuclear program that they told the White House they could not wait past the end of the summer to strike the facility. Last week, Turkish officials traveled to Damascus to present the Syrian government with the Israeli dossier on what was believed to be a Syrian nuclear program, according to a Middle East security analyst in Washington. The analyst said that Syrian officials vigorously denied the intelligence and said that what the Israelis hit was a storage depot for strategic missiles. That denial followed a similar denial from North Korea. Mr. Hill, the State Department’s assistant secretary for East Asia and Pacific affairs, raised the Syria issue with his North Korean counterparts in talks in Beijing in late September. The North Koreans denied providing any nuclear material to Syria. Publicly, Syrian officials have said Israeli jets hit an empty warehouse. Bruce Riedel, a veteran of the C.I.A. and the National Security Council and now a Middle East expert at the Brookings Institution, said that American intelligence agencies remained cautious in drawing hard conclusions about the significance of the suspicious activity at the Syrian site. Still, Mr. Riedel said Israel would not have launched the strike in Syria if it believed Damascus was merely developing more sophisticated ballistic missiles or chemical weapons. “Those red lines were crossed 20 years ago,” he said. “You don’t risk general war in the Middle East over an extra 100 kilometers’ range on a missile system.” Another former intelligence official said Syria was attempting to develop so-called airburst capability for its ballistic missiles. Such technology would allow Syria to detonate warheads in the air to disperse the warhead’s material more widely. Since North Korea detonated its nuclear device, Ms. Rice has prodded Mr. Bush toward a more diplomatic approach with North Korea, through talks that also include Japan, Russia, South Korea and China. Those talks led to the initial agreement last February for North Korea to shut down its nuclear reactor in exchange for fuel and food aid. That deal angered conservatives who believed that the Bush administration had made diplomacy toward North Korea too high a priority, at the expense of efforts to combat the spread of illicit weapons in the Middle East. “Opposing the Israeli strike to protect the six-party talks would be a breathtaking repudiation of the administration’s own national security strategy,” said John R. Bolton, former United States ambassador to the United Nations. But other current and former officials argue that the diplomatic approach is America’s best option for dealing with the question of North Korean proliferation. “You can’t just make these decisions using the top of your spinal cord, you have to use the whole brain,” said Philip D. Zelikow, the former counselor at the State Department. “What other policy are we going to pursue that we think would be better?” Posted by Pan-African News Wire at 11:17 AM Chadians Demonstrate Against French Charity's Atte... 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Paul Ticher 22 Stoughton Drive North Leicester, LE5 5UB Data Protection support, training and publications for voluntary organisations Book a webinar Other webinar topics About Paul Ticher Contact Paul Ticher Although GDPR is derived from an EU Regulation, the UK's Data Protection Act 2018 incorporates GDPR - with only a few largely technical amendments - into UK law. Very little will therefore change once the UK leaves the EU, although it could in theory change in future, of course. The only area where problems may arise is for organisations which want to export data to the EU. Whether there are any difficulties with this will depend on whether the EU decides that the UK has an 'adequate' data protection regime. This adequacy question cannot be considered until after the UK has left the EU. Need more Data Protection support? Maybe you've just started out being responsible for Data Protection and feel a bit nervous. Or maybe you manage it OK day-to-day but occasionally hit a corker of a problem. Either way, you need my Data Protection support service. Quick and friendly support, by phone or e-mail, whenever you need it, with no limit on the number of times you use the service, and at a very affordable price. Click here for more details. I'm an independent consultant whose whole career has been spent working with charities and other voluntary organisations. If you can't find what you are looking for on this site, please contact me - by phone using the number at the top of the page, or by email using the contact form on the left-hand menu or at paul@paulticher.com. Please note: I am not a lawyer. The content of this site is for information only, and is not intended as a substitute for considered legal advice. ©Copyright 2020 Paul Ticher. Drupal Website Design and Development by NuMedia Advantage (NMA Ltd)
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Chapter Home Previous Page Prev. page Next Page Next Chapter CHAPTER 18 ................................................ 428 One-Way Hash Functions ........................ 428 BACKGROUND ........................................ 428 Length of One-Way Hash Functions ............. 429 Overview of One-Way Hash Functions ......... 430 Figure 18.1 One-way function. ....................... 430 SNEFRU ................................................... 431 Cryptanalysis of Snefru ................................. 431 N-HASH .................................................... 432 Figure 18.2 Outline of N-Hash. ....................... 432 Cryptanalysis N-Hash .................................... 433 Figure 18.3 One processing stage of ............. 433 Figure 18.4 Function f. ................................... 434 MD4 ........................................................... 434 Description of MD5 ........................................ 435 Figure 18.5 MD5 main loop. ........................... 436 Figure 18.6 One MD5 operation. .................... 437 Security of MD5 ............................................. 439 SECURE HASH ALGORITHM (SHA) ....... 441 Description SHA ............................................ 441 Figure 18.7 One SHA operation. .................... 443 Security SHA ................................................. 443 RIPE-MD ................................................... 444 HAVAL ....................................................... 444 OTHER ONE-WAY HASH FUNCTIONS ... 445 ONE-WAY HASH FUNCTIONS USING .... 445 Schemes Where the Hash Length Equals ..... 446 Figure 18.8 General hash function where ...... 446 Table 18.1 Secure Hash Functions Where ... 447 Figure 18.9 The four secure hash .................. 448 Modified Davies-Meyer .................................. 448 Figure 18.10 Modified Davies-Meyer. ............ 449 Preneel-Bosselaers-Govaerts-Vandewalle ... 449 Quisquater Girault ......................................... 449 LOKI Double-Block ........................................ 450 Parallel Davies-Meyer ................................... 450 Tandem and Abreast Davies-Meyer .............. 450 Figure 18.2 1 Tandem Davies-Meyer. ............ 450 MDC-2 and MDC-4 ......................................... 451 Figure 18.12 Abreast Davies-Meyer. .............. 451 Figure 18.13 MDC-2. ...................................... 452 AR Hash Function ......................................... 452 GOST Hash Function .................................... 453 Other Schemes .............................................. 454 USING PUBLIC-KEY ALGORITHMS ....... 454 CHOOSING A ONE-WAY HASH .............. 454 MESSAGE AUTHENTICATION ................ 454 Table 18.2 Speeds of Some Hash ................ 455 CBC-MAC ...................................................... 455 Message Authenticator Algorithm (MAA) ...... 455 Bidirectional MAC .......................................... 456 Juenemans Methods .................................... 456 RIPE-MAC ..................................................... 456 IBC-Hash ....................................................... 457 One-Way Hash Function MAC ...................... 457 Figure 18.15 Stream cipher MAC. .................. 458 Stream Cipher MAC ...................................... 458 Hash Functions 18.1 BACKGROUND A one-way hash function, H(M), operates on an arbitrary-length pre-image message, M. It returns a fixed-length hash value, h. h = H(M), where h is of length m Many functions can take an arbitrary-length input and return an output of fixed length, but one-way hash functions have additional characteristics that make them one-way [ 10651: Given M, it is easy to compute h. Given h, it is hard to compute M such that H(M) = h. Given M, it is hard to find another message, M’, such that H(M) = H(M’). If Mallory could do the hard things, he would undermine the security of every pro- tocol that uses the one-way hash function. The whole point of the one-way hash function is to provide a “fingerprint” of M that is unique. If Alice signed M by using a digital signature algorithm on H(M), and Bob could produce M’, another message different from M where H(M) = H(M’), then Bob could claim that Alice signed M’. In some applications, one-wayness is insufficient; we need an additional require- ment called collision-resistance. It is hard to find two random messages, M and M’, such that H(M) = H(M’). Remember the birthday attack from Section 7.4? It is not based on finding another message M: such that H(M) = H(M’), but based on finding two random messages, M and M’, such that H(M) = H(M’). 18 One-Way Hush Functions The following protocol, first described by Gideon Yuval [1635], shows how-if the previous requirement were not true-Alice could use the birthday attack to swindle Bob. (1) Alice prepares two versions of a contract: one is favorable to Bob; the other bankrupts him. (2) Alice makes several subtle changes to each document and calculates the hash value for each. (These changes could be things like: replacing SPACE with SPACE-BACKSPACE-SPACE, putting a space or two before a carriage return, and so on. By either making or not making a single change on each of 32 lines, Alice can easily generate 232different documents.) (3) Alice compares the hash values for each change in each of the two docu- ments, looking for a pair that matches. (If the hash function only outputs a 64-bit value, she would usually find a matching pair with 232versions of each.) She reconstructs the two documents that hash to the same value. (4) Alice has Bob sign the version of the contract that is favorable to him, using a protocol in which he only signs the hash value. (5) At some time in the future, Alice substitutes the contract Bob signed with the one that he didn’t. Now she can convince an adjudicator that Bob signed the other contract. This is a big problem. (One moral is to always make a cosmetic change to any doc- ument you sign.) Other similar attacks could be mounted assuming a successful birthday attack. For example, an adversary could send an automated control system (on a satellite, perhaps) random message strings with random signature strings. Eventually, one of those random messages will have a valid signature. The adversary would have no idea what the command would do, but if his only objective was to tamper with the satellite, this would do it. Length of One-Way Hash Functions Hash functions of 64 bits are just too small to survive a birthday attack. Most practical one-way hash functions produce 128-bit hashes. This forces anyone attempting the birthday attack to hash 264random documents to find two that hash to the same value, not enough for lasting security. NIST, in its Secure Hash Standard (SHS), uses a 160-bit hash value. This makes the birthday attack even harder, requir- ing 280random hashes. The following method has been proposed to generate a longer hash value than a given hash function produces. (1) Generate the hash value of a message, using a one-way hash function listed in this book. 18.2 Snefru (2) Prepend the hash value to the message. (3) Generate the hash value of the concatenation of the message and the hash (4) Create a larger hash value consisting of the hash value generated in step (1) concatenated with the hash value generated in step (3). (5) Repeat steps (1) through (3) as many times as you wish, concatenating as you go. Although this method has never been proved to be either secure or insecure, var- ious people have some serious reservations about it [ 1262,859]. of One-Way Hash Functions Oueroiew It’s not easy to design a function that accepts an arbitrary-length input, let alone make it one-way. In the real world, one-way hash functions are built on the idea of a compression function. This one-way function outputs a hash value of length n given an input of some larger length m [ 1069,414]. The inputs to the compression function are a message block and the output of the previous blocks of text (see Fig- ure 18.1 J. The output is the hash of all blocks up to that point. That is, the hash of block M, is hi = f(Mi>hi - 1) This hash value, along with the next message block, becomes the next input to the compression function. The hash of the entire message is the hash of the last block. The pre-image should contain some kind of binary representation of the length of the entire message. This technique overcomes a potential security problem result- ing from messages with different lengths possibly hashing to the same value [ 1069,414]. This technique is sometimes called MD-strengthening [930]. Various researchers have theorized that if the compression function is secure, then this method of hashing an arbitrary-length pre-image is also secure-but noth- ing has been proved [ 1138,1070,414]. A lot has been written on the design of one-way hash functions. For more mathe- matical information, consult [ 1028,793,791,1138,1069,414,91,858,1264]. Bart Pre- neel’s thesis [1262] is probably the most comprehensive treatment of one-way hash ki Figure 18.1 One-way function. CHAPTER 18 One- Way Hash Functions Snefru is a one-way hash function designed by Ralph Merkle [ 10701. (Snefru, like Khufu and Khafre, was an Egyptian pharaoh.) Snefru hashes arbitrary-length mes- sages into either 128-bit or 256-bit values. First the message is broken into chunks, each 5 12-m in length. (The variable m is the length of the hash value.) If the output is a 128-bit hash value, then the chunks are each 384 bits long; if the output is a 256-bit hash value, then the chunks are each 256 bits long. The heart of the algorithm is function H, which hashes a 5 12-bit value into an m- bit value. The first m bits of H’s output are the hash of the block; the rest are dis- carded. The next block is appended to the hash of the previous block and hashed again. (The initial block is appended to a string of zeros.) After the last block (if the message isn’t an integer number of blocks long, zeros are used to pad the last block], the first 111bits are appended to a binary representation of the length of the message and hashed one final time. Function H is based on E, which is a reversible block-cipher function that operates on 5 12-bit blocks. H is the last m bits of the output of E XORed with the first m bits of the input of E. The security of Snefru resides in function E, which randomizes data in several passes. Each pass is composed of 64 randomizing rounds. In each round a different byte of the data is used as an input to an S-box; the output word of the S-box is XORed with two neighboring words of the message. The S-boxes are constructed in a manner similar to those in Khafre (see Section 13.7). Some rotations are thrown in, too. Originally Snefru was designed with two passes. Cryptanalysis of Snefru Using differential cryptanalysis, Biham and Shamir demonstrated the insecurity of two-pass Snefru (128-bit hash value) [ 1721. Their attack finds pairs of messages that hash to the same value within minutes. On 128-bit Snefru, their attacks work better than brute force for four passes or less. A birthday attack against Snefru takes 264operations; differential cryptanalysis can find a pair of messages that hash to the same value in 228.5 operations for three- pass Snefru and 244.5 operations for four-pass Snefru. Finding a message that hashes to a given value by brute force requires 21z8operations; differential cryptanalysis takes 256operations for three-pass Snefru and 2** operations for four-pass Snefru. Although Biham and Shamir didn’t analyze 256-bit hash values, they extended their analysis to 224-bit hash values. Compared to a birthday attack that requires 2’i2 operations, they can find messages that hash to the same value in 212.5 opera- tions for two-pass Snefru, 233operations for three-pass Snefru, and Zsl operations for four-pass Snefru. Currently, Merkle recommends using Snefru with at least eight passes [1073]. However, with this many passes the algorithm is significantly slower than either MD5 or SHA. 18.3 N-Hash N-Hash is an algorithm invented by researchers at Nippon Telephone and Tele- graph, the same people who invented FEAL, in 1990 [ 1105,1106]. N-Hash uses 128- bit message blocks, a complicated randomizing function similar to FEAL’s, and produces a 128-bit hash value. The hash of each 128-bit block is a function of the block and the hash of the pre- vious block. Ho = I, where I is a random initial value H,=g(Mi,Hi-,)OMiOH,-, The hash of the entire message is the hash of the last message block. The random initial value, I, can be any value determined by the user (even all zeros). The function g is a complicated one. Figure 18.2 is an overview of the algorithm. Initially, the 128-bit hash of the previous message block, Hi _ Ir has its 64-bit left half EXG : Exchange of left and right half PS : Processing stage ˜=˜l’14;lllrillA˜˜lldllA˜3llrillA˜4 (II: concatenation) PS h .OOO...Oinbinary(24bits) Ajk =4*0’-I)+ =1,2,3,4,Ajk :&bitslong) k(k Hi =R (bf;,ff-˜)@Mi@ Hi-1 and 64-bit right half swapped; it is then XORed with a repeating one/zero pattern (128 bits worth), and then XORed with the current message block, Mi. This value then cas- cades into N (N = 8 in the figures) processing stages. The other input to the processing stage is the previous hash value XORed with one of eight binary constant values. One processing stage is given in Figure 18.3. The message block is broken into four 32-bit values. The previous hash value is also broken into four 32-bit values. The function f is given in Figure 18.4. Functions Soand Sr are the same as they were in FEAL. &(a,b) = rotate left two bits ((a + b) mod 256) Sl(a,b) = rotate left two bits ((a + b + 1) mod 256) The output of one processing stage becomes the input to the next processing stage. After the last processing stage, the output is XORed with the Mi and Hi _ r, and then the next block is ready to be hashed. of N-Hash Cryptanalysis Bert den Boer discovered a way to produce collisions in the round function of N-Hash [ 12621. Biham and Shamir used differential cryptanalysis to break 6-round *+ ++ output: Y=Y *IIY2llY3llY4 Yl y2 y3 y4 Y=FJs(X,P ) Figure 18.3 One processing stage of N-Hash. 18.4 MD4 Y = .So(X1.Xz)= Ror2((X,+X2)mod 256) Y =S,(X,.X,) =RorZ((X˜+X2+l)mod2S6) Y (8 bits) : output, X, IX, (8 bits) : inputs RorZ(вЂ˜T3: a Z-bit left rotation on the 8-bit data T Figure 18.4 Function f. N-Hash [ 169,172]. Their particular attack (there certainly could be others) works for any N that is divisible by 3, and is more efficient than the birthday attack for any N less than 15. The same attack can find pairs of messages that hash to the same value for 12- round N-Hash in 256operations, compared to 264operations for a brute-force attack. N-hash with 15 rounds is safe from differential cryptanalysis: The attack requires 272 The algorithm’s designers recommend using N-Hash with at least 8 rounds [ 11061. Given the proven insecurity of N-Hash and FEAL (and its speed with 8 rounds), I recommend using another algorithm entirely. MD4 is a one-way hash function designed by Ron Rivest [1318,1319,1321]. MD stands for Message Digest; the algorithm produces a 128-bit hash, or message digest, of the input message. In [ 13 191,Rivest outlined his design goals for the algorithm: Security. It is computationally infeasible to find two messages that hashed to the same value. No attack is more efficient than brute force. Direct Security. MD4’s security is not based on any assumption, like the difficulty of factoring. One-Way Hash Functions Speed. MD4 is suitable for high-speed software implementations. It is based on a simple set of bit manipulations on 32-bit operands. Simplicity and Compactness. MD4 is as simple as possible, without large data structures or a complicated program. Favor Little-Endian Architectures. MD4 is optimized for microprocessor architectures (specifically Intel microprocessors); larger and faster com- puters make any necessary translations. After the algorithm was first introduced, Bert den Boer and Antoon Bosselaers successfully cryptanalyzed the last two of the algorithm’s three rounds [202]. In an unrelated cryptanalytic result, Ralph Merkle successfully attacked the first two rounds [202]. Eli Biham discussed a differential cryptanalysis attack against the first two rounds of MD4 [159]. Even though these attacks could not be extended to the full algorithm, Rivest strengthened the algorithm. The result is MD5. MD5 is an improved version of MD4 [1386,1322]. Although more complex than MD4, it is similar in design and also produces a 128-bit hash. Description of MD5 After some initial processing, MD5 processes the input text in 512-bit blocks, divided into 16 32-bit sub-blocks. The output of the algorithm is a set of four 32-bit blocks, which concatenate to form a single 128bit hash value. First, the message is padded so that its length is just 64 bits short of being a mul- tiple of 5 12. This padding is a single l-bit added to the end of the message, followed by as many zeros as are required. Then, a 64-bit representation of the message’s length (before padding bits were added) is appended to the result. These two steps serve to make the message length an exact multiple of 512 bits in length (required for the rest of the algorithm), while ensuring that different messages will not look the same after padding. Four 32-bit variables are initialized: A = 0x01234567 B = Ox89abcdef C = Oxfedcba98 D = 0x76543210 These are called chaining variables. Now, the main loop of the algorithm begins. This loop continues for as many 5 12- bit blocks as are in the message. The four variables are copied into different variables: a gets A, b gets B, c gets C, and d gets D. The main loop has four rounds (MD4 had only three rounds), all very similar. Each round uses a different operation 16 times. Each operation performs a nonlinear func- Figure 28.5 MD5 main loop. tion on three of a, b, c, and d. Then it adds that result to the fourth variable, a sub- block of the text and a constant. Then it rotates that result to the right a variable number of bits and adds the result to one of a, b, c, or d. Finally the result replaces one of a, b, c, or d. See Figures 18.5 and 18.6. There are four nonlinear functions, one used in each operation (a different one for each round). F(X,Y,Z) = (X A Y) v ((7 X) A Z) G(X,Y,Z) = (X A Z) v (Y A (7 Z)) H(X,Y,Z)=XOYOZ I(X,YZ) = Y 0 (Xv (-l Z)) (0 is XOR, A is AND, v is OR, and --, is NOT.) These functions are designed so that if the corresponding bits of X, Y and Z are independent and unbiased, then each bit of the result will also be independent and unbiased. The function F is the bit-wise conditional: If X then Y else Z. The function H is the bit-wise parity operator. If Ml represents the jth sub-block of the message (from 0 to 15) and <<<s repre- sents a left circular shift of s bits, the four operations are: FF(a,b,c,d,NI,,s,t,) denotes a = b + ((a + F(b,c,d) + Mj + tl) <cc s) GG(a,b,c,d,M,,s,t,) denotes a = b + ((a + G(b,c,d) + Mi + ti) <<< S) HH(a,b,c,d,M,,s,ti) denotes u = b + ((u + H(b,c,d) + Mf + ti) <<< S) II(a,b,c,d,M,s,t,) denotes u = b + ((a +I(b,c,d) + M, + ti) <<< S) CHAPTER 18 One-Way Hash Functions Ir d Figure 18.6 One MD5 operation. The four rounds (64 steps) look like: FF (a, b, c, d, M,, 7, Oxd76aa478) FF (d, a, b, c, Ml, 12, Oxe8c7b756) FF (c, d, a, b, M,, 17, Ox24207Odb) FF (b, c, d, a, Mar 22, Oxclbdceee) FF (a, b, c, d, M4, 7, Oxf57cOfaf) FF (d, a, b, c, M,, 12, Ox4787c62a) FF (c, d, a, b, M6, 17, Oxa8304613) FF (b, c, d, a, M,, 22, Oxfd469501) FF (a, b, c, d, MS, 7, Ox698098d8) FF (d, a, b, c, M,, 12, Ox8b44f7af) FF (c, d, a, b, Mlo, 17, Oxffff5bbl) FF (b, c, d, a, Mll, 22, Ox895cd7be) FF (a, b, c, d, Mlz, 7, Ox6b901122) FF (d, a, b, c, M13, 12, Oxfd987193) FF (c, d, a, b, M14, 17, Oxa679438e) FF (b, c, d, a, MIS, 22, Ox49b40821) GG (a, b, c, d, Ml, 5, OxfGle2562) GG (d, a, b, c, M6, 9, Oxc040b340) GG (c, d, a, b, Mll, 14, Ox265e5a51) GG (b, c, d, a, M,,, 20, Oxe9bbc7aa) GG (a, b, c, d, MS, 5, Oxd62f105d) GG (d, a, b, c, Mlo, 9, 0x02441453) GG (c, d, a, b, MIS, 14, Oxd8ale681) GG (b, c, d, a, M4, 20, Oxe7d3fbc8) GG (a, b, c, d, M,, 5, Ox2lelcdeb) GG (d, a, b, c, M14, 9, Oxc33707db) GG (c, d, a, b, M,, 14, Oxf4d5Od87) GG (b, c, d, a, MB, 20, Ox455a14ed) GG (a, b, c, d, MIS, 5, Oxa9e3e905) GG (d, a, b, c, n/I,, 9, Oxfcefa3f8) GG (c, d, a, b, M,, 14, Ox676f02d9) GG (b, c, d, a, M12, 20, Ox8d2a4c8a) HH (a, b, c, d, M,, 4, Oxfffa3942) HH (d, a, b, c, MS, 11, Ox8771f681) HH (c, d, a, b, Mll, 16, Oxbd9d6122) HH (b, c, d, a, M14, 23, Oxfde5380c) HH (a, b, c, d, Ml, 4, Oxa4beea44) HH (d, a, b, c, M4, 11, Ox4bdecfa9) HH (c, d, a, b, M,, 16, Oxfbbb4b60) HH (b, G, d, a, Ml,,, 23, Oxbebfbc70) HH (a, b, c, d, MIS, 4, Ox289b7ec6) HH (d, a, b, c, M,, 11, Oxeaal27fa) HH (c, d, a, b, MS, 16, Oxd4ef3085) HH (b, c, d, a, Me, 23, Ox04881d05) HH (a, b, c, d, M,, 4, Oxd9d4d039) HH (d, a, b, c, M12, 11, OxeGdb99e5) HH (c, d, a, b, MIS, 16, Oxlfa27cf8) HH (b, G, d, a, Mz, 23, Oxc4ac5665) One- Way Hash Functions II (a, b, c, d, M,, 6, Oxf4292244) II (d, a, b, c, M,, 10, Ox432aff97) II (c, d, a, b, M14, 15, Oxab9423a7) II (b, c, d, a, MS, 21, Oxfc93a039) II (a, b, c, d, Mlz, 6, Ox655b59c3) II (d, a, b, c, M3, 10, Ox8fOccc92) II (c, d, a, b, Mlo, 15, Oxffeff47d) II (b, c, d, a, Ml, 21, Ox85845ddl) II (a, b, c, d, Ms, 6, Oxbfa87e4f) II (d, a, b, c, MIS, 10, Oxfe2cebeO) II (c, d, a, b, Mb, 15, Oxa3014314) II (b, c, d, a, M13, 21, Ox4e0811al) II (a, b, c, d, M4, 6, Oxf7537e82) II (d, a, b, c, Mll, 10, Oxbd3af235) II (c, d, a, b, M2, 15, Ox2ad7d2bb) II (b, c, d, a, Mg, 21, Oxeb86d391) Those constants, tip were chosen as follows: i, ti is the integer part of ZJzl abs(sin(i)), where i is in radians. In step After all of this, a, b, c, and d are added to A, B, C, D, respectively, and the algo- rithm continues with the next block of data. The final output is the concatenation of A, B, C, and D. Security of MD5 Ron Rivest outlined the improvements of MD5 over MD4 [ 13221: 1. A fourth round has been added. 2. Each step now has a unique additive constant. 3. The function G in round 2 was changed from ((X A Y) v (X A Z) v (Y A Z)) to ((X A Z) v (Y A T Z)) to make G less symmetric. 4. Each step now adds in the result of the previous step. This promotes a faster avalanche effect. 5. The order in which message sub-blocks are accessed in rounds 2 and 3 is changed, to make these patterns less alike. 6. The left circular shift amounts in each round have been approximately optimized, to yield a faster avalanche effect. The four shifts used in each round are different from the ones used in other rounds. Tom Berson attempted to use differential cryptanalysis against a single round of MD5 [ 1441, but his attack is ineffective against all four rounds. A more successful attack by den Boer and Bosselaers produces collisions using the compression func- tion in MD5 [203,1331,1336]. This does not lend itself to attacks against MD5 in practical applications, and it does not affect the use of MD5 in Luby-Rackoff-like encryption algorithms (see Section 14.11). It does mean that one of the basic design principles of MD5-to design a collision-resistant compression function-has been violated. Although it is true that “there seems to be a weakness in the compression function, but it has no practical impact on the security of the hash function” [ 13361, I am wary of using MD5. MD2 is another 128-bit one-way hash function designed by Ron Rivest [801,1335]. It, along with MD5, is used in the PEM protocols (see Section 24.10). The security of MD2 is dependent on a random permutation of bytes. This permutation is fixed, and depends on the digits of K. So,Si, St, . . . , Szss the permutation. To hash a message M: (1) Pad the message with i bytes of value i so that the resulting message is a multiple of 16 bytes long. (2) Append a 16-byte checksum to the message. (3) Initialize a 48-byte block: X0, Xi, X,, . . . , X,,. Set the first 16 bytes of X to be 0, the second 16 bytes of X to be the first 16 bytes of the message, and the third 16 bytes of X to be the XOR of the first 16 bytes of X and the sec- ond 16 bytes of X. (4) This is the compression function: t=O Forj=Oto17 Fork=Oto47 t=X,XORS, Xk = t t=(t+j)mod256 (5) Set the second 16 bytes of X to be the second 16 bytes of the message, and ond 16 bytes of X. Do step (4). Repeat steps (5) and (4) with every 16 bytes of the message, in turn. (6) The output is the first 16 bytes of X. Although no weaknesses in MD2 have been found (see [ 1262]), it is slower than most other suggested hash functions. 18.7 SECURE˜˜˜SHL˜GOR˜THM(S˜˜˜˜) NET, along with the NSA, designed the Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) for use with the Digital Signature Standard (see Section 20.2) [ 11541. (The standard is the Secure Hash Standard (SHS); SHA is the algorithm used in the standard.) According to the Federal Register [539]: A Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) for Secure Hash Standard (SHS) is being proposed. This proposed standard specified a Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) for use with the proposed Digital Signature Standard . . . . Additionally, for applications not requiring a digital signature, the SHA is to be used whenever a secure hash algorithm is required for Federal applications. This Standard specifies a Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA), which is necessary to ensure the security of the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA). When a message of any length c 264bits is input, the SHA produces a 160-bit output called a message digest. The message digest is then input to the DSA, which computes the signa- ture for the message. Signing the message digest rather than the message often improves the efficiency of the process, because the message digest is usually much smaller than the message. The same message digest should be obtained by the verifier of the signature when the received version of the message is used as input to SHA. The SHA is called secure because it is designed to be computa- tionally infeasible to recover a message corresponding to a given message digest, or to find two different messages which produce the same message digest. Any change to a message in transit will, with a very high probability, result in a dif- ferent message digest, and the signature will fail to verify. The SHA is based on principles similar to those used by Professor Ronald L. Rivest of MIT when designing the MD4 message digest algorithm [ 13 191, and is closely modelled after that algorithm. SHA produces a 160-bit hash, longer than MD.5. of SHA First, the message is padded to make it a multiple of 512 bits long. Padding is exactly the same as in MD5: First append a one, then as many zeros as necessary to make it 64 bits short of a multiple of 512, and finally a 64-bit representation of the length of the message before padding. Five 32-bit variables (MD5 has four variables, but this algorithm needs to produce a 160-bit hash) are initialized as follows: B = Oxefcdab89 C = Ox98badcfe E = Oxc3d2elfO The main loop of the algorithm then begins. It processes the message 512 bits at a time and continues for as many 5 12-bit blocks as are in the message. First the five variables are copied into different variables: a gets A, b gets B, c gets C, d gets D, and e gets E. The main loop has four rounds of 20 operations each (MD5 has four rounds of 16 operations each). Each operation performs a nonlinear function on three of a, b, c, d, and e, and then does shifting and adding similar to MD5. SHA’s set of nonlinear functions is: f,(X,Y,Z) = (X A Y) v ((-X) A Z), for t = 0 to 19. f,(X,Y,Z) =X 0 Y 0 Z, for t = 20 to 39. = (X A Y) v (X A Z) v (Y A Z), for t = 40 to 59. f,(X,y,Z) f,(X,Y,Z) = X 0 Y 0 Z, for t = 60 to 79. Four constants are used in the algorithm: K, = Ox5a827999, for t = 0 to 19. K, = Oxbed9eba1, for t = 20 to 39. K, = Ox8flbbcdc for t = 40 to 59. K, = Oxca62cld6, for t = 60 to 79. (If you wonder where those numbers came from: Ox5a827999 = 2’/вЂ˜/4, Oxbed9ebal = 31’2/4, Ox8f lbbcdc = 5’12/4, and Oxca62cld6 = 101’2/4j all times 232.) The message block is transformed from 16 32-bit words (M,, to MIS) to 80 32-bit words (W, to WT9)using the following algorithm: W,=M,, fort=Oto 15 W,=(W,-30Wt-80Wt-140Wt-16)<<<1,fort=16t079. (As an interesting aside, the original SHA specification did not have the left cir- cular shift. The change “corrects a technical flaw that made the standard less secure than had been thought” [543]. The NSA has refused to elaborate on the exact nature of the flaw.) If t is the operation number (from 0 to 79), W, represents the tth sub-block of the expanded message, and <<< s represents a left circular shift of s bits, then the main loop looks like: FORt=Oto79 TEMP = (a <CC 5) + f,(b,c,d) + e + W, + K, e=d d=c c=b<<<30 b=a a = TEMP CHAPTER18 One-Way Hash Functions Figure 18.7 One SHA operation. Figure 18.7 shows one operation. Shifting the variables accomplishes the same thing as MD5 does by using different variables in different locations. After all of this, a, b, c, d, and e are added to A, B, C, D, and E respectively, and the algorithm continues with the next block of data. The final output is the con- catenation of A, B, C, D, and E. SHA is very similar to MD4, but has a 160-bit hash value. The main changes are the addition of an expand transformation and the addition of the previous step’s out- put into the next step for a faster avalanche effect. Ron Rivest made public the design decisions behind MD5, but SHA’s designers did not. Here are Rivest’s MD5 improvements to MD4 and how they compare with SHA’s: 1. “A fourth round has been added.” SHA does this, too. However, in SHA the fourth round uses the same f function as the second round. 2. “Each step now has a unique additive constant.” SHA keeps the MD4 scheme where it reuses the constants for each group of 20 rounds. 3. “The function G in round 2 was changed from ((X A Y) v (X A Z) v (Y A Z)) to ((x A z) V (Y A T (Z))) to make G less symmetric.” SHA uses the MD4 Version: ((x A Y) V (x A z) V (Y A z)). 18.9 HAVAL 4. “Each step now adds in the result of the previous step. This promotes a faster avalanche effect.” This change has been made in SHA as well. The difference in SHA is that a fifth variable is added, and not b, c, or d, which is already used in f,. This subtle change makes the den Boer-Bosselaers attack against MD5 impossible against SHA. 5. “The order in which message sub-blocks are accessed in rounds 2 and 3 is changed, to make these patterns less alike.” SHA is completely different, since it uses a cyclic error-correcting code. 6. “The left circular shift amounts in each round have been approximately round are different from the ones used in other rounds.” SHA uses a con- stant shift amount in each round. This shift amount is relatively prime to the word size, as in MD4. This leads to the following comparison: SHA is MD4 with the addition of an expand transformation, an extra round, and better avalanche effect; MD5 is MD4 with improved bit hashing, an extra round, and better avalanche effect. There are no known cryptographic attacks against SHA. Because it produces a 160-bit hash, it is more resistant to brute-force attacks (including birthday attacks) than 128-bit hash functions covered in this chapter. 18.8 RIPE-MD RIPE-MD was developed for the European Community’s RIPE project [ 1305) (see Section 25.7). The algorithm is a variation of MD4, designed to resist known crypt- analytic attacks, and produce a 128-bit hash value. The rotations and the order of the message words are modified. Additionally, two instances of the algorithm, dif- fering only in the constants, run in parallel. After each block, the output of both instances are added to the chaining variables. This seems to make the algorithm highly resistant to cryptanalysis. HAVAL is a variable-length one-way hash function [1646]. It is a modification of MD5. HAVAL processes messages in blocks of 1024 bits, twice those of MD5. It has eight 32-bit chaining variables, twice those of MD5. It has a variable number of rounds, from three to five (each of which has 16 steps), and it can produce a hash length of 128, 160, 192, 224, or 256 bits. HAVAL replaces MD5’s simple nonlinear functions with highly nonlinear 7- variable functions, each of which satisfies the strict avalanche criterion. Each round uses a single function, but in every step a different permutation is applied to the inputs. It has a new message order and every step (except those in the first round) uses a different additive constant. The algorithm also has two rotations. The core of the algorithm is TEMP= (f(j,A,B,C,D,E,F,G) <<< 7) + (H <<< 11) +M[i][r(j)] + K(j) H=G;G=F;F=E;E=D;D=C;C=B;B=A;A=TEMP The variable number of rounds and variable-length output mean there are 15 ver- sions of this algorithm. Den Boer’s and Bosselaers’s attack against MD5 [203] does not apply to HAVAL because of the rotation of H. 18.10 ONE-WAYHASH FUNCTIONS MD3 is yet another hash function designed by Ron Rivest. It had several flaws and never really made it out of the laboratory, although a description was recently pub- lished in [ 13351. A group of researchers at the University of Waterloo have proposed a one-way hash function based on iterated exponentiation in GF(2593)[22]. In this scheme, a message is divided into 593-bit blocks; beginning with the first block, the blocks are successively exponentiated. Each exponent is the result of the computation with the previous block; the first exponent is given by an IV. Ivan DamgHrd designed a one-way hash function based on the knapsack problem (see Section 19.2) [414]; it can be broken in about 232operations [290,1232,787]. Steve Wolfram’s cellular automata [1608] have been proposed as a basis for one- way hash functions. An early implementation [414] is insecure [1052,404]. Another one-way hash function, Cellhash [384,404], and an improved version, Subhash [384,402,405], are based on cellular automata; both are designed for hardware. Boog- nish mixes the design principles of Cellhash with those of MD4 [402,407]. StepRightUp can be implemented as a hash function as well [402]. Claus Schnorr proposed a one-way hash function based on the discrete Fourier transform, called FFT-Hash, in the summer of 1991 [1399]; it was broken a few months later by two independent groups [403,84]. Schnorr proposed a revised ver- sion, called FFT-Hash II (the previous version was renamed FFT-Hash I) [ 14001, which was broken a few weeks later [ 15671. Schnorr has proposed further modifica- tions [ 1402,1403] but, as it stands, the algorithm is much slower than the others in this chapter. Another hash function, called SL2 [ 15261, is insecure [3 151. Additional theoretical work on constructing one-way hash functions from one- way functions and one-way permutations can be found in [412,1138,1342]. 18.11 ONE-WAY HASH FUNCTIONS USING SYMMETRIC BLOCK ALGORITHMS It is possible to use a symmetric block cipher algorithm as a one-way hash function. The idea is that if the block algorithm is secure, then the one-way hash function will also be secure. 18.11 Symmetric Block Algorithms The most obvious method is to encrypt the message with the algorithm in CBC or CFB mode, a fixed key, and IV; the last ciphertext block is the hash value. These methods are described in various standards using DES: both modes in [ 11431,CFB in [ 11451, CBC in [55,56,54]. This just isn’t good enough for one-way hash functions, although it will work for a MAC (see Section 18.14) [29]. A cleverer approach uses the message block as the key, the previous hash value as the input, and the current hash value as the output. The actual hash functions proposed are even more complex. The block size is usu- ally the key length, and the size of the hash value is the block size. Since most block algorithms are 64 bits, several schemes are designed around a hash that is twice the block size. Assuming the hash function is correct, the security of the scheme is based on the security of the underlying block function. There are exceptions, though. Differential cryptanalysis is easier against block functions in hash functions than against block functions used for encryption: The key is known, so several tricks can be applied; only one right pair is needed for success; and you can generate as much chosen plaintext as you want. Some work on these lines is [ 1263,858,1313]. What follows is a summary of the various hash functions that have appeared in the literature [925,1465,1262]. Statements about attacks against these schemes assume that the underlying block cipher is secure; that is, the best attack against them is brute force. One useful measure for hash functions based on block ciphers is the hash rate, or the number of n-bit messages blocks, where n is the block size of the algorithm, pro- cessed per encryption. The higher the hash rate, the faster the algorithm. (This mea- sure was given the opposite definition in [1262], but the definition given here is more intuitive and is more widely used. This can be confusing.) Schemes Where the Hash Length Equals the Block Size The general scheme is as follows (see Figure 18.8): HO= IH, where IH is a random initial value Hi = EA( 0 C where A, B, and C can be either Mi, Hi - 1,(Mi @Hi - I), or a constant (assumed to be 0). HOis some random initial value: IH. The message is divided up into block-size chunks, Mi> and processed individually. And there is some kind of MD-strengthening, perhaps the same padding procedure used in MD5 and SHA. Figure 18.8 General hash function where the hash length equals the block size. Table 18.1 Secure Hash Functions Where the Block Length Equals the Hash Size Hi = EHi _ ,(M,) 0 Mi H,=E,i_,(M˜oHi-,)OMiOH,-, H,=EH,-,(Ml)@Hi-IBM, H˜=EH˜-,(M˜@H˜-I)@M˜ Hl=E,i(Hl-,)OH,-, Hi=E,˜MiOHi-,)OM,OH,-, Hi=EMi(HI-,)OMiOHi-, HI = EM,(Mi 0 Hi - 1)0 Hi - 1 Hi = EMU pi _ ,(Mi) @ Ml Hi=Ehll˜Hi_1(Hi-1)OHi-1 Hi=EMi.Hi-,(Mi) @Hi-, Hi=E˜l˜Hi-l(Hi-l)@Mi The three different variables can take on one of four possible values, so there are 64 total schemes of this type. Bart Preneel studied them all [ 12621. Fifteen are trivially weak because the result does not depend on one of the inputs. Thirty-seven are insecure for more subtle reasons. Table 18.1 lists the 12 secure schemes remaining: The first 4 are secure against all attacks (see Figure 18.9) and the last 8 are secure against all but a fixed-point attack, which is not really worth worrying about. The first scheme was described in [1028]. The third scheme was described in [ 1555,1105,1106] and was proposed as an IS0 standard [766]. The fifth scheme was proposed by Carl Meyer, but is commonly called Davies-Meyer in the literature [ 1606,1607,434,1028]. The tenth scheme was proposed as a hash-function mode for LOKI [273]. The first, second, third, fourth, ninth, and eleventh schemes have a hash rate of 1; the key length equals the block length. The others have a rate of k/n, where k is the key length. This means that if the key length is shorter than the block length, then the message block can only be the length of the key. It is not recommended that the message block be longer than the key length, even if the encryption algorithm’s key length is longer than the block length. If the block algorithm has a DES-like complementation property and DES-like weak keys, there is an additional attack that is possible against all 12 schemes. The attack isn’t very dangerous and not really worth worrying about. However, you can solve it by fixing bits 2 and3 of the key to “01” or “10” [1081,1107]. Of course, this reduces the length of k from 56 bits to 54 bits (in DES, for example) and decreases the hash rate. The following schemes, proposed in the literature, have been shown to be insecure. 1 Key ( Mi Encrypt Figure 18.9 The four secure hash functions where the block length equals the hash size. This scheme [ 12821was broken in [369]: Hz = EM,(Hi- I) Davies and Price proposed a variant which cycles the entire message through the algorithm twice 1432,433). Coppersmith’s attack works on this variant with not much larger computational requirements [369]. Another scheme [432,458] was shown insecure in [ 16061: Hi=EMleHi- l(Hi- II This scheme was shown insecure in [ 10281(c is a constant): H,=E,(MiOHi_1)OM,OHi-, Modified Davies-Meyer Lai and Massey modified the Davies-Meyer technique to work with the IDEA cipher [930,925]. IDEA has a 64-bit block size and 128-bit key size. Their scheme is H˜=EH˜-˜*M˜(H˜ - 11 This function hashes the message in blocks of 64 bits and produces a 64-bit hash value (See Figure 18.10). No known attack on this scheme is easier than brute force. 1 H;-1 LpbHi Figure 18.10 Modified Davies-Meyer. Preneel-Bosselaers-Govaerts-Vandewalle This hash function, first proposed in [ 12661,produces a hash value twice the block length of the encryption algorithm: A 64-bit algorithm produces a 128-bit hash. With a 64-bit block algorithm, the scheme produces two 64-bit hash values, Gi and Hi, which are concatenated to produce the 128-bit hash. With most block algo- rithms, the block size is 64 bits. Two adjacent message blocks, L, and Ri, each the size of the block length, are hashed together. G,, = Ic, where Ic is a random initial value Ho = IH, where IH is another random initial value Gi=ELi˜Hi_1(Ri8Gi-1)˜Ri8Gi-18Hi-1 Hi=ELi˜Ri(Hi-1˜Gi-1)OLi8Gi-18Hi-1 Lai demonstrates attacks against this scheme that, in some instances, make the birthday attack trivially solvable [925,926]. Preneel [1262] and Coppersmith [372] also have successful attacks against this scheme. Do not use it. QuisquaterGirault This scheme, first proposed in [1279], generates a hash that is twice the block length and has a hash rate of 1. It has two hash values, Gi and Hi, and two blocks, Li and Ri, are hashed together. Go = IG, where IG is a random initial value H,, = IH, where IH is another random initial value Wi=ELi(Gi-l$Ri)$Ri$Hi-l Gi=ERi(Wi˜Li)˜Gi-l˜Hi-l˜Li Hi=WiOGi-1 This scheme appeared in a 1989 draft IS0 standard [764], but was dropped in a later version [765]. Security problems with this scheme were identified in [ 1107,925, 1262,372]. (Actually, the version in the proceedings was strengthened after the ver- sion presented at the conference was attacked.) In some instances the birthday attack is solvable with a complexity of 239,not 264,through brute force. Do not use this scheme. LOKI Double-Block This algorithm is a modification of Quisquater-Girault, specifically designed to work with LOKI [273]. All parameters are as in Quisquater-Girault. Go = 16, where IG is a random initial value Ho = IH, where IH is another random initial Vahe (G,_1ORi)ORiOHi-1 W=&BG,_, (WI 0 Li) 0 Gi - 10 Hz - 10 Li G,=EIQw-˜ Hi=WlOGi-l Again, in some instances the birthday attack is trivially solvable [925,926,1262, 372,736]. Do not use this scheme. Parallel Davies-Meyer This is yet another attempt at an algorithm with a hash rate of 1 that produces a hash twice the block length [736]. G,=EL,dRi(Gi-1OLi)OLiOHi-1 Hi=EL,(Hi-1ORi)ORiOHi-1 Unfortunately, this scheme isn’t secure either [928,861]. As it turns out, a double-length hash function with a hash rate of 1 cannot be more secure than Davies-Meyer [861]. Tandem and Abreast Davies-Meyer Another way around the inherent limitations of a block cipher with a 64-bit key uses an algorithm, like IDEA (see Section 13.9) with a 64-bit block and a 128-bit key. These two schemes produce a 128-bit hash value and have a hash rate of %[930,925]. вЂ˜Gi Figure 18.2 1 Tandem Davies-Meyer. In this first scheme, two modified Davies-Meyer functions work in tandem (see Figure 18.11). Go = Ic, where IG is some random initial value Ho = IH, where IH is some other random initial Value Wi = EGO ,,tv+(Hi - 1) Gi=G,-l @E,,,(Gi-,) Hi=WiOHl-1 The following scheme uses two modified Davies-Meyer functions side-by-side (see Figure 18.12). Go = 16, where IG is some random initial value Gi = Gi - 10 EMi,Hi_ l(TGi - 1) Hi = Hi - 10 EGO ,,Mi(Hi - I) In both schemes, the two 64-bit hash values Gi and Hi are concatenated to produce a single 128-bit hash. As far as anyone knows, these algorithms have ideal security for a 128-bit hash function: Finding a message that hashes to a given hash value requires 2”* attempts, and finding two random messages that hash to the same value requires 264attempts- assuming that there is no better way to attack the block algorithm than by using brute force. MDC-2 and MDC-4 MDC-2 and MDC-4 were first developed at IBM [ 1081,1079]. MDC-2, sometimes called Meyer-Schilling, is under consideration as an ANSI and IS0 standard [61,765]; a variant was proposed in [762]. MDC-4 is specified for the RIPE project [1305] (see Section 25.7). The specifications use DES as the block function, although in theory any encryption algorithm could be used. Hi-l Hi Kev , J + вЂ˜i-1 вЂ˜i Figure 28.22 Abreast Davies-Meyer. 1 Key 1 Figure 18.13 MDC-2. MDC-2 has a hash rate of %, and produces a hash value twice the length of the block size. It is shown in Figure 18.13. MDC-4 also produces a hash value twice the length of the block size, and has a hash rate of %(see Figure 18.14). These schemes have been analyzed in [925,1262]. They are secure against current computing power, but they are not nearly as secure as the designers have estimated. If the block algorithm is DES, they have been looked at with respect to differential cryptanalysis [ 12621. Both MDC-2 and MDC-4 are patented [223]. AR Hash Function The AR hash function was developed by Algorithmic Research, Ltd. and has been distributed by the IS0 for information purposes only [767]. Its basic structure is a variant of the underlying block cipher (DES in the reference) in CBC mode. The last two ciphertext blocks and a constant are XORed to the current message block and encrypted by the algorithm. The hash is the last two ciphertext blocks computed. The message is processed twice, with two different keys, so the hash function has a hash rate of %. The first key is 0x0000000000000000, the second key is Ox2a4152 2f4446502a, and c is Ox0123456789abcdef. The result is compressed to a single 128- bit hash value. See 1750) for the details. H,=E,(MiOHi-,˜Hi-z8c)$Mi This sounds interesting, but it is insecure. After considerable preprocessing, it is possible to find collisions for this hash function easily [416]. GOST Hash Function This hash function comes from Russia, and is specified in the standard GOST R 34.1 l-94 [657]. It uses the GOST block algorithm (see Section 14.1) although in the- ory it could use any block algorithm with a 64-bit block size and a 256-bit key. The function produces a 256-bit hash value. The compression function, Hi = f(Mi,Hi - r) (both operands are 256-bit quantities) is defined as follows: (1) Generate four GOST encryption keys by some linear mixing of Mi, H, - 1, and some constants. (2) Use each key to encrypt a different 64 bits of Hi - 1in ECB mode. Store the resulting 256 bits into a temporary variable, S. (3) Hi is a complex, although linear, function of S, Mi, and Hi - 1. The final hash of M is not the hash of the last block. There are actually three chaining variables: H, is the hash of the last message block, Z is the sum mod 2256 of all the message blocks, and L is the length of the message. Given those variables and the padded last block, M’, the final hash value is: H = f(Z 0 M’,f(L,f(M’,H,))) The documentation is a bit confusing (and in Russian), but I think all that is cor- rect. In any case, this hash function is specified for use with the Russian Digital Sig- nature Standard (see Section 20.3). 18.14 Message Authentication Codes Ralph Merkle proposed a scheme using DES, but it’s slow; it only processes seven message bits per iteration and each iteration involves two DES encryptions [ 1065, 1069). Another scheme [1642,1645] is insecure [1267]; it was once proposed as an IS0 standard. 18.12 USING PUBLIC-KEY ALGORITHMS It is possible to use a public-key encryption algorithm in a block chaining mode as a one-way hash function. If you then throw away the private key, breaking the hash would be as difficult as reading the message without the private key. Here’s an example using RSA. If M is the message to be hashed, n is the product of two primes p and q, and e is another large number relatively prime to (p - l)(q - l), then the hash function, H(M), would be H(M) = Me mod n An even easier solution would be to use a single strong prime as the modulus p. Then: H(M) = Me mod p Breaking this problem is probably as difficult as finding the discrete logarithm of e. The problem with this algorithm is that it’s far slower than any others discussed here. I don’t recommend it for that reason. 18.13 CHOOSING A ONE-WAY HASH FUNCTION The contenders seem to be SHA, MD5, and constructions based on block ciphers; the others really haven’t been studied enough to be in the running. I vote for SHA. It has a longer hash value than MD5, is faster than the various block-cipher con- structions, and was developed by the NSA. I trust the NSA’s abilities at cryptanaly- sis, even if they don’t make their results public. Table 18.2 gives timing measurements for some hash functions. They are meant for comparison purposes only. A message authentication code, or MAC, is a key-dependent one-way hash function. MACs have the same properties as the one-way hash functions discussed previously, but they also include a key. Only someone with the identical key can verify the hash. They are very useful to provide authenticity without secrecy. MACs can be used to authenticate files between users. They can also be used by a single user to determine if his files have been altered, perhaps by a virus. A user could compute the MAC of his files and store that value in a table. If the user used Speeds of Some Hash Functions on a 33 MHz 486SX Encryption Speed (kilobytes/second) Hash Length Abreast Davies-Meyer (with IDEA) 128 22 Davies-Meyer (with DES) 64 9 GOST Hash 256 11 HAVAL (3 passes] HAVAL (4 passes) HAVAL (5 passes) 95 MD2 128 23 MD4 128 236 N-HASH (12 rounds) 128 29 N-HASH ( 15 rounds) 128 24 RIPE-MD 128 182 SHA 160 75 SNEFRU (4 passes) 128 48 SNEFRU (8 uassesl 128 23 instead a one-way hash function, then the virus could compute the new hash value after infection and replace the table entry. A virus could not do that with a MAC, because the virus does not know the key. An easy way to turn a one-way hash function into a MAC is to encrypt the hash value with a symmetric algorithm. Any MAC can be turned into a one-way hash function by making the key public. CBC-MAC The simplest way to make a key-dependent one-way hash function is to encrypt a message with a block algorithm in CBC or CFB modes. The hash is the last encrypted block, encrypted once more in CBC or CFB modes. The CBC method is specified in ANSI X9.9 [54], ANSI X9.19 [56], IS0 8731-1 [759], IS0 9797 [763], and an Australian standard [ 14961.Differential cryptanalysis can break this scheme with reduced-round DES or FEAL as the underlying block algorithms [ 11971. The potential security problem with this method is that the receiver must have the key, and that key allows him to generate messages with the same hash value as a given message by decrypting in the reverse direction. Message Authenticator Algorithm (MAA) This algorithm is an IS0 standard (7601. It produces a 32-bit hash, and was designed for mainframe computers with a fast multiply instruction [428]. v=v<<< 1 e=vOw x = ((((e + y) mod 232)v A A C) 8 Mi)) mod 232- 1 l (X y = ((((e +x) mod 232)v B A D) * (y 0 Mi)) mod 232- 2 Iterate these for each message block, n/l,, and the resultant hash is the XOR of x and y. The variables v and e are determined from the key. A, B, C, and D are constants. This algorithm is probably in wide use, but I can’t believe it is all that secure. It was designed a long time ago, and isn’t very complicated. Bidirectional MAC This MAC produces a hash value twice the length of the block algorithm [978]. First, compute the CBC-MAC of the message. Then, compute the CBC-MAC of the message with the blocks in reverse order. The bidirectional MAC value is simply the concatenation of the two. Unfortunately, this construction is insecure [ 10971. Jueneman’s Methods This MAC is also called a quadratic congruential manipulation detection code (QCMDC) [792,789). First, divide the message into m-bit blocks. Then: Ho = IHr where IH is the secret key H, = (H, - r + Mi)’ mod p, where p is a prime less than 2” - 1 and + denotes integer addition Jueneman suggests n = 16 and p = 231- 1. In [792] he also suggests that an addi- tional key be used as H1, with the actual message starting at Hz. Because of a variety of birthday-type attacks discovered in conjunction with Don Coppersmith, Jueneman suggested computing the QCMDC four times, using the result of one iteration as the Iv for the next iteration, and then concatenating the results to obtain a 128-bit hash value [793]. Th’IS was further strengthened by doing the four iterations in parallel and cross-linking them [790,791]. This scheme was broken by Coppersmith [376]. Another variant [432,434] replaced the addition operation with an XOR and used message blocks significantly smaller than p. H,, was also set, making it a keyless one-way hash function. After this scheme was attacked [612], it was strengthened as
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The Nude Vampire / La vampire nue (1970) Jean Rollin, Caroline Cartier, Olivier Rollin, Maurice Lemaître, Art-house, Horror, Erotic French director Jean Rollin’s erotic and surreal vampire yarn stars Olivier Martin as Pierre Radamante, a wealthy hedonist who learns that his scientist father, Georges (Maurice Lemaître), is carrying out experiments to unlock the secret of immortality. And that’s not all: It seems that Georges is in league with a ritualistic society involving vampires and evil alien mutants! Caroline Cartier and Catherine Castel also star. From the title and the opening sequence of ‘La Vampire Nue’ it looks like you’re in for a dreamlike erotic nudie vampire flick ala Jess Franco (which is not a bad thing mind you!). Very quickly though it metamorphoses into something more complex, and difficult to categorize. The mysterious and sensual title character played by Caroline Cartier actually has very little to do on screen, but is the key to the mysterious events involving scientists studying immortality, and a surreal suicide cult. A young man discovers his father is somehow involved in a secret society who favour animal masks and (apparent) murder. When he investigates he finds that not everything is as it seems, and that the enigmatic, mute beauty at the centre of it may hold the key to the future of mankind’s evolution. A very strange, poetic and unique piece of 60s exploitation, quite unlike any other. I was fascinated by the whole thing. Highly recommended to fans of the offbeat and unusual. BRRip 720p | MKV | 1280 x 720 | x264 @ 2048 Kbps | 1h 25mn | 1,48 Gb Audio: English AC3 2.0 @ 160 Kbps + French AC3 2.0 @ 160 Kbps | Subs: English (embedded) Genre: Art-house, Horror, Erotic | A film by Jean Rollin Venuvamp.part1.rar 1970s Caroline Cartier english english subtitles France french Jean Rollin Maurice Lemaître Olivier Rollin 2016-06-06 Tagged with: 1970s Caroline Cartier english english subtitles France french Jean Rollin Maurice Lemaître Olivier Rollin Previous: Malèna (2000) Giuseppe Tornatore, Monica Bellucci, Giuseppe Sulfaro, Luciano Federico, Drama, Romance, War Next: Ran (1985) Akira Kurosawa, Tatsuya Nakadai, Akira Terao, Jinpachi Nezu, Action, Drama R.S.V.P. (1984) Lem Amero, Adam Mills, Lynda Wiesmeier, Veronica Hart, Comedy, Erotic Top Girl (1996) Joe D’Amato, Carla Solaro, Robert Madison, Sonia Topazio, Romance, Erotic Asylum (1997) James Seale, Robert Patrick, Karl Bury, Tom Poster Barbed Wire Dolls / Frauengefängnis (1976) Jesus Franco, Lina Romay, Paul Muller, Monica Swinn, Crime, Drama, Horror, Erotic Murder in the Blue Room (1944) Leslie Goodwins, Anne Gwynne, Donald Cook, John Litel Dracula Sucks (1978) Phillip Marshak, Jamie Gillis, Annette Haven, John Leslie 2019 – Dopo la caduta di New York AKA 2019: After the Fall of New York (1983) Sergio Martino, Michael Sopkiw, Valentine Monnier, George Eastman Event Horizon (1997) Paul W.S. Anderson, Laurence Fishburne, Sam Neill, Kathleen Quinlan, Horror, Sci-fi The Full Treatment (1960) Val Guest, Claude Dauphin, Diane Cilento, Ronald Lewis, Drama, Horror, Mystery, Thriller Blood Bath (1976) Joel M. Reed, Harve Presnell, Jack Somack, Curt Dawson The Doctor and the Devils (1985) Freddie Francis, Timothy Dalton, Jonathan Pryce, Twiggy, Horror, Drama Hells Highway (2002) Jeff Leroy, Phoebe Dollar, Kiren David, Hank Horner, Horror, Sci-Fi Confessions of a Young American Housewife (1974) Joseph W. Sarno, Mary Mendum, Jennifer Welles, Chris Jordan, Drama, Erotic Curse III Blood Sacrifice (1991) Sean Barton, Christopher Lee, Jenilee Harrison, Henry Cele, Horror Storm of the Century (1999) Becky Ann Baker, Kathleen Chalfant, Adam Zolotin, Horror, Fantasy, Thriller, Drama J’accuse! (1938) Abel Gance, Victor Francen, Line Noro, Marie Lou, Drama, Horror, Sci-Fi, War The Fiend Who Walked the West (1958) Gordon Douglas, Hugh O’Brian, Robert Evans, Dolores Michaels Mum & Dad (2008) Steven Sheil, Perry Benson, Dido Miles, Olga Fedori, Horror, Thriller The Ramrodder (1969) Van Guylder, Ed Forsyth, Roger Gentry, Kathy Williams, Robert Aiken, Western, Erotic Halloween II (1981) Rick Rosenthal, Jamie Lee Curtis, Donald Pleasence, Charles Cyphers Nadja (1994) Michael Almereyda, Elina Löwensohn, Peter Fonda, Nic Ratner Shriek of the Mutilated (1974) Michael Findlay, Alan Brock, Jennifer Stock, Tawm Ellis, Horror Love and death in the garden of Gods / Amore e morte nel giardino degli dei (1972) Sauro Scavolini, Peter Lee Lawrence, Erika Blanc, Ezio Marano, Drama, Mystery, Romance, Erotic L’amant / The Lover (1992) Jean-Jacques Annaud, Jane March, Tony Ka Fai Leung, Frédérique Meininger, Biography, Drama, Romance, Erotic Rainbow Man (1949) Kiyohiko Ushihara, Keiju Kobayashi, Teruko Akatsuki, Katsuko Wakasugi Come Play with Me (1977) George Harrison Marks, Alfie Bass, Irene Handl, Comedy, Musical, Erotic Basement (2010) Asham Kamboj, Danny Dyer, Jimi Mistry, Kierston Wareing The Affairs of Aphrodite (1970) Alain Patrick, Antoinette Maynard, Luanne Roberts, Walt Phillips Halloween (2007) Rob Zombie, Scout Taylor-Compton, Malcolm McDowell, Tyler Mane, Horror What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962) Robert Aldrich, Bette Davis, Joan Crawford, Victor Buono, Drama, Horror, Thriller Mudhoney (1965) Russ Meyer, Hal Hopper, Antoinette Cristiani, John Furlong, Drama, Erotic The Lady and the Monster (1944) George Sherman, Vera Ralston, Erich von Stroheim, Richard Arlen, Horror, Sci-Fi, Thriller Terrified (1963) Lew Landers, Rod Lauren, Steve Drexel, Tracy Olsen, Horror Du soleil pour les gueux / Sunshine for the Poor (2001) Alain Guiraudie, Isabelle Girardet, Jean-Paul Jourdàa, Drama, Erotic Thirst (1979) Rod Hardy, Chantal Contouri, Shirley Cameron, Max Phipps Summer Lovers (1982) Randal Kleiser, Peter Gallagher, Daryl Hannah, Valérie Quennessen, Comedy, Drama, Romance, Erotic Hot Dogs auf Ibiza (1979) Max Pécas, Marco Perrin, Sylvain Chamarande, Andréa Schmidt, Comedy, Erotic Scotland Yard jagt Dr. Mabuse / Dr. Mabuse vs. Scotland Yard (1963) Paul May, Peter van Eyck, Agnes Windeck, Dieter Borsche, Crime, Thriller, Sci-Fi, Horror, Mystery Deep Red (1975) Dario Argento, David Hemmings, Daria Nicolodi, Gabriele Lavia, Horror, Mystery, Thriller Blacula (1972) William Crain, William Marshall, Vonetta McGee, Denise Nicholas, Fantasy, Horror, Romance, Thriller Re-Animator (1985) Stuart Gordon, Jeffrey Combs, Bruce Abbott, Barbara Crampton, Comedy, Horror, Sci-Fi Kiss of the Tarantula (1976) Chris Munger, Suzanna Ling, Eric Mason, Herman Wallner La comtesse perverse / Countess Perverse (1974) Jesús Franco, Alice Arno, Robert Woods, Howard Vernon L’urlo / The Howl (1968) Tinto Brass The Butterfly Murders (1979) Hark Tsui, Siu-Ming Lau, Michelle Yim, Shu Tong Wong The Cut (2007) Derek Son, Yoon-seo Chae, Ji-min Han, Min-gi Jo, Horror The Snorkel (1958) Guy Green, Peter van Eyck, Betta St. John, Mandy Miller, Crime, Mystery, Thriller, Horror The Watcher in the Woods (1980) John Hough, Vincent McEveety, Bette Davis, Lynn-Holly Johnson, Kyle Richards
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Andrew Rayel Talks inHarmony Music, Trance Vocalists, The Unity at Tomorrowland, and More [Exclusive Interview] August 30, 2018 By Bianca Benjamin Andrew Rayel — musical prodigy, modern day Mozart, the future of trance, whatever you’d like to call him — is truly a master of his craft and continues to make waves in the world of trance music. With two successful albums under his belt on the esteemed Armada label, Rayel continues to push out breathtaking productions, but now on his own successful imprint, inHarmony Music. From his time in the studio, Find My Harmony radioshow, his relatively new label, and nonstop tour and festival appearances, Andrew Rayel is continuously on the go. Despite his ultra busy schedule, Rayel made some time to chat with us before his epic A State of Trance performance at Tomorrowland festival. We discussed the astonishing festival itself, his label inHarmony Music, trance vocalists, the true meaning behind finding your harmony, and more. RR – How has your time at Tomorrowland been so far? AR – Absolutely incredible! This is the second weekend I’m actually playing. Last weekend, I did a beautiful set at Tomorrowland Main Stage. The Main Stage feels like nothing else, it was totally special with all of the flags in the crowd. The way it looks from the DJ booth is just incredible. I don’t think you can see that anywhere else. All those people, the flags, it looks huge! I already played a set in The Brewery today. It was a very small pop-up thing for the fans. In a few hours, A State of Trance. I’m really looking forward to premiering a lot of new music over there. I kept all the fresh things for ASOT. RR – You’ve played festivals worldwide for many years now, is there a certain factor that you believe makes Tomorrowland stand out in comparison to other dance music festivals? AR – It’s crazy, I tell this constantly to people… at Tomorrowland, you see flags from countries that are actual real world enemies. There’s obviously countries that are fighting, which is not good at all, but then you come to Tomorrowland and you see those countries’ flags next to each other, they’re dancing, jumping, and hugging each other. They don’t care about any of that. I think politicians should come to Tomorrowland and take a look at this, how people unite. They don’t care about what political reason they’re fighting about, just be happy and live in peace together. RR – That’s beautiful! Music truly unites all. Now, let’s talk about your label. You launched inHarmony Music last year under Armada, how’s it been being a label boss? AR – Oh, it’s great being a label boss, I actually bought a suit (laughs). No, its actually the same thing I was doing before, just trying to find new talent, but now I get to choose when I can release those tracks and make a plan for myself for the entire year. It’s obviously not just me. We have an entire crew that is working on the label. And now I’m searching for new talent all over the world. I find a lot of talented guys and help them mix and master their tracks. I finish them, pretty much, because sometimes new producers have great ideas, but they don’t always know how to finish them, so I take the time to finish those tracks and move them forward for release. I don’t want to just put random stuff on my label. RR – That’s amazing! Any exciting news you’d like to share with us regarding your label or any details on new music you’re currently working on? AR – Well, the most exciting thing is actually the single we’re gonna be releasing on August 3 (available on all platforms here.) It’s something completely different from what I’ve done before. I would say it’s a pop song, pretty much. There’s going to be a club mix, which I’m actually premiering today, the club mix of A State of Trance, but the original mix is going to be out August 3. It’s a collaboration with a great producer, Fernando Garibay, and great vocalist, Jake Torrey. The track is called “Last Summer” and it’s a slow, very summer vibe type of song that you listen to in the car and remember those amazing memories from the last summer or this summer. It’s beautiful. RR – What is the best part, as well as the most challenging aspect of running your own label? AR – Well it’s challenging to constantly have quality releases and keep up with a busy schedule because I still have a lot of shows to perform. I still have to create my own music. I still have to do the radioshow. Now on top of all of that, I have to find new talent and help them finish their tracks. There’s just a lot of extra work and all of this. This whole rhythm of life is very challenging because sometimes I get really tired and want to quit, but then I take a nap and wake up, and ehh no I don’t. RR – Your Moments album and many singles thereafter have featured a plethora of talented vocalists including Jonathan Mendelsohn, Lola Blanc, Emma Hewitt, HALIENE and more. Any vocalists that you have yet to work with that you’re eager to get in the studio with? AR – Um… that’s a hard question. I always wanted to do a track with Emma Hewitt. Up until last year, that was my dream trance collaboration and then we did “My Reflection.” I mean obviously I’d love to do a track with Beyonce, Celine Dion, Taylor Swift, but on a more realistic scale, I don’t know. HALIENE was also one of my dream collaborations after she did “Saving Light” with Gareth. We did a track together called “In The Dark.” There’s also a really good vocalist, her name is KARRA. She was also working with HALIENE. I’d love to do a track with her. RR – Since your debut album and radioshow are called, Find Your Harmony, and your label is inHarmony Music, what does “finding your harmony” mean to you? AR – A lot of people think that the Find Your Harmony brand is specifically and exclusively related only to music, when in reality, to me, finding my harmony would be finding that place in the world where I feel happy, that person in the world that would make me feel happy, that job or that action, which I already found – making music and everything. So it’s a bunch of elements in life and when I find all of those elements and collect them all, then I’ll be able to tell everyone that I found my harmony and my life is perfect now. But usually that happens towards the end of our lives. RR – It seems as though you have a special relationship with the Rayel family. Is there anything you’d like to share with your fans? AR – Rayel family has been the best. It was my birthday last Friday and they recorded a video. Individual members of Rayel family put together a montage of birthday wishes. I almost cried. I’m not a very sensitive, actually I can be pretty sensitive. Anyways, it was very emotional. I would like to thank them for that beautiful gift they gave me. I promise that I’m going to do my best to make them new music, meet with them, take pictures, anything they want. We would like to thank Andrew Rayel for taking the time to chat with us and delivering an unforgettable performance at Tomorrowland! Connect with Andrew Rayel: https://www.facebook.com/Andrew.Rayel https://twitter.com/Andrew_Rayel https://www.instagram.com/andrew_rayel http://www.andrewrayel.com a state of tranceAndrew RayelAndrew Rayel interviewFind Your HarmonyinHarmony MusictomorrowlandTomorrowland 2018 Exclusive Features Interview Latest Posts Music Tomorrowland Trance Bianca Benjamin Music & festival junkie RaverRafting from the Arizona desert Email:bianca@raverrafting.com IG:@_bianca.benjamin_ Bassrush Massive Takes Over The Wild Wild West [Event Review] Shuffle Button, Volume 38: Schatrax, Junktions, Paul Johnson & More Throwback Thursday Week 10: Daddy’s Groove & Mindshake “Surrender” Cosmic Gate Look Back at 20 Years, Discuss New LP, Fall Tour and More [Exclusive Interview] November 6, 2019 By Tori Matthews Well, where do we even start when it comes to Bassrush this past weekend in Arizona? From the killer lineup...
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Page < 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 > FIH Pro League: Kalinga Stadium for India home games 18 Nov 2019, Indian men hockey team will play all of their eight home matches of the FIH Pro League at Kalinga Stadium, Bhubaneswar between 18 January and 24 May, 2020. The International Hockey Federation (FIH... Read More.. Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy: Odisha beat Nagaland Odisha beat Nagaland by 45 runs in their sixth and penultimate Group-E match of the Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy T20 Cricket Tournament at Lalbhai Contractor Stadium in Surat today. This was the third ... Read More.. Bhagat settles for silver medal in Tokyo Odisha para-badminton ace Pramod Bhagat settled for silver medal in mens SL3 singles event of the Japan Para-Badminton International - Tokyo Paralympic Games Test Event, which was held in Tokyo fr... Read More.. Hero U-17 Women Football: Lionesses emerge champs Lionesses won the title in the Hero U-17 Women Football Championship, defeating Tigresses 7-2 in the final at Kalyani in West Bengal today. Lionesses striker Lynda Kom Serto was adjudged the Playe... Read More.. SM Ali Trophy: Odisha suffer second defeat Gujarat beat Odisha by six wickets in a Group-E match of the Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy T20 Cricket Tournament at CB Patel Ground in Surat today. This was the second defeat for Odisha, who remained o... Read More.. Poddar leads Odisha to win over Saurashtra Impressive all-round performance by captain Govinda Poddar guided Odisha to a 49-run win over Saurashtra in their Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy Group-E match at Lalbhai Contractor Stadium Surat today. T... Read More.. Odisha swimmers bag 3 medals in CBSE National Meet Odisha girls Pratyasha Ray and Mannata Mishra bagged a total of three medals in the first two days of the CBSE National Swimming Championship, which is being hosted by organised by Gyan Ganga Inte... Read More.. Kho-kho: Utkal women qualify for All-India meet Utkal University qualified for All-India Inter-University Women Kho-kho Championship today by finishing third in the East Zone Inter-University Championship, which was hosted by Kalyani University... Read More.. SM Ali Trophy: J&K edge out Odisha by 3 runs Jammu & Kashmir edged out Odisha by three runs in a Group-E league match of the Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy Group-E match at Lalbhai Contractor Stadium in Surat today. This was the first defeat fo... Read More.. Birla Gagan Narang HPC in shooting begins operation 12 November: The Birla Gagan Narang High Performance Centre (BGNHPC) in shooting, set up by Gagan Narang Sports Promotion Foundation (GNSPF) in partnership with Department of Sports and Youth Serv... Read More..
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2018-2019 L.A. Lakers Thread (Livin' On A Prayer) The OtherArena Forum Index -> Sports Posted: Sat Mar 23, 2019 9:29 am Post subject: So who would have thought the Lakers would beat the Nets if you knew the following two pieces of info in advance: 25-9-14 Bron 33-20-0 McGee Like... 100% that the Lakers would win? That said, we've played our way into the Bottom 10: .192 New York Knicks (14-59) .233 Phoenix Suns (17-56) .260 Cleveland Cavaliers (19-54) .288 Chicago Bulls (21-52) .342 Atlanta Hawks (25-48) .389 Dallas Mavericks (28-44) .403 Memphis Grizzlies (29-43) .411 Washington Wizards (30-43) .419 New Orleans Pelicans (31-43) .431 Los Angeles Lakers (31-41) .451 Charlotte Hornets (32-39) .444 Minnesota Timberwolves (32-40) .479 Orlando Magic (35-37) .493 Sacramento Kings (35-36) Don't know if we can catch the Pelicans, who are on a 1-7 run where all but one of those losses is by double digits. It would be nice if Randle could finally do something positive for the Lakers in his NBA career by leading a team to a bunch of wins... in this case the Pelicans. They play 6 out of their last 8 at homes. We could only hope. Not a lot of home to catch the Wizzzzzz. Their schedule looks like it doesn't have a lot of easy wins in it. Big Baller Brand rift emerges as Lakers' Lonzo Ball severs ties with co-founder over money allegations Never would have guessed that Big Baller Brand would end up being a clusterfuck! Not surprisingly, LeVar was a dumbass making it worse: According to documents and emails reviewed by ESPN, questions about Foster's business decisions and communication were first raised last fall to Lonzo and LaVar by Lonzo's financial adviser. That adviser, Humble Lukanga of Life Line Financial Group, alleged in an October email that Lonzo's personal taxes and Big Baller's taxes could not be completed on time due to an inability to account for the whereabouts of $1.5 million. Sources close to the Ball family told ESPN that Lonzo expressed his concerns about Foster to his father several times over the past few months but deferred to LaVar to manage the situation. It wasn't until this week, the same sources said, that LaVar fully reviewed the email warnings and documents from Lukanga, as he had been traveling overseas with his younger sons in the fall. The sources described LaVar as "stunned" when the emails and documents were read to him. LaVar declined comment but issued a statement to ESPN calling the situation "devastating." "I've always believed in the best in people. Regretfully, I put my complete trust in Alan Foster to manage my son's business affairs," LaVar said. "At the end of the day, family comes first, and I support Zo wholeheartedly. Together, we will make this right." Zo needs to kick not only his Dad out of his business side, but also his "manager" D-Mo. He's surrounded by a bunch of people sucking off his teet, including his brothers. Foster is just the first to be caught obviously stealing from him. Steve Yohe Location: Wonderful Montebello CA Class family. "This convict guy is a good friend, lets have him run our company, with our kids future on the line." --Yohe Location: LI Posted: Fri Mar 29, 2019 9:45 am Post subject: Here's a timeline of what went wrong this year for the Lakers: http://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/26335718/how-lakers-wasted-year-1-lebron This does seem like the low point of James' career. Instead of pulling the Lakers up, the team drove him down. Woj is saying the Bron will shut it down the rest of the season. Lots of time for him to rest up and film Space Jam 2. Three wins out of four likely is what caused the Lakers to shutdown Bron. We're at risk of screwing up the number of ping pong balls. Posted: Wed Apr 03, 2019 7:07 am Post subject: Zubac with some words about his former team yesterday: http://www.ocregister.com/ivica-zubac-says-lakers-fans-should-watch-clippers-to-see-good-basketball He did apologize on social media. So will they keep Caruso or foolishly get rid of him like Zubac etc. Posted: Sat Apr 06, 2019 2:20 pm Post subject: It's seem like Laker ownership needs to be changed. The Lakers died with Jerry Buss. Our respect left with Chick Hern & Jerry West. Have you seen their record vs the Clippers over the last 30 or 32 games. I think they have won 4. This year ends with us doing jobs again & sitting our star. Lou Williams was the MVP of Los Angeles basketball this year, and the Lakers gave him away. Thank god that The Dodgers lived thru there bad owners & regained their respect.--Yohe Magic stepping down. Sunning turn of events. What a fucking trainwreck. A true nightmare. Feel for Magic, he’s my dude and will always be. Jagdip I feel for him, but he did the Lakers wrong by doing what he did in the manner that he did it in. We look look like all those teams we've joked about over the years... as in Knicks or old Clippers bad. :( What hasn't he quit from? Player (x3), coach, announcer, & now GM. Most were short term. The OtherArena Forum Index -> Sports All times are GMT - 7 Hours
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Home List Of Titles Energy conversion in magneto-rheological elastomers Energy conversion in magneto-rheological elastomers Sebald, G | Nakano, M | Lallart, M | Tian, Tongfei | Diguet, G | Cavaille, J Y Magneto-rheological (MR) elastomers contain micro-/nano-sized ferromagnetic particles dispersed in a soft elastomer matrix, and their rheological properties (storage and loss moduli) exhibit a significant dependence on the application of a magnetic field (namely MR effect). Conversely, it is reported in this work that this multiphysics coupling is associated with an inverse effect (i.e. the dependence of the magnetic properties on mechanical strain), denoted as the pseudo-Villari effect. MR elastomers based on soft and hard silicone rubber matrices and carbonyl iron particles were fabricated and characterized. The pseudo-Villari effect was experimentally quantified: a shear strain of 50 % induces magnetic induction field variations up to 10 mT on anisotropic MR elastomer samples, when placed in a 0.2 T applied field, which might theoretically lead to potential energy conversion density in the mJ cm-3 order of magnitude. In case of anisotropic MR elastomers, the absolute variation of stiffness as a function of applied magnetic field is rather independent of matrix properties. Similarly, the pseudo-Villari effect is found to be independent to the stiffness, thus broadening the adaptability of the materials to sensing and energy harvesting target applications. The potential of the pseudo-Villari effect for energy harvesting applications is finally briefly discussed. © 2017 The Author(s). Published by National Institute for Materials Science in partnership with Taylor & Francis. Science and Technology of Advanced Materials / Vol. 18, No. 1, pp.766-778 Institute of Physics Publishing Ltd. FoR 0912 (Materials Engineering) | FoR 0205 (Optical Physics) | FoR 0204 (Condensed Matter Physics) | magneto-rheology | energy harvesting | magneto-elastic | composite
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Three Cheers for Inventors! This issue’s cover illustration is from Graham Marks’ Tokyo. Graham Marks is interviewed by Julia Eccleshare. Thanks to Bloomsbury Publishing for their help with this January cover. Marcia Williams (Walker Books Ltd) 40pp, NON FICTION, 978-1844280193, RRP £10.99, Hardcover 8-10 Junior/Middle Buy "Three Cheers for Inventors!" on Amazon Williams’s introduction to the world of inventors is a treat. Her familiar comic strip narratives may not provide the mechanics of an invention like the James Watt cylinder with any clarity, but she more than makes up for this with the wit, drama and incidental social history in her pictures. She has a strip for each of nine well-known individual inventors from Gutenberg to Logie Baird; and a couple of pages for a variety of other inventions and their instigators; and, around the margins of each page, there’s a chorus of other characters – birds, baby dragons and tortoises – who make their own comments on developments. The birds are particularly impressed by Alexander Graham Bell, whose telephone wires give them somewhere new to perch. Williams paces her narratives perfectly, varying her frame size from postage stamp to double page spread, depending on the demands of the story. She carries it all off with verve and enthusiasm. Thomas Edison believed that genius consists of 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration. If Williams perspired at all, there’s no sign of it on the page. Her readers, for no sweat of their own, get 100% information and entertainment CB
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NPTW Governance Jeff Phillips 2019-09-05T10:19:06-08:00 Cliff Gerstman Past-President James Lincoln PhysicsVideos.com Section Representative Peanut McCoy VP for Universities Chad Kishimoto VP for Two-year Colleges Ryan Carrol Long Beach City College VP for High Schools Bryn Bishop Canyon Crest Academy High School Secretary/ Treasurer Nuria Rodriguez Santa Monica College(ret) Jeffrey Dukes Port of Los Angeles High School Keith Brown, 1979 – 1981 Simon George, 1981 – 1983 Ken Ozawa, 1983 – 1985 Bob Wild, 1985 – 1987 Nick Brown, 1987 – 1989 Roger Ludin, 1989 – 1991 Harvey Leff, 1991 – 1993 Willa Ramsay, 1993 – 1995 John Mallinckrodt, 1995 – 1997 Fred Carrington, 1997 – 1999 Mary Mogge, 1999 – 2001 Glenn Malin, 2001 – 2003 Forouzan Faridian, 2003 – 2005 Nuria Rodriguez, 2005 – 2007 Bill Layton, 2007 – 2010 Jeff Phillips, 2010 – 2012 James Lincoln, 2012 – 2016 Cliff Gerstman, 2016 – Vice President for Universities (beginning 2005) Eric Page, 2010 – 2011 Ertan Salik, 2011 – 2012 Bradley “Peanut” McCoy, 2012 – 2016 Chad Kishimoto, 2016 – Vice President for Two-Year Colleges (beginning 2005) Lee Loveridge, 2010 – Vice President High Schools (beginning 1987) Keith Barker, 1989 – 1991 Gary Reynolds, 2002 – 2005 Dean Papadakis, 2005 – 2007 Bob Baker, 2007 – 2010 Chija Bauer, 2012- 2014 Cliff Gerstman, 2014- 2016 Bryn Bishop, 2016 – Secretary/Treasurer (beginning 2005) Nuria Rodriguez, 2012 – Web Manager (beginning 2005) Ed Price, 2012 – 2013 Bob Baker 2013 – 2016 Chija Bauer, 2016 – 2017 Jeff Dukes, 2017 – Lester Hirsch, 1981? – 1996 Mary Mogge, 2005 -2012 Jeff Phillips 2012 – 2018 Vice President (split to VP for Universities and VP for TYC in 2005) Ken Ozawa, 1981? – 1983 Paul Stanley, 2001 – 2002 Sarah Johnson, 2003 – 2005 Secretary (combined with Treasurer in 2005) Lucian Carter, 1981? – 1993 Robert Alt, 1993 – 1997 Treasurer (combined with Secretary in 2005) Fernando J. Lopez-Lopez, 1981? – 2004 Editor (became Web Manager in 2005) Art Carey, 1981? – Ronnald Zammit, 1989 – 1991 Steve Cooperman, 1997 – 1999 Historian (eliminated in 1995) Walter Ogier, 1981? – 1995 Test Adminstrator (eliminated in 1996) Lowell Eliason, 1981? – 1982 Walter Ogier, 1983 – 1993 Jim Outwater, 1993 – 1995 Andy Halle, 1995 -1996 Below you will find the current Constitution and By-Laws for SCAAPT. SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA SECTION The name of this organization shall be the Southern California Section of the American Association of Physics Teachers (SCAAPT). ARTICLE II. OBJECTIVES The objectives of SCAAPT shall be advancing physics teaching and promoting an appreciation of the role of physics in our culture. No part of the net earnings of SCAAPT shall inure to the benefit of, or be distributable to, its directors, officers, members, or other private persons, except that SCAAPT shall be authorized and empowered to pay reasonable compensation for services rendered and to make payments and distributions in furtherance of its exempt purposes. Except as otherwise provided by Section 501(h) of the Code, no substantial part of the activities of SCAAPT shall consist of carrying on propaganda, or otherwise attempting, to influence legislation. SCAAPT shall not participate in, or intervene in (including the publishing or distributing of statements), any political campaign on behalf of (or in opposition to) any candidate for public office. Notwithstanding any other provision of these articles, SCAAPT shall not carry on any activities not permitted to be carried on (a) by an organization exempt from federal income tax under Section 501(a) of the Code as an organization described in Section 501(c)(3) of the Code, or (b) by an organization contributions to which are deductible under Section 170(a) of the Code as being to an organization referred to in Section 170(c)(2) of the Code. ARTICLE III. MEMBERSHIP The membership shall consist of three classes: regular members, emeritus members (retired), and sustaining members (corporations and institutions). The privilege of voting and holding office shall be limited to regular members and emeritus members. ARTICLE IV. MEETINGS There shall be two meetings each year – one in the Spring and one in the Fall. The program of each Spring Meeting shall include a Business Meeting, during which the officers shall report to the membership on the status of the section. Other section business will be carried out as necessary. A quorum of at least ten voting members will be required for a business meeting. ARTICLE V. OFFICERS The Executive Committee of SCAAPT shall be a President, a Vice President for High Schools, a Vice President for Two Year Colleges, a Vice President for Universities, a Secretary/Treasurer, a Past-President, a Web Manager, and a Section Representative. The duties of the officers shall be defined in the by-laws. The officers shall jointly be responsible for handling the finances, correspondence, and external relations of SCAAPT. They shall make all arrangements for meetings of SCAAPT except such as may be delegated by action of the officers or of the membership. A vacancy in one of the offices, other than Past-President, shall be filled by majority vote of the Executive Committee, pending the next regular election. The Executive Committee may, by majority vote, appoint ad hoc committees for the purpose of furthering the Section’s activities. The ad hoc committees shall be of duration not longer than two years. ARTICLE VI. AMENDMENTS This Constitution may be amended by a two-thirds majority of those members present and voting at any Business Meeting. A proposed amendment, recommended by the Executive Committee or by petition signed by at least 5 per cent of the voting membership, must be submitted to vote within twelve months after receipt of the proposed amendment. ARTICLE VII. BYLAWS By-laws may be adopted or amended by a simple majority of those members present and voting at any Business Meeting. A proposed bylaw or amendment, recommended by the Executive Committee or by petition signed by at least 5 per cent of the voting membership, must be submitted to vote within twelve months after receipt of the proposed amendment. Article I. OFFICERS’ TERMS AND DUTIES Officers, other than Past-President, shall be elected at the Business Meeting in even calendar years. The term of each office shall be two years beginning at the end of the Spring Meeting. The Past-President position shall be automatically filled by the living Past-President of most recent incumbency, who does not currently hold an elected position. The President shall have executive responsibility for the overall operation of the Section, and shall preside at the meeting of the Executive Committee and at Section Business Meetings. The Vice President for High Schools shall actively involve high school teachers in the Section activities. The Vice President for Two-year colleges shall actively involve two-year college faculty in the Section activities. The Vice President of Universities shall share the executive duties with the President, and shall serve as program chair for each Section Meeting. The Secretary/Treasurer shall maintain membership and address records, maintain Section funds and keep a record of dues payments. Within 120 days after the close of the Section’s fiscal year the Treasurer shall submit an annual report to the Executive Committee that contains: the assets and liabilities of the Section at the end of the fiscal year, principle changes in assets and liabilities during the fiscal year, revenue or receipts of the Section for the fiscal year, and expenses or distributions of the Section during the fiscal year. The Past-President shall assist the executive committee throughout the year and to volunteer his/her help for the section meetings. The Web Manager shall maintain and update the Section website “scaapt.org”, which includes a running history of the section, web resources for members, past and future meeting information and section information. The Section Representative shall represent the Section at the American Association of Physics Teachers meetings and to exercise all the duties, rights, and privileges pertaining to membership in that body. A Section Representative unable to attend a Meeting of the Members may be represented by an alternate designated by the Executive Committee. The Section Representative is expected to attend all AAPT National meetings, to promote the Section at the National level, and to promote the National AAPT at the Section level. To serve as Section Representative, the individual must also be a member of the National AAPT. Except as otherwise specifically determined by resolution of the Executive Committee, or as otherwise required by law, checks, drafts, promissory notes, orders for the payment of money, and other evidence of indebtedness of the Section shall be signed by the Treasurer or the President, after written or emailed confirmation has been obtained from the other. Article II- DUES, DUES AND ASSESSMENTS The Section dues shall be set to cover only the necessary expenses and shall be decided upon by vote of the membership as the occasion arises. The section fiscal year shall be September 1 through August 31, or such other period as may be fixed by the Executive Committee. There shall be an annual fall meeting and an annual spring meeting arranged by the Officers. Notices of the time and place of these meetings shall be appropriately delivered to all members of the Association. The section officers under the guidance of the president decide on host institutions and invited speakers for the meetings. An appropriate general meeting fee shall be set to cover only the necessary expenses and shall be decided upon by vote of the membership as the occasion arises. Article IV – MEMBERS Regular and Emeritus Members are individuals who have completed the necessary application for membership and who reside in the Southern California geographic region, which is approximately defined by U. S. Postal Service ZIP Codes whose first three digits are between 900 and 935, inclusive. Regular members are those who have paid the required dues. Memberships are for one calendar year, beginning on January 1. Regular members may terminate their membership by completing the necessary form. Emeritus members are those who have previously been regular members for at least 5 years, who have reached the age of 60 years, and who are completely retired from all employment. Sustaining members are corporations and institutions that have furthered the work of SCAAPT through donations (either in funds or service) to SCAAPT in the last two years. ARTICLE V- EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE The Executive Committee shall meet to discuss and plan section business at least once a year, between June and August, and as necessary. Quorum of the Executive Committee is defined as five Officers. Officers shall receive notice of an Executive Committee meeting from the President at least one week prior to the meeting. Notice shall be delivered via the Officers’ contact information (electronic address, telephone/ voice messaging, or postal address) on file with the section. Executive Committee actions may be taken by unanimous written consent. If an item for action is best addressed before a Executive Committee meeting, the following factors will be considered by the President before determining whether to ask for an action by written consent: How soon a decision is required. Whether the decision would be better made after further discussion and/or whether alternatives should be considered. Whether the action is a routine action that the Executive Committee can take in lieu of an Executive Committee meeting. Whether a conference call meeting can be scheduled and held (either just for discussion or if a quorum is obtained, to take a vote). Whether all Officers have indicated they are unanimously in favor of the action and will be available to sign and return a written consent. If after considering the above factors, the President determines it would be best to take the action by unanimous written consent, the President may have the Secretary draft the proposed action and email it as an attachment to all Officers at their respective email addresses. The action shall allow an Officer to check that he or she is in favor of or opposed to the particular action. Each Officer shall sign and return the written consent to the Secretary by email within 24 hours unless another deadline is provided in the email. Upon the Secretary’s receipt and verification of all written consents approving the action, the action is duly approved. Regardless of whether the action is approved or not, the Secretary will confirm whether the action has passed or failed by email to all Officers upon receipt of all the individual written consents. The Secretary will file all individual written consents. The Executive Committee will ratify any action taken by unanimous written consent at the next Executive Committee meeting. The minutes of this meeting will record the ratification. ARTICLE VI- PARLIAMENTARY AUTHORITY The rules contained in the current edition of Robert’s Rules of Order Newly Revised shall be the parliamentary authority for all matters not specifically covered in the Section’s Constitution or Bylaws. Two Full-Time Positions at Rio Hondo College 1. Physics 2. Engineering Math + Physics Position: Aliso Viejo Modeling Workshops & Courses for 2020 Full time tenure track physics faculty position at MiraCosta College Full Time, Tenure Track Physics Instructor About SCAAPT The American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT) is a national organization whose mission is to enhance the understanding and appreciation of physics through teaching. The Southern California section (SCAAPT) supports the mission of the AAPT via our workshops, biannual meetings and other events. The SCAAPT welcomes the participation of anyone interested in physics and physics teaching, but especially Southern California area high school and college physics teachers. The activities of SCAAPT are supported solely through meeting fees and volunteer work of its members. We are not supported financially by the national organization. Copyright 2013- 2018 SCAAPT | All Rights Reserved
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Scared Monkeys Discussion Forum > Missing, Exploited and True Crime > Missing Exploited and True Crime > Holly Bobo, 20yrs old missing Parsons, TN 4/13/11 > Topic: Holly Bobo #5 - 3/11/14 - 9-08-14 Body Found Pages: « 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 » Go Down Author Topic: Holly Bobo #5 - 3/11/14 - 9-08-14 Body Found (Read 250533 times) Re: Holly Bobo #5 - 3/11/14 - 9-08-14 Body Found September 9, 2014 Tweets https://twitter.com/willnunley Will Nunley @willnunley · 16s #Bobo family: "We hope no family will have to experience what we have endured" Family: "Those responsible have lost their souls" Family: "We have lost a precious daughter...sister" Family: We will never understand the motives Family "Our friends have been unwavering in their support" A spokesperson, Steve, is speaking first. #HollyBobo Will Nunley @willnunley · 7s The family is entering the room. #HollyBobo http://m.fox17.com/stream goodmorn,goodnite, got to go, as always its been wonderful, talking with you, and most of all have a great day, and dont forget to smile Will Nunley @willnunley · 1m Bobo family has finished speaking. #Bobo Spokesman: "I've never seen a stronger, more dedicated family" Spokesman: "This has been bittersweet...family is comforted by the fact they have an answer" #HollyBobo Family: "We will not have any further comment as a family" #Bobo family: "We believe we have the right to mourn privately" "Media has been very helpful" #HollyBobo Holly Bobo Family Statement, Comments From Sheriff & District Attorney Tue, Sep 09 2014, 01:07 PM CDT A statement was delivered by Steve Farese Sr, the spokesman for the Bobo family on behalf of Dana, Karen and Clint Bobo. "On behalf of Holly we would like to thank everyone for their thoughts and prayers. We will never understand the actions or the motives of those who took Holly from us. Those responsible will be afforded a trial. As an innocent victim Holly had no such right. Although in prison they can breathe and visit with loved ones, not Holly. We've lost a precious daughter...but those responsible have lost their souls. The family knows that Holly is in a better place. We hope that no family will have to experience what we have endured. The family has asked for privacy to grieve." Sheriff Keith Byrd also spoke not as Sheriff, but as friend to the family. http://m.fox17.com/news/Holly_Bobo_Family_Statement,_Comments_From_Sheriff__District_Attorney Sheriff: No word on if hunters will be eligible for the reward money. #HollyBobo #Developing Sheriff: We did fly over this area. Ground searches by law enforcement unclear. Sheriff: You take your information and you act on it. No information besides pings ever came in from that area. #HollyBobo Retweeted by Will Nunley Chris Conte @chrisconte · 1m Family and friends are here listening to Bobo family statement. Heartbroken and lost. #hollybobo @NC5 pic.twitter.com/1hjJAgT6aQ Sheriff: The TBI is on the scene today, with forensics experts. #HollyBobo The scene is secure. Sheriff: This area was likely searched by citizens. #HollyBobo Heather Mathis @WBBJ7Heather · 1m Family of #HollyBobo standing by sheriff and spokesperson during conference. Will Nunley @willnunley · now Sheriff: We were chasing (cell) pings for the first few days (of the search). Sheriff: We are not protected from crime, anywhere we live. Sheriff: None of this seems real, from the very start. Sheriff: This area had been searched a couple of times. How far we went into the area is unclear. #HollyBobo Sheriff: No other identifying evidence found at the scene Sheriff: "We believe that other arrests are forthcoming" Sheriff: "My new goal is to see that the people that did this are punished" Decatur County Sheriff now speaking I hope this team does as an excellent of a job finding Hollys remains as the team that found Caylees. Justice for Holly and may her family start the healing process. The animals that did this rot in He77. "We love you Karen, Clint, Dana" an audience member remarks as the family departs. D.A.: It is time to do our jobs. We will see that justice is provided to this family. D.A.: We want to make sure that no one 'escapes the net'. #Hollybobo D.A.: We think their is someone else out there that we need to get a hold of. #HollyBobo #Developing D.A. The death penalty is still under consideration. The family will assist with decision. D.A. The time for action is upon us. The District Attorney is now speaking. https://twitter.com/JordanBuie Jordan Buie @JordanBuie · 15s Bobo family present at press conference #HollyBobo Quote from: Green Eyes on September 09, 2014, 01:57:56 PM Quote from: grace-land on September 09, 2014, 02:19:06 PM http://www.stategazette.com/story/1893484/photo/1733344.html Justice for Holly, and her family! CNN video of the family spokesperson delivering the familys statement with the family in the background. http://www.cnn.com/2014/09/08/us/tennessee-holly-bobo-case/index.html Very sad but at least they know where she is now...if that is any consolation I just found out, anticipated but still heartbreaking. My prayers will always be with the Bobo family. These murdering scum cant get convicted fast enought...I hope they fry. Justice for Holly http://www.jacksonsun.com/story/news/special-reports/abduction-holly-bobo/2014/09/09/bobo-family-statement/15343831/ Full text of statement from Holly Bobo's family Nichole Manna, The Jackson Sun 2:19 p.m. CDT September 9, 2014 Full text of the statement today from Holly Bobo's parents, Dana and Karen, and her brother Clint. The family attended a news conference at the Decatur County Sheriff's Office today where their attorney Steve Farese read the statement: https://twitter.com/megan_kristin Megan Smith @megan_kristin · 2h Watch this #hyperlapse video of the roads that connect #HollyBobo 's home to Zach Adams' home. @JSunNews http://www.jacksonsun.com/media/cinematic/video/15346551/hyperlapse-video-roads-that-connect-bobo-home-to-adams-home/ … Quote from: cookie on September 09, 2014, 05:24:14 PM Quote from: Nut44x4 on September 10, 2014, 10:42:48 AM And hopefully there will be forensic evidence to help toward bringing those responsible to justice. http://www.jacksonsun.com/story/news/special-reports/abduction-holly-bobo/2014/09/09/forensic-team-helps-bobo-investigation/15364415/ Forensic team helps with Bobo investigation Jordan Buie, The Jackson Sun 3:06 a.m. CDT September 10, 2014 (Photo: JORDAN BUIE/The Jackson Sun ) Somewhere in the woods near the University of Tennessee at Knoxville are decomposing bodies whose owners willed them to science. It's a forensic anthropology research facility, commonly referred to as the "Body Farm" by students. Those who decide to donate their bodies to the study of human decomposition give a gift that allows the living to draw answers from beyond the grave, and hopefully bring killers to justice. The value of such gifts may shine brightest at times like this, when forensic anthropologists are using their research in hopes of gathering evidence and providing answers to the family of Holly Bobo. A team of those experts traveled to Decatur County from Knoxville on Tuesday, according to Decatur County Sheriff Keith Byrd. A workstation was constructed at the site where Bobo's partial skeletal remains were found on Sunday just north of County Corner Road. On Tuesday, The Jackson Sun requested a comment from the UT Forensic Anthropology Center, but a university spokeswoman said forensic scientists from the school do not comment during an ongoing case in which they are working. According to the UT Knoxville Forensic Anthropology website, study of the field began at the university in the early '70s, with a Dr. William Bass. The research facility, on 1.3 acres, is "the first of its kind to permit systematic study of human decomposition," the website says. Bodies at the facility are arranged in manners to simulate a crime scene. http://www.wbbjtv.com/news/local/Man-says-he-saw-Adams-Autry-in-area-where-Holly-Bobos-remains-found-274687741.html Man says he saw Adams, Autry in area where Holly Bobo's remains found Story Created: Sep 10, 2014 at 6:52 PM CDT Story Updated: Sep 11, 2014 at 12:56 PM CDT DECATUR COUNTY, Tenn. -- A man says he regularly saw both Zach Adams and Jason Autry in the area where Holly Bobo's remains were found. Adams and Autry have both been indicted for Bobo's kidnapping and murder. John Tubbs said he has known both men most of his life. He said they often were in the area. "Him and Jason both. Jason rode a dirt bike through there quite a bit," Tubbs said. He said his father's business, Tubb's Sawmill, closed its doors earlier this week, overwhelmed by the discovery of Holly Bobo's remains less than a quarter of a mile away and all the investigators and media that followed. "It's hard to be here right now running the mill, I mean knowing she was right there," Tubbs said. Wednesday, investigators still swarmed the area where two ginseng root hunters found her skull on Sunday. The TBI said at least 30 investigators from multiple agencies are on the scene. Eyewitnesses said they have seen cadaver dogs, four-wheelers and dozens of cars since the TBI took over the investigation. "They come down here yesterday and went down this old logging road right here, went down into the swamp I reckon," Tubbs said. Newly elected District Attorney Matt Stowe was also on the scene Wednesday http://www.wsmv.com/story/26508949/tbi-clears-scene-where-remains-of-holly-bobo-were-found TBI clears scene where remains of Holly Bobo were found Posted: Sep 11, 2014 12:41 PM CDT Updated: Sep 11, 2014 2:10 PM CDT DECATURVILLE, TN (WSMV) - Investigators with the Tennessee Bureau of Investigation have cleared the scene where the human remains of Holly Bobo were found in Decatur County on Sunday. The TBI says they cleared and released the scene on Wednesday, but they are still continuing to investigate the case. The agency is not releasing any information about what, if anything, was recovered from the area. The TBI says no additional arrests have been made in the case since the remains were found. Decatur County Sheriff Keith Byrd said on Tuesday that other arrests in the case will be forthcoming. One of the ginseng hunters, Larry Stone, expressed his condolences to the Bobo family on Facebook. Stone posted a picture of flowers he said he left near the place where he found the remains. "I feel so much sorry and pain for her family," Stone wrote. Pages: « 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 » Go Up
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Home Volume 48 [2013–14] Volume 48 Number 45 Locals only: Outside Lands edition Locals only: Outside Lands edition esilvers@sfbg.com LEFT OF THE DIAL Can you smell it in the air? It’s that late-summer, chilled pinot grigio-tipsy, organic ice cream-sticky scent of Outside Lands, just around the corner. Yes, it’s that time in our fair city’s annual trip around the sun when we get the chance to show Austin and Indio and those warm summer New York nights exactly what we here in San Francisco are made of when it comes to music festivals: Namely, expensive, gourmet food, wine, and beer stands, a commitment to slapping the word “green” in front of everything; and a beautiful, natural outdoor venue in which, should you forget to bring three extra layers in an oversized bag, you will absolutely freeze your ass off by nightfall. All snark aside, one thing I’ve always appreciated about OSL in its six short summers is that, nestled amongst the sometimes overwhelmingly corporate feel of the thing — something that was maybe inevitable, as Another Planet Entertainment grew from little-promoter-offshoot-that-could into perhaps the most influential promotions company in the Bay Area music biz — is a commitment to bringing local bands along for the ride whenever possible. Sure, everyone’s excited to see Kanye. I’m excited to see Kanye. Anyone who’s going to see Kanye and tries to say anything more intellectual about it than “I’m really fucking amused in advance and very excited to see Kanye” is lying. But nothing fills me with more hometown pride than watching a band I’ve been rooting for since they were playing living rooms or parklets take the stage in Golden Gate Park in front of thousands of paying, attentive potential new fans. With that in mind, here’s your guide to a few of our favorite local folks representing the Bay Area at this year’s fest. Show up for ’em. In most cases, they’ve been working toward this for a long time. And if you don’t have the funds to make it to this year’s OSL? Lucky for us — unlike Kanye — these kids play around the Bay all year round. Nicki Bluhm and the Gramblers The unofficial queen of Bay Area alt-folk has had a good year since August 2013, when her band’s debut LP took to the airwaves and then to the national stage, with Bluhm’s killer vocals and long, tall mishmash of Stevie/Janis appeal at the helm. Fri/8 at 4pm, Sutro Stage SF’s own Scott Hansen has also been riding high this year, since the release of Awake in March propelled him from bedroom artist to something else entirely with its lush, ambitious landscapes of color and sound. We still think we prefer him in headphones to outdoor festival-style, but we’ll take it. Sat/9 at 3:40pm, Twin Peaks Stage Mikal Cronin If you don’t know his solo stuff (and you should; last year’s MCII was one of the best local records of the year), you probably know him as Ty Segall’s right-hand man. Either way, Cronin is one of the most authentic voices in the Bay Area’s indie scene right now, with just enough power-pop sweetness and strings coloring even his scratchiest garage-punk anthems. Fri/8 at 4:30pm, Panhandle Stage Did you love Girls (the SF indie powerhouse, RIP, not the HBO show)? Of course you did. Did you love Christopher Owens’ solo debut, Lysandre? We did too. He’s giving us another one in September; now’s your chance for a sneak preview of some likely highly emotional and lushly orchestrated songs. Sat/9 at 2:30, Sutro Stage Watsky This 27-year-old rapper and SF University High School graduate has been gaining attention with his whiplash-inducing flow, which he honed in his teens as a slam poetry champion. His most recent album, June’s All You Can Do, is poised to take him from Internet and Ellen-famous to just famous-famous. Sun/10, 2pm, Twin Peaks Stage Trails & Ways Bossa nova dream pop, Brazilian shoegaze, whatever you call it: This Oakland quartet (and Bay Guardian Band on the Rise from 2012) draws inspiration from all over the globe for its undeniably catchy, never predictable, harmony-drenched melodies. Sat/9 at 12:40pm, Twin Peaks Stage “This is not your father’s gypsy jazz,” warns Beso Negro’s bio, which — while we’re pretty sure our dad doesn’t have a kind of gypsy jazz — does a pretty good job of explaining the modern sounds infused into this Fairfax five-piece’s musical vocabulary. Hell Brew Revue Stage, all three days, check the website for details Tumbleweed Wanderers As if we didn’t have a big enough soft spot for this East Bay alt-soul-folk outfit already, there’s the fact that they got their start busking outside of festivals for their first few years — including Outside Lands. Seeing them on the inside will be sweet. Sat/9 at noon, Sutro Stage With horns, theremin, and just about every kind of percussion you can think of, this Point Reyes-based eight-piece is a mish-mash of everything dark and dancey and nerdy and weird, describing themselves as “part rumba band in purgatory, part cinematic chamber group, part shipwrecked serenade.” Serious cult following here. Hell Brew Revue Stage, all three days Slim Jenkins Sultry, jazzy, rootsy — we’re excited to see what this mainstay of “voodoo blues” nights at small rooms like Amnesia can do on a bigger stage. Hell Brew Revue Stage, all three days Marty O’Reilly & the Old Soul Orchestra O’Reilly, a singer-songwriter who’s clearly done his Delta roots, gospel, and traditional folk homework, played OSL last year — well before putting out a debut studio album, the aptly titled Pray For Rain, in March of this year. This is a three-piece with arrangements that make the band seem much bigger. Hell Brew Revue Stage, all three days Pub date August 5, 2014 WriterEmma Silvers SectionMusic Left of the Dial OUTSIDE LANDS
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4:00 PM PT5:00 PM MT6:00 PM CT7:00 PM ET0:00 GMT8:00 5:00 PM MST7:00 PM EST4:00 UAE (+1)19:00 ET22:00 BRT, November 27, 2019 Capital One Arena, Washington, District of Columbia Attendance: 18,573 Eller, Holtby come through as Capitals edge Panthers 4-3 (AP Photo/Nick Wass) By IAN QUILLEN WASHINGTON (AP) The Washington Capitals made the most of their chances to knock off Florida. Lars Eller broke a third-period tie and the Capitals defeated the Florida Panthers 4-3 on Wednesday night to snap a two-game skid despite posting a season-low 20 shots. Braden Holtby made 37 saves for Washington, including one while he played without a stick just moments before Eller gave the Capitals the lead on the other end. Alex Ovechkin added his team-leading 16th goal for the Metropolitan Division leaders, who have yet to suffer a three-game losing streak this season. In their previous two defeats, the Capitals scored one goal in each despite putting more than 30 pucks on target. "I think for a couple of games we haven't had the bounces and the puck luck," Eller said. "Maybe today we had that, especially when we needed it in the third. Just not one of our best games, but we found a way to win - against a pretty good team, too." Richard Panik also scored and Brendan Leipsic added an insurance goal in the third period that proved the game-winner. Jonas Siegenthaler had two assists. Brett Connolly scored his team-leading 12th goal for Florida in his return against his former team, as the Panthers sank to a third consecutive loss. Vincent Trochek scored and had an assist, and Mike Hoffman added his 10th goal in the Panthers' second one-goal loss to the Capitals this season. Keith Yandle picked up two assists while Alexsander Barkov got his team-leading 23rd. Sergei Bobrovsky made 16 stops in defeat as his current save percentage dropped to .884, well below his career .918 mark. "I think every game is different," Panthers coach Joel Quenneville said of Bobrovsky, who still holds a 9-6 record. "Goalies get scrutinized to a different level, but in a game like tonight on the road against a good team, you need timely saves, you need big saves and that can be the difference." After Holtby lost his stick in traffic in front of his crease, he used his pad to deny Mike Matheson's wrister early in the third period, and the Caps turned the rebound into a rush into Florida's zone. "It's not that difficult without a stick," said Holtby, who said he was slashed and was shaking his wrist prior to the save. "On a straight-on shot you can play everything. I was more fighting through that slash." Bobrovsky stopped Jakub Vrana's initial shot from the left, but Eller reached the rebound, lifting it above the traffic converging in Bobrovsky's crease and into the net. Leipsic made it 4-2 with 8:01 left when he scored between Bobrovsky's pads again, after Ovechkin did so in the first period. It proved needed after Trochek answered with 4:29 left. But Yandle's slashing penalty inside the final minute ended Florida's comeback hopes. "We're looking at the scoresheet at the end of the night and it's four goals," said Capitals coach Todd Reirden. "That's something that we haven't done recently. That's something we talked about." NOTES: During the first period, Connolly was honored with an on-screen tribute and loud ovation for his contributions in Washington during a three-year tenure, which included six playoff goals during the Capitals' 2018 Stanley Cup run. ... Vrana's assist on Eller's goal marked Vrana's 100th career point. ... Florida has held opponents to fewer than 30 shots in consecutive games for the first time since doing so in four straight games from Oct. 19-27. ... The Panthers' fifth-ranked power play went 0 for 3 and has now scored only once in its last 14 opportunities. Panthers: Open a nine-game homestand Saturday vs. Nashville. Capitals: Host Tampa Bay on Friday.
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Paul Anderer Fred and Fannie Mack Professor of Humanities and Professor of Japanese Literature, Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures Caroline Bynum University Professor Emerita David Cannadine Professor, Department of History, Princeton University Antoine Compagnon Blanche W. Knopf Professor of French and Comparative Literature Joseph Connors Professor of History of Art and Architecture, Harvard University James Coulter Professor of Classics Emeritus Wm Theodore de Bary John Mitchell Mason Professor and Provost Emeritus of Columbia University David Freedberg Pierre Matisse Professor of the History of Art and Director of The Italian Academy for Advanced Studies in America. Walter Frisch H. Harold Gumm/Harry and Albert von Tilzer Professor of Music, Department of Music Richard F. Gustafson Professor Emeritus Slavic Department Barnard College and Columbia University Jean Howard George Delacorte Professor in the Humanities, English and Comparative Literature Villard Professor of German and Comparative Literature, Department of Germanic Languages Natalie B. Kampen Professor of Women's studies and the Barbara Novak '50 Professor of Art History, Columbia University and Barnard College Karl Kroeber Professor of English and Comparative Literature Richard F. Kuhns Professor Emeritus of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy Alfred Mac Adam Professor of Spanish, Barnard College Steven Marcus George Delacorte Professor Emeritus in the Humanities James Mirollo Parr Professor of Comparative Literature Emeritus Esther Pasztory Lisa and Bernard Selz Professor in Pre-Columbian Art History, Department of Art History Thomas Pogge Leitner Professor of Philosophy and International Affairs, Yale University Wayne Proudfoot Professor, Department of Religion Eugene F. Rice William R. Shepard Professor of History, Department of History Michael Riffaterre University Professor Emeritus George Saliba Professor, MESAAS Haruo Shirane Shincho Professor of Japanese Literature and Culture, Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures Allan Silver Professor of Sociology Emeritus, Department of Sociology Elliott Skinner Former Professor and Chair in Anthropology Mark Von Hagen Professor of History, Arizona State University School of Historical, Philosophical and Religious Studies Gwendolyn Wright Professor of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation, GSAPP The Governing Board of the Society of Fellows comprises Columbia University faculty working across a range of disciplines. Together they help lead the Society and aid in the selection of future Fellows. Governing Board Directory
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PATRICIAANN46 How To Decide Who To Marry Here are some words of wisdom from Kids. Enjoy!!! 1. How Do You Decide Who To Marry? (Written by Kids) *** You got to find somebody who likes the same stuff. Like, if you like sports, she should like it that you like sports, and she should keep the chips and dip coming. *** Alan, age 10 *** No person really decides before they grow up who they're going to marry. God decides it all way before, and you get to find out later who you're stuck with. *** Kristen, age 10 2. What Is The Right Age To Get Married? *** Twenty-three is the best age because you know the person FOREVER by then. *** Camille, age 10 3. How Can A Stranger Tell If Two People Are Married? *** You might have to guess, based on whether they seem to be yelling at the same kids. *** Derrick, age 8 4. What Do You Think Your Mum and Dad Have In Common? *** Both don't want any more kids. *** Lori, age 8 5. What Do Most People Do On A Date? *** Dates are for having fun, and people should use them to get to know each other. Even boys have something to say if you listen long enough. *** Lynnette, age 8 (isn't she a treasure?) *** On the first date, they just tell each other lies and that usually gets them interested enough to go for a second date. *** Martin, age 10 6. When Is It Okay To Kiss Someone? *** When they're rich. *** Pam, age 7 *** The law says you have to be eighteen, so I wouldn't want to mess with that. *** Curt, age 7 *** The rule goes like this: If you kiss someone, then you should marry them and have kids with them. It's the right thing to do. *** Howard, age8 7. Is It Better To Be Single Or Married? *** It's better for girls to be single but not for boys. Boys need someone to clean up after them. *** Anita, age 9 (Bless you child) 8. How Would The World Be Different If People Didn't Get Married? *** There sure would be a lot of kids to explain, wouldn't there? *** Kelvin, age 8 And the #1 FAVORITE is........... 9. How Would You Make A Marriage Work? *** Tell your wife that she looks pretty, even if she looks like a dump truck. *** Ricky, age 10 0309COOKIE These were cute! ARTJAC FLAME42 Kids do have a different sense of perspective. ALOHAEV1 Pffffttttttt...wine spritzer through the nose alllllll over the keyboard!!! Thanks for the smiles 1CRAZYDOG That last one "Tell your wife she's pretty even when she looks like a dump truck" had me ROFLMBO! And you think about the logic . . . to a little boy, a dump truck probably IS pretty! LOL MS.ELENI #9 is real wisdom SALEX52 Luckily, I didn't marry a man described by #7. NEW-CAZ out of the mouths of babes...................... THECRAZYMANGO LOVE these!! I think my favorite is: *** No person really decides before they grow up who they're going to marry. God decides it all way before, and you get to find out later who you're stuck with. PATRICIAANN46 Posts More Blogs by PATRICIAANN46 Can We Forgive Ourselves? - 1/21/2020 A Love Supreme - 1/21/2020 A Lot Better.......... - 1/19/2020 My Memory.............. - 1/19/2020
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Trump - Builds Stuff - May ReBuild America Help me retake America from the Communists We continue our series of guest blog posts by superior thinkers and writers. Today's piece was written by G. Murphy Donovan, who covers national security, military affairs, intelligence, threat analysis, and terrorism. He had two tours in Vietnam, and is a recognized professional smart guy when it comes to Russian studies and political and diplomatic assessments. Although his pieces are widely distributed, we republish here to ensure his work, and his blog get even wider distribution through our global audience. We salute Mr Donovan and trust he will continue to provide us with his superb insight on national and world events. [https://ljpkjsah.wordpress.com/] Donald Trump is a piece of work even by New York standards: tall, white, loud, brash, entrepreneurial, successful, rich, ruthlessly candid, well-dressed, and fond of heterosexual women. He has married at least three delicious ladies in fact. Trump has five children and seven grandchildren. Indeed, his progeny are well above average too, smartly groomed, photogenic, and successful to boot. Created thousands of jobs As far as we know, Donald does not have any tattoos, piercings, unpaid taxes, or under-aged bimbo interns. He is not a drunk or a junkie either. Trump projects and enterprises probably employ more folks than the NYC school system -- or the United Nations. You could say that Trump is living the life, not the life of Riley, but more like Daddy Warbucks with a comb over. “The Donald,” as one ex-wife calls him, is not just living the American dream. Trump is the dream -- and proud of it. You could do worse than think of Trump as upwardly mobile blue collar. He is the grandson of immigrants and the product of Long island, a Queens household, and a Bronx education. The Donald survived the Jesuits of Fordham University for two years before migrating to finish his baccalaureate at the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania . When readers of the New York Times, The New Yorker, and the New York Review of Books speak of “the city”, they are not talking about the Queens or the Bronx. Growing and schooling in the blue-collar boroughs gives Trump a curb level perspective, something seldom found in Manhattan . Or as any “D” Train alumnus might put it, Trump has “a pretty good Bravo Sierra detector.” So what’s not to like about Donald Trump? He doesn’t just stay in four-star hotels; he builds them. He doesn’t just own luxury condominiums; he makes them. He doesn’t just own historic buildings; he restores them. He doesn’t just eat at the best restaurants; he creates them. He just doesn’t belong to the best country clubs; he builds those, too. And Donald Trump, unlike the Manhattan/Washington fantasy Press and every Beltway political pimp, doesn’t just pay lip service to a bigger and better economy, he creates micro-economies every day. The only thing we don’t know about Donald Trump is why he would like to emigrate to the District of Columbia. Wished AIDS on Jesse Helms In any case, the merits of entrepreneurs like Trump might best be defined by the character or motives of his critics. Trump detractors are for the most part “B” list politicians, ambulance chasers, and a left-leaning Press corps that lionizes the likes of Nina Totenberg, Dan Rather, Chris Matthews, Andrea Mitchell, and Brian Williams. If the truth were told, most of Trump’s critics are jealous, envious of his wealth, and they loath his candor. Donald might also be hated for what he is not. Trump is not a lawyer, nor is he a career politician who lives on the taxpayer dime. Trump is paying for his own campaign. Bernie, Barack, McCain, and Kerry could take enterprise lessons from a chap like Trump. Unlike most government barnacles, Trump can walk and chew gum at the same time. He knows how to close a deal and build something. He is a net creator, not consumer, of a kind of wealth that provides “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” for Americans -- real jobs not feather merchants. Today, Trump has nothing left to prove. Yet, success has allowed him the rarest of public privileges, an electoral pulpit and the courage to speak his mind. Alas, truth is not necessarily a political asset in a socialized democracy. Indeed, the erstwhile presidential candidate stepped on his crank recently by suggesting that Mexico, already exporting dangerous drugs, cheap tomatoes, and even cheaper labor, was also exporting violent felons to the US. Truth hurts! Sanchez murdered Steinle in Sanctuary city Trump’s rude candor is underwritten by nearly half a million illegal felons in American jails. Coincidentally, events have conspired to support Trump’s take on Mexican dystopia with the El Chapo Guzman jailbreak and the murder of Kathryn Steinle by Francisco Sanchez. Señor Sanchez sported a lengthy criminal record and had been deported on four previous occasions. San Francisco, a "sanctuary" city, failed to honor existing warrants and released Sanchez from jail just before he blew Kathy Steinle away. As serendipity would have it, Trump then went to Phoenix on 12 July and gave a stem winder to a sell-out crowd on the subject of illegal immigration. Senator John McCain was not pleased to have The Donald on Arizona’s front lawn and intemperately called Trump supporters “crazies.” Trump returned fire saying that McCain was no hero. Here again Trump cut to the quick, pointing out that no one qualifies as a hero because he was shot down or captured. Indeed, being a hostage in North Vietnam is not necessarily heroic either. McCain is thought by some to be a heroic because he refused to accept an early release. In fact, the Hanoi parole offer was a ruse, a Hobson’s choice, designed to embarrass McCain and his father at CINCPAC. If McCain took the parole and abandoned his fellow POWs, he would have shamed his father and been ostracized by shipmates. Indeed, had John McCain not been the son and grandson of famous nd victorious, Pacific Command flag officers, no one would have noticed him then or now. Few of the demagogues who have come to John McCain’s defense could name any of the 600 Vietnam-era POWs other than McCain. McCain is famous today because he, like John Kerry, has parlayed a very average Vietnam military service into a three-decade political sinecure. We know of 50,000 Vietnam veterans that might be more deserving than John McCain. Unfortunately, they died in a war that generals couldn’t win and politicians couldn’t abide. A body bag seldom gets to play the “hero.” McCain is no political hero either. [Ed Note: McCain's return flight to the US following his release from the Hanoi Hilton was unique since there were three armed Military Intelligence Special Agents on board the aircraft to prevent the other former PWs from killing McCain.] McCain is famously ambiguous on domestic issues like immigration. He is also a Johnny-come-lately to Veterans Administration rot, which has metastasized as long as McCain has been in office. On foreign policy, McCain is a Victoria Nuland era crackpot, supporting East European coups, playing cold warrior, and posturing with neo-Nazis in Kiev. McCain pecks at Putin too because the Senate, like the Obama crew, hasn’t a clue about genuine threats like the ISIS jihad or the latest Islam bomb. To date, Trump has run a clever campaign. He is chumming, throwing red meat and blood into campaign waters and all the usual suspects are in a feeding frenzy. McCain, the Press, the Left, and the Republican establishment all have something to say about “the Donald". It is truly amazing how cleverly Trump manages to manipulate the establishment. If you are trying to sell an idea or a candidacy, there’s no such thing as bad publicity. Who knows where the Trump campaign goes? For the moment, he has scored direct hits on Mexico and McCain. With El Capo on the loose again, every time a toilet flushes in Sinaloa, Mexican garbage is likely spill out in Los Angeles, Hollywood, San Francisco, Portland, or Seattle. Indeed, it’s hard to believe that the Left Coast could survive without cheap labor, pistileros, meth, coke, heroin, or weed. Necrotic immigration and its by-products are ready-made targets for a gunslinger like Trump. Trump is no bigot. He probably employs more Latinos and Blacks than Enrique Peña Nieto or Barack Obama. In his own way, Donald Trump is both immigrant and POW, a refugee from Queens and still a prisoner of Wharton. The Donald is The Dude, the guy with babes and a role of Benjamins that would choke a shark. He is the wildly successful capitalist that some of us love to hate. At $337 Million per - a DOD Bargain! [cdn images] Before democratic socialism, success and effectiveness were measures of merit. It doesn’t take much insight to compare Trump’s various enterprises with federal programs. Public education, banking oversight, public housing slums, poverty doles, veterans fiascos, Internal Revenue hijinks, and even some Defense Department procurement programs are consensus failures. The F-35 “Lightning” fighter is an illustration, arguably the most expensive single DOD boondoggle in history. Pentagon progressives seldom win a catfight these days, but they still spend like sailors. If and when Trump fails, he is out of business. In Trump’s world, failure has consequences. In contrast, Washington rewards failure with better funding. Indeed, generational program failure is now a kind of perverse incentive for Beltway politicians and apparatchiks to throw good money after failed programs. The difference between Trump and McCain should be obvious to any fair observer; Trump has done something with his talents. McCain, in contrast, is coasting on a military myth and resting on the laurels of Senatorial tenure. Any way you look at it, Donald Trump is good for national politics, good for democracy, good for America , and especially good for candor. If nothing else, The Donald may help Republicans to pull their heads out of that place where the sun never shines. #DHS Outs #McCarthy Elmers and McCarthy -- reportedly closed door sessions were not just political strategy [GotNews] Click here for related story [NY Post] The political game of feints and jabs on the Hill just took a new turn. The buzz has been over why McCarthy dropped out of contention for the Speakers position, and of course, there's been enough finger pointing to put a few eyes out. But, the New York Post now reports that allegations of McCarthy's affair with Renee Elmers [R-NC] were the real cause. [Both have denied the allegation.] Normally, we would not repeat such tawdry accusations, but, in this case, due to the circumstances, we'll make an exception. [Whowhatwhy.org] Now, this would be standard political subterfuge, normally expected among political foes. But, in this case, it turns out the allegations were posted on Wikipedia, by, ummm, -- none other than the Department of Homeland Security, which has had more than its share of scandal in recent years. Seems the perp was unaware that posting to Wikipedia tracks back to the Internet [IP] address of the person/organization posting. In this case, the poster was located in the DHS office in Springfield, Va. Oops! Call in the Hatch Act police. [FYI, the Hatch Act outlaws "pernicious political actives"] This Kabuki drama now takes a decidedly new twist, which will very likely result in an inquiry/investigation/inquisition by both Parties in Congress as to why DHS is slandering politicians via the Media. It's annoying enough that NSA is eavesdropping on Congress, and that CIA has been spying on Congress, but, heaven forbid, we certainly can't have DHS joining in the political fray of slander, back-stabbing, and innuendo. These nasty situations inevitably result in a uniting of the political Parties against a common foe -- in this case, the Administration, which may have used a national security organization to slander [expose?] a Congressman. It's not that Congresspersons or Senators [or Presidents] do not have affairs [we would be surprised if they weren't having affairs; it's what they do!]; but, by golly, they don't want such news leaking back to their constituents who expect their political representatives to exercise at least a modicum of marital fidelity, or sobriety while representing their constituents. Now, the search begins for the perp, and who put him/her up to this mischief. The last iteration of such political engagement by a national security organization resulted in the Church and Pike Committees gutting the Intelligence Community. Will Congress go after DHS with the same zeal? Labels: Benghazi, Boehner, CIA, CyberSecurity, DHS, DNC, GOP, Intelligence, NSA, Politics, Speaker of the House, Terrorism #Clinton suppressed terrorist reports Clinton Legacy? Click here for related story [IBD] We've previously addressed the unique relationship of Hillary with the Muslim Brotherhood and Sisterhood, as well as Hillary's foiled covert meeting with Iran's President Ahmadinijad leaders; we've also noted Bill's seeming incompetence when it came to pursuing Osama bin Laden. But, now we learn from US Intelligence officers and executives that Bill actually suppressed evidence of terrorism sponsored and carried out by Muslim extremists, with support from Saudi and Iranian backers. Here's the list, as presented by IBD in the referenced article: 1) 1993: World Trade Center Bombing: Six killed, 1,000 injured. No follow-up action 2) 1995: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia US Military Training Center Bombing: Five Americans killed. 3) 1996: Khobar Towers Bombing: 19 US Servicemen killed; hundreds wounded. a) The six Saudis involved in the attack told the FBI they obtained their Iranian passports and reported to an Iranian general. b) FBI Director Louis Freeh confirmed that Bill Clinton and NSC chief Sandy Berger called the evidence "hearsay" and ordered Freeh to not disseminate lest it undermine closer relations with Iran. c) Clinton's knowledge of this evidence was confirmed in a 1999 Top Secret cable [now declassified] in which he discussed with then President Mohammad Khatami of "credible evidence" that members of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps worked with Hizballah in the bombing of the Khobar Towers resident complex in Saudi Arabia. d) Wayne White, a State Department Intelligence Officer [1979-2005] advised that intelligence on the attack had been cut off by Sandy Berger, National Security Advisor to Bill Clinton. 4) 1996: Sudan's President Bashir offers to arrest and extradite Osama bin Laden to Saudi Arabia; in the absence of a US response, bin Laden was "evicted". Sudan also tossed out a number of the functionaries in the 2001 bombing of the World Trade Center in New York. Clinton's non-response was an indicator that Sudan might be targeted by Clinton for political purposes; thus Bashir's eviction notice to bin Laden. 5) 1998: Bombings of US Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: 224 killed; 5,000 injured. 6) 1998: US bombing [political] of Iraqi sites to distract Media attention from Monica Lewinski Impeachment scandal. [The Iraqis had fully cooperated with US/UN inspection demands, until the US demanded access to Saddam's personal quarters. Clinton used this refusal as the basis for bombing Iraq.] 7) 2000: USS Cole bombing by al Qaeda in Yemen: 17 US Sailors killed, 37 injured. Clinton blamed Sudan. Bin Laden celebrated and received massive new donations and large numbers of new recruits. Interestingly, this new reporting supports the history of Democrats forcing the Intelligence Community to distort or suppress actionable or exculpatory intelligence to support the sitting President's political agenda. It dates back to FDR's suppressing Intelligence that the Japanese were planning to bomb Pearl Harbor, LBJ's creating the "evidence" of hostile actions by North Vietnam as the basis for his assault on Tonkin Bay to escalate US involvement, Jimmy Carter's muzzling of the US Intelligence Community on reporting on North Korea and, later, on Iran and the Ayatollah Khomeini; and, of course, Mr 0bama's consistent dismissal of his daily Intelligence Briefs ignoring Russian and Chinese threats to the US -- not to speak of his loosely shaded links to the Muslim Brotherhood. The IBD asks [rhetorically], "Do we want another Clinton in the Oval Office?" Labels: Air Force, Angle, CIA, Clinton, Daily Show, DNC, DOD, Gulf War, Jones, Media, New World Order, Politics, State Department, Top Secret EcoFuel Innovation Click here for referenced story [Erin #Blakemore Washington Post] We're not sure if this young scientist is actually a genius since this technology has been around longer than he's been alive. [Ask the Japanese] What IS new is the public awareness of the technology and pressure to implement it. In short, he developed a process by which fecal waste [i.e., poop] from humans, chickens, pigs, and Democrats] can be converted into a fuel product; he added leftover fats and proteins to bolster the fat content for a more efficient biodiesel burning process. The side benefit, of course, is to remove all these waste products from the environment. [The Japanese traditionally distributed human waste in their vegetable fields in what were termed "honey pots"; the end products were very healthy veggies -- if you didn't mind the rather unique flavor.] [#AGICO Group] Currently, BioFuel is one of the fastest growing US industries as it converts wood chips and sawdust into efficient burning fuel pellets for industrial heating and energy. Less expensive than fuel oil or coal, and easy to convert the furnaces, US companies are being pressured by coal and oil companies [read Warren Buffett and Rockefeller] to ignore the new technology. So, currently, Europe is the major consumer of this US product, and US factories and energy plants are operating in the 19th Century mode. Now, with the wood biofuel, there is a massive savings in energy fuel -- and the carbon footprint is almost negligible. Take it one step further, and convert chicken and pig feces to fuel pellets, and you have a massive supply of fuel at minimal cost since the farmers have been under pressure for years to clean up the feces waste products from their farms. Making this transition and capitalizing on the solution to a pollution problem simply makes sense. But, as we've seen, any time the government [e.g., the EPA] gets involved, there is no positive result. EPA&ADM vs Amish Farmers Currently, the EPA is targeting the Amish farmers who stockpile their manure to recycle as fertilizer rather than allow it to run off into nearby streams. EPA, in this case, seems to be fronting for Archer-Daniels-Midlands [ADM] which won a $99 Million Department of Energy "carbon-capture" contract tied to its ethanol production. Pollution flowing into the Chesapeake Bay[#FoodFreedom.com] As bio researchers will point out, though, the chicken and pig farmers are being pressured by their buyers to NOT clean up and to NOT sell their animal feces to the biofuel producers as the buyers are being pressured by -- you guessed it, the coal and oil industry. In the meantime, pristine water preserves such as the Chesapeake Bay, which used to be full of fish, oysters, clams, and crabs, are now nearly devoid of marine life. If you want to see this situation change, contact your elected official and make a stink [so to speak].
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Drop the ‘We are Victims’ Stance Harinder Baweja Credible information post 26/11 is not enough if India doesn’t act on it Illustration: Anand Naorem PRIME MINISTER Manmohan Singh has informed us once again that “There is credible information of ongoing plans of terrorist groups in Pakistan to carry out fresh attacks.” Describing cross-border terrorism as “the most pervasive threat” facing India, the prime minister stressed the need for continuing vigilance. After the 26/11 attacks in Mumbai, the Prime Minister, should in fact, be asking senior ministers and bureaucrats in his own government this: what are you doing with this ‘credible information’? Even if Manmohan Singh’s statement was an attempt at putting pressure on Pakistan to accelerate its investigation against those involved for the Mumbai attack, he still needs to be asking his team for daily reports on what they are doing with the credible intelligence. A rigorous analysis of advance information is the only effective way of thwarting attacks but a careful look at our past record only points to talk and little action. Let us just take a few heavy-duty statements that preceded the Mumbai attacks. Defence Minister AK Antony had himself informed the Lok Sabha that “Pakistan based terrorist groups, particularly the Lashkar-e-Toiba LeT have been exploring possibilities of induction of manpower and terrorist hardware through the sea route.” Then, former Home Minister Shivraj Patil too had categorically said, “Some Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) operatives are also being trained specifically for sabotage of oil installations. There are plans to occupy some uninhabited islands off the country’s coastline to use them as bases for launching operations on the Indian coast…” Yet, the LeT succeeded in hitting Mumbai with both, impunity and ferocity. India quickly moved into ‘martyr and victim’ mode. But now, as the Prime Minister informs us of the possibility of another 26/11 attack, is it enough to just mount diplomatic pressure and not seriously attempt at refurbishing our own internal security apparatus? Should our politicians and security establishment not pay a price? Is it enough to only set up inquiry committees? Several committees have submitted voluminous reports in the past. Back in 2001, after the sharp but short war in the mountainous heights of Kargil, the Girish Saxena Committee gave a report on the country’s intelligence apparatus. The report recommended an overhaul of technical, imaging, signal and, electronic counter-intelligence capabilities. The recommendations were accepted by a Group of Ministers (GoM) but in the seven years since they gave the report their stamp of approval, it has never been implemented beyond a few symbolic changes. More importantly, the Saxena Committee had called for a Multi-Agency Centre (MAC) to be set up under the Intelligence Bureau (IB). The MAC was to collect and coordinate terrorism-related information. It is functional, but under-staffed and underequipped. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh released funds for MAC only after the bomb attack in Delhi in September 2008, seven years after the Committee first recommended that it be set up. Blame Pakistan and ISI for sure, but how about some accountability? Isn’t it time for heads to roll at home? The most indicting finding of the still to be tabled Ram Pradhan Committee — set up to probe the 26/11 intelligence lapses — is that the Multi Agency Centre had not even marked its alerts to Mumbai’s Commissioner in charge of the state intelligence department. This officer, ostensibly supposed to be the fountainhead of all intelligence gathered by IB, RAW and other central agencies had, in fact, not even received a single one. Blame Pakistan and its ISI for sure, but isn’t it time for heads to roll at home? Time too, Mr Prime Minister, to drop the martyr victim act. If there is credible evidence, assure us, that it is being acted upon. Girish Saxena Committee Harinder Bawaja intelligence failure Ram Pradhan Committee Previous articleNightmare in Free India Next articleCleaning out the Augean Stables Citizenship (Amendment) Bill sparks uproar in Assam Peace gets hurt when hate goes mainstream Examination conundrum and complacency of CBSE Dissent Or Don’t, You’re Damned Either Way 23 killed in firecracker factory blast in Punjab’s Gurdaspur SC dismisses Opposition’s plea seeking 50% VVPAT verification Mumbai: ATS recovers explosives from Sanatan Sanstha member Vaibhav Raut’s home Jammu and Kashmir: Pakistan violates ceasefire in Akhnoor sector JNU professor granted bail in sexual harassment case No-confidence motion not taken up; Parliament disruptions continues PM Narendra Modi to visit Kurukshetra in Haryana today
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Artist: Philip Glass Album: Visitors Released: 3 September 2013 Label: Orange Mountain Music How is it that Philip Glass is categorized as a Minimalist when there is so much variety in his music? He is indeed part responsible for the founding of the genre - which in its infancy primarily emphasized the slow alteration of chord deconstruction. Glass plays one of the organs on Steve Reich's Four Organs/Phase Patterns (1970) LP, and with his own ensemble later released several albums featuring works of repetitive structures, notably among them Music in Twelve Parts (1974). In 1976 Glass worked with theatrical producer Robert Wilson to realize Einstein on the Beach (1979), a four act, five hour modern performance which forever changed the image of opera. With Glassworks (1982) and The Photographer (1983) Glass edged closer to the symphonic with near-mainstream music that attracted a larger audience as well as gained him an appearance in a Cutty Sark Scotch advert. Collaborating with visionary film director Godfrey Regio Glass composed some of the most distinctive soundtrack music in all of cinema for their documentaries Koyaanisqatsi (1983), Powaqaaysi (1988) and Naqoyqatsi (2002). The music for Visitors (2013) marks their fourth film together. There are times when the score for Visitors has the quality of a private dispatch, like a secret the composer is murmuring in our ear. Part of the pleasure of this soundtrack is its contained scale, its hushed beauty and the deliberate sustaining atmosphere of its elegant orchestral arrangement. In contrast to the edgy feel of so many others of this realm, Visitors seems subtle, tactile and welcoming. Its churning string section demonstrates a circular process, a repeating cycle of notes that develops slowly - the patterns continuously changing form, though almost imperceptibly. The result is a somber and delicate journey atop restrained symphonic waves. Too classy to be called Spacemusic, and too complex to be labeled Ambient, the pieces from Visitors conjure a unique mood, something beyond their association with Regio's moving images - and feel as if their solitude has been drawn from some deep, unspoken place in Glass' own being. - Chuck van Zyl/STAR'S END 15 January 2014
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Jessica Hobbs Pifer Jessica Hobbs Pifer is a Deputy News Editor of Trinity News. She is a Senior Fresh Middle Eastern and European Languages and Cultures student. Thousands of students register to vote on campuses since general election was called TCDSU say that they have helped register 415 students in the past two days 2,000 students have been registered to vote in the General Elections by Irish Students’ Unions and the Union of Students in Ireland (USI) since last Thursday, according to a tweet this evening from USI President Lorna Fitzpatrick. Laura Beston, President … January 21, 2020Leave a commentJessica Hobbs Pifer January 21, 2020 Trinity student Tate Donnelly running in upcoming election Donnelly will be running as a Green Party candidate in Cavan Monaghan Trinity student Tate Donnelly has announced his candidacy for the upcoming General Election. Donnelly will run as a Green Party candidate in Cavan Monaghan. Making the announcement on Facebook today, Donnelly wrote: “I am the youngest Dáil candidate in the … USI publishes open letter to stop another student deportation The letter is addressed to ministers Charlie Flanagan and Mary Mitchell O’Connor The Union of Students in Ireland (USI) has published an open letter condemning the impending deportation of Hamza Khan, a Sanctuary Scholar studying at University College Cork (UCC). The letter is addressed to Minister for Justice Charlie Flanagan and Minister … USI vote to support bilingual signage on campuses in Northern Ireland A meeting of USI’s National Council was held in Trinity The National Council of the Union of Students Ireland (USI) have voted to support bilingual signage for Colleges in Northern Ireland, among several other motions discussed at a meeting held in Trinity. The union’s National Council have also taken the … November 16, 2019Leave a commentJessica Hobbs Pifer November 16, 2019 Trinity claims it was overcharged €300,000 by Dublin City Council Trinity is being charged because of the planning permission deal for the E3 Learning Foundry Trinity alleges that they have been overcharged €300,000 by Dublin City Council for the new E3 Learning Foundry. Dublin City Council granted planning permission to Trinity for the new development provided that Trinity contributes €744,311 towards public infrastructure and the … Trinity considers first ever pop-up Christmas Market College calls for student, staff, and alumni participation in the market Trinity is considering a proposal to organise College’s, first ever pop-up International Christmas Market to aid the Undergraduate and Postgraduate Student Assistance Funds. If approved, the market will take place on December 4 2019. The event would run alongside the … November 5, 2019Leave a commentJessica Hobbs Pifer November 5, 2019 Five things that happened at TCDSU Council Council talked about the Cut the Rent movement and drug decriminalisation Finn Purdy and Jessica Hobbs Pifer Everything you need to know about what went on at the second meeting of the year of the Trinity College Dublin Students’ Union (TCDSU) Council. 1. Rejecting support for the Cut the Rent movement Council rejected a motion to take … October 29, 2019Leave a commentJessica Hobbs Pifer October 29, 2019 TCDSU Council vote against supporting the Cut the Rent campaign All sabbatical officers voted for the motion, other than the TCDSU president, Lauren Beston, who abstained from the vote Trinity College Dublin Students’ Union (TCDSU) Council has voted against a motion to mandate the union to support the Cut the Rent movement, following lengthy and heated discussion. The motion, which was defeated, stated that “the continuing housing crisis disproportionately … Library begins recruiting student team of desk monitors The new initiative is part of the Library Study Space Campaign College is recruiting a team of eight student library desk monitors to prevent “desk-hogging” as part of their Library Study Space Campaign. In an email sent to postgrads, College said that student-team is intended to help address “ the practice … Relocation of Music Department recommended in school review A task force will consider the suggestion of a relocation later this year A relocation of the Music Department has been suggested in the school review of the School of Creative Arts, which will be considered by a task force later this year. According to the head of the department, Dr. Simon Trezise… October 6, 2019Leave a commentJessica Hobbs Pifer October 6, 2019
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The sad story of human billboard David Jonathan Winkelman Winkelman became a human billboard for the radio station KORB in late-2000 after a disc jockey offered listeners a six-figure payout if they tattooed the FM station’s call letters and logo on their forehead. Winkelman and his stepson, Richard Goddard, went to a local tattoo parlor and each emerged with forehead ink promoting “93 Rock,” the “Quad City Rocker.” But when the two guys tried to claim the money, the radio station said it was just a joke. They sued, but the suit was dismissed. Winkelman just got arrested for something or other, so we’re all treated to the mugshot below. Poor guy… Via Gawker. Also tagged david jonathan winkelman, jokes, mugshots, tattoos | 6 Comments National Public Radio is changing its name to NPR National Public Radio is changing its name to NPR. NPR says it’s abbreviating the name it has used since its debut in 1971 because it’s more than radio these days. Its news, music and informational programming is heard over a variety of digital devices that aren’t radios; it also operates news and music Web sites. I’m not on board with this. Most of what NPR does is still in the audio realm, and I think in the digital age, the word “radio” should (and will) evolve to mean streaming or long-form audio. It’s a hell of a lot better than “podcast”. Via The Morning News Also tagged npr | Leave a comment
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Target To Roll Out New Loyalty Program The new loyalty program for Target Target is launching a new loyalty program nationwide next month that will reward its most loyal customers plus reel in shoppers just in... (Photo Source: adage.com) The new loyalty program for Target Target is launching a new loyalty program nationwide next month that will reward its most loyal customers plus reel in shoppers just in time for the holiday shopping season. The company also announced that it will hire more than 130,000 seasonal workers, surpassing last year’s hiring of 120,000 part-time staff. Seasonal employees will earn at least $13 an hour and receive a discount of between 10 and 20 percent on store purchases. The new loyalty program, called Target Circle, will be available to customers in the United States beginning Oct. 6. The program is officially launching after a successful 18-month test in six cities that included two million subscribers. Perks include earning one percent on Target purchases, early access to sales, personalized deals, birthday perks and the chance to vote on Target’s community giving initiatives. Target’s Cartwheel platform, which offers coupons, will also be part of Target Circle. The purpose of the new loyalty program is to complement the RedCard perks, according to a news release from Target. Target will automatically enroll RedCard and Target.com members, who will continue to save five percent, and the new program will offer a one percent rebate to people who do not have the credit card. The retailer is the latest company to roll out a loyalty program, following Macy’s, Nordstrom, and Kohl’s. Daniel Berg September 13, 2019 cartwheelcircleloyalty programplatformShoppingtarget Weekend TV Six-Pack – College Football, College Soccer, NFL And NASCAR Playoffs Make For Full Weekend Of Viewing Democratic Candidates Share Their Plans For Gun Reform At Houston Debate Ashley Herzog - Sep 13, 2019 Teigan Naylor Iran attacks U.S. military base in retaliation Late Tuesday night, Iran lobbed more than a dozen missiles at a... Remains of outlaw found in Idaho cave Thanks to rapidly advancing DNA technology, a set of human remains discovered... Chinese government sets the record straight of TikTok takedown allegations The short video app TikTok, which is owned by... Why government workers are advised against taking home DNA test Ancestry and DNA testing kits, like those sold by... Boeing Fires CEO A Year After Two Fatal Crashes Boeing CEO resigns amidst the company’s 737 Max plane controversy Dennis A. Muilenburg, the Chief Executive Officer of Boeing,... Apple, Google, And Amazon Are Teaming Up To Make Smart Home Devices More Compatible Three competing companies team up to make connecting smart home devices easier On most days, Apple, Google, and Amazon... You Might Be Buying Trash On Amazon – Literally Amazon buyer beware Most wise shoppers would never intentionally buy trash on Amazon–but according to an investigation by the... The University of Pheonix will forgive millions in debt As part of a settlement with the Federal Trade Commission,... The Clampett’s ‘Beverly Hillbillies’ Mansion Sells For A Record-Breaking $150 Million The record-breaking Chartwell property sells for $150 million Selling this property took over two years, but it was worth... TikTok Under Fire After Suppressing Videos Of Users “Susceptible To Bullying” TikTok caught suppressing videos of users with disabilities and more TikTok is getting flak for removing videos of people... Why The FBI Warns Against Using FaceApp What’s so bad about FaceApp? The FBI is warning Americans to delete FaceApp from their phones. FaceApp, a photo-editing... Kylie drops a lot of cash for private security Being a celebrity seems glamorous, but it’s not all fun... Apple, Google, And Amazon Are Teaming Up To Make Smart…
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Table of contents and Abstracts – Spring 2016 Apertúra Lívia Barts: Exhibition and communication: seductive framing in advertising from fin-de-siècle to the millenium The article aims to circumscribe, on the one hand, the origins of modern advertising and its function in capitalist economy. On the other hand, it intends to map the basic signifying frameworks in the history of advertising-communication from its fin-de-siècle beginnings to our present day. One of the article’s theses is that advertising was born to conceal the abstractions of capitalism (the quantitative and levelling medium of money and the impersonal distancing of market participants), so as to provide a more humane tone for the communication of products and brands. The analysis of the three communication strategies (“out there”, “in there”, “in you”) is based on the hypothesis that the foci and methods of advertising were determined by economic, socio-cultural and media developments. Through its history, advertising has shifted from the sensual but impersonal exhibition of material goods (“out there”), through the emphasis on brands’ live, historical and symbolic character (“in there”), to “pure” communication that relies on the consumer and his active and free interaction with the brand (“in you”). Annamária Hódosy: Advertising and the Postfeminist Power Discourse Many feminist critics of “postfeminism” consider the representation of the political and sexual “freedom” of today’s women as a way of making them internalize the needs of power in postindustrial society. Accepting the importance of becoming beautiful and sexy – which increasingly get connected to social and political agency in the media – individuals willingly become ”subjects” by complying with the demands of consumer society via buying and using the products of the beauty industry. The consumption of these products on one hand promises making them “free” and “powerful” members of society, while on the other hand aims at their (self-)diciplining themselves to become “good” subjects.. The advertisements of these products, which all too often apply the rhetoric and imagery of “freedom” and “power” to articulate the aforementioned promises, may therefore be interpreted as technologies of power in the Foucauldian sense. Anna Keszeg: Written and directed by Karl Lagerfeld: the genre of digital fashion film The marketing tool called the digital fashion film appeared at the beginning of the 21st century as a result of a collaboration between fashion, film and advertising industry and offered to fashion brands an opportunity of self-positioning by a branded content with aesthetic ambitions. Presented at fashion film festivals and shared on online platforms, many sub-genres of the main form came to light. The analysis focuses on a fashion film based on classic drama-plot directed by Karl Lagerfeld using the concept of neo-baroque spectacle of Angela Ndalianis reinterpreting Gilles Deleuze’s notion of fold. Reincarnation was presented in 2014 and refers to the myth of Empress Elisabeth of Austria. The paper places the short film in the context of the genre’s history and of the Chanel House’s marketing strategies. Orsolya Milián: Video clip stories and web.2 pop-promo Almost no attempt has been yet made to narrate the history of music videos in Hungarian scholarly discourse. The present essay aims both at filling this gap in and marking out new research directions. Conducting a media archeological research, this paper examines the film and other creative industrial contexts in which music videos came into being. It also investigates factors in media history that lead to the birth of MTV and the breakthrough of music videos. The essay proves that a grand narrative of music videos does not exist – rather, we should speak about histories of music videos. Besides outlining some of these histories, the essay reflects on the changes in the production, distribution and reception of music videos due to digital and participatory media (in order to understand these alterations, one has to take MTV and the so-called ’television model’ into account). Since music videos typically are marketing tools of the pop music industry, the essay highlights some of the most efficient business and marketing strategies. Szilvia Szántó Dr. – Dávid Harsányi Dr.: “Is the Creative Creative?” Business Students’ Opinion on Creativity and Creative Advertising These days we frequently run into the concept of creativity in business life. In our constantly changing world one of the best possible ways to meet the challenges – besides getting adapted to them – is using our creativity. In our paper, after describing the concept of creativity, we introduce the results of the September 2014 survey held among the students of BGF-KVIK and KKK with a sample size of 240 pax. With the questionnaire we tried to find out how the young people define creativity, what they think creativity means in commercials, how creative they find themselves and whether creativity can be improved or not. Anna Szlávi: Billboard definions of gender The present study focuses on the communication of billboards, from an unusual perspective. We will not analyze the main messages of ads, that is, what they are trying to sell and how. Instead, we will attempt to reveal their byproducts: the social frames and hidden gender definitions they utilize when promoting their products. Advertising does not only build on social stereotypes but it also shapes them. The repeated representation of certain relations and phenomena reinforces and normalizes them, while its lack marginalizes and pathologizes those relations and phenomena. According to adverts, the main pillars of masculinity are physical power, activeness, rationality, work and (heterosexual) sex. Femininity, on the other hand, is defined by complementing the dominant male, by her weakness, passiveness, sensitivity, her care for the home domain, and her sexual objectification. The article will expose that the gender representations of billboards nicely fit the larger context of popular culture. However, due to their formal constraints and necessity to sell, billboards define gender roles in even more restrictive and suffocating ways. Ákos Varga: The discreet charm of consumer society: Mad Men This essay undertakes the analysis of the Mad Men series, on the one hand approaching it from the perspective of contemporary series-culture, and on the other hand presenting the cultural, political, sociological aspects of this television production. The history of advertising, questions of gender, as well as the narrative and visual tricks of Mad Men are also included in the analysis. János Zoltán Tóth: Marketing trends in Hollywood blockbuster production after the turn of the millennium The paper presents the changes of marketing communications tools in the field of American blockbuster film production as a result of the new technical environment provided by Web 2.0. These changes impact the values of filmmarketing, project management and the elements of marketing mix. The author discusses these changes of marketing strategy planning as they are synchronized with the vertically integrated film production process (production, distribution, exhibition). Raymond Williams: Advertising: the magic system Raymond Williams’ article on the history of advertisement gives insight into those strengthening processes in Great Britain, which became notable in the XVII. century, and which were fundamental in the emergence of the advertisement industry. The author studies the interrelations between the political, economic, social and cultural context of advertisement, the development of the organized and institutionalized system of advertising, and the changes in the actual methods of the advertisers. In his argument he focuses on particular political aspects, institutional decisions, and changes in production and the market, studying the elements which made advertisement a significant factor in society, commerce, and the capitalist business organisation. The article examines the social recognition of advertisement, the criticism of advertising, the alteration of methods and tools of advertising, and the functions of Public Relations. Finally, Williams presents the critique of capitalism, based on the advertising traditions of the “quack”. Előző cikk2016. tavasz tartalom Következő cikk A film mint teremtett fejlődés. Mozgásfolyamatok, A magyar filmipar, Balázs Béla és a háború utáni pillanat – Szekfü András interjúgyűjteménye Bűnkapcsolódás. A londoni férfi bűnfilmes hagyományának elhelyezése a kortárs magyar filmben Kelet-európai Thészeuszok
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The Karate Tapestry (1) The Ming Dynasty (2) Okinawa (3) There’s a Beginning Somewhere A Thing of the Spirit Bunkai Videos Okinawa Karate January 19, 2016 admin Leave a comment Okinawa karate… It is impossible to understand karate and karate history, without understanding Okinawa. One transparent example. In Japan, women were second class citizens. In Okinawa, women have, since early times, been a driving force. A Noro, a priestess, was the head of the religion and had almost as much power as the king. One of Okinawa’s most ancient beliefs is onarigami, the spiritual superiority of women derived from the Goddess Amamikyo. This differs greatly from Japanese Shinto, where men are seen as the embodiment of purity (whew). Women abound in Okinawan martial history. A well-known teacher named Higa admitted that he learned much of his karate from his sister. Legend has it that Bushi Matsumura had to defeat his girlfriend, Chiru, before she would become his wife. Called Uchinaa in its own language, Hogan, Okinawa is the largest island in the Ryu Kyu chain of islands, strewn, like a handful of rocks by Amamikyo’s divine hand, across the East China Sea from southern Japan toward Fuzhou, China. Unante, from the same root word, is an early Okinawan name for our art. It’s location, at a matrix between Japan, China, Korea and Southeast Asia foreshadowed Okinawa’s destiny. That coincidental position gave the island trade and prosperity, but, not siding with Japan against Korea in one of their early wars, ultimately doomed the island kingdom. From the 13th century, Okinawa was an independent kingdom, a tributary of China. China only traded with tributary countries and the relationship brought great wealth to the tiny island. Okinawa adopted the Chinese written language, governmental structure, cultural relationships and whatever else filtered through. Okinawa’s own spoken language still exists to some extent today, much like minority languages still exist in the United States – Cajun or Apache, for example – spoken by stalwarts, intent on preserving the heritage. The independent Okinawan Kingdom more or less paralleled the Ming Dynasty from the late 14th century until the 1600’s. This is why we believe that modern karate derives much of its influence from the Ming. Okinawa was, during the karate introduction years, in essence, an extension of the Ming. In 1392 the founding Ming emperor sent a contingent of emissaries called the thirty-six families to Okinawa to monitor the maritime trade. They also taught language, culture and martial arts. The group is legendary in karate history. They created a village called Kume (Kumemura or Kuninda) from which sprang a wealth of knowledge. Some Okinawan martial artists today speak with pride of their Kumemura Chinese ancestry and the village still exists in a nook of the city of Naha, now just called Kume. The Okinawan kingdom flourished for 300 years as a tributary to the Ming, with a strong economy and a fairly sophisticated society. It all came tumbling down in 1609 with the Japanese invasion. The independent kingdom and the flourishing economy disappeared in the face of the Japanese war machine, never to rise again. What precipitated this? In 1600 the most famous Japanese warlord, Tokugawa Ieyasu, succeeded, through stealth, treachery and war, in bringing Japan under his personal banner. On the losing side was a family clan from southern Japan – the Satsuma. Nothing is ever forgotten in Japan, neither then nor now, and Tokugawa knew that the Satsuma would always be a threat. Their revenge, in fact, came 250 years later in the Boshin war (referenced somewhat in the movie Twilight Samurai). In order to keep Shimazu misdirected, Tokugawa allowed him to “conquer” the Ryu Kyu islands. Tokugawa wanted to punish Okinawa, anyway, for not siding with Japan in their war with Korea 200 years prior (nothing is ever forgotten in Japan). The Satsuma gladly accepted the offer and descended on Okinawa with 3,000 seasoned warriors in 100 ships, defeating the un-defended island in days. The remainder of Okinawan history is framed by its subjugation at the hands of a ruthless, brutal conqueror and attempt to maintain its minuscule culture in the face of an overwhelming Japan. It is during this period, from 1609 to 1900 that karate gradually entered the picture like an embryo slowly emerging. In the face of a prohibition of bladed weapons, Okinawans nurtured a martial art inherited from China which consisted of empty hand techniques and a few wooden weapons fashioned from non-threatening tools. But the Okinawans were not a warlike people. When you live on an island 60 miles long and 20 miles wide, you don’t develop such ambitions. Instead, they became gentle and hospitable. This graciousness inherent in the Okinawan culture imbues the Okinawans and their martial art with a gentle, introspective feel. Okinawan dojos are generally quiet places, where students practice alone or with a partner under the gaze of a teacher ready to assist. Japanese dojos, in contrast, often feel like military camps with rows of students marching to the commands of a Sempai/ Sergeant. Karate was a secret Okinawan art until the turn of the 20th century. About that time, Japan discovered that the tiny island they had bullied for 300 years was home to a unique, deadly, fun martial art. They adapted various versions and systematically exported them throughout the world. But karate is not Japanese. It’s Okinawan by birth, character and heritage. For a time, I spent evenings visiting with an Okinawan karate teacher, deadly and hospitable like the rest. He is Japanese by nationality, but adamant about his Okinawan identity and that, when the mainland Japanese want to learn “real” karate, they seek him out or other Okinawans like him (just as I did). Japan lost Okinawa at the end of WWII and it became an American protectorate. Okinawa had the option of reverting back to Japan, however, or remaining with the United States. In 1971, after much heated debate, they chose Japan, but it was far from unanimous. An American friend was studying in Okinawa at the time and remembers a vote to see if they should teach karate to Japanese. They voted yes, but the vote itself tells the story. Many Okinawans believed that Japan had sacrificed the island in a last ditch attempt to keep the Americans away from the Japanese homeland. Okinawa was obliterated in the final days of World War II and Japan surrendered just before the mainland attack materialized. It was primarily because of the atomic bomb that Japan surrendered, but it was also because Japan did not want an invasion of their own island and sacrificing Okinawa had bought them wasted time. Today Okinawa is officially part of Japan, but with a distinct and very proud identity of its own. The world has finally realized that Okinawa is the well spring of karate and every year foreign students visit there to study at the source. Tournament competitors scan videos of early Okinawan katas to come up with “new” competitive forms. This meandering island history, from multicultural, independent, China leaning kingdom, to occupied island, to war time sacrifice, to martial arts font, is what forged our martial art out of one country’s very human story of survival and endurance. This article was assembled from personal research and interviews, as well as the work of John Sells (Unante), various works of Patrick McCarthy, Mario McKenna, Hawaii Karate Seinenkai, Meibukan Magazine, Joe Swift, Sal Canzonieri (Natural Traditional Chinese Martial Arts articles), Benny Meng (Ving Tsun Museum), Earnest Estrada, the internet and Takao Nakaya (Karatedo History and Philosophy). These articles are included in a free monthly newsletter emailed by the Scottsdale Martial Arts Center. If this came from some other source and you would like to receive the newsletter, send your email address to twarren@smacus.com. Contact Robert Hunt directly at steelmoon@hushmail.com Facebook: The Art and the Way Website: www.theartandtheway.com Scottsdale Martial Arts Center: www.smacus.com Previous PostThe Ming DynastyNext PostThere’s a Beginning Somewhere “The Art And The Way” Brings Karate History to Life! (ORDER NOW) Don't Miss Out! 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At more than 200 episodes and 5+MM downloads, Jake Sasseville’s long-running talk show is a catalyst to the heart and mind. It features inspirational interviews with masters, heart-searching conversations with presidents of fortune 500 companies and NBA teams and highlights the common thread of what makes us all profoundly human. Widely considered as one of the most influential interviewers of his generation (and the youngest TV host in late night TV history on ABC), Jake’s style is inquisitive, humorous and heartfelt. He’s open about weight issues, watching his brother die when he was 17, failing in dozens of business ventures during his 20s, his recovery in 12 step programs — and his most recent move to Maui, the launch of his Institute and his global real estate endeavors. comedy, entertainment, talk show entertainment, interview, popular culture comedy, entertainment, talk show, improvisation comedy, entertainment, talk show, improvisation, interview sports, NFL, talk, opinion, entertainment interview, news, entrepreneurship, popculture interview, entertainment, advertising agency, pop culture, mr. youth entertainment, interview, popular culture, mental illness, therapy bite size, relationships, love bite size, alcoholism, Family, ALAN-on, recovery, addiction bite size, gay, huffington post, coming out, love, gay marriage bitesized, intimacy, bipolar, mental illness, depression, psychosis, spirituality interview, talk show, sports, magic, pirates BTSZD talk show, interview, Jogyo, musician, grammy, forgiveness, the clique, popular culture, philosophy, the jake sasseville, the jake sasseville show, stormy simon, overstock.com, jake sasseville, CEO, female leadership the jake sasseville show, mr. jeff dess, topher keene, ferguson, apartheid, mark mathabane talk show, entertainment, susie pearl, jake sasseville, talk show, interview, eric garner, eric garner jr., russell simmons, qtip, common talk show, nbc, entertainment, lu ann cahn, sales, business, influence, coaching, peak performance metaphysics, reality creation, consciousness finance, entrepreneurship, business women, females, business, entrepreneurship, nisha moodley Wed, 5 November 2014 BTSZD: An Honest Essay on Relationships, Cheating, Lying, Forgiveness and Being Whole Relationships. They come in all forms and sizes. Here's an essay written about relationships, codependency, tricks of how to make it through, how to get radically honest and other humorous anecdotes and ideas about how to be a better partner. Let us know things that have worked or haven't worked in your relationship by using the hashtag #TheJakeShow This episode of The Jake Sasseville Show was produced and written by Jake Sasseville, Topher G. Keene out of Massachusettes and Michael Howard Nathanson out of Dallas, Texas. (c) 2014 All Rights Reserved Direct download: BITESIZE-Relationships.m4a Category:bite size, relationships, love -- posted at: 3:00am EST
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Home | Online Edition | News | Sports | Community Calendar | Obituaries | Archives | Subscribe | Advertise | Follow us on Facebook Send us: Tweets by @PaperOfWabash Dorothy Winnifred Johnson, 101 Dorothy Winnifred Johnson, 101, of Timbercrest Senior Living Community in North Manchester, died at 4:30 p.m., Tuesday, Jan. 6 at Parkview Huntington Hospital. She was born Nov. 15, 1913 in Pesotum, Illinois to Charles and Clara (Voightritter) Johnson. Dorothy was the only child of Charles and Clara. Dorothy graduated from high school in 1931 and received her teaching certificate from Illinois State Normal University. She taught business at Pesotum Consolidated High School in Pesotum, Ill. from 1935-1943. She received her Master's degree from the University of Illinois in 1941. She moved to North Manchester in 1943, where she worked as an associate professor of business education at Manchester College for more than 38 years, retiring in 1981. She was a member of the Manchester Church of the Brethren, the North Manchester Business & Professional Women's Club, National Business Education Association, the International Society for Business Education, the Indiana Business Educators Club, and the Delta Kappa Gamma Sorority, of which she was a charter member of the Alpha Zeta Chapter. She was Outstanding Educator of America for the 1974-75 school year. She was listed in World's Who's Who of Women in Education. Dorothy loved to travel. She visited the Holy Lands, Austrailia, China, Iceland, Alaska, Hawaii, and led student trips to England. She was preceded in death by her parents. Funeral services will be held at 10 a.m. on Monday, Jan. 19 at Timbercrest Chapel, 2201 East Street, North Manchester. Burial will be in Bailey Memorial Cemetery, Tolono, Illinois. Friends may call one hour prior to the service at Timbercrest. Arrangements are being handled by Grandstaff-Hentgen, Bender Chapel, North Manchester. Preferred memorial is Manchester University or Timbercrest Senior Living Community. The memorial guest book for Dorothy may be signed at www.grandstaff-hentgen.com. Posted on 2015 Jan 09 P.O. Box 603 | Wabash, IN 46992 © Copyright 2018 The Paper of Wabash County. Web and E-mail Hosting provided by Consumer51. Home | Subscribe | Obituaries | News | Sports | Community Calendar | Online Edition | Archives | Advertise
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Bulatlat Live: People’s SONA 2012 As President Benigno “Noynoy” C. Aquino III delivers his State of the Nation Address, progressive organizations will hold a protest action along Commonwealth Avenue in Quezon City today. They will criticize Aquino’s policies that did not serve the interests of the Filipino people. Follow Bulatlat’s coverage via our Twitter and Facebook account. Live video for mobile from Ustream Separating perceptions from reality A look at the concrete manifestations of the current situation, two years after the Aquino administration took the reins of government, reveals that the change that people expected is just wishful thinking as nothing much has changed except perhaps the public’s supposed still positive perception on the government, which is slowly being eroded by the worsening poverty and hunger resulting from the festering unemployment and underemployment problem and the spikes in prices of basic commodities and services. (Click here to read the entire article).... MORE URL: http://bulatlat.com/main/2012/07/23/bulatlat-live-peoples-sona-2012/ Nobody believes them anymore Written by Ninez Cacho-Olivares Nobody believes them anymore Good grief! Noynoy and Dinky’s conditional cash transfer (CCT) program which has tens of billions as doleout has been going on for two years, with a lot of anomalies and irregularities found by the official auditing body, the Commission on Audit (CoA), yet there went Malacañang and Noynoy, through his spokesman, Edwin Lacierda, still blaming Gloria Arroyo for these anomalies. A report stated that Malacañang had admitted that irregularities and other anomalies that hounded the administration’s main poverty alleviation program called the Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4Ps) can only be blamed on former President Gloria Arroyo. Lacierda even lied with a straight face, claiming that the irregularities in the CoA report covered the years of Gloria, even when it was clear that the CoA report covered the year 2011, which falls under Noynoy’s term. But Lacierda even had the gumption to state that the irregularities in the CCT have been already corrected even as he insisted that the anomalous practices dated back from the time of the previous administration.... MORE URL: http://www.tribuneonline.org/index.php/commentary/item/1902-nobody-believes-them-anymore US taking covert steps to cripple Syria’s Assad - newspaper The US government has made repeated covert attempts to block arms and oil shipments to Syria, the Wall Street Journal reports. Officials said Washington also provided rebel forces with key military intelligence against President Bashar al-Assad. The WSJ cites unnamed government officials in its report, which claims that the US has tried to coerce Iraq into blocking flights crossing through its airspace that are suspected of carrying weapons and supplies to the Assad government. In addition, US intelligence agencies have moved to block ships believed to be transporting military equipment to Syria from traversing the Suez Canal..... MORE URL: http://www.rt.com/news/us-quiet-steps-remove-assad-816/ Anaheim police 'kill another man', cops filmed firing on women & children at protest (PHOTOS, VIDEO) A second case of deadly police-involved shooting is reported in Anaheim over the weekend. It comes just a day after police shot a 24-year-old man, sparking chaotic protests. Police shot dead a handcuffed man in the Guinida neighborhood of the city, reports OC Weekly, citing eyewitness accounts. Family friends told the Weekly that the victim was Joel Acevedo, a resident of Anaheim..... MORE URL: http://rt.com/usa/news/anaheim-police-shoot-another-833/ Iraqi death toll rises to 89 in the worst wave of attacks this year (PHOTOS) A series of blasts and shootings has brought the single-day death toll for brutal attacks across Iraq to 89 victims, including 13 Iraqi soldiers. With 223 more wounded, the attacks signal the worst outbreak of violence in the country this year. ­On early Monday morning, unidentified gunmen attacked an Iraqi military base in the town of Udaim. The terrorists arrived in three vehicles and opened fire on soldiers, reportedly killing 13 of them, Reuters reports. In one of the latest incidents, roadside bombs struck northeast Iraq, leaving 11 dead..... MORE URL: http://www.rt.com/news/iraq-explosions-series-killed-824/ Sona fixations Written by Tribune Editorial Sona fixations The contents of Noynoy’s State of the Nation Address (Sona) were previewed by the Palace with reporters before the weekend and it seems the final cut would be a major revision since the usual formula of claiming achievements solely by blaming everything on the past administration and for which Noynoy is being criticized heavily as he always says it is Gloria’s fault. Constantly bashing the heads of his enemies won’t work this time and insisting on it would only strengthen perceptions that nothing indeed was achieved in the two years that Noynoy has been in in power. The Sona is the occasion for Noynoy to persuade Congress to go along with him in the passing of urgent bills and in the past years it seems that Noynoy has a poor batting average on his administration’s priority bills passing in Congress. Thus, his legislative agenda usually ends way off target every year..... MORE URL: http://www.tribuneonline.org/index.php/commentary/editorial/item/1903-sona-fixations What not to expect Written by Jonathan de la Cruz What not to expect By now, given the frenzied issuances of the Palace and various government agencies and officials of their “accomplishments” and “advocacies”, we should already have an idea of what P-Noy’s third State of the Nation Address (Sona) will dwell on. It will definitely highlight once again the regime’s anti-corruption efforts with the usual suspects as main props. It will particularly focus on the removal of Chief Justice Renato Corona on the unsubstantiated, some say invalid, charge of “betrayal of public trust”. He will insist that Corona’s removal from office, the first successful impeachment in Philippine history, is definitely a giant step in fulfilling his administration’s “reason-for-being” mantra daang matuwid-cum-walang mahirap kung walang corrupt. With Corona mercilessly hounded out of the door, he will now suggest that the prosecution of government wrongdoing can proceed will all deliberate speed and woe to whoever will dare stand in the way of this grand operation..... MORE URL: http://www.tribuneonline.org/index.php/commentary/item/1883-what-not-to-expect Women’s group decries Aquino’s ‘soured promises’ “For several months now, local movements all over the Philippines have been picketing local offices of the Department of Health to protest the Aquino administration’s drive to either sell off or corporatize 26 public hospitals.” – Gabriela MANILA – With their daily income hardly enough to feed the family, they could not afford to have anyone get sick, said Arlene Acabo, 42, a resident of Tatalon, Quezon City, said. “Our health is among our top priorities, especially when it comes to my children. They are sickly. We live near a river so our home usually gets flooded. We are exposed to so many possible sicknesses,” Acabo said. Acabo joined Gabriela, the country’s largest women’s group, in calling on President Benigno “Noynoy” C. Aquino III to look into the welfare of Filipino women in a recent protest action at the foot of Mendiola Bridge. During the rally, one protester dramatized their plight when she lied down on a hospital stretcher with an intravenous drip. Gabriela, in its statement, described it as a portrayal of how Aquino’s policies are tormenting the Filipino people. “For several months now, local movements all over the Philippines have been picketing local offices of the Department of Health to protest the Aquino administration’s drive to either sell off or corporatize 26 public hospitals, “ Gabriela said, “it will further worsen the bad state of women’s health.” State of women’s health Acobo said public hospitals are of great help to their families. Sometime in October last year, a dog bit her. She was brought to a nearby private hospital but was rejected when they said they could not afford to pay the down payment right away. Acobo could no longer remember how much it was but it was something that she and her husband, who works as a sewer in a garments factory and takes home only $70 a month, could not cough up in an hour or two. “The check up was already worth $6 and it does not yet include the shots,” she said. They moved to San Lazaro Hospital, a public hospital, and paid only $0.70 for the check up. The staff immediately cleaned her wound. Acobo bought the vaccines outside the hospital. With the proposed privatization of public hospitals, Acobo wonders how poor Filipinos would be able to survive. “It is very scary to think about. Are we going to die without the benefit of being treated?” she said..... MORE URL: http://bulatlat.com/main/2012/07/23/women%E2%80%99s-group-decries-aquino%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%98soured-promises%E2%80%99/ No surprise seen in ‘routine’ Sona Written by Fernan J. Angeles and Angie M. Rosales GROUPS, SOLONS DEMAND NOY SHOW DIRECTION IN ADDRESS The Palace described the State of the Nation Address (Sona) today of President Aquino as “truthful, inspiring and defining” but the general expectation is that its contents would not be different from the formula of past two Sonas that focused on the sins of the past and Aquino’s claim of achievement while lacking in substance such as a clear direction on his economic policies with Sen. Joker Arroyo describing the speech as a “traditional ritual.” The nationalist economic group Freedom from Debt Coalition (FDC) dared Aquino to define in the Sona its economic governance approach of “inclusive growth” in that nobody will be left behind as the economy grows. “Without the anti-corruption drive, the economic governance approach of Aquino, or as some quarters call it “Aquinomics,” is no different from the 10-year reign of “Arroyonomics,” according to FDC. Aquino will deliver the address, which had to be revised nine times, in front of a Joint Session of Congress at the Batasan Pambansa and is expected to start around 3 p.m. The Senate and the House of Representatives would be convening separately in the morning before heading for the joint session which would formally pave the way for the event which costs the government P2.7 million just for the food of the guests. Arroyo added that he did not expect Aquino to deliver an astounding third Sona, saying the address would likely follow what he described as “traditional ritual” and would contain his administration’s accomplishments and plans for the coming years. “It’s a routine. All presidents say: this is what I have done and this is what I will do. It is a ritual,” Arroyo said..... MORE URL: http://www.tribuneonline.org/index.php/headlines/item/1919-no-surprise-seen-in-%E2%80%98routine%E2%80%99-sona Ex-PTA head shot, in critical condition A veteran newspaper columnist and former head of the Philippine Tourism Authority (PTA) is in a critical condition after he was shot in the face during a robbery yesterday, police said. Nixon Kua, 49, was “hit on the face and different parts of his body” by one of four gunmen who attacked him and his younger brother, Allyxon, 46, in the latter’s residence in Calamba City, Laguna, police said in a statement. His brother was also shot several times in the body, but was later declared out of danger at a hospital. The motive of the attack was unlikely connected to Kua’s work as a journalist for tabloid Pilipino Star Ngayon, police said. Kua, who was appointed by then-President Joseph Estrada to head the PTA in 2000, was also formerly a stringer for international news agencies..... MORE URL: http://www.tribuneonline.org/index.php/headlines/item/1915-ex-pta-head-shot-in-critical-condition Palparan merely followed GMA orders — Trillanes Written by Fernan J. Angeles Monday, 23 July 2012 00:00 Palparan merely followed GMA orders — Trillanes Malacañang is expecting political allies like Sen. Antonio Trillanes to be the last persons to defend fugitive retired Army Gen. Jovito Palparan. At a radio press briefing, presidential spokesman Edwin Lacierda said Malacañang on the senator’s suggesting that the government to stop running after Palparan “mainly because (Palparan) was just following orders.” Trillanes was a fugitive soldier himself during the Arroyo administration. The Palace mouthpiece said “Palparan too had the obligation to disobey an immoral order.” Lacierda said Palparan, who has been in hiding since October last year, was old enough to understand the “moral precepts” of the orders he got from former President Arroyo, and disregard immoral orders as what any logical person would do..... MORE URL: http://www.tribuneonline.org/index.php/nation/item/1911-palparan-merely-followed-gma-orders-%E2%80%94-trillanes Gov’t hospitals will not be privatized — Palace A top Malacañang official dismissed fears over reports that the administration was pushing the privatization of government hospitals. In a press briefing, presidential spokesman Edwin Lacierda also sought to allay concerns by some local officials that the poor would lose access to free hospital services. Lacierda said that while government hospitals would be set up as juridical entities, there was no plan to privatize them. “What were doing is create juridical entities out of these government hospitals,” he said on government-run dzRB radio..... MORE URL: http://www.tribuneonline.org/index.php/nation/item/1909-gov%E2%80%99t-hospitals-will-not-be-privatized-%E2%80%94-palace QC gov’t lowers boom on unsanitary chicken shops’ facilities, illegal pedicabs The Quezon City Veterinary Office (VO) has closed down seven dressed chicken suppliers’ facilities at a public market for violating provisions of the sanitation and meat inspection codes. The VO’s sanitation enforcement team, assisted by field personnel of the local Market Development and Administration Department (MDAD), confiscated several chicken heads during the operation, city veterinarian Ana Maria Cabel said. Earlier, Cabel had called for a strict monitoring of different dressed chicken facilities in the city to ensure they conform to sanitation standards prescribed by the local health department. During the operation at the Kamuning Market, Cabel noted that most of the facilities were operating without proper drainage system and tiled flooring. Owners of the facilities are also liable to six month.... MORE URL: http://www.tribuneonline.org/index.php/metro-section/item/1896-qc-gov%E2%80%99t-lowers-boom-on-unsanitary-chicken-shops%E2%80%99-facilities-illegal-pedicabs Militants hold protest march to denounce human rights abuses of Aquino government Whatever human rights records President Aquino might report in his third State of the Nation Address (Sona) today, his “daang matuwid” will always be “bloody and anti-people,” militants said in a prepared statement yesterday. The protesters, who had been conducting a people’s Lakbayan or March since yesterday, came from various provinces of Southern Tagalog and gathered at Mendiola to mount a timeline that enumerates human rights abuses and anti-people policies under the Aquino administration. “The Aquino administration has no regard for human rights and is not serious in going after rights abusers, especially the government security forces that continue to wage war against the common people,” Leo Fuentes, secretary-general of Bayan-Southern Tagalog, said..... MORE URL: http://www.tribuneonline.org/index.php/metro-section/item/1899-militants-hold-protest-march-to-denounce-human-rights-abuses-of-aquino-government Nobody believes them anymore Written by Nine... US taking covert steps to cripple Syria’s Assad - ... Anaheim police 'kill another man', cops filmed fir... Iraqi death toll rises to 89 in the worst wave of ... What not to expect Written by Jonathan de la... Palparan merely followed GMA orders — Trillanes ... QC gov’t lowers boom on unsanitary chicken shops’ ... Militants hold protest march to denounce human rig...
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My list is better than yours Since I'm a copy-cat, Paul and I think alike, and because it was a neat idea, here's where I stand on the AFI's Top 100 movies (this is the original 1998 list): * bold I've seen, red italics I'd like to see 1 Citizen Kane 2 Casablanca 3 The Godfather 4 Gone with the Wind 5 Lawrence of Arabia 6 The Wizard of Oz 7 The Graduate 8 On the Waterfront 9 Schindler's List 10 Singin' in the Rain 11 It's a Wonderful Life 12 Sunset Boulevard 13 The Bridge on the River Kwai 14 Some Like It Hot 15 Star Wars 16 All About Eve 17 The African Queen 18 Psycho 19 Chinatown 20 One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest 21 The Grapes of Wrath 22 2001: A Space Odyssey 23 The Maltese Falcon 24 Raging Bull 25 E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial 26 Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb 27 Bonnie and Clyde 28 Apocalypse Now 29 Rosemary's Baby 30 The Treasure of the Sierra Madre 31 Annie Hall 32 The Godfather Part II 33 High Noon 34 To Kill a Mockingbird 35 It Happened One Night 36 Midnight Cowboy 37 The Best Years of Our Lives 38 Double Indemnity 39 Doctor Zhivago 40 North by Northwest 41 West Side Story 42 Rear Window 43 King Kong 44 The Birth of a Nation 45 A Streetcar Named Desire 46 A Clockwork Orange 47 Taxi Driver 48 Jaws 49 Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs 50 Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid 51 The Philadelphia Story 52 From Here to Eternity 53 Amadeus 54 All Quiet on the Western Front 55 The Sound of Music 56 M*A*S*H 57 The Third Man 58 Fantasia 59 Rebel Without a Cause 60 Raiders of the Lost Ark 61 Vertigo 62 Tootsie 63 Stagecoach 64 Close Encounters of the Third Kind 65 The Silence of the Lambs 67 The Manchurian Candidate 68 An American in Paris 69 Shane 70 The French Connection 71 Forrest Gump 72 Ben-Hur 73 Wuthering Heights 74 The Gold Rush 75 Dances with Wolves 76 City Lights 77 American Graffiti 78 Rocky 79 The Deer Hunter 80 The Wild Bunch 81 Modern Times 82 Giant 83 Platoon 84 Fargo 85 Duck Soup 86 Mutiny on the Bounty 87 Frankenstein 88 Easy Rider 89 Patton 90 The Jazz Singer 91 My Fair Lady 92 A Place in the Sun 93 The Apartment 94 Goodfellas 95 Pulp Fiction 96 The Searchers 97 Bringing Up Baby 98 Unforgiven 99 Guess Who's Coming to Dinner 100 Yankee Doodle Dandy Labels: Lists, MyLifeComics Paul Abbamondi said... Hmm, not bad. You've definitely seen more flicks than me. No surprise there. But you should put One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest in red italics. It's worth it. 1979 semi-finalist said... Okay, you knew this was going to draw MY wrath right? Movies that you simply MUST put in red italics: Annie Hall, Network (a brilliant commentary on where our media actually did end up - this movie is so prophetic it's frightening), Taxi Driver, Clockwork Orange, King Kong, A Streetcar Named Desire, The Godfather Part II, Raging Bull, On The Waterfront, One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest (I agree with Paul), and THE GRADUATE! You must add these if only so you have the necessary mental reference for the culture of our past..."I coulda been a contender"?! "mrs. robinson are you trying to seduce me"?! - the list goes on and on. Plus some of these (Raging Bull, Taxi Driver, The Godfather Part II, On The Waterfront, etc.) are like quintessential ultimate badass kind of movies...the kind of movies that broke the mold, especially for the male badass...and totally reinvented it. Okay, rant complete. Please go about your day...nothing to see here. And many of those I've seen parts of, just not the complete movie. I'm a big fan of TCM and AMC (despite them making me feel old by playing movies from the 90s). So I've seen a lot of chunks of these. So like, King Kong. I pretty much now what happens and I've even seen parts of it. But I don't think I've ever seen the whole thing. Anyway, I should put everything in red italics that I haven't already seen, but the ones I marked were at the top of that list. cinda1212 said... I'm with her... you have a LOT Of movies to watch. Quit working and get to watching! Quit working? Are you kidding? I love working 50 to 60 hours a week during tax season. It's great! Baited Breath Squish-edited- Sunday Blogging-edited- It's not even 8 and 2008 Review #3 Dangerously Close Why I almost cried Couple of Updates Rothfuss news 3 New Videos Weekend Flashback-edited- 100 Pages - The Blade Itself Almond Joy-edited- La Grenouille-edited- Hair! The Fourth Notch The First Review of 2008 Need a little help Answers to Rothfuss questions Wii hunt over The Steelers lost last night. Three open questions for Pat Rothfuss Wii hunt Patrick Rothfuss Article Snuffle huh wha?
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Universe Sandbox ² | Discussion » Share your creations! Pages: 1 2 3 [4] 5 6 ... 13 Author Topic: Share your creations! (Read 99693 times) JMBuilder The demand for memes is high. Re: Share your creations! Quote from: Gregory on November 05, 2016, 09:27:05 AM Here's the Lylat System from the StarFox games. Solar is (likely a large Gas Giant) at 3500 degrees K, making it a "Star" in this "game". Spica is the best comparison to Lylat, based on the size, mass, temperature and luminosity. It is based on the most well-known concept. Too bad ships can't be made, as there aren't accurate ship models on US2. I'm actually providing two separate "analogs" of Solar since there was such a debate in the fanbase about whether it was a star or a planet. I even argued that it was a very old metal white dwarf that cooled down to a red-orange color, its planetary nebulae forming sectors X, Y, and Z. 1. Solran, the smallest of Lylat's companion stars. A red dwarf. 2. Slaga, the legitimate recreation of Solar. A molten metal planet heated by nebulae and intense magnetism. Haven't really found a way to implement my white dwarf theory yet, and there might be a way to throw in a brown dwarf somewhere. I actually did use Spica as "Lylat Prime." « Last Edit: December 23, 2016, 03:54:20 PM by JMBuilder » Atgard I was surprised the default Solar System includes so many asteroids and smaller Kuiper Belt objects, but not the rings of Saturn or even major moons like Titan or Ganymede (or even Luna I think!). I like to view orbits on, but with so many objects, the view gets cluttered. So I removed some random objects (but not all of them -- is there an easier way to en masse remove all the non-dwarf planet Kuiper objects than selecting them all one by one?) and added major moons and Saturn's rings. Now it has more of the stuff I want, and less of the stuff not as interesting to me (and asteroid 2006NCC1701-A or whatever may be slowing down the simulation). I hope someone else likes it, or may improve upon it or find an easier way to remove more minor objects (I just started using US2 yesterday). Solar System - simple.ubox (335.72 kB - downloaded 227 times.) SyzygyΣE | Take Me Higher | Behold, the grandeur of my proudest creation—the Linaercanus star system. Linaercanus is a young main sequence star 354 millions years of age, 1.44 times the mass of our sun. With a grand total of 26888 bodies, including ring systems and asteroid belts, it is the largest stable star system I have ever designed—and, in my opinion—the most realistic, perhaps with a slight twist of the unexpected. At full stretch, the system spans 1.76 light years across, the most distant object taking an incredible 13.1 million years to orbit its star. With scattered dwarf planets in swarms of debris, a moon of a moon, and comets of extreme eccentricities and orbital periods in the tens of thousands of years, Linaercanus is an colossal and diverse system. There are endless wonders to discover, experience . . . and marvel. Welcome to Linaercanus. Due to the sheer number of particles in this simulation, time warp is reduced to about 30mins/sec at maximum. This rate may be improved via deletion of the said particles. A shortcut to do so exists in "Settings > Input." Recommended time warp rate: 0.8days/sec. (2121.33 kB, 2560x1600 - viewed 460 times.) Linaercanus.ubox (2865.45 kB - downloaded 286 times.) « Last Edit: December 29, 2016, 05:38:18 AM by SyzygyΣE » Quote from: SyzygyΣE on December 29, 2016, 03:49:11 AM Due to the sheer number of particles in this simulation, time warp is reduced to about 30mins/sec at maximum. This rate may be improved via deletion of the said particles. For the sake of some of our pixel potatoes, I'd recommend cutting down on the amount of asteroids in the belt. Just a tad excessive. Other than that, this is a very nice system. That "moon of a moon" was simple yet cool to find, and I love how there are several habitable planets. - More custom names. I notice that most of them are in-game generated. - Some planets and other objects for that rather lonely brown dwarf. - MOAR mysteries! Quote from: JMBuilder on December 29, 2016, 04:58:27 AM Yeah, the asteroid belt that went a bit overboard was to try and keep with the realism aspect of such a young system. I expected there would be a lot of leftover debris. Maybe I won't choose such a young star next time. Hehe. I'm terrible at custom names. But sure, I'll give it a go. As for that brown dwarf, I did try adding in some moons, even a planet that would be tidally heated to habitable temperatures and lit by the dwarf's own luminosity. But for some weird reason such an orbit wobbled the orbit of the brown dwarf to an extreme extent. The apoapsis would go from 1 light year to 3 light years and back. It was crazy to even look at and I have no clue why. Would someone be able to shed some light on this? To replicate this, try placing an earth sized object in a not-too-distant orbit around the brown dwarf. Mysteries? Ok, time to get that imagination flowing for the next one. Physics_Hacker That wobbling is just the exaggeration of the real effect the planet has, but Earth could orbit Jupiter no problem, so introducing an earth-sized planet around a brown dwarf should definately be no problem other than the annoyingness it might make with "orbits" turned on. I've noticed this with trinary star systems. The inner binary stars show an odd but stable figure-8 orbit while the outer circumbinary star's orbit does this weird pulsating movement. If you speed up time and watch the regular "trail" visuals, it stays on its regular orbit. Here's what I've been working on, straight out of the StarFox universe. I've added most major planets and a few minor objects of the Lylat System, many of them fan-made but still have the potential to be canon. I still have yet to add the rest of the minor objects, such as the twelfth planet of the Primary Lylat System (nothing special about the planet besides its wildly eccentric orbit), asteroid belts, moons, and "Sector Omega" with Andross's little planetoid Venom and the space graveyard. Some of the things that I can't add yet are the small nebulae sectors of the system since there's no actual "nebula" object in the game. It's possible that I could simulate the Omicron Nebula (fan-made) with a hydrogen ring around the planet Slaga (the planet Solar, just renamed; resides at the center of the nebula, heated by extreme magnetism; in the case of US2, a ridiculously thick atmosphere), but it's not exactly what I had in mind. Keep in mind that some of the things are not consistent with some other fan sources, such as "Arwingpedia." Some aspects of Arwingpedia's material are inconsistent in and of themselves. For example, Macbeth is labelled the "third planet of the Lylat System," yet the description goes on to say that it "orbits closer to Lylat than any other planet," which would make it the first. I use some material from past StarFox games that is potentially still canon, and my primary source for this recreation comes from StarFox Zero's new canon and the layout that the map routes imply: I also included fan-made planets with my own interpretations of them (again, basing them around StarFox Zero). Planets such as Rhea, Colossus, and Tian come from this fan-made map: While I didn't follow the map exactly, it was a good source of inspiration. Other planets, such as Freo, Shardria, and Crimsona, are my own ideas (a red gas giant was unrealistically visible in the Sauria mission from StarFox Assault; Crimsona is that gas giant with a more realistic orbit), and some, such as Kew, Papetoon, and Animus, were vaguely referenced in past StarFox games (Animus was referenced in the unreleased N64 Dinosaur Planet before it was reimagined as StarFox Adventures). Let me know what you guys think! EDIT: I'm already renaming a couple of things. What was previously Kew is now "Volus" and Crimsona has inherited the name Kew. Mysteria is now "Krazonis." I have yet to update the file. Lylat System (unfinished).ubox (42.15 kB - downloaded 245 times.) Quote from: JMBuilder on January 07, 2017, 08:49:25 PM Here's what I've been working on, straight out of the StarFox universe. I've added most major planets and a few minor objects of the Lylat System, many of them fan-made but still potentially canon. While I have not heard of Starfox, this is certainly a rather sophisticated and well-designed system. If you are still required to implement the rest of the minor objects to complete this, the final revision of this system must be rather extraordinary, not to mention time consuming to achieve. Had you not mentioned this was still unfinished, I would have considered it pretty much all done. Trinary systems like this one are always quite pleasing to gaze upon in terms of aesthetics. Here is a screenshot I took near planet Tian, with Solran and Lylat Prime in the background as part of a double sunrise. Hope you like it. Quote from: SyzygyΣE on January 08, 2017, 12:07:51 AM Eventually, I'll get around to adding these: - A small asteroid ring for Tian. - Two slightly larger asteroid rings for Titania. - A relatively small asteroid ring for Kew (which I'm renaming to Volus). - The exotic moon "Cryona" orbiting Freo and maybe some more moons. - Two moons for Corneria, one with its own two very small moons. - Various moons for many planets in the system. - The Meteo Asteroid Belt for Lylat Prime between the orbits of Corneria and Fortuna. - The Sargasso Asteroid Belt for Solran between the orbits of Macbeth and Tian. - The Enigma Asteroid Belt for Mysteria beyond Sauria's orbit. - A twelfth planet in an extremely eccentric orbit around Lylat Prime (got a good name for it?). I'm also renaming Kew to Volus and giving Crimsona the name Kew to be more consistent with canon. EDIT: By the way, most of the planets start off frozen for some reason. If you select the planets and tweak the greenhouse effect setting, they should jump up to their proper temperatures. These are the habitable planets: - Corneria - Aquas - Katina - Zoness (sort of) - Rhea - Eladard - Papetoon - Cerinia - Animus - Sauria « Last Edit: January 08, 2017, 12:36:52 AM by JMBuilder » Quote from: JMBuilder on January 08, 2017, 12:12:28 AM Oh, I am absolutely terrible with generating original names. Looking at the pattern in naming for some of these objects, maybe these are some names for that twelfth object around Lylat Prime: Lychros Arvindr Thardsvel Shirleth Alios And yes, I have also noticed that some of my planets—especially habitable planets—start off at very low temperatures upon loading a simulation, even if they were at stable temperatures the last time I played. It's probably not a bug, but rather that temperature settings haven't been made to save when exiting a system at the current point of US2's development. Not a big issue as you can manually edit it or just do something else while it returns to normal. I remember a few updates ago, the strength of magnetic fields wouldn't save and would all reset to 0 gauss upon loading a simulation. Thankfully it has been fixed. That was a real pain for me. « Last Edit: January 08, 2017, 12:55:13 AM by SyzygyΣE » Er... Change of plans on most of the moons and smaller asteroid rings. The wonky orbitals and lag are ridiculous. I'm going to leave those out for the final version. I might add a separate save with Corneria and its moons. I'll still add Volus and Freo's moons in the main save, though. They're big enough to handle them without wacky trajectories. I've renamed yet another feature; Mysteria is now Krazonis. Still working on what the twelfth planet will be like. I'm leaning towards the name "Alios." I'm thinking of making it a Mercury-like planet with an unusually fast rotation. Sorr System Sorr is a young binary star system at 22.2 million years of age, consisting of a blue giant and a sun-like star. The two stars orbit each other at a significant distance, and thus have each developed planet systems of their own. Conditions have been favourable, and a handful of potentially habitable planets have emerged. But a dark shadow looms over the future of Sorr—the impending cataclysm following the supernova of the ageing blue giant star. System Profile: Subjects Of Interest Sorr A The larger of the two stars, Sorr A dominates the system at 10.8 times the mass of the sun and 28,345 times its luminosity. Sorr A's formation process consumed most of the gas clouds and material in the near proximity, and later blasted more material away from the inner Sorr system with its intense stellar winds. Despite its overwhelming shine, the curtains are closing for this player on the celestial stage. Now 22.2 million years of age, Sorr A has consumed almost all of its fuel, and has ballooned to 83.6 times the solar radius. The giant star is expected to become a supernova in around 100,000 to 200,000 years, likely tearing the system apart with the explosion. Sorr B Sorr B is the smaller, sun-like star of the Sorr system. It orbits Sorr A at a distance of 315 AU. Sorr B weighs in at 0.85 solar masses, and is tiny compared to its companion star. Due to its relatively far distance from the blue giant, Sorr B was able to escape the fate of the majority of its material being stolen by the larger star during its formation, and survived to grow to a fairly respectable size. When Sorr A's stellar winds threw material to the outer system, some of this material became captured in the orbit of Sorr B, while others merged with protoplanets around it, adding to their mass where otherwise, there would have been insufficient material to form many planets. Some remainder debris has coalesced into an asteroid belt in the outer Sorr B system. Compared to the ageing Sorr A, Sorr B is still at an extremely young age. If the system is able to survive the upcoming supernova of Sorr A, its habitable planets would certainly have a possibility in developing life in the long run. Uitiaponsula Uitiaponsula is a gas giant in a tight orbit around Sorr A that has influenced the evolution of the system to a rather significant extent. At 12.5 Jupiter masses, a little more massive and it would have been considered a brown dwarf. While it orbits Sorr A at 5.32 AU, this is a very close orbit for such a large and luminous blue giant. As a result, Uitiaponsula glows at a sizzling 1450°K (1177°C). It actually formed at a much farther distance from its star, but even as Sorr A expanded, nearing the end of its life, Uitiaponsula migrated inwards. Its strong gravitational pull threw the inner Sorr A system into chaos, ejecting many preexisting bodies or absorbing them. In the present, the inner system is almost completely devoid of objects or debris except for Uitiaponsula. Only two planets in the outer reaches of the Sorr A system survived this process. Comets and leftover debris Being a young system, Sorr still houses an appreciable amount of debris. The majority of this material is either in orbit around Sorr B or circling Sorr A beyond the orbit of Sorr B. The chaos the system had undergone has cast a number of objects out of the system, but some have developed highly eccentric and inclined orbits. The majority of Sorr A's comets originate in the asteroid belt beyond the orbit of Sorr B, at a distance of 900 to 1500 AU. These require thousands of years to complete a full orbit. However, many of these comets' orbits are not stable. Perturbations from Sorr B and Uitiaponsula affect the bodies' tracks over time. For a star of such mass, and considering the chaos resulting from Uitiaponsula's inner migration, there should be many more rogue comets and objects than what appears in this simulation. I have excluded the majority to prevent the system from cluttering. Sorr B is essentially a miniature solar system orbiting a larger star, and thus has its own collection of comets. Most of these originate from Sorr B's own asteroid belt, located between 15 and 25 AU. As of present, the Sorr system contains five planets with liquid water. All are within the orbit of Sorr B. Due to these planets being illuminated by energy from two stars, the habitable zone display in-game around Sorr B is actually rather misleading. To be habitable, planets must be on the outside edge of the "displayed" habitable zone around Sorr B, or outside the zone altogether. A planet with a sufficiently thick atmosphere in the green area of the "displayed" habitable zone around Sorr B would actually suffer too much greenhouse effect, as it receives energy from two stars. The history of habitability in this system as been—and will be—rather volatile. Over the 22.2 million year span of the system's existence, Sorr A had ramped up its luminosity as it churned through its fuel. This pushed the habitable zone further out in a relatively short amount of time by astronomical standards. This habitable zone is set to essentially disappear when Sorr A explodes in a supernova, owing to its extreme temperature and radiation. If Sorr B is not launched away from the system due to the explosion, it is unknown what effects may result from the radiation of the neutron star that would be produced as part of the supernova. The radiation may be too deadly for organisms to survive, at least on the surface. If Sorr B is launched into deep space from the force of the explosion along with its planets intact, the habitable zone would be brought closer to Sorr B as there would be no second star present to provide further energy. Planets that have liquid water at the present may freeze, and planets too hot for the development of life may be brought down to more suitable temperatures. As of the current, all habitable planets still hold vast amounts of residual heat from their formation. While liquid water has appeared on their surface, volcanic activity is highly common, and the atmosphere is in the process of change. Unfortunately, there is no method to simulate this as of yet. So, while these planets may appear blue and cozy in the simulation, they are actually still quite hostile. Furthermore, 22.2 million years is certainly not close to being enough for complex life to have developed. These are the several paths habitability may branch in the Sorr system. But until Sorr A exhausts its fuel and explodes in a supernova, no one can know for sure what the future holds for Sorr. Figure 1: Sorr system, orbits highlighted Figure 2: Mass chart Figure 3: Due to illumination from two stars, for a portion of a planet's orbit, night vanishes altogether. Figure 4: Double sunrise on an alien world. I have position locked Sorr A at the centre of the coordinates because I dislike stars straying due to a gravitational pull. Therefore, this is not a "true" binary system. But Sorr A is so much more massive than Sorr B, it wouldn't make much of a difference even if it weren't position locked. Being a young system, Sorr has a vast amount of particles and debris. Some devices may not be able to handle this, and therefore I have attached two ubox files: one with particles to simulate a realistic young star system, and one without particles to aid players with slower devices. Recommend maximum timewarp rate: 0.5days/sec Sorr A - Sorr B.ubox (1393.23 kB - downloaded 246 times.) Sorr A - Sorr B (no particles).ubox (103.71 kB - downloaded 234 times.) « Last Edit: August 20, 2017, 03:29:37 AM by SyzygyΣE » Aye, that's noice. I imagine that, once Sorr A explodes, Nus Tutor would be the most habitable planet around Sorr B. The planet gets a very nice double sunrise, triple if you count the red-hot Uitiaponsula that shows up surprisingly well from that distance. Being the sci-fi nut that I am, I came up with a theory for Lylat's stars where, since the system is so close to the galactic center, they cycle through matter from the vast nebulae in that region of space, possibly spurred on by some form of dark energy. It makes them anomalously long-lasting, with Lylat Prime predicted to easily survive for trillions of years. Perhaps Sorr A could be a star like this. I notice that you like to use that red nebula as a background. Sorr A could draw fuel from surrounding nebulae, blasting out the dense waste elements to remain the dominant star of the Sorr System for longer than expected. I did notice that a few planets don't have magnetic fields. Might want to add those... unless that nasty bug you mentioned is back... :/ « Last Edit: January 08, 2017, 04:34:11 PM by JMBuilder » Perhaps Sorr A could be a star like this. I notice that you like to use that red nebula is a background. Sorr A could draw fuel from surrounding nebulae, blasting out the dense waste elements to remain the dominant star of the Sorr System for longer than expected. That's actually quite an interesting theory. I wonder if there is a scientific term to it. If the star is able to acquire a constant supply of hydrogen from passing through nebulas, it may certainly prolong its lifespan. The only doubt I have about it is that the star's stellar winds may prevent such material from actually being absorbed, the pressure stopping it from falling inwards past a certain point. However, according to an article I found, stellar winds apparently do not hinder the absorption of material, which find "channels" that lead to the star's surface. I'm not sure about its credibility but it's in interesting read: http://www.space.com/6328-massive-stars-form-simple-solution.html For those magnetic fields, it was I who overlooked them. Thinking about it again, 22.2 million years isn't long enough for many objects to cool. Combined with generally fast rotation speeds across the board, most objects should have a magnetic field. Smaller objects wouldn't have very strong magnetic fields, but it should be a magnetic field nonetheless. Eventually, smaller bodies such as moons would cool to the point where their core becomes solid and cease to produce a magnetic field. I have attached a new revision of the system with a fix on the magnetic field issue. Pizzaeater1K Hello. At the moment I am working on a star system called the Parathesia Star System. So far, I have finished the inner section, the asteroid belt, an outer planet, and a few comets. ✓ = completed | X = Not completed | IP = In progress [✓] Star [✓] Asteroid Belt [IP] Rocky Planets [IP] Moons [X] Gas giants [X] Outer asteroid belt [IP] A bunch of other stuff I forgot to list. (953.78 kB, 1920x1080 - viewed 468 times.) scruffygamer A strange system that has a pulsar as the planet's star. Also with a strange planet that has purple life that survives at high temperatures... 20170130162126_1.jpg (151.51 kB, 1920x1001 - viewed 464 times.) 20170130162149_1.jpg (117.1 kB, 1920x1001 - viewed 606 times.) Reget System.ubox (61.69 kB - downloaded 242 times.) Quote from: scruffygamer on January 30, 2017, 03:28:36 PM That's unique right there. The purple high-temperature plant life is an interesting concept. It's always fun to theorize about life like this. I'm picturing a hybrid between a fungus and a plant that thrives on the radiation blasted out from the pulsar, an atmosphere that would be toxic to us, highly acidic oceans, and intense volcanic activity spurred on by the tidal forces from the planet's orbit around the dense stellar remnant. electricpants Is it bad that I like ammonia planets better? The Verla system! This is the most packed solar system I've ever made! You can download the .ubox file here: https://www.dropbox.com/home?preview=Verla+System.ubox I show to you all the Banistian black hole system BANISTIAN: a black hole thats is an secundary super masive black hole of a galaxy with 3 stars(4 with brown dwarf) TRINAX:an small asteroid that orbit inside Banistian's ring ACHERNAR:a remain of a ripped appart star that's orbited too close and gets destroyed by Banistian's roche limit CUNAX:a small planet with atmosphere and clouds like sahaara desert on Africa with a beautiful view of Banistian CENTAUROS:a small red dwarf like proxima centauri this star is lucky because of the distance to Banistian that's dont let get ripped appart like Achernar ACIT:an very RED planet that's look like an evil planet and is cold,is hostile,not a best place to live on BERTUR:a medium oceania planet thats get the temperature high by Carbe-A and Carbe-b there is a 50% chance to have life MAGOPLAS:a BIG brown dwarf that is one of the most massive's bronw dwarf's on galaxy NUSTIAS:a quite sister to Bertur because the temperature get's higher more fast so it will be a dusty rock one day CARBE-A AND CARBE-B:a likely binary stars but no because is not doing a binary orbit is just orbiting Banistian at the same orbit period! and twice look like Vega TASCUSTASC:a small asteroid that's in some time of Banistian system orbited Carbe-A but gets capturated by Banistian(logic) banistian black hole system.ubox (154.78 kB - downloaded 209 times.) « Last Edit: April 10, 2017, 12:21:38 PM by felipe » my system look like interstellar system(in some aspects) XD DenisineD Here a Binary Star System which i still have some work to do. How i made it? with my Accretion disk technique...and i will create the few moons on the same way. Identia-Ustis Binary System Uptd_9_1.ubox (698.49 kB - downloaded 200 times.) Here is the closest remake of kerbal space program system that i could do (some things is not realistic like the atmo pressure to Laythe i put because of the distance and the real atmo pressure to laythe in game is 0.600 atm and on the remake is around 7 to 8 atm) Kerbal System.ubox (49.35 kB - downloaded 207 times.) Shadowgod a planetary disk of more than 150k bodies making up 3 Jupiters in different materials each with their own range from the star. this is about 2 weeks worth of work mostly because of a few setbacks and remakes. the sim is also very slow. i'll post the actual sim when it gets more developed because it's currently too large. (559.35 kB, 1366x705 - viewed 378 times.) « Last Edit: June 15, 2017, 09:04:03 PM by Shadowgod » I show the Darwin-IV system were is 4 planets and one is habitable but not at all because it oceans evaporated by climate change and Darwin-IV orbit's the large star of a binary solar system called Darwin Darwin system.ubox (27.34 kB - downloaded 193 times.) Luke27262 Luka System The Luka System is a unique system that is regarded as one of the most beautiful in the whole universe. It has around thirteen planets and one comets. It has been nicknamed "The Unlucky Universe" after closer examination by probes and telescopes. - PLANETS - 1. Askan - It is said to be as old as the sun itself. It's around 1.39 earth sized with a degree of 3836c. The surface is completely molten lava. Thus, making it an horrendous lava waterworld with no chance for life. The planet is approximately the closest to the sun. 2. Hotanomai - Initially, it is believed that the planet was much further from the sun was relatively in the habitable zone same as Green. However. Due to it's 1.00 Jupiter size. It was attracted closer to Luka's orbit by a 14th planet in the system that was supposedly a rocky planet that served as a buffer zone between the inhabitable and habitable zone. Shortly after. The planet neared the smaller rocky planet and through unknown means. The rocky planet was somehow crushed by Hotanomai's gravitational force. The remainder of the planet quickly formed a ring around the planet as Hotanomai became a molten lava waterworld just like Askan. It attracted an earth-sized Gas Giant with an habitable zone moon that yielded great scientific facts. The Gas Giant became a moon towards Hotanomai and later was reduced to a small fragment barely noticeable. It retains it's former name "Hotanomai-1". It was ruled completely uninhabitable. It currently is 1700c. 3. Smallameltinc - A lava waterworld with absolutely no chance of survival for anyone. It has a size of 23.9 moon, making it relatively one of the smallest planets in the Luka System. It is uninhabitable. It currently is 1635c. 4. Trustaby - a Rocky planet the size of 1.30 earth. It is much more cooler with a degree of 511c. The surface is able to be seen unlike the first three planets in the Luka System. It has a mars-like landscape and blue streaks around it. The blue streaks appear to be a natural resource that is very much in abundance. It has been called "Blue Oil" not because of it being similar to gasoline but because the Luka system is the only system with "Blue Oil" in it. The planet is not habitable. 5. Cricket - A rocky planet. 1.01 earth sized with 625c as the temp on the planet. It is uninhabitable and possesses no "Blue Oil" but has streaks of an unknown dark red material. Oddly enough. 6. Tarson - A rocky planet. 2.79 earth sized with 401c as temp. It possesses no major resources or significance. It is uninhabitable like the first planets in the system. 7. Greyworld - A rocky planet. 55.8 moon sized with 85c on surface. It's surface is completely covered in "Blue Oil" thus making it a mineral-rich planet that could one day be mined if the miners can get past the hot temp on the planet. It was misnamed because the telescope picked up the blue as Grey instead. 8. Green - A beautiful planet located far enough from Luka to make it habitable. According to early astronomy reports. The planet was supposedly a water world before the water declined somewhat, revealing a brownish-ground. Later, it grew to be green which hints at an thriving ecosystem. It was named Green for it's very beautiful green landscape. Luka appeared to have an influence on the atmosphere by making blue clouds rather than white. It has a good chance of being habitable and is probably already inhabited by some sort of creature (land or underwater.). It is 3.00 Jupiter sized and has a temp of 37.7c. 9. Dashard - A grey rocky world. 20.0 earth sized with -103 being the temp. It has one moon named Dashard-1, which resembles it greatly but is a lighter color. 10. Bluestorm - It was named Bluestorm for it's originally blue appearance which was marked as beautiful. The planet later had a moon which caused an upsurge in temp to 2195c. It is 20.0 Jupiter. It is a gas giant. 11. Homa - A gas giant that is 3.51 earth sized. It has no notable features. 12. Eye - A large rocky planet that is 1.00 jupiter sized with no major exploitable minerals ad of course, any life due to i being a very cold planet. It was called "Eye" due to it being able to watch the system from afar and not be harmed by any heat or such. - OTHER - Luka's Comet - A comet that is in orbit between Bluestorm and Homa. - SYSTEM PROBLEMS - Heat - The system has a problem with heat. Being very hot at times in certain places of the system. Radiation - On unprotected planets. Luka generates a lot of radiation which is so much, it could instantly kill a human. Green and Dashard (Dashard for some reason) are well protected, along with Eye and Homa. You'll find a download for the system attached and the photos of the system here: http://imgur.com/a/rs9ur Let me know what you guys think. LukaSystem.ubox (604.18 kB - downloaded 209 times.) Aye, that's quite nice, Luke. I had a look. It might not be 100% realistic in terms of how solar systems can appear, but what's important is that you used your imagination to build your own vision of a star system. I do have a few tips to give you. That star is Rigel, isn't it? I could tell immediately. It's nicer to modify some parameters of the star so it's unique. Maybe keep that in mind for next time. For a comet to be a comet, it should hold an elliptical orbit that brings it close enough to the star that the water in it begins to melt and turn into gas. Otherwise, it is an asteroid. Therefore, adjusting Luka's Comet's eccentricity so that its closest approach to the star heats it to about -20°C to 20°C should be ok. Bluestorm is very hot because it is Brown Dwarf. Objects above 13 masses of Jupiter are classified as "Brown Dwarfs"—failed stars that do not shine like the stars we know but still emit a lot of heat. On the planet "Green," you set the atmospheric pressure to be very low. The lower the atmospheric pressure, the lower the temperature water boils. The game doesn't simulate this yet, but if the pressure on Green was so low, water would boil at room temperature, so you wouldn't see the oceans on it. And yes, radiation is a big problem on these systems. One way you can protect a planet from the star's radiation is if you go to Materials > Magnetic Fields and add a magnetic field. There are quite a number of little things regarding realism that doesn't quite work in this system, but I didn't dive too deeply into realism aspects because worldbuilding is about constructing your own representation of a system. I have to admit, I am hugely obsessed with the realism of a system, and maybe that's a bad thing because I constrain myself to model off other solar systems we have already discovered, limiting my creativity to a certain extent. Ensuring a system is realistic means I have to invest a tremendous amount of time testing it, especially orbital stability. The star systems I make take about a month to finalise, with a day or two of total playing time. Nevertheless, if you are interested in knowing more of how a solar system evolves in the real world and try to model that in the game, I'm open for discussion, but maybe not on this thread. Quote from: SyzygyΣE on August 11, 2017, 05:52:00 AM I'll PM you on how to contact me privately to discuss Luka. Medina System The Medina system was named by Saudi Arabian scientists who discovered it in 2032 after the launch of NASA's DeepSpace Telescope which allowed never before seen star systems to be seen. The Saudi Team quickly discovered a system not too far away from Sol which was pretty basic and almost resembled earths in a way. It was named Medina after the Saudi city of Medina. - PLANETS Narkin - The first planet to be discovered and admittedly, the hottest and ugliest. It comprises of a scratched vomit-yellow surface with what appears to be an unknown blue element scattered around the planet. So far, Narkin is the only planet that has this unknown blue element in this system. It reaches well above 1000c. Not a whole lot is known about it besides it was not that close to Medina until the original planets nearby crashed in to eachother which dragged Narkin closer from the habitable zone. It lost it's atmosphere and magnetic field quickly and became a hot-zone. Mecca - Second planet to be discovered. Named after Saudi Arabia's holiest city. Admittedly, also the most beautiful. It has flowing oceans of H20 and what appears to be grass, some flat-lands and snow-capped mountains hinting that there's seasons and of course a diverse weather system on Mecca which by far makes it the most unique planet in the whole system. It is around 19c. The planet has always been in the habitable zone and is rumored to be as old as the sun itself. Despite changes around it, it has always remained in a consistent orbit. Whether it's by pure luck or alien technology. Who knows? Alas - Third planet to be discovered, named Alas after.. you know, alas. Well. Basically, it's an desert planet that is around -150c and has an atmosphere. Technically, it used to be habitable until it was pulled from it's habitable zone orbit by a far larger gas-giant in Medina's system which vanished sometime later through luck for Mecca and Alas or by some sort of Alien technology? MEDINA SYSTEM PHOTOS http://imgur.com/a/YhdHD My Simulation - 20170811-105714.ubox (56.57 kB - downloaded 208 times.) Quote from: Luke27262 on August 11, 2017, 10:11:05 AM Vomit yellow!! mmhmm. Do you have any comets or an asteroid belt? That'd be pretty cool to add
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Tag: Tyler Clark Burke Ep. #100: Andrew Nathan Hood Interviews Me about Jim Guthrie Andrew Nathan Hood is a published author who lives in Guelph. He wanted to interview me because he’s working on a book about Jim Guthrie for Invisible Publishing’s Bibliophonic series and so I said “sure.” For this 100th episode of the show, I present Andrew prying into my life by asking me about why we’re doing this, the band Captain Co-Pilot that I was in with Dallas Wehrle and Steve Lambke before they formed Constantines, people I used to make music with in Cambridge, Ontario, how I got into drumming via road trips in my parents’ car, lying to my parents about owning drums, lying about Superchunk and Tom Robbins, rear-ending my high school principal, storing illegal drums, Steve’s mom likes my drumming, playing the Albion Hotel in 1996, playing music with Jim, seeing Bluetip at 10 Ontario Street, merging hardcore and indie-rock scenes, punk rock, my tiny ex-girlfriend who caught Jim’s eye, the Hubble Bunk and Coby Dowdell, Holocron, Dioctave, Venus Cures All, Plumtree and community, recording a Captain Co-Pilot album with Jim and James Ogilvie, enjoying the Beatles, Justin Stayshyn, Stephen Evans, it got louder, the song “Where Have All The Heroes Gone?” and Jim’s notes on it, 517 the man, Jim might’ve been high, Steve McCuen and speech impediments, the gift of gab and generous humanity, Tim Kingsbury and nice, cool people in Guelph, the beginning of Three Gut Records, Gentleman Reg and his red minivan, Aaron Riches and Royal City and Leslie Feist, Aaron setting up Fugazi shows in Guelph and propelling people like Jim to do stuff, King Cobb Steelie and moving to Toronto, Lisa Moran and Tyler Clark Burke, my road managing Royal City’s first U.S. tour which lasted three weeks, Nick Craine, Feist being in Royal City, when crossing the border was easy, Nathan Lawr, it’s business and it’s personal, when Royal City stopped, the power of Constantines, seeing The Late Show with David Letterman and wearing coveralls for work like Steve Albini, the Constantines song “Nighttime/Anytime (It’s Alright)” and Jim’s notes on it, disbelief about things in The Believer, Andrew’s bare bum, why Jim is influential, Stuart Berman’s This Book is Broken, when Kurt Cobain died and live music venues went disco in the 90s, Arcade Fire, why people like Jim and his music, the fact that Jim wrote the “Hands in my Pocket” ad jingle, McDonald’s, Jim’s genius as a pop songwriter, Jim’s award-winning and lucrative work as a composer of video game soundtracks, Jim knows stuff, Jim O’Rourke, Stewart Gunn and Beethoven, Jim’s open-minded curiosity, making money by doing the thing you love and employing your skillset, the Jesus Lizard and American Express, Invisible Publishing’s Bibliophonic series, Tom Clancy books, why are we doing this again?, Jim gets surprised because he’s modest, Jim’s Juno nomination and our 2004 trip to Winnipeg, Canada has a small music scene, championing, Jim’s terrible car accident, the song “Before and After” and good lord, it’s done. Related links: andrew-n-hood.blogspot.ca jimguthrie.org vishkhanna.com http://media.blubrry.com/kreativekontrol/p/www.vishkhanna.com/podcasts/Kreative_Kontrol_May_15_2014.mp3 Tags 517, Aaron Riches, Albion Hotel, Andrew Nathan Hood, Arcade Fire, “Before and After”, “Hands in my Pocket”, “Nighttime/Anytime (It’s Alright)”, “Where Have All The Heroes Gone?”, Beethoven, Bibliophonic, Bluetip, Cambridge Ontario, Captain Co-Pilot, Coby Dowdell, Constantines, Dallas Wehrle, Dioctave, Drumming, Evan Clarke, Feist, Fugazi, Gentleman Reg, Guelph Ontario, Holocron, Invisible Publishing, James Ogilvie, Jim Guthrie, Jim O’Rourke, Justin Stayshyn, King Cobb Steelie, Kurt Cobain, Lisa Moran, Nathan Lawr, Nick Craine, Plumtree, Royal City, Stephen Evans, Steve Albini, Steve Lambke, Steve McCuen, Stewart Gunn, Stuart Berman, Superchunk, the Beatles, The Believer, the Hubble Bunk, The Jesus Lizard, The Late Show with David Letterman, This Book is Broken, Three Gut Records, Tim Kingsbury, Tom Robbins, Toronto, Tyler Clark Burke, Venus Cures All, Winnipeg
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Nox2, Ca2+, and protein kinase C play a role in angiotensin II-induced free radical production in nucleus tractus solitarius Academic Article Membrane Glycoproteins Solitary Nucleus The dorsomedial portion of the nucleus tractus solitarius (dmNTS) is the site of termination of baroreceptor and cardiorespiratory vagal afferents and plays a critical role in cardiovascular regulation. Angiotensin II (Ang II) is a powerful signaling molecule in dmNTS neurons and exerts some of its biological effects by modulating Ca(2+) currents via reactive oxygen species (ROS) derived from reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase. We investigated whether a Nox2-containing NADPH oxidase is the source of the Ang II-induced ROS production and whether the signaling mechanisms of its activation require intracellular Ca(2+) or protein kinase C (PKC). Second-order dmNTS neurons were anterogradely labeled with 4-(4-[didecylamino]styryl)-N-methylpyridinium iodide transported from the vagus and isolated from the brain stem. ROS production was assessed in 4-(4-[didecylamino]styryl)-N-methylpyridinium iodide-positive dmNTS neurons using the fluorescent dye 6-carboxy-2',7'-dichlorodihydro-fluorescein di(acetoxymethyl ester). Ang II (3 to 2000 nmol/L) increased ROS production in dmNTS neurons (EC(50)=38.3 nmol/L). The effect was abolished by the ROS scavenger Mn (III) porphyrin 5,10,20-tetrakis (benzoic acid) porphyrin manganese (III), the Ang II type 1 receptor antagonist losartan, or the NADPH oxidase inhibitors apocynin or gp91ds-tat. Ang II failed to increase ROS production or to potentiate L-type Ca(2+) currents in dmNTS neurons of mice lacking Nox2. The PKC inhibitor GF109203X or depletion of intracellular Ca(2+) attenuated Ang II-elicited ROS production. We conclude that the powerful effects of Ang II on Ca(2+) currents in dmNTS neurons are mediated by PKC activation leading to ROS production via Nox2. Thus, a Nox2-containing NADPH oxidase is the critical link between Ang II and the enhancement of Ca(2+) currents that underlie the actions of Ang II on central autonomic regulation. Wang, Gang Anrather, Josef Glass, Michael J. Tarsitano, M. Jacqueline Zhou, Ping Frys, Kelly A. Pickel, Virginia M. Costantino Iadecola Hypertension Journal 10.1161/01.HYP.0000236647.55200.07
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You are currently viewing Archived reports for the week of 11 April-17 April 2018. Activity for the week of 11 April-17 April 2018 Ambae Vanuatu New Langila New Britain (Papua New Guinea) New Sinabung Indonesia New Agung Bali (Indonesia) Ongoing Aira Kyushu (Japan) Ongoing Bagana Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) Ongoing Cleveland Chuginadak Island (USA) Ongoing Dukono Halmahera (Indonesia) Ongoing Ebeko Paramushir Island (Russia) Ongoing Fuego Guatemala Ongoing Karymsky Eastern Kamchatka (Russia) Ongoing Mayon Luzon (Philippines) Ongoing Sabancaya Peru Ongoing Sheveluch Central Kamchatka (Russia) Ongoing Turrialba Costa Rica Ongoing Ambae | Vanuatu | 15.389°S, 167.835°E | Elevation 1496 m Based on observations from satellites, webcams, pilots, and the Vanuatu Geohazards Observatory (local community reports), the Wellington VAAC reported that during 11-14 April ash plumes from the vent at Ambae’s Lake Voui rose to altitudes of 1.8-4.9 km (6,000-16,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted N, NW, W, and SE. On 12 April news articles noted that ashfall had affected the N part of Ambae, with photos showing thick ashfall deposits on houses and agricultural land, and reports of contaminated water supplies. On 15 April a VAAC office reported that the eruption has ceased. The Alert Level remained at 3 (on a scale of 0-5). Sources: Wellington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), ABC News - Australian Broadcasting Corporation Langila | New Britain (Papua New Guinea) | 5.525°S, 148.42°E | Elevation 1330 m Based on analyses of satellite imagery and wind model data, the Darwin VAAC reported that on 15 April a discrete, low-level ash plume from Langila rose to an altitude of 3.7 km (12,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted S. Source: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) Sinabung | Indonesia | 3.17°N, 98.392°E | Elevation 2460 m PVMBG reported that at 0640 on 12 April an event at Sinabung generated an ash plume that rose 200 m and drifted WNW. At 1655 pyroclastic flows generated ash plumes that drifted WSW. At 0827 on 15 April an event generated an ash plume rose 1 km and drifted WNW. The Alert Level remained at 4 (on a scale of 1-4), with a general exclusion zone of 3 km and extensions of 7 km on the SSE sector, 6 km in the ESE sector, and 4 km in the NNE sector. Source: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM) Agung | Bali (Indonesia) | 8.343°S, 115.508°E | Elevation 2997 m Based on webcam views, satellite data, and ground-based observations, the Darwin VAAC reported that on 11 April an event at Agung generated an ash plume that rose to an altitude of 3.7 km (12,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted SW. Sources: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM) Aira | Kyushu (Japan) | 31.593°N, 130.657°E | Elevation 1117 m JMA reported that there were four events and nine explosions at Minamidake crater (at Aira Caldera’s Sakurajima volcano) during 9-16 April. Tephra was ejected as far as 1.3 km from the crater, and plumes rose as high as 2.5 km above the crater rim. Crater incandescence was visible on most nights. The Alert Level remained at 3 (on a 5-level scale). Source: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Bagana | Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) | 6.137°S, 155.196°E | Elevation 1855 m Based on analyses of satellite imagery and model data, the Darwin VAAC reported that during 14-15 April ash plumes from Bagana rose to altitudes of 2.1-2.4 km (7,000-8,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted about 110 km SW. Cleveland | Chuginadak Island (USA) | 52.825°N, 169.944°W | Elevation 1730 m AVO reported that a small explosion at Cleveland was detected in seismic and infrasound data at 0759 on 13 April; no eruption plume was visible in satellite images. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange and the Volcano Alert Level remained at Watch. Source: US Geological Survey Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) Dukono | Halmahera (Indonesia) | 1.693°N, 127.894°E | Elevation 1229 m Based on analyses of satellite imagery, wind model data, and notices from PVMBG, the Darwin VAAC reported that during 11-16 April ash plumes from Dukono rose to an altitude of 2.1 km (7,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted mainly NW, W, SW, and NNE. Ebeko | Paramushir Island (Russia) | 50.686°N, 156.014°E | Elevation 1103 m Volcanologists in Severo-Kurilsk (Paramushir Island), about 7 km E of Ebeko, observed explosions during 7 and 11-12 April that sent ash plumes as high as 1.8 km (5,900 ft) a.s.l. Ashfall was reported in Severo-Kurilsk on 6 April. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale). Source: Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT) Fuego | Guatemala | 14.473°N, 90.88°W | Elevation 3763 m INSIVUMEH reported that on 9 April a lahar descended the Seca (Santa Teresa) drainage on Fuego’s W flank. The lahar was 10 m wide, 1.5 m deep, and had a consistency similar to cement mix. During 12-13 April explosions generated ash plumes that rose as high as 1 km and drifted 15 km SW and W. Incandescent material was ejected as high as 300 m above the crater rim, and generated avalanches of material in the Seca, Cenizas (SSW), Las Lajas (SE), and Honda (E) ravines. Ash fell in areas downwind including in Santa Sofía (12 km SW), Morelia (9 km SW), Panimaché (8 km SW), (SSW), Las Lajas (SE), and Honda (E) ravines. Ash fell in areas downwind including in Santa Sofía (12 km SW), Morelia (9 km SW), Panimaché (8 km SW), El Porvenir (8 km ENE), and Finca Palo Verde. Activity increased on 14 April and remained elevated through 17 April. Moderate-to-strong explosions were detected at a rate of 6-9 per hour, and sometimes produced shock waves that vibrated houses in Morelia and Panimaché. Dense ash plumes rose as high as 1.1 km and drifted 20 km W and S, though winds also carried the ash to higher altitudes to the SE. Incandescent material was ejected as high as 300 m above the crater rim, and generated avalanches of material in the crater area. Ashfall was reported in areas downwind including in Santa Sofía, Morelia, Panimaché I and II, El Porvenir, and Finca Palo Verde. The rate of explosions increased to 7-10 per hour on 16 April; explosions sometimes caused structures in Panimache, Morelia, La Reina, and Alotenango (8 km ENE) to vibrate. A lava flow traveled 1.3 km down the Seca drainage. Source: Instituto Nacional de Sismologia, Vulcanologia, Meteorologia, e Hidrologia (INSIVUMEH) Karymsky | Eastern Kamchatka (Russia) | 54.049°N, 159.443°E | Elevation 1513 m KVERT reported that a weak thermal anomaly over Karymsky was identified in satellite data on 11 April. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale). During 11-17 April HVO reported that the lava lake continued to rise, fall, and spatter in Kilauea’s Overlook crater. The lake level was high, with spattering visible from HVO and Jaggar Museum; by 16 April the lake level was 10 m below the rim of the Overlook crater. Surface lava flows were active above Pulama pali. On 11 April a moderate swarm of over 200 earthquakes occurred at depths of 7-9 km below the summit. The largest event was a M 2.4. Seismicity returned to background levels at 0230. Three minor ledge collapses were detected on 12 April, one at 1157 and two just after 1830. Surface lava flows were active above Pulama pali; on 13 April most scattered breakouts were within 2.2 km from Pu'u 'O'o Crater, and one was about 5 km away. PHIVOLCS reported that during 11-17 April white steam plumes from Mayon drifted NW, WNW, WSW, and SW. Crater incandescence was visible at night. The sulfur dioxide flux was 2,800, 1,918, 1,621, and 1,617 tonnes/day on 11, 12, 13, and 16 April, respectively. The Alert Level remained at 2 (on a 0-5 scale) and PHIVOLCS reminded residents to stay away from the 6-km-radius Permanent Danger Zone and the 7-km Extended Danger Zone on the SSW and ENE flanks. Sabancaya | Peru | 15.787°S, 71.857°W | Elevation 5960 m Observatorio Vulcanológico del Sur del IGP (OVS-IGP) and Observatorio Vulcanológico del INGEMMET (OVI) reported that explosive activity at Sabancaya was similar to the previous week; explosions averaged 15 per day during 9-15 April. Seismicity was dominated by long-period events, with signals indicating emissions. Gas-and-ash plumes rose as high as 2.2 km above the crater rim and drifted 30 km NW and SW. Minor ashfall was reported in Huambo and Cabanaconde. The MIROVA system detected three thermal anomalies. The report noted that the public should not to approach the crater within a 12-km radius. Sources: Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgico (INGEMMET), Instituto Geofísico del Perú (IGP) KVERT reported that a weak thermal anomaly over Sheveluch was identified in satellite images during 6 and 10-12 April. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange. Turrialba | Costa Rica | 10.025°N, 83.767°W | Elevation 3340 m The Washington VAAC reported that on 11 April an ash emission from Turrialba were seen through an OVSICORI-UNA web camera. Source: Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC)
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Nash Latkje Gaidens Suikoden III Fanlist! Interactive content, go go go! If you're unsure about the fanlisting concept, it's basically just that: a list of fans. There aren't any tough requirements or website elitism, it's open for anyone. It's also completely unofficial and kind of pointless. But fanlistings can be a lot of fun regardless, so don't hesitate to join. (Really, please don't! Nash needs an encyclopedic catalog of his fangirls like few others.) Because no fanlisting about page would complete without it, I quote TFL: "A fanlisting is simply an online listing of fans of a subject, such as a TV show, actor, or musician, that is created by an individual and open for fans from around the world to join." If you're still confused and/or curious, there's a fairly nifty TFL 101 page. Genso Suikoden is copyright Konami. XHTML | CSS | ARIA | THE VALIANT KNIFE | THE FANLISTINGS | THE ANIME FANLISTINGS
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Jane Plant Deprecated function: The each() function is deprecated. This message will be suppressed on further calls in menu_set_active_trail() (line 2405 of /home/veganpostersy/veganposters.com/includes/menu.inc). About Jane Plant Quotes By Jane Plant Give up dairy products to beat cancer. See available posters » The success of this project depends on you sharing the artwork we create. If you can, follow us on Twitter, Facebook and Pinterest (we need to do more on Pinterest!) and you'll find out as soon as we add new poster designs and new quotations from the world's greater thinkers. Then don't forget to share anything you like on your favourite social networks. The more people that see what's being said, the better. Let's push the message further out there. 3 Print Print, print and print out what you like. Add one to that space on the noticeboard at work. How about that billboard on the way to the café? If there's room and it's legal, print out a few posters and tape them to boards, lamp posts and bus shelters. 4 Give Got a friend's birthday coming up? Or just want to treat your sister? It's pretty cost effective to print out your favourite posters (even at a professional printers), throw it in a suitable frame and wrap it up - gift sorted! The sixteen hundred dairies in California’s Central Valley alone produce more waste than a city of twenty-one million people-that’s more than the populations of London, New York, and Chicago combined. Gene Baur All content ©2020 Vegan Posters and its respective contributors except where stated. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution, Non-Commercial, Share-Alike 4.0 International License Get in touch with us if you've got any feedback. | Terms And Conditions | Privacy
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Call me: + 44 796 388 2424 Verene Nicolas About Verene Contact Verene Recommended By Me Some articles and reports I have written or co-authored: Reflections on a learning process to enable NGO professionals in Africa to transition from authority-based to collaboration (in cultures where the use of power over, threat and violence is wide spread). – February 2015. A chapter in Space and Polity (Routledge, 2015) co-authored with Kate Driscoll Derickson and Gehan MacLeod. A chapter of the Centre for Human’s Learning Report on Govan Together – March 2012. Entretien avec Thierry Groussin parus dans la revue Commencements Numéro 1, Printemps 2011. A pilot project in the Leith and North Edinburgh area to enhance the participation of black and ethnic minority people in the Local Community Planning Partnership and other local democratic processes. 21 steps to enhance Black and Ethnic Minority opportunities in Scotland. Written with a number of colleagues from the Centre for Human Ecology and whilst working with the EMPOWER partnership. The Big Issue in Scotland, a series of columns that ran jointly with Alastair McIntosh during 2002. "Quand l'Ecosse distribue les terres; Vent de réformes après la conquête de l'autonomie", Le Monde Diplomatique, Paris, No 572-48, Novembre 2001, p 6, jointly with Alastair McIntosh. Report of the Embracing Multicultural Scotland Project, Centre for Human Ecology, co-authored with project colleagues Hanna Maan, Nick Wilding, Amadu Khan and Alastair McIntosh, April 2000, 28 pp. The People Speak, The Full Technical Report of The People & Parliament project, co-authored with Canon Kenyon Wright (Chair) and other members of the Steering Group, March 1999, 101 pp. Books, articles and links that I recommend about collaboration, conflict transformation, nonviolence and the various approaches I use: Parker Palmer, A Hidden Wholeness – The Journey Toward An Undivided Life (2004) Parker Palmer, Let Your Life Speak – Listening for the Voice of Vocation (2000) The Center for Courage and Renewal – http://www.couragerenewal.org/ Sally Timmel and Anne Hope, Training for Transformation, Handbooks for Community Workers, Vol 1-4 (1984) Training for Transformation at the Grail Centre, South Africa - http://www.grailprogrammes.org.za Miki Kashtan - Spinning Threads of Radical Aliveness - Transcending the Legacy of Separation in Our Individual Lives (2014) Miki Kashtan - Reweaving Our Human Fabric: Working Together to Create a Nonviolent Future (2015) Miki Kashtan’s blog, the Fearless Heart – http://baynvc.blogspot.co.uk/ John-Paul Lederach – The Moral Imagination – The Art and Soul of Building Peace (2005) Starhawk – The Empowerment Manual – A guide for Collaborative Groups (2011) Mob: 0796 388 2424 Email: mail@verenenicolas.org © Verene Nicolas 2018
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The “alphabet soup” of acronyms and legalese often increases the anxiety and uneasiness for families. KARACHI: As his friends grab a bat and ball to play a round of cricket with other boys in the neighborhood, Siddiq Omar picks up his school bag and heads toward the Jamia Masjid Khyber, an Islamic seminary or madrassa in the Orangi town of Karachi. Pushto Alphabet. Alphabet -owned drone delivery spin-out Wing is starting to service U. Do you want to remove all your recent searches? All recent searches will be deleted. Pashtu, Pashto are Pukhtu really a family of languages, rather than a unified language, spoken by Pathan tribes in Pakistan and Afghanistan. You can do the exercises online or download the worksheet as pdf. This interactive application will help you to learn the Pashto alphabet with animated pictures. Pashto innovative, fastest and well managed dictionary with more then 16K words. A dictionary of the Pukkhto or Pukshto language, in which the words are traced to their sources in the Indian and Persian languages (1901). Tests Are Excellent Language Learning Tools. I'm providing the sound so that you can hear the pronunciation of the characters. IPA is a phonetic notation system that uses a set of symbols to represent each distinct sound that exists in human spoken language. Learn Pashto Alphabet Pashto Afghans. Also has an Urdu Word-of-the-Day feature and interactive Urdu content for other people to place on their website. Latin is an alphabet type of script and the most widely used in the world. Even Pashto alphabets are not printed on a keyboard (hardware) Pashto can still be typed after installing Pashto this keyboard. Dari has added 4 letters of its own to the Arabic alphabet making its alphabet 32 letters and Pashto has added 12 letters to the Arabic alphabet making its alphabet 40 letters. Like Farsi and Urdu, Pashto uses the Arabic alphabet - heavily modified since it really does not match the sounds of those languages,. The Pushto alphabet, which has more vowel sounds than either Persian or Arabic, represents the vowels more extensively than either the Persian or the Arabic alphabets. One of the Iranian languages, it forms part of the Indo-European family of languages. Searchable English to Urdu dictionary. Browse the best selection of high quality desktop and web fonts. Learn More. The Afghanistan Analyst Portal for Pashto online resources: audio, video, interactive & multimedia, web portals, podcast, websites, and commercial software. We gathered the most important topics such as vocabulary phrases grammar and flashcards so that you only learn what you will actually need to learn for free. 179 relations. … the first national language is Pashto, even though Persian is the official second language. Learn how to use the many ways of conjugating verbs. Pashto was made the national language of Afghanistan by royal decree in 1936. International Children's Digital Library. The language taught is Afghan Pashto, particularly the standard central district dialect spoken in Kabul and in the official media. The app 'Baby first word' has been designed specifically to teach young children alphabet. These textbooks, grammars, and readers represent Pashto in both the Pashto script and romanized transliteration, unless otherwise noted. Although spoken by nearly 76 million people in various countries. The alphabet: Rows 3 and 4 17 More about word order The locative marker la Adjectives 3. Like Farsi and Urdu, Pashto uses the Arabic alphabet - heavily modified since it really does not match the sounds of those languages,. Bangla alphabet Bengali alphabet for kids is one of the complete android applications for bengali alphabet learning. I hope you will like it. This makes learning the Arabic. The Italian language itself is derived from Latin and is the closest match to Latin of any language spoken today. The second matter of importance is that there is a one-to- one correspondence in Pashto between letters and phonetics that is to say, a letter is always pronounced the same way in Pashto which means the number of letters in the alphabet is the same as the number of phonetics. A Transparent Pashto Language Course: Learn Anytime with Online, Mobile, Interactive, Social and Software Tools Memrise Merges Science, Fun and Community to Help Learn Pashto Online for Free (+ App) Pashto Alphabet, Pronunciation and Writing System. The app is specifically designed to help kids who are older than one year. The structure has only 19 basic shapes, but the letters actually change their shape, according to the position in the word (which can be initial, medial, final, or isolated), and the resulting number of glyphs comes out at 106. Each alphabet set includes:26 letters10 numbers hashtag and ampersand4 blank spacer dies - two full-space, two half-space This set could be used to create monogrammed wedding/party stationary, place settings, napkins etc. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. At PoemSearcher. Pashtu letters are categorized into families of letters to facilitate learning except for the first letter of the alphabet. You can find it's pronunciation in the following video. Alphabet in Pashto Language. Below you will find the letters, the pronunciation and sound. Most updated Urdu Poetry website on the web with hundreds of poetry categories on lots of topics. 21 May 2009 27036. It is possible to foil onto cellophane to create personalised sweet bags or wrapping paper. Jump to phrases. Our Easy Pashto Language Keyboard represents a useful Pashto online keyboard that has all the Pashto alphabet and can do easy changes of Pashto to English and vice versa English to Pashto. Online Keyboards, Unicode character picker (character map), Input Methods, Converters,. Pashto (Afghanistan) Welsh ʝ Spanish Scottish Gaelic Pashto (Afghanistan) x Arabic Chinese Czech Ducth German Greek Irish Persian Polish Russian Scottish Gaelic Spanish Vietnamese ɣ Arabic Greek Irish Low German Navajo Pashto (Afghanistan) Scottish Gaelic Urdu (Pakistan) χ Arabic Hebrew Luxembourgish Welsh Yiddish ʁ Danish French Hebrew. Some of those who wrote Poetry in Pashto are Khushal Khan Khattak, Rahman Baba, Nazo Tokhi and Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the modern state of Afghanistan or the. Introduction 1. Alphabet block definition is - a cubical block of wood, plastic, or other material having letters of the alphabet on some of the sides, a set which constitutes a toy for young children. pashto hd free download - Pashto Videos HD 2019 - HD Songs, Pashto Keys+Dictionary (English to Pashto & Pashto to English), Quran in Pashto, and many more programs Pashto Alphabet. Advanced Search. It uses all 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet , and shares 3 letters with Persian and Urdu. The symbol ":" means that you pronounce the vowel long. The project was a collaboration between students in Watertown High School's art program and artist Gregg Bernstein to represent the diversity of Watertown. Usage notes []. Take a Business Pashto course with Communicaid, one of the world’s leading providers of Business Pashto training courses. The Pashto Alphabet: Step II Posted by Transparent Language on May 25, 2010 in Basic, Pashto Alphabet Let’s review the first five letters by going into detail with each of them. Copy and paste the text in the box below. The Pashto alphabet is a modified form of the Arabic alphabet and has extra letters for Pashto-specific sounds. Tests Are Excellent Language Learning Tools. It is the language of Iran (formerly Persia) and is also widely spoken in Afghanistan and, in an archaic form, in Tajikistan and the Pamir Mountain region. Pashto (پښتو Pax̌tō), sometimes spelled Pukhto, is the language of the Pashtuns. International Center for Foreign Language Studies. The 45-letter alphabet of the Pashto language, adapted from the basic Arabic alphabet and consisting of the following letters:. ISO 639-3 treats Pashto as a macrolanguage with three varieties (Central, Northern, and Southern) (below). 89%, 43%), with names such as Basil becoming less fashionable. … the first national language is Pashto, even though Persian is the official second language. They come with specially designed alphabets to make any celebration or children classroom decorative and colorful. Today both Dari and Pashto are official languages. The founder of the Roshani movement, Bayazid Pir Roshan, is credited with inventing a Pashto alphabet and writing one of the earliest known prose in Pashto. You can do the exercises online or download the worksheet as pdf. If you are about to travel to Pakistan and Afghanistan, this is exactly what you are looking for!. Pashto - Alphabet and Writing Patterns - Duration: 24:52. The Pashto alphabet used to write all varieties of the languages today has 44 letters. If you want to study the Arabic alphabet from the beginning, click on "1 - Intro to Short Vowels" in the menu below. This book covers everything from the basic words to pronunciation and practice. The application is built to help both children and Pashto non-speakers to learn Pashto alphabet with fun. Learn the most important words in Pashto Here you can find the translation of the 50 most important words and expressions into Pashto. Our Easy Pashto Language Keyboard represents a useful Pashto online keyboard that has all the Pashto alphabet and can do easy changes of Pashto to English and vice versa English to Pashto. 42% of Pakistan’s population of 170 million people. Standard Pashto Alphabets & Transliteration: 2. The Greek alphabet has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th or early 8th century BC, and was the first alphabet to have distinct letters for vowels and consonants. The 45-letter alphabet of the Pashto language, adapted from the basic Arabic alphabet and consisting of the following letters:. (Pushto) One of the two major languages of Afghanistan, the other being Persian. The Pashto alphabet in turn is derived from the Arabic alphabet, and has additional letters to incorporate the specific sounds of the Pashto language. S Embassy F IPA office and. Synonyms for Pashtu in Free Thesaurus. " - read what others are saying and join the conversation. Learn Pashto. The best online onscreen virtual keyboard emulator on the internet! Type, Translate, Search the net, Send emails, tweet, and share with your friends in facebook - in all languages!. Translate text from any Microsoft Office Product. English to Pashto Translation provides the most convenient access to online translation service powered by various machine translation engines. INTRODUCTION Pashto is a major language of Pakistan and the official language of Afghanistan with around 55 million speakers but little work has been done so far on the automatic. Like Farsi and Urdu, Pashto uses the Arabic alphabet - heavily modified since it really does not match the sounds of those languages,. Even Pashto alphabets are not printed on a keyboard (hardware) Pashto can still be typed after installing Pashto this keyboard. Intermediate Pashto introduce studeni. If you follow everything provided in this page, you will be able to read, write and pronounce the Pashto letters quickly and easily. Exotic and Hot Pashtun girl shakes her Pashto = Butt Metacafe Affiliate U Subscribe Unsubscribe 2045. Test the Pashto course now and get started right away 17 minutes of learning a day new learning experiences 540. Pashto (پښتو), Pukhto, also rendered as Pakhto, Pushto, shtoe, Pashtu, Pushtu, Pathani or Pushtoo and also known as Afghan language is an Indo-European language spoken by Pashtuns living in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Tajik in Tajikistan), Pashto (spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan), Kurdish (spoken in parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey), and Urdu (spoken in Pakistan and parts of India) are among the languages that adopted Arabic letters. Pashto contains 64 letters (consonants and vowels). The alphabet for the Pashto language is a modified form of the Persian alphabet, but conversely called the Pashto alphabet. Pashto is also spoken as a first language in some Baluchi communities living in Pakistan and Afghanistan. It has two main dialects, western dialect and eastern dialect. Pashto is probably one of the most difficult languages that a native English speaker can attempt to learn. The Easiest Way to Learn Pashto Author: SHAH M BOOK CO Publisher: SHAH M BOOK CO. Find out how to say You are a stupid an-alphabet in different languages. The app also contains music to increase the interest of kid to keep playing. 99! Never pay the full price anymore!. Write in your language wherever you may be with the best online keyboards on the web. To write in them, you can use a transcriptor tool, for instance, YaTT. د افغانستان، سیمې او نړۍ په اړه تازه خبرونه، رپوټونه، شننې، څېړنې، مرکې، لوبې، ژوندۍ رادیويي خپرونې. International Children's Digital Library. The Arabic or Perso-Arabic script, is a writing system used for writing Arabic and several other languages of Asia and Africa, such as Persian, Kurdish, Azerbaijani, Sindhi, Balochi, Pashto, Lurish, Urdu and Mandinka. Pashto - Alphabet and Writing Patterns - Duration: 24:52. Find here 5585 Muslim Girls Names meaning including most treanding names Aabdar, Aabida, Aabidah, Aabir, Aabirah, Aabis, Aabish, Aabroo, Aadab, Aadila, Aaeedah. "Pe" has four forms: isolated, initial, medial, and final. Students with active enrollments can receive notifications about upcoming assignment due dates, personalized encouragement after submitting an assignment, and recently posted course announcements. Script and Orthography. The glossary contains, in dictionary form, the vocabulary and phrases that occur in the 14 units of the 5 components of the series. 179 relations. From the taste of (Qabeli Pallaw) Rice with chopped fried carrots and raison to (Ashak, Mantoo), veggie and non veggie dumplings and it’s fresh bread. Pashto is spoken by about 12 million people in E Afghanistan and N Pakistan. There are 45 letters in total in the alphabet, with 4 diacritic marks. Like Farsi and Urdu, Pashto uses the Arabic alphabet - heavily modified since it really does not match the sounds of those languages, but that does not make them related, and more than the fact that languages like Turkish, Swahili, Quechua, Vietnamese, Finnish or Basque use the Latin alphabet make them in any way related to English. application translation in English-Pashto dictionary. Benefits of our Business Pashto Courses. With this you'll be able to type. Afghanistan is a heterogeneous nation of four major ethnic groups, namely Pashtoons, Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks. Since Pashto and Dari are spoken in the same geographical region, the speakers of one language are very often exposed to the other language. And like people already stated, it depends on why you want to learn it? Even though I am a Pashtun, I would strongly recommend Persian if you just want to learn a new language or because you want to learn languages which a. What does Pashto mean? Information and translations of Pashto in the most comprehensive dictionary definitions resource on the web. You can find here girlss names meanings in Urdu as well as in English. ) used by ordinary native speakers. While Dari and Farsi are two accents of the same language, Pashto is a different language. You will hear pronunciation on the letter and example word. There are 45 letters in total in the alphabet, with 4 diacritic marks. In northen Afghanistan speakers of Pashto are called Pakhtūn; in sourthen Afghanistan they are known as Pashtūn, and as Pathān or Afghan in Pakistan. Do you want to remove all your recent searches? All recent searches will be deleted. Without it, you will not be able to say words properly even if you know how to write those words. O #Google is investi. Sample texts and sound recordings of the Pashto language are provided in this resource. Pashto (Pushto or Pakhto) is the official language of Afghanistan. A dictionary of the Pukkhto or Pukshto language, in which the words are traced to their sources in the Indian and Persian languages (1901). Most updated Urdu Poetry website on the web with hundreds of poetry categories on lots of topics. The International Children's Digital Library is a project of the ICDL Foundation in collaboration with the University of Maryland's Human-Computer Interaction Lab. → Pashto keyboard to type a text with the Arabic characters • Indiana university: Pashto course • Pashto alphabet • Pashto, elementary textbook • Speaking Afghan Pashto by Randall Olsen (1996) • Reference grammar of Pashto by Habibullah Tegey & Barbara Robson (1996) • Beginning Pashto, textbook, by Habibullah Tegey & Barbara. net has a tutorial on the Pashto alphabet (not Unicode related). In addition, you will be able to learn how a letter is written using various forms. When it hits You. Pashto alphabet (د پښتو الفباء) Notes. Synonyms for Pashtu in Free Thesaurus. Pashto Alphabet Chart Home > Dictionaries & Language > Pashto Alphabet Chart $ 10. Pashto is spoken by about 12 million people in e Afghanistan and n Pakistan. I hope you will like it. Both are Indo-European languages from the Iranian languages sub-family. Pashto Phonetic Keyboard, write pashto language online using phonetic keyboard, pukhto keyboard, learn pashto language. alphabet, which is the progenitor of Roman (Latin) letters4,6 was directly derived from the Phoenician alphabet4,6,7,8, The Greeks not only took the forms of letters, they also took over some Phoenician names for the letters. In Pakistan, Pashto is more of a provincial language, spoken as a first language by only around 15. Online free English to Pashto translation powered by translation API from Google, Microsoft, IBM, Naver, Yandex and Baidu. Do not eat or drink anything until after your procedure 82. Pashto - Alphabet and Writing Patterns - Duration: 24:52. Our Easy Pashto Language Keyboard represents a useful Pashto online keyboard that has all the Pashto alphabet and can do easy changes of Pashto to English and vice versa English to Pashto. This is an accordion element with a series of buttons that open and close related content panels. If you follow everything provided in this page, you will be able to read, write and pronounce the Pashto letters quickly and easily. Languages (kwalian dialect) 70s black; 80s; Aave (african-american vernacular english) Aboriginal;. It teaches children, displays cool animations, visuals and illustrations, it has verbal features, educational games and activities. 54,363 likes · 855 talking about this. The total number of Pashto-speakers is estimated to be 45-60 million people worldwide. The writing manual for a course in basic Pashto teaches the Pashto alphabet: the letters, their sounds, their names, and their shapes in various combinations with other letters. Cookies help us deliver our services. Pashto Alphabet. 50 Pashto Poems ranked in order of popularity and relevancy. Contextual translation of "alphabet" into Greek. Each fruit is written in both English and Urdu text as well an image of the fruit. Pashto innovative, fastest and well managed dictionary with more then 16K words. Farsi Keyboard – فارسی صفحه کلید – Type Farsi Online. Sunny KHAN-turk, Victoria, British Columbia. Learn More. Phonemic Inventories and Cultural and Linguistic Information Across Languages. Latin is an alphabet type of script and the most widely used in the world. Urdu, Arabic, Pashto, Persian Languages are written almost the same way. Dari Alphabet | Pashto Alphabet | Recommended Books. Tests Are Excellent Language Learning Tools. Here are what the forms of each letter look like it's an Arabic Alphabet Table. Going through each class should take about 30 min. International Children's Digital Library. The better you pronounce a letter in a word, the more understood you will be in speaking the Pashto language. The other spot of this paper is the similarity of some phonetics letters of Pashto Language alphabet with Indo-European because Pashto Language is on branch of Indo-European family and has its own alphabet with special features that the speakers use it. د افغانستان، سیمې او نړۍ په اړه تازه خبرونه، رپوټونه، شننې، څېړنې، مرکې، لوبې، ژوندۍ رادیويي خپرونې. Nouns and noun cases. A Communicaid Pashto language training course will provide you with the ability to: Speak Pashto with confidence. Welcome to all the EAL (English as an Additional Language) teaching and learning resources. Pashto has a seven vowel system. Basic Phrases of the Pashto Language. If you are about to travel to Pakistan and Afghanistan, this is exactly what you are looking for!. En Dari bok eller CD-program koster bara 120 kr. Pashto innovative, fastest and well managed dictionary with more then 16K words. Pashto has been cancelled for SASLI 2019. Use it for writing poetry, composing lyrics for your song or coming up with rap verses. Our Easy Pashto Language Keyboard represents a useful Pashto online keyboard that has all the Pashto alphabet and can do easy changes of Pashto to English and vice versa English to Pashto. You can find here girlss names meanings in Urdu as well as in English. To help you memorize the letters easily, I have presented it with a song. It uses all 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet, and shares 3 letters with Persian and Urdu. Browse the best selection of high quality desktop and web fonts. 0 for Android. First, the Pashto alphabet is related to the Arabic alphabet, so there's that. 0 Ppi 600 Scanner. The IPA is used to tell you the pronunciation of a letter or a word. Learn Pashto online the quick and easy way. Pashto employs the Pashto alphabet, a modified form of the Perso-Arabic alphabet or Arabic script. Priset inkluderar alla avgifter förutom frakt avgift. We also provide free English-Pashto dictionary, free English spelling checker and free English typing keyboard. Due to their availability online, it has become quite easy to get one's hands on these templates in a variety of colors and styles. Whenever I learn farsi, i'll be happy i pinned this This is an Arabic Alphabet Table. It is spoken by the Pashtuns living in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Synonyms for Pashtu in Free Thesaurus. Isolated (when the letter stands alone) پ. Browse the best selection of high quality desktop and web fonts. Pashto Language Statistics/Facts. Pashto Language: Teach Yourself Pashto Alphabet (Iranian Languages Edition) [Babur Abbas] on Amazon. If you follow everything provided in this page, you will be able to read, write and pronounce the Pashto letters quickly and easily. Pashto alphabet. Some of those who wrote Poetry in Pashto are Khushal Khan Khattak, Rahman Baba, Nazo Tokhi and Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the modern state of Afghanistan or the. com’s big grammar book 38. alphabet contains several additional letters not found in the Dari alphabet. International Center for Foreign Language Studies. How do you say in Pashto: "The menu, please?". By coloring drawings and tracing printed letters, you will learn how the letter is written and used. Whenever I learn farsi, i'll be happy i pinned this This is an Arabic Alphabet Table. The 45-letter alphabet of the Pashto language, adapted from the basic Arabic alphabet and consisting of the following letters:. pashto hd free download - Pashto Videos HD 2019 - HD Songs, Pashto Keys+Dictionary (English to Pashto & Pashto to English), Quran in Pashto, and many more programs Pashto Alphabet. Pashto vowels present in Pashto Alphabet is a sound that is certainly pronounced simply by using your mouth (in the case of nasal vowels, the usage of your nose) without having any blockage of the mouth, tongue, or throat. This Arabic only Al Quran sponsored by the Saudi government and is provided free. Email Address *. Tajik, Dari and Faris are all almost completely intelligible while Pashto is distinct. Translate English to Pashto. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Pashto Alphabet ېـبـفـلا وـتـښـپ د Transcription and Sound IPA Final Medial Initial Isolated Letter Name 1 [ā] as aw in law; [a] as o in hot [ɔ:]; [ɒ] اـ - - ا [aléf] فلا ۱ 2 [b] as b in boy [b] ﺐـ بـ ﺑ ﺏ [be] ېﺑ ۲ 3 [p] as p in pen [p] ﭗـ ﭙـ پ ﭖ [pe] ېپ ۳ 4 [t] as t in teach [t] ﺖـ تـ. Exercises to learn English: grammar, vocabulary, listening and reading comprehension activities. Pashto is spoken by about 12 million people in e Afghanistan and n Pakistan. This article takes a closer look at some of the most widely used writing scripts in the world. A dictionary of the Pukkhto or Pukshto language, in which the words are traced to their sources in the Indian and Persian languages (1901). Making a friend in the Pashto-speaking culture. Translate English to Pashto. It has two main dialects, western dialect and eastern dialect. Pashto was made the national language of Afghanistan by royal decree in 1936. Maybe more significantly, Pashto is a highly inflected language, so learning Pashto means becoming immersed in a world of complex and novel grammatical peculiarities. Pashto is also spoken as a first language in some Baluchi communities living in Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Pashto alphabet in turn is derived from the Arabic alphabet, and has additional letters to incorporate the specific sounds of the Pashto language. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. It is It is one of the Semitic abjads directly descending from the Aramaic alphabet and shares similarities with the Phoenician,. Since both Pashto and Dari are official languages in Afghanistan, the same conversion. Loading Unsubscribe from Pashto Afghans? Pashto Alphabet, Alif Ba پشتو الفبا ، پښتو الفبی - Duration: 3:30. The Tamil language is one of the oldest language in the world. Pashto is a member of the Eastern Iranian languages group. Tajik in Tajikistan), Pashto (spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan), Kurdish (spoken in parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey), and Urdu (spoken in Pakistan and parts of India) are among the languages that adopted Arabic letters. Since Pashto and Dari are spoken in the same geographical region, the speakers of one language. You will hear pronunciation on the letter and example word. Going through each class should take about 30 min. 5 million people in Pakistan and Iran with communities who speak Dari as their primary language. Jefferson Netto 21,338 views. Standard Pashto in Afghanistan is based on the Kandahar dialect, whereas Standard Pashto (Eastern Pashto, spoken by 9 million people) in Pakistan is based on the Peshawar dialect. Pashto Alphabet Learning the Pashto alphabet is very important because its structure is used in every day conversation. Pashto uses the Perso-Arabic alphabet with the addition of some letters to represent peculiar Pashto sounds. Pashto phonology. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. These letters are j, k, w, x and y. Displays Urdu script without requiring fonts. This book covers everything from the basic words to pronunciation and practice. Paraujano (Venezuela) [said by a group] Anein we p ütüma Pashto (Afghanistan) Tashakkur Pashto (Afghanistan, Pakistan) Sta na shukria Pende (Congo-Kinshasa) Hambadiahana [Penobscot, see Abenaki] Persian (Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan) Tashakkur Persian (Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan) Mamnoon. Dari has added 4 letters of its own to the Arabic alphabet making its alphabet 32 letters and Pashto has added 12 letters to the Arabic alphabet making its alphabet 40 letters. Given names often have the same origin, and were then adapted for other languages and countries. On 17 Dec 2018 @mnaEN tweeted: "#AlphabetSec #GOOGL. Browse our diverse flashcard library today and find the right cardsets, only with Cram. Use it for writing poetry, composing lyrics for your song or coming up with rap verses. The Best Urdu Keyboard (اردو) on the Internet! Type, Translate, Search, Send emails, tweet, and share with your friends in facebook with this online onscreen virtual keyboard emulator, in all languages. Exercises to learn English: grammar, vocabulary, listening and reading comprehension activities. Even Pashto alphabets are not printed on a keyboard (hardware) Pashto can still be typed after installing Pashto this keyboard. The key will also turn. Pashto (پښتو), Pukhto, also rendered as Pakhto, Pushto, shtoe, Pashtu, Pushtu, Pathani or Pushtoo and also known as Afghan language is an Indo-European language spoken by Pashtuns living in Afghanistan and Pakistan. سب سے زیادہ الفاظ English to Urdu Dictionary and English to Urdu Translation. The alphabet for the Pashto language is a modified form of the Persian alphabet, but conversely called the Pashto alphabet. The alphabet: Rows 1 and 2 Simple sentences Word order The subject marker ni 2. gif 688 × 441；131 KB Pashto alphabet. Pashto College & University Courses This page lists language classes for Pashto at colleges and universities in North America. The name Pashto is thought to derive from the reconstructed proto-Iranian form, parsawā 'Persian language. Pashto Alphabets Pashto PC Learning Pashto Music Pashto Books: Pashto Typing. Learning the Pashto alphabet is crucial to learn the Pashto Language. Isolated (when the letter stands alone) پ. Tweet Share on Facebook. The word Pashto, in terms of reference, could be attributed. Balandra (Pashto: blandra بلندره) is a word used by the Afridi tribe to express an invitation Ashar ( عشر) is an Arabic wording meaning tenth and can refer to a religious tithe or tax. The Pashto Alphabet: Step II Posted by Transparent Language on May 25, 2010 in Basic, Pashto Alphabet Let's review the first five letters by going into detail with each of them. Pashto is the main language among the Pashtun diaspora around the world. It uses all 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet, and shares 3 letters with Persian and Urdu. Pioneers @ KerryR. Practice pronouncing the Pashto alphabet. It is the provincial language in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pashto employs the Pashto alphabet, a modified form of the Perso-Arabic alphabet or Arabic script. Tajik is another separate variety of Farsi spoken by the Tajik ethnic group of Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Below is the Pashto alphabet in a table containing 3 columns: The sound of the Pashto letters, the alphabet, examples which include the letter at the beginning, middle and at the end. The Most Popular Writing Scripts in The World 1. With the adoption of Pashto as a national language of Afghanistan, some revisions of the spelling system have been made in the interest of clarity. 42% of Pakistan’s population of 170 million people. Description. Alphabets and syllabaries require far less symbols than logograms. The total number of Pashto-speakers is estimated to be 45–60 million people worldwide. As far as I remember, there is no Persian alphabet song. It activates three different centers of the brain at the same time: language, hearing, and rhythmic motor control. The letter "pe" is the third letter in the Pashto alphabet. Dari And Pashto Alphabet: Flags & Prs. Ligature 34a is sometimes regarded as one letter. Free Language-Learning Resources. Historical Genesis of the Pashto Language Like other languages of the world which referred to a nation, area or a country, the term Pashto/ Pukhto has evolved from various stages to the present form. Pashto was declared the National Language of the country during the beginning of King Mohammad Zahir's reign, however, Dari has always been used for business and government transactions. So, Tamil has been rewarded as "classical language" by the Indian government. To write in them, you can use a transcriptor tool, for instance, YaTT. All structured data from the main, Property, Lexeme, and EntitySchema namespaces is available under the Creative Commons CC0 License; text in the other namespaces is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. A Communicaid Pashto language training course will provide you with the ability to: Speak Pashto with confidence. TWO LANGUAGES, ONE KEYBOARD APP دوۀ ژبې، يو کيبورډ اېپ. Complete alphabet of the Pashto language with phonetic symbols and example words to illustrate the sound (*Please note this list is a work in progress, I will make changes as I see the need) آ ,ا Pashto Alphabet. Comparatives and Superlatives 1 44. It has two main dialects, western dialect and eastern dialect. In the 18 and again in the 20th century the script was standardized to include additional letters representing sounds specific to Pashto. big grammar book English Banana 2003 iii. 1/3 (1959), 231-235. The following table gives the letters' isolated forms, along with the Latin equivalents and typical IPA values:. If you've forgotten how each letter changes forms in its isolated, initial, medial, and final forms, consult Part II for the first family and Part III for the second family. Use of Spanish Children's Songs to Teach Spanish. Users will find that the app teaches the proper pronunciation of each letter of the Pashto alphabet, gives them a range of opportunities to practice reading and writing and trains them to recognize the various shapes of the letters in their context. Below you will find the letters, the pronunciation and sound. Pashto is spoken by about 12 million people in e Afghanistan and n Pakistan. Pashto - The Complete First Season. We gathered the most important topics such as vocabulary phrases grammar and flashcards so that you only learn what you will actually need to learn for free. Western world often calls this language Afghan Persian because of the phonetic similarities and grammatical overlapping with the Farsi language, the official language of Iran. If you are about to travel to Pakistan and Afghanistan, this is exactly what you are looking for!. Going through each class should take about 30 min. L'alphabet italien est basé sur celui de l'alphabet latin, qui contient les 23 lettres suivantes : Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Vu Xx Yy Zz. Find Pashto flashcards at Cram. gif 688 × 441；131 KB Pashto alphabet. Farsi Phrases. In a Syllabary each symbol represents a simple combination of sounds (for example KA, DI, LO). The Pashto alphabet is a modified form of the Arabic alphabet with letters added to accommodate phonemes used in Pashto that are not found in Arabic. Description God(s)? Heritage Area of Origin Founded Founder Afterlife? Holy Texts? agnosticism: A form of belief, rather than a specific system.
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events & surroundings The Casa Rossa farmhouse was established alongside an old customs house in the comune of Lucca, which was converted, at the end of the C18th, into a hunting lodge with an attached farm. Standing on the edge of what was to become the reclaimed land of the Bonifica del Massaciuccoli and close to the Francigena consular road (commissioned by the Roman consul Emilio Scauro to provide a link between Italy and France through Liguria), the Casa Rossa became in time an important agricultural centre, following major drainage work that transformed the marshlands of Massaciuccoli into a rich and fertile plain. The draining of the marshlands, begun by the Romans, with the Papiriane channel, and continued by the Dutch, with limited success, was completed in the early part of the twentieth century by Pietro Studiati Berni. It remains today a fine example of land reclaimed for farming. The sea to the south-west and the hills to the north support a climate that is mild during the winter and cool and breezy in summer. The Casa Rossa farmhouse (now also an ‘agrituristica’ centre) is conveniently located for Florence, Lucca, Pisa, Livorno and Viareggio, with easy access from main roads (the autostrada and the Aurelia highway) and close to Galileo airport at Pisa and the ports of Livorno, Massa Carrara and Genoa. This area around the lake of Massaciuccoli, once fine hunting country, was much loved by the celebrated composer Giacomo Puccini, who created some of his most famous operas in his home at Torre del Lago. Other well-known artists were similarly inspired by the conditions they found here. The farm is devoted to the production of cereals, corn and grain and the rearing of livestock (cattle and pigs) and horses (for riding). It lies within the borders of the Massaciuccoli Migliarino San Rossore natural park and is subject to strict environmental regulations for the preservation of animals and plants. The region lies within the famous Versilia coastal area and is defined by its countryside, its hills, its lake and the sea. Its activities include farming, with livestock and horses. The area is noted for its archaeology and its fine arts. These characteristics are all represented in the activities of the Casa Rossa, now open to extend a warm welcome to visitors to its country setting. Azienda Agrituristica Bonifica della Casa Rossa Via Pietra a Padule al Sasso n 5102 - 55054 loc. Massaciuccoli - Massarosa - Lucca Tel/Fax +39 0584 975 448 - Cell. +39 338 7140 738 - info@agriturismocasarossa.it Bonifica della Casa Rossa - P.iva e CF: 01651090464 Copyright © 2020 Agriturismo Casa Rossa INFORMATIVA PER IL TRATTAMENTO DEI DATI PERSONALI ai sensi dell’art. 13 del Regolamento UE 2016/679 (Cookies & GDPR)AccettaNon AccettoPrivacy Policy
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Professional Rugby Board (PRB) ? / Project Reset Page 5 of 9 • 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Which Region should be merged/disbanded. 1. Blues 2. Dragons 3. Ospreys 4. Scarlets 5. ALL of them - restart again with new regions 6. NONE of them by No9 on Mon 25 Feb 2019, 1:59 pm So is the newly formed Professional Rugby Board (PRB) going to create stability in the Welsh Professional game or just be a stay of execution before the 4 regions get cut to 3 or even 2. We don't have the funds in Wales to maintain the existing professional sides, but the problem is, cut one and that wont mean the remaining 3 get more revenue, as supporters and fans of a region will not simply support another is theirs are disbanded, as proved when they disbanded the Celtic Warriors. I hate the fact, but we don't have the funds to keep professional rugby in Wales, and I foresee the demise of it looming.. https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/rugby-union/47348518?isBumped=0&postFreq=0&isEmpty=0&isProfane=0&tooLong=0&charCount=0&isAwaitingProcessPreMod=0&isSubmitted=1&filter=none&initial_page_size=10&postId=133850859#comment_133850859 I love the comment "He admitted an Ospreys merger with Cardiff Blues had been among the options explored in high-level Welsh rugby talks"... what Muppet thought that was going to work Its all off again... https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/rugby-union/47461662 Lets hope thats the last we hear of this rubbish until the 6 Nations is over at least... Last edited by No9 on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 2:16 pm; edited 2 times in total Location : South Wales Re: Professional Rugby Board (PRB) ? / Project Reset by marty2086 on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 12:45 pm LordDowlais wrote: marty2086 wrote: Stone Motif wrote: LordDowlais wrote: I find it disgusting that people on the NHS are not getting annual pay rises in Wales, yet the Welsh government are willing to put 12 million pounds into a rugby project. Just when I think you can't write anything more stupid Like you have above genius. tell me again about this asset that Cardiff Blues have. They have over £400k worth of assets One of those assets will soon be playing for Bath if the reports are to be believed, and if we are going by players, then Ospreys have far, far more assets. We're not talking players Then what are you talking about ? Cardiff Blues do not even own their own clubhouse. If you don't know then you don't know by No9 on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 12:47 pm They have about a dozen or so stale pies left over from the previous benefactor.... pathetic.... No9 wrote: They must be gourmet pies then by Stone Motif on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 12:50 pm Tell me again what bail out they've had Who has said anything about a bail out ? Only two regions have been bailed out, the constant failures from Newport, and Scarlets. No, the WRU are investing in pro rugby against a secure asset. Seems like 'constant success' might have sent us bust, doesn't it? That's a dozen or so more than the Ospreys. by LordDowlais on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 12:53 pm Nope, it's more of a fact that the land occupied by Rodney Parade is worth a few million quid, and even more if you build much needed houses on it. Says the man who thought Cardiff Blues owned their own ground..... by marty2086 on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 1:01 pm Except he didn't, he said asset, you assumed to create a point you could argue against by LordDowlais on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 1:02 pm Well come on then, somebody correct me and tell me about these assets that Cardiff Blues have. Come on, I'm all ears. LordDowlais wrote: Well come on then, somebody correct me and tell me about these assets that Cardiff Blues have. You already listed some, they have their players Do keep up And like I said, Ospreys have a lot more if we are going by that. It's you who needs to keep up. You are agreeing with SM when he said the following:- The three mentioned have an asset against which investment can be secured. Ospreys don't. wrote: So come on, what are these assets that all the other regions have, but Ospreys do not ? You'll have to ask him, I merely pointed out that the Blues have assets and Motif never said he was talking about the ground You seem to take offence at facts being pointed out Firstly I am not offended. Secondly, if you do not know the answer to the question I am asking you, then I must come to the conclusion that you are making something up just to try and get a bite out of me, there is a name for people like that on the internet. Thirdly, can you please answer my question ? by No9 on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 1:11 pm Give up LD, its like talking to kids, they know best and will argue black is white even though they cant substantiate their arguments. The simple fact is, the accountants are looking at ways of grabbing as much revenue as they can and bu88er the heat and soul of rugby. The WRU invested in the Dragons by bailing them out and improving the playing surface at Rodney Parade. So on the balance sheet, that makes the Dragons safe. The WRU are not prepared to fight the Blues or the Scarlets. So that just leaves the Ospreys to be culled for extra WAG money in setting up a North Wales region. I've accepted it will happen, just disgusted by the way its been done.... It should be on playing results.... and wonder who that would be But the biggest annoyance for me, has to be the timing... Setting up for a Grand Slam and in RWC year... How do the WRU keep pressing the destruct button. by Stone Motif on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 1:18 pm What's that mean in English Andy? It means that if things go jubblies up, they can sell the land. Genius..... https://www.google.com/amp/s/cardiffbluesblog.com/2019/02/28/cac-take-the-lead-on-arms-park-redevelopment/amp/ Cardiff RFC/Blues offered the same deal as Newport/Dragons were offered - sell us the ground nothing more. Ospreys don't have that option. Also, care to tell me what these assets everyone except Ospreys have ? LordDowlais wrote: It means that if things go jubblies up, they can sell the land. Genius..... Well yes Andy, as has been pointed out above they'll have an asset against which any investment is secure. Glad you agree and I have educated some Merthyr pork Stone Motif wrote: Cardiff RFC/Blues offered the same deal as Newport/Dragons were offered - sell us the ground nothing more. Ospreys don't have that option. How do you know ? CAC will never sell that piece of prime real estate. So tell me, again, what are these assets everyone except Ospreys have ? So where are Cardiff Blues assets then ? Come on, it's your words, back them up. You have really dug a hole for yourself here and made yourself look very silly, even for you. You've lived beyond your means to achieve those 'playing results'. HTH. There was no bailout which was no 9's original point. If there had been it would have been on the basis of the WRU acquiring the ground. Thus, vastly different to the situation wig the Ospreys. What do you think it would cost the WRU to buy the Liberty? Last edited by Stone Motif on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 1:44 pm; edited 1 time in total LordDowlais wrote: You have really dug a hole for yourself here and made yourself look very silly, even for you. Not really,because I understand property and investment whereas you sell carpets for a living (writing occasional bad copy for the Fail) Stone Motif wrote: There was no bailout which was no 9's original point. If there had been it would have been on the basis of the WRU awaiting the ground. Thus, vastly different to the situation wig the Ospreys. What do you think it would cost the WRU to buy the Liberty? I don't know how much it would cost the WRU to buy the Liberty, but what has that got to do with anything ? It's still an option, one you said Ospreys did not have. Cardiff Arms park would not be cheap either, I would wager it would be around the same price, being that it is in the city center, right smack bang to the national stadium. So again, you are talking nonsense. So, I will ask again, So where are Cardiff Blues assets then ? Also, I said nothing about Cardiff Blues having a bail out. by Irish Londoner on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 1:43 pm Regarding the points about "assets", having worked in local government planning, most sportsgrounds are regarded as land that cannot be set aside for housing development as they are a community asset/amenity. Also a lot of the older grounds and things such as parks were donated by the original (private or council) landowner for "recreational purposes" and the title deeds often have a clause in them to that effect. You might be able to sell the land that Rodney Parade or Cardiff Arms Park sits on, however it's value as an asset maybe less than the clubs think as they may only be able to sell it to someone else to run as a sports facility of some sort. If the club is relocating that might be different - e.g. if the WRU sell Rodney Parade to build a new ground somewhere else, but then most of the profit (if not all) would end up paying for the new stadium so there's still no extra money. Irish Londoner Location : Wakefield Obviously you do not, because if you did, you would not have made the statement you made earlier, as you would have realised that Cardiff Blues do not own any land. Your head must be really hurting today, you need a rest, stop making yourself look silly. Go and lie down. No, because my job involves those exact things rather than sitting in an empty carpet shop. Any WRU investment in the Blues would have been against an asset. Same as the 'bailout' you harp on about the Dragons getting. What non-point you think you are scoring here in your tiny mind I don't know. I do know it's about as relevant as anything else you post here Andy. Well you're coming across as very angry and now have initiated your usual personal attacks LordDowlais wrote: Secondly, if you do not know the answer to the question I am asking you, then I must come to the conclusion that you are making something up just to try and get a bite out of me, there is a name for people like that on the internet. Come to whatever conclusion you please, not knowing the answer doesn't equate to lying it equates to not knowing the details. Cardiff have assets that's fact you want to say I'm lying about that feel free to do that and use whatever name you want to call me publically if you're brave enough LordDowlais wrote: Thirdly, can you please answer my question ? I'm not sure what question I'm meant to answer since it was Motif who made the original claim. Unlike you I'd rather not speak for him Irish Londoner wrote: Regarding the points about "assets", having worked in local government planning, most sportsgrounds are regarded as land that cannot be set aside for housing development as they are a community asset/amenity. Regarding the points above, the cabbage patch at Dave has no such covenants. NCC granted consent to build Manhatten on it a few years back before the recession. It has a value whether it's redeveloped or not regardless. This one in particular is a gem. "The Swans will pay the authority £300,000 a year for 37 years, give it a cut of stadium sponsorship revenue and build 3G pitches in the city." This one in particular is a gem. You reckon a premiership football ground is worth less than the Arms Park? Don't you know that if LD says it then it's fact..this is how the world came to be he is GOD!!! No wonder he writes for the Western Mail ... until next iteration. Statement from the Scarlets Firstly, we can confirm the statement issued by the Professional Rugby Board (PRB) on Tuesday afternoon as accurate, as are the comments made by Wales’ national coach that the proposed merger was driven by the regions, in consultation with the PRB. In late December, the Scarlets received a high-level approach from the Ospreys to explore the option of a merger as they had come to the conclusion that their position as tenants at the Liberty Stadium was proving to be challenging. This was discussed at the two-day strategy meeting of PRB on January 8th and 9th. The loss of a region would have put Welsh rugby in breach of its commitment to having four regions playing in the major competitions. As a result, the option of a team playing out of North Wales was raised. By the time of the next PRB meeting on February 5, discussions had broken down between the Scarlets and Ospreys and we were told that the Ospreys and another region were in talks over a possible merger, again with North Wales being the option to maintain four teams. Subsequently, those discussions also broke down and we were approached again last week by the Ospreys to reconsider a merger. Heads of terms were agreed and signed by the Ospreys and Scarlets on March 1 on terms we believe our supporters would be happy with. This was to be proposed at a meeting of the PRB on Tuesday afternoon, but we were told at the start of that meeting that the Ospreys had changed their mind. The merger is off the table. In recent years, the Scarlets have been building steadily to regain our place as one of Europe’s leading sides. We have a superb stadium, great staff, loyal and passionate supporters and a team to be proud of. We know that the problems regarding Welsh rugby have not gone away but we remain committed to the best interests of the Scarlets and the game in Wales. Seems the Ospreys chairman calling the whole thing a shambles was his attempt to kick some dirt up to cover his own hide. Seems the Ospreys were trying to sell to anyone and everyone marty2086 wrote: Statement from the Scarlets Exactly this. Looking forward to Andy and his scrum half coming on here to point out and acknowledge what a pair of prize twunts they've made of themselves. by wayne on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 2:22 pm Irish Londoner, don't listen to the LIAR, Cardiff Blues do not own the piece of land they play on, it is owned by Cardiff Athletic Club, they are in exactly the same position as the Ospreys, any team that plays on that piece of land HAS to have the name Cardiff in it's name all to do within the deeds when the land was given to them, they even have the WRU over a barrel over the carbuncle that can be seen inside the Principality Stadium. The Union have been trying to buy it to increase attendances for YEEEAAARRRSSS. Like talking to a brick wall. Anyway going to the matter in hand, the Moderator on our Forum (who is an Osprey employee) answered a question on our Forum early last week, to what was now happening, gave the startling news, about 2 reporters that came to our organisation to have the match preview with one of our Coaches that they had seen Mike James down at PYS. Apparently we did want a merger but only on the understanding that it was to be 50/50. This was NOT forthcoming from the Scarlets they wanted a 70/30 split and that was NOT acceptable to us. To clarify a bit more Mike James resigned as our Chairman prior to yesterdays meeting, this was in order to not be able to sit on the PRB, Rob Davies took over as our Chairman but is not yet on the PRB, contrary to what has been mentioned Mike is still a Director of the Ospreys. Finally in a different slant, employees of the Ospreys have been told we are going nowhere. Location : Wales See, none of you can put a structured debate together, it's the usual members. Just start taking the p!ss as usual. Stone Motif wrote: The three mentioned have an asset against which investment can be secured. Ospreys don't. Above is a statement that Stone Motif made. It is false, I called him out on it, then marty took his chance as per usual to hump the leg of anyone who would disagree with me. So again, I will ask the question, what assets do the the other three regions have that an investment can be secured against, and Ospreys do not have ? Are any of you two going to answer that question or are you going to hide behind taking the p!ss ? wayne wrote: Irish Londoner, don't listen to the LIAR, Cardiff Blues do not own the piece of land they play on, it is owned by Cardiff Athletic Club, they are in exactly the same position as the Ospreys, any team that plays on that piece of land HAS to have the name Cardiff in it's name all to do within the deeds when the land was given to them, they even have the WRU over a barrel over the carbuncle that can be seen inside the Principality Stadium. The Union have been trying to buy it to increase attendances for YEEEAAARRRSSS. Like talking to a brick wall. Thank you wayne. You see, there are people here who actually know things, do not listen to a jumped up Dragons fan with a chip on his shoulder and somebody humping his leg. wayne wrote: If that's aimed at me you're he LIAR as always as I never said they did. There was an asset hat could secure any investment by he WRU as you yourself note. The Ospreys are the ones coming out of this looking at best inept, who'd have thunk it, eh? That one true region sh1te compared to the Scarlet's release shows the gulf in professionalism. Can't believe you had the arrogance to want 50/50 when you had he begging bowl out... LordDowlais wrote: See, none of you can put a structured debate together, it's the usual members. Just start taking the p!ss as usual. How exactly can I explain what someone else meant? Please explain that Once again...I pointed out firstly he never mentioned stadiums that was a conclusion YOU drew instead of asking him to clarify. You argued against your assumption Instead of acknowledging that you went on the attack Secondly no one is taking the p!ss. As I pointed out you're offended by the facts, hence why you are resorting to name calling and some serious passive aggressiveness Thirdly, are you claiming that I lied and Cardiff Blues do not have assets? by BamBam on Wed 06 Mar 2019, 2:30 pm RANDOM capital LETTERS never fail to GET a POINT across do THEY? Still no answer then marty ? Oh well. Never mind. Let's just let this go shall we ? And again, the answer is that WRU investment would have been covered by the ground, same as Dave Parade. Cardiff didn't take that option as Newport RFC did. They could have, hence there was a prize piece of real estate that could have been leveraged to secure your 'WRU bailout'. They'd have not got this deal out of Swansea Council and a covenant including a tenant paying £300k over 37 years is worth a sight more than it would cost to set up a region in North Wales. BamBam wrote: RANDOM capital LETTERS never fail to GET a POINT across do THEY? The ONE TRUE REGION is SKINT Stone Motif wrote: And again, the answer is that WRU investment would have been covered by the ground, same as Dave Parade. Cardiff didn't take that option as Newport RFC did. They could have, hence there was a prize piece of real estate that could have been leveraged to secure your 'WRU bailout'. They'd have not got this deal out of Swansea Council and a covenant including a tenant paying £300k over 37 years is worth a sight more than it would cost to set up a region in North Wales. God, are you sure your'e in the business you say you are ? I would never take any advice from you. Cardiff Blues do not own any land, so how can they secure anything, against something they do not own ? LordDowlais wrote: Still no answer then marty ? Oh well. Never mind. Let's just let this go shall we ? An answer to what exactly? Lord, can't you tell he's a lavatory attendant.
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